AP US History

This course can help prepare students who wish to continue their social studies education after high school, as well as students who wish to perform exceptionally well on the SAT exam. The level of aptitude in this subject will assist students wishing to excel on the SAT and in college courses.

According to the College Board’s website, AP US History is designed to provide students with the analytical skills and factual knowledge necessary to deal critically with the problems and materials in US history. It should prepare students for entry level and intermediate level history courses on the college level. While there is no prerequisite for AP US History, students should make sure that they are prepared for the course load associated with an Advanced Placement History course.  Most social studies classes include extensive readings of both textbooks and case studies.  Students should be prepared to both read and analyze what they read in order to apply it to the class.

AP US History is a serious course and includes many course goals. According to the College Board’s website, by the time students take their AP US History exam (or the SAT exam) they should be prepared to know about the following themes:

  • American Diversity- Students will come to understand the diversity of the American people and the relationships between these groups is very important. The roles of race, class, ethnicity, and gender are crucial to understanding key points of US history.
  • American Identity- Students will become acquainted with individual views of the American character and ideas about American exceptionalism.
  • Culture- Students will gain an appreciation for individual and collective expression through art, philosophy, music, theater, and film throughout history.
  • Demographic Changes- Students will learn about changes in birth, marriage, and death rates, and how they affect the population as a whole. They will also come to understand life expectancy, family patterns, population size and density, as well as the political and social effects of immigration internal migration.
  • Economic Transformations- Students will gain an understanding of how changes in trade, commerce, and technology affect a nation across time. The effects of capitalism, labor disputes, and consumerism will also come into play.
  • Globalizations- Students will begin to understand the United States’ influence around the world, and their effect on ecological, social, and environmental conflicts across the globe.
  • Religion- Students will learn about a variety of religious beliefs and practices in America from prehistory to the 20th century, and how religions influence politics, economics, and society as a whole.

Students will also learn to use study notes and other study techniques in conjunction with such AP US History textbooks as The American Pageant, United States History, and America: Past and Present.

Students considering taking AP US History or any other Advanced Placement course should keep in mind that taking advanced classes requires a higher level of commitment than other high school classes. Students that commit themselves to their coursework and do well in their classes will see a huge payoff in both their SAT scores as well as their college preparedness level

Students that wish to get accepted into more prestigious or highly-selective schools should definitely look into taking AP courses. Advanced Placement courses not only set students apart through their transcripts, but they can also give students an extra boost when thinking about what kind of courses they want to take in college. They can also earn college credit while still in high school, saving valuable time, money, and headaches. Most importantly, they can also aid students in developing the study habits they need to succeed over the course of their college career and give students valuable skills that they can use both in and out of the classroom. 

Here you find AP US History outlines, notes, vocabulary terms, topic notes, practice quizzes, court cases, political parties, political timelines and biographies. Many of these resources correspond to the American Pageant textbook. We are always adding more AP US History notes so if you have any requests, please use the Contact Us form to let us know what we can do to help.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Premium Content



  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/unit_4_terms.pdf---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch09.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch08.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch06.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch07.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch05.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/advanced_placement_united_states_history.pdf---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch04.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch03.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch02.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/brinkley15_tb_ch01.doc---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from filefield_paths/unit_1_notes.docx---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/apush_period_2_key_concepts.pdf---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/9.3_guided_notes.docx---

  • Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.---Extracted text from uploads/us_history/us_history_textbook_notes_10.docx---

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Notes

Here you will find outlines for AP US History for the American Pageant textbook. We have chapter outlines for the American Pageant 11th Edition, the American Pageant 12th edition, and the American Pageant 13th edition. We are working on adding US History chapter notes for other AP US History textbooks like the Enduring Vision, A People and a Nation, Out of Many, and The American People. These outlines, along with the US History unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 16th Edition

 

Below are chapter notes and outlines for the American Pageant, 16th edition textbook.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1152 pages
  • Publisher: Cengage Learning; 16 edition (January 1, 2015)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 9781305075900
  • ISBN-13: 978-1305075900
  • ASIN: 1305075900

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

  1. The Shaping of North America
    1. Recorded history began 6,000 years ago. It was 500 years ago that Europeans set foot on the Americas to begin the era of accurately recorded history on the continent.
    2. The theory of “Pangaea” exists suggesting that the continents were once nestled together into one mega-continent. The continents then spread out as drifting islands.
    3. Geologic forces of continental plates created the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.
    4. The Great Ice Age thrust down over North America and scoured the present day American Midwest.
  2. Peopling the Americas
    1. The “Land Bridge” theory…
      1. As the Great Ice Age diminished, so did the glaciers over North America.
      2. The theory holds that a “Land Bridge” emerged linking Asia & North America across what’s today the Bering Sea. People were said to have walked across the “bridge” before the sea level rose and sealed it off and thus populated the Americas.
    2. The Land Bridge is suggested as occurring an estimated 35,000 years ago.
    3. Many peoples emerged…
      1. Those groups that traversed the land bridge spread across North, Central, and South America.
      2. Countless tribes emerged with an estimated 2,000 languages. Notably…
        1. Incas – Peru, with elaborate network of roads and bridges linking their empire.
        2. Mayas – Yucatan Peninsula, with their step pyramids.
        3. Aztecs – Mexico, with step pyramids and huge sacrifices of conquered peoples.
  3. The Earliest Americans
    1. Development of corn or “maize” around 5,000 B.C. in Mexico was revolutionary in that…
      1. Then, people didn’t have to be hunter-gatherers, they could settle down and be farmers.
      2. This fact gave rise to towns and then cities.
      3. Corn arrived in the present day U.S. around 1,200 B.C.
    2. Pueblo Indians
      1. The Pueblos were the 1st American corn growers.
      2. They lived in adobe houses (dried mud) and pueblos (“villages” in Spanish). Pueblos are villages of cubicle shaped adobe houses, stacked one on top the other and often beneath cliffs.
      3. They had elaborate irrigation systems to draw water away from rivers to grown corn.
    3. Mound Builders
      1. These people built huge ceremonial and burial mounds and were located in the Ohio Valley.
      2. Cahokia, near East St. Louis today, held 40,000 people.
    4. Eastern Indians
      1. Eastern Indians grew corn, beans, and squash in “three sister” farming…
        1. Corn grew in a stalk providing a trellis for beans, beans grew up the stalk, squash’s broad leaves kept the sun off the ground and thus kept the moisture in the soil.
        2. This group likely had the best (most diverse) diet of all North American Indians and is typified by the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw (South) and Iroquois (North).
    5. Iroquois Confederation
      1. Hiawatha was the legendary leader of the group.
      2. The Iroquois Confederation was a group of 5 tribes in New York state.
      3. They were matrilineal as authority and possessions passed down through the female line.
      4. Each tribe kept their independence, but met occasionally to discuss matters of common interest, like war/defense.
      5. This was not the norm. Usually, Indians were scattered and separated (and thus weak).
    6. Native Americans had a very different view of things as compared to Europeans.
      1. Native Americans felt no man owned the land, the tribe did. (Europeans liked private property)
      2. Indians felt nature was mixed with many spirits. (Europeans were Christian and monotheistic)
      3. Indians felt nature was sacred. (Europeans believed nature and land was given to man by God in Genesis to be subdued and put to use).
      4. Indians had little or no concept or interest in money. (Europeans loved money or gold)
  4. Indirect Discoverers of the New World
    1. The 1st Europeans to come to America were the Norse (Vikings from Norway).
      1. Around 1,000 A.D., the Vikings landed, led by Erik the Red and Leif Erikson.
      2. They landed in “Newfoundland” or “Vinland” (due to all of the vines).
      3. However, these men left America and left no written record and therefore didn’t get the credit.
      4. The only record is found in Viking sagas or songs.
    2. The Christian Crusaders of Middle Ages fought in Palestine to regain the Holy Land from Muslims. This mixing of East and West created a sweet-tooth where Europeans wanted the spices of the exotic East.
  5. Europeans Enter Africa This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Marco Polo traveled to China and stirred up a storm of European interest.
    2. Mixed with desire for spices, an East to West (Asia to Europe) trade flourished but had to be overland, at least in part. This initiated new exploration down around Africa in hopes of an easier (all water) route.
    3. Portugal literally started a sailing school to find better ways to get to the “Spice Islands,” eventually rounding Africa’s southern Cape of Good Hope.
    4. New developments emerged…
      1. caravel – a ship with triangular sail that could better tack (zig-zag) ahead into the wind and thus return to Europe from the Africa coast.
      2. compass – to determine direction.
      3. astrolabe – a sextant gizmo that could tell a ship’s latitude.
    5. Slave trade begins
      1. Slavery was initially race-independent. A slave was whoever lost in battle. Usually, slaves came from the Slavic regions of Europe, hence the name.
      2. The first African slave trade was across the Sahara Desert.
      3. Later, it was along the West African coast. Slave traders purposely busted up tribes and families in order to squelch any possible uprising.
      4. Slaves wound up on sugar plantations the Portuguese had set up on the tropical islands off of Africa’s coast.
      5. Spain watched Portugal’s success with exploration and slaving with envy and wanted a piece of the pie.
  6. Columbus Comes upon a New World
    1. Columbus convinced Isabella and Ferdinand to fund his expedition.
    2. His goal was to reach the East (East Indies) by sailing west, thus bypassing the around-Africa route that Portugal monopolized.
    3. He misjudged the size of the Earth though, thinking it 1/3 the size of what it was.
    4. So, after 30 days or so at sea, when he struck land, he assumed he’d made it to the East Indies and therefore mistook the people as “Indians.”
    5. This spawned the following system…
        1. Europe would provide the market, capital, technology.
        2. Africa would provide the labor.
        3. The New World would provide the raw materials of gold, soil, and lumber.
  7. When Worlds Collide
    1. Of huge importance was the biological flip-flop of Old and New Worlds. Simply put, it was a trade of life such as plants, foods, animals, germs.
    2. From the New World (America) to the Old
      1. corn, potatoes, tobacco, beans, peppers, manioc, pumpkin, squash, tomato, wild rice, etc.
      2. also, syphilis
    3. From Old World to the New
      1. cows, pigs, horses, wheat, sugar cane, apples, cabbage, citrus, carrots, Kentucky bluegrass, etc.
      2. devastating diseases – smallpox, yellow fever, malaria as Indians had no immunities.
        1. The Indians had no immunities in their systems built up over generations.
        2. An estimated 90% of all pre-Columbus Indians died, mostly due to disease.
  8. The Spanish Conquistadores
    1. Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494 – Portugal and Spain feuded over who got what land. The Pope drew this line as he was respected by both.
      1. The line ran North-South, and chopped off the Brazilian coast of South America
      2. Portugal got everything east of the line (Brazil and land around/under Africa)
      3. Spain got everything west of the line (which turned out to be much more, though they didn’t know it at the time)
    2. Conquistadores is Spanish “conquerors”.
      1. Vasco Balboa – “discovered” the Pacific Ocean across the isthmus of Panama.
      2. Ferdinand Magellan – circumnavigated the globe (he was the first to do so).
      3. Ponce de Leon – touches and names Florida looking for legendary “Fountain of Youth”.
      4. Hernando DeSoto – enters Florida, travels up into present day Southeastern U.S., dies and is “buried” in Mississippi River,
      5. Francisco Pizarro – conquers Incan Empire of Peru and begins shipping tons of gold/silver back to Spain. This huge influx of precious metals made European prices skyrocket (inflation).
      6. Francisco Coronado – ventured into current Southwest U.S. looking for legendary Cibola, city of gold. He found the Pueblo Indians.
    3. Encomienda system established
      1. Indians were “commended” or given to Spanish landlords
      2. The idealistic theory of the encomienda was that Indians would work on the farm and be converted to Christianity. But it was basically just slavery on a sugar plantation guised as missionary work.
  9. The Conquest of Mexico
    1. Hernando Cortez conquered the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan.
    2. Cortez went from Cuba to present day Vera Cruz, then marched over mountains to the Aztec capital.
    3. Montezuma, the Aztec king, thought Cortez might be the god Quetzalcoatl who was due to re-appear that very year. Montezuma welcomed Cortez into Tenochtitlan.
    4. The Spanish lust for gold led Montezuma to attack on the noche triste, sad night. Cortez and men fought their way out, but it was smallpox that eventually beat the Indians.
    5. The Spanish then destroyed Tenochtitlan, building the Spanish capital (Mexico City) exactly on top of the Aztec city.
    6. A new race of people emerged, mestizos, a mix of Spanish and Indian blood.
  10. The Spread of Spanish America
    1. Spanish society quickly spread through Peru and Mexico
    2. A threat came from neighbors…
      1. English – John Cabot (an Italian who sailed for England) touched the coast of the current U.S.
      2. Italy – Giovanni de Verrazano also touched on the North American seaboard.
      3. France – Jacques Cartier went into mouth of St. Lawrence River (Canada).
    3. To oppose this, Spain set up forts (presidios) all over the California coast. Also cities, like St. Augustine in Florida
    4. Don Juan de Onate followed Coronado’s old path into present day New Mexico. He conquered the Indians ruthlessly, maiming them by cutting off one foot of survivors just so they’d remember.
    5. Despite mission efforts, the Pueblo Indians revolted in Pope’s Rebellion.
    6. Robert de LaSalle sailed down the Mississippi River for France claiming the whole region for their King Louis and naming the area “Louisiana” after his king. This started a slew of place-names for that area, from LaSalle, Illinois to “Louisville” and then on down to New Orleans (the American counter of Joan of Arc’s famous victory at Orleans).
    7. “Black Legend” – The Black Legend was the notion that Spaniards only brought bad things (murder, disease, slavery); though true, they also brought good things such as law systems, architecture, Christianity, language, and civilization, so that the Black Legend is partly, but not entirely, accurate.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

  1. England’s Imperial Stirrings
    1. By the year 1607, Central and South America was largely controlled by Spain or Portugal, but North America was mostly unclaimed.
      1. In North America, there were few Europeans.
        1. Spain had established Santa Fe.
        2. France had established Quebec.
        3. Britain had just established Jamestown, and it was struggling.
    2. In the 1500s, Britain had made only feeble efforts to colonize America. There was a rash of problems hinging on a mix of religion and politics…
      1. King Henry VIII had broken with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s, brining the Protestant Reformation to England and thus creating religious division.
      2. When Elizabeth I became queen, England moved decidedly in the Protestant direction. This also meant Catholic Spain was an immediate rival.
      3. And there was the “Irish problem.” Catholic Ireland sought Spain’s help in ousting Protestant England’s control over the “Emerald” island of Ireland.
      4. The end result of these events was a great deal of hatred between England and the Catholic nations.
  2. Elizabeth Energizes England
    1. Elizabeth I was a fiery red-headed queen with loads of ambition, gall, and the political shrewdness to get what she wanted.
    2. Francis Drake was a “sea dog” who pirated Spanish ships for gold. On one occasion, he stole the gold, circumnavigated the earth, and then was rewarded by Elizabeth I knighting him on his ship. This brazen reward by the English queen infuriated the Spanish.
    3. First attempts by the British to colonize the American coast failed miserably.
      1. Sir Humphrey Gilbert died at sea.
      2. Sir Walter Raleigh established the Roanoke Island Colony, later to become known as The Lost Colony. Raleigh returned to England and the colony vanished mysteriously.
    4. Spain plotted revenge on England and in 1588 their Spanish Armada attacked England only to get themselves defeated. The turning point in history was a large one…
      1. This stunning victory opened the door for Britain to cross the Atlantic and finally establish colonies.
      2. England’s victory also emboldened Britain and launched her golden age including…
        1. For the next 300 years, the British navy would dominate the seas. (Around 1900, the U.S. would surpass British naval power.)
        2. England enjoyed a strong government and a popular monarch
        3. There was a greater deal of unity, both religiously and through a sense of national pride and purpose.
        4. The golden age of literature ushered in thanks to William Shakespeare.
      3. Britain and Spain signed a peace treaty in 1604.
  3. England on the Eve of the Empire
    1. By the mid 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming.
    2. Europe was going through the process know as enclosure (fencing in the land) for farming.
      1. Enclosure meant there was less land or no land for the poor.
      2. No land or no hopes for land, in turn, meant the poor wanted to leave and go to America.
    3. The woolen districts of southern England fell upon hard times economically. This meant the workers lost jobs, and in turn, wanted to leave and go to America.
    4. A tradition of “primogeniture” existed where the firstborn son inherits ALL of the father’s land. Therefore, younger sons who were landless, wanted to leave and go to America.
    5. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected. In this type of company, people invest money with hopes and expectations the company will do well. Thus the investor will make money as a share-owner.
      1. The benefit of the joint-stock company is that they can generate large amounts of start-up money to get a company going.
      2. The joint-stock company is the forerunner of today’s corporation.
  4. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In 1606, King James I gave the Virginia Company a charter to establish a colony in America.
      1. It was a joint-stock company, intended to make a quick profit during a short life span.
      2. Joint-stock companies were built for the short term. The goal was to turn a quick profit to investors who’d sell out after a year or two.
      3. The charter also guaranteed colonists the same rights as Englishmen. Ironically, it would later be this guarantee that would help fuel America’s independence movement.
    2. In May of 1607, about 100 English men established Jamestown, Virginia.
      1. Troubles for the colony came early and often…
        1. Forty would-be settlers died on the boat ride over.
        2. Problems then emerged including (a) the swampy site of Jamestown meant poor drinking water and mosquitoes causing malaria and yellow fever, (b) “gentlemen” wasted time looking for gold rather than doing useful tasks (digging wells, building shelter, planting crops), and (c) there were zero women on the initial ship.
      2. A supply ship bound for Jamestown in 1609 wrecked in the Bahamas.
    3. Their fortune began to change in 1608 when Captain John Smith took control and instituted a strong measure of much-needed discipline.
      1. According to legend, Smith was once kidnapped by local Chief Powhatan and then his life spared at the last moment thanks to his daughter Pocahontas.
      2. This act may well have been staged, but was intended by Powhatan to show good intentions between Indian and the whites.
      3. John Smith’s main contribution was that he gave order and discipline, highlighted by his “no work, no food” policy.
      4. Still, the Jamestown settlers died in droves, and resorted to eating “dogges, Catts, rats, and Myce.” One fellow wrote of eating “powdered wife.”
      5. Understandably, this was known as the “starving time” in Virginia.
      6. The colonists’ next stroke of good fortune came when Lord De La Warr intercepted a ship of settlers who were abandoning the colony. He forced them to return, brought more discipline, and brought much-needed supplies.
    4. By 1625, only 1,200 out of nearly 8,000 settlers had survived.
  5. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake
    1. The whites and Powhatan held a Jekyll and Hyde relationship—they waffled between good relations and bad relations. They raided one another, traded with one another, and fought one another.
    2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614. It was sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe.
      1. Together, Pocahontas and Rolfe would develop a sweet tobacco. This would become the cash crop that would save Jamestown.
      2. In 1622, the Indians struck again, killing 347 whites, included Rolfe ironically.
    3. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1644-1646) saw the Indians defeated soundly. The results were…
      1. The Indians were effectively banished from the Chesapeake.
      2. The notion was born that Indians and whites cannot live together peaceably—the beginnings of the reservations system were brewing.
    4. The Indians fell due to the “three D’s”: disease (smallpox was the worst), disorganization (since they were not united, the whites could fight one tribe at a time), and disposability (since the whites had no use for Indians, they were simply pushed out).
  6. The Indians’ New World
    1. The Europeans’ arrival in the New World shocked Native American and induced unprecedented changes.
      1. Horses altered Indian lifestyles, especially the Sioux who used the horse expertly on buffalo hunts.
      2. Disease was by far the greatest change.
        1. Indian blood, since they’d never been exposed to such bacteria, lacked any natural resistence to the white’s diseases.
        2. Tribes were devastated. The Catawba of piedmont Carolina, for example, was formed out of remnants of several other tribes.
      3. Native Americans wanted firearms, eventually got them, and thus heightened tensions with other tribes and with whites.
    2. Indians tried to engage in the trans-Atlantic economy, but had little to no success.
    3. Indians along the Atlantic coast were effectively pushed out by war and disease. Those further inland, traded space for time.
  7. Virginia: Child of Tobacco
    1. Jamestown’s salvation was found in the form of tobacco.
      1. John Rolfe’s sweet tobacco was sought as a cash crop by Europe. Jamestown had finally found its gold.
      2. Tobacco also had negative effects…
        1. Its success caused settlers to scramble for more land to cultivate. It also encouraged “land butchery”—farmers would cultivate the land ‘til it gave out, then just move on.
        2. It boosted the plantation economy and created a demand for cheap labor. At first this labor was filled mostly by white indentured servants, and then as the 1600s turned into the 1700s, by black slaves.
        3. It built Virginia’s economy on a single item, tobacco. Their economy was thus susceptible to the whims of having “all their eggs in one basket.”
    2. Three major things happened in 1619…
      1. Representative self-government came to America when Virginians created the House of Burgesses, a basic legislature to work out local issues. This set America on a pathway self-rule.
      2. The first blacks were brought to America. It’s unclear if they were slaves or indentured servants at this time.
      3. A shipload of women arrived. They were young and came with the sole purpose of marrying. This brought Virginia stability and a sense of permanence.
  8. Maryland: Catholic Haven
    1. Religious freedom was the initial motivation for Maryland.
      1. Lord Baltimore founded Maryland in 1634.
      2. Maryland was founded as a haven (safe place) for Catholics to avoid persecution from Protestants in Europe or in America.
      3. Growth…
        1. Lord Baltimore awarded huge estates to his wealthy, Catholic personal friends.
        2. Others that settled were poor and usually Protestant. Tension ensued.
    2. However, the sale of tobacco still caused Maryland to flourish.
    3. Indentured servants bore most of the work load.
      1. Black slaves began to replace white indentures as the 1600s turned into the 1700s. Notably, this trend was common in the South and especially in the Chesapeake.
      2. The reasons for the switch from white-to-black…
        1. The main reason boils down to the desire for a stable work force by plantation whites.
        2. White indentures lusted for, and eventually got, land of their own to the west.
        3. Black slaves were permanent workers, not seven year workers.
        4. Due to Protestant—Catholic friction, Maryland passed the Act of Toleration, guaranteed religious toleration to all Christians, Protestant or Catholic.
      3. Still, the death penalty was deemed for anyone denying the divinity of Jesus, namely Jews and atheists.
      4. In sum, despite the fact above and Protestant—Catholic issues, Maryland was more religiously tolerant than intolerant.
  9. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America
    1. The West Indies (Caribbean Islands) had early-on been colonized by Spain, Portugal. France and England followed
      1. Now with the decline of Spain and Portugal, the British sought to beef up their foothold in the islands.
      2. England had several islands their, especially Jamaica by 1655.
    2. Sugar was grown on the Caribbean plantations.
      1. This was exactly what the Spanish and Portuguese had done.
      2. These sugar plantations were brutal…
        1. Sugar is a labor-intensive crop.
        2. It was very hot and humid and unhealthy work.
        3. The usual thing was to work a slave until death, then get another one.
    3. The initial plan was to use Indian labor. That plan failed when disease killed an estimated 90% of Indians. Slavery then turned to Africans.
    4. Since so many slaves were needed and brought in, the white—black ratio tilted more toward blacks than anywhere in the New World. This frightened the whites!
      1. Due to fear, whites instituted strict “slave codes” or rules designed to keep slaves in control. Notable was the Barbados slave code of 1661 which saw its ideas channel up to South Carolina.
      2. Also, punishment could be as cruel as anywhere on these plantations to keep order.
        1. Typically, Africans were first brought to the West Indies to “be seasoned.” This meant that any ideas of revolt from possible “trouble-makers” were beaten out of them.
        2. From there, slaves either stayed in the West Indies or were distributed to South or North America.
  10. Colonizing the Carolinas
    1. England in the 1600s was a political rollercoaster ride.
      1. King Charles I was beheaded. Oliver Cromwell ruled as a religious dictator for 10 years, then Charles II was placed on the throne in “The Restoration”—the kingdom was restored to England.
      2. Simply put, after all the turmoil of a Civil War to oust a king, the Brits ironically just went back to a king.
        1. Much of the chaos interrupted colonization, but with the restoration and stability again, Charles II was determined to return to the colonies with vigor.
        2. Carolina was formally begun in 1670 and named after Charles II.
    2. Carolina began to prosper due to ties to the West Indies, mainly due to the great natural harbor at Charleston.
      1. The Barbados slave codes (strict rules to regulate slaves) were imported to Carolina.
      2. The slave trade prospered as well.
        1. Africans were shipped in from the West Indies.
        2. Despite protests, Indians were shipped out to the West Indies and also to Rhode Island. For example, a Rhode Island town had 200 Indian slaves in 1730.
    3. Tobacco could not be grown in Carolina, but rice could. Rice became the main crop there.
      1. African slaves were sought to work the rice plantations, due to (a) their resistance to malaria and just as importantly, (b) their knowledge of and experience with rice.
    4. Charleston flourished and quickly took on an aristocratic air. Prosperity brought something of a pompous flavor. This is one reason that the northern section of Carolina eventually split—they were much more down-to-the-earth folks.
    5. Carolina had occasional trouble with nearby Florida. Florida was foreign land and held Indians and Spaniards—both enemies to the English. Still, Carolina held on.
  11. The Emergence of North Carolina
    1. As tobacco land in the Chesapeake (Virginia) began to run out, people just walked down into Carolina.
      1. These farmers were “squatters”—they just took up the land and started farming it.
    2. These North Carolinians began to develop their own sense of who they were…
      1. They were independent-minded. This was typical of a small farmer who scratched his own living out of the soil. This was due to…
        1. They were geographically isolated and on their own.
        2. It’s as though they asked, “Why would I want someone telling me how to run my life, I’m making my own life right out of the ground?!”
        3. They resented the more established political figures along the East coast making rules and regulations for them. This is an important trend in the vein of Bacon’s Rebellion and Shays’ Rebellion.
    3. Thus, two “flavors” of Carolinians developed: (a) the aristocratic and wealthier down south around Charleston and rice & indigo plantations, and (b) the strong-willed and independent-minded up north on small tobacco farms.
    4. So in 1712, North and South Carolina were separated officially.
    5. Indian—white troubles…
      1. The Tuscarora Indians attacked in 1711.
        1. The Carolinians successfully defended themselves.
        2. The Indians were sold into slavery.
        3. Others traveled north and eventually became the 6th nation of the Iroquois Confederacy.
      2. By 1720, the Indians had been “cleared out” along the Atlantic seaboard.
        1. A sad trend was clear by this time—as the frontier moved westward, the American Indians would continually be defeated, killed by disease, and/or dislodged from their homes.
        2. The foothills and Appalachian Mountains would be the next Indian vs. white battlefield.
  12. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony
    1. Georgia was established with the purpose that it would be a buffer zone or cushion between Spanish Florida and the British colonies along the Atlantic coast.
      1. Florida was considered a wild, unpredictable, and dangerous land with Spaniards, runaway slaves, and Indians, all hostile to the American colonies.
    2. James Oglethorpe founded Georgia in 1733 and named after King George II.
      1. As well as being a buffer zone, Georgia held the goal of being a place where debtors could get a second chance.
      2. It was also a dumping ground for English criminals.
      3. Oglethorpe fended off Spanish attacks and saved the “Charity Colony.”
    3. Any Christian, except for Catholics, were permitted in Georgia.
      1. Missionaries tried to convert the Indians to Christianity.
      2. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, was the best known of these missionaries.
    4. Georgia began humbly, and grew slowly, but it did survive.
  13. The Plantation Colonies
    1. Slavery took place in all of the plantation colonies down South.
    2. Forests frequently stunted the growth of cities.
    3. Schools and churches, and even towns, were often stunted since Southerners were so spread out.
    4. Crops were grown as such:
      1. Tobacco – in the Chesapeake region (Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina)
      2. Rice and indigo – in the tidewater region of South Carolina and Georgia
    5. As a general rule, the plantation South permitted a good deal of religious freedom. Southerners were more interested in making money and growing crops than worrying over church doctrine.
    6. White vs. Indian conflicts were frequent.
  14. Makers of America: The Iroquois
    1. The Iroquois consisted of five tribes: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onandaga, Cayuga, and the Seneca. The tribes united into the "Iroquois Confederation" under the legendary leader Hiawatha.
      1. The confederation was very strong and was a force when threatened by the whites.
      2. Eventually, the whites' disease, whiskey, and weapons threatened the Iroquois' survival.
    2. The Iroquois lived in "longhouses." The women held an unusually high rank—a man's prominence was linked to his mother's family.
    3. The war's of colonial America ripped the Iroquois lifestyle apart. Many fled to Canada and others went to lives on reservations.
      1. Like many Indians, reservation life was a pitiful mix of depression, alcoholism, poverty, and feuding.
      2. A prophet named Handsome Lake had a vision. He then convinced his people to change their ways. His influence still lives in the "Longhouse" religion.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

  1. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism
    1. 1517, Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation when he nailed his “95 Theses” on the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. Luther had several challenges to the Roman church. The most basic of Luther’s ideas were …
      1. The Bible or scripture alone was the source of God’s word (not the Bible and the church or pope).
      2. People are saved by grace alone from God (salvation comes as an undeserved gift from God, not by earning it or deciding to be saved).
      3. People are saved simply by faith in Christ alone (not by any “good works” the person might’ve done).
    2. John Calvin preached Calvinism that stressed “predestination” (those going to Heaven or hell has already been determined by God).
      1. Basic Christian doctrine was outlined in a 1536 document “Institutes of the Christian Religion.”
        1. It said people were sinful.
        2. It said only the predestined would go to Heaven.
      2. A Calvinist expected to see signs of predestination in a person’s life. The person was to have an outward conversion, recognized by others who’d been saved.
      3. An odd irony was created: predestination was very clear about Heaven and hell. But, it created a question as to who’s on what side?
        1. The reasoning went: if a person lives a sinful life, then obviously he’s predestined to hell. If he lives a pious life, then he’s predestined to Heaven.
        2. Calvinists are famous for working hard, dusk to dawn, to “prove” their worthiness.
        3. The impact of Calvinism has been vividly stamped on the psyche of Americans, and been called the “Protestant Work Ethic.”
    3. For personal reasons, King Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church in the 1530s. He started the Protestant Church of England.
    4. The Puritans vs. the Pilgrims
      1. A group of English called Puritans were moved to reform (“purify”) the Church of England. This is the point that separates Puritans from Pilgrims.
      2. Believed that only “visible saints” should be admitted to church membership.
      3. By contrast, the Pilgrims were Separatists. They vowed to break away from the Church of England (AKA the Anglican Church) because the “saints” would have to sit with the “damned.”
        1. King James I harassed the Separatists out of England. His reasoning was that if this group of people were willing to defy him as their spiritual leader, they might also defy him as their political leader.
        2. King James I is the king for whom the King James Bible is named.
        3. There’s irony here in that the Separatists claimed King James’ Church of England had strayed from the Bible, and they likely had. Yet the “King James Bible” quickly became accepted as being a very accurate translation, and still is considered so.
  2. The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth
    1. The Pilgrims, as Separatists, wanted to completely break away from the Church of England.
      1. They first moved to Holland with intentions of simply living there.
      2. Then they decided they’d have to move since their children were growing up Dutch. This was understandable, of course, but they wanted their kids to grow up English.
      3. They sought a location with English traditions where they’d be free to worship in their own way—America was the logical place.
    2. They struck a deal with the Virginia Company and set sail from Holland aboard the Mayflower.
      1. One person was born on the trip and one died.
      2. They were supposed to head to Virginia, but arrived off of the coast of New England in 1620.
      3. Wisely, the Pilgrims carefully surveyed for possible sites. Plymouth was chosen.
      4. Leadership and security against Indians would come to be provided by Captain Myles Standish, known as “Captain Shrimp.”
    3. Since they were in a land where they had no legal right to settle, steps had to be taken.
      1. Before leaving the ship, the Pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, where they agreed to make and live by new rules.
      2. This was the first form of self-government in New England and laid the foundation that America would be run by Americans.
    4. The winter of 1620-21 was brutal to the Pilgrims. By spring, only 44 out of the 102 were still alive.
    5. Unlike the Jamestown settlers, who had a similar first winter and wanted to return to England in the spring, the Pilgrims were determined to stay.
      1. They worked and prayed diligently the following year, gained some help and seeds from friendly Massasoit Indians, and grew a bountiful harvest—the first Thanksgiving.
      2. William Bradford, was selected as governor of the Plymouth colony 30 times in annual elections.
    6. Plymouth began humbly, but survived.
      1. Its economy was based on fur trapping, fishing, and lumber.
      2. Plymouth never grew large, and in 1691, it merged with the much larger Massachusetts Bay Colony.
  3. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth
    1. A group of Puritans were given a royal charter in 1629. This would become the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
      1. The charter was brought to America and used it like a constitution.
      2. This was another first step toward self-government made in Massachusetts.
    2. The Puritans came in much larger numbers than the Pilgrims—about 11,000 Puritans.
      1. The Puritans were well-equipped and industrious people.
    3. Similar to Plymouth, the Bay Colony enjoyed good leadership, stability, and growth.
      1. There governor, John Winthrop, was elected for 19 years.
      2. The colony thrived and grew with an economy based on fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding.
  4. Building the Bay Colony
    1. The Bay Colony was a “Bible Commonwealth”—a democracy run on Biblical principles.
      1. The franchise (right to vote) was quickly given to all “freemen.” Freemen were adult men who were members of the congregation (later called the Congregational Church).
      2. Non-church member men, and all women, were excluding from voting.
        1. There was the belief that the common man was incapable of voting wisely. Governor Winthrop called democracy the “meanest and worst” form of government.
        2. Puritans also wanted to retain government control in the hands of the church—hence the rule of church membership. Gaining church membership, by the way, only occurred when the church members voted you in.
      3. All told, this meant that roughly 40% of adult men could vote. This number may seem low by today’s standards (only 40% of men and 0% of women), but it still was larger than percentages back in Europe.
    2. The most noteworthy Puritan preacher was John Cotton. He’d been educated at Cambridge, criticized the Church of England, and then emigrated to Massachusetts.
    3. The Bible Commonwealth had its ways…
      1. Sermons, like those by John Cotton, were stern but moving, and clearly drew the line of right and wrong, Heaven and hell, saints and sinners.
      2. Local congregations could hire or fire their local pastor as they chose, (this is why they’re called “Congregational).”
      3. There was a strict moral code to uphold right and wrong. For example, one couple was fined 20 shillings for kissing in public.
      4. The devil, sin, and hell were very real, very serious, easily fallen into, and had to be constantly guarded against.
        1. Michael Wigglessorth wrote “Day of Doom” and sold one copy for every 20 people.
  5. Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In such a tightly strung society, tension quickly came to Massachusetts.
    2. Quakers challenged Puritan authority and were given fines, floggings, or banishment.
    3. Anne Hutchinson was an outspoken woman who challenged predestination.
      1. Her theory, called antinomianism, argued that if there was predestination, then a person’s actions were immaterial (because the saints and sinners were already determined). This was heresy.
      2. This struck hard at the Puritans because…
        1. This challenged political control—Why follow government rules/laws if it doesn’t matter?
        2. This challenged religious control—Why follow church rules/laws if it doesn’t matter?
        3. Women were not supposed to question authority and certainly not to speak out.
      3. She was put on trial in 1638, and claimed to have received these revelations from God—even higher heresy.
      4. Hutchinson was banished and moved to startup Rhode Island where religious freedom was new and favorable.
      5. Hutchinson was eventually killed by Indians in New York. John Winthrop said that “God’s hand” was involved in her death.
    4. Roger Williams was a young, outspoken preacher who sought a clean break with the Church of England. His ideas quickly got him into trouble, including…
      1. Questioning the Bay Colony charter’s legality.
      2. Questioning dealings with the Indians.
      3. Questioning whether the church could run people’s lives and the government. He had to go.
      4. In 1635, he was banished for “newe & dangerous opinions.”
  6. The Rhode Island “Sewer”
    1. Roger Williams’ differing religious views got him into trouble in Massachusetts. So, he started Rhode Island.
    2. “Little Rhody” grew attractive to the “otherwise minded.” That is, anyone that didn’t fit into Massachusetts’ tight-laced religious society.
    3. Rhode Island thus attracted a variety of people with nothing in common except a desire for independence. This strain of independence became their point of unity.
    4. The colony was officially chartered in 1644.
  7. New England Spreads Out
    1. A new colony was founded in Hartford, Connecticut in 1635.
      1. Reverend Thomas Hooker quickly led a group into Connecticut. This group was attracted as much by the Connecticut River’s good farmland than by religious reasons.
      2. In 1639, Connecticut settlers drew up the “Fundamental Orders,” America’s first written constitution.
        1. This document later became a model for the U.S. Constitution.
      3. In 1638, the colony of New Haven was established. It later joined Connecticut.
    2. In 1623, Maine was annexed by Massachusetts.
      1. Maine remained part of Massachusetts for nearly 150 years.
    3. In 1641, New Hampshire was annexed by Massachusetts.
      1. New Hampshire remained part of Massachusetts until 1679 when the king separated it.
  8. Puritans Versus Indians
    1. White diseases had made their mark even before the Pilgrims’ arrival in 1620. Disease had then struck the Indians, killing an estimated ¾ of the population.
    2. Initial relations with the natives were friendly.
      1. A Wampanoag named Squanto befriended and helped the struggling settlers.
      2. A white—Wampanoag peace agreement was signed.
      3. This treaty, along with the first Thanksgiving, became the standard symbolic of good white—Indian relations and gave hope for good relations in the future.
    3. In 1637, relations deteriorated when the Pequot War erupted.
      1. Incidents began to ripple through New England as more and more English settlers moved in.
      2. The war raged when whites wiped out a Pequot village on the Mystic River in Connecticut.
      3. All told, the Pequots were nearly wiped out as a tribe. White—Indians relations had turned for the worse and would largely stay that way.
        1. After criticism of the attack, Puritans attempted to convert Indians to Christianity.
    4. Aside from disease, disunity was the Indians top weakness.
      1. In 1675, Massasoit’s son Metacom (known as King Philip by the English) attempted to unite local Indian tribes.
      2. Metacom and his warriors attacked English villages, usually on the frontier.
        1. The so-called King Philip’s War lasted two years and was very bloody and destructive.
        2. His wife and son were sold into slavery.
        3. He finally suffered a complete defeat when his village was surrounded and destroyed. He was beheaded and drawn-and-quartered. His head rested on a pike in Plymouth, on display for years.
  9. Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence
    1. In 1643, the New England Confederation was set up.
      1. It consisted of 4 colonies and held the main goal of defense.
      2. The colonies were Puritan only (Bay Colony, Plymouth, New Haven, and scattered Connecticut settlements).
      3. The confederation was weak but noteworthy in that it was a large step toward American unity.
    2. The colonies were basically allowed to be semi-autonomous commonwealths.
    3. Charles II, after being restored to the British throne, intended to tighten his control over the colonies.
      1. He was surprised to find how deeply independence had begun to run in the American colonies, especially in Massachusetts.
      2. As a slap-in-the-face to Massachusetts, the king gave Connecticut a sea-to-sea charter in 1662; then also charted lowly Rhode Island in 1663.
      3. Even more embarrassingly, Massachusetts’ charter was revoked in 1684.
  10. Andros Promotes the First American Revolution
    1. In 1686, the Dominion of New England was created as an arm of the king. It’s goals were to (a) to strengthen colonial defense against the Indians and, more importantly, (b) to regain control by England over America by enforcing the Navigation Acts.
      1. The Navigation Acts limited American trade to within the British Empire exclusively.
      2. Resultant, smuggling flourished.
      3. Sir Edmund Andros headed the Dominion.
        1. He established headquarters in the “trouble-area” of Boston.
        2. He was openly associated with the Church of England—much despised by the Puritans.
        3. His soldiers spoke profanities and drank heavily. Puritanical Boston was nonplussed.
      4. Andros was quick to lay the law: he curbed town meetings, placed restrictions on courts the press, and schools. He revoked land titles. He rid the local assemblies and taxed the people without any representation.
      5. At this time, William and Mary were handed the British throne in the Glorious Revolution.
        1. This effectively pulled the rug out from underneath Andros and the Dominion.
        2. The Dominion of New England fell apart.
        3. Andros dressed like a woman and tried to sneak away, but his boots betrayed him beneath his dress.
    2. Changed did come, though not as the Puritans had hoped.
      1. Massachusetts gained a new charter, but their pride had been stung.
      2. With the new charter, all male property owners could vote, not church members exclusively, as it had been. This was a step for democracy, but a step backward for the “Bible Commonwealth.”
  11. Old Netherlanders at New Netherland
    1. In the late 1500s, the Netherlands rebelled and, with British help, won her independence from Spain.
    2. The 1600s were the Golden Age for the Dutch. They set out to make themselves a world power, not military so much as economically.
    3. They set up the Dutch East India Company to trade with the world and rival the British.
      1. For protection, the company built army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships. 40 of these ships were men-of-war.
      2. The East India Company did most of its business in the Spice Islands of Indonesia (the East Indies).
    4. The Dutch West India Company operated in the Caribbean (the West Indies).
      1. The West India Company was much smaller and weaker.
      2. They found it easier and profitable to do as much raiding as trading.
    5. Explorer Henry Hudson sought new areas. He sailed into Delaware Bay and then New York Bay, then up the Hudson River. He claimed the area for the Dutch. New Netherland was born.
      1. The Dutch West India Company bought the island of Manhattan from local Indians in exchange for a few trinkets.
      2. New Amsterdam was set up as a company town—a trading post at the mouth of the Hudson River. It’s goal was to trade, turn a profit, and benefit stockholders.
    6. To encourage settlement, patroonships (large tracts of land) were awarded to promoters who’d settle 50 people in the colony.
      1. As a result of these large patroonships, New Amsterdam developed an aristocratic flavor.
    7. New Amsterdam attracted a mix of people (unlike Massachusetts).
      1. A French Jesuit missionary recorded 18 different languages being spoken in the city.
  12. Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors
    1. The Dutch were cruel to the Indians and the Indians fought back.
      1. A wall was built across the northern edge of the post to fend off Indians. The street along the wall became Wall Street.
    2. New England also didn’t like the Dutch settlers, considering them trespassers.
    3. The Dutch, in turn, considered the Swedes trespassers when New Sweden was established on the Delaware River. It never amounted to much.
      1. The Dutch sent Peter Stuyvesant down to get rid of the Swedes. The one-legged Stuyvesant’s took the main Swedish fort without bloodshed. New Sweden had ended barely after it’d begun.
      2. New Sweden left its mark in the form of place names, the log cabin, and a mix of some Swedish blood.
  13. Dutch Residues in New York
    1. In 1664, the Duke of York, Charles II’s brother, was granted the area New Netherland area.
      1. To solidify the claim, a British fleet appeared off of New Amsterdam and Peter Stuyvesant was forced to surrender without a shot.
      2. New Netherland was over.
    2. New York was the new name for New Amsterdam.
    3. The Dutch left their mark in the forms of…
      1. The aristocratic flavor of New Netherland/New York.
      2. Place names such as Harlem (Haarlem), Brooklyn (Breuckelen), and Hell Gate (Hellegat).
      3. 'Gambrel' architecture (a barn shaped roof, modeled after the gambrel or back leg of a horse).
      4. And also, the Dutch left the traditions of Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, sleighing, skating, and golf (kolf).
  14. Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania
    1. The Quakers
      1. They’re called “Quakers” because they shook or quaked when moved by religious emotion.
      2. They clashed with religious and civil rule because they refused to pay taxes that would go to the Church of England.
      3. They met in simple meeting houses without a formal preacher, and simply spoke up when so moved.
      4. They called one another as “thee” or “thou,” like the King James Bible.
        1. They’d take no oaths since Jesus instructed, “Swear not at all.” This posed problems since people were supposed to swear to “test oaths” that they weren’t Roman Catholic.
      5. They were peaceful people who despised war and would “turn the other cheek” to violence.
      6. To some they appeared stubborn; perhaps they were, but they were devoted to their faith.
    2. William Penn was a well-born Englishman attracted to the Quaker faith..
      1. In 1681, he was awarded a large tract of land by the king.
      2. The tract would come to be “Pennsylvania” meaning “Penn’s woodland.” Being modest, he disliked this name, but it stuck.
      3. Pennsylvania was the best-advertised colony. It attracted many people and prospered.
  15. Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors
    1. The colony officially began in 1681, but there were already thousands of squatters on the land.
    2. Philadelphia, the “city of brotherly love,” was carefully planned out, which was unusual. It enjoyed wide boulevards and planned streets.
    3. Penn tried to deal justly with the Indians. He bought large tracts from Chief Tammany, patron saint of the later Tammany Hall.
      1. Penn’s Indian relations were so good that Quakers could walk unarmed through Indian territory.
      2. But, Quaker good-will would be taken advantage of. Less-idealistic folks treated the Indians as savages, most notably, the rough Scots-Irish.
    4. There were good reasons for the appeal of Pennsylvania…
      1. Freedom of religion was allowed to all except Jews and Catholics.
      2. The death penalty was allowed only for murder or treason.
      3. The Quakers didn’t like slavery. They were the first group to formally take a stand against slavery.
      4. Immigration was unrestricted and naturalization was easy.
        1. Combined with good land, a friendly attitude, free religion, etc., Pennsylvania was very attractive to a wide variety of people.
        2. Virginia was the only colony with more people and more money by 1700.
    5. Penn himself was not much appreciated in Pennsylvania.
      1. His friendliness toward the deposed Catholic king James II made him unpopular with Americans.
      2. He was at times jailed for treason or debt.
      3. He suffered a stroke and died a paralytic, full of sorrow.
    6. Next-door neighbors New Jersey and Delaware also prospered.
  16. The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies
    1. The Middle Colonies consisted of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania.
    2. They all held fertile soil and large tracts of land.
    3. They all, excepting Delaware, exported grain and thus were known as the “bread colonies.”
    4. Useful rivers tapped into the heart of the colonies…the Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson reached into fur lands.
    5. The Middle Colonies held a mix of New England and Southern colonies.
      1. They were, of course, geographically in the middle.
      2. Landholdings were of the midsize range—smaller than the South but bigger than New England.
      3. They were more ethnically mixed than other colonies—more mixed than the South and much more than New England.
      4. They had a mixed economy—agriculture like the South, and the beginnings of industry and trade as in the North.
    6. Benjamin Franklin, became the premier child of Philadelphia, and America. He’d come to Philly at 17, immediately felt at home, and through hard work and diligence, began to work his way up.
      1. Franklin’s story of rags-to-riches became symbolic of America.
      2. Americans began to realize they weren’t just surviving, but thriving.
  17. Makers of America: The English
    1. The population of England was mushrooming in the 1600s. People had to move somewhere.
    2. ¾ of the English came as indentured servants. Mostly young men from the “middling classes.” They largely came to the Chesapeake to work on the plantations.
      1. Some came due to the decline in the wool trade.
      2. Some came after being forced out by “enclosure” of the land.
    3. An estimated 40% died before the end of their servitude—unhealthy conditions being the culprit
    4. By the late 1600s, a switch began from white indentured servant labor to black slave labor. The idea was that slave labor, being permanent, was more economically sound.
    5. Late in the 17th century, as the supply of indentured servants slowly ran out, the southerners resolved to employ black slaves.
    6. In New England, mostly during the 1630s, Puritans swarmed to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
      1. The Puritans came as family units, not so much as single men.
      2. They brought with them the traditions or varied the flavor of their local communities, which could vary substantially.
        1. For instance, Marblehead, MA became an exclusive fishing village.
        2. Rowley, MA became a textile town (as had been their village back in England).
        3. Ipswich, MA saw leaders rule with an iron hand whereas Newbury, MA saw leaders rarely win a reelection.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century

  1. The Unhealthy Chesapeake
    1. Life in America was brutal, especially in the Chesapeake (Virginia/Maryland).
      1. The work there was hard and the climate was muggy.
      2. Diseases such as malaria, dysentery, and typhoid took their deadly toll.
      3. Thus, life spans in the Chesapeake were only to 40 or 50.
    2. Family-life suffered.
      1. Men outnumbered women and had to compete to win a woman’s heart. The ratio was 6:1(men-to-women) in 1650.
      2. Grandparents were unknown since lives were often cut short.
      3. 1/3 of new brides in one Maryland county were pregnant on their wedding day.
    3. Still, Virginia persisted and grew to be the most populous colony with 59,000 people.
  2. The Tobacco Economy
    1. Though hard on people, the Chesapeake was ideal for cultivation of tobacco.
      1. Exports rose from 1.5 million pounds of tobacco annually in the 1630s to 40 million pounds in 1700.
      2. Increased production/supply meant prices fell. The solution was to simply plant and grow, even more tobacco.
    2. The “headright system” encouraged growth of the Chesapeake. Under this system, if an aristocrat sponsored an indentured servant’s passage to America, the aristocrat earned the right to purchase 50 acres land, undoubtedly at a cheap price. This meant land was being gobbled by the rich, and running out for the poor.
    3. Initially, indentured servitude provided the labor for the tobacco.
      1. Life for an indentured servant was tough, but they had had of freedom and their own land when their seven years of service were done.
      2. As time wore on and labor became a premium, masters became intent on extending contracts or less willing to award a servant a plot of land. This would be the beginnings of race-based slavery—as indentured servants decreased, slavery went on the rise.
  3. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion
    1. By the late 17th century (1600s), the Chesapeake had grown a generation of angry young men.
      1. These men were young, white, landless, jobless, womanless and frustrated.
      2. Essentially, their goal was to get land and get married.
    2. Nathaniel Bacon typified these men in what came to be called Bacon’s Rebellion.
      1. In 1676, Bacon led about 1,000 men in a revolt.
      2. Many of these men had settled on the frontier where Indian attacks were frequent.
      3. Their ambition was to get Gov. William Berkeley to crack down on the Indians rather than continue his Indian-friendly fur trading. The poor men wanted land from the Indians.
      4. After some riotous success, Bacon suddenly died of disease. With the leader gone, Berkeley struck back and crushed the rebellion.
      5. Bacon’s legacy was to leave a lingering fear of revolt and lawlessness in the minds of the upper class.
  4. Colonial Slavery
    1. In 3 centuries following Columbus’ landing, 10,000 million African slaves were brought to America. Only 400,000 were brought to North America.
    2. Things were changing in the late 1600s however, as indentured servitude was being replaced by black slaves.
      1. In 1670, black slaves made up on 7% of the Southern population.
      2. By 1680, the circumstances reached the tipping point.
        1. Wages in England went up, so fewer young men came to America.
        2. Americans were fearful of another Bacon-like revolt.
        3. In the mid-1680s, black slaves coming to America outnumbered white immigrants for the first time.
        4. Simply put, in the 1680s, the African slave trade quickened considerably.
      3. By 1750, black slaves made up almost ½ the population of Virginia.
      4. Most slaves came from the coast of West Africa.
        1. They were usually captured by African tribes, shipped over on crammed boats on the grisly “Middle Passage” from Africa to the West Indies. Death rates have been estimated at 20%. They were “seasoned” there in the islands.
        2. Lastly, they were distributed to North, Central, and South America or the islands. In the modern day U.S., Charleston, SC and Newport, RI were large slave import cities.
        3. A few of the earliest slaves gained freedom, some even owned slaves themselves. Eventually, the chances of freedom dwindled.
        4. As time wore, questions of slave ownership arose. So, it was decided that slaves and their children would be made property (or “chattels”) to their owners for life.
        5. Some colonies made it a crime to teach slaves to read (for fear of an organized revolt or of reading liberating ideas).
        6. Conversion to Christianity didn’t qualify a slave for freedom either.
  5. Africans in America
    1. Life for a slave in the Deep South was harsh. Health conditions and labor drained life.
      1. Rice and indigo plantations, such as in South Carolina, were even more brutal than tobacco.
    2. Despite hardship, a unique African-American culture emerged as a mix of African-and-white cultures.
      1. Blacks evolved their languages, for example Gullah (a variation of Angola). Certain words joined English: goober (peanut), gumbo (okra), and voodoo (witchcraft).
      2. Music was unique too with rhythmic beats, the banjo, and bongo drums. These were the ancestors of jazz.
    3. Some slaves became exceptionally skilled in their trade such as carpentry, bricklaying, or tanning leather. Most slaves were simply hard laborers in the fields though.
    4. Desiring freedom, blacks rose in revolt on occasion.
      1. In New York City, 1712, a slave revolt killed a dozen whites. 21 blacks were executed.
      2. In 1739, along the Stono River in South Carolina, 50 blacks rose up and tried to escape slavery by walking to Spanish Florida. But, they were intercepted by the militia.
      3. Overall, these revolts were rather small, scattered, and controlled. They were certainly smaller than Bacon’s Rebellion with 1,000 men.
  6. Southern Society
    1. As time wore on, a rich—poor gap emerged and was widening in the South.
    2. A social hierarchy had developed in the South.
      1. Virginia was being run by a “planter aristocracy” or families of the privileged, like the Fitzhughs, Lees, and Washingtons.
        1. Such families owned huge tracts of land and dominated politics in the House of Burgesses.
        2. They were known as the “FFVs” or “First Families of Virginia.”
        3. They were aristocratic, but they were also hard-working businessmen. Running a plantation had endless problems and issues to deal with on a daily basis.
      2. Beneath the FFVs were the small farmers (AKA "yeomen" farmers).
        1. They were the largest social group in number.
        2. They held small plots of land and, maybe if they had a bit of money, 1 or 2 slaves.
      3. Next on the social scale were the landless whites.
        1. These hapless folks were often freed indentured servants. Their numbers were dwindling.
      4. At the bottom of the social scale were the slaves. They had no rights and no hope of gaining any.
    3. Cities were few and far between in the South. Schools and churches were also rare. This was mainly due to the plantations and farms being so spread out.
  7. The New England Family This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The climate and conditions in New England were much healthier than in the South. Water was clean and temperatures cooler.
    2. Life expectancies there reached to over 70 years old. It’s said New Englanders “invented” grandparents.
    3. Families immigrated to New England (unlike single people in the Chesapeake). This made for stability.
    4. Women married in their early twenties, then gave birth about every 2 years until menopause.
      1. An average woman would give birth to 10 children and expect to raise 8 of them; the other 2 would die at birth or infancy.
    5. Women wielded little power outside of the home.
      1. In the South, women often had it a bit better because (a) the male—female ratio favored the ladies, and (b) men often died young and the woman could inherit the money.
      2. New England women were dominated by the men.
        1. A widow did not inherit her husband’s land or money (this might undercut the stability of family, so she was expected to remarry).
        2. Women could not participate in the church as leaders or voters in the congregation (the Bible instructs that men run the church, not both genders).
      3. Life in New England’s “Bible Commonwealth” was stern.
        1. The top priority was to protect the institutions of marriage and the family.
        2. This was illustrated in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter where the heroine is forced to wear a bright red “A” on her bosom to announce her sin of adultery.
  8. Life in the New England Towns
    1. In keeping with the Puritan ways toward order, town life was very structured.
      1. A new town was first formally chartered by authorities (rather than just plopping into existence).
      2. Towns were laid out in and orderly manner—a town square (or common or “village green”) in the middle surrounded by homes, shops, and the church.
    2. Education was valued by New Englanders.
      1. Towns of at least 50 families built primary schools. Towns of 100 families built secondary schools.
      2. Harvard College was established in 1636, the nation’s first. Its motivation was to train men for the ministry.
        1. Notably, Virginia’s first college was William and Mary, est. 1693.
      3. Puritan churches were run by the local congregation (hence the later name of “Congregational Church”).
      4. The self-ruling church found it easy to become a self-ruling democratic government.
  9. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials
    1. Puritan leaders grew worried that their religious passion was dying down. So, they stepped up the preaching and “jeremiads” boomed from the pulpit.
      1. A jeremiad was a stern, old-fashioned scolding, like the sermons that the prophet Jeremiah preached to the Israelites.
      2. The ambition was to corral straying souls and return them to the “straight-and-narrow.”
    2. Paradoxically, church leaders also eased the qualifications for joining the church with what was called the “Half-Way Covenant.”
      1. In this covenant, some people could receive a sort of "half-status" in the church.
      2. This meant that the “elect” or the “visible saints” had to mix with the “half-wayers,” which was not always smooth.
    3. In 17th century New England, all aspects of life were seen through religious eyes. The Salem Witch Trials is an example.
      1. In 1692, a few girls claimed to have been bewitched by a Caribbean woman practicing voodoo.
      2. Names were named, rumors spread, and innocent people were accused of being witches. Hysteria took hold and twenty people were executed.
      3. By 1693, the Salem residents saw the recklessness for what it was and called it off.
      4. Notably, this type of witch-hunting had been done on a much larger scale back in Europe.
  10. The New England Way of Life
    1. The New England soil was thin and rocky, so they turned less to agriculture and more toward trade.
      1. The agriculture that was present was small-scale and diverse (it was not plantation agriculture like the South).
      2. Slavery was tried, but since it wasn't really needed, it fizzled out.
      3. As a result, New England was less ethnically diverse than the Southern or Middle Colonies.
    2. Rivers ran short and fast in New England. This would later prove useful to industry to power water mills.
    3. White New Englanders felt they were destined to use the land to their benefit. Whereas the Indians lived off the land, New Englanders wished to clear and farm the land.
    4. Fishing became a major industry. New England is said to have been founded on "God and cod."
  11. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways
    1. Colonial farmers worked from sunup to sundown, from “dawn ‘til dusk.”
      1. Having only fire as light, little was down beyond sundown unless it was “worth the candle.”
    2. Most people who’d emigrated Europe for America were from the middle or lower-middle class and came looking for a better life.
      1. They found life in America to be simple and practical.
      2. Despite having to work hard for a simple life, their lives were still likely better than in Europe.
  12. Makers of America: From African to African-American
    1. Africans brought much of their culture across the ocean—language, music, food.
    2. Africans worked in the rice fields of South Carolina due to (a) their knowledge of the crop and (b) their resistance to disease (as compared to Indians).
    3. Early African slaves to America were men and sometimes gained their freedom (similar to indentured servants).
    4. By the 1740s, slavery had been institutionalized and freedom was uncommon.
      1. Men worked in the fields.
      2. Women also worked in the fields, as well as domestic jobs like weaving, spinning, sewing, and cooking.
    5. Slaves usually became Christian, but mixed parts of their native African religion in.
    6. African-American culture influenced the arts.
      1. The 1920s popular dance has African-American roots.
      2. Christian songs with themes of liberation were especially popular. They could sometimes be a code to mark the arrival of a guide to freedom.
      3. The best example of African-American influence of music is seen in jazz.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

  1. Conquest by the Cradle
    1. In 1775, there were 32 British colonies in North America.
      1. Only 13 of these colonies revolted in the “American Revolution.”
      2. Canada and Jamaica were wealthier than the “original 13.”
      3. All of the colonies were growing like weeds.
    2. In 1775, there were 2.5 million people in the 13 colonies.
    3. Their average age was about 16 (due mainly to having several children).
    4. The vast majority (95%) of the Americans were crammed east of the Allegheny Mountains. By 1775, a few had settled in Tennessee and Kentucky.
    5. 90% of the Americans lived in rural areas and were therefore mostly farmers.
  2. A Mingling of the Races
    1. Colonial America was mostly English by origin, but other ethnicities were also present.
    2. Germans made up 6% of the population (150,000 in number by 1775).
      1. The Germans were mostly Protestant (usually Lutheran).
      2. They were called “Pennsylvania Dutch”…a perversion of “Deutsch” or “German.”
    3. Scots-Irish made up 7% of the population (175,000 in number).
      1. Back across the ocean, these strong-willed folks had been transplanted into Northern Ireland. But, they banged heads with the Catholic Irish there and never felt at home. So, they emigrated to America.
      2. They typically moved inland in America up to the Appalachian foothills. They squatted on the land and bickered with Indians and whites over ownership.
      3. The “Paxton Boys” led a march/revolt in 1764. Like Nathaniel Bacon of 100 years prior, they were frustrated over not being able to get land.
      4. The Scots-Irish were a hot-headed, but hardy people.
      5. When the War for Independence began, many became revolutionaries.
    4. 5% were from various European ethnicities: French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, the Swiss, or Scots-Highlanders.
      1. Even early on, the Americans were taking on a mosaic of races and ethnicities. Therefore, other nations had a hard time pinning down exactly what it meant to be “an American.”
  3. The Structure of the Colonial Society
    1. Unlike Europe, where the classes were locked, America was a land of opportunity.
      1. Hard work might see anyone rise from “rags to riches.”
      2. Despite opportunity in America, class differences did emerge with wealthy planter-farmers, clergymen, government officials, and merchants wielding most of the authority.
    2. Wars brought more riches to merchants.
      1. As well as creating riches, these wars created widows and orphans who eventually turned to charity for support.
    3. In the South, a firm social pyramid emerged containing…
      1. The immensely rich plantation owners (“planters”) had many slaves (though these were few).
      2. “Yeoman” farmers, or small farmers, owned their land and, maybe, a few slaves.
      3. Landless whites who owned no land and either worked for a landowner or rented land to farm.
      4. Indentured servants of America were the paupers and the criminals sent to the New World. Some of them were actually unfortunate victims of Britain’s unfair laws and did become respectable citizens. This group was dwindling though by the 1700s, thanks to Bacon’s Rebellion and the move away from indentured servant labor and toward slavery.
      5. Black slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder with no rights or hopes up moving up or even gaining freedom. Slavery became a divisive issue because some colonies didn’t want slaves while others needed them, and therefore vetoed any bill banning the importation of slaves.
  4. Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists
    1. The clergy (or priests) were the most respected group in colonial days. They had less power in 1775 than in earlier days, but still held high esteem.
    2. Physicians (or doctors) were usually not looked upon with much respect. Many were little more than “witch-doctors” as the science of the day was little or nothing.
      1. A favorite treatment was bleeding—thought to let out the “bad blood.”
      2. Plagues were common and deadly.
        1. Smallpox struck 1 in 5 people (including George Washington) even though a basic inoculation had been formed in 1721.
        2. The clergy and doctors sometimes chose to not intervene with smallpox treatment—to do so would be to intervene in God’s will.
    3. Lawyers were looked upon with scorn—as being hucksters or scoundrels.
      1. Criminals often would represent themselves in court rather than get a lawyer.
      2. As the revolution neared, the usefulness of lawyers to get things done started to become apparent.
  5. Workaday America This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Agriculture was the dominant industry, by far, in colonial America.
      1. In the Chesapeake of Maryland and Virginia, tobacco was the staple.
      2. In the Middle Colonies (“bread colonies”), wheat was the staple. New York exported 80,000 barrels of flour annually.
    2. Fishing (and whaling) was prosperous, especially in New England. The Grand Banks off Newfoundland had immense numbers of cod.
    3. Trade began to flourish.
      1. Yankee merchants were active and known as hard dealers.
      2. The “Triangular Trade” was in operation. In it, a ship would depart (1) New England with rum and go to the (2) west coast of Africa and trade the rum for African slaves. Then, it would go to (3) the West Indies and exchange the slaves for molasses (for rum), which it’d sell to New England once it returned there.
    4. Manufacturing was not as important. There were a wide variety of small enterprises though.
      1. Good laborers were hard to find and prized once they were found.
      2. Lumbering was probably the top manufacturing industry.
      3. Naval stores, (or turpentine, pine tar, and pitch) were used to build and repair the British navy. The British crown sometimes reserved the best American trees to be used as British masts—even though there were countless other trees, this bothered the Americans.
    5. The Molasses Act, 1733, a tax on West Indies molasses was a shock to Americans. This would’ve undercut the prosperity of the Triangular Trade (rum being made from molasses).
      1. Americans turned to bribes smuggling to work around the act. So, the Molasses Act wasn’t a big problem after all.
    6. However, it did foreshadow more taxes and more troubles to come, later in the 1760s.
  6. Horsepower and Sailpower
    1. Roads were scarce and pitifully poor. Until the 1700s, they didn’t even connect major cities. Thus, travel was sluggish.
      1. Roads were dust bowls in the summer and mud bogs in the winter.
      2. For example, it took Ben Franklin 9 days to go from Boston to Philadelphia while traveling by sailboat, rowboat, and foot.
    2. Travel by water, either along the coast or via rivers, was common and useful.
    3. Taverns sprang up along roadways and any intersections. They served multiple uses: inns for a night’s sleep, places to hear news/gossip from out-of-town, and a place to get a refreshing beverage, of course.
    4. A crude mail system emerged. The mail traveled slowly, and sometimes was read by bored or curious letter carriers.
  7. Dominant Denominations
    1. In 1775, there were 2 “established churches” or churches that received tax money: the Anglican and the Congregational. Surprisingly, a large portion of Americans didn’t worship in a church, however.
    2. The Anglican Church (the Church of England) became the official faith in Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and part of New York.
      1. The Anglican brand of religion was more worldly than Puritanical New England.
      2. Sermons were shorter and hellfire was less hot.
      3. The College of William and Mary was founded to train clergy in 1693.
      4. Anglicans did not have an American bishop to ordain the American clergymen. The idea of starting an American bishopric was violently opposed by non-Anglicans as the Revolution drew close.
    3. The Congregational Church grew out of the Puritan church. It was established in each New England colony except Rhode Island.
      1. Presbyterianism, a kin of Congregationalism, was common but never an official religion.
      2. Religion, which used to be the burning issue in New England, was beginning to take a backseat to politics.
  8. The Great Awakening
    1. As religious passion began to decline and new, liberal ideas began to water down “old time religion,” many felt it was time for a revival—the Great Awakening. This was America’s 1st big religious movement. It tried to bring the people back to fundamental Christianity and save souls.
    2. Jonathan Edwards was a leading preacher.
      1. He said salvation comes not through good works, but through God’s grace (what you don’t earn).
      2. He painted vivid pictures of hell. His most famous sermon was “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” and preached that hell was “paved with the skulls of unbaptized children.”
    3. George Whitefield was another great preacher during the Awakening.
      1. Whitefield was an amazing speaker—he brought people to tears, cheers, convulsions, and to the offering plates.
      2. His style of preaching was to strike the emotions, to “hit ‘em in the heart, rather than in the head” so to speak.
      3. His goal was to strike at sinners, have them repent (ask forgiveness), and turn their faith to Christ.
    4. These preachers were called the “New Lights.” The “Old Lights” (Anglicans, and traditional Congregationalists and Presbyterians) didn’t like the drama in this style.
      1. The Baptist faith grew in numbers, however, as they embraced the New Light style of preaching.
      2. New Light universities sprang up: Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
      3. New Lights encouraged a new wave of missionary work amongst the Indians.
    5. The Great Awakening was America’s first mass movement. It brought Americans together largely without regard to class and united them with a common history and experience.
  9. Schools and Colleges
    1. New England placed the most value on education. This was the case since colleges trained the clergymen.
      1. In the other colonies, time was spent farming and working, not wasted on schooling.
      2. Still, there were fairly good elementary and secondary schools in all of the colonies. These schools were for the rich, and mostly for boys.
    2. The topics of study: the classics (Greek and Latin) and religion. Reason was out, dogma was in.
    3. The mood at school was serious and somber. Discipline was fast and harsh.
    4. The influences of the church was considerable, but waning…
      1. In New England, the top priority of colleges was still to train men for the ministry.
      2. By 1750, there was a movement from “dead” to “live” languages.
      3. Ben Franklin helped start the University of Pennsylvania, the first non-denominational university.
  10. Provincial Culture
    1. Work and worry (farming and fear of Indians) left little time for recreation. What little time was leftover, was spent on religion, not wasted on arts and literature.
    2. Painting was looked upon as a waste of time.
      1. John Trumbull was discouraged in painting by his father. He still went to Europe to be trained in art.
      2. Charles Willson Peale became best-known for portraits of George Washington. He also was curator of a museum, a taxidermist of birds, and a dentist.
      3. Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley traveled to Europe where artists were respected and could make a living (unlike in America).
    3. Architecture in America was (a) transplanted from Europe and (b) focused on the practical rather than stylish.
      1. The log cabin (from Sweden) was simple, frontier-friendly, cheap, and cozy.
      2. The Georgian style began around 1720 and became popular in towns with its red bricks—solid and well insulated.
    4. Colonial literature was sparse. Americans wasted little time writing and focused on working.
      1. Phillis Wheatley’s poetry was notable. She was a slave girl with no formal education. But, she did travel to England and get a book of poetry published. These accomplishments were amazing considering her many obstacles.
      2. Ben Franklin's Poor Richard’s Almanack was immensely popular—read more than anything except the Bible. It tells something about Americans—they frowned on literature but loved the practical sayings and advice of an almanac.
        1. Franklin’s exploits with experiments (like the kite flying incident) and his acute observations helped further the budding sciences.
  11. Pioneer Presses
    1. Reading wasn’t common in colonial America—books were too expensive, thus, libraries were scarce.
    2. Pamphlets were more common. As the revolution drew near, printers hand-cranked pamphlets. These were popular ways to keep on top of current events.
    3. John Peter Zenger was a printer in New York.
      1. He printed unflattering things about the governor of New York. Zenger was arrested for seditious libel.
      2. But, his lawyer Andrew Hamilton argued, what he’d printed was true, and therefore, not libel.
      3. Zenger won, but more importantly, it was a landmark case for the freedom of the press.
  12. The Great Game of Politics
    1. By 1775, eight colonies had royal governors who’d been appointed by the king. Three colonies had governors selected by proprietors.
    2. Nearly each colony had a two-house legislature.
      1. The upper house was chosen by either royal officials or by the colony’s proprietor.
      2. The lower house was filled by election by the people.
    3. Most governors were effective.
      1. A few were corrupt. One Lord Cornbury, Queen Anne’s cousin, was named the New York and New Jersey governor. He was a drunkard, spendthrift, grafter, embezzler, religious bigot, and cross-dressing fool.
    4. The right to vote was expanding.
      1. It was still limited to white males only, but to more white males.
      2. But, the land requirement was gone. Land was so plentiful that it didn’t really limit voters anyway.
  13. Colonial Folkways
    1. Life for most Americans was tough, with few comforts.
      1. Churches had no heat (no fireplace).
      2. Homes didn’t have running water or indoor plumbing (wells and outhouses were used).
      3. There was no garbage disposal system.
    2. Still, Americans weren’t without amusements.
      1. Work and play mixed during house or barn-raisings, quilting bees, husking bees, flaxing bees, apple parings, and the like.
      2. Southerners enjoyed stage plays, card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunting.
      3. Lotteries were accepted, even by the clergy, because they were used to raise money for the church or colleges.
      4. Holidays were celebrated across the colonies. New Englanders frowned on Christmas, however, as being too aligned with the Pope.
  14. Makers of America: The Scots-Irish
    1. The Scots had a hard time back in Britain. They were poor but heavily taxed by the English. This added to a long list of reasons the Scots disliked the English.
    2. Fed up, the Scots moved to Ulster, in Ireland. But, the Irish didn’t want the Scots there either. So, the Scots packed up and moved to America.
    3. As if they wanted to distance themselves from Britain as far as possible, the Scots moved into and spread along the Appalachian piedmont region.
      1. Pennsylvania was a hot spot since tolerance was high there.
    4. The Scots-Irish were tough, independent, ruddy people—perfect for frontier life, blazing new lands, and building America out of the forests.
    5. Though independent-minded, religion tied the Scots-Irish together. They were Protestant, usually of the Presbyterian denomination.
    6. Their disdain for England also bonded them. This fact became of great use when the Revolution broke out. The Scots-Irish were passionately against England and for independence.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

  1. France Finds a Foothold in Canada
    1. France got a late start in colonizing America (like England and Holland).
      1. French were tardy due because during the 16th century they suffered foreign wars and issues at home.
        1. To help ease Catholic-Protestant feuding, the Edict of Nantes (1598) was issued. It granted religious toleration to the Huguenots (French Protestants).
      2. King Louis XIV took an active interest in France’s lands overseas—he wanted more.
      3. So, the French landed in the St. Lawrence River in what is today’s Quebec.
        1. Samuel de Champlain was the leader of the expedition and “Father of New France.”
        2. Champlain was on good terms with the local Huron Indians. He helped the Huron defeat their enemy, the Iroquois.
        3. His alliance with the Huron would become a problem later with the British in the French and Indian War.
      4. New France didn’t have loads of immigrants (as did New England).
        1. The French peasants were too poor to get themselves across the ocean.
        2. The Huguenots were not permitted to emigrate.
  2. New France Fans Out
    1. New France was built on the beaver skin trade.
      1. Young beaver trappers (coureurs de bois or “runners of the woods”) paddled canoes into trapping lands, worked with the Indians, and hauled out their beaver skins for sale.
        1. They were also known as voyageurs.
        2. Place-names were left behind like Baton Rouge (red stick), Terre Haute (high land), Des Moines (the monks), and Grand Teton (big breast).
        3. Their Indian friends were decimated by the whites’ diseases.
        4. The beaver population eventually began to run thin.
    2. Catholic missionaries tried to convert Indians to Christianity.
    3. New France grew.
      1. Detroit (the “City of Straits”) was founded in 1701 by Antoine Cadillac to help fend off the English from moving into the Ohio Valley.
      2. Louisiana was founded by Robert de La Salle in 1682. It reached from the headwaters of the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico.
      3. The fertile lands of Illinois were New France’s breadbasket. There they had forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes.
  3. The Clash of Empires
    1. England got into some mini-wars in the 1700s with various other nations. Bottom line: it was England vs. France/Spain; England won.
      1. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War
        1. The French coureurs de bois and the British colonists. Both sides recruited Indian allies.
        2. Both sides agreed that America wasn't worth risking regular troops.
        3. Pro-France Indians ransacked Schenectady, New York, and Deerfield, Mass.
        4. The British failed to take Quebec and Montreal, but did temporarily seize Port Royal.
        5. The English won the war and a peace treaty was signed at Utrecht (1713)
          1. It gave the British Acadia (renamed as Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay.
          2. It pinned the French down to the settlements along the St. Lawrence River.
          3. It gave the British trading rights with Spanish Florida.
      2. The War of Jenkins’s Ear
        1. A Spanish commander cut off an English Captain Jenkins' ear.
        2. The war was small and played out in the Caribbean and the buffer colony of Georgia.
        3. It merged with the larger War of Austrian Succession and became known as King George's War.
        4. The British invaded Ft. Louisbourg (guarding the entrance to New France) and took it.
        5. The peace treaty gave Louisbourg back to the French. The English were outraged.
  4. George Washington Inaugurates War with France
    1. The British, French, and Spanish were in mini-wars, on and off. The Ohio Valley would be the battleground (and prize) for the decisive war (the French and Indian War).
      1. The land was sandwiched between British and French colonies. Where's the border? was the question.
      2. The land was very fertile and therefore very valuable.
    2. The French set out to lay claim to the Ohio Valley by building Ft. Duqeusne (at today's Pittsburgh).
      1. In response to the fort, the British sent 21 year old Major George Washington and troops.
      2. Washington got into a skirmish, built Ft. Necessity, fought guerilla-style, and was forced to surrender after 10 hours.
      3. Back in Nova Scotia, the British evicted the French Acadians. They migrated as far south as New Orleans and became known as the "Cajuns."
      4. After a wrist-slapping, he was allowed to march away. But, the French and Indian War had begun.
  5. Global War and Colonial Disunity
    1. Though the players were the same, the French and Indian War was different from the others—it'd begun in America.
    2. The French and Indian War was called the Seven Years' War back in Europe.
      1. In America, it was England/American colonists/some Indian tribes vs. France/French colonists/more Indian tribes.
      2. The belligerents were England/America/Prussia vs. France/Spain/Austria/Russia.
      3. Frederick the Great of Prussia (Germany), though outnumbered, held off the French, Austrian, and Russian armies.
    3. Many Americans sought strength in unity. To unite or not was a hot topic however.
      1. 7 of the 13 colonies met (1754) at the Albany Congress in Albany, NY.
      2. There, Ben Franklin led the delegates toward unity.
        1. His famous "Join or Die" cartoon of a disjointed snake (symbolizing the colonies) illustrated his point.
        2. His plan eventually failed though, because the colonies were reluctant to give up their sovereignty or power. Still, it was a big step toward unity—one that'd be repeated later on.
  6. Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath
    1. After Washington's failure, the British sent Gen. Edward Braddock to roust out the French at Ft. Duquesne.
      1. Braddock's men were ambushed en route to the battle and nearly wiped out. Braddock himself was killed. Only Washington's men using "Indian tactics" (guerilla fighting) prevented a total catastrophe.
      2. Clearly, a new style of fighting was needed in America (not the European style of fighting in an open field with lines of troops).
    2. A rash of Indian uprisings spread across America from frontier Pennsylvania to North Carolina. Rewards were offered to whites for Indian scalps.
    3. British defeats mounted as they tried unsuccessfully to take wilderness posts.
  7. Pitt’s Palms of Victory This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Just as things were going terribly for the British, a strong leader stepped up in William Pitt, the "Great Commoner" who became the "Organizer of Victory."
    2. Pitt made some changes in the war…
      1. He took the focus off of the French West Indies (this sapped British resources).
      2. He put the focus on Quebec and Montreal (since they controlled the supply routes into New France).
      3. He replaced old, cautious officers with young, daring officers.
    3. Pitt's plan worked.
      1. Ft. Louisbourg fell in 1758. This was like cutting the root and letting the vine wither because all French supplies funneled past Louisbourg.
      2. James Wolfe, handsome at 32 years old, scored a major victory at the Battle of Quebec.
        1. Quebec was considered impenetrable with its bluffs. But, Wolfe's men snuck up the cliffs, then surprised and defeated the French on the Plains of Abraham. Both Wolfe and his French counterpart Marquis de Montcalmwere killed in the battle.
        2. The Battle of Quebec was a red letter event in British and American history.
        3. After Montreal fell to the British in 1760, it was all but over.
    4. The Treaty of Paris, 1763 was a crushing defeat for France and victory for Britain.
      1. France was kicked out of North America completely. This meant Britain got Canada and the land all the way to the Mississippi River.
      2. France was allowed to keep sugar plantations in the West Indies and 2 islands in the St. Lawrence for fishing purposes.
      3. France was forced to give the Louisiana (including New Orleans) territory to Spain.
  8. Restless Colonists
    1. These wars and victories had effects…
      1. The British & colonists were confident after their victories.
      2. The notion that British regulars were invincible was shattered (Ie. Braddock's loss).
      3. Friction emerged between the uppity British and colonial "boors." This foreshadowed trouble.
        1. The British wouldn't recognize any American above the rank of captain.
        2. Americans thought of themselves as equals to British.
      4. The Brits distrusted the Americans. Some Americans had traded with enemy ports in the West Indies; this had prompted Britain to forbid New England exports.
      5. Other Americans didn't want to fight, but wanted full British privileges. They only fought when Pitt offered reimbursement.
      6. One major benefit of the war was the realization of much in common. The colonies had been reluctant to unite, but now were surprise to realize that they shared things: language, traditions, and ideals. The colonies were bonding.
  9. War’s Fateful Aftermath
    1. With the war over, American colonists roamed free—without worry of France, and to a large degree, of England.
      1. The French took solace in their loss by figuring, "If we lost a great empire, maybe England will one day lose theirs."
      2. Spain was also crippled. Florida had been a headache because of Indian troubles and runaway slaves, but Spain had been defeated. England was now in control.
    2. The Indians recognized their weakened position.
      1. Ottawa chief Pontiac led a violent uprising in the Ohio valley.
      2. He had some success initially, but the British were ruthless and destroyed his people. One infamous tactic was to give the Indians blankets laced with smallpox.
      3. This opened the trans-Appalachians to the English. Daniel Boone trekked across the mountains and led settlers into Tennessee and Kentucky.
      4. London suddenly issued the Proclamation Line of 1763.
        1. This line was the Appalachian Mountains.
        2. It said whites were not permitted to cross and settle west of the Appalachian Mountains; that was Indian land.
        3. The purpose of the proclamation was to resolve the Indian issue with the "out-of-bounds" line. But, the colonists cried foul asking, "Didn't we just fight a war to win this land?!"
        4. In 1765, 1,000 wagons left Salisbury, NC to head "up west" despite the proclamation.
      5. The British, puffed up with victory, were becoming annoyed at the unruly and unappreciative Americans. Trouble was brewing.
  10. Makers of America: The French
    1. King Louis XIV dreamed of a French Empire in North America. Losses in 1713 and especially in 1763 ended that dream.
    2. The Acadians were some of the first French to be rooted out of their homes.
      1. These folks were from Acadia, the place that was changed to Nova Scotia.
      2. The British had demanded allegiance to Britain, or leave. The Acadians left.
      3. The scattered but largely went down to the bayous around New Orleans. They brought/developed a unique culture that came to be called the "Cajuns"…
        1. They brought Roman Catholicism with them.
        2. They raised sugar cane and sweet potatoes.
        3. They spoke a French dialect.
        4. They began to intermarry with the Spanish, French, and Germans.
        5. The Cajun culture is a mix of a lot of cultures thrown together in a mixing pot and stirred together.
        6. The Cajuns were very isolated until the 1930s. Gov. Huey Long started building bridges that linked up the bayous and the people.
    3. After the French and Indian War (1763) Quebec citizens began emigrating to New England. Their motivation was lack of food in Quebec.
      1. These folks hoped to return to Canada.
      2. They kept their religion (Catholicism) and their language (French).
      3. Even still, English is spoken today by the Cajuns and French-Canadians in America.
    4. Quebec remains today as the strongest testament of France in North America.
      1. The French language is on road signs, in classrooms, courts, and markets.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

  1. The Deep Roots of Revolution
    1. It could be said that the American Revolution started long before 1775—back to when colonists first came to America. They essentially revolted from England and moved to America.
    2. And, those American colonists were growing independent.
      1. Crossing the ocean took 6 to 8 weeks, one way.
      2. The Americans felt separated from England; they felt as though they were the cutting edge of the British Empire.
      3. The Americans were developing their own brand of politics.
        1. The Americans were embracing republicanism, which is a society where citizens elect representatives to govern for them.
        2. The "radical Whigs" of England influenced American thinking. They criticized how the king would appoint relatives to positions, accept bribes, or such corruption. These were a threat to liberty.
  2. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances
    1. The British colonies began haphazardly by various groups. Only Georgia was started by the British government.
    2. Still, Britain had an overall economic ideology in the form of mercantilism.
      1. In mercantilism, a nation's wealth and power is measured by its treasury of gold or silver.
      2. Thus, gold was sought after either by (a) finding or digging it, (b) stealing or winning it, or (c) earning it by exporting more than importing (by obtaining a "favorable balance of trade").
        1. A favorable balance of trade was easier if a country had colonies. The colonies supplied raw materials to the mother country and also buy the finished products.
        2. This setup meant America was being used for England's benefit in the form of ships, naval stores, lumber, tobacco, sugar, etc.
      3. Mercantilism placed restrictions on economic activity.
        1. The Navigation Laws, first passed in 1650, set rules to carry out mercantilist ideas.
          1. These laws said American goods could only be shipped on British ships (the Americans would rather go with the cheapest shipper, like the Dutch).
          2. These laws said goods heading from Europe to America had to stop in England first to pay duties. This jacked up the price for the Americans.
          3. Enumerated goods could only be shipped to England (Americans wanted to ship to the highest bidder).
        2. To ensure British monopoly in certain areas, Americans were restricted in what they could produce (wool and beaver hats were off limits).
        3. The Americans' hard money was constantly being funneled to England. Many turned to barter instead. Eventually the colonies printed paper money which quickly became worthless.
        4. The Privy Council in Britain could void American laws. Although it was ruled rather sparingly (only 469 times out of 8,563 laws), the principle bothered the Americans.
  3. The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism
    1. The merits of mercantilism…
      1. The Navigation Laws were despised by Americans but weren't enforced (until 1763). This non-enforcement was called "salutary neglect" and effectively let the Americans do their own thing for a century.
        1. Salutary neglect was the result of wide geography, British apathy, and American smuggling. John Hancock made a fortune and was called the "King of Smugglers."
      2. Tobacco merchants were restricted to selling within the British Empire, but they did have a monopoly there.
      3. The Americans enjoyed the free protection of the powerful British Army and Navy.
    2. The menace of mercantilism…
      1. Mercantilism hindered America's economic growth. Worse, it was to keep America in a state perpetually subordinate to England.
      2. The Americans felt exploited and humiliated by the system, unable to come of age as a people.
      3. Teddy Roosevelt later commented that revolution broke out because Britain failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one.
  4. The Stamp Tax Uproar
    1. In 1763, with the Seven Years' War over (French and Indian War), Britain had the largest debt in the world. 1/2 of the debt came via the wars in America.
    2. By 1763, the stage was set for a change in British—American relations. For America, the good ol' days were over and a laundry-list of acts and events were to follow…
      1. Prime Minister George Grenville suggested enforcement of the much-ignored Navigation Acts.
      2. Parliament passed the Sugar Act (1764), a tax on sugar. This was the first tax on Americans for raising revenue. Americans protested, the tax was lowered, and things calmed.
      3. The Quartering Act (1765) required colonists to provide food and quarter for British troops. This law was detested.
      4. Also in 1765, the Stamp Act was passed. This caused something of a firestorm of protest.
        1. The act's stated purpose was to raise money to support a new military force to protect the colonies. Grenville considered the tax fair—Americans would be paying for their own protection. Brits were paying twice as much for a similar tax, the Americans could also ante up.
        2. This act required using either stamped paper or affixing a stamp that showed payment of the tax.
          1. The stamp was required on nearly everything on paper, from legal documents down to newspapers and playing cards.
          2. Many questioned why a large military was even needed since the enemy (French) had just been ousted. Unless, of course, the purpose of the military was to lord over the colonists.
          3. To a large degree, it was the principle of these acts that irked the colonists, more so than the acts themselves.
            1. Local government/rule seemed under attack.
            2. The Sugar and Stamp Acts would be tried in admiralty courts (courts set up and run by England). In these courts, defendants were guilty until proven innocent and there were no trials by a jury of peers.
            3. The notion of "taxation without representation" arose.
              1. Grenville dismissed "taxation without representation" and said the colonists actually were represented via "virtual representation," figuring Parliament represents the British Empire, to which America is a member, and therefore America is represented in Parliament.
              2. The Americans weren't convinced by this "U-turn logic."
  5. Forced Repeal the Stamp Act This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Protest against the Stamp Act got organized. A Stamp Act Congress was called and convened in New York City to plan objection to the act.
      1. 9 of the 13 colonies met. Americans were slowly uniting (only 7 of 13 colonies had met at the Albany Congress during the French and Indian War).
      2. Protest could be divided into 2 types, informal and formal…
        1. Informal protest took place in the streets.
          1. Colonists boycotted British goods, either going without or making their own.
          2. The Sons and Daughters of Liberty showed their disapproval of tax collectors by tarring-and-feathering them, riding them out of town on a rail, stoning and burning effigies (dummies) of the tax collectors, and sometimes ransacked officials' homes.
        2. Formal protest was less dramatic and used pen-and-paper.
          1. Non-importation agreements were signed by many Americans as pledges to boycott British goods.
          2. The Stamp Act Congress also wrote Parliament, listed a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" (foreshadowing the Declaration of Independence), and called for repeal of the Stamp Act.
      3. When the act was set to go into effect, there were no tax collectors to carry it out. Americans never paid one cent under the Stamp Act.
    2. The opposition led Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act (1766).
      1. American colonists cheered; they even erected a leaden statue of George III in New York City.
      2. But, Parliament also issued the Declatory Act (1766) declaring that London still ruled over the American colonies and could "bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." This was foreshadowing more acts, and conflict, to come.
  6. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston “Massacre”
    1. "Champagne Charley" Townshend initiated and got the passage of the Townshend Acts (1767) which taxed paper, lead, paint, and tea.
    2. These were "indirect taxes", unlike the "direct" Stamp Act (meaning the tax was hidden in the price of the good, not paid directly to the government).
    3. Despite being a hidden tax, it was the principle that bothered the colonists. They protested again, but with less passion since (a) the tax was small, (b) it was indeed hidden, and (c) smugglers found ways around it.
    4. A bit jumpy, the British took action against protest.
      1. In 1767, the New York legislature was suspended for failing to comply with the Quartering Act.
      2. British troops were sent to Boston to keep order and enforce British laws.
        1. On March 5, 1770, the Boston Massacre occurred. A colonial crowd of about 60 were milling about and taunting/threatening about 10 British redcoats. Things escalated until the British soldiers opened fire, killing or wounding 11 Americans.
          1. Crispus Attucks was one of the first to die. He was a black man and former slave. He became a symbol and rallying cry for freedom (he'd risen from slave, to free man, to martyr who stood up to Britain in the name of liberty).
          2. In the later trial, John Adams (future president) was the defense attorney and 2 redcoats were found guilty (manslaughter, released after a brand on the hand).
  7. The Seditious Committees of Correspondence
    1. The status in the early 1770s was that the Townshend Acts had not produced revenue; they had produced a near-rebellion.
    2. King George III was nonplussed over events. He was 32 years old, of good morals, but power hungry and a poor ruler.
      1. Worse, he surrounded himself with "yes-men" and the manipulative prime minister Lord North.
      2. Lord North eventually gave in to repeal of the Townshend duties, except for tea, just to retain the point that Parliament had the right to tax.
    3. To Samuel Adams, this was not enough. The tea tax was the most disliked one, and again, the principle (taxation without representation) was the problem.
      1. Sam Adams was a red-blooded patriot…passionate and hot-blooded.
      2. He used his "trained mob" as his muscle.
      3. His main contribution was the establishment of the "committees of correspondence". These committees were really nothing but a letter-writing network with the goal of exchanging news/info and organizing and keeping resistance.
        1. These committees started in Boston, but soon grew to all the colonies.
        2. They eventually would grow into the first American congresses (the leaders were the men in the network).
  8. Tea Brewing in Boston
    1. The British East India Company was in financial trouble by 1773. It had 17 million pounds of unsold tea.
    2. London decided to help the company by giving it monopoly rights to sell tea in America. This would have actually lowered the price of tea.
    3. Still, the American colonists were not happy about the tea situation. They thought the British were trying to sneak a tax in under a low price. It was the principle of taxation without representation that was bothersome.
      1. The Boston Tea Party took place on December 16, 1773.
        1. Samuel Adams was the ringleader. After a "meeting" at the Green Dragon Tavern, protesters dressed up like Indians, then went to the harbor and threw 342 chests of tea overboard.
        2. Reactions to the tea party were mixed. Patriotic types cheered it as standing up to the British in the name of freedom. Conservatives criticized the actions as one step above lawlessness and anarchy.
  9. Parliament Passes the “Intolerable Acts”
    1. The British reaction was clear. In 1774, Parliament passed the Repressive Acts which came to be called the Intolerable Acts in America. They were to punish America, Boston especially.
      1. The Boston Port Act shut down Boston harbor. This was a huge financial blow to the colonies.
      2. The Massachusetts charter was revoked.
      3. Other acts limited Americans right to assemble and rule themselves.
      4. Certain crimes by Brits in America were to be tried in England by English jurors, not in America by American jurors.
    2. The Quebec Act was also passed in 1774. It was forward-thinking, but ill-timed.
      1. The act's goal was to benefit French-Canadians who now lived in British America. Each part of the act had a reason the Americans disliked it.
      2. The French were guaranteed Catholicism as okay. (Americans saw this as a threat to Protestantism and an extension of the pope's power).
      3. The French could have trials without juries as they were accustomed. (Americans saw this as foreshadowing the removal of trials-by-jury altogether).
      4. The French were allowed to stay in the Ohio Valley. (Americans, despite beating the French in the war, were not allowed to move there per the Proclamation Line of 1763).
  10. Bloodshed
    1. The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia from September to October of 1774.
      1. 12 of the 13 colonies were present (Georgia absent).
      2. The congress did not desire independence, but did (a) draw up a list of grievances (which were ignored by London) and (b) wrote a Declaration of Rights.
      3. Plans were made to convene again in 1775 if the situation didn't change.
    2. The "Shot Heard 'Round the World" in Lexington (April 1775) started the American Revolution.
      1. British soldiers left Boston headed to Concord to capture weapons and troublemakers John Hancock and Sam Adams.
      2. Massachusetts "Minutemen" met the troops on the Lexington green where the first shots were fired.
      3. After stopping the British at the North Bridge in Concord, the British turned back. The minutemen struck at the British from behind rocks and trees (Indian-style) the whole way back, killing 1/2 of the redcoats.
      4. With Lexington, the American Revolution had begun.
  11. Imperial Strength and Weaknesses
    1. Britain had great advantages.
      1. They had (a) 7.5 million people to America's 2 million, (b) a powerful navy, and (c) wealth in hard money.
      2. With their money, they also hired Hessians (German mercenary soldiers). These troops were added to about 50,000 British regulars who were well-trained, well-equipped. Also, there were an estimated 50,000 LoyalistAmericans.
    2. Britain had a few disadvantages.
      1. There were international troubles: (a) problems in Ireland required the attention of British troops and (b) France was just waiting for a chance to get back at England.
      2. Many British didn't wish to fight and kill the Americans. William Pitt even removed his son from the army on this point.
      3. British officers were not the best, the men were mistreated, the war was to be fought an ocean away, and supplies would often run low.
  12. American Pluses and Minuses
    1. The Americans had only a few advantages, but they proved to be worthy ones.
      1. Leadership for America was terrific with George Washington as general and Ben Franklin as diplomat.
      2. France lent aid, secretly at first and then openly. Support came in the form of money, guns, supplies, and then troops and a navy.
        1. Marquis de Lafayette, 19 years old, was the most famous of the French officers.
      3. The Americans fought only on the defensive meaning they just had to hold the land. The British had to actually conquer land.
      4. The typical American soldier was more accustomed to the country and straight-shooting.
      5. They felt they were fighting for a cause—freedom. The British fought because they were ordered to do so.
      6. Geography proved to be perhaps the largest advantage for the Americans. The British were 3,000 miles away, had to conquer a vast country, and there was no central capital in American on which to focus their attacks. The Americans employed a "drawn game"—fight, backup, live to fight another day, and therefore not lose!
    2. America had real disadvantages.
      1. The people were split into three groups: Patriots, moderates, and Loyalists (AKA Tories).
      2. There were sectional rivalries evidenced by the appointment of military officers.
      3. The lack of money was a real problem. America printed "Continental" paper money, which quickly became worthless.
      4. America's financial help would come from France, but they'd have to deal with the powerful British naval blockade.
      5. America had essentially no navy at all.
      6. On paper, America should not win the war.
  13. A Thin Line of Heroes
    1. The American army struggled throughout the war in many respects…
      1. Supplies were scarce: clothing, wool, wagons, etc. And worse, money was scarce meaning these things couldn't just be purchased.
      2. Training was quick, spotty, and often poor. Desertion was common.
        1. Training was greatly improved by Baron von Steuben a Prussian drillmaster who whipped the American soldiers into shape.
    2. African-Americans also served and fought in the war.
      1. At the war's outset, blacks were sometimes barred from service. By the end of the war, over 5,000 African-Americans served.
      2. Blacks also fought for the British. This was especially appealing because Lord Dunmore (royal governor of Virginia) announced freedom for any slave that agreed to fight for the British.
        1. 1,400 blacks were relocated to either Jamaica, Nova Scotia, or England after the war.
    3. Apathy and division within America hurt the fight for the cause.
      1. Many people lived so remotely that they had no interest in a war with a nation an ocean away. This seemed to have no bearing on a frontier farmer grubbing stumps out of the forest and raising crops to feed himself.
      2. Merchants liked to sell to the British because the Brits paid in gold, not worthless paper money.
      3. The American Revolution was a "minority war" in the sense that it was only because a select few threw themselves into the cause with passion that the Americans won.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

  1. Congress Drafts George Washington
    1. 20,000 fired-up militiamen swarmed the Boston area following the first shots at Lexington and Concord. The British redcoats were outnumbered.
    2. Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress met in May 1775 in Philadelphia to address the worsening situation. As with the first Congress, calmer minds prevailed and there was no vote (yet) for independence. The plan was to stay with the king (with some changes). Leaving no stone unturned, their actions took the direction of both pursuing peace and preparing for war. Their actions were to…
      1. Re-send a second list of grievances to the king. Hopes were that he'd have a change of heart and change his ways.
      2. Took measures to raise money for an army and navy.
      3. Appointed George Washington as general of the continental army.
        1. Washington had never been promoted higher than a colonel, but he looked the part and would instill confidence and boost morale.
        2. Washington was of the highest character: patient, courageous, self-disciplined, fair, and religious.
        3. He accepted no pay but kept an expense account instead of over $100,000.
  2. Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings
    1. The war's early-going was contradictory. On one hand, the colonists were still pledging loyalty to the king. On the other hand, they were taking up arms against the crown.
    2. The war's pace quickly stepped up.
      1. In May 1775 Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold led the Green Mountain Boys of Vermont in surprise victories over the redcoats at Ft. Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
        1. The importance of this raid lay in the fact that the colonists captured much-needed cannons and gunpowder.
      2. In June 1775 the Americans too Bunker Hill in Boston. The British launched a foolish frontal assault and eventually won a Pyrrhic victory, but the American troops fought well and proved to themselves that they could go toe-to-toe with British regulars.
    3. Still, the Continental Congress sought peace and reconciliation with the king. They sent the "Olive Branch Petition" to London. It pledged loyalty and asked for peace. After Bunker Hill, King George III had decided peace was out.
    4. George III took action by (a) formerly declaring the colonies in rebellion and (b) hiring thousands of German soldiers (called "Hessians" by the Americans) to fight the war.
  3. The Abortive Conquest of Canada
    1. The redcoats burnt Falmouth (Portland), Maine (Oct. 1775).
    2. Meanwhile, the Americans decided to attack Canada. This proved to be a mistake because…
      1. The Americans misjudged the French Canadians, thinking the French hated the British and would revolt too.
      2. The Americans had argued they were only defending their land. In Canada, they were trying to win colony #14.
      3. The Americans lost.
        1. Gen. Richard Montgomery marched north along the Lake Champlain route toward Quebec, and was met by Benedict Arnold and men, weary from the grueling trip. In the battle (Dec. 1775), Montgomery would be killed, Arnold wounded, and their men scattered.
        2. Arnold and his men had to retreat up the St. Lawrence River. The French-Canadians were in no mood to welcome the Americans.
    3. By 1776, Americans still held onto the desire to stay with England, but events began to occur quickly…
      1. The English burnt Norfolk, VA (Jan. 1776).
      2. The British were forced out of Boston in March (it's still celebrated as "Evacuation Day").
      3. The colonists won two southern battles: (a) Feb. at Moore's Creek Bridge in North Carolina versus 1,500 loyalists and (b) June versus an attacking English fleet at Charleston harbor.
  4. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense
    1. The events of early 1776 were making Americans reconsider their loyalty to the king.
    2. Then came Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense that urged American independence.
      1. He argued that in the physical world, the smaller body never ruled the larger one.
      2. He had no respect for the king and called him the "Royal Brute of Great Britain."
      3. Paine wrote plainly and convincingly and said the time had come to break away, it was just common sense.
  5. Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism” This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Common Sense was radical in 2 ways: (a) it called for independence and (b) it called for building a republic, something that'd never been done.
      1. A republic is a government where the people elect representatives to rule for them. Power rests with the people (and their votes).
      2. The ancient Greeks and even the British had a form of a republic yet had differences (Greek cities were small and Britain had a half republic with the king). The American republic would be the largest ever, and therefore the first for a nation.
      3. Paine's idea of a republic were well-liked by Americans.
        1. The prior acts by the king were certainly not popular—casting him off their backs sounded great.
        2. The Americans, New Englanders especially, had long been practicing some form of self-government.
    2. Some Americans were skeptical of turning power over to the people. They felt the people were unable to rule and wanted a "natural aristocracy" to run the government. This group was generally from the wealthier, more conservative classes.
  6. Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence
    1. The 2nd Continental Congress decided on independence.
      1. Richard Henry Lee made a motion for independence on June 7, 1776. It passed on July 2, 1776.
    2. A formal statement of America's independence was needed though.
      1. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.
        1. The declaration was written in a grand style.
        2. It could be broken down into four parts: (1) a preamble or introduction, (2) a statement of rights, (3) a list of grievances, and (4) a statement of separation.
        3. The "statement of rights" (based on John Locke's "natural rights") might be the most important. It included "unalienable rights" (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) and that "all men are created equal."
    3. The Declaration made things clear: (a) the Americans were no longer loyal to the king but were rebels, (b) it opened the door for foreign help, and (c) the Americans had to win the war else face punishment for treason (death).
  7. Patriots and Loyalists
    1. Americans were not united in the revolution. Generally, there were 4 groups…
      1. Patriots (also called "Whigs") supported the war for independence.
      2. About 16% were Loyalists (also called "Tories") and supported the British.
      3. Moderates were in the middle and on the fence. These people might have sympathies with the rebels but still hold hope that America could stay with Britain without war. This group had been the largest, but dwindled as events unfolded and Common Sense came out.
      4. The apathetic (or people that just didn't care) because they felt politics either way had no bearing on their lives. Notably, there were also "profiteers" who sold whatever they could to whomever they could just to make money.
    2. The British could only hold areas where they could maintain a massive military presence (the coastline). The rebels did well on the interior or backwoods of the country. Rebels also harassed the British with guerrilla tactics when the redcoats tried to march into the frontier.
    3. A typical Loyalist (Tory)
      1. Loyalists were usually from conservative families. Families were split by the war however, such as Ben Franklin opposing his illegitimate son William, New Jersey's last royal governor.
      2. Loyalists were usually from richer, aristocratic families, such as in Charleston, SC.
      3. Loyalists were strong in the areas that the Anglican Church was strong (the South). They were weaker in areas that Congregationalism and Presbyterianism was strong (New England).
    4. A typical Patriot
      1. Patriots were generally from the younger generation, such as ringleaders Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry.
      2. Patriots largely lived in areas where the Anglican Church (Church of England) was weak. The Patriots were Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, or Methodist.
      3. Patriots, generally, were inland and away from the coast (since the coast and harbors were the links back to England).
  8. The Loyalist Exodus
    1. Before the Declaration of Independence, harassment of the Loyalists was rather mild—tarring-and-feathering and the like.
    2. After the Declaration, the Americans stepped up their efforts aimed at Loyalists who were considered traitors.
      1. Loyalists were "roughed up," imprisoned, and a few were hanged.
      2. Most Loyalists (about 80,000) got out of town. This meant leaving behind everything they owned. Their lands were quickly confiscated by the Americans and sold to raise money for the war.
    3. An estimated 50,000 Loyalists served the British in the war as soldiers. They also spied and incited the Indians. Despite their contributions to the king's side, the British under-used these Loyalists.
  9. General Washington at Bay
    1. After evacuating Boston, the British tuned to New York as their base of operations.
      1. A huge British fleet arrived at New York.
      2. Gen. Washington's 18,000 men were outnumbered and in trouble. Losses followed in the summer of 1776…
        1. Washington and men were pushed off of Long Island (avoiding near-capture when a fog bank rolled in).
        2. He lost in Brooklyn, Harlem Heights, and White Plains before turning southward.
        3. He "set up camp" in Pennsylvania, along the Delaware River, for the winter. Things looked grim.
      3. But, Washington had a couple of more tricks up his sleeve.
        1. On December 26, 1776, he crossed the icy Delaware River and surprised the Hessian soldiers at Trenton.
          1. This was a key battle in that (a) it was America's first victory and (b) it boosted morale.
        2. A second victory was scored one week later. Troops left their campfires burning as a ruse and won at Princeton.
          1. Now, the Americans could settle in for the winter on a positive note. Though the colonists were not doing great, the British had not won.
  10. Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion
    1. During the winter, London came up with a second plan to defeat the colonists. It was a more detailed plan. Its focus would be in New England and its goal would be to divide the colonies. The plan had 3 parts…
      1. Col. Barry St. Leger would move from Lake Erie eastward along the Mohawk River.
      2. Gen. Burgoyne would descend from Montreal southward on Lake Champlain.
      3. Gen. Howe would drive men northward from New York up the Albany River. They'd all 3 meet at Albany, NY.
    2. On paper, it was a good plan. In reality, it had problems.
      1. Benedict Arnold was the first problem. He and his men had lingered around after their defeat in Quebec. The British tried to take Lake Champlain but Arnold threw together a rag-tag flotilla. His flotilla was wiped out, but he bought critical time by delaying the British attack to the following spring.
      2. The second problem was the terrain. Burgoyne could draw lines on a map easily, but marching thousands of troops through upstate New York was not so easy. His men bogged down and supplies ran low.
      3. The third problem was that St. Leger's detachment lost at Oriskany and was turned back. One third of the plan was out right there.
      4. The final problem was that Gen. Howe had other plans. He decided to scratch the master-plan and do his own thing. He headed south (not north) to engage Gen. Washington in Philadelphia.
    3. Meanwhile, back in Pennsylvania…
      1. Howe beat Washington in battles at Brandywine Creek and at Germantown.
      2. Washington's troops camped for the winter at Valley Forge. Morale was very low with bitter cold, low rations, and high desertion. On the plus side, Prussian drillmaster Baron von Steuben whipped the troops into shape during that winter. They were changing from rag-tag militia to professional soldiers.
      3. Gen. Howe settled into Philadelphia for the winter with his mistress to enjoy the city-life. Ben Franklin quipped that Howe hadn't captured Philadelphia, but that Philadelphia had captured Howe.
    4. The Battle of Saratoga was perhaps the most critical battle of the war.
      1. Burgoyne's 7,000 troops arrived at the site of the planned battle tired and weary. He was alone, the other 2/3 of the plan didn't arrive.
      2. He had no choice but to surrender on Oct. 17, 1777.
      3. Saratoga was the turning point in the war because (a) it was truly a major victory in military terms, (b) it gave a huge boost to colonial morale, and (c) most importantly, it convinced France that America might actually have a chance to win and to openly aid America.
  11. Revolution in Diplomacy?
    1. A political marriage was ripe—American needed help and France was eager to exact revenge on Britain.
    2. The Continental Congress sent delegates to France. They were guided by a "Model Treaty" that sought "1. No political connection…. 2. No military connection…. 3. Only a commercial connection."
      1. Ben Franklin played the diplomacy game by wearing simple gray clothes and a coonskin cap to supposedly exemplify a raw new America.
    3. After the surprising loss at Saratoga, the ballgame was different.
      1. London was in the giving mood. They offered to give the colonists everything they desired, except independence.
      2. Paris was in a friendly mood. Ben Franklin played France's fears of the English, hinting that America and England might actually get back together.
        1. Franklin got a deal done. In a Franco-American Treaty (1778) (a) France formally joined America in the war and (b) recognized American independence, but (c) also pledged to a military alliance (going against the Model Treaty and something America would come to regret).
        2. This was America's first example of idealistic principles being overruled by practicalities of a situation.
  12. The Colonial War Becomes a Wider War
    1. Like a spider web, the war networked and grew, mostly aligned against England.
      1. In 1778, England and France went to war.
      2. In 1779, Holland and Spain joined the war against England. The French/Spanish navy outnumbered the British.
      3. In 1780, Russia (led by Catherine the Great) formed the "Armed Neutrality" which linked up the neutral nations in a grudge against England. Countries were present from Russia, to South America, the Caribbean, and Asia.
    2. The Americans had managed to keep the war going up to 1778 and now England was against the ropes. The struggle in America was becoming secondary.
    3. Strategy was also changed by France's joining the war.
      1. Perhaps the greatest military asset the French gave America was its navy.
      2. The British naval blockade was now not to be taken for granted. To shorten supply lines, the British evacuated Philadelphia to focus on New York.
        1. The Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey took place as the redcoats left Philly. It was scorching-hot (sunstroke was common), an indecisive battle, and moved Gen. Washington's to New York as well.
  13. Blow and Counterblow
    1. 6,000 French soldiers arrived in Newport, RI under command of Comte de Rochambeau. Though here on friendly terms, there were sometimes scuffles between American and French soldiers. They eventually starting getting along.
    2. Morale took a big hit when Benedict Arnold traded sides to the British.
      1. Arnold felt underappreciated in America and sought a higher rank and money from England.
      2. He planned to sell out the stronghold at West Point but the plan was foiled at the last minute. Washington asked, "Whom can we trust now?"
    3. Meanwhile, the British planned to attack the South.
      1. The Brits settled into Savannah, GA and Charleston, SC to prepare for the battles.
      2. The war turned ugly here. The Americans fought guerilla style, thrashing at British supply lines. The most famous was Francis Marion (the "Swamp Fox") who'd attack then disappear with his men into the swamps.
        1. Neighbors on opposing sides fought each other as well in ruthless engagements.
      3. Battles ran through the Carolinas. The redcoats won at Camden over Horatio Gates (the American hero at Saratoga). Then the Americans won at King's Mountain and at Cowpens.
        1. American Gen. Nathaneal Greene (the "Fighting Quaker") employed a strategy of delay where he stood, fought, retreated, and kept sucking Gen. Charles Cornwallis deeper into enemy territory. Greene eventually exhausted Cornwallis' troops.
  14. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier
    1. 1777 was called "the bloody year" on the frontier when the British paid Indians for scalps.
      1. Indian tribes chose sides, the Oneida and Tuscarora with the Americans, but most sided with the English.
      2. Chief Joseph Brant savagely attacked American settlements. He was a convert to Anglicanism and struck at Pennsylvania and New York for two years until stopped in 1779.
      3. In 1779, the 4 pro-British tribes of the Iroquois were forced to sign the Treaty of Ft. Stanwix. This was the first American—Indian treaty, and in it, the Indians forfeited most of their land.
    2. The American west was busy during the war.
      1. People still moved there. Kentucky towns were named after the revolution: Lexington (after the battle) and Louisville (after the French king).
      2. Frontiersman George Rogers Clark decided to surprise attack the British forts scattered throughout the west.
        1. He floated down the Ohio River and quickly took forts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes.
        2. Many believe that Clark's actions helped win land all the way west to the Mississippi River (instead of just to the Appalachian Mtns.).
    3. The fight on water took two forms…
      1. The upstart American navy was laying its own foundation. It never really competed with the British navy, but harassed their shipping lines. John Paul Jones was the most well-known naval leader.
      2. Privateers were essentially legal pirates and made an even larger dent in the British navy. These were privately owned boats/ships that fought for hire. Their motives were patriotism and profit. They would capture British ships and pirate whatever they could take.
  15. Yorktown and the Final Curtain
    1. Just before the decisive victory of the war, America was struggling.
      1. Inflation ran rampant and it was announced that debts would only be partially repaid at the rate of 2.5 cents on the dollar.
      2. Morale sunk and any notion of unity sunk.
    2. Meanwhile, things were pointing to the Chesapeake Bay.
      1. Cornwallis moved his men there to get more supplies via the British navy.
      2. The French navy however, moved in and sealed off the Bay.
      3. Gen. Washington and Rochambeau saw the chance and moved their troops in to seal off the peninsula.
        1. At Yorktown, Cornwallis was trapped and surrendered. This was the final major battle.
    3. Lord North exclaimed "Oh God! It's all over! It's all over!" when he heard the news.
    4. But, fighting still trickled on for over a year.
  16. Peace at Paris
    1. The English had been fighting and taking losses in India, the West Indies, the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean Sea, and the Rock of Gibraltar, and America, of course. They were tired of war.
    2. The Americans sent a peace-seeking delegation to Paris in Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay.
      1. The three were told to not make a separate peace with England but to always consult first with France. John Jay was suspicious of France however.
        1. France wanted America independent, but also weak, ideally cooped up east of the Allegheny Mountains.
        2. Jay secretly contacted London to seek peace. The British quickly worked out a deal behind France's back.
    3. The Treaty of Paris, 1783 ended the American Revolution. Its terms were…
      1. England recognized American independence all the way to the Mississippi River.
      2. America retained some fishing rights in Newfoundland.
      3. The American Loyalists were to be treated fairly and Congress was to recommend to the states that the land that had been taken from the Loyalists was to be returned. (The lands never did return to the Loyalists though).
  17. A New Nation Legitimized
    1. America did better than might be expected in the outcome of the war.
      1. Even though George Rogers Clark had won victories west of the Appalachians, they were somewhat small victories. Still, Britain was trying to woo America away from France. For this reason, Britain ceded a considerable quantity of land.
      2. Also, it happened that the pro-American Whigs were in control of Parliament at the time of the treaty.
    2. France cautiously gave their approval to the treaty.
    3. Without question, the stars were shining on America.
  18. Makers of America: The Loyalists
    1. The American Loyalists normally came from well-educated, conservative stock. They worried that a clean break from England would cause America to spiral into anarchy or mob-rule.
      1. Many Loyalists were Brits who'd settled in America just after the Seven Years' War. They weren't ready to completely toss their home country away.
    2. There were thousands of black Loyalists.
      1. Many signed on with the British army in hopes of gaining freedom.
      2. Some were betrayed by this promise. In one instance, Cornwallis left 4,000 slaves in Virginia. In a worse instance, a shipload of blacks expecting to sail to freedom instead sailed back into slavery.
      3. Other blacks moved to England but they often struggled to fit in and gain acceptance.
    3. The American view of the Loyalists was not flattering.
      1. Loyalists were viewed as traitors to America (just as the Americans were viewed as traitors to the crown).
        1. They were arrested, exiled, their property confiscated, and rights taken away. Some 80,000 Loyalists simply left America.
      2. There were "success stories."
        1. Hugh Gaine, a New York printer, re-established his business and eventually won government printing contracts.
        2. Most Loyalists simply readjusted themselves and survived. They usually became supporters of the Federalist party that wished for a stronger central government. This was their transition from English to American.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

  1. The Pursuit of Equality
    1. American Revolution was not a sudden radical change. Rather it was an accelerated evolution.
    2. Separation of church and state began. The "high-church" Anglican Church was disestablished (it stopped receiving tax money) although the Congregational Church continued is established status. The Anglican Church also became known as the Episcopal Church in order to distance itself from its English roots.
      1. To a large degree, life went on as usual—work, church, play.
      2. A change occurred in that with 80,000 Loyalists gone, a large chunk of the conservative wing was absent.
    3. "Equality" was the buzzword of the day.
      1. With many conservatives gone, the door was opened for more equality-minded folks to rule.
      2. Commoners wanted to be called "Mr." and "Mrs.", titles once reserved for the elite.
      3. Slavery and equality were obviously at odds with one another. The beginnings of the anti-slavery movement were gaining steam.
        1. The Continental Congress of 1774 had called for the abolition of slavery.
        2. The Quakers founded the first abolition society in 1775, the world's first.
        3. Caught up in the equality movement, some slave owners were moved to free their slaves.
      4. Women gained little by the equality movement. There were small steps however…
        1. A few women served in the war disguised as men.
        2. The New Jersey constitution permitted women to vote for a while.
        3. The notion of "republican motherhood" developed and gave the ladies a great deal of importance. The idea went that the women raised the children and therefore held great power and responsibility with the future of the republic in their hands.
  2. Constitution Making in the States
    1. The 1776 Continental Congress called for each colony to write their own constitution and thus move from colony to state.
    2. Massachusetts gave America a "Constitutional Convention." It was a special meeting where the constitution was written, sent to the people for ratification (vote of approval), and could then only be changed by another Constitutional Convention.
    3. Many of the new constitutions shared similarities…
      1. They were written documents and thus unchanging without a formal process. Being written, they were not based on a king's whims or on court decisions and common law which may change with the current winds.
      2. They reflected fundamental law. That is to say, they often dealt more in generalities and less in specifics which could be handled by specific laws passed by a state legislature.
      3. Many had a bill of rights.
      4. Many specified annual elections of legislators (this was out of the desire to keep power with the people and from the fear that rulers in power too long grow comfortable and corrupted).
      5. They established weak executive and judicial branches. Again, this was out of the desire to keep power with the people, not with a governor or judges. Thomas Jefferson had warned that "173 despots [in a legislature] would surely be as oppressive as one (a despot is a dictator)."
        1. The legislative branch was often given nearly all of the power.
    4. New state capitals emerged. Many of these new capitals moved westward, or inland, following the westward migration of people. Examples are Manchester, NH; Albany, NY; Charlottesville, VA; Raleigh, NC; Columbia, SC; and Atlanta, GA.
  3. Economic Crosscurrents
    1. Economic changes occurred after the war, but not to a revolutionary degree.
    2. Much of the Loyalist land had been seized and wound up in the hands of the poor. The Loyalists didn't see themselves beheaded however, as happened a few years later in the French Revolution.
    3. The myriad of goods and trade that used to come from England stopped. This both hurt and helped America. It hurt in the short run since England was America's top trade partner. It helped in the long run by forcing American industry to get started.
      1. This beginning of industry is not to be over-stated however. Americans were still by a large margin of around 90%, mostly farmers.
      2. Another benefit of losing trade with England was that America was now open to trade with any other country she wished.
        1. Trade began with the Baltic region of Northern Europe and with China, led by the Empress of China hauling the herb ginseng.
    4. Despite the good, the infant America had serious economic troubles.
      1. A haughty crowd of war profiteers had been established which wasn't good for "economic morale."
      2. The war had run up a large debt and inflation.
      3. There was a large class of poor, the stability of the Loyalist class had been shaken, and the new rich were flashy and not trusted.
  4. A Shaky Start Toward Union This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. There were obstacles to building the nation.
      1. Tearing down a nation was easy; but to build a new one and run it was much more difficult.
      2. Unity existed largely only on paper. There was a deep desire by many states to keep to themselves rather than join a union that would rule over them.
      3. The spirits of patriotism, freedom, and independence all worked against unity rather than for it.
    2. England waged something of an economic war.
      1. The Brits began to flood the American market with goods at slashed prices.
      2. This struck hard at the infantile American industries that couldn't compete price-wise.
    3. America did have a few things going for it in terms of unity.
      1. The 13 colonies did share roughly the same type of state governments and a rich and similar political tradition.
      2. America was blessed with leaders of the highest quality like Washington, Adams, Madison, Jefferson, and Hamilton.
  5. Creating a Confederation
    1. The new states chose a confederation as their first government—a loose union of states where a federal and state level exist, yet the state level retains the most sovereignty to rule as they saw fit.
      1. As an example, many states minted their own money and set up their own taxes on imports. (These differences later proved to be problematic).
    2. The Articles of Confederation (1777) became the United States' first government. All 13 states needed to approve the articles for them to begin.
    3. A snag in the approval process came up with the western lands and the question of who owned them.
      1. Virginia and New York (and others) had large claims from earlier years over the lands west of the Appalachians.
      2. To make matters worse, many of these claims overlapped one another. Which state would own the land?
      3. Maryland had no land west of the mountains and thought it unfair that some states would get the new lands and be able to profit from them. Hadn't Maryland fought the war just as Virginia had? they reasoned. Maryland withheld their vote.
    4. The compromise that came about said no state would own the land but the new U.S. would.
      1. Eventually, New York backed off on its claim and Virginia did too.
        1. Congress promised to use the western lands for the good of the "common benefit." Eventually, this would become the Northwest Ordinance where these lands were divided and sold cheaply.
      2. All 13 states had ratified it by 1781 when Maryland did so and it went into effect.
      3. This situation also became an important bond of unity for the infant nation.
  6. The Articles of the Confederation: America’s First Constitution
    1. The main thing to know regarding the Articles is that it set up a very weak government. This was not by accident, but by plan. The reason a weak government was desired was simply to avoid a strong national government that would take away unalienable rights or abuse its power (i.e. England). The weaknesses included…
      1. There was no executive branch (this would be too much like a king).
      2. Congress was weak. Its members were elected annually, a 2/3 vote was needed on important issues, a unanimous vote was needed for amendments (these meant Congress members couldn't get comfortable in office and would have a hard time passing laws).
      3. Congress had restrictions. It couldn't raise a military. It couldn't levy taxes. It couldn't regulate commerce.
        1. The inability to regulate taxes and commerce led states to form their own tax laws and print their own money. This situation became crippling to the nation as a whole.
    2. The Articles of Confederation did provide some benefits…
      1. It did take the next step toward national unity and a step toward forming the U.S. Constitution. Oddly, it did this by being so weak and showing what was needed in the new constitution.
      2. They were a necessary intermediary between complete state independence and the U.S. Constitution. With the Articles in the middle, many states would never have made that jump.
  7. Landmarks in Land Laws
    1. The Land Ordinance of 1785 answered the question, "How will the new lands in the Ohio Valley be divided up?"
      1. This law surveyed the lands and divided it into squares to be sold.
        1. A section was 1 mile by 1 mile (1 sq. mile, or 640 acres). A township was 6 miles by 6 miles (36 sq. miles, or 36 sections). Each section was numbered and could be sub-divided for sale.
        2. Section #16 was reserved for a school. Either the school was built there or its proceeds went to pay for the school. This measure was a landmark for public education in the U.S.
      2. The standard going-price for land was $1 per acre.
    2. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 answered the question, “How will new states be made once people move out there?”
      1. This law said the territory-to-statehood process would go through stages…
        1. Stage 1 — the land was a territory meaning it was simply land owned by the U.S.
        2. Stage 2 — call it "application status". Once a territory got 60,000 inhabitants they could write a state constitution then send it to Congress for approval.
        3. Stage 3 — statehood (if Congress approved the constitution).
      2. This process laid out by the Northwest Ordinance worked very well for many years and for many states to join the nation.
  8. The World’s Ugly Duckling
    1. As a new nation, America struggled in its relations with other countries.
    2. Relations with England had several issues…
      1. There was no trade with England. The British would not repeal the Navigation Laws with their restrictions believing America would crawl back to trade on British terms anyway.
        1. The only British "trade" came via American smugglers who were up to their old ways.
      2. The British were up to trickery along the American frontier.
        1. The British connived with disgruntled Ethan Allen and brothers to possibly get Vermont back to England.
        2. Though they were supposed to leave, the British retained several trade posts along the American frontier. They said this was to reclaim losses to Loyalists, but…
        3. More likely, the posts were to be bases to stir up Indian discontent against the Americans.
    3. There were issues with Spain…
      1. The Spanish closed off the mouth of the Mississippi River. This was a serious threat to the trans-Appalachian states which needed the river to export goods.
      2. The Spanish laid claim to parts of Florida (today's Mississippi and Alabama).
      3. The Spanish also stirred up the Indians against the Americans.
    4. There were issues with France…
      1. The French were not as friendly now that England had been humbled. The French wanted their debts paid by America.
    5. There were issues in North Africa…
      1. North African pirates, notably the Dey of Algiers, robbed American ships. The British had paid tribute (or "bully money") and America had enjoyed that coverage. On her own, America was too weak to fight and too poor to pay. This was an embarrassment.
  9. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
    1. In a confederation (like the Articles) states are free to do as they please. Things quickly got out of hand.
      1. States feuded over boundaries.
      2. States taxed other states.
      3. States printed their own paper money.
    2. Shays' Rebellion (1786) rocked the nation with a wake-up call.
      1. Daniel Shays’ was disgruntled over difficulties involving farmland mortgages. (Notably, the inability to get land is the same motivation for rebellion as Bacon’s Rebellion back in 1676 in Virginia. And, the desire for land was also the motivator of the Paxton Boys in Pennsylvania in 1764.)
      2. He and friends staged a take-over in parts of Massachusetts. He was stopped, arrested, convicted, sentenced to death, but pardoned.
      3. The importance of Shays’ Rebellion can't be understated. It was that the fear of such violence lived on and paranoia motivated folks to desire a stronger federal government.
    3. The Articles themselves began to be questioned.
      1. The problems listed above were real and seemed in no hurry to leave.
      2. The idea of republican democracy where the people select rulers came into question. Could the common person really be responsible enough to rule? Or, would things simply deteriorate into a "mobocracy" like Shays' Rebellion?
      3. Some people thought the Articles simply needed some strengthening to make them work.
    4. The situation actually did begin to improve by 1787, especially in terms of increased trade and states cutting back on printing paper money.
  10. A Convention of “Demigods”
    1. A meeting was called in Annapolis, Maryland to strengthen the Articles.
      1. They wished to mainly address the issues of money, especially commerce.
      2. 9 states were invited but only 5 states arrived which was not a quorum (enough to hold a meeting). They did agree to meet again.
    2. The next meeting became known as the "Constitutional Convention" when the U.S. Constitution was written.
      1. 55 delegates met in Philadelphia in May of 1787. 12 of the 13 states were represented (Rhode Island wanted no part of it).
      2. Their goal as laid out by Congress was "the sole and express purpose of revising" the Articles, not to pitch it out and start over (which is what they wound up doing).
      3. Attendance (and non-attendance) at the meeting was of such high quality Jefferson called the delegates "demigods." They could be divided into three categories…
        1. Demigods—George Washington (chairman), Ben Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison.
        2. Revolutionaries overseas were absent from the meeting—Thomas Jefferson (in France on business), John Adams (in England on business), Thomas Paine (in Europe as well).
        3. Patriots who were absent—John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry. These men, especially Adams and Henry, were independent-minded and didn't like the idea of strengthening the government. Their specialty was tearing down governments, not building them up.
  11. Patriots in Philadelphia
    1. The men attending the Constitutional Convention were generally young, aristocratic, and well-educated.
    2. These delegates recognized issues were at hand: the inability to maintain order, "runaway democracy" in various states, and pressure/threats from foreign nations.
    3. Essentially, the problem was that the states had too much freedom or independence; the solution was to strengthen the federal government.
  12. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
    1. Despite their plans for revision only, the Convention delegates tossed out the Articles and began writing an entirely new Constitution.
    2. The most heated conflict was over the question, "How will representation in Congress be decided?"
      1. The "Virginia Plan" (AKA "Large States Plan") proposed that representation would be based on a state's population. They reasoned that the more people a state has, the more representatives they should have in Congress.
      2. The "New Jersey Plan" (AKA "Small States Plan") objected to Virginia saying that if Congress went solely by population, then the small states' votes wouldn't matter since they'd simply be always out-voted. They reasoned that states are equal to one another, regardless of the quantity of people living in them, and therefore states should have an equal vote in Congress.
      3. After much debate and a standstill, the "Great Compromise" was offered. It said that…
        1. Congress would be bicameral (have 2 houses).
        2. The House of Representatives would be based on state population, following the Virginia Plan.
          1. Bills pertaining to taxation would begin in the House.
        3. The Senate would have 2 senators from each state making them equal, following the New Jersey Plan.
          1. The Senate would approve/reject presidential treaties and appointments.
      4. They agreed to have an executive branch (a president). The president would be commander-in-chief of the military, could veto legislation. But, the president (and the other branches) would be held in check through a system of checks-and-balances on power.
      5. The president would be elected by an Electoral College (a group of official presidential voters) rather than by the people. The people were viewed as being too ignorant to elect a president. To be fair, at that time people were less educated and news traveled slowly and without reliability so a voter likely might be ill-informed.
      6. The Three-Fifths Compromise answered the question, "How will slaves be counted when determining a state's population?"
        1. Southern states wanted slaves counted (to gain more votes in Congress) and Northern states did not want to count slaves (to retain more votes in Congress). The compromise agreed to count 3/5 of the slaves as part of the state's population.
      7. The delegates agreed to allow states to halt slave importation after 1807. This measure showed signs of the early anti-slavery movement. But, it was something of a hollow measure—by this time, slavery had become self-sufficient and slave importation wasn't really needed anyway.
  13. Safeguards for Conservatism
    1. The delegates all agreed that a system of checks-and-balances was needed to prevent any one branch from hording too much power. Conservatives also wanted safeguards from the "mobocracy" or mob rule. They put into place such things as…
      1. Federal chief justices were appointed for life, thus creating stability that conservatives liked.
      2. The electoral college created a buffer between the people and the presidency.
      3. Senators were elected by state legislators who were supposedly educated, not by the common people.
      4. Thus, after the American Revolution, the voters actually only voted for 1/2 of 1/3 of the government (only for representatives in the House).
    2. Still, at the base level, power wrested with the people.
    3. By the end of the Constitutional Convention in September of 1887, 42 of the 55 delegates signed it. The others had left in protest or would not sign it.
  14. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists
    1. Once written, the Founding Fathers faced an even tougher task—to get the Constitution ratified by the states. They knew that some states would reject it. They knew that most state legislatures would reject it. So…
      1. The Constitution was sent out to the state conventions where it would be evaluated and voted upon.
      2. At first, there was surprise because a brand new constitution had been written. The people expected a fixed up Articles of Confederation; that was the purpose of the meeting (the convention had been held in strict secrecy).
    2. Two camps emerged in the ratification debate, Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
      1. The Federalists wanted the Constitution ratified.
        1. They wanted a stronger central government to establish and maintain order.
        2. They generally came from the more well-to-do classes, were often former Loyalists, were often property owners, typically lived in the older or coastal areas, and were often Episcopalians.
      2. The Anti-Federalists did not want the Constitution ratified.
        1. They believed it gave too much power to the national government. After all, wasn't that what the American Revolution had been fought over?
        2. They were generally from the less-educated classes, were usually farmers, were believers in states' rights, and normally lived in the frontier areas. They were often Baptists or Methodists.
        3. At their root, the Anti-Federalists felt that the Constitution had been written by and for the aristocratic folks and that it threatened people's independence and freedoms.
          1. Their complaints along these lines were (a) a lack of a bill of rights, (b) the riddance of annual elections, and (c) the formation of a standing army. All of these things could be used against the people.
  15. The Great Debate in the States
    1. The conventions in each state needed delegates. Elections were held.
    2. Four states ratified the Constitution quickly.
    3. Massachusetts voted for the Constitution, but it was a tough race and a close vote. Folks like Sam Adams campaigned against the Constitution thinking it gave too much power to the federal government.
      1. Massachusetts ratified it with the promise that a Bill of Rights would immediately be written and adopted.
      2. Massachusetts was a critical state, kind of a "tipping point." Had the Constitution failed here, it likely would not have been ratified by the other states.
    4. After three more states ratified it, it became active in June of 1788.
    5. The final hold-outs were Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island.
  16. The Four Laggard States
    1. Four states had reservations about adopting the Constitution and held out. But they eventually did ratify it mainly because after 9 states adopted it the Constitution took affect. What would the 4 laggards do, become their own countries? It wasn't practical.
    2. Virginia ratified it in a close vote because New Hampshire was about to adopt the Constitution as state number 9—the number needed to activate it.
    3. New York decided to go with the Constitution due to (a) The Federalist Papers of John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton and (b) the realization that a future on their own was pointless.
    4. Finally, North Carolina and somewhat disgruntled Rhode Island ratified the Constitution and made it unanimous. They were given considerable pressure to do so and also realized to go-it-alone was not productive.
  17. A Conservative Triumph
    1. Like winning the American Revolution where a few patriots had pulled off independence, ratifying the Constitution was a minority victory. This time, the minority was the conservatives.
      1. The patriots were a much more liberal, perhaps radical group. It was now time for the conservatives to pull the pendulum back toward the center.
    2. To ratify the Constitution, an estimated 1/4 of the adult white male population had voted for convention delegates. Most of those voters were landowners.
    3. The conservatives obtained certain measures that eased their minds…
      1. First, a stronger government that could deal with the "mobocracy" such as Shays' Rebellion.
      2. Secondly, the elite or aristocracy had built in certain safeguards to their rule such as the electoral college, permanence of judges, and indirect elections of senators. All of these things meant stability—the number 1 thing on their mind.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

  1. Growing Pains
    1. After 12 years of government-disabling, now America had to begin nation-building. During the Revolutionary time period though, a strong distrust of government had been instilled in people.
    2. The U.S. financial situation was grim.
      1. Revenue was very small yet the debt was mounting due to interest.
      2. Hard (metal) money was scarce and the paper money was worthless.
      3. The financial situation was the number 1 problem the new nation faced.
      4. Still, America was trying to create a democracy on a scale never been done before and make it fly.
    3. The U.S. Constitution went into effect in 1789.
      1. The population was doubling every 20 years. The largest cities in the 1790 census (in order) were Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.
      2. 90% of the people were rural. 5% lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. These folks lived mostly in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio which soon became new states. Vermont became state number 14 in 1791.
    4. Foreigners thought the Americans were rough and crude people due to the primitive pioneer lifestyle.
  2. Washington for President
    1. George Washington was the choice for president.
      1. He was the war hero and the looked the part—6 foot 2 inches, 175 pounds, broad shoulders.
      2. His top attribute was impeccable and highly respected character.
      3. He reluctantly accepted the call to the presidency and was unanimously elected by the electoral college.
    2. Washington made something of a parade route from his Mt. Vernon Virginia home to New York City (the temporary capital) to be sworn in.
      1. He was sworn in on April 30, 1789 on Wall Street.
    3. He quickly established a cabinet. It consisted of…
      1. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
      2. Secretary of the Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
      3. Secretary of War: Henry Knox
  3. The Bill of Rights
    1. The Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights—this deeply bothered several states. They ratified it on the promise that as soon as the new government began, they'd add a Bill of Rights. The government kept its word.
    2. James Madison wrote the Bill of Rights then channeled them through 2/3 of Congress. The next step was to get 3/4 of the states to adopt them. The required number of states ratified the Bill of Rights in 1791.
    3. The Bill of Rights (for history purposes, Amendments 9 and especially 10 are the most important)…
      1. Amendment 1 - Freedom of religion, speech, press, right to peaceful assemble and petition.
      2. Amendment 2 - Right to bear arms.
      3. Amendment 3 - Protection from quartering soldiers in homes.
      4. Amendment 4 - Protection from searches or seizures without a warrant.
      5. Amendment 5 - Right to not testify against one's self and protection from double jeopardy.
      6. Amendment 6 - Guarantee of a proper trial.
      7. Amendment 7 - Guarantee of a jury trial.
      8. Amendment 8 - Protection from excessive bail or fines.
      9. Amendment 9 - Statement that people have rights that are not even listed here. (The "People's Rights Amendment).
      10. Amendment 10 - Statement that any power not granted in the Constitution is left to the states. (The "State's Rights Amendment).
    4. To complete the 3 branches of the government, Congress passed and Pres. Washington signed the Judiciary Act of 1789 that set up the Supreme Court and the Federal Court System.
      1. John Jay then became the first Supreme Court Chief Justice.
      2. With this law, the U.S. government was then fully complete and fully functional.
  4. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit
    1. Hamilton was a brilliant but arrogant fellow that many Americans didn't warm up to. He was born in the British West Indies and loved British institutions, but said he loved America more. Still, he was often accused of being more British than American.
    2. As Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton had to overcome America's top problem…the money-problem (or lack-of-money problem). He'd eventually come up with a 4-part plan to get America on its financial feet. The plan included…
      1. Paying off all debts in full.
      2. A tariff (tax on imports).
      3. A tax on whiskey.
      4. A National Bank.
    3. Paying off the debts…
      1. Hamilton insisted on paying debts in full or at 100% face value in what was called Funding at Par.
        1. Hamilton insisted that Funding at Par was crucial, basically because it would get respect. How could Americans respect their government if they only paid half their debts? Or worse, how would other nations, like France, view America if they paid only a bit?
      2. Hamilton also urged what he called Assumption. In Assumption, the federal government would assume the states' debts, or in other words, the states would simply give their debts over to the federal government. The reason for assuming state debts was to tie the states together in a common endeavor—to jointly pay off the debt.
        1. Massachusetts had a huge debt and liked the idea. Virginia didn't have much of a debt and disliked the idea. A compromise had to be made.
        2. The bargain said that Massachusetts would get the Assumption clause passed. Virginia would see the new national capital on the Potomac River—the site of Washington D.C.
  5. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes
    1. Hamilton was determined to pay the full $75 million debt, plus interest. He felt the debt was actually a good thing since it tied the states together.
    2. The question then became, "How would a poor country pay off the debt?" Hamilton proposed that revenue be made through a tariff (tax on imports).
      1. Hamilton had the long-range vision to see that industry in America would eventually boom. Along with it, trade would grow, and the tariff would earn money.
    3. An excise tax on whiskey was imposed to raise a bit more money. This whiskey tax on 7 cents/gallon hit the whiskey-makers in the backwoods who often used whiskey as money.
  6. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The last part of Hamilton's plan was to create a National Bank to stabilize the economy.
      1. It was modeled after the Bank of England and was to be a private institution but with the government as the major stockholder.
      2. Its purposes would be to (a) store government money, (b) lend to businesses, and (c) print money and thus stabilize currency.
      3. The snag that was hit was the question, "Is this bank Constitutional?" since it was not written into the Constitution. Thomas Jefferson argued against the bank saying it was not.
    2. The National Bank debate…
      1. Thomas Jefferson's point-of-view…
        1. He felt that whatever is not permitted in the Constitution is prohibited. A bank was not in the Constitution.
        2. The bank should be left to the states because that's what Amendment 10 said (any power not listed in the Constitution is reserved to the states).
        3. This point-of-view is called a strict interpretation of the Constitution that said something must specifically be written into the Constitution in black-and-white for it to be legal.
      2. Alexander Hamilton's point-of-view…
        1. he felt that whatever is not prohibited in the Constitution is permitted. The bank wasn't specifically prohibited so it was okay.
        2. He brought up the "Elastic Clause" of Congress (AKA the "Necessary and Proper" Clause) that said Congress has the power to do whatever is necessary and proper to carry out its appointed duties. He reasoned that Congress was given the duty of regulating commerce and collect taxes; to properly do this, a national bank was necessary and proper.
        3. This reliance on the Elastic Clause was also called a "Loose Interpretation" of the Constitution.
      3. In the end, Hamilton won the argument.
        1. The Bank of the United States was started in 1791 with a charter good for 20 years.
        2. It was built in Philadelphia, was to have $10 million worth of capital, and sold out its public stock in only two hours.
  7. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania
    1. The whiskey-makers of the frontier region were upset over Hamilton's tax on whiskey.
      1. They said they’d been unfairly singled out to be taxed.
      2. They cried “taxation without representation” since many were from Tennessee and Kentucky which were not yet states and had no one in Congress.
    2. Things came to head in 1794 when violence broke into the Whiskey Rebellion frontier Pennsylvania.
      1. The question now was, "Is the government strong enough to force someone to obey laws, or can some people just pick and choose the laws they like?"
      2. Pres. Washington responded quickly. He sent 13,000 soldiers to quell the revolt of a couple of hundred. A couple of people were killed but most just fled the scene. The revolt was crushed.
        1. Washington actually got criticism from Anti-Federalists about reacting too strongly. They said he'd used a sledgehammer to crush a gnat.
    3. The lesson of the Whiskey Rebellion was that this new government was strong, unlike the Articles that worried people over Shays' Rebellion.
  8. The Emergence of Political Parties
    1. Hamilton's policies had an unexpected side-effect—they created the two-political party system.
    2. The two initial parties were sometimes called by their leaders' names…the Hamiltonians and the Jeffersonians.
      1. From there, a long series of names and name-changing could roughly be followed down to modern-day Republicans and Democrats.
    3. The Founding Fathers hadn't anticipated multiple political parties. They'd had factions, but those came over an issue, ran their course, then faded. Permanent political parties were something new.
      1. Also, the consensus then was that political parties hurt the situation rather than help because they create dissent, argument, and bog down the government.
      2. It seems however, that having two parties has helped our country simply by always given voters a different choice. If a voter doesn't like the situation in Washington currently, the other party will take opposing views and the voter can vote the new party in. With only one party, there is no 2nd choice.
  9. The Impact of the French Revolution
    1. The American Revolution partially inspired the French Revolution as they figured, "If the Americans can pull it off, why can't we?"
    2. The French Revolution of the 1780s and 90s started innocently enough then grew complicated.
      1. Initially, Americans were very happy to hear of democracy over-throwing a monarchy.
      2. A minority of conservatives were upset over the "mobocracy" and disorder.
      3. In 1792, the French Revolution became more of a world war. In a nutshell, the French Revolution had two arenas: (a) it was a civil war of the French people vs. the French upper classes, but also (b) the French nation vs. nearly every other European nation (the other nations feared similar revolutions in their own countries if the French people pulled it off).
      4. The Revolution went sour when the "Reign of Terror" got out the guillotine and thousands of nobles had their heads chopped off.
    3. The question of how America would respond became a bit trickier. The two brand new political parties had something else to disagree over…
      1. Conservatives (the Federalists) were thoroughly appalled at the treachery.
      2. Liberals like Thomas Jefferson (the Democratic-Republicans) felt that a few nobles' heads were a small price to pay for freedom and democracy.
    4. When England joined the war vs. France, things got even trickier for Americans over two questions…
      1. Whom would the U.S. support, France or England?
      2. How would this affect land holdings over on the North American side of the Atlantic?
  10. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation
    1. The most pressing question was, "Which side would the U.S. support?"
    2. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans said the U.S. should side with France.
      1. Looking at it from the State Dept. perspective, he said the U.S. should side with France because of the Franco-American alliance of 1778. Jefferson said that since France had helped in the American Revolution, it was time to repay the favor.
    3. Hamilton's Federalists said the U.S. should side with England.
      1. Looking at it from the Treasury Dept. perspective, he said siding with the British would be economically advantageous to the young American nation.
    4. Pres. Washington got to make the call. He sided with neither and said that America would stay neutral. This decision well illustrates the emerging American policy of acting in self-interest.
      1. He simply took a practical perspective—the U.S. was too young to get into a huge war. It would be too destructive to a nation just getting its feet settled underneath it.
      2. Washington gave his "Neutrality Proclamation" in 1793. It stated America's neutral position and urged Americans to think and act that way.
        1. Though neutral, it was really a victory for Hamilton/Federalists/England who all liked the decision.
        2. France and the Democratic-Republicans were thoroughly upset and felt the U.S. had betrayed the Franco-American treaty.
          1. An offshoot of the decision was the action of French Citizen Edmond Genêt. He came to Charleston, SC and thought Washington's decision didn't reflect the American people's views. He foolishly thought the Americans would rise up and somehow overturn the neutrality or government. Washington had him replaced.
          2. France actually might've been helped by the neutrality since that prevented a British naval blockade and enabled American foodstuffs to go to France.
          3. And, technically speaking, America didn't have to honor the Franco-American alliance because France didn't call upon it to honor it.
  11. Embroilments with Britain
    1. A couple of issues with England weren't going away, but were actually growing…
    2. England still had several frontier posts in America to trade furs and create an Indian buffer to the Americans. This bothered the Americans but they put up with it.
      1. A turning point came with Gen. "Mad" Anthony Wayne who led the Army in defeat of the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in August of 1794.
        1. When the smoke cleared from the battlefield it became clear that the Indians had been using English guns. This was too much.
        2. In 1795 the Indians signed (half signed, half forced-to-sign) the Treaty of Grenville where the Indians surrendered much of the Ohio Valley.
    3. A second problem was occurring in the Caribbean with the British Navy.
      1. The British Navy was at war there with France, but also harassed American ships. The Royal Navy seized about 300 U.S. ships and impressed (or kidnapped) many U.S. sailors.
      2. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans were furious. They wanted to either go to war with England or at least halt trade with them. Calmer Hamiltonians (Federalists) stayed the course of neutrality. War would do the infant U.S. no good.
  12. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
    1. Pres. Washington didn't want war and in 1794 he sent John Jay to England to smooth things over.
      1. Strangely though, Alexander Hamilton had undermined Jay's mission. Hamilton had given the British Jay's bargaining strategy so Jay was one step behind already.
      2. The results of the "Jay's Treaty" were not the best for America…
        1. The U.S. would have to pay off its debts to England from pre-Revolution days.
        2. The British would leave the American frontier posts. (This was a hollow promise since they'd already given that promise 20 years prior, to John Jay none-the-less!).
        3. England said they'd pay for damages during impressment. (But they said nothing about stopping future impressment. This was the number 1 complaint!).
        4. War was avoided. (This was the only good thing the U.S. got, was the top goal at the meeting, and Jay returned to America feeling successful).
    2. The reaction of Americans to Jay's Treaty was harsh.
      1. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans especially hated the treaty. They felt that the U.S. just laid down and surrendered to England.
      2. They felt that southern farmers would have to pay the debt, but northern merchants would collect the impressment payments. Jay’s effigy (a dummy representing him) was burnt in the streets.
    3. The next year, a second treaty emerged that was good for the U.S.—the Pinckney Treaty with Spain.
      1. Spain looked at the Jay's Treaty and thought the U.S. was "buddying up" to England. So, Spain wished to give a little good will to America to keep relations friendly.
      2. The Pinckney Treaty (1795) gave Americans (a) the right to travel down and out the Mississippi River and (b) the disputed area of Florida.
    4. Pres. Washington could've run for a third term, but instead he stepped down saying two terms was enough. He gave a Farewell Address and warned…
      1. America should avoid political parties (as he thought them to be divisive).
      2. America should avoid "permanent alliances" with other nations and simply make decisions independently and in America's own best interest.
  13. John Adams Becomes President
    1. Even though George Washington warned of political parties, his policies and decisions would've made him a Federalist. Alexander Hamilton, being the leader of the Federalists, would seem to be the next-in-line. But, his policies and arrogance had made him too many rivals. He was passed up for someone with fewer enemies.
    2. John Adams was nominated by the Federalists for president in 1796.
    3. The Democratic-Republicans (who were now going by just "Republicans") nominated their leader, Thomas Jefferson.
    4. Adams won the electoral vote 71 to 68. Jefferson came in as runner-up and thus became Vice-President (that was the system then).
    5. So, Adams became president in an uncomfortable situation…
      1. He was something of a "cold fish" New Englander—stuffy, stern, crusty, bookish, stubborn.
      2. He had a vice-president from a totally different political party.
      3. Hamilton hated him. Hamilton headed up the "High Federalists" and sometimes plotted to undermine Adams.
      4. And, the situation with France was only one step shy of busting into war.
  14. Unofficial Fighting with France
    1. France was still fuming mad over the Neutrality Proclamation and Jay's Treaty.
    2. French warships began seizing some 300 American ships in the Caribbean Sea. In practical terms, an unofficial war existed there.
    3. Many Americans became hyper for war. Adams stayed cool. Like Washington, Adams felt that a war would just stunt the new nation.
    4. Adams sent delegates to France to smooth things over. This became known as the XYZ Affair.
      1. Their main goal: avoid war. The U.S. delegates were officially rejected by France.
      2. Then undercover, Mr. "X", "Y", and "Z" made a secret offer. If the U.S. delegates issued an apology from Pres. Adams, gave France a loan, and gave the men a bribe, then the Americans would be allowed to speak with the French official Talleyrand.
      3. The American delegates refused this lop-sided deal and just came home.
      4. The American people cheered the delegates for not giving in (like John Jay) and called for war with more passion.
    5. The unofficial war in the Caribbean kept on and stepped up. American ships captured over 80 French ships. American ships were also lost. It was really a free-for-all on the high seas where a ship did whatever it wished.
  15. Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party
    1. France also let calmer minds prevail. Talleyrand knew France didn't need yet another enemy. So, he said that American delegates would be received with respect.
    2. If he went to war, Adams had a chance to gain huge popularity, maybe win Florida and Louisiana, and likely win re-election.
      1. He chose to not go to war. Like Washington, he knew a war would stunt the infant nation.
      2. Adams sent new delegates to France to speak with Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon had other plans (take over Europe) and was eager to close the American mess. They made the Convention of 1800 that said…
        1. The Franco-American Alliance was over.
        2. Americans had to pay damages to French shippers.
    3. Adams decision to go the peace-route was unpopular. It cost him re-election (Jefferson was elected in 1800). But, it was the best thing for America at the time and the right thing to do.
  16. The Federalist Witch Hunt
    1. Federalists used the anti-French passion to pass a couple of tricky laws. The laws had two levels: (a) a surface level that was stated openly, and (b) an ulterior, sneaky motive by the Federalists.
      1. The Alien acts made it tougher for immigrants to come to the U.S. and become citizens. They had the stated purpose of protecting Americans from foreigners who might come into the country and undermine the U.S. The theory was that the immigrant was more loyal to his home country than the U.S.
        1. The law raised the residency requirement from 5 to 14 years, supposedly so the immigrant would be fully assimilated before voting. This was a large change from America's welcoming tradition.
        2. Also, the president was authorized to deport foreigners deemed troublemakers.
        3. The ulterior and sneaky motive by the Federalists was to delay immigrant voting. Federalists knew the immigrants would most likely join the Republican party and vote that way. So, Federalists bought themselves some time. As far as deporting troublemakers, that would be handy for anyone who criticized the government (Federalists).
      2. The Sedition Act limited the speech and writings of critics of the government. "Sedition" is a strong word that implies stirring up discontent against the government with the intent of overthrowing it.
        1. The Sedition Act said anyone criticizing the government in a manner that was deemed counter-productive could be fined or jailed. The stated purpose was to prevent foreigners from stirring up trouble in the U.S.
        2. The ulterior motive was to silence critics of the Federalists.
        3. The Sedition Act was a direct shot at the 1st Amendment rights to freedom of speech and press.
        4. Many newspaper editors criticized the law and were thrown in jail (under the Sedition Act's authority) for doing so.
          1. The most noteworthy was Matthew "Spitting Lion" Lyon who'd criticized Pres. Adams in his writings. The criticisms were very mild and kind of humorous in a cute way by modern standards.
      3. These pro-Federalist laws were (a) contrary to the welcoming spirit of America and (b) unconstitutional, but were passed by a Federalist Congress, signed by a Federalist president, and upheld by a Federalist-dominated court system.
        1. Self-serving to the end, the Sedition Act was even designed to expire in 1801 so that it couldn't then be used against the Federalists if the Republicans took over.
      4. Although the Republicans fussed, the average person responded well to the Federalists and their laws in the election booth. The Federalists did very well in the Congressional elections of 1798-99. This would be the Federalists' high-water mark, however.
  17. The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions
    1. Stirred by the Alien and Sedition Acts, Jefferson and the Republicans entered into a war of words and laws.
    2. In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. In simple terms, the resolutions said the federal government had overstepped the authority that the states had awarded when it passed the Alien and Sedition Acts.
      1. The resolutions were built on the “compact theory” saying the 13 states had entered a compact (or contract) when they formed the federal government to abide by federal laws that the states approved. In other words, the states had made the federal government, the federal government then makes laws, but since the states made the federal government, the states reserved the right to nullify those federal laws. Notably, this theory goes by several names, all synonymous: the “compact theory,” “states’ rights theory,” or “nullification.”
      2. The idea was that other states would follow suit and adopt similar resolutions and the Alien and Sedition Acts would be shot down. The other states did not follow, however.
      3. Federalists countered the compact theory by arguing that the people actually, and not the states, had created the federal government, and therefore the states did not have the right to nullify federal laws.
    3. At this point, these arguments are just a lesson in words, rhetoric, and logic. But, these exact arguments will be heard again in the 1830s regarding the tariff and then in the 1850s and 60s slavery when the Civil War breaks.
  18. Federalists Versus Democratic-Republicans
    1. Federalists were supported by the upper classes. Generally speaking…
      1. They were led by Hamilton who envisioned an industrial America of big cities.
      2. They were from the wealthy classes, such as merchants, bankers, manufacturers. They often lived along the eastern seaboard—the older regions that were close to the coast and trade.
      3. They were pro-British (since that was good for trade).
      4. They liked a strong federal government, run by the educated elite. They distrusted the common person as uneducated and unable to run a nation. They felt democracy was one step shy of "mobocracy."
    2. The Democratic-Republicans (or just Republicans at this time) were supported by the poor and common classes. Generally speaking…
      1. They were led by Jefferson who envisioned an agricultural America of small towns.
      2. They felt that even an uneducated man can make common-sense decisions and thus run himself and his nation through voting. Republicans favored expanding the vote to more people (though it was still a very narrow group).
      3. They were mostly farmers and lived in the interior areas and along the frontier. They felt farming was good for the soul—it kept the farmer humble and close to God.
      4. They were pro-French (since France had helped the U.S. against England).
    3. By the election of 1800, there were clearly two separate political camps in the U.S.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Republic

  1. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers
    1. By 1800, the Federalists had earned themselves many enemies. First there were the Alien and Sedition Acts. Worse, Pres. Adams had opted against war, an unpopular move.
      1. One benefit was that the American navy had gotten a solid start. Adams ("Father of the American navy") had the navy built up, then wouldn't use it in war. The drawback was the appearance of wasting money.
    2. Alexander Hamilton even attacked Pres. Adams in a pamphlet. The pamphlet became public and Republicans used it against Adams.
    3. Federalists fought back with a smear-campaign of Jefferson. Federalists charged Jefferson robbed a widow of her trust fund, fathered mulatto children (which turned out to be true), and of being an atheist (he was actually a Deist).
  2. The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”
    1. Jefferson won the election of 1800 by an electoral vote of 73 to Adams' 65.
      1. Oddly, Adams got more popular votes, but Jefferson won the swing state of New York thanks to the dealings of Aaron Burr.
      2. Also, due to a technicality, Jefferson and Burr actually tied. Burr was supposed to be Vice-President, but the way the electoral balloting system was set up officially got him 73 electoral votes for president also. How was the tie to be broken?
        1. The Constitution puts such a situation into the hands of the House of Representatives where each state gets one vote.
        2. The House voted, and got another tie, some 30+ times! The deadlock occurred because many Federalists disliked Jefferson terribly, so they voted for Burr as the lesser-of-two evils.
        3. After months, since a new president was needed quickly, a few votes were changed and Jefferson was elected. The change was at the urging of Alexander Hamilton and John Adams who knew that a Burr victory would be blamed on Federalists and thus doom their party.
    2. Jefferson's election is called the "Revolution of 1800" for two main reasons…
      1. There was a peaceful exchange of power between two parties in a major nation. This was a historic first for the U.S. and the world.
      2. The Republicans were something of the "people's party" and, through Jefferson, the people sort of entered the White House.
  3. Responsibility Breeds Moderation
    1. Jefferson was inaugurated in March of 1801. Washington D.C. was a brand new, woodsy, country capital.
    2. Jefferson's inaugural address stressed moderation between Republicans and Federalists.
      1. His goal was to soothe Federalists fears by saying, "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."
      2. He also outlined his foreign policy by saying, "…honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." After the mistake of the Franco-American alliance, the U.S. was learning lessons.
    3. Jefferson proved to be very unconventional.
      1. He was a sloppy dresser and frugal.
      2. He made a point of not being or appearing aristocratic, the way the Federalists might have done things.
        1. He wore simple worker's clothes.
        2. He rode around Washington horseback (as opposed to a carriage that he felt too royal).
        3. He seated guests at the White House in random order (as opposed to seating by "rank").
        4. He started the tradition of reporting to Congress through a clerk (rather than himself which he felt too pompous).
    4. There were two Jeffersons…
      1. First, the scholarly philosopher.
      2. Second, the politician who learned that theories don't always work out cleanly in real life.
    5. Jefferson stayed true to his theme of moderation while in office. Many Republicans wanted him to "clean house" after the Federalists; he didn't. He felt it would be counter-productive for one president to try and undo everything the prior one had done, even if he disagrees.
  4. Jeffersonian Restraint
    1. Jefferson did make a few "un-Federalist" actions. He hated the Alien and Sedition Acts and wanted to undo them.
      1. He pardoned those who'd been convicted under the Sedition Act.
      2. He got the residency requirement to become a citizen moved back to 5 years from the 14 that the Alien Act had set.
      3. He also removed the excise tax on whiskey thinking it unfair. The drawback here was not getting the $1 million per year in revenue.
    2. The Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was very capable at budgeting the nation. Despite little income, he managed to balance the budget and reduce the debt.
    3. Aside from the excise tax, the rest of Alexander Hamilton's programs were left untouched by Jefferson (even though he disliked them).
    4. Jefferson's moderation showed that one party's loss would not be the end of the nation. This helped solidify the two-party system.
  5. The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary
    1. Although voted out of the White House, the Federalists had one last trick up their sleeves…
      1. They passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 which created 16 new federal court districts.
      2. Then, in his last hours as president, John Adams packed the federal courts with "midnight judges". The goal was to pack the federal government with Federalist judges, who serve for life, and thereby sustain the Federalist influence.
    2. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall proved to be a strong and lasting supporter of Federalist causes—mainly to strengthen the federal government.
    3. The first major Supreme Court case was Marbury v. Madison in 1803. The technicalities of the case involved a judge (Marbury) not being appointed to a bench by Sec. of State Madison, then Marbury appealing to get that appointment. The technicalities are really unimportant. The importance of Marbury was…
      1. For the first time, the Supreme Court struck down a law as unconstitutional.
      2. This act is called "judicial review"—the power of the Court to review the constitutionality of laws and keep or strike them. This is the Courts supreme power.
    4. After Marbury, the Republicans were out for blood. They set their sights on Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase. Chase was a strong Federalist and a bit of a loud-mouth—a perfect target for Republicans.
      1. The Republicans in the House voted to impeach Chase for "high crimes and misdemeanors" (as the Constitution prescribes).
      2. But, in the Senate trial, it became clear there were no crimes or misdemeanors, just loud-mouthing. Chase was not kicked off the Court.
      3. This failure to oust a justice showed that the judicial branch truly was independent of the other two branches.
  6. Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior<font color=white>This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com</font>
    1. Jefferson's nature was toward being a "peace-president" rather than a "war-president."
      1. Hailing from the revolutionary days, he distrusted large, standing armies—they could be used against the people themselves. He preferred armies that were called to duty when needed, like the militia.
      2. He downsized the military to only 2,500 soldiers. The navy, though less worrisome, was almost nothing. Jefferson thought it was pointless since the U.S. was not at war.
    2. Issues in the Mediterranean Sea changed Jefferson's mind.
      1. In the Med. Sea, North African "Barbary Pirates" were pirating American (and European) ships.
      2. Back in the Federalist days, the U.S. felt it simpler to pay off the Barbary Pirates "tribute" or "bully money" to not harass U.S. ships. This was both more convenient than fighting but also somewhat embarrassing.
      3. Then, the pasha of Tripoli cut down the American consulate's flagstaff in a sign of warfare. Peaceful Jefferson had had enough.
        1. Jefferson sent the navy to the "shores of Tripoli." Their sea-to-land amphibious expedition spawned the Marines Corps.
        2. The most famous incident involved Stephen Decatur and his men when they daringly re-captured the ship Intrepid.
        3. The U.S. military took care of business and got a treaty formed. It paid $60,000 as ransom to free prisoners. But, the Barbary Pirate days were over.
    3. After the Tripolitan War, as it was known, Jefferson decided to strengthen the navy after all. But, he wanted small, fast, and cheap gunboats, not ships. He had about 200 gunboats built. Later, this would prove to be a waste—for a navy, warships were better than toy boats.
  7. The Louisiana Godsend
    1. In 1800, Napoleon got the king of Spain to hand over Louisiana to France. The "right of deposit" (the right to go down the Mississippi River) that the Pinckney Treaty gained was then revoked.
    2. Now, powerful France was next-door again and the Ohio Valley was essentially isolated west of the mountains. Jefferson had a problem on his hands.
      1. Jefferson sent Robert R. Livingston to France in attempt to make a deal. Livingston could offer up to $10 million to buy a small piece of Louisiana—enough to get down the river to the Gulf of Mexico.
      2. France's counter-offer asked if the U.S. would like to buy all of Louisiana for $15 million. This stunned the American delegates and they couldn't refuse the deal.
        1. As to why did France sell it? There were two reasons…
          1. An uprising in Haiti led by Toussaint L'Overture made Napoleon decide the troubles in America weren't worth it.
          2. Napoleon was planning war on Europe, knew he'd not be able to hold it anyway, and needed quick cash.
    3. With news of the purchase, Jefferson was put in a dilemma…
      1. On the one hand, his delegates had (a) only been authorized to spend $10 million and (b) a strict interpretation of the Constitution (which Jefferson liked to do) meant the president really didn't have the power to buy lands from foreign nations.
      2. On the other hand, this was just too good of a deal to pass up! It'd double the size of the country for little more than they were willing to pay for a city.
    4. Jefferson wrestled with the issue, especially the Constitutional part of it, but practicality took over—he made the purchase anyway by sending it to the Senate which quickly passed it.
    5. It's worth noting that the political parties each flip-flopped on this issue…
      1. Jefferson (and the Republicans) had normally been a strict interpreter of the Constitution, but he was now using a loose interpretation.
      2. Federalists, normally loose interpreters, took a strict interpretation and opposed the purchase. Federalist didn’t want the new lands because they correctly foresaw that new lands meant new settlers, and that meant new states, which meant more farmers, and ultimately more Republicans.
  8. Louisiana in the Long View
    1. In one quick and bloodless move, the size of the U.S. had been doubled. The price amounted to about 3 cents per acre.
    2. Jefferson's dream of nearly endless amounts of land for anyone who wanted to farm it seemed to be reality.
    3. One problem was that the land was nearly entirely unknown. So, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on the famous "Lewis and Clark" expedition.
      1. They traveled from St. Louis up the Missouri River to its headwaters, hiked over the Rocky Mountains, then traveled down the Snake and Columbia Rivers to the Pacific Ocean.
      2. Along the way, their goals as set by President Jefferson were to (a) meet and befriend the Indians and (b) take notes of what they saw (animals, plants, land, etc).
      3. Their 2 and a half year trek was recorded in Clark's journal and became one of history's greatest adventures.
    4. Less well-known was Zebulon Pike who explored the Spanish-owned areas of the American Southwest.
      1. He went into Colorado (hence Pike's Peak), then south into current New Mexico, Mexico, and Texas.
      2. Although this was Spanish land at the time, it seems Pike was "scouting it out" for the future.
  9. The Aaron Burr Conspiracies
    1. Aaron Burr had been Vice-President in Jefferson's first term. For Jefferson's second term, Burr was out. Burr then got into a couple of questionable schemes…
      1. Scheme #1 was for New York and New England (the Federalist stronghold) to break away from the rest of the country.
        1. Ironically, Alexander Hamilton ended this scheme when he revealed the plan to Jefferson. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, Hamilton reluctantly showed up to the fight, and Hamilton was killed.
      2. Scheme #2 had Burr heading west to the frontier.
        1. His goal, apparently, was to travel down the Mississippi River to the Missouri area, separate the western U.S. from the east, then create a new nation by invading Spanish lands.
        2. Jefferson heard of the plan, arrested Burr and charged him with treason.
        3. At Burr's trial the required two witnesses needed couldn't be drummed up so he was found not guilty. Still, his name was shamed and he slunk away in disgrace.
    2. The lesson was that governing such a large tract of new land was tricky business. This would prove painfully true as the Civil War neared.
  10. A Precarious Neutrality
    1. In 1803, Napoleon plunged Europe into war.
    2. For America, this was good news economically speaking. This meant that the U.S. could trade with either side in the war, sell them any of the things they needed, and make money all the while.
      1. America's free-reign of the sea was short-lived though. In 1805 British Adm. Horatio Lord Nelson's fleet won at the Battle of Trafalgar. This ensured that Britain ruled the seas.
      2. At the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon and the French won. This ensured that France ruled the land.
    3. These events had nothing to do with America until…
      1. In 1806, London issued what was called Orders in Council. These rules stated that any foreign (U.S.) ship headed to France must first check-in at a British port for inspection.
      2. Likewise, France announced they'd seize any foreign ships entering British ports.
      3. America was stuck in the middle. And just to address the question, "How can they tell us what to do?" The answer is that their navy is stronger than the American navy.
    4. The issue of impressment (kidnapping at sea) was even more troublesome.
      1. About 6,000 American sailors were impressed. Often they'd be knocked out with a club and when they awoke, they were scrubs on a British ship.
    5. In 1807, the British ship Leopard attacked the American Chesapeake off of Virginia.
      1. The Leopard demanded men, then shot, and the wounded Chesapeake limped back to port.
      2. The British government apologized, but the effect was to energize the American people to call for war. Jefferson, the peace-maker, was slow to take up arms.
  11. The Hated Embargo
    1. Jefferson felt that a shipping clash and war with England or France was coming. The only way to avoid this would be to impose an embargo (halt on exports). He mistakenly didn't see the impact such a shut-down would have on American merchants.
    2. In 1807, the Embargo Act was passed. It forbade all exports to any nation, whether they were at war or not.
      1. New England was hit hardest by this act. Ships simply sat dormant in the harbors as the merchants went broke.
      2. The South and West were also hurt, though to a lesser degree, as their crops began to pile up.
      3. Not surprisingly, smuggling returned. This time things were smuggled out of the country rather than in.
    3. In 1809, after much protest and seeing the results of having no trade, Congress repealed the Embargo Act. The logic was, "Why limit all trade when it's just England and France that we're worried about?" Congress then passed the Non-Intercourse Act which outlawed shipping to England and France only.
      1. This new act made sense, on paper. In reality however, this act had the same effect as the Embargo Act because America’s #1 and #2 trade partners were Britain and France.
    4. The embargo (and Non-Intercourse Act) were not successful.
      1. They failed due to excessive smuggling and to the fact that the British relied on America much less than Jefferson suspected.
      2. Essentially, the embargo hurt America without doing much good. With the money that was lost, the U.S. could have built a strong navy that might have dealt with the British navy on equal terms.
    5. The embargo did have some unexpected benefits.
      1. It forced American industry to get going on its own. Ironically, this helped Jefferson's arch-enemy Alexander Hamilton who'd envisioned an industrial America.
  12. Madison’s Gamble
    1. James Madison followed Jefferson to the presidency. Madison was small, bookish, and like Jefferson, a poor speaker.
    2. The embargo was clearly not successful so Madison came up with Macon's Bill No. 2.
      1. This bill proposed to allow trade with other nations but also to exclusively reinstate trade with either England or France, whichever one pledged to drop its trade restrictions.
      2. Napoleon pounced on this opportunity and promised to drop restrictions and open trade with the U.S.
      3. He was being very self-serving however. His ambition was only to effectively turn America against England and to backstab America in the future if it then became convenient.
      4. Madison smelled some dishonesty but was trapped in his own proposal. Reluctantly, Madison went along with France.
  13. Tecumseh and the Prophet
    1. In 1811, Congress was different.
      1. Younger men had ousted older "submission men." The young Congressmen were from the West and South, and were fiery-tempered. The were called "War Hawks" since they pushed for war.
      2. Most noteworthy of these War Hawks was Henry Clay, a young Kentuckian, named Speaker of the House at age 34.
    2. The War Hawks wanted the Indians cleared out of the west (the Ohio Valley) so whites could settle there without fear.
      1. Indian opposition was led by Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and the Prophet.
      2. They encouraged traditional Indian clothes and culture, urged Indians to not give up or sell their lands, and organized a coalition of Indians (which was very unusual).
      3. The brothers were considered a threat and in November of 1811 Indian governor William Henry Harrison attacked and defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe. The Prophet was killedd.
        1. This battle made William Henry Harrison a national hero and earned him the nickname of "Tippecanoe."
        2. The battle also turned Tecumseh to join the British.
        3. Notably, two years later William Henry Harrison would also kill Tecumseh during the War of 1812.
  14. Mr. Madison’s War
    1. By 1812, war was seen as inevitable. Madison asked Congress to declare war on England and they did in June of 1812. To answer the question, "Why did America go to War in 1812?"…
    2. …in brief, America’s reasons for entering the War of 1812__ were…
      1. “Freedom of the seas”—The U.S. wanted the right to sail and trade without fear.
      2. The possibility of land—The U.S. might gain Canada or Florida.
      3. To resolve Indian issues—Americans were still upset about British guns being giving to Indians (Battle of Fallen Timbers) and Indian attacks on the frontier.
      4. On a theoretical level, fighting and defeating England would be make a major statement. America would have to be considered as an equal amongst other nations, rather than a scrawny upstart. This is why the War of 1812 is often called the "Second War for American Independence."
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

  1. On to Canada Over Land and Lakes
    1. The War of 1812 was very divisive to America. Sections were staunchly for it or against it. Generally, the West and South were for the war, the Northeast was hotly against it.
    2. In many ways, the war was very disorganized.
      1. Loaded with naive ambition of easily gaining lands, the Americans attacked "On to Canada!" The attack was poorly planned and poorly executed by poor generals. The Americans lost.
          1. In hindsight, taking Montreal would have made the rest of the cities wither away.
          2. Instead, the Americans attacked Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain, losing each battle.
          3. The Canadians did quite well. They defended their lands and even took the American fort at Michilimackinac on the northern area of the Great Lakes.
    3. After these eye-opening defeats, the Americans had some successes…
      1. Oliver Hazard Perry built a fleet of ships on the shores of Lake Erie. He then won a battle there and reported, "We have met they enemy and they are ours." This forced the Brits out of Detroit.
      2. As they evacuated Detroit, William Henry Harrison's forces engaged and defeated the British at the Battle of the Thames. This is where Tecumseh was killed.
      3. The British still planned to attack New York City via the Lake Champlain/Hudson River route. They assembled a sizeable force and headed down the lake. Young American Cpt. Thomas MacDonough engaged the British and, just before being defeated, turned his ship with cables to broadside and defeat the British. MacDonough's victory forced the British to halt their plan and thus saved New York and prevented New England from being severed from the nation.
  2. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended
    1. The war then turned to the Chesapeake Bay area.
      1. The British landed and ran off 6,000 Americans at Bladensburg and then marched to Washington D.C. The British burnt the new capital to the ground (including the White House and Congress).
      2. The British then sailed to Baltimore but were stopped at Ft. McHenry. During the battle, Francis Scott Key wrote the Star Spangled Banner describing the battle and how the American flag stood throughout the night.
    2. The war also moved into the South.
      1. The British targeted New Orleans—this put the entire Mississippi Valley in jeopardy.
      2. Andrew Jackson had just won against Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama. He assembled a 7,000 man mosaic of an army—sailors, soldiers, pirates, Frenchmen, militiamen, and black troops (this was unheard of at the time).
      3. The British had 8,000 regular troops and were over-confident. At the Battle of New Orleans, Jackson scored the victory in January of 1815—the largest battle of the war.
      4. News hit Washington D.C. the same time as news of the Treaty of Ghent ending the war. Oddly, the treaty had ended the war two weeks before the Battle of New Orleans. Still, Jackson was given credit for winning the war and instantly became a national hero.
    3. The British navy was roused. It blockaded the American coast, landed and raided at will, and fouled up American fishing.
  3. The Treaty of Ghent
    1. Delegates from both side met in Ghent, Belgium to work out a peace deal.
    2. Bucked-up from victories, the British made bold demands. The British wanted an Indian buffer zone created, control of the Great Lakes, and part of Maine.
      1. The Americans rejected this proposal.
    3. Military failures made the British more acceptable to bargain.
    4. The Treaty of Ghent (Dec. 1814) was an armistice (a cease-fire) that ended the War of 1812.
      1. Both sides simply agreed to lay down their arms. No land or booty was given or taken. The main issue of the war, impressment, was even left unmentioned.
  4. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention
    1. Just prior to the end of the war, New England took action against the war itself. New Englanders had long been hurt by the trade restrictions and feuding with England. Some, the "Blue Lights", had even helped the British ships by warning them with lanterns.
    2. The Hartford Convention (Dec. 1814 to Jan. 1815) was organized. Delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island met in Hartford, CT. New England's goal at the meeting was to decide what to do about the war.
      1. Their was some talk of secession.
      2. Officially, they (a) called for monetary help from Washington, and (b) wanted to require a 2/3 vote for an embargo, new state, or war.
      3. They marched to Washington to make their proposal but the timing was terrible. News of Jackson's victory at New Orleans, then the end of the war, made them look like unpatriotic crybabies.
      4. Also, this was one of the last spikes in the Federalist coffin.
  5. The Second War for American Independence
    1. The War of 1812 in reality was just small piece of a larger European war. Whereas Napoleon had invaded with 500,000, Madison had invaded with 5,000.
      1. The importance of the war came in what the Americans won…respect. America showed it'd fight at the drop of a hat, even against the strongest nation in the world, and go toe-to-toe. Although the U.S. didn't win land or money, it won credibility in other nation's eyes.
    2. There were other side-effects of the war…
      1. The Federalist Party was all but done.
      2. New war heroes had emerged—Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison would both become president.
      3. There was an upsurge of patriotism and sense of national pride. The feeling of national unity was at its highest point yet.
    3. Canada (a British colony) felt that England had let them down. They feared another American attack and wanted the Indian buffer zone that didn't occur.
      1. The Rush-Bagot agreement (1817 between the U.S. and England limited both sides' naval power on the Great Lakes. Canada was nonplussed again.
          1. This treaty showed that England and the U.S. were getting along fine. Eventually, the world's longest unfortified border (5,527 miles) would exist between the U.S. and Canada.
    4. When Napoleon lost at Waterloo, Europe went back to its old days. For America, Europe was off of her back and Americans began to focus on America and to look westward.
  6. Nascent Nationalism This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Nationalism was born after the war in many forms…
      1. American writers emerged in Washington Irving (Rumpelstiltskin and The Knickerbocker Tales such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow) and James Fenimore Cooper (The Leatherstocking Tales which included The Last of the Mohicans). These men wrote stories or fiction set in America. Previously, American writings had been political pieces (like Common Sense) or practical writings (like Poor Richard's Almanack), not fiction.
      2. Also, the North American Review was first published in 1815. Histories were being written by American, not European, authors. And painters began painting American landscape scenes (not mimicking European art).
    2. Washington D.C. was reborn after being burnt, the military was strengthened.
    3. Stephen Decatur, the hero at Tripoli in the Barbary Coast skirmishes, made a famous toast saying, "Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!"
  7. “The American System”
    1. After the war, England began to swamp America with cheap goods. This struck hard at America's infantile industry.
      1. Congress responded by passing the protective Tariff of 16. It assessed a rate of 20-25% on imports and was America's first tariff.
    2. Henry Clay, Speaker of the House, initiated the American System—an economic plan for the country. It had three proposals…
      1. A strong banking system.
      2. Set up a protective tariff to boost American industry.
      3. Build a strong transportation network of roads and canals.
          1. The nation's poor transportation network had been painfully visible during the War of 1812.
          2. Essentially, the West would be connected to the East. The South didn't care for or need roads as they used their river systems to ship goods to market.
    3. When Clay asked for federal money for "internal improvements" (building roads, canals, etc.) many people balked. Pres. Madison vetoed the bill.
      1. The opponents' complaint was that since these things were not in the Constitution, they should be left up to the states (10th Amendment). They took a "strict constructionist" approach.
      2. This foreshadowed future similar disputes and even the debate over slavery.
      3. Some states went ahead and make their own improvements. Notably, New York dug the Erie Canal, completed in 1825.
  8. The So-Called Era of Good Feelings
    1. James Monroe was elected president in 1816. The Federalist party vanished. This was called the Era of Good Feelings because…
      1. There was only one political party (Republicans)—supposedly, the nation was united rather than split.
      2. There was an upsweep of nationalism after the war.
    2. However, seeds of sectional troubles were planted, such as…
      1. The South did not like the tariff saying it only benefited the North and made the South pay higher prices.
      2. The South disliked the internal improvements linking the North and West. The South didn’t see any benefits in paying taxes for roads and canals in other states.
  9. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times
    1. An economic panic struck in 1819. This quieted the "Good Feelings" as hard times set in.
      1. The cause of the panic was over-speculation in land. Notably, over-speculation, or buying too much on credit, caused nearly every panic in the 1800s and the Great Depression.
      2. The results of the panic were bankruptcies, companies going out of business, unemployment, people losing their farms, and deflation (drop in prices).
    2. The 1819 panic started an almost predictable chain of panics or recessions. An economic panic occurred nearly every 20 years during the 1800s (1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893).
    3. The West was hit the hardest by the panic.
      1. When the Bank of the U.S. felt the strain of the panic, they called in loans to western "wildcat" banks. They went bankrupt, farmers lost their farms, and the B.U.S. was blamed.
          1. This distrust of eastern banks was the birth of the Jacksonian democracy.
      2. The number of debtors in debtor prisons rose as well.
  10. Growing Pains of the West
    1. By 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13. They'd mostly been admitted alternately, slave state then free state, etc.
    2. The American urge to move westward and cheap land fueled "Ohio Fever." The reasons for the expansion were…
      1. The need for new and better soil. Farmers back east had mostly engaged in "land butchery" where they farmed the land until it was sterile, then moved on.
      2. Transportation also made travel easier.
          1. Better roads existed, namely the Cumberland Road to Illinois.
          2. The steamboat was soon coming, making two-way river travel possible.
      3. The Land Act of 1820 allowed buyers to purchase 80 acres at $1.25 per acre (as a minimum).
      4. "Wildcat banks" gave easy credit. The banks printed their own paper money then lent it out liberally to anyone wanting to buy land.
  11. Slavery and the Sectional Balance
    1. Also in 1819, Missouri wanted to become a slave state. This created a problem—the equal balance of slave-free states would be tipped to the pro-slavery side. The northern states would not have this.
      1. In the House, the Tallmadge Amendment was put forth to limit slavery in Missouri. It proposed that (a) no more slaves be allowed into Missouri and (b) that slaves born to Missouri slave parents would gradually emancipated.
      2. This amendment was voted down in the Senate where southern states had an equal vote (thanks to the slave-free balance).
    2. From the southern perspective, the Tallmadge Amendment was seen as a possible tip of the iceberg. Southerners thought, "Next, perhaps northerners will try to liberate all of the South."
    3. The other southern worry centered on population—the North was growing much larger than the South. This meant northerners outnumbered southerners in the House. Even still, southerners had equal representation in the Senate and therefore could halt any unwanted bills.
  12. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise
    1. Missouri's road to statehood was blocked. The Missouri Compromise broke the deadlock by agreeing…
      1. Missouri would be admitted as a slave state; Maine would be admitted as a free state. (The balance moved from 11 free states and 11 slave states to 12 and 12).
      2. Regarding future slave land, an east-west line was drawn at 36°30’. All new states north of the 36°30’ line would be free, new states southward would be slave.
    2. As a true compromise, both sides gained something, both sides gave up something.
    3. The compromise worked for about 26 years. Then, new lands acquired from Mexico opened the question of what to do about the "peculiar institution" (slavery).
    4. 1820 was an election year. The Panic of 1819 and dispute over Missouri should've doomed Pres. James Monroe. But, the Federalists were so that he won a resounding re-election.
  13. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism
    1. During the "Era of Good Feelings," a political tug-o-war was being waged in the Supreme Court between the federal and state governments. Who would win was unclear and depended on the Supreme Court's pattern of decisions.
      1. The court's leader, Chief Justice John Marshall, was a federalist in his philosophy and therefore leaned to the strong federal government side.
    2. McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819)—The "Elastic Clause Case."
      1. Details: Maryland tried to tax the Bank of the U.S. Chief Justice Marshall invoked Hamilton's "implied powers" and declared the B.U.S. constitutional.
      2. Importance: The Elastic Clause was officially recognized and used. The Constitution had been written in more general terms rather than specific, and therefore could be interpreted rather than read strictly verbatim. Score one point for the federal government, zero for the states.
    3. Cohens vs. Virginia (1821)—The "Lottery Case."
      1. Details: The Cohens family sold lottery tickets in Virginia, which was illegal by state law. They argued that there was a federal law saying it was legal. Which law applied?
      2. Importance: The Supreme Court showed it had the power to review state court decisions (in cases involving the powers of the federal government). Two points for the federal government, zero for the states.
    4. Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824)—The "Steamboat Case."
      1. Details: Robert Fulton had invented the steamboat and hired Gibbons to pilot the boat along the Hudson River. New York had awarded them monopoly rights to do so. Ogden infringed on the monopoly and ran his own boat, was prosecuted and convicted.
      2. Importance: The Supreme Court said New York was wrong to award a monopoly because the Constitution says that only Congress can regulate interstate trade, not the states. Federal government 3, states 0.
  14. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses
    1. Fletcher vs. Peck (1810)—The "Land Scam Contract Case."
      1. Details: After being bribed, Georgia gave away millions of acres along the Yazoo River. A contract was made. Later, when the people found out about the corruption, a state law was passed revoking the contract. Would it stand?
      2. Importance: The Supreme Court said a contract is a contract and the Constitution says it can't be broken by state laws. Federal government 4, states 0.
    2. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819)—The "College Charter Case."
      1. Details: This is very similar to the Fletcher case. Dartmouth College had been awarded a charter by King George III but New Hampshire revoked it. Alum Sen. Daniel Webster argued the case saying, "It is, sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it." Would the charter stand?
      2. Importance: The Supreme Court said the charter was a contract and, like Fletcher, states could not encroach on contracts. Federal government 5, states 0.
    3. Tag-team of John Marshall presiding over the Supreme Court and Sen. Daniel Webster arguing won cases for the federal government over and over again.
      1. A clear pattern was emerging—the federal government and power was winning out over state government.
      2. Also, a clear pattern of worry was rising in the South. The South's worry was that the federal government would encroach on states' rights and ultimately on slavery.
  15. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida
    1. After the War of 1812 America was more of an international peer. Sec. of State John Quincy Adams vigorously ran and applied U.S. foreign policy.
    2. The Treaty of 1818 was made with England over the Canada border.
      1. The treaty drew a border line at 49° from Lake of the Woods (MN) westward to the Rocky Mountains.
      2. The prosperous fishing waters of Newfoundland would be shared.
      3. For the time, Oregon would be jointly occupied.
    3. Florida was becoming something of a headache to the American states.
      1. The flag over Florida had changed frequently. Spain had regained control by the 18-teens. Also, Florida was home to run-away slaves and unpredictable Indians.
      2. A rash of Latin revolutions swept through South America at this time as the spirit of liberty spread. Andrew Jackson decided to seize the moment.
          1. Jackson got the okay from Congress to enter Florida, capture run-away slaves, and punish the Indians.
          2. Jackson took matters into his own hands and took over. A few leaders were hanged (Indian and English) and two Spanish posts were taken in the panhandle. The Spanish governor escaped.
      3. Although Jackson had over-stepped his orders, John Quincy Adams wasn't going to give up what was in his hand.
          1. The "Florida Purchase Treaty" was made with Spain. In it, (a) America paid $5 million and got Florida, (b) Spain gave up a claim to Oregon and America gave up a claim to Texas, and (c) the southern limit of Oregon was set at 42° latitude.
  16. The Menace of Monarchy in America
    1. After the chaos of the French Revolution Napoleon's empire, Europe wanted to get back to the old days of monarchy. They reasoned: democracy brought chaos, monarchy brought order.
      1. Steps were taken in Europe for the monarch and aristocrats to re-assert their control.
      2. This worried Americans—their reach just might come across the Atlantic to the Americas.
    2. On this matter, Russia would be the European nation that first got America's attention.
      1. The Russians had a claim on the Pacific Northwest coast down to 51°. They were pressuring to assert their claim and had trading posts all the way down to San Francisco. This was a threat to America.
    3. England was also scheming.
      1. London was clearly taking a maverick route and not cooperating with the continental European nations after the Napoleonic wars.
      2. Instead, British foreign secretary George Canning offered a deal the American minister in London. He proposed the U.S. and England make a statement they'd not grab any Latin American land. This statement would also warn any other European nations to also stay out of Latin America.
      3. The American representative deferred to President Monroe.
  17. Monroe and His Doctrine
    1. Looking at England's proposal, John Quincy Adams saw what might be a wolf in sheep's clothing. He wondered… "Why would the U.S. tie her hands for the future?" and "Why does the U.S. need to join England in this?"
      1. "Why would the U.S. tie her hands for the future?" One day, American interests just might be in Latin America.
      2. "Why does the U.S. need to join England in this?" The British navy would keep order in Latin America for British shipping whether the U.S. was with her or not.
    2. It seemed clear for the U.S. to assert her newfound power and stand on her own.
    3. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) asserted (a) European non-colonization of the Americas and (b) non-intervention.
      1. In other words, it told Europe that the days of colonization in the Americas are over. And, Europe should stay out of American affairs (North, Central, Latin, or South America). It was a "KEEP OUT" sign.
      2. The Doctrine was issued most directly in response to Russia. It was applied to all Europeans nations however.
      3. In return, Monroe said the U.S. would stay out of Greece's fight for democratic independence against the Turks.
  18. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised
    1. Europe was not happy about the Monroe Doctrine. The upstart U.S. was speaking very boldly. Plus, although they'd been snubbed in their offer of going together with the U.S., the British navy would actually uphold the doctrine.
    2. Latin Americans weren't enthusiastic about the doctrine. They understood the British navy supplied the muscle and that the U.S. wasn't being the good big sister, but looking out for her own interests.
    3. The Monroe Doctrine had little effect at the time. But, in time, it grew in stature.
      1. The Russians had started drawing back even before the doctrine. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 set the southern boundary of Russian land at 54° 40'.
      2. The doctrine was not law. One president could simply undo it, if desired, by taking a different course. But, it grew to become a basic American guideline for foreign policy.
      3. It had the good effect of showing American nationalism and exerting a new vigor. It had the bad effect of making Americans think they were isolated from European matters just because they said so.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 13 - The Rise of Mass Democracy

  1. The “Corrupt Bargain” election of 1824
    1. The election of 1824 was the last of the old-style politics. The big winner of this transformation was the common man. The political game would soon be changed. Specifically, the common white man as universal white manhood suffrage (all white men could vote) became the norm.
    2. The 1824 election was unique in many ways…
      1. There were four candidates, not two: Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and John Q. Adams of Massachusetts.
        1. They all called themselves "Republicans."
        2. Three candidates were "favorite sons" for their section of the country. Henry Clay, as Speaker of the House and architect of the American System, considered himself not a sectional candidate but a national figure.
      2. Since the votes were spread out, no candidate got a majority of the electoral vote and won. Jackson got the most votes, but not a majority. Adams came in second, then Crawford, then Clay.
      3. The election went to the House who'd pick the president from the top three finishers, Clay was out. Crawford had health issues and was effectively out–it was Jackson or J. Q. Adams.
    3. Henry Clay, as House Speaker, was in a unique position to influence the vote. Jackson was Clay's main rival (they both were westerners) so Clay threw his support to Adams. Adams won.
      1. Adams later named Henry Clay to be Secretary of State. The ordeal looked sneaky and was thus called the "Corrupt Bargain."
      2. Jackson and his supporters claimed the politicians had made a deal to grab the White House from the people. This may be a stretch, and even if it did happen, it wasn't illegal but just the machine of politics at work.
    4. Corrupt or not, the 1824 election was a turning point. It energized the common man to get out and vote like he'd never done before.
  2. A Yankee Misfit in the White House
    1. John Quincy Adams, like his father John Adams, was an puritanical Yankee. He was intelligent, respected, honorable, stern, tactless. As president, he was very able but somewhat wooden and lacked the “people’s touch” (which Jackson notably had).
    2. Adams stubbornly refused to remove public officials to make room for new ones. He removed only 12 people during his presidency.
      1. This frustrated party workers who'd expected a job. Why work to keep him in office? they wondered.
    3. John Q. Adams pushed nationalist programs to build (a) roads and canals, (b) a national university, and (c) a national observatory.
      1. The public was not excited. The South was already turning against internal improvements (roads, canals) and a national university or observatory would mean keeping the tariff going. These things were seen as an elitist waste of money. Most Americans were simple farmers, not scholars.
    4. Pres. Adams tried to slow down the western land speculation. Although this was likely a wise move financially speaking, the West hated this. They'd grown accustomed to getting easy credit to easily buy land.
      1. Down South, land was also an issue. Georgia wanted to kick out the Cherokee Indians. Pres. Adams wanted to deal justly with the Indians but the Georgia governor succeeded in keeping the federal government out.
      2. Adams now had two sections lined against him: the South and the West.
  3. Going “Whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828”
    1. Almost immediately after the corrupt bargain election of 1824, Andrew Jackson started campaigning for 1828. His theme was simple: the people had been swindled by the politicians, and he was the people's choice for 1828.
    2. The 1828 election was colorful, to say the least, and the mudslinging began.
      1. Jacksonians swayed people against John Q. Adams by painting him as dishonest huckster (in reality, he was an honest and honorable man). They also claimed Adams had procured the services of a servant girl for a Russian tsar's lust.
      2. Adams' supporters got ugly too. They said Jackson was crude, rude, prone to whiskey. They charged that Rachel Jackson was an adultress. She'd been married prior to Jackson, then it was discovered that her divorce hadn't been finalized. The Jackson's quickly fixed the situation, but the words stung. Rachel Jackson died only one month after the election. Jackson blamed the death on the harsh words spoken and never forgave the speakers.
    3. The election itself was anti-climatic. Jackson won easily, 178 to 83 in the electoral vote. The votes split along sectional lines: the West and South for Jackson, the North for Adams.
  4. “Old Hickory” as President
    1. Old Hickory personified the rising "New Democracy."
      1. He was a westerner, tough, battle-scarred, rough-around-the-edges, half-educated and half-self taught, tall and lean.
      2. He was America's first rags-to-riches story. He'd been born in a cabin in the Carolinas (we’re not even sure if it was North or South Carolina, and both states still claim to be his home). His family moved to Tennessee and through hard work and strength of character, Jackson rose to own a plantation, and became a judge, congressman, general and a war hero.
      3. Jackson was adored by his soldiers who gave him the nickname "Old Hickory" because of his toughness and loyalty.
      4. He was the first president who'd been nominated by a convention.
    2. Jackson was passionate in everything. He was prone to choke up while speaking in Congress, he had a temper and was in several duels (he had a bullet lodged in his chest for life from dueling), and always "went all out" in whatever he did.
    3. At his inauguration gala he flung open the White House doors (the People's House) for all to come in and party. The party quickly got rowdy until the punch was moved outside and the crowd followed. To the wealthy, this was the mobocracy for real.
  5. The Spoils System
    1. President Jackson quickly started what was called the "Spoils System." The spoils system rewarded political party workers with government jobs. This meant government workers already in office had to be fired to make room for the new.
      1. Many said this wasn't right and criticized the spoils system. They also claimed that the people he put into office had no qualifications.
      2. Jackson shot back saying, "To the victor belong the spoils." This meant that whoever wins the presidency can do as he pleases.
      3. Jackson also argued that federal jobs weren't offered on a for-life basis and that a little change is a good thing in a government.
    2. Being the old military man, loyalty was everything. Jackson was loyal to the people who helped get him elected, and he wanted people underneath him that were loyal to him.
    3. Despite the criticism, only one fifth of the federal employees were replaced. Later on, presidents would make clean sweeps of the executive branch.
    4. Corruption also slid into the government.
      1. Some of the men were less-than-honorable yet were given jobs due to their help in the election.
      2. One Samuel Swartwout was put in charge of the customs duties at the port of New York. Nine years later he "Swartwouted out" and ran off to England; his accounts were $1 million short.
  6. The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations” This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The tariff (tax on imports) became the hot issue in the 1820s and 30s. It nearly brought America to civil war before being worked out by compromise.
    2. Congress had raised the tariff significantly in 1824, but wool manufacturers called for an even higher tariff.
    3. Jackson and his followers hated the tariff. They felt it was a tool of the rich to get richer by jacking up prices that the poor would have to pay. Jacksonians planned to hike the tariff to the sky-high rate of 45%, thinking it would never pass. The plan backfired and sectional warfare began…
      1. New England liked the high tariff since it protected manufacturers. Daniel Webster (Mass.) became the North's main spokesperson.
      2. Southerners, and Westerners, hated it because it drove up the cost of things that they purchased. John C. Calhoun (SC) became the South's main spokesperson.
    4. At about the same time, the South also struggled with slave rebellions.
      1. Denmark Vesey was a free black who led a slave rebellion in Charleston, SC in 1822.
      2. It was unsuccessful, but scared the southern whites to what might happen, especially in areas with an almost 1:1 white-to-black ratio like South Carolina.
      3. Also, Britain was moving toward abolition of slaves. The South felt the pressure and began considering secession and using the tariff as the issue.
    5. John C. Calhoun secretly wrote the "South Carolina Exposition" that took the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions to the next level. The Exposition said that the states, such as South Carolina, could nullify (or declare null and void) the tariff. This was a direct challenge to the federal government. Would the federal government allow states to pick-and-choose the laws they followed? Or would all federal laws be binding?
  7. “Nullies” in South Carolina
    1. A showdown had developed between the federal government and the states.
    2. Congress eased tensions with the Tariff of 1832 that removed the worst parts of the Tariff of 1828 (AKA Tariff of Abominations). Still, the principle of nullification was under question. South Carolina again led the nullification charge…
      1. "Nullies" sought the 2/3 majority needed in the SC legislature to nullify the tariff. They got the votes and SC officially voted to nullify the federal tariff.
      2. SC even threatened secession if Washington tried to impose the tariff over the nullification vote.
    3. Andrew Jackson was not a president with whom to bluff or pick a fight. Jackson was the old fighter, dueler, and warrior.
      1. Privately, Jackson threatened to go to SC and start hanging the leaders. With any other president this would just be tough-talk; Jackson, however, just might actually do it.
      2. Publicly, he got the military ready. Civil war hung as a real possibility.
    4. Henry Clay proposed a compromise which settled the situation.
      1. Clay's personal motives were to prevent his foe Andrew Jackson from scoring a victory.
      2. Clay's compromise said that the tariff rate would be reduced by about 10% over 8 years. Despite debate, the compromise passed and violence was thwarted.
      3. Congress also passed the Force Bill (AKA "Bloody Bill" in the Carolinas) authorizing the president to use force if necessary to collect the tariff.
    5. Like a true compromise, the "winner" of the nullification crisis was unclear.
      1. South Carolina and the states did not join behind the nullification cause like SC expected. But, South Carolina won in that, all by itself, it succeeded in driving the tariff down.
      2. The federal government won in the sense that it got SC to abide by the tariff (Ie. SC repealed its nullification law).
  8. The Trail of Tears
    1. Westward expansion meant whites and Indians continued to bump into one another. Problems followed.
    2. Since the 1790s, the U.S. policy was to gain Indian land only through treaty. These treaties were (a) sometimes questionably made and (b) often overlooked or broken.
    3. Indian–White relationships varied…
      1. There were attempts to assimilate Indians into white society, notably the Society for Progating the Gospel Among the Indians (est. 1787).
      2. Some tribes readily adopted white ways they felt beneficial. The Cherokee of Georgia settled down to become farmers; largely accepted Christianity; Sequoyah devised a Cherokee alphabet so they could write; and the tribe soon set up a government with a legislative, executive, and judicial branch.
        1. Georgia challenged and revoked the Cherokee's right to rule themselves. The Cherokee appealed to the Supreme Court which supported the Indians, 3 times.
      3. The Cherokee, along with the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole were called the "Five Civilized Tribes."
    4. Pres. Jackson's policy on Indians was clear and simple–Indians and whites couldn't live together peacefully so the Indians were to be removed to the West. Notably, this was the general consensus of white America at the time. Ironically, Jackson also had a sort of "soft-spot" for the Indians. He felt they needed to be rescued (he'd even adopted an Indian) and reassured himself that their way-of-life might be preserved out West.
      1. Oklahoma was the appointed "Indian Territory."
      2. Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress making the relocation law and the Bureau of Indian Affairs was started to oversee matters.
        1. The military rounded up eastern tribes and drove them westward. Most infamous was the Trail of Tears where the Cherokee were forced to walk from their Georgia home to Oklahoma. The walk was miserable and fatal (4,000 out of the 15,000 died).
        2. Many Indians pushed back, such as (a) the Black Hawk War which saw the Sauk and Fox tribes of IL and WI crushed, and (b) Osceola leading the Seminoles until he was tricked and captured, although many Seminoles (and runaway slaves) fled to the Everglades of FL.
  9. The Bank War
    1. Andrew Jackson held the common western view of a distrust in banks. Mainly, he distrusted the B.U.S., the Bank of the United States.
      1. Jackson's view was that the B.U.S. was a tool of the rich to get richer at the poor's expense. Jacksonians felt that the rich used "hard money" to keep the common man down.
      2. The B.U.S. minted "hard money" (actual metal money) which the wealthy preferred since it gave the economy stability. The farmers preferred "soft money" (paper money) that would lead to inflation, devalue the dollar, and make loans easier to pay off.
    2. B.U.S. president Nicholas Biddle carried out bank policies of (a) coining hard money and (b) cracking down on western "wildcat banks" by calling in loans. He, and the B.U.S., was compared to a serpent that could grow multiple heads when one was cut off.
    3. The B.U.S. was used as a political football…
      1. Although the B.U.S. charter didn't expire until 1836, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster started a re-charter bill in 1832. The goal was to have Andrew Jackson veto it (as expected) and therefore give himself a political black eye.
      2. The thought was that Jackson would be in a lose-lose situation…
        1. If he vetoed it…the North would be angry and would not vote for his re-election.
        2. If he signed it…the South and West would be angry because he'd gone to Washington and "sold them out" to big business. Either way, he'd be in trouble come election time in 1836.
      3. Congress passed it and Jackson vetoed the B.U.S. re-charter bill saying, "The Bank…is trying to kill me, but I will kill it."
  10. “Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832
    1. In the 1832 election, it was Andrew Jackson for reelection being challenged by Henry Clay.
      1. Jackson again appealed to the common man and urged them to "Go the whole hog."
      2. Clay's slogan was "Freedom and Clay" but was criticized for his gambling, dueling, cockfighting, etc.
    2. The 1832 election also brought some political firsts. All helped move America in a more democratic direction. The new things were…
      1. The emergence of a third party, the Anti-Masonic Party.
        1. The Masons or Freemasons were (and still are) a secret society. Due to its secret nature, questions, mystery, and a skeptical air swirled around them.
        2. The Anti-Masonic Party was made up of a mix of various groups that were joined by (a) dislike of the Masons and/or (b) dislike of Jackson (who was a Mason).
      2. The use of national nominating conventions. This meant that the people of each party nominated their candidate, not the "big whigs" in a backroom choosing a candidate for the people.
      3. The use of a printed party platform. This was done by the Anti-Masonic Party when they printed their positions on the issues. This would become the norm for all parties.
    3. The voting was anti-climatic. Jackson was loved by the people and easily won, 219 to 49 in the electoral vote.
  11. Burying Biddle's Bank
    1. Jackson could've waited until 1836 and the B.U.S. charter would've expired, but he was in a fighting mood and wanted to kill it right then. So…
      1. Jackson started withdrawing money from the B.U.S. and depositing it into local, "pet banks" or "wildcat banks."
      2. Nicholas Biddle fought back by calling in loans from the wildcat banks to the B.U.S.
    2. The overall result was bank chaos, and often, bank foreclosure. Ironically, the common man, whom Jackson set out to defend, often lost his farm in the bank confusion.
    3. Even though Jackson was largely at fault for the turmoil, from the common man's perspective, the B.U.S. and eastern big-whigs were to blame.
  12. The Birth of the Whigs
    1. Jacksonians, officially the "Democratic-Republicans," began calling themselves simply the "Democrats." (This is the Democratic party we think of today.)
    2. A second party also formed, the Whig Party. The Whigs were a very diverse group, but they generally…
      1. Disliked Jackson (this was the main tie that bound them).
      2. Liked Henry Clay's American System, especially its internal improvements (building roads, canals, etc.).
    3. By this time, the "Era of Good Feelings" was over (with its one political party) and America had a two-party system of politics.
  13. The Election of 1836
    1. "King Andrew" was still very popular and he, in effect, chose his successor and the next president–Martin Van Buren as the Democratic candidate.
    2. The Whig Party was disorganized (due to its infancy and hodge-podge make-up).
    3. They nominated a favorite son candidate from each section in hopes of splitting the electoral vote, preventing anyone from getting a majority and winning, and thus throwing the election into the House of Representatives (like in 1824).
    4. Their plan failed as Van Buren, the "Little Magician" won 170 to 124 (all Whig votes combined).
  14. Big Woes for the “Little Magician”
    1. Van Buren followed Jackson's coattails right into the White House, but Van Buren was no Jackson.
    2. Jackson was the people's president, a common guy himself. Van Buren was very smart, crafty, experienced, and effective, but he lacked the "people's touch" and personality of a Jackson.
    3. Problems were brewing for Van Buren…
      1. In 1837, in Canada, a rebellion caused turmoil along the border. Van Buren played the neutral game between Canada and Britain which gained no friends.
      2. Anti-slavery folks in the North were upset because the idea of annexing Texas, a slave land, was being tossed around.
      3. And worse yet for Van Buren, the economic situation was beginning to crumble.
  15. Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasury
    1. There's an irony with Martin Van Buren: he benefited from his close tie with Jackson by being elected president, but he was hurt by Jackson as well as he (a) inherited Jackson's enemies and (b) was brought down by the economic chaos Jackson had begun.
    2. In 1837, an economic downturn struck called the Panic of 1837. This was the second such downtown of the 1800s. Its causes were:
      1. Over-speculation, especially in land, but also in other get-rich-quick schemes like canals, roads, railroads, and slaves. Over-speculation, as always, was the main cause of the recession.
      2. Andrew Jackson's bank policies and resultant chaos also aided the Panic of 1837.
      3. Jackson's "specie circular" hurt as well. This was a decree by Jackson that all debts were to be paid only in specie (gold or silver) but not worthless bank notes (paper money). The debtors didn't have specie and therefore went bankrupt; banks then went bankrupt as well.
      4. The failure of crops helped the Panic. All of these things "set up the dominoes" so to speak, and then…
      5. …the first domino was the failure of two major banks in England and the reverberations across the ocean.
    3. Many banks went under. Many farmers lost their farms.
    4. The Whigs formed a plan…
      1. They proposed expanding bank credit, higher tariffs, and money for internal improvements.
      2. President Van Buren disliked wasteful government spending and halted such plans.
    5. Van Buren's response was through the "Divorce Bill" which said the government should "divorce" itself from banking altogether.
      1. This bill set up an "independent treasury" where extra government money would be kept in vaults (not in the banks. This would give the government stability independent of the whims of the banking world.
      2. The Divorce Bill went on a roller-coaster ride: it was controversial, passed, was repealed by the Whigs, then reenacted 6 years later. It did serve as a first step toward the modern Federal Reserve System.
  16. Gone to Texas
    1. Americans, especially southerners hungry for more cotton land, were eyeing Texas. But, Texas was foreign land and therefore had to be approached with caution.
    2. Americans asked Spain if they could enter Texas and were told they could not. Then, Mexico had a revolution, broke from Spain, and said that the Americans could enter Texas.
    3. In 1823, Stephen Austin led the "Old 300" families into Texas with the conditions that (1) they must become Mexican citizens, (2) they must become Catholic, and (3) no slavery was allowed.
      1. The first two conditions were ignored without concern, the third condition was outright broken since their main reason for going to Texas was to grow cotton.
      2. In 1830, Mexico freed its slaves. To the Texans, those were fighting words.
      3. Conflict emerged and Texans were jailed while protesting (including Stephen Austin in Mexico City). Mexican president Santa Anna had had enough by 1835 and got together an army to teach the Texans a lesson.
  17. The Lone Star Rebellion
    1. Texas declared independence early in 1836 and called itself the "Lone Star Republic". Santa Anna wouldn't take the declaration without a fight, however.
    2. Santa Anna led 6,000 soldiers to the Battle of the Alamo. There he destroyed about 200 stubborn Texans, including William Travis, Davy Crockett, and Jim Bowie. The battle cry "Remember the Alamo!" was heard across Texas.
    3. Santa Anna scored a similar win at Goliad. This also fueled Texans' passions.
    4. Texas president Sam Houston led his troops to the Battle of San Jacinto. This was the turning point…
      1. Santa Anna was caught (a) in a bend in the river, (b) without lookouts, and (c) taking a siesta. He was beaten in 20 minutes.
      2. Santa Anna was forced to sign a document saying Texas was independent, then he was released. He promptly said the document was null and void. Still, Texas was independent.
    5. Then president Andrew Jackson formally recognized Texas as a nation.
    6. Texas wanted to join America so the question then was: would Texas become the next U.S. state?
      1. Slavery would delay Texas' statehood. The northern states would not allow another slave state. They accused the south of trying to establish a "slavocracy" where the whole Texas situation was a supposed conspiracy to gain a slave state.
      2. Texas would have to wait.
  18. Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840
    1. In the 1840 election, the Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren for reelection. The Whigs nominated Indian-fighting hero William Henry Harrison.
    2. From the beginning, Van Buren was in trouble due to the economic fallout of the Panic of 1837.
    3. The election dealt more with personalities and hoopla than with issues.
      1. Van Buren, who came from humble beginnings, was painted as a rich snob out-of-touch with the people.
      2. Harrison, who came from wealthy beginnings, was painted as the born-in-a-log-cabin type. He adopted a log cabin as the symbol of the campaign.
      3. The 1840 campaign is noteworthy in that it might be considered the first "modern" election…
        1. Voter turnout was a whopping 75% (as opposed to roughly only 25% for the 1824 "corrupt bargain" election or 50% in 1828).
        2. Hard cider was given out, campaign slogans were created ("Tippecanoe and Tyler Too"), songs were sung, issues or problems were hidden behind slogans and cheers–essentially, everything superficial about modern campaigns was born.
    4. Harrison won easily, 234 to 60 in the electoral vote. The vote was a protest against the poor economy.
  19. Politics for the People
    1. During the Federalist era, an elite record with impeccable experience was respected. By the 1830's, being born in a log cabin and rising up from poverty was more respected. A politician born rich was a politician doomed.
    2. Any politician from the west was especially liked: such as Andrew Jackson, Davy Crockett, and William Henry Harrison. These men made their names by their shooting skills and/or Indian fighting out west.
    3. This change became known as the "New Democracy" where the "common man" voted for a common sense politician who was more like the "average Joe" than the college grad.
      1. The top characteristic of the New Democracy was "universal white manhood suffrage" (all white men could vote).
      2. These new politicians were known as "coonskin congressman".
  20. The Two-Party System
    1. By 1840, the two political party system had reached its maturity. It would dominate American politics until today.
    2. Two parties in 1840 were…
      1. The Democrats were the common man's party.
        1. True to founder Thomas Jefferson's beliefs, they championed liberty of the individual.
        2. Loved states' rights (and therefore disliked the federal government doing too much).
        3. It was made up of the lower classes, mostly of farmers.
        4. It was made up mostly of people in the South, West, and in the rural or small-town areas.
      2. The Whigs were the upper class's party.
        1. The were like the Federalists of older days.
        2. Favored a stronger federal government that could take action for the nation's benefit.
        3. Favored issues such as internal improvements, tariffs, a strong national bank, public schools.
        4. It was made up mostly of the educated and wealthier classes.
        5. It was made up largely from the cities and the East.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy

  1. The Westward Movement
    1. Americans continued to move westward in large numbers. The trip though, proved to have lots of difficulties, hardships, and diseases.
    2. Generally speaking, the westerners were (independent, stubborn, uneducated, and individualistic and ambitious in their own way).
    3. Emerging literature reflected these unique types of people such as James Fenimore Cooper's woodsy hero "Natty Bumpo" or Herman Melville's whale-hunting "Captain Ahab."
  2. Shaping the Western Landscape
    1. The land was shaped by those who moved onto it.
      1. Tobacco farmers were accustomed to "land butchery" where they'd wear out a piece of land, then just move on to find more.
      2. "Kentucky bluegrass" began to thrive after settlers burnt off the tall cane grass.
    2. Trapping was big business.
      1. Fur trappers were taking a toll on the beaver population but reaping the profits of their sales. Beaver hats had become a fashion must-have back in Europe—good for the trappers, bad for the beaver.
      2. Buffalo hides also were big business and the buffalo population began to dwindle. It'd drop considerably as the 1800's wore on.
    3. Although the land was to be used, Americans respected it and noticed its beauty.
      1. George Catlin was an artist who painted western scenes and Native Americans. He was a first advocate of national parks and his suggestion eventually became the first national park, Yellowstone in 1872.
  3. The March of the Millions
    1. America continued to grow rapidly in numbers. By the mid 1800's the population continued to double every 25 years.
    2. There were 33 states and America was the 4th largest nation in the world.
    3. Cities were growing very fast.
      1. In 1790, only to cities had more than 20,000 people. By 1860, there were 43 cities that size.
      2. The west was growing quickly, witnessed by New Orleans and Chicago ("hog butcher for the world").
      3. The drawback of such fast growth was poor sanitation. Later on, pipes would bring in clean water and sewers would take out the bad.
    4. The increase came from a high birthrate but also from immigration.
      1. Two groups came en masse: the Irish and Germans.
      2. The appeal of America was for land, religious freedom, safety from wars, but mostly, just the opportunity for a better life than in Europe.
  4. The Emerald Isle Moves West
    1. In the 1840's, the potato crop failed and the "potato famine" resulted. 2 million Irish died.
    2. During the "Black Forties" thousands of Irish emigrated to America searching for a better life.
      1. From the American perspective, the Irish brought little to the table because they mostly were uneducated and poor.
      2. They were also Catholic which was frowned upon.
    3. From the beginning Americans looked down upon the Irish and gave them the worst and lowest-paying of jobs.
    4. Politicians quickly learned that there was power in the Irish vote and got their votes by "twisting the lion's tail" (antagonizing England whom the Irish hated).
    5. Despite discrimination, the Irish were hard workers and stubbornly determined to make a better life for themselves. They worked hard, drank hard, and were passionate people who lived robust lives.
  5. The German Forty-Eighters
    1. At the same time, 1 million Germans came to America. Their reasons for coming were (a) crop failure (as in Ireland) but also, (b) to flee the chaos of war in 1848.
    2. Whereas the Irish largely stayed in the cities on the east coast, the Germans leap-frogged over to the frontier, notably to Wisconsin.
    3. The Germans gave America the Conestoga wagon, the Kentucky rifle, the Christmas tree, and kindergarten.
    4. The Germans were unique in that…
      1. They were Lutheran and clung to their native language.
      2. They were outspokenly against slavery.
      3. They drank large quantities of beer (this helped fuel the "temperance movement" against alcohol).
      4. And they kept to themselves in order to preserve their culture. All told, the Americans looked upon these Germans with suspicion.
  6. Flare-ups of Antiforeignism
    1. The large influx of immigrants caused "nativists" to strike back. "Nativists" were those born in America and were opposed to immigrants.
    2. Nativists complaints were that the newcomers were uneducated, poor, from non-democratic backgrounds, Catholic (in the Irish case), and willing to work for next to nothing (which drove down American wages).
    3. The "Order of the Star Spangled Banner" emerged but was better known as the "Know-Nothings." They were called this since, being a secret society, they'd answer an inquiry with, "I know nothing."
      1. The Know-Nothings fed off of fear and sensational stories, usually untrue, such as Maria Monk's book Awful Disclosures which was very popular reading.
      2. Violence also flared up, usually directed at the Irish Catholics.
      3. The idea of a "melting pot" where all races and peoples melted into one American people was under fire.
    4. As time wore on, the presence of these immigrants grew to be less threatening. Their hard work and the economic growth of the nation went hand-in-hand.
  7. Creeping Mechanization
    1. The Industrial Revolution began in England when machines and factories began to replace handmade products. It then spread to Europe and America.
    2. America had characteristics that enabled it to become an industrial powerhouse…
      1. Cheap land. This meant there was always a shortage of labor. Why work for someone else when you could get your own land and work for yourself?
      2. Workers. Immigration, which started to rise sharply in the 1840's, began to solve the problem of shortage of labor.
      3. Raw materials. America was large and blessed with many resources.
      4. Consumers. America had many people and they were just "starting out" and therefore ready to buy whatever was produced.
    3. Still, America struggled to compete with the British in manufacturing. The U.S. simply couldn't produce goods as fast and cheap as the Brits.
  8. Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine
    1. Samuel Slater was a textile worker in England. He memorized the plans of the factory, came to America, got financial backing from Moses Brown, and built a factory for spinning thread at Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1791). He's known as the "Father of the Factory System."
    2. Slater's thread-spinning system created a shortage of cotton fiber. Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin which separated the fiber from the seed (1793).
      1. The machine was 50 times more efficient than a person using only his hands.
      2. The cotton gin caused the South to expand its cotton producing land and increase its desire for slaves.
      3. The cotton gin caused the North to expand its factories for spinning and weaving cloth. New England was a good choice for factories because its soil wasn't very good for farming, but its quick-moving rivers drove the mills and it had quick access to the seaports.
  9. Marvels in Manufacturing
    1. The War of 1812 had an unexpectedly positive impact on the economy. The dated Embargo Act, which hurt the economy, forced young manufacturing to grow.
      1. But, after the war ended, the British began to flood America's markets with their inexpensive products. This hurt American manufacturers who couldn't compete with the older Brits.
      2. Therefore, Congress pass the Tariff of 1816 as a "protective tariff" (one to boost foreign goods and therefore make American goods look cheaper).
    2. Eli Whitney also created "interchangeable part" where machine-made components of anything could simply be swapped out if one broke. Though more well-known for the cotton gin, interchangeable parts turned into "mass production" and was really his greatest legacy. Whitney made guns in this manner.
    3. Now with cloth easily made, clothes couldn't keep up. Elias Howe and Isaac Singer invented the sewing machine.
    4. An invention boom took place. The 1850's ended with 28,000 patents compared to only 306 in the 1790's.
    5. Companies also changed. The "limited liability corporation" came into existence. These companies ensured that if the company went bad, an investor could lose only what he'd invested (not everything he owned). This assurance caused more people to invest in business and thus for businesses to grow.
    6. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph thus providing nearly instant communication. The first words on his "talking wire" were "What hath God wrought?"
  10. Workers and “Wage Slaves” This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. A side-effect of the factory system was the exploitation of workers. They came to be called "wage slaves."
    2. Conditions in a typical factory were not good…
      1. They were unsafe.
      2. They were unhealthy.
      3. Hours were long and wages were low.
      4. Child labor was common. Childhood was short and harsh.
    3. Conditions for adult workers improved during the 1820's and 30's as universal white manhood suffrage gave workers the power of the vote.
      1. Goals were the 10-hour workday, higher wages, better conditions, public education, and humane imprisonment for debt.
      2. The results were only fair, at best. Any group that went on strike to achieve these goals were likely fired. There were always more immigrants happy to work for whatever they could get. These substitute workers were called "scabs."
    4. In 1840, President Van Buren did set a 10-hour work day for federal employees.
    5. Early labor unions had little impact at best (due the constant availability of scab workers).
      1. They did score victory with the Massachusetts supreme court case of Commonwealth v. Hunt which legalized labor unions in 1842.
  11. Women and the Economy
    1. With the factories came female labor.
      1. Lowell, Mass. was well-known as employing young women to work in its textile factories. The women worked, bunked in dorms, were able to take classes, and were carefully guarded over.
      2. Other opportunities for women were in nursing, domestic service, and teaching. Catharine Beecher was the leading proponent who pushed for women to enter teaching.
      3. Almost always, these working women were young and single. Once they married, the expectation was that they'd stay at home and raise their family.
    2. The home and families also changed with the onset of the Industrial Revolution.
      1. Families also began to shrink in size. As cities grew and factory jobs increased, an extra mouth to feed was considered to be a detriment rather than an assistant. On a farm, another child was simply another worker—not so in the city.
      2. The home changed from a place of work (like on the farm) to a place of rest (away from the factory). This is when the phrase "Home Sweet Home" emerged.
    3. Although women began to work more at this time, it shouldn't be over-stated. Women were still expected to mostly be at home. Their number one job was still to efficiently and lovingly manage a home and family.
  12. Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields
    1. The lands Allegheny mountains (the modern Midwestern states) were growing rapidly.
      1. Corn was the main crop. Hogs (corn on the hoof) and whiskey (corn in a bottle) were also large products.
      2. Cincinnati, on the Ohio River, was booming and called the "Porkopolis" of the West.
    2. Like the cotton gin for the South, inventions helped the western states grow.
      1. John Deere invented the steel plow. It enabled farmers to cut into the fertile but hard Midwestern soil.
      2. Cyrus McCormick invented the mechanical mower-reaper to harvest grains such as wheat.
      3. These inventions changed agriculture from a mindset of growing-to-eat to growing-to-sell-and-make-money.
    3. The Midwestern farmers now had a problem—how to get their crops to the markets (cities) back in the East. Traveling from West-to-East over the Appalachian Mountains was impractical. So, crops flowed from North-to-South down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers.
  13. Highways and Steamboats
    1. The future growth and the economic backbone of the western states was dependent on transportation. A transportation boom took place in the first half of the 1800's.
    2. Roads were built.
      1. The Lancaster Turnpike (a hard-surfaced highway) went from Philadelphia to Lancaster, PA.
      2. The Cumberland Road (better known as the National Road) went from Maryland all the way to Illinois. It was the main East-West thoroughfare.
    3. Steamboats was built.
      1. Robert Fulton is credited with building the first steamboat, the Clermont (1807). This invention radically changed the transportation structure…
        1. Rivers were now two-way streets, not one-way.
        2. The South and especially the West would draw the benefits of the steamboat.
  14. “Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York
    1. The granddaddy of canals was the Erie Canal. It was headed up by NY governor Dewitt Clinton and built using only state money.
    2. The "Big Ditch" was started in 1817 and completed in 1825. It linked the western rivers with the Atlantic Ocean.
    3. The effects of the Erie Canal were drastic…
      1. Shipping costs from the West to the East dropped 20 times ($100 became only $5).
      2. The canal effectively stole most of the trade from the Mississippi River. After its completion, more goods would flow over the Erie Canal/Hudson River route to New York City than down the Ohio and Mississippi River route to New Orleans.
      3. "Western" cities boomed, like Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago.
  15. The Iron Horse
    1. The only thing that trumped the Erie Canal was the "iron horse" (railroads).
    2. The first tracks were laid in 1828. However, tracks didn't really make a large impact until the 1850's and 60's. By the 1860's there were 30,000 miles of track.
    3. By far (3 quarters), most of the tracks were in the North.
    4. Railroads were dangerous however…
      1. Their embers started fires, collisions weren't uncommon, their boilers sometimes blew up, brakes were ridiculously poor, tracks wore out and rusted out quickly, and the gauge (width) of track wasn't standardized.
  16. Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders
    1. Cyrus Fields laid a telegraph wire across the Atlantic Ocean floor to Ireland in 1858. It lasted only 3 weeks, but was a start to instant communication with Europe.
    2. Americans began to build "clipper ships" to haul cargo to foreign nations, notably China. These sailing ships were long, sleek, and very fast. They ruled the seas for a while.
      1. Their speed gave them much of the tea trade between the Far East and Britain.
      2. Yankee clipper ships were soon outdated though. British "teakettles" (steamships) replaced the clippers. Though slow, they carried a lot of cargo and weren't susceptible to the wind.
    3. The Pony Express carried mail from Missouri to California, 2,000 miles in 10 days. It lasted only 2 years before being replaced by the trans-continental telegraph wire which gave instant communication.
  17. The Transport Web Binds the Union
    1. The "transportation revolution" wanted to link the West with the rest of the nation, and it did. Roads, canals, and steamboats linked the nation. The South was largely left to use its rivers.
    2. The Erie Canal was the greatest triumph. It "stole" much of the Mississippi River's commerce.
    3. The notion of "division of labor" emerged—each section of the U.S. specialized in its own thing. The North: manufacturing, the South: cotton for export, and the West: grain and livestock.
    4. A split was also forming between the South and the North/West. The South had long considered the West as its ally, but the transportation and economic network now linked the West to the North. The South was growing isolated.
  18. The Market Revolution
    1. Industry and business were coming into maturity.
    2. Legal issues sided with businesses.
      1. Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney said that "the rights of a community" were greater than a corporate contract. This was good news for entrepreneurs trying to get a start-up business going.
      2. Also, the trend in the courts was toward "limited liability" of companies. This also encouraged start-ups.
    3. The fabric of society was changing from "life on the farm" to "life working at a job."
    4. On the bad side, the rich-poor gap was widening. The factory owner was growing richer while the worker was struggling along.
    5. The starkest contrasts were seen in the cities…
      1. "Drifter" workers wandered from town to town looking for work.
      2. Rags-to-riches stories were rare, but they did occur. Certainly the chances of a pauper becoming a "prince" were much greater than back in Europe.
      3. Despite problems, the overall standard of living did rise.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

  1. Reviving Religion
    1. By 1850, America was still a mostly church-going country. 75% of Americans attended church regularly.
      1. The church-going nature of America was noted by French observer Alexis de Tocqueville during a visit.
    2. New religions challenged Christianity, however.
      1. Deism sprang out of the Enlightenment (AKA "Age of Reason") and was based on scientific or logical reasoning rather than faith. It had fundamental differences with Christianity…
        1. Faith (belief in what can't be proven) was rejected as silly superstition.
        2. Deism rejected the "divinity of Christ."
      2. The "Scientific Revolution" also sparked deism. Just as the solar system, mathematics, and physical laws and properties of the universe were being figured out, the principles of scientific inquiry were applied to religion.
        1. Deism believed in a supreme being who'd made the universe, like a great clockmaker. It contained all of its order, put it into motion, then stood back and let the mechanisms run. Man's "job" was to figure it all out.
        2. Well-known deists were Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine (who literally wrote The Age of Reason which outlined deism and attacked the Bible).
      3. The Unitarian religion drew followers even farther away from Christianity. Unitarians…
        1. Believed God existed in 1 person ("uni"), but not in the Holy Trinity.
        2. Rejected the divinity of Christ.
        3. Believed people were essentially good at heart, not born under "original sin."
        4. Believed people were saved through "good works", not through faith in Christ.
        5. Attracted intellectual types, notably Ralph Waldo Emerson.
    3. These perversions of Christianity ignited Christians to “take back their faith” and oppose these new beliefs.
      1. A Christian revival movement began around 1800. It reached full speed as the 2nd Great Awakening in the 1830's.
      2. The 2nd Great Awakening was like the first (which occurred 100 years prior) in that it was a rural movement (taking place in "camp meetings"), it was emotional, appealing to the common classes, and was a national movement.
      3. It was unique in that it spawned a series of other movements: prison reform, temperance (movement to ban alcohol), and abolition of slavery.
      4. Missionaries went westward in attempt to Christianize Native Americans.
      5. Methodists and Baptists were the big winners in the movement. They each stressed a personal relationship with Christ and the emotional nature of the Awakening thus helped those denominations.
      6. Leading preachers of the 2nd Great Awakening were Peter Cartwright, a Methodist circuit rider traveling from town to town preaching, and Charles Grandison Finney who was the most gifted speaker/preacher and could move the masses.
      7. The 2nd Great Awakening started many reform movements including public education, temperance (not drinking alcohol), women's suffrage (right to vote), prison reform, and better treatment for the mentally handicapped.
  2. Denominational Diversity
    1. Western New York became known as the "Burned-Over District" due to the hellfire of its revival preaching.
    2. Other religious sects were spawned.
      1. The "Millerites" (AKA Adventists) predicted Christ's return on October 22, 1844. When this prophesy failed to materialize, the movement lost credibility.
      2. The Mormon faith would also begin at this time.
    3. The gap between the classes and regions were widened by the 2nd Great Awakening.
      1. Generally, the poor, rural, less-educated, Southerner or Westerner became a Methodist or Baptist.
      2. Generally, the wealthier, urban, more-educated, Easterner or person on the coastline stayed Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, or became Unitarian.
      3. Slavery was a divisive issue to the churches (the Methodist and Presbyterian churches split over this).
  3. A Desert Zion in Utah
    1. In 1830, Joseph Smith claimed to have found golden tablets in NY with the Book of Mormon inscribed on them. He thus came up with "Mormon" or "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints."
    2. Mormons ran into troubles with their neighbors due to polygamy (having multiple wives), drilling a militia, and voting as a block.
      1. Joseph Smith was killed in a skirmish. Brigham Young took over and led the Mormons along the "Mormon Trail" to Utah.
    3. The Mormons quickly grew in number due to high birth rates.
    4. The issue of polygamy delayed Utah's statehood until 1896.
  4. Free School for a Free People
    1. Free public education was not popular in the early 1800's.
      1. Opponents of compulsory (mandatory) education questioned why their tax money should go to teach another person's child.
    2. Jacksonian democracy forced the public opinion to begin to change.
      1. More and more people could now vote. Youngsters would soon be voters and thus "run the country." The idea of a nation of uneducated illiterates was not appealing. They needed to be educated.
      2. Also, it was viewed as cheaper to educated now, rather than pay for prisoners in jail later.
    3. Teachers were not the best, however. They were often ill-educated and ill-trained themselves.
    4. Horace Mann became known as the "Father of Public Education." He pushed for free compulsory education and education that strayed from just "dead languages" to more "hands-on" education and the "3 R's."
    5. Unfortunately in the education movement, African-Americans were largely ignored.
    6. Two mountains in the education world were…
      1. Noah Webster who wrote his Blueback Speller and dictionary. His lessons were mixed with grammar and moral lessons.
      2. William H. McGuffey who wrote the McGuffey's Reader that nearly every schoolchild read from. The Reader also contained both English lessons as well as patriotic and moral lessons.
  5. Higher Goals for Higher Learning
    1. The 2nd Great Awakening spawned educational reform.
      1. New colleges sprung up in the West (Ohio Valley) and the South.
      2. The curriculum was often traditional: classical languages of Latin and Greek, Math, and moral philosophy.
    2. The first state-supported university was founded in the Tar Heel state, the University of North Carolina, in 1795; Jefferson started the University of Virginia shortly afterwards (UVA was to be independent of religion or politics).
    3. Higher education for women had long been taboo. The feeling was that such education corrupted women which, in turn, corrupted the children and families. New colleges for women began to emerge…
      1. Troy Female Seminary was established by Emma Willard in 1821.
      2. Mount Holyoke Seminary was established by Mary Lyon in 1837.
    4. Also, working adults craved less formalized education. There was a boom in libraries, lyceums (public lectures as given by Ralph Waldo Emerson), and magazines.
  6. An Age of Reform This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The reform movement was widespread and sought to halt cruelty, war, alcohol ("temperance"), discrimination, and slavery.
    2. Women were often the motivators behind these reform movements. They were inspired by the 2nd Great Awakening and felt it their duty as rulers of the home/family to rid society of these vices.
      1. These ladies were sometimes criticized as being naïve, but they were certainly motivated and believed in what they were doing.
    3. The views on prisons were softened. The movement was away from punishment and toward reform.
      1. Debtor prisons were abolished. This was due to the fact that, by this time, most workers (debtors) could vote.
      2. Criminal codes and penalties were softened in hopes of reforming the wrong-doer.
    4. Dorothea Dix sought and got improved treatment for the mentally insane. Prior to her work, mental insanity was viewed as a choice and was dealt with harshly. She brought the terrible treatment to light and got changes made.
    5. Pacifists (those seeking peace) spoke up. The American Peace Society was led by William Ladd. His message was lost when the Civil War erupted, but the fruits of his seed would show up in the 1900's (with the League of Nations and then U.N.).
  7. Demon Rum—The "Old Deluder"
    1. Reformers wanted to ban alcohol and end drunkenness. The thought was that the men would waste their week's wages in the bars, missed work, beat the women, destroy the families, and ruin the Christian family. Therefore, the women led this movement.
    2. The American Temperance Society was founded in Boston, 1826. Local chapters began to emerge. They used a variety of methods to encourage temperance (discourage drinking).
    3. Novelist T.S. Arthur wrote Ten Nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There which described how a bar ruined a small town. It became a play and was second only to Uncle Tom's Cabin (another "reformer" novel).
    4. The war on alcohol had a two-pronged attack…
      1. Remove the desire to drink—thus they stressed "temperance" (drinking only a bit and occasionally) rather than "teetotalism" (not drinking at all).
      2. Punish those who did drink—thus they strengthened laws. Neal S. Dow sponsored the Maine Law of 1851 which prohibited alcohol's sale or manufacture. Other states followed (though legal battles also followed the laws).
  8. Women in Revolt
    1. Although women generally had a better life than in Europe, they were expected to quietly stay at home.
      1. French observer Alexis de Tocqueville noted that rape in America was punishable by death, whereas in his home of France it was usually overlooked.
    2. Some women didn't marry at all and become "spinsters."
    3. The idea was that women were emotionally and spiritually weaker than men. Men were seen as barbaric and uncivilized. It was also viewed as the duty of the women to civilize the men.
      1. The irony was that women were spiritually weak as well (why Satan came to Eve first) but supposedly somehow both pure and pious.
    4. Women had almost no role outside of the home, but they owned and ran the homes. This was called the "cult of domesticity."
    5. The women had leaders…
      1. Catherine Beecher urged women to take teaching jobs (until they married).
      2. Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton all pushed for women's suffrage (right to vote).
      3. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell became the first female doctor, Amelia Bloomer wore short skirts (bloomers), Margaret Fuller edited a transcendentalist journal, the Grimke sisters pushed for the abolition of slavery.
    6. The greatest first-step in women's rights was taken with the Seneca Falls Women’s Rights Convention (1848) in New York.
      1. It wrote a "Declaration of Sentiments" arguing that "all men and women were created equal."
      2. It demanded female suffrage.
      3. Neither of these things happened anytime soon, but the women's rights movement was born.
  9. Wilderness Utopias
    1. During this boom of reform there were several utopia (perfect society) experiments. They all failed.
    2. Robert Owen started New Harmony, Indiana (1825). It attracted intellectual types but failed due to infighting and confusion.
    3. The Brook Farm was started in Massachusetts (1841). It attracted Transcendentalist intellectuals. It kept its head above water for 5 years, then a major building burnt down and the whole thing was lost to debt.
    4. The Oneida Community started in New York (1848). A couple of "kooky" things went along with it…
      1. It was communal and embraced free love, birth control, and selecting parents to have planned children.
      2. Though started as a communistic-style project, it was capitalism that saved it. They started selling baskets for a profit. Then, they sold flatware and cutlery (today, the Oneida company is still a huge seller of forks, spoons, and knives).
    5. The Shakers were begun by Mother Ann Lee as a religious sect. They stressed simplicity in their lives and separated the sexes. This led to them dying off by 1940.
  10. The Dawn of Scientific Achievement
    1. During the formative years of the nations, Americans were concerned with practical matters and science, not pure or theoretical sciences.
      1. Thomas Jefferson invented a new and better plow.
      2. Nathaniel Bowditch wrote on navigation.
      3. Matthew Maury studied the ocean winds and currents.
      4. Benjamin Silliman was a Yale chemist and geologist for 50+ years.
      5. Louis Agassiz was a Harvard biologist who stressed original research over rote memorization.
      6. Asa Gray was a Harvard botanist and was a pioneer of botany.
      7. John Audubon was an early naturalist who painted birds with precise details. He is the namesake of today's "Audubon Society" that studies birds.
    2. Medicine was primitive at the time.
      1. Common "cures" were bleeding (often with leeches) and purging (using laxatives).
      2. The village blacksmith or butcher was often the doctor or surgeon.
      3. Knowledge of sanitation was very lacking, if at all. Disease obviously resulted.
      4. Medicines were ridiculous "cure-alls" which usually consisted mostly of alcohol.
        1. Dr. Oliver Wendall Holmes said that if all the medicines were thrown into the sea, the people would be better off and the fish worse.
  11. Artistic Achievements
    1. U.S. had traditionally imitated European styles of art (aristocratic subjects, dark portraits of important people or gods, stormy landscapes).
    2. There was a Greek revival in architecture in the early 1800's after Greece won its independence from the Turks.
      1. By 1850 a Gothic revival began with its pointed arches.
      2. Thomas Jefferson was the premier architect of the day. His best works being his home (Monticello) and the University of Virginia.
    3. Artists were looked upon as time-wasters. They were either wasting time which they could use to actually do something or they had too much pride and were eager to show off their work. Some painters did come on the scene…
      1. Gilbert Stuart painted many portraits of George Washington.
      2. Charles Willson Peale also painted George Washington.
      3. John Trumbull painted scenes of the Revolutionary War.
      4. These paintings were still done in a "European style." A distinct American flavor would come later.
    4. In music, "darky tunes" were popular. They were nostalgic, rhythmic, and yet stereotypical of African-Americans.
      1. Stephen Foster's songs were the most famous, especially Old Folks at Home, better known as Suwanee River.
  12. The Blossoming of a National Literature
    1. Up until this point, American "literature" was either…
      1. Political or practical in nature like Common Sense, The Declaration of Independence, The Federalist Papers, or Poor Richard's Almanack. Or…
      2. Imitative of European writings either in style, subject matter, or both.
    2. By the 1830's or so, American writing truly became American, both in style and in subject matter. Just as politics had revolted against the Old World, culture was now doing so. The old saying is that "art imitates life," and America was thinking of themselves truly as Americans.
      1. The "Knickerbocker group" exemplified this new American writing.
        1. Washington Irving wrote Knickerbocker's History of New York and The Sketch Book including "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." The setting was in the U.S.
        2. James Fenimore Cooper wrote what might be considered the first of blockbuster American fiction in Leatherstocking Tales. These stories told of Natty Bumppo, a frontiersman and his adventures, notably in The Last of the Mohicans. The setting was the wilderness of New York.
        3. William Cullen Bryant wrote poetry including "Thanatopsis." Europeans didn't think such quality poetry could be written on "this side of the water."
  13. Trumpeters of Transcendentalism
    1. Transcendentalism was a New England intellectual movement that began to challenge ways of thinking. During the "Age of Reason," knowledge came from experimentation. John Locke had argued that knowledge came solely from the senses. The Transcendentalists said knowledge rises above (transcends) just the senses. People were thought to reach an inner light and touch the "Oversoul" (something akin to God).
    2. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the most famous Transcendentalist.
      1. Emerson was a former Unitarian pastor turned writer and lyceum speaker.
      2. His most famous writing/speech was Self Reliance which stressed individualism. He also urged Americans to declare independence from Europe in terms of art, literature, thinking, etc.
      3. Emerson was the Transcendentalist with the credentials, success, and the "big name."
    3. Henry David Thoreau was Emerson's friend and neighbor. Whereas Emerson talked about self reliance, Thoreau lived it.
      1. Tired of "modern" society, Thoreau spent two years living in the woods off of nothing but what he could make, grow, or trade for. Then he wrote the classic Walden: Or Life in the Woods describing his simple life there.
      2. He also wrote On the Duty of Civil Disobedience which emphasized peacefully not following unjust laws. This became a strong influence later on Mahatma Gandhi and then Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
    4. Walt Whitman was a saucy poet who wrote Leaves of Grass. He encouraged people to live their lives to the fullest and holler out a "barbaric yawp."
  14. Glowing Literary Lights
    1. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an immensely popular poet with "Evangeline," "The Tales of Hiawatha," and "The Courtship of Miles Standish."
    2. John Greenleaf Whittier wrote poems that barked against social injustice like slavery.
    3. James Russell Lowell similarly wrote satirical poetry that criticized social wrongs, such as Biglow Papers.
    4. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes was a poet who wrote "The Last Leaf" to honor the last "white Indian" of the Boston Tea Party.
    5. Women writers also made their mark.
      1. Louisa May Alcott grew up in Transcendentalist Concord, Mass. and wrote Little Women.
      2. Emily Dickinson wrote love poems, also in Massachusetts.
    6. William Gillmore Simms was known as "the Cooper of the South." He wrote of southern life during the American Revolution.
  15. Literary Individualists and Dissenters
    1. Edgar Allan Poe is often credited with inventing the "psychological thriller." His poems and stories often dealt with the ghostly and the macabre. Well-known works are "The Raven," "The Fall of the House of Usher," and many others.
    2. The imprint of Calvinist/Puritanical belief in original sin is undeniable in literature at this time.
      1. Nathaniel Hawthorne explored the idea of original sin wit works such as The House of Seven Gables and The Scarlet Letter where the heroine is condemned to wear a red "A" on her blouse to show her sin of adultery.
      2. Herman Melville wrote Moby Dick, the allegorical tale of good vs. evil. It follows the mad Captain Ahab's hell-bent quest to kill the white whale, Moby Dick.
  16. Portrayers of the Past
    1. George Bancroft helped found the Naval Academy in Annapolis, MD and his history of the U.S. earned him the title of "Father of American History."
    2. William H. Prescott wrote histories detailing the conquests of Mexico and Peru.
    3. Francis Parkman wrote the history of England and France's struggle for control of North America.
    4. Nearly always, the history books at this time were written by New Englanders. There was therefore a decidedly pro-North bias built in (much to the South's dismay).
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

  1. "Cotton Is King!"
    1. Eli Whitney's 1793 cotton gin invention revolutionized the Southern economy. Added to mechanical jennies to spin yarn, power looms to weave, and sewing machines to sew, the demand (and profits) for cotton fiber skyrocketed.
    2. Southerners scrambled to plant more cotton.
      1. The land was usually worn out then discarded ("land butchery"). The result was a Southern thirst for still more land.
      2. The demand for slaves to work the land also increased.
    3. The "Cotton Kingdom" benefited the North as well since most of the South's cotton was woven on Northern looms.
    4. In 1845, cotton made up 1/2 of all American exports. Also, 1/2 of the world's cotton was grown in the American South. (These numbers would each swell to 2/3 in 1861, the year the Civil War began).
      1. Notably, Britain relied heavily on Southern cotton. About 1/5 of the British population made their living in the cotton textile industry. 3/4 of the British cotton came from the American South.
    5. Southerners believed their importance in the world's economy was set in stone. If war were to break out over slavery, the logic went, Southerners were sure that Britain would have no choice but to come to their aid. This logic, though sensible based on the numbers, never panned out.
  2. The Planter “Aristocracy”
    1. The antebellum (pre-Civil War) South was an oligarchy (government by a few elite).
    2. Only 1,733 families owned 100+ slaves in 1850. They ruled the South in a "cottonocracy."
      1. Southern society is shrouded in myths. The scene, often shown in movies, of huge plantations with the Greek-columned "big house" overseeing hundreds of slaves was true, but only for those 1,733 families.
    3. These elite families sent their sons off to Ivy League schools or to military schools like West Point, the Citadel, or VMI. The Southern belles were expected to marry and eventually run the plantation household.
      1. Education in the South was lacking. This was because the rich elite simply hired private tutors and were thus unmotivated to establish free public schools.
    4. Sir Walter Scott was the author of Ivanhoe and was very popular to Southerners. They liked the medieval world described in the novel and especially its code of chivalry with knights and damsels. In the Southern-elite mind, Southern society was rekindling medieval society with military-trained, bright, and dashing young Southern gentlemen and the gentile Southern belles. Though real in the elite Southern mind, this society was also myth. And even if it came close to being real, it was still built on the backs of slaves.
    5. Southern women had unique roles.
      1. The mistress of the plantation managed the household. It was a large job where she gave daily orders to cooks, maids, seamstresses, laundresses, etc. as well as handling any personal issues that inevitably arise with a large "staff."
        1. Though clearly to "take a backseat to the men" in terms of politics or officially running a business, these Southern women had real authority in running these areas as they saw fit. Few Northern women had such positions or authority.
      2. The mistresses were sometimes very kind to their subjects and at other times very cruel.
  3. Slaves of the Slave System
    1. High cotton profits encouraged "land-butchery." New cotton land was always needed.
    2. With the desire for more land, the small farmer began to get squeezed out. The small farm was often sold to the large plantation owner. Thus, the elite-run oligarchy society was perpetuated and reinforced.
    3. The King Cotton economy had faults…
      1. Debts began to run high since many people over-speculated in land or in slaves. Slaves were profitable (due to their value), but were also risky since they might run away or die.
      2. The Southern economy was based on one crop only—cotton. This was profitable, but also risky by "putting all their eggs in one basket."
      3. Similarly, Southerners relied on the North for nearly everything, from manufactured goods to food.
      4. Also, immigrants did not go to the South. The reasons were (a) labor competition from slaves, (b) the high price of land, and (c) ignorance of cotton cultivation. These hard-working immigrants wound up helping the North solely, at the South's expense.
  4. The White Majority
    1. Southern society had a social ranking system. The elite, large slave-owners were at the top.
    2. On the rung just below the "cottonocracy," were small farmers who owned slaves. About 3/4 of Southern whites did not own slaves, and of the quarter that did, most owned only about 2 or 3 slaves, usually a family.
    3. Next came whites who did not own slaves (3/4 of whites). An irony exists in that (a) they had a deep resent of the wealthy slave owners (the "snobocracy") yet (b) still held the "Southern dream" of one day becoming a wealthy slave owner.
      1. Most of these whites were very poor. They were sneered as "poor white trash," "hillbillies," and "crackers."
      2. They were called "clay eaters" because they chewed clay to get minerals they lacked in their diet. They also got hookworm from the clay.
      3. Though slave-less, these whites were very racist. Their thinking was that no matter how poor or how bad off they had it in life, they still viewed themselves as being above the slaves.
      4. Whites that lived in the mountains (hillbillies) likely had the toughest life of all whites. They were incredibly isolated, living in coves and hollows separated from the rest of the nation. They were extremely poor and scratched a living out of the mountains.
        1. Mountains whites were not strong supporters of slavery, if even supporters at all. They (a) had no need for slavery in the mountains and (b) despised the wealthy white plantation owners who usually ran their state.
        2. The fact that mountain whites didn't support slavery can be seen when the Civil War broke out. West Virginia broke away from Virginia over this matter. And, many whites from the hills "volunteered" to fight for the North (as in Tennessee, the "Volunteer State").
  5. Free Blacks: Slaves Without Masters
    1. The next rung on the Southern social ladder belonged to free blacks. In 1860, there were 250,000 free blacks in the South.
    2. Slaves may have been freed by one of many methods…
      1. By a movement of emancipation after the American Revolution (usually the upper South).
      2. By the slave owner. These were usually mulattoes, often the child of a white owner and black mistress.
      3. By purchasing one's freedom. If a slave could save enough money, he could just buy himself, so to speak and thereby free himself.
    3. Many freed blacks owned property, as in New Orleans. A few blacks even owned slaves.
    4. Free blacks were 2nd, or 3rd, class citizens. The pro-slavery crowd didn't like them since they represented the possible end of slavery. Also, free blacks rights were certainly limited compared to whites.
    5. Northerners disliked free blacks as well. The Irish especially disliked blacks since both were in competition for the lower paying jobs.
      1. When the North stood up to stop the expansion of slavery into western lands, it was perhaps motivated more by economics of labor competition than by the desire to stop slavery.
      2. The idea that the South hated blacks and the North loved them is a myth. Anti-black sentiment in the North was often fiercer than the South. It was said that the South liked the black individual (with whom they lived daily), but hated the race; but the North claimed to like the race (with whom they'd never lived), but hated the individual.
      3. Frederick Douglass, the leading spokesperson for blacks and against slavery, was beaten several times in the North.
  6. Plantation Slavery This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. At the bottom of the Southern social ladder were slaves. Though slaves were at the bottom in status, slavery (AKA the "peculiar institution") made up the foundation of Southern economics and society.
    2. By 1860, there were 4 million slaves in America.
    3. Slave importation had been banned in 1808, but it was a moot point. Slaves were still smuggled into America and penalties for doing so were infrequent. Also, by this time, slavery was self-supporting through natural childbirth.
    4. Slaves were viewed as an investment—one to be guarded. The most dangerous jobs were saved for a hired Irishman so as to not injure a valuable slave.
      1. Strong, hard-working men, slaves with special skills, or women who gave birth to many children were especially prized.
    5. Slavery followed the "Cotton Belt"—an arc swooping from Virginia down through to Texas. The heart of the Cotton Belt was from South Carolina to Louisiana, the "Deep South."
      1. Slaves from the upper South were sometimes "sold down the river" to the Deep South.
      2. This theme (being sold down the river) became the storyline for Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin.
        1. The book was fiction that played on readers' emotions to swell up the abolition movement.
        2. Its impact cannot be understated and was a considerable cause of the war.
  7. Life Under the Lash
    1. Life as a slave is hard to pin down. Sometimes a slave had a kind master, sometimes the master was extremely cruel.
      1. In all situations, a slave was expected to work hard and abide by the rules.
    2. Whippings were not uncommon.
      1. On the one hand, whippings were a disincentive to getting "out of line."
      2. On the other hand, excessive whippings left scars which would hurt a slave's resale value.
    3. Generally, life in the Deep South was tougher than the upper South.
      1. The Deep South (the Cotton of Slave Belt) accounted for about 75% of the black population.
      2. On the good side, slave life and families tended to be more stable there.
    4. Despite huge obstacles, blacks showed great resilience.
      1. A distinctive African-American culture emerged. This was played out through a mixture of language, religion (mix of tribalism and Christianity, focus on Moses' story), and music (bongos, banjos, then jazz).
  8. The Burdens of Bondage
    1. Slaves had no part in the "American dream" that nearly all other Americans enjoyed.
    2. To "fight back," slaves employed techniques such as simply working very slowly.
    3. The ultimate goal of slaves, unsurprisingly, was freedom.
      1. This is seen in slaves' preference in religion for Moses' story of delivering the Israelites from bondage and in hymns that emphasized "flying away" or the freedoms provided by Jesus and of Heaven.
      2. Also, slave revolts occurred.
        1. Gabriel led a revolt in Virginia.
        2. Denmark Vesey led a revolt in South Carolina.
        3. Nat Turner was considered something of a prophet and led a revolt in Virginia.
        4. All of these were unsuccessful and wound up terribly for the leaders. The overall result was to (a) scare the dickens out of the whites and (b) see the whites tighten security and black codes.
    4. Booker T. Washington later noted that whites, in keeping blacks down in the ditch, had to get down into the ditch with them.
  9. Early Abolitionism
    1. The abolition of slavery began in America with the Quakers.
    2. The American Colonization Society started with the goal of moving blacks back to Africa.
      1. It succeeded in starting Liberia on the West Africa coast.
      2. It failed because (a) most blacks considered themselves African-Americans, not Africans and (b) finances for the entire venture were very short for the huge task.
    3. The 2nd Great Awakening of the 1830's fueled a surge in the abolition movement.
      1. Theodore Dwight Weld was inspired by Charles Grandison Finney's preaching and became a leading anti-slavery spokesman.
      2. Weld attended the Lane Theological Seminary which was headed by Lyman Beecher, the father of novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, reformer Catharine Beecher and preacher-abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher.
      3. The "Lane Rebels" fought slavery with words. Weld wrote a propaganda pamphlet titled American Slavery as It Is.
  10. Radical Abolitionism
    1. William Lloyd Garrison published a radical abolitionist newspaper titled The Liberator.
      1. It made its debut on New Year's Day, 1831, and forcefully shouted against slavery for the next 30 years. Garrison's famous battle cry was I WILL BE HEARD!
      2. Critics charged that Garrison fanned the flames of anti-slavery, but offered no real solution.
    2. Wendell Phillips helped start the American Abolitionist Society to further the cause.
    3. A black abolitionist, David Walker, wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World urged military action to end slavery.
    4. Another black abolitionist, Sojourner Truth, was a tireless spokeswoman for abolition and women's rights.
    5. Martin Delaney seriously considered black colonization of Africa.
    6. The greatest abolitionist was Frederick Douglass.
      1. Douglass was a former slave who escaped to Massachusetts and became the cause's leading spokesman.
      2. His autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass became a classic and remains so to this day.
      3. Unlike Garrison, Douglass was more practical. He supported the Liberty Party, the Free-Soil Party, and then the Republican Party.
    7. Finally, nearly all of the abolitionists supported the Civil War as the final solution to end slavery.
  11. The South Lashes Back
    1. 1831 was a turning point for slavery in the South because (a) emancipation proposals were defeated in Virginia and (b) Nat Turner's bloody rebellion scared whites into tightening black codes.
      1. Garrison's The Liberator popped on the scene at about the same time and was blamed for fanning the flames of rebellion. Rewards were offered for Garrison's arrest.
    2. Whereas Northerners decried the horrors of the "peculiar institution", white Southerners cultivated a happier scene of slavery. Southerners defended slavery by arguing…
      1. The Bible supported slavery. They referred to the several references of slaves in the Bible and more specifically the "curse of Ham", Noah's son and supposed patriarch of Africa, who was cursed to serve his brothers.
      2. Slave owners encouraged religion amongst their slaves.
      3. The idea of whites and happy "darkies" growing up and living together. This concept was best seen in the Stephen Foster folk songs such as "Old Folks at Home" and "My Old Kentucky Home" which sings that "the darkies are so gay."
      4. The slave-owner relationship was akin to family ties, like a father-son relationship.
      5. Perhaps the most forceful argument was economic in nature. It held that slaves had it better in comparison to Northern "wage slaves." Whereas the slaves were provided with food, clothing, shelter, and the owner had a vested interest in the slave, even when the slaves were old, Northern factory owners simply worked their employees for a tiny wage, then sent them on their way home to fend for themselves, or just fired them.
    3. Southern politicians took steps to silence anti-slavery statements or literature. Gag orders were given and abolitionist propaganda, including drawings that illiterate slaves could understand, was burnt.
  12. The Abolitionist Impact in the North
    1. The extreme-abolitionists up North, like William Lloyd Garrison, were not popular amongst most Northerners.
      1. Garrison's views were seen as annoying, disruptive, and divisive to Daniel Webster's calls for union.
    2. Northerners also knew they had a very real stake in the South—Southern cotton helped fuel the Northern textile industry. For this reason, many Northerners sought to quiet the loud abolitionists.
      1. Garrison was roughed up several times up North.
      2. Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy offended Catholic women and saw his printing press destroyed four times then was murdered by a mob.
    3. Still, abolitionists had imprinted into Northerners' minds that the South was the land of the "unfree". And, there was a growing movement among politicians not to abolish slavery, but to prevent its spread. This "free-soil" position would soon be taken up by Abraham Lincoln.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

  1. The Accession of “Tyler Too”
    1. William Henry Harrison, the Whig president elected in 1840, suddenly died after only one month in office.
    2. Harrison's campaign slogan had been "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too." Now, with Tippecanoe dead, it was Tyler's turn to be president.
      1. John Tyler was not part of the Whig plan. Whig leaders Henry Clay and Daniel Webster had intended to control President Harrison. But, Tyler had a strong independent streak.
      2. Tyler did not share Whig beliefs. He'd been chosen as V.P. to "balance the ticket" by attracting elite Southerners.
    3. John Tyler was a bit of an enigma, very difficult to figure out.
      1. He was a Southern gentlemen of the old school, with high principles.
      2. He leaned toward Jefferson/Jackson ideals, but disliked Jackson's my-way-or-highway style. So he went to the Whigs.
      3. The Whigs considered him a Democrat in Whig clothing. And in truth, his ideas did align much more with the Democrats than with the Whigs.
  2. John Tyler: A President Without a Party
    1. The Whigs went ahead with their strong nationalistic plans. Up first was the banking issue.
      1. Whigs, led by Henry Clay, wanted to end the independent treasury (where government money was kept in independent banks). A law was passed to end it, and Tyler went along and signed it.
      2. Clay then sought to make a new Bank of the United States. This time, Tyler vetoed it. He then vetoed another similar bill.
      3. Democrats were very happy, the Whigs were furious. The Whigs kicked Tyler out of the Whig party. Thus he became a president without a party.
    2. The tariff was the next issue to be bounced around.
      1. The Whigs passed a tariff bill, but Tyler also vetoed it. He disliked the fact that the sale of western lands would be spread around among the states.
      2. The Whigs took out the offensive part, lowered the tariff a bit, and Tyler signed the newer tariff bill.
  3. A War of Words with England
    1. American-English hatred still ran deep and a few events deepened the wounds.
      1. A war of words began between writers across the ocean.
      2. British lenders were angry when American debtors couldn't or wouldn't pay up after the Panic of 1837.
    2. Other incidents were more violent.
      1. The U.S. ship Caroline was attacked above Niagara Falls by Canadians. America was not pleased.
      2. Later, a Canadian named McLeod boasted of helping in the attack, was arrested by Americans, and condemned to execution. Canada said to carry out the sentence would be to declare war. He came up with an alibi and was released.
      3. Another situation arose in the Bahamas when the American ship Creole was overtaken by 130 slaves. The British gave the slaves asylum (safe haven). Southern Americans were not happy.
  4. Manipulating the Maine Maps
    1. A dispute arose over between the U.S. and Britain over the Maine-Canada border.
      1. Britain wanted a road built from the Atlantic port of Halifax through to Quebec.
      2. The U.S. wanted the land.
    2. The dispute became violent in the Aroostook War, largely by lumberjacks fighting on each side over who'd get to chop down the lumber.
    3. The dispute was settled peacefully with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty between Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton.
      1. The treaty drew a line generally at the Aroostook River and roughly split the difference of land.
      2. The U.S. also got the Mesabi range in Minnesota. Unbeknownst then, the Mesabi iron ore range became an extremely valuable piece of land and helped supply the American industrial revolution's need for iron ore to make steel.
  5. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone
    1. Since 1836, Texas was standing alone as its own country. It was eager to join the U.S., but the North was reluctant to accept another slave state.
    2. Meanwhile, Texas was making international friends in Britain, France, Belgium, and Holland. This concerned the U.S.
    3. The American thinking then wondered that, if Texas "buddied-up" with England, the results would be…
      1. American cotton would decline in value since Texas would supply England.
      2. The Monroe Doctrine would be undercut because England would have a toehold in the Americas.
    4. The urge to annex Texas grew. The issues still were…
      1. The North decried the Southern "slavocracy" (a perceived Southern "slave-conspiracy" to always gain more slave land).
      2. If the U.S. just outright annexed Texas, the result just might be a war with Mexico.
      3. Britain was eager to have an ally in Texas to help undercut the growing American power.
      4. The obvious benefits, however, of annexing Texas would be tons of land and economic possibilities.
  6. The Belated Texas Nuptials
    1. The indecision came to an end with James K. Polk. In 1844, Polk ran for president on a very clear pro-expansion platform.
    2. His victory was seen as a "mandate" for manifest destiny (the people essentially voted for expansion). Early in 1845 Texas was invited to join the U.S. and did so.
    3. Unsurprisingly, Mexico was not happy and charged that the U.S. had underhandedly stolen Texas away.
  7. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon
    1. Oregon was claimed by four nations: Spain, Russia, England, and the U.S. The first two dropped their claims leaving England and America.
      1. England had the earliest claim and a strong one based on occupation north of the Columbia River.
      2. The U.S. also had a strong claim based on the exploration of Capt. Robert Gray along the coast and Columbia River and Lewis and Clark's expedition into the heart of the Oregon territory.
    2. For years English and American settlers simply shared Oregon side-by-side. In the early 1840's, however, "Oregon fever" struck many Americans and they followed the Oregon Trail out west.
    3. With the population growing, it was becoming clear that a settlement must be reached as to who owned Oregon.
  8. A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny
    1. In the election of 1844, James K. Polk defeated Henry Clay for president.
    2. Polk was known as "Young Hickory" (after Andrew Jackson) due to his similar beliefs and his birth in Pineville, NC only some 20 miles from Jackson's birthplace.
    3. Polk ran on a very clear "Manifest Destiny" platform. To vote for Polk was to vote for expansion.
      1. Polk's victory was perceived by him as a "mandate" by the American people—an order to go ahead with expansion of the United States.
  9. Polk the Purposeful This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. James K. Polk laid out a 4-point mission for himself and the nation (then achieved all 4 points in 4 years). His goals were to…
      1. Lower the tariff.
      2. Restore the independent treasury (put U.S. money into non-government banks).
      3. Clear up the Oregon border issue.
      4. Get California.
    2. Polk and his Sec. of Treasury Robert J. Walker lowered the tariff from 32% to 25% with the help of Southerners in Congress. Northern industrialists cried foul and warned of economic despair (it never happened).
    3. The independent treasury was restored despite complaints of Whigs.
    4. The Oregon border issue was settled. England and the U.S. asked, "Which latitude is the border of Oregon, as far north as 54°40' or as far south as 42°?"
      1. England first answered "42° latitude," then said the "Columbia River."
      2. The U.S. first answered "54°40' latitude," ("54-40 or fight!" was the battle cry), then said "49° latitude."
      3. Things were tense for a while, but England realized there were more Americans in Oregon than Brits. British leverage was small in Oregon and diminishing every day as more and more Americans were moving out there.
      4. The agreement was to roughly split the land at the 49th parallel (excluding Vancouver). Polk agreed and the Senate agreed and it was final.
      5. Some Americans wondered why the U.S. would agree to half of Oregon but push for all of the Mexican lands. The answer was coldly that England was strong and Mexico was weak.
  10. Misunderstandings with Mexico
    1. The final goal, getting California, posed a problem—it belonged to Mexico.
    2. The American tradition in acquiring land was forming—(a) the U.S. tries to buy the land, if that doesn't work, (b) the U.S. would use force. These are the actions Polk took.
    3. Polk sent John Slidell as an envoy to Mexico City to make an offer to purchase California for $25 million. Mexico was still upset at the U.S. over Texas and Slidell was coldly turned away.
    4. The attempt to purchase had failed; it was time for more aggressive actions.
  11. American Blood on American (?) Soil
    1. President Polk wanted action. He ordered 4,000 troops to the Rio Grande border. Mexico disputed the move saying the Texas-Mexico border was the Nueces River, not the Rio Grande.
    2. With "the ball was in their court," Mexico crossed the Rio Grande and a skirmish followed with the U.S. troops. Polk could now point to Mexico as the aggressor.
      1. Polk quickly asked Congress to declare war and Congress quickly did so.
      2. A newcomer on the scene was Abraham Lincoln. Abe questioned the "spot" on which the skirmish took place in his "spot resolution". He was reluctant to vote for war since he wanted to know which nation owned the disputed land. He was largely booed down.
      3. Arguments flew as to whether Polk had bullied the U.S. into a war, but never-the-less, America was at war.
  12. The Mastering of Mexico
    1. Santa Anna "pulled a fast one" on Polk, however. Santa Anna was exiled in Cuba but hinted that if he was allowed to return to Mexico he'd double-cross his country. Polk let him go but he did just the opposite—he rallied the troops.
    2. The American victory over Mexico was dominating. The war itself could be divided into 3 main phases…
      1. Phase 1 - The initial goal was to get California, so that was the first order of business.
        1. Gen. Stephen W. Kearny and 1,700 troops marched from Ft. Leavenworth southward to the present New Mexico/Mexico border, then he headed west to San Diego. He effectively marked off the present border of the U.S.
        2. Kearny was joined in California by Cpt. John C. Fremont who took California and proclaimed the "Bear Flag Republic". Commodore Sloat came by boat with the U.S. Navy to secure California for good.
      2. Phase 2 - Fighting in Texas saw Gen. Zachary Taylor score victories, notably at Buena Vista where Santa Anna was defeated again.
      3. Phase 3 - Conquest of Mexico City. Gen. Winfield Scott ("Old Rough and Ready") was sent to Mexico City to deliver the coup d'grace. He retraced Hernando Cortez's same path from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and likewise conquered the capital city.
  13. Fighting Mexico for Peace
    1. Polk sent a diplomat, Nicholas Trist, along with Gen. Winfield Scott's army. Trist was to secure a peace deal as soon as Polk's demands were met.
      1. Trist was erratic, recalled by Polk, refused to return to America, and worked a deal anyway.
    2. Trist's deal, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had a huge scope…
      1. It ended the war.
      2. America got land, the Mexican Cession, entailing California, but also the future states of NV, AZ, NM, CO, and UT.
      3. The U.S. would pay $15 million for the land, and assume $3.5 million in debts owed from Mexico to the U.S.
      4. In essence, the U.S. had forced Mexico to "sell" the Mexican Cession lands.
  14. Profit and Loss in Mexico
    1. America had only 13,000 deaths, mostly by disease.
    2. The Mexican War was good practice for future generals Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant who'd one day clash in the Civil War.
    3. The war started a turning point in American-Latin relations, a turning point for the bad.
    4. The most looming issue after the war was the question, "What will be done about slavery in these new lands?"
      1. David Wilmot proposed the Wilmot Proviso suggesting the Mexican Cession lands be closed to slavery. The House passed it, twice, but the South would have nothing to do with the Proviso. Since the Senate was balanced, the Wilmot Proviso failed in the Senate.
        1. Although it failed, the importance of the Wilmot Proviso lay in the fact that it opened old wounds—those of slavery.
        2. It's this question of slavery in the new lands that would start the Civil War in 1861, only 13 years later.
    5. Mexico was understandably bitter. Half their lands had been wrested from them in only a couple of decades.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

  1. The Popular Sovereignty Panacea
    1. The Mexican Cession lands opened a "can of worms" with the question, "What should be done about slavery in these lands?"
    2. Further, with this question, the political parties (Whig and Democrat) were put into a tricky position. No matter which way they answered, half of the nation would be offended.
      1. Largely, the parties simply chose to side-step the slavery-expansion question (give no clear answer) so as to offend no one, hopefully.
    3. In the election of 1848, Polk was ailing and would not run again.
      1. The Democrats nominated Gen. Lewis Cass who'd spoken previously for popular sovereignty (the people of a territory should decide and issue for themselves).
      2. The popular sovereignty position was well-liked by politicians since it enabled them to take a neutral stance and rather say, "Let the people decide." During the campaign, however, he kept rather silent on slavery.
  2. Political Triumphs for General Taylor
    1. The Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor in 1848. He had no political experience but was the "hero of Buena Vista" which went a long way—he won the election.
      1. Taylor put the question of slavery expansion on the back burner and essentially had no official position on it.
    2. Notable in 1848 was the Free Soil Party that emerged when many Northerners were upset that neither party took a position on the expansion of slavery. They nominated Martin Van Buren and their position was clearly against the expansion of slavery.
      1. The Free Soilers also favored federal money for internal improvements and free land for settlers out west.
      2. The party attracted a wide mix of people: (a) folks upset over getting only 1/2 of Oregon, (b) people who didn't want blacks in the new lands, and (c) northern abolitionists who didn't like slavery.
  3. “Californy Gold”
    1. At Sutter's Mill in 1848, gold was discovered. The secret was quickly out and California gold rush was on.
    2. The next year, 1849, "Forty-Niners" flooded to California. Dreams of getting rich quick nearly always turned into either going bust or the constant hard work of moving dirt involved in mining.
      1. Perhaps more people made their fortunes out of the myriad of things needed to accompany the miners: general stores, lumberyards, bars, barbershops, bakeries, opera-houses for entertainment, etc.
    3. The overall result of the gold rush was that California had enough people to become a state, almost overnight. It applied to be a free state and thus threatened the 15-to-15 slave-to-free balance.
  4. Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad
    1. By 1850, the South and slavery was on solid ground because (a) the president (Zachary Taylor) was a Virginia slave owner born/raised in Louisiana, (b) though outnumbered in the House, the South had equality in the Senate and could therefore block any unwanted laws, and (c) the Constitution favored the South (this would later be upheld in the Dred Scott case).
    2. Even though on solid ground, the South felt they were under attack or upset over the following issues…
      1. The proposition of California as a free state threatened the free/slave state balance.
      2. Texas had a disputed region, again, this time into the New Mexico/Colorado/Wyoming area.
      3. Northerners were pushing hard to abolish slavery in Washington D.C.
      4. And most bothersome to the South was the issue of runaway slaves. The Fugitive Slave Law was supposed to "round up" runaways up North and ship them back South. This was largely not being done and the South took it as a personal offense.
          1. The Underground Railroad was a secret route from "station to station" that led many slaves to the North and eventually to Canada. Harriet Tubman was the most well-known "conductor" of the "railroad." She snuck back into the South 19 times and led some 300+ slaves to freedom.
    3. With these hot issues heating up, political compromise was needed to avoid violent conflict.
  5. Twilight of the Senatorial Giants
    1. California's request to be a free state forced all of these issues onto the Congressional floor.
    2. The 3 leading senators of the past decades had one more round of greatness in them…
      1. Henry Clay was known as the "Great Compromiser" and offered a compromise here. He was notably seconded by a young Senator Stephen Douglas who will take a larger role in events later. Clay urged both sides to make concessions and to compromise.
      2. For the South, John C. Calhoun argued for states' rights (the same argument as in the tariff crisis of the 1830's). He wanted slavery to be left alone, the runaway slaves to be returned to the South, and state balance kept intact.
      3. For the North, Daniel Webster had been opposed to slavery's expansion. But, in his famous "Seventh of March" speech he urged the North to compromise on the issue. He felt that the lands of the Mexican Cession were too dry to grow cotton and therefore wouldn't need slavery anyway.
          1. Abolitionists, like poet Whittier, sharply criticized Webster as a traitor to the cause.
  6. Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill
    1. A "Young Guard" of politicians were emerging in Congress. They were more interested in purifying the nation than in preserving it.
    2. Chief among the Young Guard was William H. Seward of NY. He was staunchly against slavery and argued that, when it came to slavery, Americans must follow a "higher law" (God's law), above the Constitution.
      1. This moral high road may have cost Seward the presidency in 1860.
    3. Pres. Zachary Taylor came under Seward influence. He appeared ready to veto any concessions on the matter. The chance for compromise seemed bleak.
  7. Breaking the Congressional Logjam
    1. Suddenly, Pres. Taylor died. Vice-President Millard Fillmore took over and was more open to compromise.
    2. The Compromise of 1850 emerged.
      1. Senate leaders Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Stephen Douglas all urged the North to compromise.
      2. Southern "fire-eaters" were still very much a against concession/compromise. Yet, calmer minds prevailed, the South went along, and the Compromise of 1850 passed.
  8. Balancing the Compromise Scales This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. What the North got…
      1. California admitted as a free state. This tipped the balance to the free side, permanently.
      2. Texas gave up its claims to lands disputed with New Mexico.
      3. The slave trade in District of Columbia was banned, but slavery was still legal. This was symbolic only. It was symbolic in that the nation’s capital “took a stance” against the trade. However, it was impractical because the trade only was illegal, not slavery, and since a person could easily buy a slave in next-door Virginia.
    2. What the South got…
      1. Popular sovereignty in the Mexican Cession lands. This was good for the South because prior to this, there was to be no new slave lands (the 36°30’ Missouri Compromise line had drawn that). On paper, this opened a lot of land to slavery, possibly. This was bad for the South because those lands were too dry to raise cotton anyway and therefore would never see slaves.
      2. Texas was paid $10 million for the land lost to New Mexico.
      3. A new, tougher Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 had read teeth in it. Details held that (a) runaway slaves weren't given "due process" rights if caught, (b) the official that handled the case received $5 for a slave's freedom but $10 for a slave's return, and (c) officials were demanded to catch runaway slaves despite their personal convictions on the matter.
          1. This Fugitive Slave Law proved to the be most controversial of the measures.
          2. Northerners hated being forced to catch slaves. In places, they passed "Personal Liberty Laws" which stated local officials didn't have to chase and return fugitive slaves.
          3. Southerners were outraged that the law was not enforced or was ignored. It was supposed to be one of their major concessions in the Compromise, and it appeared to have been thrown out the window.
          4. Anthony Burns personified the law. He was a runaway slave, captured and tried. But, violent protests eventually saw him bought out of slavery. He then went on to college and became a preacher.
    3. All told, the North got the better of the Compromise of 1850. This is true because (a) the balance tipped their way, (b) the Fugitive Slave Law was largely not enforced, and (c) it bought time before war while the North could build up their resources.
  9. Defeat and Doom for the Whigs
    1. In the election of 1852, the Democrats nominated unknown Franklin Pierce. Pierce was not a great leader, but had no enemies.
    2. The Whigs put Gen. Winfield Scott ("Old Fuss and Feathers"), the hero of the Mexican War, on the ballot.
    3. The largest issue of the day, slavery, was soft-pedaled so as to not offend anyone. As a result, the campaign was full of silliness and personal attacks.
      1. Slavery did split the Whigs, however. Northern and Southern Whigs disagreed on the party platform and the party candidate.
      2. Additionally, the new Free Soil Party garnered 5% of the Northern vote (hurting Scott).
    4. As a result, Pierce won in a landslide, 254 to 42 in the electoral vote.
  10. Expansionist Stirrings South of the Border
    1. The California Gold Rush had instilled interest in Central America (since many 49'ers had crossed there). And, the British influence in Central America was strong, and perhaps growing, despite the Monroe Doctrine.
      1. There were some U.S.-British tensions, but the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty eased them. It said neither the U.S. or Britain would take over the area without the other's agreement. This would later prove to be a roadblock to Teddy Roosevelt's construction of the Panama Canal.
    2. Activities in Latin America succeeded in throwing fuel on the “slavocracy” theory (a conspiracy theory where the South was supposedly always seeking to add new slave lands).
      1. In the summer of 1856, Southerner William Walker tried to take over Nicaragua. He did so, sort of, named himself president, legalized slavery, and wished for Pres. Pierce to annexed the region. Meanwhile, Nicaraguans reclaimed their land and executed him.
      2. Southerners also looked to Cuba.
          1. Americans offered to buy Cuba from Spain but were turned down. So, in 1850-51, two groups of filibusteros ("freebooters" or pirates including some leading Southerners) invaded Cuba. Their half-baked plan was to somehow take over and claim Cuba for the U.S. They failed miserably.
          2. In 1854, Cubans seized the American ship Black Warrior on a technical issue. Pierce then had a reason to go to war, if he wished, and win Cuba.
          3. Meanwhile though, Pierce sent delegates to speak with Spain, England, and France in Ostend, Belgium to make a deal. The Ostend Manifesto said the U.S. would offer $120 million for Cuba, and if Spain rejected it, the U.S. would be justified in taking Cuba by force.
          4. When the Ostend Manifesto details leaked out, Northern free-soilers were up-in-warms. The slavocracy theory seemed more real than ever with these secret dealings. As a result, Pierce backed away from the deal embarrassed.
  11. The Allure of Asia
    1. Following the British example, America sought to expand her influence in Asia.
    2. Pres. Tyler sent Caleb Cushing to China to work a deal favorable to the U.S. An agreement was reached to start diplomatic relations and grant "most favored nation" status to the U.S. (opening up trade).
      1. The door also opened for thousands of American missionaries to spread the Gospel in China.
    3. Next, the U.S. wanted to link up with Japan.
      1. Since Japan was a traditional country that considered westerners to be heathens, they were reluctant to deal with the Americans.
      2. The U.S. sent Commodore Matthew Perry to Tokyo in 1852-54. Through a mix of diplomacy and threat, Perry got Japan to open itself to trade in the Treaty of Kanagawa.
      3. This broke Japan’s centuries-old traditional of isolation, and started them down a road of modernization and then imperialism and militarism.
  12. Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase
    1. After gaining California and Oregon, Americans wanted a transcontinental railroad to link the east and west coasts.
    2. Both the North and South clamored to have the line built in their region (for prestige and financial success). The Southern route was eventually chosen as best.
      1. There were two reasons the Southern route was considered better: (1) the land was organized meaning any Indian attacks could be repelled by the U.S. Army and (2) geography—the plan was to skirt south of the Rocky Mountains.
      2. There was one problem: a portion of the land ran through Mexico.
    3. James Gadsden was sent to Mexico to work a deal for the land. The Gadsden Purchase bought the southern chunk of present Arizona and New Mexico for $10 million, a hefty price tag in comparison to other "purchases."
    4. Regardless of the price, the transcontinental railroad seemed ready to be built with Southerners happy.
  13. Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Scheme
    1. Stephen Douglas threw a wrench in the railroad plans. Being an Illinois senator, he wanted the railroad up north with Chicago as a major terminus.
    2. He proposed to organize Kansas and Nebraska through the Kansas-Nebraska Act and move the transcontinental railroad up north.
    3. Southerners certainly wouldn't do this, unless they got something substantial in return. The stage was set for a deal to be made…
      1. The North got the transcontinental railroad moved up North. Also, Kansas and Nebraska were officially organized as territories.
      2. The South was awarded popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska. To do this, the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was repealed (because it forbade slavery above the 36°30’ line).
          1. Southerners were very happy with the possibility of slavery open to so many lands (the Mexican Cession excepting California, and now Kansas and Nebraska which had been closed to slavery).
          2. Slavocracy theorists said, "There goes the South again, always trying to get more slave land."
    4. Despite disagreement, the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed in 1856, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and opened Kansas and Nebraska to popular sovereignty.
  14. Congress Legislates a Civil War
    1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act may have had the railroad and compromise as its motivation, but it split the nation.
    2. It erased the Missouri Compromise and undercut the Compromise of 1850 because it re-opened the slavery issue.
    3. The Fugitive Slave Law was simply left to die by Northerners. This infuriated Southerners.
    4. The Democrats were split down the middle over the slavery issue.
    5. Another political party, the Republicans, were born. Republicans drew a wide group of people, but they essentially stole the Free Soil position against the expansion of slavery.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion

  1. Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries
    1. Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852. It stirred the North's sense of morality against slavery and was a substantial catalyst toward war. When Lincoln met Stowe, he said, "So you're the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war."
      1. In one line, the novel was about the splitting up of a slave family and the mistreatment of likable Uncle Tom by a cruel slave master.
      2. The book was wildly popular, eventually selling millions of copies and becoming a stage play.
      3. Perceptions on the book differed: the North considered it as shedding light on the slaves' situations; the South said it was unfair and purely fiction since Stowe had never been down South and therefore had no idea of Southern reality.
      4. As important as helping start the war, Uncle Tom's Cabin helped prevent Britain from joining the war on the South's side. This had been the Southern plan all along, but British workers sympathized with Uncle Tom's plight and held back their government from helping keep Uncle Tom and friends down.
    2. The Impending Crisis of the South by Hinton Helper was written at the same time and also criticized slavery.
      1. Its criticism was not on a moral basis, however, but in more of an economic sense.
      2. Helper disliked blacks and aristocratic whites. He argued that slavery hurt non-slave owning whites in the South.
      3. No Southern publisher would print the book. A Northern publisher did and slave-owning white down South were worried. The book was banned down South but became something of a hit among abolitionist up North.
    3. Together, these books drove the North—South wedge deeper into the nation.
  2. The North-South Contest for Kansas
    1. Since it was opened to popular sovereignty and was perched to grow, Kansas became the new slavery battleground.
    2. The unspoken understanding during the Kansas-Nebraska Act was that Kansas would go slave and Nebraska free.
      1. But, Northerners were sending loads of settlers to Kansas. Organizations like the "New England Emigrant Aid Company" helped suit up the settlers, many carrying "Beecher's Bibles" (rifles) named after Rev. Henry Ward Beecher (Harriet's brother) who helped purchase them.
      2. To the South, it appeared the North was trying to "steal" the agreement through the popular sovereignty election.
    3. When the election rolled around, pro-Southern "border ruffians" jumped over from Missouri to Kansas to "vote early and vote often." The South "won" the election for Kansas to become a slave state and set up a government at Shawnee Mission.
      1. Free-soilers cried foul and set up their own government in Topeka.
      2. Thus, after the election, there were two governments: one slave and based on a bogus election, and one free and illegitimate.
    4. Things worsened when a roving gang of pro-slavery hoodlums, led by the outlaw William Clark Quantrill, shot up and burnt down free-soil Lawrence, Kansas. The slavery issue was certainly not solved.
  3. Kansas in Convulsion
    1. The violence continued when John Brown and men set out for revenge for Lawrence. At Pottawatomie Creek he killed and chopped up 5 slavery supporters.
      1. With the chaos and violence, Kansas was being called "Bleeding Kansas."
    2. Kansas had a large enough population by 1856 to apply for statehood. The pro-slavery government wrote up the Lecompton Constitution which could be approved "with" or "without slavery." But, even if "without slavery" were chosen, slave-owners already present would still be protected. Thus, Kansas would have slaves either way.
      1. Abolitionist felt this vote was bogus, boycotted the election, and thus the Lecompton Constitution passed "with" slavery. It was sent to Washington D.C. for approval.
      2. Pres. James Buchanan gave his approval, but the Senate had to approve the Constitution.
      3. Ironically, it was Stephen Douglas, the author of Kansas/Nebraska popular sovereignty, who led the opposition. Douglas felt the election wasn't true popular sovereignty due to the irregularities of the voting. His leadership got the Constitution shot dead in the water.
    3. The end results were (a) the Democratic party was terribly divided, (b) Kansas was now left in limbo—somewhere in between a territory and a state, and (c) the slavery question was still not answered.
  4. “Bully” Brooks and His Bludgeon
    1. Tension and passion from Bleeding Kansas worked into Congress. Sen. Charles Sumner (northern abolitionist) graphically criticized a South Carolina congressman.
    2. Preston Brooks, a fellow Congressman and relative the criticized, took offense to Sumner's comments. Brooks reasoned that he should challenge Sumner to a duel, but duels were only for gentlemen and Sumner's comments revealed that he was no gentleman. A beating was what Sumner deserved, at least as Brooks figured.
    3. So, "Bully" Preston Brooks whacked Charles Sumner over the head on the floor of Congress with a walking cane. Sumner was severely injured, and Brooks was expelled from Congress only to get re-elected in the next election.
    4. The results of this poor behavior were (a) Sumner's "Crime Against Kansas" speech became a rallying point for the North, (b) Brooks became something of a Southern cult hero, and (c) it became clear that compromise was now over (and replaced by Bleeding Kansas, name-calling, and cane-thwacking).
  5. “Old Buck” versus “The Pathfinder”
    1. The election of 1856 had three main candidates…
      1. The Democrats chose James Buchanan. He had considerable experience but was not affiliated with the growingly unpopular Kansas-Nebraska Act.
      2. The Republicans chose John C. Fremont, the "Pathfinder" and hero of the Mexican War.
      3. The American Party was a newcomer. They were better known by their nickname, the Know-Nothing Party. It was an anti-immigrant party that got its nickname by their supposed response of, "I know nothing," when asked if they were in the party.
    2. The election was ugly, complete with mudslinging and charges of conspiracy and scandal. Fremont was accused of being Catholic which hurt his votes.
  6. The Electoral Fruits of 1856
    1. James Buchanan won the election.
    2. Perhaps it was all for the better since Fremont's judgment and ability had come into question and since his loss opened the door for a much more capable Abe Lincoln four years later.
  7. The Dred Scott Bombshell This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In March of 1857, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Roger Taney, handed down the Dred Scott decision.
    2. Dred Scott was a Missouri slave whose owner moved (with Scott) to Illinois and Wisconsin, then back to Missouri. Dred Scott sued for his freedom arguing that since he'd lived in free states, he was free.
    3. The Dred Scott decision said…
      1. Dred Scott (and all slaves) was not a citizen and therefore not entitled to sue. In other words, he lost.
      2. The Court went further and said that a legislature/Congress cannot outlaw slavery. This was the bombshell statement.
      3. The Court then concluded the Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional all along (because it’d banned slavery north of the 36° 30’ line and doing so was against the point #2 listed above).
    4. This was a huge victory for the South and it infuriated the North. The North-South wedge was driven deeper.
    5. The North—South scoreboard now favored the South, undeniably. The South had (1) the Supreme Court, (2) the president, and (3) the Constitution on its side. The North only had Congress (which was now banned from outlawing slavery).
    6. Evidence the Constitution favored the South…
      1. It's the Supreme Court that officially interprets the Constitution and they'd just said it favored the South in the Dred Scott decision.
      2. The 5th Amendment said Congress could not take away property, in this case, slaves.
      3. The South and slavery had the North in a "Catch-22" situation…
        1. It could be argued that slavery was in the Constitution by way of the Three-Fifths Compromise.
        2. It could be argued slavery was not in the Constitution since the word “slavery” indeed never was present, but using this argument, the 10th Amendment said anything not in the Constitution is left up to the states, and the Southern states would vote for slavery. Either way, if slavery was in or out, the North lost.
  8. The Financial Crash of 1857
    1. Adding to the chaos of the times was the Panic of 1857—yet another in the string of financial crunches that took place every 20 years in the 1800's.
    2. The economics of the situation weren't particularly bad, but the psychological fallout for a troubled time was very strong.
      1. Causes for this panic were: (a) inflation caused by California gold, (b) over-production of grain, and (c) over-speculation (the perennial cause), this time in land and railroads.
      2. The North was hit hardest. The South was largely unaffected, supposedly proving that cotton was indeed king.
    3. At the same time, a Homestead Act was passed by Congress but vetoed by Pres. Buchanan. It's goal was to provide 160 western acres for a nominal price.
      1. The fear was that it would drain Northern workers to the cheap land and Southerners feared the west would fill up with free-soilers.
    4. The tariff rate also went up due to the panic. The prior rates had recently been reduced to only 20%, due to Southern complaints, but the new law sent them right back up.
  9. An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges
    1. The Illinois Senate race of 1858 took the national spotlight. The Democrats put up Sen. Stephen Douglas and the Republicans put up Abraham Lincoln.
    2. Douglas was likely the "biggest name" Senator of the day and expected to easily be re-elected over backwoodsy Lincoln.
    3. Douglas was also considered the best debater of the time. Lincoln, however, had a homespun, down-home wit and logic about himself and was also a fine debater.
  10. The Great Debate: Lincoln Versus Douglas
    1. Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of debates and Douglas accepted. The "Lincoln-Douglas debates" were a series of seven debates spread across Illinois.
      1. Lincoln was the underdog in but proved that he could stand and argue toe-to-toe with Douglas.
    2. The most noteworthy debate took place at Freeport, IL.
      1. In Freeport, Lincoln essentially asked, “Mr. Douglas, if the people of a territory voted slavery down, despite the Supreme Court saying that they could not do so (point #2 of the Dred Scott decision), which side would you support, the people or the Supreme Court?” This put Douglas in a lose-lose situation—either way he decided, someone would be upset.
      2. Douglas (“Mr. Popular Sovereignty”) replied with his “Freeport Doctrine.” It said that, since ultimate power was held by the people, slavery should be banned if the people indeed voted it down, regardless of how the Supreme Court ruled.
    3. The Freeport Doctrine answer was solid, in Illinois (to answer otherwise would have cost Douglas votes). Douglas won the Illinois Senate race over Lincoln.
      1. But, the South turned against Douglas.
        1. Initially, the South had loved Douglas because he'd opened up so much land to popular sovereignty.
        2. Then, Douglas shot down Kansas' bid for statehood as a slave state—upsetting the South.
        3. Finally, the Freeport Doctrine infuriated the South when he turned his back on the Supreme Court’s pro-South, Dred Scott decision.
      2. The Freeport Doctrine ruined Douglas hopes to win the 1860 election for presidency, which had been his goal all along. Douglas had "won the battle but lost the war"—in winning the 1858 Illinois Senate election, it cost him the 1860 presidential election.
  11. John Brown: Murderer or Martyr?
    1. John Brown re-emerged in Harper's Ferry, Virginia with a wild plan to abolish slavery.
      1. His plan: to take over the federal arsenal in Harper's Ferry, pass out weapons to local slaves, initiate a huge revolt, and thus free the slaves.
      2. What happened: he and his men took over a building but were quickly holed up by Marines led by Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee. He was quickly captured, tried, convicted, sentenced to death, and hanged.
    2. Brown's death had a strong impact on the North and South.
      1. To the South, justice had been served to a man guilty of murder and treason. Southerners also felt his actions were typical of the radical North.
      2. Northern reactions varied from viewing Brown as having good intentions but terribly wrong actions, to seeing Brown as a martyr. Brown himself realized he could do more for abolition as a martyr than alive.
      3. Brown's martyr image was perpetuated by journalists, artists, and song-writers. They portrayed Brown as a man who died fighting against the injustice of slavery. True or not, the martyr image gave strength to the moral cause of abolition.
  12. The Disruption of the Democrats
    1. In the 1860 election, Democrats tried, and failed, to nominate a candidate at their convention in Charleston, SC. The party was squarely split over the slavery issue.
      1. Northern Democrats had a convention in Baltimore and nominated Stephen Douglas with a popular sovereignty position.
      2. Southern Democrats had their own Baltimore convention and nominated John C. Breckinridge with a pro-slavery position.
    2. The Know-Nothings nominated John Bell of Tennessee. They called themselves the Constitutional Union Party, and tried to mend fences by offering as their platform, simply, the Constitution.
  13. A Rail-Splitter Splits the Union
    1. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, passing up on William "Higher Law" Seward who had too many enemies.
      1. The Republican strategy was to win the election without getting a single Southern vote—a bold plan.
      2. They were successful in bringing together a broad group including free-soilers (stopping slavery's expansion), manufacturers (a higher tariff), immigrants (rights), westerners (a Northwestern railroad), and farmers (cheap homesteading land).
    2. It's noteworthy that at this time, Lincoln was not an abolitionist, just a free-soiler. That is to say he wanted to stop the spread of slavery, but allow it where it currently existed.
  14. The Electoral Upheaval of 1860
    1. Lincoln got only 40% of the popular vote, yet he won the presidency.
    2. It was a very sectional race: the North went to Lincoln, the South to Breckinridge, the “middle-ground” to the middle-of-the-road candidate in Bell, and Missouri, neighbor of popular sovereignty Kansas, went to Douglas.
    3. Despite the presidency, the South was still standing strong.
      1. The South had a 5-to-4 majority in the Supreme Court.
      2. The Republicans didn't control either the House or Senate.
  15. The Secessionist Exodus
    1. During the campaign, South Carolina had pledged to secede from the union if Lincoln won. After Lincoln's victory, the question was whether S.C. would follow through or it they'd been just bluffing. They followed through and seceded in December of 1860.
      1. The "Deep South" (Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) followed over the next six weeks prior to Lincoln's inauguration. Four other Southern states would leave the U.S. later.
      2. These states met in Montgomery, AL in February, 1861, and formed the "Confederate States of America".
      3. Jefferson Davis was elected as the president of the C.S.A.
    2. President Buchanan's actions (or inactions) during the secession were weak. He did little or nothing to stop the states from leaving the U.S.
      1. His rationale for inaction included (a) the need for troops out west to fight the Indians, (b) Northerners lack of will in using force, (c) holding onto the hope of a peaceful settlement, and (d) the idea that Lincoln would soon be the new president and this problem was essentially his to fix as he saw fit.
  16. The Collapse of Compromise
    1. A final attempt at compromise was made by James Henry Crittendon of Kentucky. His Crittendon Compromise proposed to extend the old Missouri Compromise line of 36°30’; north of the line would be free, south of it would be slave.
    2. "Honest" Abe Lincoln, however, had run on a free-soil pledge and was not going to back down on his pledge. The compromise fizzled without Lincoln's support.
    3. It certainly appeared by this time that compromise was dead and bloodshed was imminent.
  17. Farewell to Union
    1. The Southern states seceded because they felt their slave-based way-of-life was being threatened by the North's dominant numbers.
    2. Southerners also wrongly thought that the North would not take any action to stop the South from leaving.
    3. Southerners felt starting a new nation would enable them to mature economically—to grow their own industry, banking, shipping, etc.
    4. The South likened their situation to the American colonies of 1776 who'd broken away from England.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South

  1. The Menace of Secession
    1. Abraham Lincoln was sworn into office March 4, 1861. The backdrop of the occasion was the half-finished dome of the Capitol building—symbolic of the nation's fracture.
    2. At his inauguration, Lincoln made clear the primary goal of his presidency—bring the nation back together.
      1. He argued that dividing the country is impossible simply due to geographic reasons.
      2. If the South left, how much of the national debt should they take, Lincoln wondered? Or, what would be done about runaway slaves?
      3. And, Europe would love to see the U.S. split and therefore weaken itself. Was that something Americans were willing to allow?
    3. Again, Lincoln's goal throughout his presidency was to bring the nation back together.
  2. South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter
    1. The Civil War began at Ft. Sumter, S.C. (an island-fort at the mouth of Charleston Harbor).
      1. It remained a Northern fort, but its supplies were running out. Being surrounded by unfriendly Southerners, it'd have to either replenish its supplies or give itself over to the Confederacy.
      2. Lincoln sent a ship to supply the fort, but before it arrived, Southerners opened fire on Ft. Sumter on April 12, 1861. The war was on.
      3. The fort was shelled for over a day, then had to surrender.
    2. Lincoln's response to Ft. Sumter was sharp and clear…
      1. He issued a "call to arms" and called for 75,000 volunteers to join the military.
      2. He ordered a naval blockade of Southern ports. The blockade would be intact for the next 5 years until the war's end.
    3. Lincoln's actions prompted 4 more states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) to secede and join the Deep South.
    4. The Confederate capital was then switched from Montgomery, AL to Richmond, Va.
  3. Brother’s Blood and Border Blood
    1. In between the North and South were the Border States of Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland. The were critical for either side, since they would've greatly increased the South's population and industrial capabilities.
    2. They were called “border states” because…
      1. They were physically on the North-South border and…
      2. They were slave-states that hadn't seceded, but at any moment, they just might.
    3. To keep the Border States with the North, Lincoln took cautious steps. Many of theses were of questionable legality or were flat-out against the Constitution.
      1. In Maryland, Lincoln declared martial law (rule by the military) in order to seize the railroad into the state. He simply would not allow Maryland to secede and thus leave Washington D.C. as an island in the South.
      2. Lincoln made it extremely clear that his goal was to re-unite the nation, not to end slavery. He knew that to fight to end slavery would likely scare the Border States away.
    4. The Indian nations also took sides. The "Five Civilized Tribes" of the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole largely fought with the South. Some Plains Indians sided with the North.
    5. The most visible splits that illustrate "brother vs. brother" were in…
      1. Tennessee where the state officially joined the South but thousands of "volunteers" sided with the North. Hence, Tennessee is the "Volunteer State."
      2. West Virginia where the mountain Virginians had no need for slavery and sided against it. At the war's start, there was only "Virginia" on the South's side. Midway through the war, "West Virginia" broke away on the North's side.
  4. The Balance of Forces
    1. At the start of the war, the South's advantages were…
      1. They only had to defend their land, rather than conquer land. Like the Americans during the American Revolution, fighting to a draw would mean Southern victory.
      2. Geography was on the South's side—the land where the fighting would take place was familiar and friendly to the Southerners.
      3. The South's greatest advantage was in their leadership. At the top was Gen. Robert E. Lee and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. They proved to be head-and-shoulders above Northern generals. The South also had a military tradition that produced many fine officers of lower rank.
    2. The North had many advantages…
      1. The population favored the North over the South by about a 3:1 ratio.
      2. Industry was almost entirely located up North. Resources, particularly iron, were likewise almost entirely up North.
      3. The North had most of the nation's railroads, the U.S. navy, and much more money than the South.
      4. The South planned to rely on cotton to sell and then buy whatever it needed. The North's naval blockade largely stopped this plan.
    3. In the end, it was the South's shortages that caused its loss in the war.
  5. Dethroning King Cotton
    1. The Southern "game plan" was to get aid from Europe, particularly England, due to their supposed need for Southern cotton. The help never came.
    2. Many in Europe actually wanted the U.S. to split. A split U.S. would strengthen Europe, relatively speaking.
    3. On the other side, many in Europe were pulling for the North. They had largely already moved against slavery and realized that the war might end slavery in the U.S.
      1. The reason for the pro-North, anti-slavery stance by the people, was the effect of Uncle Tom’s Cabin—being lowly wage earners, the common people felt Uncle Tom’s pain.
    4. The question remained about England's reliance of Southern cotton. Much of that idea was true. However, in the years just prior to the war, England had a bumper crop of cotton down in India and Egypt. They'd saved the surplus and therefore weren't as "cotton-needy" as believed.
    5. The North also won points by sending food over to Europe during the war. Thus, the Southern King Cotton was defeated by the North's King Wheat and King Corn.
  6. The Decisiveness of Diplomacy This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Throughout much of the war, the South pushed for foreign help. Several instances at sea showed the unofficial, half-way support of England.
    2. The "Trent affair" illustrated the diplomatic trickiness of the day.
      1. A U.S. (Northern) ship stopped the British ship Trent in Cuba and forcibly took 2 Southerners.
      2. England (and the South) was furious and demanded their release.
      3. Lincoln had time to cool off and released the Confederates saying, "One war at a time."
    3. The Confederate ship Alabama caused a ruckus as well.
      1. The "Southern" ship was manned by Brits and never docked in the South.
      2. It traveled the world and captured 60+ vessels. Needless to say, the North was not happy about the situation.
    4. The British also planned to build raider ships for the South.
      1. The raiders were halted (with the opposition led by Charles Francis Adams) as they were being built. The fear was that it might come back to haunt them. Still, it shows the desire to help the South even if it wasn't followed all the way through.
  7. Foreign Flare-Ups
    1. The British built 2 Laird rams, ships designed to ram and destroy the Northern wooden ships. Minister Adams saw that delivering these ships would likely mean war with the U.S. and possible loss of Canada.
    2. Trouble started along the U.S.-Canada border. Canadians struck American cities and sometimes burnt them down.
      1. Several miniature armies were formed to strike back, usually consisting of Irishmen who hated the English/Canadians.
    3. Meanwhile, down in Mexico, Emperor Napoleon III had set up a puppet government in Mexico City.
      1. Austrian Archduke Maximilian was named as Mexico's emperor. This was flatly against the Monroe Doctrine's "stay away" policy.
      2. After the war the U.S. was prepared to march to Mexico and boot him out. The French pulled out, left Maximilian behind, and he was executed by a firing squad.
  8. President Davis Versus President Lincoln
    1. The South had a built-in problem with its government—it was a confederacy. That meant it was only loosely united. Any state, at any time, could break away, agree with the rest or not, unite or do its own thing.
      1. During a war, a state might not follow the strategy, or might not send troops or money or anything else. Essentially, a confederacy is very weak by its design.
    2. President Jefferson Davis was never popular. He was all business, stubborn, and physically over-worked himself.
    3. Lincoln certainly had his troubles too. But, he was the head of an established and stable government and seemed to relax more as time wore on.
  9. Limitations on Wartime Liberties
    1. "Honest" Abe Lincoln took several steps that were clearly against Constitution. He felt his steps were simply needed due to the split nation and emergency-like situation.
    2. Things he did against the Constitution: (a) increased the size of the Army, (b) sent $2 million to 3 private citizens for military purposes, (c) suspended habeas corpus so arrests could be made easily, (d) "monitored" Border State elections so the vote would turn out his way and (e) declared martial law in Maryland.
    3. Jefferson Davis was unable to exert similar power because of the loose nation of a confederacy.
  10. Volunteers and Draftees: North and South
    1. As in most wars, volunteers came plentifully in the early days. Initially, the plan was to only use volunteers. As the war drug on and men died, enthusiasm died too. A military draft was started in both the North and South to conscript soldiers.
      1. Congress allowed the rich to buy an exemption for $300. That meant a poor person would have to fill those shoes.
    2. The draft was protested strongly, especially in the Northern cities. New York City saw a riot break out in 1863 over the draft.
    3. 90% of the Union soldiers were volunteers. This was due to patriotism, pressure, and bonuses for signing up. Many men rigged scams to get multiple bonuses by signing up several times.
    4. The South had fewer men and therefore went to draft earliest. The rich were also exempted down South (those with 20+ slaves).
      1. The saying was born: "a rich man's war but a poor man's fight."
  11. The Economic Stresses of War
    1. The U.S. wanted more money and passed the Morrill Tariff Act which raised the tariff 5 to 10%. The rates then went even higher.
    2. The Treasury Department printed about $450 in "greenback" paper money. The money was not adequately backed by gold, thus creating inflation, at one point worth only 39 cents on the dollar.
    3. The largest fundraiser was through the sales of bonds. The government brought in $2.6 billion through bond sales.
    4. An important change was the creation of the National Banking System. It was the 1st national banking system since Andrew Jackson had killed the Bank of the U.S. in the 1830's Reasons for its importance were…
      1. It established a standardized money system.
      2. It could buy government bonds and issue paper money. In other words, it regulated the quantity of money in the economy/circulation. This is called "monetary policy" today.
      3. It foreshadowed the modern Federal Reserve System of today.
    5. The Southern economy was even worse than the North.
      1. The Union naval blockade locked down the South. It stopped exports of cotton (and thus the income of money), and it cut off customs duties (no imports means no customs duties).
      2. Inflation was out of control. It went up an estimated 9,000% down South (compared to an 80% increase up North).
  12. The North’s Economic Boom
    1. Like many wars, the Civil War was a boom for business. Manufacturers and businessmen made fortunes and a millionaire class was born for the first time.
    2. Some "profiteers" scammed the government by supplying shoddy goods.
    3. New machinery benefited production greatly.
      1. Standardized sizes of clothes were born.
      2. Mechanical reapers harvested bountiful crops.
      3. Oil was discovered in Pennsylvania.
    4. Women took on new roles too, often filling in for absent men in jobs.
      1. Some women posed as men and enlisted to fight in the military.
    5. Women helped considerably in health-related positions.
      1. Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell was the first female doctor.
      2. Clara Barton (founder of the Red Cross) and Dorothea Dix elevated nursing to a professional level. Down South, Sally Tompkins did the same.
  13. A Crushed Cotton Kingdom
    1. The South was beaten down by the war.
      1. The Southern economy was zapped. Before the war, Southerners held 30% of the nation's wealth, afterward, it was down to 12%. Before the war, Southerners made 67% of Northern wages, afterward, it was down to 40%.
    2. Despite the bad news, Southerners showed quite a bit of character and self-respect in pulling together and putting together a strong fight.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War

  1. Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”
    1. The North (as well as the South) expected a short war, about 90 days.
    2. The Battle of Bull Run (AKA Battle of Manassas) squashed the short-war theories.
      1. Neither side was properly prepared. Many citizens picnicked along the edge of the battle as though tailgaiting at a sporting event.
      2. The battle went back and forth at first but Gen. Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson's men held their line and earned him his nickname.
      3. The North fell into a hectic retreat. The South was just as disorganized and thus could not pursue.
    3. On paper the South won, but the importance of Bull Run is that it showed each side the necessity of planning and preparation. The war then took a 9 month "time-out" for prep.
  2. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign
    1. 34 year old Gen. George McClellan was a master organizer and planner. He was put in charge of getting the U.S. Army ready.
      1. McClellan's weakness was that he never felt as though he'd prepared enough. He was always preparing, never fighting.
      2. Lincoln got tired of waiting around, said McClellan had "the slows", and ordered him to take action.
    2. McClellan's plan was to take Richmond, VA, the capital of the South. He still felt the North could win in one large battle and by taking the capital would likely accomplish that goal. He nearly pulled it off.
    3. The Peninsula Campaign ensued. The North moved by sea to and then up the historic Yorktown peninsula.
      1. Lincoln sent McClellan's reinforcements to guard Washington D.C. from Stonewall Jackson's bluff attacks.
      2. Confederate Jeb Stuart's calvary rode completely around McClellan (it was a major no-no to allow such a thing).
    4. Robert E. Lee struck back in the Seven Days' Battles and pushed McClellan back to the sea—a major win for the South. Casualties were in the ten-thousands and McClellan was demoted.
    5. Lincoln began to move toward a draft to free the slaves. With the quick-strike plan a failure, the North now turned to total war. Summed up, the plan was to blockade, divide, and conquer. The specifics were to…
      1. Put a naval blockade the South.
      2. Free the slaves.
      3. Divide the South along the Mississippi River.
      4. Divide and crush the South by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas.
      5. Capture the Southern capital of Richmond.
      6. Engage the enemy anywhere possible and grind them into submission.
    6. This plan was essentially Gen. Winfield Scott’s “Anaconda Plan” (a derogatory term that implied it was too slow). It was exactly what happened over the next four years.
  3. The War at Sea
    1. The North's blockade had many leaks. As the war went on, the blockade tightened up.
      1. Britain could've run through it but chose to honor it. They didn't want to possibly get into a war.
    2. "Running the blockade", or sneaking goods through, was risky but profitable business.
      1. Smugglers often used the Bahamas as jumping-off points before entering the Confederacy. The ship papers would often have Canada as the destination but just sneak into the South.
    3. Northern blockade-busters would often board British ships for an inspection. If the goods were thought destined for the South, they were seized. Britain complained, but never went beyond words.
    4. Southerners created a legitimate threat to the blockade with the C.S.S. Merrimack.
      1. The Merrimack was an ironclad—a ship heavily armored with iron and thus greatly protected from cannon fire.
      2. The North responded with the Monitor, also an ironclad.
      3. The Monitor and the Merrimack battled in Chesapeake Bay March 9, 1862. The Merrimack was chased away. The battle was a turning point in naval history in that…
        1. …it showed that (a) the days of wooden ships were ending and (b) the days of sailing vessels were changing to steam.
  4. The Pivotal Point: Antietam
    1. Shortly after the Peninsula Campaign, General Lee struck at Second Battle of Bull Run. Lincoln had placed Gen. John Pope in command.
      1. Gen. Pope "talked a good game", but was beaten badly by Lee and the South at Bull Run II.
    2. At this point, the South was clearly winning the war. But, Lee made his first mistake…he decided to invade the North at Antietam (AKA Sharpsburg, MD). The reason's for his decision were…
      1. (a) to perhaps lure the Border States to the South, (b) to draw the war out of Virginia during the harvest season,
      2. a victory on Northern soil would, (c) boost Southern morale and hurt Northern morale, and (d) perhaps stir up foreign/British support for the South.
    3. Lincoln put Gen. McClellan back in charge.
    4. Just prior to the fighting, Lee's battle plans were accidentally lost then luckily found by the North. Lee and the South lost the Battle of Antietam Creek, one of the largest battles of the war, on September 17, 1862.
      1. This battle was critical. If the South had won, they just might have won the entire war. And, the North's victory likely convinced Europe to stay out of the war.
      2. Also, it gave Lincoln a much awaited victory and a platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves.
        1. The Emancipation Proclamation gave the North's fight a moral foundation. The previous cause for the war was to force the South to remain with the North, against the South's will. After the Proclamation, the cause for war was to restore the nation and to end slavery.
  5. A Proclamation Without Emancipation
    1. The Emancipation Proclamation had a few "hiccups" tied to it.
      1. It freed the slaves only in the seceded Southern states. But, it did not free the slaves in the Border States. Lincoln specifically made this point because he did not want to anger the Border States and make them join the South.
      2. The South considered itself a separate nation from the North. Why would anything a "foreign" president says be binding over them? In order for the Proclamation to go into effect, the North would have to win the war.
      3. Also, there were legal issues tied to the Proclamation. Did Lincoln actually have the authority to free the slaves? The short answer is, "No." The Constitution at the time did support slavery. A president cannot simply make a proclamation and undue the Constitution. This fact would be evidenced by the 13th Amendment right after the war, which freed the slaves. If the Proclamation had legally freed the slaves, there would've been no need for Amendment 13.
      4. Still, the Emancipation Proclamation was huge, if only symbolically, and gave the war its moral cause.
    2. Practically, there were effects of the Proclamation.
      1. If, and when, word of the Proclamation got to the slaves' ears, many slaves itched to up and leave. The Southerners complained that Lincoln was inciting slave rebellion.
  6. Blacks Battle Bondage This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In the early years of the war, African-Americans were not allowed to enlist in the army. But, as numbers declined, the North opened up the army to black soldiers. They'd eventually comprise 10% of the Northern army.
    2. Southern forces largely just executed black soldiers as opposed to the usual custom of treating captured enemies as prisoners-of-war. Black soldiers were even massacred after surrendering at Ft. Pillow, TN.
      1. This event sparked the outcry by African-Americans, "Remeber Ft. Pillow!"
    3. Emancipation came to Southern blacks when the Northern army came. The Emancipation Proclamation didn't simply release and allow slaves to walk off the plantation. The force of the U.S. army freed the slaves as it marched forward.
  7. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg
    1. Gen. A.E. Burnside (the originator of "sideburns") was put in charge of the Northern army following Antietam.
      1. He was defeated soundly at Fredericksburg, VA when Union troops tried to swarm up a hill held by Confederates.
    2. Gen. Joseph Hooker was then placed in charge but was also defeated at Chancellorsville, VA.
      1. Gen. Lee was outnumbered but he out-maneuvered Hooker by splitting his forces and then sending Stonewall Jackson around to attack the flanks.
      2. Jackson was wounded by his own men there and later died.
      3. This battle is largely regarded as Gen. Lee's most impressive win.
    3. Gen. George Meade was then placed in charge of the Northern army. Lee invaded the North again, met Meade at Gettysburg, PA.
      1. The Battle of Gettysburg lasted 3 days (July 1-3, 1863). The South won the first 2 days by pushing the North out of town and into the hills.
      2. The North won the 3rd day and the overall battle. The 3rd day was highlighted by Pickett's Charge where Gen. Lee futilely sent 15,000 Southern troops across an open field.
    4. Gettysburg was "the big one". Although the war would drag on two more years, it essentially broke the back of the South and started the "countdown clock".
    5. In the autumn, Lincoln returned to Gettysburg to give the Gettysburg Address. The purpose of the 2 minute speech was to rally the troops, boost morale, and assert that the men who'd died hadn't die in vain.
  8. The War in the West
    1. Lincoln was having terrible luck finding a general to get the job done. His answer was finally found in Gen. Ulysses S. Grant.
      1. Grant had been mediocre to slightly above average most of his career.
      2. He came on the scene by achieving "Unconditional Surrender" early in the western theater of the Civil War (the term stuck as his nickname due to his initials: U.S. Grant).
    2. Grant was demoted after nearly getting wiped out at the Battle of Shiloh.
    3. His big break and redemption came at Vicksburg, MS where he circled around the city, took the capital of Jackson, MS, and then seized Vicksburg.
    4. Vicksburg came one day after Gettysburg and certainly pointed toward a Northern win. Also as certain, Southern hopes for foreign intervention were gone—no country helps the losing side in a war.
  9. Sherman Scorches Georgia
    1. The plan of "blockade, divide, and conquer" was coming to fruition.
      1. The blockade was in place, the South was being divided down the Mississippi River, and now was to be divided through Georgia.
    2. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman was put in charge of dividing the South by land.
      1. He pushed down from Chattanooga, TN and captured Atlanta, GA. Atlanta was burnt to the ground.
      2. Sherman then led his "March to the Sea". He spread out his men and scorched Georgia from Atlanta to Savannah on the coast. Everything was destroyed—farms, houses, crops, railroads, warehouses, fields, etc.
    3. Sherman declared "total war" meaning that even civilian property was to be destroyed. Thus the "conquer" part of the "blockade, divide, and conquer" plan was also being played out.
  10. The Politics of War
    1. Lincoln had his opponents up North, even among his fellow Republicans.
      1. "Radical Republicans" felt Lincoln wasn't doing enough to win the war, help blacks, or punish the South.
    2. Northern Democrats split over the war.
      1. "War Democrats" supported Lincoln and the war.
      2. "Peace Democrats" opposed Lincoln (calling him the "Illinois Ape") and the "Nigger War" that he led.
        1. Clement L. Valandigham was Lincoln's loudest opponent. He leaned toward the South, was tried for treason, shipped down South, fled to Canada, there ran and lost a bid for governor of Ohio, then returned to Ohio.
        2. This odd scenario inspired the fictitious story "The Man Without a Country."
  11. The Election of 1864
    1. War or not, elections go on. The 1864 presidential election saw Lincoln take on Gen. George McClellan (whom Lincoln had fired).
    2. McClellan was the Democratic candidate. His position was that Lincoln was mismanaging the war.
      1. Lincoln's most vicious opponents were called "Copperheads" since they "struck at Lincoln's heels." These critics usually came from the "Butternut Region"—southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.
    3. Lincoln would come out victorious in his 1864 re-election because…
      1. He cleverly invented the "Union Party" which joined Republicans with War Democrats.
      2. He came up with the simple but clear slogan: "You don't change horses midstream."
      3. Union forces scored victories in New Orleans and Atlanta just prior to the election.
    4. The popular vote was 212-21, the electoral vote was 2.2 million to 1.8 million.
  12. Grant Outlasts Lee
    1. Ulysses S. Grant was known as the "meat-grinder" because he was willing to keep sending his men into battle even though they'd be killed. His motto was, "When in doubt, fight."
      1. He was willing to sacrifice twice as many casualties as his enemy because he knew the South could not sustain the fight as long as he could.
    2. Grant outlasted Lee over a string of battles including: The Wilderness, Spotsylvania Courthouse, Cold Harbor,and Petersburg.
      1. These battles were known for being very bloody. They earned nicknames like the "Bloody Angle" and "Hell's Half Acre".
      2. At Cold Harbor, soldiers pinned their names and addresses onto their backs. 7,000 men died in a few minutes.
    3. Richmond, VA, the capital of the South, finally fell and was destroyed.
    4. In April of 1865, surrounded, Gen. Lee surrendered to Gen. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia.
  13. The Martyrdom of Lincoln
    1. Only a few days after the South's surrender, Lincoln was assassinated. He was shot by John Wilkes Booth in the head while attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington.
    2. Lincoln became an instant martyr—a hero who died fighting for the nation and freedom of blacks.
    3. Southerners were glad to be rid of Lincoln. But, as irony would have it, things would turn much tougher for the South without Lincoln. The Radical Republicans who replaced Lincoln's authority were much less forgiving than Honest Abe would've been.
  14. The Aftermath of the Nightmare.
    1. The Civil War was immensely costly in many ways…
      1. It cost 600,000 lives, $15 billion, ripped away the best of a generation, instilled long-lasting animosity, and physically destroyed the South
    2. There were some benefits to the Civil War…
      1. It showed the resilience of the U.S. The nation had put itself through the ultimate test, and had survived.
      2. Slavery was erased from the United States.
      3. It put the U.S. onto the world stage as a major player and set up the U.S. to soon be the world leader.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction

  1. The Problems of Peace
    1. Following the war, many questions lingered, such as…
      1. What about the freed blacks?
      2. How will be South be re-united with the North?
      3. Who will make these decisions?
    2. The South had been largely destroyed. It'd have to be rebuilt or reconstructed. How to do this was uncertain and many Southerners still stood staunchly against the North.
  2. Freedmen Define Freedom
    1. Freed blacks, or "freedmen" were in a perplexing situation.
      1. They'd heard that they were free, but most still stayed on the plantation where they'd always lived.
      2. Some blacks fled northward, others sought freedom through the law.
      3. There was violence as well. Some blacks let their frustrations erupt by destroying white homes, land, etc. Sometimes, the white master even had the table turned on him and was whipped by his former slaves.
    2. All slaves were freed eventually, thanks to the U.S. Army's force.
      1. When emancipation had become a reality, most freedmen still stayed "at home".
      2. Many took flight however, seeking a better life somewhere, or seeking lost love ones who'd been separated at some point.
    3. With the blacks' social structure torn down, churches became a strong pillar of the black community. For example, the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) quadrupled in size in 10 years after the Civil War.
    4. The prospect of black education was a hope, but not necessarily a reality. Discrimination and economic resources still held most black children out of school. That hope would not become a reality until much later.
  3. The Freedman’s Bureau
    1. The freed slaves were largely unskilled, uneducated, and untrained. Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau sought to remedy those shortfalls.
      1. The bureau was essentially an early form of welfare. It was to provide food, clothing, health care, and education.
      2. Gen. O. O. Howard headed the bureau (and later founded Howard University in D.C.).
    2. The Freedmen's Bureau's success was minimal at best. Its largest accomplishment came in the form of literacy—teaching many blacks to read.
    3. Unsurprisingly, Southerners disliked the bureau. Pres. Andrew Johnson unsuccessfully tried to kill it, but it expired in 1872 anyway.
  4. Johnson: The Tailor President
    1. When Lincoln was assassinated, he was succeeded by Andrew Johnson.
    2. Johnson was a Tennessean from very humble origins.
      1. Although Tennessee seceded during the war, he was the only Southern Congressman to not join the South. This fact got him named to be Lincoln's Vice President in 1864.
      2. He was known as a fighter, dogmatic, and short a quick temper.
    3. Johnson was something of a man-without-a-home. The North never accepted him because he was a Southerner and the South distrusted him because he sided with the North.
  5. Presidential Reconstruction
    1. Before his assassination, Lincoln had devised the presidential plan for reconstruction.
      1. It could be called the "10 Percent Plan" since a southern state would be readmitted to the U.S. after 10% of the voters took an oath of loyalty and respect emancipation.
      2. Like the Biblical parable of the father welcoming home his "prodigal son," the 10% plan was very forgiving. Lincoln was welcoming the return of the wayward Southern states.
    2. Other Republicans disagreed. The "Radical Republicans" thought this approach was too soft; they wanted to punish the South for the war.
      1. Radical Republicans feared the 10% plan would allow Southern whites to again rule over freed blacks.
      2. They proposed the Wade-Davis Bill. It required 50% of voters to take the allegiance oath and safeguards to protect the freed blacks.
      3. Lincoln pocket-vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill and killed it. The dispute revealed differences of opinion on the matter…
        1. Lincoln felt the Southern states had never truly seceded. He wanted them back as quickly as possible (re-unification had been his priority #1 from day one in office).
        2. Radical Republicans felt the Southern states had seceded. Therefore, Congress could set the rules of re-admittance.
    3. A wrench was thrown into the system when Lincoln was shot and Andrew Johnson took over. What would Johnson think about Reconstruction?
      1. President Andrew Johnson essentially just followed Lincoln's 10% Plan.
      2. He did add the following stipulations: (a) leading Confederates were to be disenfranchised, (b) secession ordinances were to be repealed, (c) Confederate debts would be repudiated, and (d) the states must ratify the 13th Amendment.
  6. The Baleful Black Codes
    1. White Southerners now had a problem: without slavery, how could they ensure a stable labor force?
      1. The Southern solution was to pass "Black Codes" which were rules designed to tie the freed blacks to their white employers.
      2. They were contracts that said the blacks were bound to work for whites for a certain time period. "Jumping" the contract (leaving before the time was up) was punishable with fines.
    2. The codes were discriminatory in that blacks were banned from serving on juries, renting land, and could be punished for "idleness."
    3. Many Northerners wondered, "Isn't this essentially the same as slavery?" The life of an African-America after the Civil War was hardly any different than before the war.
  7. Congressional Reconstruction This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In December of 1865 many Southern Congressmen returned to Washington to reclaim their seats. Northern Republicans were not amused. Were things to return to normal as if nothing had happened?
    2. While the Southern Congressmen had been gone, Northerners had passed several major bills including: the Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act. Now the Southerners were back.
      1. The South stood to actually gain power in Congress. With the slaves freed, the 3/5 Compromise was over. Slaves were now a complete five-fifths. This meant the Southern population went up thereby forcing Southern representation in Congress to go up (and thus the North's down).
    3. In early December 1865, Pres. Johnson stated that the South had fulfilled all the requirements to return to the U.S. and that the nation was re-united. Radical Republicans in Congress were not happy.
  8. Johnson Clashes with Congress
    1. President Johnson was never accepted by the North or by Congress. Time-and-again he banged heads with Congress, vetoing Republican bills.
      1. Notably, he vetoed the Civil Rights Bill that would grant citizenship to blacks and undercut the Black Codes.
    2. Congress then planned to pass the Civil Rights Bill by making the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The Amendment was passed by Congress and sent to the states for their approval. Its proposals…
      1. Civil Rights and citizenship for the freedmen (but not the right to vote).
      2. To cut state Congressional representation if blacks were denied voting.
      3. Disqualified Confederate leaders from federal offices.
      4. Guaranteeing the federal debt and repudiating the state debt.
    3. The Fourteenth Amendment would be ratified in 1868.
    4. Radical Republicans weren't happy that the right to vote was not included. But, all Republicans were in agreement that Southern states shouldn't be allowed back into the U.S. without accepting the Amendment.
  9. Swinging ‘Round the Circle with Johnson
    1. By 1866, President Johnson and Congress were butting heads. At odds were Johnson's 10% Plan state which had passed strict Black Codes as well as the Freedmen's Bureau and Civil Rights Bill (he vetoed both).
      1. Congress was determined to go ahead with Reconstruction only with the ratification of the 14th Amendment.
    2. In the elections of that year, Johnson went on "'round the circle" speeches. He was heckled by observers and the president yelled back.
      1. Johnson's speech tour backfired and Congressional Reconstruction gained support at the president's expense.
  10. Republican Principles and Programs
    1. The Republicans in Congress were now veto-proof to orchestrate Reconstruction how they wanted, without regard to the president. Still, moderate and radical Republicans disagreed.
    2. Radical Republicans were led by Sen. Charles Sumner (of the caning incident) and Thaddeus Stevens in the House. Stevens was a stern, crusty man with a passion for helping blacks.
      1. The Radicals wanted a slower Reconstruction where they could bring about major social and economic change to the South.
      2. Moderate Republicans just didn't want to go quite that far with Reconstruction. They were reluctant to get the federal government directly involved in people's lives.
    3. The plan they came up with involved both groups, perhaps leaning toward the Moderates.
      1. They did agree that the enfranchisement of blacks was necessary, even if force needed to be used.
  11. Reconstruction by Sword
    1. The Reconstruction Act was passed in March, 1867.
      1. It divided the South into 5 military districts. U.S. soldiers would be stationed in each to make sure things stayed under control.
      2. Congress laid out rules for states to be re-admitted. They said (a) the 14th Amendment must be accepted and (b) black suffrage must be guaranteed.
    2. Radical Republicans still worried that even if black suffrage was granted, it could later be removed.
      1. To resolve this once and for all, the 15th Amendment guaranteeing black suffrage was written and would be ratified in 1870.
    3. The Supreme Court case of Ex parte Milligan (1866) had already stated that military courts could not try civilians when civil courts were present.
      1. Nevertheless, military rule of the South was stark and hated by the South. When the soldiers finally did leave in 1877, power slid back to the white Southerners who found new tricks to achieve their old ways.
  12. No Women Voters
    1. Women suffragists had put their campaigns on hold during the struggle for black rights (seeing women and blacks as equally disenfranchised). But when the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were adopted, women leaders were displeased.
    2. The 14th even made reference to "males" as citizens—a step back in many women's rights' eyes.
      1. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony fought hard to stop the 14th Amendment on the basis of the word "males" entering the Constitution.
      2. Frederick Douglass agreed with the women, but felt it was "the Negro's hour."
      3. Additionally, in the 15th Amendment read that voting shouldn't be denied based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The ladies wanted the word "sex" added in too.
    3. When finished, women gained nothing with the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments.
  13. The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South
    1. Realizing there's strength in numbers, freed blacks began to organize mainly through the Union League.
      1. The League was essentially a web of clubs. In it, blacks were informed of their civic duties, built churches, pushed for Republican candidates in elections, sought to solve problems, and even recruited a black militia for defense.
    2. Despite the changing times, black women made no tangible gains. Their participation came by offering support at parades, rallies, church events, and conventions.
    3. With many white Southerners unable to vote (until taking the oath of allegiance to the U.S.) black Congressmen were elected.
      1. Hiram Revels became the first black U.S. senator and Blanche K. Bruce served in the Senate for Mississippi.
    4. White Southerners were fully disgruntled.
      1. Blacks were now not only free, but they were serving over the whites in Congress and in state legislatures.
      2. Also, scalawags lurked among the whites. They were whites who were sympathetic to the North. Southern whites accused the scalawags of betraying the South.
      3. Carpetbaggers also maddened Southerners. They were Northerners who came down South after the war with a "carpet bag" (suitcase) in their hand. Some came to honestly help the South, some came to go business, others came to swindle. All-in-all, Southerners frowned upon carpetbaggers as meddlesome Yankees.
    5. Despite achievements, graft and corruption ran rampant through the Southern governments.
  14. The Ku Klux Klan
    1. Upset whites were driven underground. They started the "Invisible Empire of the South", better known as the "Ku Klux Klan" in Tennessee (1866).
      1. The KKK thrived on fear—horses were masked, men were masked, no one knew exactly who was in it.
      2. They burnt crosses, threatened blacks who didn't "know their place", and lynched then murdered blacks.
    2. Any fool or simpleton who could pull a sheet over his head could run around as a Klan spook.
    3. Despite its wrong-headedness and silliness, the Klan was rather effective. Blacks typically did "back-off" from their advances.
    4. Whites used other tricks as well. To disenfranchise blacks, whites started literacy tests to weed out illiterate blacks from voting.
      1. Later, when many illiterate whites were also weeded out, "understanding clauses" and "grandfather clauses" were put into place. In these, whites would conveniently understand something read to them while blacks would not. And anyone whose grandfather had been able to vote could also vote. This meant whites were grandfathered in, blacks not.
  15. Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank
    1. The Radical Republicans in Congress were tired of Pres. Johnson and his veto stamp. They plotted to remove him.
    2. The plan was to put the president in a lose-lose situation. Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act which said the president needed the Senate's okay to fire anyone who'd been previously appointed by him and approved by the Senate.
      1. The argument was that the Senate approved appointees into office, thus the Senate must approve them out.
      2. Congress' ulterior motive was to protect Edwin M. Stanton's job. He was a Radical Republican spy and in hot water with the president.
      3. If Johnson allowed Stanton to stay, Congress would be happy.
      4. If Johnson fired Stanton despite the new rule, they would put him up for impeachment for not following the letter-of-the-law.
    3. Sure enough, early in 1868, Pres. Johnson fired Stanton and Congress impeached him—a formal accusation of wrong doing.
  16. A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson
    1. At his Senate impeachment trial, Johnson stayed silent. His lawyers argued that Johnson was operating under the Constitution, not the Tenure of Office Act.
    2. To kick out a president, a 2/3 vote was needed. The Senate vote came short by 1 meaning Johnson stayed in office.
      1. Seven Republicans voted with their conscience and voted to not remove Johnson.
    3. The fear of creating instability and setting a dangerous example were factors in the not-guilty verdict.
  17. The Purchase of Alaska
    1. Russia was willing to sell Alaska in 1867. William H. Seward, the Secretary of State, was an expansionist. He bought Alaska for $7.2 million.
    2. Seward's decision was not popular at the time. People called it "Seward's Folly," "Seward's Icebox," "Frigidia," and "Walrussia."
    3. Seward would later be redeemed when large deposits of gold and oil were discovered in Alaska.
  18. The Heritage of Reconstruction
    1. To many in the South, Reconstruction was worse than the war. They felt beaten-down, shamed, and their entire world had been turned upside-down.
      1. The war and Reconstruction also bred generations of animosity. Southerners would long refer to the Civil War as the "War of Northern Aggression."
    2. The lot of Southern blacks, despite good intentions, was likely as bad, or even worse, than before the war. White Southerners had fought back through sneaky means and were largely successful at "keeping down" the freed slaves.
      1. True change would not come until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950's and 60's, nearly 100 years later.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

  1. The “Bloody Shirt” Elects Grant
    1. In the 1868 presidential election, the Republicans offered Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Although he had no political experience, the idea was that his war-hero status would carry him to victory.
    2. The Democratic party was hopelessly disorganized. They agreed on their criticism of military Reconstruction, but little else. The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour.
      1. Seymour's popularity took a hit when he said he did not support redeeming greenback money at full value.
    3. Consequently, Grant won, narrowly. His main technique was to "wave the bloody shirt," meaning to constantly remind voters of his military record and that he'd led the North to victory.
    4. The close victory signaled a couple of things for the future: (a) tightly run and hard-fighting political parties and (b) narrow election margins of victory.
  2. The Era of Good Stealings
    1. Corruption became all too common in the post-Civil War years.
      1. The corruption often came via the railroads, meddling with stock prices, and through corrupt judges.
    2. Of special note were the exploits of "Jubilee" Jim Fisk and his partner Jay Gould. These two came up with, and nearly pulled off, a scheme in 1869 to corner the gold market to themselves. They tried, unsuccessfully, to get President Grant involved as well as his brother-in-law.
    3. In New York City, Boss Tweed ran Tammany Hall, a local political district. Boss Tweed used bribes, graft, and rigged elections to mooch money and ensure continual power for himself and his buddies.
      1. Thomas Nast was a cartoonist who relentlessly attacked Tweed's corruption. Tweed despised Nast because, although many people in Tweed's district couldn't read about the corruption, they could understand those "them damn pictures."
      2. Nast's cartoon's brought down Tweed. Samuel J. Tilden gained fame in prosecuting Tweed. Tweed eventually died in jail.
      3. Tilden would ride the fame to become the nominee for president in 1876 vs. Rutherford B. Hayes.
  3. A Carnival of Corruption
    1. President Grant was an honest man but there was much corruption underneath his administration. He either wasn't aware of it or failed to properly deal with it.
      1. Many in the Dent family, his in-laws, obtained government "jobs" for themselves.
    2. One of the worst situations was the Crédit Mobilier scandal
      1. The company was constructing the trans-continental railroad and effectively sub-hired itself to get paid double.
      2. They also gave stock to Congressmen in order to avoid getting busted.
      3. A newspaper finally exposed the scandal, two Congressmen went down, and the Vice President of the U.S. had even taken payments. Though uninvolved, Grant's name was scarred.
    3. The so-called "Whiskey Ring" also looked bad for Grant. Folks stole whiskey tax money from the government. Grant's own secretary was involved and, despite him saying "Let no guilty man escape," Grant helped let the thief off the hook.
    4. Lastly, the Secretary of War William Belknap was caught swindling $24,000 by selling trinkets to the Indians.
  4. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872
    1. By the 1872 election, many people had had enough. Reformers started the Liberal Rebpublican Party to clean things up.
      1. The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, as their candidate.
      2. Strangely, the Democrats also endorsed Greeley since they were so eager to gain office.
        1. Greeley had lambasted the Democrats through his paper, but he was soft on allowing the South to return to the nation, which the Democrats liked.
    2. The campaigning was nasty, but colorful. Greeley was called an atheist, communist, free-lover, vegetarian, brown-bread eater, and co-signor of Jefferson Davis' bail bond. Grant was called a drunk ignoramus and swindler.
    3. Grant won the election handily, 286 to 66.
    4. The Liberal Republicans did spook the Republican Congress into passing some reforms. (1) An amnesty act was passed which removed restrictions that'd been placed on many Southerners. Also, (2) there was effort to reduce the tariff rates and (3) to clean up/out the Grant administration.
  5. Depression, Deflation, and Inflation
    1. The Panic of 1873 brought economic troubles.
      1. It was started by over-spending with borrowed money, this time in railroads and factories. Growth was too fast and over-extended what the market could sustain.
      2. The causes of the panic were the same old ones that’d caused recessions every 20 years that century: (1) over-speculation (or over-spending) and (2) too-easy credit given by the banks.
      3. Initially, the panic was sparked when banks and businesses began to go bankrupt. The situation quickly snowballed from there.
      4. Blacks were hit especially hard. Always last-to-be-hired, and now the Freedman's Savings and Trust Co. went bankrupt, black Americans lost some $7 million in savings.
    2. The tough times hit debtors hard. They wanted inflationary policies to be pursued. Specifically, debtors wanted paper money ("greenbacks") printed to create inflation and thus make it easier to pay off debts. This strategy was called soft money or cheap money policies.
    3. Opponents, usually bankers and the wealthy, favored hard money policies. That is, they favored keeping the amount of money stable (and backed by gold). To hike up inflation just to pay a debt would be unfair, they said, since the money paid back wouldn't be as valuable as when it was lent.
      1. Grant vetoed a bill to print more money. Also, the Resumption Act was passed to actually start to (1) lower the number of greenbacks in circulation and (2) to redeem paper money at face value starting in 1879.
    4. Cheap money advocates also wanted more silver to be coined—the more money in circulation, the more inflation. Games were played over the value of silver, but the bottom line is that more silver coins would mean more inflation and thus make it easier to pay off debt.
    5. Under Grant's lead, the nation entered into a period of "contraction." This meant that the amount of money in circulation, per person, actually decreased during the 1870's
      1. Contraction likely didn't help the recession, but it did raise the value of the dollar bill. Come 1879, few people turned in their greenbacks for gold.
    6. The effect of Republican hard money policies was that the Democrats took over the House of Representatives in 1874.
    7. And, the Greenback Labor Party was started in 1878 with the main mission of bringing cheap money policies to life.
  6. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The term "the Gilded Age" was a phrase coined by Mark Twain to describe the late 1800's. It hinted that the times looked good (as if they were gilded or gold-covered), yet if one scratched a bit below the surface, there were problems.
      1. The Gilded Age largely contained tight and hotly contested political races, much corruption, and shady business deals.
      2. The Republicans of the day hinted back to Puritan ancestry and were supported in the North and West. The G.A.R., the Grand Army of the Republic, was a military veteran group that supported Republicans.
      3. Democrats got most of their support from the South. They were supported by Lutherans and Catholics.
    2. A split developed in the 1870's and 80's within the Republican party.
      1. The Stalwarts were led by Roscoe Conkling.
      2. The Half-Breeds were led by James G. Blaine.
  7. The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876
    1. Pres. Grant considered running for a third term in 1876. The House soundly voted down that option and Grant backed off.
    2. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes. He was called the "Great Unknown", for obvious reasons.
      1. He was neutral in the Conkling and Blained wars within the Republican party.
      2. And, his greatest attribute, he came from Ohio, an important state in winning the race.
    3. The Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden.
      1. Tilden's claim-to-fame was that he'd nailed Boss Tweed.
      2. Tilden got 184 electoral votes; he needed 185 to win.
      3. 20 votes were hanging in the balance due to questionable returns. Picking up only 1 vote would seee Tilden elected.
    4. Both sides sent people to the questionable states (LA, SC, FL, and OR) and both men claimed victories there.
      1. The question then became, "Which branch of Congress would count the states' votes?" Depending on who counted, the Democratic House or the Republican Senate, the vote would likely go that way.
      2. Weeks passed and the election was at a stalemate.
  8. The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction
    1. With a president needed, Congress passed the Electoral Count Act that set up a commission to resolve the crisis.
      1. There were 15 men (from the House, Senate, and Supreme Court) on the commission.
      2. 8 men were Republicans, 7 were Democrats
    2. The Republicans had the upper hand and were heading toward victory among the disputed states. Democrats were outraged and began to filibuster to tie up the process.
    3. Finally, a deal was made in the Compromise of 1877. True to a compromise, both sides did some give-and-take.
      1. The North…
        1. Got Rutherford B. Hayes elected as a Republican president.
      2. The South…
        1. Got a pledge that Hayes would removal of military occupation in the South.
        2. This did happen, thus ending Reconstruction. The bad news for the freedmen was that Southern blacks were now effectively left alone to fend for themselves. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 supposedly gave equal rights to blacks, but the Supreme Court had struck much of it down. Also, white Southerners began to reclaim a strong hold on power.
        3. Additionally, money would be spent on the Texas and Pacific railroad.
  9. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South
    1. With the military gone, white Southerners reasserted their power over blacks. Fraud and intimidation were the tools.
    2. Most blacks had no option but to become sharecroppers. They farmed land they didn't own, then paid hefty fees to the landlord come harvest time. The system was stacked against them so that they'd never get out of debt.
      1. Now "free", blacks likely farmed the same land for the same man as before the Civil War.
    3. Segregation (the separation of the races) also became institutionalized.
      1. First, the states enacted codes called Jim Crow laws that legalized the segregation.
      2. Then, the U.S. Supreme Court gave the federal okay. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) stated that "separate but equal" facilities for the races were legal.
        1. In reality, however, the races were indeed separate, but the facilities were hardly equal.
        2. Segregation was carried out in nearly all public facilities such as schools, theaters, transportation, and restrooms.
      3. Violation of these codes could have legal penalties. Or, worse, lynchings of blacks reached a record level as whites "enforced" the codes themselves.
  10. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes
    1. As well as ending Reconstruction, 1877 was a year of other conflicts…
    2. The 4 largest railroads got together and decided to cut employee wages by 10%. The workers fought back by going on strike.
      1. This railroad shut-down crippled the nation and President Hayes called in federal troops to stop the unrest amongst the striking workers.
      2. The trouble went on several weeks but eventually ended with the workers losing on the losing side. This failed strike showed the weaknesses of the labor movement at the time.
    3. Ethnic clashes were common.
      1. The clashes came when the Chinese competed for low-paying jobs, usually with the Irish.
      2. Most Chinese were young, poor men who'd emigrated to California. They frequently got jobs building the railroads. After the railroad boom, many returned to China, many stayed and looked for odd jobs.
      3. Irishman Denis Kearney fired up the Irish against the Chinese in San Francisco. The argument was that the "rice eater" (Chinese) could afford to work for a cheaper wage than the "beef eater" (Irish).
        1. The solution was for Irish gangs to take to the streets and deal their vengeance on the Chinese.
      4. Finally, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. It forbade the immigration of Chinese to America.
        1. This was the first immigration restriction America passed; until this point in history, immigrants simply came to America without hindrance.
  11. Garfield and Arthur
    1. The 1880 election pitted Garfield against Scott.
      1. The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield and, as his running mate, Stalwart Chester Arthur.
        1. Garfield was a "dark horse" candidate (a previously unknown person) but he came from the critical state of Ohio.
      2. The Democrats nominated Gen. Winfield Scott, the Civil War hero.
      3. Garfield won the election, but found himself trapped in the middle of the Republican feud between the Stalwarts and Half-Breeds.
      4. Garfield's Secretary of State James Blaine (Half-Breed leader) battled his arch-enemy, Stalwart Roscoe Conkling (Stalwart leader) at every chance.
    2. Garfield was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau in September of 1881.
      1. Guiteau said he was a Stalwart, like V.P. Chester Arthur, and his lawyers essentially used the insanity defense saying he didn't know right from wrong.
      2. Regardless, he was found guilty and hanged.
    3. As vice president, Chester Arthur became president.
      1. Despite being considered a partisan politician, Arthur was actually reform-minded. He largely stood firm against his Stalwart buddies in their quest for the riches that come with power
      2. The Pendleton Act was the height of political reform. It was called the "Magna Carta of civil service reform" meaning it required merit to get jobs, not simply knowing someone in a high position.
      3. The Civil Service Commission awarded jobs based on performance rather than on how much "pull" a person had (how many buddies they had in high places).
      4. The Pendleton Act first affected only 10% of federal jobs, but it (a) stopped the worst offenses of giving jobs to buddies and (b) it set the tone for civil service reform in the future.
  12. The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884
    1. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine for president in the 1884 election.
      1. Reform-minded Republicans didn't like this choice and went over to the Democrats. They were called "Mugwumps", supposedly with "their mug on one side and their wump on the other".
    2. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland as their candidate.
      1. The mudslinging reached the worst level up until that point during the campaign. A popular topic was Cleveland's affair and the child it had produced some 8 years earlier.
    3. Despite the drama that Cleveland had fathered a bastard love-child, he won the election.
  13. “Old Grover” Takes Over
    1. Grover Cleveland was a Democratic president during a string of Republicans in the White House. He had a laissez-faire capitalism mindset, which made business folks very happy.
    2. He helped bridge the North-South gap by naming two former Confederates to his cabinet.
    3. Cleveland was a man of principle who tried to do the right thing. His initial thought was to award jobs based on merit (civil service reform).
    4. Two former Confederates were named by Cleveland to his cabinet. He tried to follow the merit system (jobs went to the qualified), but was largely unsuccessful with this approach.
      1. When pressure mounted, Cleveland fired about 80,000 of 120,000 federal employees. 40,000 were Republicans dismissed to open up jobs for Democrats.
    5. Military pensions were a pain to Cleveland. The G.A.R. (Grand Army of the Republic) had considerable political clout and was mostly Republican. They pushed several bills through Congress that gave pensions to loads of veterans; many of the bills were simply money-grabbers.
      1. Cleveland was a Democrat and not a veteran himself, thus he was in an awkward position to halt military pensions. Still, Cleveland did veto many of these military pension bills.
  14. Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff
    1. Cleveland had an unusual problem—a budget surplus. He couldn't justify the government profiting off of the people by taking in more than the government needed.
    2. There were two ways to get rid of the surplus: (1) increase the spending by inventing things to spend it on, or (2) taking in less by cutting taxes. Cleveland chose the second option.
    3. The extra surplus money largely came in from the tariff. Many people wanted it lowered. Businesses, which benefit from inflated foreign prices that a tariff provides, wanted to keep it high.
      1. Pres. Cleveland asked Congress to reduce the tariff. The issue became a divisive one with Democrats favoring the lower tariff and Republicans favoring a higher one. Republicans began building their "war chest" of money for the next presidential campaign.
    4. The tariff issue came to a full head of steam in the election of 1888.
      1. Cleveland was up for re-election by the Democrats, Benjamin Harrison was up as the Republican.
      2. Harrison won in a very close race in 1888. Cleveland became the first president voted out of office since Martin Van Buren.
  15. The Billion Dollar Congress
    1. After being out of the White House for 4 years, the Republicans were eager to assert their power in Congress.
    2. The Republicans found their leader in Speaker of the House Thomas "Czar" Reed. Reed was a tall man, super debater, and had an acid-sarcastic tongue that cut at opponents. He ran the House of Representatives like a dictator.
      1. Democrats planned to fight back by not answering to roll call and thus not achieving a quorum (minimum number necessary for a meeting).
      2. Czar Reed solved the quorum battle by counting Democrats as present if they were there but hadn't answered the roll call.
    3. With his quorum met, Czar Reed got down to business and had many bills passed…
      1. The first "Billion Dollar Congress" where the U.S. government doled out that much money for the first time.
      2. Pensions were liberally given to veterans.
      3. More silver was purchased.
      4. The McKinley Tariff (1890) hiked rates to roughly 48%, the highest peacetime rate ever.
        1. The tariff was a double-edged sword: business folks loved the protection it gave, but farmers disliked the fact that manufactured goods were now more expensive.
  16. The Drumbeat of Discontent
    1. In 1892, a new political party emerged—the Populist Party (AKA the People's Party). It was made up of unhappy farmers and sprung out of the Farmers' Alliance.
    2. The Populists demanded…
      1. Inflation through "cheap money" policies of printing paper money and coining silver. They felt inflation would make it easier to pay off their debts. This was their top priority.
      2. Other desires were: a graduated income tax (a person pays more with a higher salary); government regulation of railroads, the telegraph, and telephone; direct elections of U.S. senators by the people; initiative and referendum (so people can propose and pass laws themselves); a shorter working day; and immigration restrictions.
    3. The Populist Party did surprisingly well in the election. They got 22 electoral votes by winning four western states.
    4. The South was reluctant to vote for the Populists due to race reasons. The Populists had reached out to Southern blacks so Southern whites turned away. After the election, Southern whites tightened the screws on blacks.
      1. Literacy tests and poll taxes were used more than ever to prevent blacks from voting.
      2. "Grandfather clauses" were employed to allow anyone to vote whose grandfather could (thus only whites were grandfathered in).
  17. Cleveland and Depression
    1. "Old Grover" Cleveland won the election and became president again (after 4 years off).
    2. However, the Depression of 1893 soon began. It was the first recession or depression during the industrial age. This completed the almost predictable, every-20-year cycle of panics during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893).
      1. Nearly 8,000 U.S. businesses went out of business in 6 months. Railroads went under too and soup kitchens popped up to feed wandering hoboes.
    3. There were other money problems to deal with…
      1. Cleveland now had a budget deficit, whereas he'd enjoyed a surplus before.
      2. The nation's gold supply was getting dangerously low.
        1. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) had created a cycle: the government had to buy silver and print paper money to pay for it, the people could then turn in the paper money for gold, which they did.
        2. The nation's gold supply once dipped below $100 million, the safe minimum.
          1. Meanwhile, Cleveland had a malignant tumor removed from his mouth. If he'd died, Vice President Adlai Stevenson would've taken over. Stevenson was a "soft money" advocate and the gold problem would've likely worsened.
        3. Congress debated repealing the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.
          1. A young 30-year old named William Jennings Bryan became the foremost spokesman for silver and "cheap money."
          2. Despite the arguing, the Sherman Act was repealed.
        4. The exchange of paper money-for-gold continued still. This time the gold reserves fell to only #41 million.
          1. Finally, Cleveland turned to J.P. Morgan. Morgan and his banker-friends agreed to lend the U.S. government $65 million in gold (of course the bankers made $7 million in profit).
          2. This deal restored confidence and largely stemmed the problem.
  18. Cleveland Breeds a Backlash
    1. Grover Cleveland, who'd been seen as a "common-man's president", looked sneaky in his dealings in gold and with J.P. Morgan.
    2. Cleveland was embarrassed again by the Wilson-Gorman Tariff.
      1. Democrats had promised lower tariffs. The Wilson-Gorman barely changed the McKinley Tariff at all. Worse, the Wilson-Gorman law allowed for a 2% income tax on income over $4,000. The Supreme Court struck this down, but it looked like Cleveland and the government was giving in to the rich "fat-cats."
    3. The Republicans began to benefit from Cleveland's recent actions.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age

  1. The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse
    1. Railroads skyrocketed after the Civil War. Track mileage increased from 35,000 miles in 1865 to over 192,000 miles by 1900.
    2. Congress encouraged this boom by giving millions of acres of land to the railroad companies. The total acreage was greater than the size of Texas.
      1. The land given to the railroad companies was in a checkerboard fashion along the track. Since it adjoined the track, it's value likely increased and the railroad company would then sell it for a huge profit.
    3. There were arguments on both sides…
      1. People said giving land for railroad companies to profit just wasn't right. Pres. Grover Cleveland fell in this category. He felt this system was wrong and ended it.
      2. Others said the railroads were what gave the land most of its value. And, the value of the railroads themselves to the nation was undeniable.
  2. Spanning the Continent with Rails
    1. The ultimate goal for the rails was a transcontinental railroad (from coast to coast). The only question had been whether to build the transcontinental railroad in the North or South. With the South seceding from the nation, the North would get the railroad.
    2. Congress commissioned the Union Pacific Railroad to push westward from Omaha, Nebraska to California.
      1. For their efforts, the Union Pacific got (a) pay, (b) free land, (c) loans for more land or building.
      2. The Crédit Mobilier company made fantastic profits.
        1. Insiders in the company managed ridiculous profits for themselves through sneaky deals.
      3. They also bribed Congressmen to look the other way.
      4. Irish workers ("Paddies") did most of the labor on the Great Plains. Clashes with Indians were frequent.
    3. The Central Pacific Railroad started in California and pushed eastward.
      1. Leland Stanford headed up the railroad efforts from California.
      2. He and his partners made fabulous profits but kept themselves clean and bribe-free.
      3. Chinese laborers did most of the work.
    4. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869 near Ogden, Utah. As a symbolic measure, a golden spike was driven into the track. The nation was connected by two ribbons of steel from coast to coast.
  3. Binding the Country with Railroad Ties
    1. By 1900, four more transcontinental lines had been constructed.
      1. The Northern Pacific Railroad from Lake Superior to Puget Sound.
      2. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe from Kansas to California.
      3. The Southern Pacific line went from New Orleans to San Francisco.
      4. The Great Northern linked Duluth, MN to Seattle.
        1. This line was constructed by James H. Hill, perhaps the greatest railroad constructor. He built railroads with a sense of public duty and shipped in cattle for the locals.
    2. There were drawbacks to railroad construction as well. Some communities waged all they had on a railroad line increasing the value of the town. Oftentimes, tracks were laid that turned out to go "from nowhere to nothing." Bankruptcy usually followed.
  4. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization
    1. Back east where railroads were already built, changes were occurring. Cornelius Vanderbilt began consolidating the New York Central line. This meant he bought up the little railroad lines into his one company.
      1. The results of railroad consolidation were cheaper fares/rates and faster travel times.
    2. There were technological advances too.
      1. Vanderbilt began to use steel rails, instead of iron. Steel was stronger, lasted longer, and didn't rust as fast as iron.
      2. A standardized gauge (distance between tracks) made things uniform.
      3. The Westinghouse air brake was invented which was much more efficient and safe.
      4. Pullman Palace Cars (luxury passenger cars) were built and were very popular for travelers.
      5. Other developments like the telegraph to communicate when tracks were open, double-tracking, and then the block signal made railroad travel safer.
    3. Despite advances, accidents and tragedies on the track were not uncommon.
  5. Revolution by Railways
    1. The railroad network had the effect of physically linking the nation and psychologically impacted the way people looked at the country.
    2. The greatest impact that railroads had was on business and industrialization.
      1. Eastern and western markets were now linked.
      2. Investors could pour money into new markets.
      3. Travel was eased and the wide open west beckoned settlers as much as ever.
      4. Farmers were taken out west and ore mined from the soil was shipped back east.
      5. Cities boomed out west, notably Chicago, and the cities back east were brought whatever the West had to offer.
      6. Fortunes and millionaires were also made by the railroads.
    3. The land itself was also impacted by railroads.
      1. The Midwestern plains became Midwestern cornfields and the great herds of buffalo began to die off ("go the way of the buffalo").
    4. Before trains, cities and towns simply operated on their own local time. Since accurate timing was critical in safely running trains, time zones were created so that everyone would be coordinated.
  6. Wrongdoing in Railroading
    1. Railroading also had a large share of corruption.
      1. The worst case was the Crédit Mobilier scandal where railroad men subhired themselves to get paid twice and bought Congressmen to go along.
      2. Jay Gould boomed and busted railroad stock, making profit for himself all the way along.
        1. A common technique was "stock watering" where railroads would artificially talk up the company so the stock would zoom upward.
    2. Other railroad tricks included…
      1. Frequent bribes (AKA "kickbacks") were given to governmental officials and major customers.
      2. The formation of "pools" (formally called "cartels") where competitors agreed to cooperate as if they were one mega company.
      3. Rebates were given to large companies that shipped large quantities of goods. The complaint was that this created two rates: a cheap rate for the big companies and an expensive rate for the little guy. Railroads said they were simply rewarding their valued customers.
      4. Free passes were often given to members of the press to ensure good publicity.
  7. Government Bridles the Iron Horse This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. America has always believed in free enterprise—the notion that the government should stay out of private business. There was always the belief that in a free enterprise system anyone can rise from rags-to-riches or even millionaire.
    2. Slowly the people/government did respond to the railroads and their shenanigans.
      1. Farmers led the protest in the economic recession of the 1870's. Groups like The Grange pushed for regulation.
      2. In the Wabash case, the supreme court said that states cannot regulate interstate trade 9only congress can0. This meant that if any regulation were to be done, it would have to be by the U.S. Congress, not the local states.
      3. Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) that outlawed rebates and pools. It also required rates to be openly published and banned charging low rates for the long haul (to big businesses that shipped large quantities) and higher rates for the short haul (to small farmers who shipped small quantities).
        1. Although the law intended to help the commoner, the powerful found ways around it. For instance, lawyer Richard Olney coldly concluded that the law can actually help railroads—it gave the public the image of government regulation when in reality the law did very little.
    3. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone as a part-time hobby while teaching the deaf to speak.
    4. Thomas Edison, the "Wizard of Menlo Park," came up with the light bulb along with many, many other inventions.
  8. Miracles of Mechanization
    1. Between 1860 and 1984 the U.S. rose from the 4th largest manufacturing nation to the 1st. The reasons were…
    2. Liquid capital (money or a millionaire class) emerged to build new businesses.
    3. Natural resources had always been a great asset in America. Those resources were now being put to full use.
      1. For example, the Mesabi iron ore range of Minnesota was powering the national need for iron and steel.
    4. Immigration on a huge scale kept labor cheap.
    5. New technological advances were developed…
      1. Eli Whitney started mass production and interchangeable parts.
      2. Other inventions aided business and included: the cash register, the stock ticker, the typewriter (which brought women to work), the refrigerator car, the electric dynamo, and the electric railway.
  9. The Trust Titan Emerges
    1. Titans or giants of industry eventually began to emerge in each major business.
    2. Andrew Carnegie switched from railroading to become the master of the steel industry with the U.S. Steel Corporation.
      1. Carnegie used vertical integration to grow his business. This meant he bought out businesses that he used in the production process. For example, he'd buy the land that held the ore, then he'd buy the machines to dig it, then the ships and railroads to ship it, then the factories to forge it. Rather than pay a company along the way, he owned each step of the process.
    3. John D. Rockefeller nearly monopolized the oil industry.
      1. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company used horizontal integration to take over the industry. In vertical integration, Standard would either force a competitor out of business or buy them out to grow even larger.
      2. Rockefeller was very successful. The Standard Oil Company controlled 90-95% of the oil in the U.S. To get that large, he was ruthless in his tactics. It was said that his unofficial motto was "let us prey" (on the little companies).
      3. He used a technique called interlocking directorates where his own men would be placed on the board-of-directors for "competitors." Their decisions would be to cooperate with their "competitors", not compete.
    4. J.P. Morgan was a financier, not an industrialist, who gained great power and wealth. He used interlocking directorates by putting his own people on the boards of struggling companies then controlling them as one unit.
  10. The Supremacy of Steel
    1. Steel became king after the Civil War. Steel built the industrial revolution.
      1. Right after the Civil War steel was expensive and used sparingly, as for cutlery.
      2. Within 20 years, the U.S. had become the world's top steel producer and by 1900 the U.S. made more steel than Britain and Germany combined.
    2. The main advance was the Bessemer Process where cool air is blown over red hot iron to burn off the impurities and produce stronger and cheaper steel.
    3. A second reason for the growth of American steel was that the U.S. was blessed with loads of iron and coal, the two main ingredients for steel.
    4. When the Bessemer Process and the materials were added to a seemingly endless labor supply, steel boomed.
  11. Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel
    1. Andrew Carnegie, the son of Scottish immigrants, was the classic rags-to-riches story.
      1. He worked his way up through good old-fashioned hard work.
      2. He started as a bobbin-boy in a cotton mill making $1.20 per week.
      3. His next stop was as a telegraph errand boy, then telegraph operator, then as a railroad executive's secretary.
      4. After gaining some capital in railroading, Carnegie entered the steel industry.
      5. Carnegie's U.S. Steel Corp. became dominant in steel largely because of his administrative abilities and knack for hiring excellent people.
        1. By 1900, U.S. Steel produced 1/4 of the nation's Bessemer steel. Carnegie made $25 million, tax free.
    2. J.P. Morgan was the premier financier of the day. Morgan made his money not by making anything, but by making deals—deals in railroads, insurance, banks, etc.
      1. Carnegie was ready to retire in 1900 and wanted to sell U.S. Steel. A deal was made where J.P. Morgan bought Carnegie's steel empire for $400 million.
      2. Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to philanthropy—giving the money away. He gave $350 million to build libraries, support the arts, and to other charities.
      3. J.P. Morgan wasted no time and quickly built U.S. Steel into the world's first billion dollar company (it was valued at $1.4 billion).
  12. Rockefeller Grows an American Beauty Rose
    1. "Drake's Folly" started the oil boom with a gusher in Pennsylvania. Kerosene (for lamps) enjoyed a mini-boom but its days were numbered.
      1. Just as whaling (as chronicled in Herman Melville's Moby Dick) was replaced by kerosene, kerosene would be replaced by electricity and the electric light bulb.
      2. Kerosene did foreshadow the age of oil, however. The internal combustion engine was being perfected at roughly the same time.
    2. At first the oil industry was wide open to all. But, John D. Rockefeller got a leg up on the competition with his Standard Oil Company. Standard Oil eventually sold 95% of all oil sold in the U.S.
      1. Rockefeller was criticized for his business practices as being ruthless.
      2. He used horizontal integration to buy up competitors.
      3. Or, he simply drove competitors out of business. "Undercutting", where he charged less for oil than the market price just to drive competitors under, was a common practice. This helped earn him the nickname "Reckafellow."
      4. His tactics were aided by "economies of scale" where large companies produce a cheaper product and thus put even more pressure on the "little guy."
    3. Other trusts emerged as well including Gustavus F. Swift and Philip Armour, the meat packers and hot dog makers.
  13. The Gospel of Wealth
    1. As a filthy-rich class emerged, so too did various views on wealth…
      1. Some, like Rockefeller, felt their wealth came from God. This was similar to the old divine-right monarchies of Europe.
      2. Carnegie spoke of a Gospel of Wealth saying the rich had a moral duty to spread the wealth (like spreading the Gospel).
      3. Perhaps the most common idea was Social Darwinism.
        1. Social Darwinism transposed Charles Darwin's new evolution and survival-of-the-fittest theories from biology to society.
        2. The Social Darwinism idea said that the reason certain people were at the top of their business was because they were the best adapted at running that industry. The opposite, of course, would apply to anyone at the bottom of the social or economic ladder.
        3. Strangely, it was a minister that did the most to promote Social Darwinism. Rev. Russell Conwell became rich himself while delivering his sermon/lecture Acres of Diamonds thousands of times. His theme was that people earn their lots in life, either good or bad.
    2. By the later 1800's, a plutocracy or rule by rich plutocrats, had replaced the old slavocracy of antebellum days.
      1. The rulings that only the U.S. Congress could regulate interstate trade left big business largely unregulated. The businesses could easily bribe state legislators to vote pro-business.
      2. Also, corporate lawyers used the 14th Amendment to the benefit of the corporation. The amendment was written to give former slaves citizenship rights, but corporate lawyers got corporations classified as legal people with full citizenship rights as well.
  14. Government Tackles the Trust Evil
    1. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) was enacted in attempt to outlaw trusts or monopolies.
    2. The law forbade "combinations" such as…
      1. "pools" or cartels—where "competitors" got together and behaved as one mega-company.
      2. interlocking directorates—where the same people sat on the board-of-directors of "competitors", then made the same decisions for each company, and thus the "competitors" behaved as one mega-company.
      3. holding companies—where the holding company bought up controlling shares of stock in a group of competitors, then managed each "competitor" as one mega-company.
    3. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act was not effective because (a) proving combinations exist, especially with pools, can be difficult, and (b) it lacked real teeth in enforcement.
    4. In 1914 the anti-trust movement finally gained real muscle to enforce its provisions.
  15. The South in the Age of Industry
    1. Whereas the Industrial Revolution mostly benefited the North, the South by 1900 was still struggling.
      1. The South still produced less than before the Civil War and the farming was split up into small chunks, often done by sharecroppers who "rented" the land.
    2. James Buchanan Duke gave the South a boost when the cigarette industry took off. His American Tobacco Company made him a fortune, enough to earn his namesake Duke University in Durham, NC.
    3. Henry W. Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution, urged Southerners to beat the Yankees at their own game of industry. Still, old ways die hard and industry was slow to grow in the South.
      1. The railroads were stacked against Southern industry as well. Rates for manufactured goods going southward were cheaper than northward. Rates for raw materials favored the South.
    4. Cotton mills did begin to emerge down South.
      1. The benefits of the mill jobs were mixed. It meant jobs, but it also meant cheap labor and the desire to keep labor rates low—often half of what Northern mill hands earned. Still, the mills were a thankful blessing to many Southerners.
  16. The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America
    1. Despite its drawbacks, the Industrial Revolution caused the overall standard of living for Americans to improve.
    2. The old Jefferson vs. Hamilton dispute had also been solved: Jefferson's ideals of small-town agriculture was being trumped by Hamilton's big-city business.
      1. Lifestyles changed as well. The "can see, 'til can't see" farmer became a factory worker that labored from whistle to whistle.
      2. Women gained increasing roles in business as well as secretaries and in clerical jobs.
        1. This "new woman" was idealized by the "Gibson Girl," illustrations by Charles Dana Gibson of attractive, stylish, and athletic women active outside of the home.
        2. Still, this increased role in the workplace shouldn't be over-stated. The traditional role of women as manager of the household was still the top "job" for women.
    3. Society had been transformed from self-employed farmers to employed wage-earners.
    4. The Industrial Revolution flooded the American market so businesses began to look overseas; American imperialism would soon follow.
  17. In Unions There Is Strength
    1. The rise of industry meant the rise of the factory worker. This yielded both good and bad results.
    2. The positive was that (a) there actually were jobs and (b) that the overall standard-of-living did in fact rise.
    3. There were also many negative effects…
      1. Immigration was increasing which meant wages were cheap. For employers, replacement of "uppity" or troublesome workers was easy enough with eager immigrants.
      2. Workers united in unions in hopes of finding strength in numbers. The union's main weapon of striking was still not very effective because…
        1. Employers could hire lawyers to wrangle around the issues.
        2. "Scabs," or part-time replacement workers could be brought in and union leaders could be intimidated or beaten down.
        3. Big-business could call on the courts to order strikers back to work.
        4. Big-business could mandate "ironclad oaths" or "yellow dog contracts" where workers pledged to not join a union.
        5. Big-business could "black list" troublesome workers meaning no other employer would hire that person.
        6. Some businesses ran "company towns" where workers were paid "scrip" (not real money but company money good at the company store). Workers were also given easy credit meaning they usually got themselves intodebt and never got out.
    4. In a broader sense, the idea of Social Darwinism pervaded society and lended workers little pity. It said a person's lot in life was the result of his or her own doing (or lack of doing)—the rich had earned their position and the poor had the same opportunity to do so.
  18. Labor Limps Along
    1. Labor unions began to grow in number after the Civil War.
    2. The National Labor Union (1866) lasted 6 years and had 600,000 members—skilled, unskilled, and farmers.
      1. Par-for-the-times, blacks and women were only slightly sought after and Chinese immigrants were excluded.
      2. Their goals were (a) arbitration (settlement by a mediator) of worker complaints and (b) an 8 hour workday (which was granted to government workers).
      3. The 1873 depression ruined the National Labor Union.
    3. The Knights of Labor began in secrecy and then came out in 1881.
      1. It welcomed skilled and unskilled, women and blacks. The only people banned were "non producers": liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers, and stockbrokers,
      2. The Knights sought workers' cooperatives (to pool their money and resources), better working conditions, and the 8 hour workday.
      3. They had some success, led by Terence V. Powderly. They got the 8 hour day in several places and pulled off a successful strike against Jay Gould's Wabash Railroad (1885). After this their numbers bloomed to 750,000 members.
  19. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor
    1. The Knights became active in a series of May Day strikes. The strikes had mixed results. but more importantly, the strikes hurt the Knights public image.
    2. The "Haymarket Square Incident" occurred in Chicago in 1886. There strikers were intermingled with a handful of anarchists calling for overthrow of the government.
      1. A bombing took place and a handful of bystanders, including police, were killed or injured. The anarchists were the likely culprit, but the public placed blame on the Knights and unions.
      2. Eight anarchists were arrested; five were given the death sentence and the other three were given hefty sentences. They were eventually pardoned by Governor John P. Atlgeld in 1892. These actions were unpopular and cost him reelection.
    3. The end result of the Haymarket Square incident was a distrust in unions and a decline in their membership.
  20. The AF of L to the Fore
    1. The American Federation of Labor (called the "AF of L")was started by Samuel Gompers in 1886.
      1. The AF of L was made up of small, independent unions. They were tied together by their association with the AF of L.
      2. Gompers desire for workers was summed up simply as "more." He sought what unions always seek: better wages, shorter hours, better working conditions.
      3. Gompers wanted "trade agreements" to allow the "closed shop" (businesses closed to non-union members, or in other words, you must join the union in order to work there).
      4. His main weapons were the boycott and the strike. To boycott, "We don't patronize" sign would be placed on unpopular businesses. To strike, union dues would build up funds to hopefully see them through the strike.
    2. The AF of L was made up of skilled craftsmen. Unskilled workers were not included because they were too easily replaced and thus weakened the union. (This exclusion of unskilled workers is a notable difference from the CIO which came later and included the unskilled).
    3. They eventually garnered 500,000 members and were criticized as the "labor trust." Still, this amounted to only about 3% of the labor force in the U.S.
    4. Around 1900, views on labor unions began to turn for the better. Workers were allowed to organize (unionize), collectively bargain, and strike. The most symbolic achievement for workers was the passage of Labor Day (1894) where workers, ironically, take the day off from work.
    5. The rise of unions could be summed up as a long battle that was just beginning.
      1. Strikes, negotiations, firings, hirings, etc. were to still very much to come.
      2. In the grand scheme of things, despite unions' constant efforts, labor unions in the 1800's were largely ineffective mostly due to the never-ending stream of immigrants which always assured an eager labor force.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City

  1. The Urban Frontier
    1. The population of the U.S. doubled between 1870 and 1900. The population of cities tripled. Cities grew outward, but also upward.
      1. Cities grew outward thanks to the electric trolley. The old "walking city" of Europe had expanded to become larger than was practical to walk across. People now rode trolleys.
      2. Cities grew upward thanks to skyscrapers. Working in Chicago in the 1880's, architect Louis Sullivan was the father of the skyscraper. He used steel, concrete, newly invented elevators, and the motto "form follows function." A bit ahead of his time, his techniques would later influence Frank Lloyd Wright and become accepted.
    2. Cities attracted people from the farms partly due to jobs, partly to the excitement of the city, partly due to advances.
      1. Cities had city lights, indoor plumbing, telephones, and skyscrapers. There were department stores like Marshall Field's in Chicago and Macy's in New York.
      2. New York's Brooklyn Bridge was completed in 1883. The suspension bridge came to symbolize American ingenuity, technology, commerce, and can-do attitude.
    3. Author Theodore Dreiser captured big-city life (for both good and bad) in his novel Sister Carrie. In a nutshell, it's about the struggles of a young woman who wants to leave boring country life for the hustle-bustle of Chicago. She finds upward mobility by sleeping with men she thinks are her ticket up the social ladder. Notably, Dreiser was a "realist" writer—Carrie's life and Chicago are written about plainly, without "sugar coating", and rather depressingly.
      1. There was another way for country folks to gain a bit of the big city—via mail order catalogs. Companies like Sears and Montgomery Ward sent catalogs yearly and people could buy anything in the catalog and have it sent to their rural homes.
    4. The rapid growth of cities had negative effects as well, mainly in sanitation.
      1. Trash piled up in the streets, drinking water was poor, sewage systems were ineffective, air quality was terrible, animal droppings were everywhere. The result was unhealthy and unclean conditions in the streets.
      2. Slums popped up as well. They were far too over-populated and far to unsanitary. Those two conditions simply added to one another literally making the slums death-traps.
        1. An early godsend was the "dumbbell" apartment. Getting clean air into the tenement apartments was a problem. The dumbbell apartment had an air shaft vertically down the through the building to let in air. It wasn't perfect, but was much healthier than a cubicle box shaped apartment with no air shaft.
        2. People usually moved up and out of the slums. The slums would then be re-inhabited by the next wave of immigrants.
    5. A notable statistic occurred in 1920: for the first time, America was more urban than rural. That is to say, more people lived in cities (of 2,500 people or more) than in the country.
  2. The New Immigration
    1. Immigration was speeding up and it was changing.
    2. Before 1880, most immigrants to America were from "Old Immigration."
      1. They came from northern and western Europe—Britain, Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia. They largely came from nations with some democratic backgrounds and were of the fair-skinned Anglo-Saxon type.
      2. They were Protestant (except for the Irish and a few Germans).
      3. They were generally better educated and with a bit of money behind them.
    3. Around 1880, things changed over to "New Immigration."
      1. They came from southern and eastern Europe—Poland, Italy, Slovakia, Croatia. They largely came from nations with little democratic traditions.
      2. They were usually Catholic, uneducated, and were generally penniless.
    4. In 1880 they made up 19% of immigrants; 1910 they were up to 66% of immigrants.
    5. They generally came to areas consisting of their home-country neighbors. Places popped up like "Little Italy" and "Little Poland." Americans felt these newcomers could not or would not melt into the American way of life.
  3. Southern Europe Uprooted
    1. The New Immigrants came to America for many reasons: the population in Europe had grown very fast, there had been wars, there was discrimination, but the main reason for emigrating to America, as usual, was economic opportunities. Trans-Atlantic steamships also made passage easier.
      1. American businesses loved the immigration boom. It meant a steady and cheap labor force.
    2. Jews emigrated largely to New York City. They were unusual in that they'd come from cities of Europe and brought their city-life skills.
    3. Many young men (about 25% of the immigrants) came to America not to live, but to work and then return to Europe.
    4. Immigrants struggled between keeping Old World customs and adopting the New World. To keep the old, Catholics set up school systems, their were foreign language newspapers, ethnic restaurants, theaters and social clubs. The children of the immigrants normally grew up "American" and become wholly "American."
  4. Reactions to the New Immigration
    1. Immigrants were left on their own once entering America. City bosses, such as the infamous Boss Tweed of the Tammany Hall district in New York City, pretty much ran the immigrants' lives.
    2. Eventually, people's social conscience kicked into gear.
      1. Protestant clergy called for Christian charity. They called for the "social gospel" where churches should address social issues and problems.
      2. Leading preachers of the social gospel were Walter Rauschenbusch (German Baptist) and Washington Gladden (Congregational).
    3. Most notable of social reformers of the late 1800's was Jane Addams.
      1. Addams founded Hull House in Chicago (1889). It was a "settlement house"—immigrants came there for counseling, literacy training, child care, cultural activities, and the like.
      2. A well-known spin-off of Hull House was the Henry Street Settlement in New York run by Lillian Wald.
    4. Settlement houses became hot-beds for activism.
      1. Women in particular began to be active in issues, particularly in addressing discrimination against women for jobs.
      2. Jobs for women, were few to begin with, and depended on a woman's race, ethnicity, and class. Each "brand" of woman was pigeon-holed into a certain group of jobs.
      3. Still, the big cities generally offered more opportunities in jobs and entertainment than the small towns back home.
  5. Narrowing the Welcome Mat This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. With the boom of immigration, "nativism" (bias against foreigners) reappeared from its 1840's roots. By the 1880's it was the "New Immigrants" being looked down upon.
      1. The Old Immigrants from northern Europe disliked the New because they were poorly educated, poor, Catholic, were from the "inferior" regions of Europe, and had high immigration and birth rates.
      2. In simple dollars-and-sense, these New Immigrants would work for pennies. This kept everyone's wages low. Also, immigrants were used as scabs (strike-breakers) and were hard to unionize due to language issues. This fostered even more resent.
      3. Politically, they had no democratic background. They came from areas of dictatorships, socialism, and some were anarchists. These ideas mingled in natives minds and spawned fear.
    2. Nativist organizations emerged (reminiscent of the old Know Nothing Party of the 1840's and 50's).
      1. The American Protective Association (APA) gained millions of members and urged voting against Catholics.
    3. Eventually laws followed people's feelings.
      1. The first law restricting immigration to America was passed in 1882. It banned paupers (a very poor person), criminals, and convicts.
      2. Another law in 1885 forbade importing workers under contract at substandard wages.
      3. Other laws banned more "undesirables" and literacy tests kept many immigrants out until 1917.
      4. A red-letter law was passed in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act. It banned the immigration of Chinese. This was the first immigration law to specifically target and ban a specific ethnicity.
    4. Ironically, the Statue of Liberty (1886) was given to the U.S. by France during the days of such anti-foreigner feelings. Poet Emma Lazarus words were inscribed on the bottom: Give me your tired, your poor Your huddled masses yearning to be free,…"
  6. Churches Confront the Urban Challenge
    1. Changes in city were also affecting the churches.
      1. In the shift to the cities, churches seemed to be losing their place in society.
      2. Many people began to question the motives of the churches. The established churches largely had established church-goers. They seemed to be materialistic and happily stagnant. It was as if the wealthy parishioner didn't want to get his hands dirty dealing with the issues of the poor.
    2. Within this set of circumstances, religious changes would occur…
      1. Some preachers had been influenced by Unitarianism of the the 2nd Great Awakening days. These liberal groups spun their own twist on religion: they rejected a literal interpretation of the bible, rejected original sin of mankind, and pushed for the social gospel.
      2. Dwight Lyman Moody started the Moody Bible Institute and pushed for Christian charity and kindness. His goal and achievement was connect biblical teachings and Christianity to modern city life.
      3. The Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were growing largely in numbers due to the New Immigration.
      4. America had 150+ varieties of faiths by 1890. A good social gospel example was the Salvation Army which helped anyone struggling to make a go of things by doling out soup.
      5. A new religion emerged: Mary Baker Eddy started the Church of Christ, Scientist (AKA "Christian Science"). The main belief of Christian Science was healing through prayer, not through medical treatment.
      6. Membership in the YMCA or YWCA (the Young Men's/Women's Christian Association) grew quickly. They mixed religion with exercise and activity.
  7. Darwin Disrupts the Churches
    1. Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859. His theory of evolution argued that higher forms of life had evolved from lower forms of life via random mutation and survival-of-the-fittest.
      1. At first, scientists rejected Darwin's views. Many people followed Frenchmen Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's version of evolution saying things that happened during an organism's life could be the surviving factor (not necessarily genetic mutation). By the 1920's, Darwin's view was largely accepted by scientists.
    2. Darwin's review thus rejected divine creation. Three groups were now in a culture war…
      1. "Fundamentalists" believed the bible as it is written, without any errors. They accepted Genesis 1:1 that states, "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth."
      2. Liberal Christians blended evolution with divine creation. They justified evolution as acts of God.
      3. "Modernists" rejected religion and accepted Darwin's theory of evolution and his rationale for the beginnings of life and of life's variety.
  8. The Lust for Learning
    1. Education continued to march forward. The idea of "free compulsory eduction," paid for by taxpayers, was a reality, but generally only up to the 8th grade.
      1. High schools were now growing and were to 6,000 in number by 1900.
      2. Other areas of education grew: (a) kindergartens, (b) "normal" (teacher training) schools, and (c) the fast growth of parochial schools (especially Catholic).
    2. Adults were left out of this system. But, many adults participated in the Chataqua movement. It was a series of lectures, a descendant of the earlier "lyceum" circuit. Many well-known speakers, like Mark Twain, spoke.
    3. Stats reflect the benefits of education: the illiteracy rate fell from 20% (1870) to 10.7% (1900).
  9. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People
    1. In the post-war South, many still struggled, especially blacks. They were largely poor and poorly educated.
    2. Booker T. Washington developed a plan for bettering the lots of blacks.
      1. He developed the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. It was a normal school for black teachers and taught hands-on industrial trades.
      2. George Washington Carver studied the peanut, sweet potato, and soybean there and came up with many uses for them: shampoo, axle grease, vinegar, and paint.
      3. He felt the way for blacks to advance in the South was through bettering themselves economically. Social justice would come later.
    3. Washington's largest critic was W.E.B. DuBois.
      1. DuBois was a Harvard intellectual. He criticism was that Washington's method put blacks in a little box of manual labor only.
      2. DuBois help start the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and called for the "talented tenth" of the black community to be given full access and equality.
    4. On a day-to-day level, many blacks related much better to Washington and his practical approach.
  10. The Hallowed Halls of Ivy
    1. Upper education expanded after the Civil War.
      1. Women gained more colleges, often in the Midwest, like Vassar.
      2. Black colleges emerged, like Howard University in Washington D.C. and Atlanta University.
    2. Two laws helped the growth of colleges: the Morrill Act (1862) and then the **Hatch Act (1887). They provided money to states for "land-grant colleges." A focus was on agricultural research at the universities.
      1. They gave birth to 100+ colleges and universities, such as University of California, Texas A&M, and Ohio State.
    3. Philanthropy or private donations went a long way for colleges. Examples included Cornell, Stanford University from railroad tycoon Leland Stanford, and the University of Chicago from John D. Rockefeller.
    4. Johns Hopkins University became the first top-rate graduate school.
  11. The March of the Mind
    1. With new topics like evolution, universities began to struggle to reconcile science with religion. The "solution" was to drop moral instruction.
    2. The curriculum changed as well.
      1. Traditionally, the curriculum consisted of languages, notably Latin and Greek for bible study, and grammar or rhetoric. Universities in America had been started to train preachers.
      2. Now, the movement was toward a more practical curriculum. Also, the elective system became very popular as it gave students choices of classes.
      3. The reform of education jumped forward when chemist Dr. Charles W. Eliot was named president of Harvard. Symbolically, he changed Harvard's motto from Christo et Ecclesiae (for Christ and Church) to Veritas (Truth).
    3. Medicine and med-schools improved.
      1. Louis Pasteur (pasteurization) and Joseph Lister's (antiseptics) work helped move medicine from superstition to science. People now understood germs and life expectancy rose.
    4. Henry James wrote influentially on psychology with books like Principles of Psychology and Pragmatism (saying America's contribution to any idea was its usefulness, or not).
  12. The Appeal of the Press
    1. Books had always been popular, but by 1900 people were starving to read. Libraries and newspapers satisfied that urge.
    2. The Library of Congress opened in 1897 and Andrew Carnegie had given $60 million to build local libraries across the U.S.
    3. Newspapers were on the rise as well with the invention of Linotype. People were hungry to read the latest goings-on.
      1. Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) mastered sensational reporting, called yellow journalism after his comic "The Yellow Kid."
      2. William Randolph Hearst (San Francisco Examiner) was also a yellow journalism editor and put together a newspaper empire made of a chain of newspapers.
      3. Daily newspapers immensely helped unify the U.S. People were now much more on the "same page," literally, as someone in another section of the nation. Notably, this is when the popularity of national sports, especially baseball, took off since one could follow his team each day.
      4. Drawbacks rose however: one as the influence of advertisers in the expanding newspaper business; another was that reporting was focussed more on selling papers than on accuracy (a "juicy" story was better than an accurate story).
      5. The establishment of the Associated Press (AP) and their accuracy helped balance the yellow journalism.
  13. Apostles of Reform
    1. Magazines were popular, such as Harper's, Atlantic Monthly, and Scribners.
    2. Editor Edwin L. Godkin's liberal magazine Nation was very influential.
      1. It was read by intellectuals and thinker-types and was reform minded.
      2. It pushed for civil service reform (government jobs based on talent, not connections), honest government, and a mild tariff.
    3. Henry George wrote Progess and Poverty which examined the relationship between those two concepts. His theory was that "progress" pushed land values up and thus increased poverty amongst many.
      1. His solution to the distribution of wealth was to propose a 100% tax on profits—a very controversial proposal.
    4. Edward Bellamy published the novel Looking Backward. It's character fell asleep and awoke in the year 2000 to an ideal society. His solution was that the government had taken over all business, communist/socialist-style, and everything was rosy. Intellectual-types enjoyed discussing the book and its ideas.
  14. The New Morality
    1. "Modern" times and morality were changing, or perhaps more accurately, morality didn't change but was challenged.
    2. Two sisters, Victoria Woodhull and Tennessee Claflin published a periodical that shocked proper, Elizabethan society. Woodhull announced her belief in free love, they both pushed for women's propaganda, and charged that respectable Henry Ward Beecher had been having a long affair.
      1. Anthony Comstock made it his mission to stop all moral threat. Armed with the "Comstock Law," he collected dirty pictures and pills/powders he said abortionists used.
    3. The "new morality" began to take place in the form of higher divorce rates, increased birth control, and more open sex talk. These changes had largely been prompted by the increased independence of women that there own jobs provided.
  15. Families and Women in the City
    1. Families were stressed in the new urban society.
      1. On the farm, another child was another helping hand; in the city, another child was a liability—another mouth to feed. Thus, birth rates declined. Under the stress of the city, divorce rates shot up.
    2. Paradoxically, people seemed more lonely in crowded cities than on farms. Families became critical companionship.
    3. Feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman published Women and Economics, a classic of feminism. She (1) shunned traditional femininity, (2) said there were no real differences between men and women, and (3) called for group nurseries and kitchens to free up women.
    4. Ladies still pushed for female suffrage. The push for the right to vote had taken a time-out to push for blacks' rights; now the push was on again.
      1. The National American Suffrage Association was started in 1890 with Elizabeth Cady Stanton (from the old Seneca Falls Convention of 1848) and Susan B. Anthony.
      2. A new leader was Carrie Chapman Pratt. She changed the argument from "women deserve to right to vote since they're equal" to "women deserve the right to vote in order to carry out their traditional roles and homemakers and mothers."
        1. This new argument linking voting to traditional women's roles seemed to pay dividends. Western states, which had always been more accepting of an independent woman, began to give women the right to vote (Wyoming being the first).
    5. Women's Clubs popped up in cities and garnered some 200,000 members in 1900.
    6. Female suffrage was reserved to white women only. Black women found other causes: Ida Wells led a nationwide push against lynching and helped start the National Association of Colored Women (1896).
  16. Prohibiting Alcohol and Promoting Reform
    1. The movement to prohibit alcohol gained steam as well as corner bars were everywhere in the city. The argument, mostly by women, was that alcohol and the bars kept the men drunk, took the family's wages, and increased violence at home.
    2. The National Prohibition Party (1869) got a handful of votes, though not many, for president.
    3. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (1874) was more aggressive. It was led by Francis E. Willard and Carrie A. Nation whose trademark was to literally walk into a bar and chop it up with a hatchet.
    4. The Anti-Saloon League (1893) increased the push against alcohol by singing anti-liquor songs.
    5. Gains were made…
      1. On a local level, some states/counties banned alcohol, led by Maine.
      2. On the national level, the 18th Amendment (1819) was the culmination of the prohibition movement. Amendment 18 (AKA "Prohibition") simply banned alcohol in the U.S. It was short-lived. The 21st Amendment repealed the ban on alcohol.
    6. Notably other crusades popped up at the same time: the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the American Red Cross (1881) led by Clara Barton, the famous Civil War nurse.
  17. Postwar Popular Fiction
    1. People read like wildfire after the Civil War. "Dime novels" were very popular, especially about the Wild West with characters like "Deadwood Dick."
      1. Harlan F. Halsey wrote about 650 dime novels and became rich.
    2. Gen. Lewis Wallace wrote Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ. It countered Darwinsm with faith in Christ and sold 2 million copies.
    3. A very influential writer was Horatio Alger. He wrote rags-to-riches stories, usually about a good boy that made good. They all championed the virtues of honesty and hard work that lead to prosperity and honor. His best known book was titled Ragged Dick.
    4. Walt Whitman revised his classic "Leaves of Grass." He also wrote "O Captain! My Captain!", inspired by Lincoln's assassination.
    5. Emily Dickinson became famous as a poet after she died and her writings were found and published.
  18. Literary Landmarks
    1. Writing was going through a change of flavor: in the early 1800's "romanticism" ruled (for example, The Last of the Mohicans), by the late 1800's "realism" took over (for example, Sister Carrie). The switch to realism was spawned by the industrial revolution and growth of cities.
    2. Kate Chopin wrote openly about adultery, suicide, and the ambitions of women in The Awakening (1889).
    3. Born Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Mark Twain took that pseudonym since he'd worked on a Mississippi riverboat as a boy and that was the captain's yell to mark the depth. He was already famous with the story "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County".
      1. He traveled through the West and wrote Roughing It (1872) recounting the trip. It was a mix of truths, half-truths, and tall tales, and readers loved it.
      2. He co-wrote with Charles Dudley Warner The Gilded Age (1873) that laid bare the questionable politics and business of the day.
      3. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) told of the likable huckster and school-skipper and his gal Polly.
      4. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) told of buddies runaway Huck and runaway slave Jim as they rafted down the Mississippi. The book was immensely popular and influential. Ernest Hemingway later said, "All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn."
    4. Bret Harte wrote of the West in his gold rush stories, especially "The Luck of Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat."
    5. William Dean Howells, editor of Atlantic Monthly, wrote about common people and controversial social topics.
    6. Stephen Crane wrote brilliantly and realistically about industrial, urban America in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893). It old of a girl-turned-prostitute and then suicide.
      1. His most famous work was The Red Badge of Courage (1895) about a Civil War soldier and his sacrifice.
    7. Henry Adams, grandson of John Adams, wrote a history of the early U.S. and The Education of Henry Adams, his best known.
    8. Henry James, brother of philosopher William James, usually wrote about innocent Americans, normally women, thrown amid Europeans. His best works were Daisy Miller (1879), The Portrait of a Lady (1881), and The Bostonians(1886).
    9. Jack London wrote about the wilderness in The Call of the Wild (1903), White Fang, and The Iron Heel.
    10. Frank Norris's novels criticized corrupt business. The Octopus (1901) was about railroad and political corruption and The Pit was about speculators trading in wheat.
    11. Two black writers gained prominence using black dialect and folklore.
      1. Paul Dunbar wrote poetry, notably with "Lyrics of Lowly Life" (1896).
      2. Charles W. Chesnutt wrote fiction, notably The Conjure Women (1899).
    12. As mentioned prior, Theodore Dreiser was the champion of realism with his novel Sister Carrie (1900). Carrie moved in with one man then eloped with another (who was already married), then left them both for a career on stage. It morality of the novel was shocking to proper society.
  19. Artistic Triumphs
    1. In the early days of America, art had been on hold while the nation was built. By the end of the 18th century, American art was coming into its own.
    2. Many new artists emerged…
      1. James Whistler lived an eccentric life. His best-known painting was of his mother.
      2. John Singer Sargent painted portraits of European nobility.
      3. Mary Cassat painted women and children, as with her "The Bath" showing a mother bathing a small girl.
      4. George Inness painted landscapes.
      5. Thomas Eakins painted realistically, as seen in his graphic surgical painting "The Gross Clinic."
      6. Winslow Homer was perhaps the most "American" painter. He typically painted scenes of daily New England life and the sea. Homer's topics included schoolhouses, farmers, young women, sailors, and coastlines.
      7. Sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens made the Robert Gould Shaw (leader of 54th black regiment in the Civil War) memorial in Boston Common.
    3. Music made steps with symphonies in Boston and Chicago and New York's Metropolitan Opera House.
      1. Black folk tunes were giving birth to jazz, ragtime, and blues. These genres would later spawn country and rock 'n roll, as by Elvis Presley.
      2. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph which recorded sound and music for playback.
    4. Architecture mimicked older, classical styles.
      1. Architect Henry H. Richardson designed buildings with his trademark high-vaulted arches in his "Richardsonian" style. His style was very ornate and reminiscent of Gothic cathedrals. The Marshall Fields building in Chicago was his masterpiece.
      2. The Columbian Exposition (1893 in Chicago) revived classical architectural forms and setback realism or Louis Sullivan's new "form follows function" style.
  20. The Business of Amusement
    1. American entertainment went to the national level. This was due to increased free time due to hourly jobs in cities and increased national unity due to newspapers.
    2. Phineas T. "P.T." Barnum (who quipped, “There’s a sucker born every minute,” and “the public likes to be humbugged.”) and James A. Bailey started the circus and adopted the slogan, "The Greatest Show on Earth".
    3. Wild west shows were popular. "Buffalo Bill" Cody's was well-known. It featured Annie Oakley who shot holes through tossed silver dollars.
    4. Baseball, became very popular. Baseball was emerging as the clear "American pastime" and a professional league started in the 1870's.
    5. Horse racing was also being organized and would soon become the nation's second national pastime. The first Kentucky Derby was run in the early 1870's, even before the first World Series.
    6. Other sports emerged: (1) basketball was invented by William Naismith in 1891, (2) people liked the rugged nature of football, and (3) boxing took on gloves and became more of a spectator sport.
    7. Two crazes hit at the end of the 1800's—croquet and bicycling. Croquet was considered risqué because it exposed women's ankles and encouraged flirting.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution

  1. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains
    1. The West, after the Civil War, was still largely untamed. It was inhabited by Indians, buffalo, coyotes, Mexicans, and Mormons.
    2. The American Indians found themselves caught in between their own traditions and the westward-pushing white man.
      1. Indians fought one another as with the Comanche over the Apache, the Chippewa over the Cheyenne, and the Sioux over the Crow, Kiowa, and Pawnee. By this time, the Sioux had become expert horsemen and effectively hunted buffalo on the Spanish beasts.
      2. Whites' diseases were still striking at Native Americans. And, whites struck at the massive buffalo herds.
    3. Relations between Indians and the federal government were strained at best.
      1. Treaties were made at Fort Laramie (1851) and Fort Atkinson (1853). The agreements started the system of reservations where Indians were to live on certain lands unmolested by whites.
      2. Whites didn't understand Indian society and that a "chief" didn't always exactly sign an agreement for an entire group or area. There were many chiefs representing many areas or even no area.
      3. Indians expected help from the federal government in return for their lands. The help (food, blankets, supplies) often never got there or were swindled by corrupt officials.
    4. After the Civil War, the U.S. Army’s new mission was to clear out the West of Indians for white settlers to move in.
      1. The so-called "Indian Wars" took place roughly from 1864-1890 (from the Sand Creek Massacre to the Battle of Wounded Knee). It was really less of a war than a long series of skirmishes, battles, and massacres.
      2. At first, the Indians actually had the advantage because their arrows could be fired more rapidly than a muzzle-loading rifle. The invention of the Colt .45 revolver (the six-shooter by Samuel Colt) and Winchester repeating rifle changed this.
      3. Notably, one-fifth of the U.S. Army out West was black, the "Buffalo Soldiers" as the Indians called them.
  2. Receding Native Population
    1. Violence out West began just before the Civil War ended.
      1. Col. J.M. Chivington's troops circled then killed 400 Indians who thought they'd been given immunity. This was the infamous Sand Creek Massacre (1864).
      2. Two years later, the Indians struck revenge in the Fetterman Massacre. The Sioux sought to stop the Bozeman Trail to Montana's gold and killed Capt. William J. Fetterman and his 81 soldiers.
      3. These two tic-for-tac massacres set the stage for terrible Indian-white relations and started the Indian wars.
    2. Just after Fetterman, the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) was made between the federal government and the Sioux. The government gave up on the Bozeman Trail and the huge Sioux reservation was established. The treaty looked promising but was short-lived.
      1. Six years later, in 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota (on the Sioux reservation) when Col. William Armstrong Custer led a "geological" expedition into the Black Hills.
    3. The Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) (AKA "Custer's Last Stand") followed.
      1. Led by Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, some Sioux stubbornly refused to go to the reservation.
      2. Custer led about 400 cavalry against Crazy Horse who was labeled as a "hostile" Indian. Custer faced some 10,000 Indians, about 2,500 warriors. All 200+ or so of Custer's detachment were killed, including Custer himself, "Chief Yellow Hair."
      3. The Little Bighorn battle brought the U.S. military out for revenge and sealed the Indian-white relationship as little better than warfare.
    4. The Nez Perce tribe, led by Chief Joseph, revolted when the government tried to force them onto a reservation. They bugged out over some 1,700 miles, across the Rocky Mountains, and fled for Canada.
      1. They were caught and defeated at the Battle of Bear Paw Mountain only 40 miles from the Canada border. Chief Joseph "buried his hatchet" and gave his famous speech saying, “From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever.”
      2. The Nez Perce were sent to a Kansas reservation where 40% died from disease.
    5. The Apache of the Southwest were troublesome to the Army. Led by Geronimo, the military chased him and the Apache into Mexico where he proved to be a very wily adversary.
      1. The apache, and Geronimo, were eventually caught, imprisoned in Florida and then Oklahoma.
    6. The Indians were subdued due to (1) railroads, (2) diseases, (3) lack of buffalo, (4) war, and (5) the loss of their land to white settlement.
  3. Bellowing Herds of Bison
    1. There was an estimated 15 million buffalo around by the end of the Civil War. The buffalo herds diminished largely due to the railroads.
      1. The railroads literally split the Great Plains into sections. This decreased the buffalo's ability to roam around. Even more detrimental, railroads brought more and more whites who put more and more pressure on them.
    2. Buffalo were killed (a) for hides, (b) for sport, and (c) to kill off the Indian way of life.
    3. By 1885, an estimated only 1,000 survived, mostly located in Yellowstone National Park. The vast majority died off or "went the way of the buffalo."
  4. The End of the Trail
    1. By the 1880's, the people were beginning to recognize the plight of the American Indian. Helen Hunt Jackson's book A Century of Dishonor helped outline the injustice done to Indians by the U.S. government. Her novel Ramona had the same effect in fiction form.
      1. Native Americans faced a stark decision: to join modern times, stick with traditional ways, or somehow try to mix both.
      2. Many whites wanted to try to help the Indians "walk the white man's road."
      3. Others felt the tough policies of containing Indians on reservations and punishing "hostiles" was the way to go.
    2. Missionaries were eager for Indians to convert to the Christian religion. They helped convince the government to outlaw the "Sun Dance."
      1. Later, the "Ghost Dance" fad swept through the Sioux nation and prompted the Battle of Wounded Knee (1890).
      2. Wounded Knee was not a battle but a massacre. 200+ Indians were killed, essentially killed for dancing. This battle marked the end of the Indian Wars. By this time, all Indians were either on reservations or dead.
      3. 1890 was also the year that the federal government said there was "no discernible frontier"; that is to say that by 1890, the West was won, or lost, depending on the viewpoint.
    3. In 1887 the Dawes Severalty Act was passed. Its overall goal was to erase tribes and set the Indians on the road to "becoming white." It was a very insulting law…
      1. Although the Indians were truly "Native Americans" and the whites were the immigrants, the law said that Indians could become U.S. citizens after 25 years if they behaved as the U.S. government preferred (like "good white settlers").
      2. Looking back, this policy seems absurd since a European stepping off the boat in 1887 would receive citizenship in just a few short years, not 25.
      3. The Carlisle Indian School which opened in 1879 exemplifies the ambitions of the Dawes Act. Carlisle's goal was was train Indian children in whites' ways. The children were completely immersed in white culture and grew up that way. Carlisle's results were successful in their goal by following "kill the Indian, save the child" policies.
        1. A notable graduate of the Carlisle School was Jim Thorpe, likely one of the best all-around athletes in American history. He played professional football, professional baseball, professional basketball, and won Olympic gold medals in the decathlon and pentathlon.
      4. The Dawes Act held the goal of killing the Indian way of life, and largely succeeded. In 1900, Indians held only 50% of the land they'd held just 20 years prior.
        1. The forced-assimilation policies of the Dawes Act would rule until the Indian Reorganization Act (1934) was passed. By then, things had changed too much.
  5. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. At Pike's Peak Colorado, gold was discovered in 1858 and "fifty-niners" flooded to the hills to dig. Most prospectors didn't find much or any gold, but many stayed to mine silver or farm.
    2. The Comstock Lode of silver was discovered in Nevada shortly after Pike's Peak. The lode was extremely productive: $340 million dollars worth was unearthed. In 1864, Nevada became a state almost overnight.
    3. There was a routine to the growth of mining towns…
      1. First, gold/silver was found as in Virginia City, Nevada. When word got out, they grew like wild—too fast for their own good. These boomtowns were nicknamed "Helldorados" because of their lawlessness.
      2. Saloons and bordellos quickly came to town, and a general store for supplies.
      3. Later, if the town remained, a post office, school, sheriff, and an opera house for entertainment might arrive.
      4. For many towns, when the minerals ran out, the townsfolk simply left and the town became a ghost town.
    4. Notably women in these western towns gained a certain independence they lacked back East. Women found jobs in traditional female roles (like cooks or store clerks) as well as prostitutes. Still, they were making money for themselves.
        1. The independence and equality of western women is best seen in many states granting women the right to vote—Wyoming (1866), Utah (1870), Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896).
    5. Mining life was captured and mixed into American folklore by stories by Bret Harte and Mark Twain.
  6. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive
    1. As cities back East boomed in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the demand for food and meat increased sharply. The problem then became—how to get the western cattle to the easter cities? The solution was the railroads.
      1. Beef became big business. Stockyard towns like Kansas City and Chicago gave birth to "beef barons" such as the Swift and the Armour families.
    2. Much of the cattle was in south Texas, where the railroads hadn't reached yet. The problem then became—how to get the Texas longhorns to the railroad. The solution was the "long drive", a cattle drive from Texas to the Kansas railroads.
      1. Cowboys wound round up a herd then drive them northward across plains and rivers.
      2. Their destination was the stockyards in towns like Dodge City or Abilene in Kansas, Ogallala, NE, and Cheyenne, WY.
      3. These towns became famous for the Wild West activities—hard liquor, wild women, gambling, shootouts, and their famous lawmen like Wyatt Earp and Wild Bill Hickock.
    3. The days of the cowboy driving cattle across the prairie on the long drive were short-lived. Several factors ended the days of the open range…
      1. Sheep herders came in and nibbled the grass off too short for cattle to feed.
      2. Several years of drought dried up the grass and hard freezes took their toll.
      3. Mostly, when railroads came to Texas, there was no need to drive cattle. The invention of barbed wire (and wire promoter Samuel Glidden) fenced in the land and the cattle business changed from roaming the open range to staying on a ranch.
        1. Ranching had become big business and big power, evidenced by the Wyoming Stock'-Growers Association who controlled the state.
    4. Despite being around only 20 years or so, the image of the American cowboy riding free across open land was deeply emblazoned on the American psyche.
  7. The Farmers’ Frontier
    1. The Homestead Act (1862) offered 160 acres of free land. Settlers only had to pay a small fee and improve the land, meaning build a small cabin on it. Alternately, the land could be purchased flat-out for $1.25 per acre.
      1. Either way, the Homestead Act was a great deal. Some 500,000 settlers took up the offer and headed west.
      2. Settlers often had a rude awakening—due to its sparse nature, 160 acres of western land seemed much less than 160 acres back east.
        1. Settlers often were forced to give up due to drought, extreme cold or heat, or simply because 160 acres wasn't enough to sustain a family.
      3. Fraudsters accompanied the Homestead Act. Speculators grabbed up 10 times as much land as real farmers in hopes of turning a profit one day. Some hucksters built a twelve by fourteen cabin on the land, twelve by fourteen inches.
    2. Ever since the railroads came through, people realized that the American west, though dry, was actually fertile. The trick was to get water to the soil.
      1. Wheat prices soared due to worldwide crop failure and American settlers pushed farther and farther westward, even west of the 100th meridian. This line also the 20-inch rainfall line, the amount generally necessary to grow crops.
      2. Geologist John Wesley Powell, who'd shot the rapids of the Colorado River, had warned that the land was too dry.
        1. Farmers developed "dry farming" to deal with the sparse rain. With this technique, farmers would plow the dew into the top few inches of soil. The system worked but it created a dusty layer of powder atop the soil. In the 1930's the Great Dust Bowl would result.
        2. A more drought resistant strain of wheat was imported from Russia and corn was replaced by easier-to-grow crops.
      3. The federal government irrigation projects would eventually dam up the Missouri and Columbia Rivers. Irrigation would suck the Colorado River so that it would peter out and never make it to the sea.
  8. The Far West Comes of Age
    1. The West boomed in population during the 1870's to 1890's and new states were ready to join the U.S. Several were admitted in one block vote: North and South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming.
    2. The Mormons finally banned polygamy (marrying multiple wives) in 1890 and Utah was then admitted as a state in 1896.
    3. The Oklahoma territory was opened to settlers in a "land rush" in 1889. Many jumped the starting gun and snuck out to the land "sooner" than the others—earning the nickname of the "Sooner state." Most land rusher participants went home empty-handed but Oklahoma became a state by the end of 1889.
  9. The Fading Frontier
    1. The census bureau announced in 1890 there was no longer a discernible frontier in America.
    2. The loss of frontier and land made people worry that it'd be gobbled up for good. Yellowstone was obtained by the federal government as the first national park in 1872. Yosemite and Sequoia parks followed in 1890.
    3. Frederick Jackson Turner wrote of the "Turner Thesis" saying that the frontier had played an important role in American history and in people's psychology.
      1. Turner wrote, "American history has been in a large degree the history of the colonization of the Great West."
    4. Americans could always just up-and-leave, go westward, and start over (called the "safety-valve theory").
      1. City-dwellers typically did not move out West since they had no farming skills or money for equipment. The western cities (Chicago, Denver, San Francisco) did grow as workers sought jobs there. But, even the possibility of frontier land may have kept wages up since employers wouldn't want to lose valuable employees.
      2. Immigrant farmers were the ones to typically take up the western land to farm.
    5. The west saw several cultures bang heads: Native Americans, whites, Hispanics, Asian, and the immense role of government holding much of the land.
    6. The Great West was captured in word and on canvas by writers like Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Helen Hunt Jackson, Francis Parkman and painters George Catlin, Fredric Remington, and Albert Bierstadt.
  10. The Farm Becomes a Factory
    1. Farming changed too. Farmers used to grow and make whatever they needed. They now switched to growing "cash crops"—crops to be sold, not eaten or used. Other items would be purchased.
      1. If a desired item wasn't at the local general store, farmers could buy anything via mail order catalog. Montgomery Ward sent its first catalog out in 1872.
    2. Inventions turned farms into food-factories.
      1. Steam driven tractors could plow much more land than by mule or oxen.
      2. The "combine", a mix of reaper and thresher, harvested much more wheat.
      3. The drawback of these machines was that farmers got themselves into loads of debt. Many went bankrupt. The end result was that the small farmers faded and huge mega-farms emerged.
    3. California agriculture was amazing. They were extremely large and extremely productive.
      1. Migrant Mexican and Chinese workers were paid very little; profits were hefty.
      2. The refrigerator car was invented in the 1880's and California fruits and vegetables began moving eastward.
  11. Deflation Dooms the Debtor
    1. The economy bounced back, worldwide, in the 1880's. Markets went up, farmers produced more crops, and food prices dropped. In this situation, the farmer was the one to suffer.
      1. Grain farmers were at the whim of world crop prices. A bumper crop, in say Argentina, meant American wheat farmers faced ruin.
    2. The two major concerns of the farmer were (1) low crop prices and (2) deflated currency.
      1. Crop prices generally dropped due to the increased production that machinery could generate.
      2. Deflated currency meant that it was more difficult to pay off debts.
        1. Farmers faced two problems here: (1) low crop prices meant they'd need to grow more crops to pay the debt (which meant lower crop prices again), and (2) there was literally less money in circulation making it tougher to get their hands on money. Less money in circulation was called “contraction.”
    3. The farmers operated at a loss each year, which mounted their debt, and sent them into a spiral toward foreclosure. Interest rates ran between 8 and 40%.
    4. After "losing the farm," farmers typically became "tenant farmers" where they lived on and worked, but did not own, the land. This situation was similar to the sharecroppers in the South after the Civil War.
  12. Unhappy Farmers
    1. If debt wasn't enough, farmers also faced drought, heat, prairie fires, floods, locust swarms that would eat everything but the mortgage, and the boll weevil decimated Southern cotton.
    2. The government added insult-to-injury by taxing farmers to death. Their lands were assessed too high meaning their taxes were too high.
      1. The farmers' assets (land) were in the open, by comparison, Easterners could hide their assets (stocks and bonds) in safe-deposit boxes.
    3. Perhaps the farmers' biggest enemy was the railroads.
      1. Farmers relied on the railroads to get the crops to the market. Farmers were at the railroads' mercy.
      2. Middlemen got a hefty cut by buying from the farmer, storing the grain, then selling to the railroad shipper.
      3. Railroad rates were high. Any disgruntled and complaining farmer just saw his crops left at the railroad station to rot.
    4. In 1890, 1/2 of Americans were still farmers (although the number had been dropping since colonial days).
      1. Though big in numbers, they had a major weakness in that they were not organized. Whereas factory workers were organizing in labor unions, farmers did not.
      2. Two reasons cut at any farm organization: (1) farmers were/are by nature individualists and independent-minded; they rely on themselves, not on the "hide-behind-safety-in-numbers" theory of labor unions, and (2) from a practical sense, farmers were simply too spread out geographically to organize.
  13. The Farmers Take Their Stand
    1. The Greenback movement (push for paper money) had shown how farmers were disgruntled back in 1868.
    2. In 1869, the Grange (officially the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry) was started by Oliver H. Kelley. The Grange was a national farmers' organization aimed at advancing farmers' agenda.
      1. The initial goal was social in nature—to have "get-togethers" for isolated farmers. By 1875 it had 800,000 members.
      2. The Grange then added helping the farmers' lot in life to their goals. Especially, the Grange wanted to get the trusts off of farmers' backs.
        1. They set up "co-ops" (cooperatively owned stores) so farmers wouldn't have to sell to one grain elevator.
        2. They tried, and failed, to produce their own farm machinery.
        3. They got into politics, had some success in the Midwest, and sought to regulate railroads. These were called "Granger Laws."
        4. They faced a major setback in the Supreme Court's Wasbash case which said the states could not regulate interstate trade (meaning the railroads).
    3. Overall, the Grange had mixed results…
      1. On the good side, in 1878, they elected 14 members of Congress. They also stirred a sleeping lion in the American farmer.
      2. On the bad side, in 1880, the Greenback Party nominated Granger James B. Weaver for president but he got a measly 3% of the vote.
  14. Prelude to Populism
    1. In the 1870's an organization very similar to the Grangers emerged—the Farmers' Alliance. Their goals were the same also: to socialize and to push the farmers' agenda.
      1. The Alliance swelled to over 1,000,000 by 1890, but could've been even bigger. It excluded tenant farmers, share-croppers, farm workers, and blacks.
      2. A separate Colored Farmers' National Alliance was started for black farmers. It gained 250,000 members.
    2. Out of the Farmers' Alliance a new party was spawned—the People's Party, also known as the Populist Party. They agreed on the following:
      1. To fight the "money trust" on Wall Street.
      2. To nationalize railroads, telephone, and the telegraph.
      3. To start a graduated income tax (graduated meaning steps or levels, where the tax rate is higher the more a person earns).
      4. To start a "sub-treasury" to provide loans to farmers.
      5. To call for the unlimited coinage of silver.
    3. Of these goals, the coinage of silver rose to the top of the list. It sparked the most fire amongst the farmers and their leaders.
      1. William Hope Harvey wrote a pamphlet called Coin's Financial School. It laid out the arguments for silver and was illustrated with such scenes as a gold beast beheading a silver maiden.
      2. Ignatius Donnelly was elected to Congress from Minnesota three times on the silver stance.
      3. Mary Elizabeth Lease said farmers should raise "less corn and more hell." And she did just that, earning her the nicknames of "Mary Yellin'" or the "Kansas Pythoness."
    4. In 1892, the Populists won several seats in Congress. Their candidate, again James B. Weaver, earned over 1,000,000 votes.
      1. They were hindered by racial tensions in the South. Their challenge was to join the North and join up with city workers to make a political party with a rural/urban one-two punch.
  15. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike
    1. The Panic of 1893 fueled the passion of the Populists. Many disgruntled unemployed fled to D.C. calling for change.
      1. Most famous of these people was “General” Jacob Coxey. “Coxey’s Army” (AKA the "Commonweal Army") marched on Washington with scores of followers and many newspaper reporters. They called for:
        1. Relieving unemployment by a government public works program.
        2. An issuance of $500 million in paper money. Both of these would create inflation and therefore make debts easier to pay off.
      2. The march fizzled out when they were arrested for walking on the grass.
    2. The Pullman Strike in Chicago, led by Eugene Debs, was more dramatic.
      1. Debs helped organize the workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company.
      2. The company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about 1/3.
      3. Workers went on strike, sometimes violently.
      4. U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney called in federal troops to break up the strike. His rationale: the strike was interfering with the transit of U.S. mail.
      5. Debs went to prison for 6 months and turned into the leading Socialist in America.
  16. Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan
    1. The presidential election of 1896 was an important one. It essentially asked, then answered, the question, "Will the U.S. base its money on gold, silver, or both?" It also saw disgruntled and restless workers going up against the conservative and worried business class.
    2. The Republicans nominated William McKinley.
      1. McKinley was "safe" in that he was pro-tariff, had a respectable Civil War record, a respectable Congressional record, and had a friendly mannerism.
      2. McKinley's right-hand-man was Mark Hanna, a businessman through-and-through. Hanna held very pro-business ideas and wanted to get McKinley elected so government could help business.
      3. Hanna organized the entire campaign. They were a bit indirect about the gold/silver issue, but they leaned gold.
    3. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan.
      1. The Democrats were a bit lost without a leader until the young (36) Bryan came forward. He was a super speaker, called the "boy orator of the Platte" (a river in his home state of Nebraska).
      2. Bryan "wowed" the convention crowd with his Cross of Gold Speech saying, "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." Bryan was formerly nominated by the Democrats.
      3. This speech made the gold/silver issue the top issue in the election.
        1. The Democrats then stole the Populist Party's main push—they called for the value and coinage of silver at a ratio of 16:1, gold-to-silver.
        2. Fearing a McKinley win, Populists largely favored joining the Democrats in what could be called a "Demo-Pop" Party.
  17. Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders
    1. In 1896 election was heated. William Jennings Bryan went on a blitz of campaign speeches. He once gave 36 in one day.
    2. The idea of silver money rose to near religion status. Silver was going to save the poor.
      1. Both sides threw around wild economic accusations and played on people's economic fears.
    3. McKinley's campaign amassed $16 million (the most up to that time), whereas Bryan's only drummed up $1 million.
    4. McKinley, and Mark Hanna, played on people's fears in the week before the election.
      1. They hinted that, if Bryan were elected, people need not report to work the next morning because their job would be gone.
      2. They initiated rumors that workers were considering paying in 50 cent pieces rather than dollars.
    5. McKinley won the election 1896 easily, 271 to 176 electoral votes. Bryan carried the South and West, McKinley carried the Northeast, Midwest, and far West.
    6. The election was important in that (a) gold was decided upon as America's economic basis, (b) it was a victory for business, conservatives, and middle class values (as opposed to the working class), and (c) it started 16 years of Republican presidents (and 8 of the next 36 years).
  18. Republican Standpattism Enthroned
    1. William McKinley, as president, was safe in his decisions. He didn't ruffle feathers and tried to stay close to public opinion.
    2. With the gold/silver issue decided, the tariff became the lead issue.
      1. It was decided that the Wilson-Gorman Tariff wasn't bringing in enough money.
      2. So, Congress worked through the Dingley Tariff Bill. It eventually raised tariff rates to 46.5%, higher, but not as high as some had wanted.
    3. The gold issue was settled.
      1. Congress passed the Gold Standard Act (1900) saying people could trade in paper money for gold. Just knowing and trusting that meant there was no need to do that. This brought economic calm and stability.
      2. Also, there was a gold rush in Alaska, the "Klondike gold rush." Lots of new gold, also from worldwide sources, brought the inflation that the silverites had long wanted.
    4. The economy rebounded as well in 1897, McKinley's first year in office. This was due to…
      1. The 1893 recession had run its course and it was time for growth.
      2. McKinley likely brought a sense of calm both in his pro-business policies and by simply having the gold/silver question answered. The economy, and especially Wall Street, never likes uncertainty.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 27 - Empire and Expansion

  1. America Turns Outward
    1. By the 1890's, America turned away from its isolationist policies and was beginning to look overseas, toward imperialism. The European nations had been gobbling up colonies all during the 1800's, now America wanted a slice of the world pie.
    2. There were several influences pointing toward imperialism…
      1. Yellow journalism, or sensationalism in reporting, stirred up the desire to take over lands. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers painted the far off lands as exotic, adventurous, and captured young people's imaginations.
      2. Missionaries wanted to save souls in un-Christian lands. Namely, Rev. Josiah Strong pushed for imperialism in his book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis.
      3. Some people (like Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge) applied Darwin's survival-of-the-fittest theory to nations. It was the order of things for the strong to conquer the weak.
      4. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783. It said that the key to a nation's power is through naval power. Thus, to become a world power, the U.S. needed to build up her navy.
    3. The U.S. had several international, political balancing-acts and/or crises at the time…
      1. James G. Blaine advocated the "Big Sister" policy toward Latin America. The idea was to get Latin American countries behind the leadership of the U.S. To that end, he led the Pan-American Conference in Washington D.C.
      2. A U.S.—Germany standoff occurred down in Samoa. Samoa was split in half.
      3. A U.S—Italy standoff occurred in New Orleans over captured Italians. The U.S. made payments.
      4. A U.S.—Chile standoff occurred over murdered Americans. Chile made payments.
      5. A U.S.—Canada standoff occurred over seal hunting rights. It was settled in arbitration (mediation).
      6. A U.S.—Britain standoff occurred over gold discoveries down in Guiana. The actual dispute was between Britain and Venezuela; the U.S. just got in to stick up for her "little sister" by saying the Brits were breaking the Monroe Doctrine's "stay out!" policy.
        1. Things got very tense, nearly to war. Finally, Britain (a) had other distractions by the Germans down in South Africa and (b) decided a war with the U.S. simply wasn't worth it. The gold lands were basically split and the crisis was over.
  2. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear
    1. Hawaii had been alluring to Americans since the early 1800's when shippers, sailors, whalers, and missionaries went there.
    2. By the later 1800's, a few things were pertinent to the Hawaii situation…
      1. America largely regarded Hawaii as an unofficial part of the U.S. America had warned other nations to leave Hawaii alone (or, leave Hawaii to the U.S.).
      2. American fruit and sugar companies were deeply entrenched in Hawaii. They largely ran the islands due to their economic power.
      3. There was growing resistance by the native Hawaiians __toward the U.S. due to the increased influence by Americans.
    3. The sugar companies grew restless. Concerns were that (a) Japan might try to take over and (b) the McKinley tariff had raised prices of Hawaiian sugar/fruit imported to the U.S.
      1. The solution, they figured, was to get Hawaii officially__ and for good.
      2. Queen Liliuokalani resisted. She said the native Hawaiians should run Hawaii.
      3. In 1893, the whites staged a revolt and the U.S. military helped to dethrone the queen. Notably, this was all done locally in Hawaii, completely unofficially from Washington D.C. Papers were drawn up to annex Hawaii and sent to Washington.
      4. Grove Cleveland had just become president and he didn't like the way Hawaii was taken and stopped the annexation. (The U.S. would get Hawaii 5 years later, in 1898).
  3. Cubans Rise in Revolt
    1. Cuba revolted against Spain in 1895. The Cuban "insurrectos" on the Sugar plantations revolted against their Spanish overlords by burning everything.
    2. America watched with interest and the U.S. rooted for the Cubans since (a) America loves liberty and independence, (b) it would be good for the Monroe Doctrine to get a European country out of the neighborhood, (c) Cuba was at the gateway to the Caribbean where the U.S. was dreaming of a Panama Canal.
    3. Spain sent Gen. Valeriano "Butcher" Weyler to stop the revolt. He cracked down harshly and started prison camps where scores of insurrectos died from disease.
      1. The "yellow press" in America loved the Cuban revolution and Butcher Weyler's activities only made the storylines even juicier. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers tried to "outscoop" each other.
        1. Hearst sent artist Frederic Remington down to Cuba and said, "You furnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war." Remington drew Spanish men stripping and searching American women (in actuality, women searched). Still, the result of the stories and pictures was to fire up Americans. The U.S. was decidedly leaning toward Cuba and away from Spain.
    4. More strain emerged with the de Lôme letter. Spanish official Dupuy de Lôme wrote a letter which criticized Pres. McKinley and pointedly called him a wimp. William Randolph Hearst published the letter for all to read; Americans were upset.
    5. The greatest event occurred on February 15, 1898, when the U.S.S. Maine exploded at night in Havana harbor killing 260 American sailors.
      1. The cause of the explosion was a mystery, but in the public's mind, the cause was simple—Spain had done it. (Though still a bit of a mystery today, it was much later concluded that the explosion was an accident.)
      2. The yellow press went berserk with the Maine story. The American public clamored for war with the battle cry, "Remember the Maine!". Pres. McKinley was still sluggish to enter the war though.
        1. War-hawk Teddy Roosevelt said that McKinley had "the backbone of a chocolate éclair."
      3. McKinley gave in to the public demand and on April 11, 1898 he sent a message to Congress asking for war. Congress happily voted for war.
        1. Congress also passed the Teller Amendment that said the U.S. would give Cuba its freedom after kicking out Spain.
  4. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. America entered the war in a giddy, confident mood.
    2. Even before war was declared, under-secretary of the Navy Teddy Roosevelt ordered Commodore George Dewey to move to the Philippines (controlled by Spain) if war broke out.
      1. On May 1, 1898, Dewey carried out Roosevelt's orders.
      2. America had 6 ships, Spain had 10. But, America's were modern whereas Spain's were antiques. Plus, America's guns could literally out-shoot Spain's. The naval battle was very one-sided for the Americans.
      3. Dewey had won the naval battle, but could not storm the fort ashore in Manila with sailors. Tensions grew when German ships arrived. He had to wait until foot soldiers arrived—they did and they captured Manila on August 13th.
        1. The U.S. was aided by Emilio Aguinaldo who led a group of Filipino insurgents against Spain. He'd been exiled in Asia, but was brought along for this mission—a decision the U.S. would later regret when he turned against the U.S.
    3. The U.S. grabbed the Philippines quickly. Now, the U.S. wanted to grab Hawaii to use as a half-way coaling station between California and the Philippines. Congress and McKinley agreed to annex Hawaii on July 7, 1898.
  5. The Confused Invasion of Cuba
    1. When war broke, Spain sent their fleet to Santiago, Cuba where they entered a narrow harbor there.
    2. The U.S. hastily mounted up in Tampa, FL.
      1. The Spanish-American War is known for being very ill-prepared. For example, the men had wool uniforms for use against Indians out west, not for the Caribbean tropics. Also, more U.S. soldiers would die from disease than from fighting due to poor medication and planning.
      2. The U.S. was led by Gen. William Shafter, a large, gouty man.
      3. The "Rough Riders" cavalry were organized by Teddy Roosevelt. Eager for action, he'd resigned his navy administration post. The Rough Riders were headed by Col. Leonard Wood, Roosevelt served as Lt. Col.
        1. As another example of poor planning, the Rough Riders would eventually fight on foot, horseless. No one had planned how to get the horses to the beach, so they forced the horses to swim ashore—most of them drowned.
    3. The U.S. sent ships and troops down to Santiago. The navy trapped the Spanish fleet by blockading the mouth of the harbor and the Army went ashore further up the beach.
      1. The Army swept around behind Santiago and began a strangle-hold on the city. The Spanish fleet was surrounded and decided to run the gauntlet out of the harbor. They did so, and the U.S. navy mowed down the Spanish ships.
    4. U.S. forces quickly went into Puerto Rico, met little resistance, and took the island.
    5. Seeing the loss, Spain signed an armistice on August 12 and the so-called "splendid little war" was over.
    6. The U.S. forces that lingered in Cuba began dying by scores due to disease. There were 4,000 deaths in battle, 5,000 deaths from disease.
  6. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire
    1. Peace negotiations were held in Paris to "settle" the war. The stipulations were…
      1. Cuba was free and independent, as the Teller Amendment had said it would be. But there were strings attached (see below).
      2. The U.S. gained (1) Puerto Rico, (2) Guam, and (3) assumed control of the Philippines.
    2. The Philippines posed the largest problem. Following are America's options and their consequences:
      1. Give the Philippines back to Spain. This option was out due to decades of Spanish misrule and abuse.
      2. Let the Filipino people run the country themselves. This was luring but the fear was that competitive warlords would throw the country into total chaos.
      3. Take over the islands. This would make the U.S. look like an imperial bully. Plus, after finally getting Spain off of their backs, the Filipino people didn't really want the U.S. controlling them.
      4. McKinley fretted over the decision, then finally decided the U.S. should take over the Philippines. This decision conveniently meshed with the interests of the public and businesses.
        1. $20 million was paid to Spain for the Philippine islands.
    3. The Senate still had to okay the treaty so the question then became, "Should the U.S. Senate accept the Paris treaty and thus acquire the Philippines?"
      1. Those against acquiring the island got organized. The Anti-Imperialist League emerged to halt annexation.
        1. The difference was that the other lands were generally in North America. Plus, Alaska and Hawaii were sparsely populated.
        2. The League held some prominent members including Mark Twain, William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.
      2. Imperialists countered the argument. They said that the Philippines could eventually flourish, like Hong Kong.
        1. Brit Rudyard Kipling (author of The Jungle Book) wrote of "The White Man's Burden." He encouraged the U.S. to hold onto and civilize the Philippines.
        2. Passage of the Paris treaty was in the balance until William Jennings Bryan threw his weight in favor of it. Once he did, the treaty passed by a single vote.
  7. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba
    1. Puerto Ricans was owned by the U.S. but was neither a territory nor state. It was given a limited elected government under the Foraker Act. Full U.S. citizenship was granted to Puerto Ricans in 1917.
      1. Much improvement was done to the island in terms of sanitation, transportation, etc. Many islanders moved to New York to become "New York Ricans."
    2. A question arose over taking Puerto Rico and the Philippines…"Do American laws and rights apply to these lands and peoples?"
      1. The Supreme Court declared in the so-called Insular Cases that America's laws and customs do not necessarily extend to these new lands.
    3. In Cuba, a military government was set up by Col. Leonard Wood. Much improvement was done there in government, education, agriculture, etc.
      1. Col. William C. Gorgas and Dr. Walter Reed combined efforts to nearly wipe out the mosquitoes and yellow fever.
      2. The Teller Amendment had said that the U.S. would leave Cuba to be independent; the U.S. kept this promise and left in 1902. But, the U.S. wrote the Platt Amendment which said…
        1. Cuba couldn't make treaties that the U.S. didn't like.
        2. Cuba couldn't take on too much debt. The U.S. could intervene in these situations if necessary.
        3. Cuba must lease coaling stations for the U.S. military to use. This became the "Guantanamo Bay" military base.
  8. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres
    1. Sec. of State John Hay called the 113 day Spanish-American War a "splendid little war."
      1. It showed the world that the U.S. was a world power, likely the world's strongest. Other nations, like Russia, Britain, and France, took note and stepped up their diplomatic headquarters in Washington D.C.
    2. America was marching to a joyous patriotism.
      1. Literally, they marched to the 2/4 marching beat of band-master John Philip Sousa, such as his with "Stars and Stripes Forever."
      2. A strong military was accepted as a need. Folks were convinced of Cpt. Alfred Thayer Mahan's concept of a powerful navy. And, Sec. of War Elihu Root started a War College.
      3. The old North-South divide seemed to narrow a bit. At least in part, the enemy ceased to be one another and became Spain. Old Confederate Gen. Joseph "Fighting Joe" Wheeler had even been given command in Cuba. He'd apparently yelled in battle, "To hell with the Yankees! Dammit, I mean the Spaniards."
    3. Despite the spoils of war, however, the Philippines pan out to be a thorn in America's side.
  9. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines
    1. The Filipino people felt tricked when they weren't given their independence after the Spanish-American War.
    2. An insurrection began against the American troops by the Filipinos on February 4, 1899.
      1. Their leader was Emilio Aguinaldo, who'd fought with the U.S. and against Spain. Like most Filipino's, he'd believed the Philippines would gain independence from Spain. When it didn't happen, he simply turned his aggression toward the U.S.
      2. America stooped below her ideals by (1) using the "water cure" of forcing water down throats to force cooperation, (b) setting up prison camps similar to the ones Butcher Weyler had made in Cuba, and (c) attacking people who simply wanted freedom.
      3. Fighting was sporadic and guerrilla-style, frustrating the Americans. It lasted well over a year and killed 4,234 Americans.
    3. The Americans gained the upper hand in 1901. Pres. McKinley sent William H. Taft to serve as the Philippines' civil governor.
      1. A large (350 pounds) and jovial man, Taft got along well with the Filipinos. They generally like him and he called them his "little brown brothers."
      2. Under Taft, America pursued a policy called "benevolent assimilation"—to kindly bring the Philippines up to civilization. The process was slow but it bore fruits…
        1. With millions in American money, the infrastructure (roads, sanitation, etc.) was greatly improved. Public health improved as well.
        2. Trade between the U.S. and the Philippines began, largely in sugar.
        3. Schools were built and American teachers were sent over.
        4. Still, the Filipino's wanted freedom. Independence was finally granted just after WWII, on July 4, 1946.
  10. Hinging the Open Door in China
    1. After Japan had defeated China in 1894-1895, China had been sliced up by Europe into "spheres of influence."
      1. This usually meant that a European nation controlled a coastal city and its surrounding area. The European nation held exclusive trade rights for that city and area (for example, Britain's control of Hong Kong).
      2. Needless to say, the Chinese people despised this situation.
    2. America was mostly uninvolved in this situation. Except, missionaries were concerned about access, and American businesses worried they'd be shut out.
      1. Sec. of State John Hay drafted the Open Door Policy saying spheres of influence should be dropped and Chinese cities should be open to all nations for business. Europe was not interested in giving up their sweet situations.
    3. China took matters into their own hands with the Boxer Rebellion. In this, the Chinese rose up to oust/kill foreigners who controlled their cities. 200 foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians were killed.
      1. Europe and the U.S. responded together and smashed China, then charged China for damages.
      2. China's fine was $333 million; America's cut would be $24.5 million. Feeling guilty about such a high amount, the U.S. used $18 million to educate Chinese students in American universities.
      3. Sec. of State Hay sent the Open Door Policy along again and this time it was accepted. China's borders were to be respected and its cities open to trade to all.
  11. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?
    1. The 1900 election was a repeat of 4 years earlier: William McKinley versus William Jennings Bryan again.
      1. McKinley just held fast while Bryan did the personal campaigning. McKinley's running-mate was Teddy Roosevelt. "TR" did considerable campaigning for McKinley.
    2. Bryan attacked imperialism. This was unproductive since people had grown weary of the subject by then.
    3. McKinley attacked what he called "Bryanism" as being the problem. McKinley struck fear again by implying that a President Bryan would undercut America's prosperity.
      1. McKinley won his reelection easily.
  12. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick
    1. Only six months after being reelected, McKinley was shot and killed in Buffalo, NY by a mentally unstable man. V.P. Teddy Roosevelt became the youngest president ever at only 42 years old.
    2. Roosevelt was a very interesting character. Small of frame as a youth, and picked on, he put himself on a rigorous workout routine and built himself into a short, barrel-chested powerhouse.
      1. He'd been born into an elite family and was a Harvard grad. His motto was, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," which was odd in that Roosevelt was not one to speak softly.
      2. He had a temper, was boisterous, stubborn, decisive, passionate, always thought he was right, and was always the center of attention.
    3. Roosevelt was a fantastic politician. The people adored the likeable "Teddy." Cartoonists loved his wire-framed glasses, huge teeth, rowdy nature—he was almost a walking, living caricature of himself.
      1. As president, TR's opinion was that the president should lead, and he did. He's often considered the "first modern president."
  13. Building the Panama Canal
    1. America, and Teddy Roosevelt, lusted after a canal across isthmus of Central America.
      1. The Spanish-American War showed that lacking a canal meant naval weakness. The U.S.S. Oregon had been "trapped" in the Pacific Ocean and took weeks to travel around South America to the Caribbean.
      2. A canal would also be a huge boost for business.
    2. There were obstacles to building a canal.
      1. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain (1850) said the U.S. couldn't control the isthmus route alone. By the early 1900's, Britain was willing to let this slide however. Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) that gave the U.S. the okay to go solo.
      2. The next question was the location of the canal.
        1. Nicaragua was the initial choice, but the volcano Mt. Pelée erupted, killed 30,000 people, and changed minds about the location.
        2. A French company was eager to move the U.S.'s attention to Panama where it'd tried and failed at constructing a canal. Engineer Philippe Bunau-Varilla got the price of the canal holdings dropped from $109 to $40 million. Congress decided to give it a go.
        3. Panama was a part of Colombia, posing the next problem.
          1. TR worked a deal with the Colombian president to lease the canal zone, but the Colombian senate reneged on the deal. TR was furious.
          2. Bunau-Varilla worried the whole deal would fall through. He incited Panama to revolt against Colombia. The revolution began on November 3, 1901 with the killing of a Chinese citizen and a donkey. The U.S. navy was conveniently offshore to give aid and the revolution was pulled off.
          3. TR recognized Panama as independent and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed. It leased the canal to the U.S. for $10 million and $250,000/year for a 10 mile wide canal strip.
    3. Roosevelt didn't try to sever Panama from Colombia, but it looked that way and was perceived that way. U.S.—Latin American relations took a major hit by Teddy Roosevelt's use of his Big Stick policy (bullying).
    4. Construction began in 1904. There were huge obstacles yet again.
      1. Obstacle #1 was sanitation. Tropical diseases forbade workers from even getting to the job site. Col. William C. Gorgas drained the swamps and eradicated the mosquitoes and diseases.
      2. Obstacle #2 was the scope of the task. It was likely the largest modern engineering undertaking to date. West Point engineer Col. George Washington Goethals headed up construction to its fruition—a modern marvel when completed in 1914. It'd cost $400 million to construct.
  14. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine
    1. Relations with Latin America would take another turn-for-the-worse. Nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were constantly behind in loan payments to European lenders. R
      1. Roosevelt worried that Europe would take action to collect their money, and thus violate the Monroe Doctrine. This put TR in a bit of a pickle: would he allow delinquency of payments or allow Europe to breech the Monroe Doctrine? He chose neither.
    2. His decision was the Roosevelt Corollary (an addition to the Monroe Doctrine). It said that the U.S. would intervene in Latin America and collect the debts for Europe.
      1. Whereas the Monroe Doctrine had said, "Europe, don't intervene!" the Roosevelt Corollary added, "We'll intervene for you!"
      2. In practical terms, the U.S. would take over customs houses and collect taxes and/or use the U.S. navy to seal off Latin American ports for tax collection purposes.
    3. Latin America did not appreciate TR's Big Stick being thrown at them again. The Good Neighbor policy seemed to be more like the "Bad Neighbor" policy.
      1. The Big Stick fell on Cuba in 1906. Revolutionaries created great instability and the Cuban president asked for U.S. assistance. U.S. Marines moved in for 3 years to offer their help. Still, it was seen as another Bad Neighbor policy move by the bully U.S.
  15. Roosevelt on the World Stage
    1. Teddy Roosevelt jumped onto the international scene in 1904 when Russia and Japan went to war.
      1. The two nations were fighting over land, namely the Manchuria area and Port Arthur in particular.
      2. When peace negotiations broke down, Japan asked TR to mediate. This was a bit ironic for the War Hawk Teddy Roosevelt to have turned peace-maker.
    2. TR negotiated a treaty at Portsmouth, NH (1905).
      1. Both nations wanted the Sakhalin island. Japan wanted payments since they felt they'd won the war.
      2. Russia got half of Sakhalin island. Japan was awarded no money but gained control over Korea. Neither side was overjoyed, Japan was especially unhappy, but the war was over.
      3. With both countries going home disgruntled over the outcome of the war, America's friendship with Japan and Russia went sour.
    3. Roosevelt also mediated a North African dispute in 1906 at a conference in Spain. For his peace-making, Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
  16. Japanese Laborers in California
    1. Another issue with Japan emerged when Japanese laborers began to migrate into California. Their population was only 3% of state's total, but a "yellow peril" swept over California.
    2. In 1906, San Francisco was recovering from a devastating earthquake and fires. The school board ordered segregation of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students.
      1. The issue quickly erupted and the yellow press on both sides went wild. There was even talk of possible war.
      2. Roosevelt invited the school board to the White House where he mediated a deal known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement." It said that the school board would repeal the segregation policy and Japan would halt the emigration of laborers to California.
    3. Roosevelt worried that Japan might interpret his actions as being motivated through fear—he wanted to show America's strength.
      1. TR ordered the sparkling new U.S. naval fleet on a world-wide tour. The "Great White Fleet" went to Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. It was a diplomatic good-will mission on the outside, and a not-so-subtle show of military muscle underneath.
      2. The U.S. had been cheered all along, but Japan was especially welcoming. The U.S. and Japan signed the Root-Takahira agreement where both nations promised to respect one another's territorial boundaries to honor China's Open Door policy.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 28 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

  1. Progressive Roots
    1. When the 1900's dawned, there were 76 million Americans. 1 out of 7 were foreign-born.
    2. A new reform movement immediately began, led by "Progressives". Their goals were to stop monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.
      1. The method of the progressives was to strengthen the state—to give more powers to the government. Their over-arching goal was to use the government "as an agency of human welfare."
    3. The roots of Progressivism began with the Greenback Party (1870's) and the Populist Party (1890's). A modern industrial society seemed to call for more government action and to take a step back from pure, laissez-faire capitalism.
    4. Writers used the power of the pen to make their progressive points.
      1. Henry Demarest Lloyd wrote Wealth Against Commonwealth (1894) which struck at the Standard Oil Company.
      2. Thorstein Veblen wrote The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) criticizing people who made money seemingly for money's sake. He spoke of "predatory wealth" and "conspicuous consumption."
      3. Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives (1890) about the lives of the poor. He wanted to divert attention from America's infatuation with how the rich live and show the life of squalor in the New York slums. This book would influence Teddy Roosevelt, a future New York police commissioner.
      4. Theodore Dreiser made his points through his realist fiction. In The Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914) he criticized promoters and profiteers.
    5. Other causes gained steam during the Progressive era.
      1. Socialists, influenced by strong European governments, called for more government action in the U.S. and started gaining votes in the ballot box.
      2. Advocates of the "social gospel" (Christian charity) called for helping the poor.
      3. Female suffragists also called for social justice, as well as the right to vote. They were led by Jane Addams and Lillian Wald.
  2. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers
    1. Around 1902, a new group of social critics emerged—the muckrakers. They typically exposed what they saw as corruption or injustice in writings. Favorite outlets for the muckrakers were liberal, reform-minded magazines like McClure's, Collier's, Cosmopolitan, and Everybody's.
      1. They were called "muckrakers" first by Teddy Roosevelt. It was a derogatory term, him being unimpressed with their tendency to focus on the negatives and "rake through the muck" of society.
    2. The muckrakers were very active and prolific…
      1. Lincoln Steffens wrote "The Shame of the Cities" (1902) which exposed city corruption in cahoots with big business.
      2. Ida Tarbell wrote an exposé in McClure's that laid bare the ruthless business tactics of John D. Rockefeller and the Standard Oil Company. Some thought she was just out for revenge because her father's business had been ruined by Rockefeller. But, all of her facts checked out.
      3. Thomas Lawson exposed the practices of stock market speculators in "Frenzied Finance" (1905-06), published in Everybody's. (He'd made $50 million himself playing the market.)
      4. David Phillips wrote "The Treason of the Senate" (1906) in Cosmopolitan. He said that 75 of the 90 U.S. senators represented big businesses rather than the people. He backed up his charges with enough evidence to also impress Teddy Roosevelt.
      5. John Spargo wrote The Bitter Cry of the Children (1906) exposing, and critical of, child labor.
      6. Ray Stannard Baker wrote Following the Color Line (1908) about the still-sorry state of life for Southern blacks.
      7. Dr. Harvey Wiley criticized patent medicines which were largely unregulated, habit-forming, and normally did more bad than good. He and his "Poison Squad" used themselves as guinea pigs for experiments.
    3. Muckrakers were loud about the ills, but didn't offer cures. To the muckrakers, the cure for societal ills was democracy. They had no faith in politicians leading the charge, but wanted to get the story out to the public. Muckrakers believed that the public conscience would eventually remedy the problems.
  3. Political Progressivism
    1. The progressives generally came from the middle class. They felt somehow sandwiched between the big business trusts and tycoons on the top and the immigrant, working class on the bottom.
    2. Progressives pushed for a variety of political reforms to help their cause. They favored and generally got the following accomplished:
      1. The initiative where voters could initiate laws, rather than waiting and hoping a legislator might do it.
      2. The referendum where voters could vote proposed bills into law, circumventing unresponsive legislators altogether.
      3. The recall where voters could remove elected officials rather than waiting for his term to expire. The thought was, "We voted them in, we can vote them out."
      4. The secret ballot, called the Australian ballot, to help get a true vote and avoid intimidation at the polls.
      5. The direct election of senators by the people. At the time, U.S. senators were chosen by state legislators, not the people. This became reality in 1913, with the 17th Amendment.
      6. And female suffrage. This would have to wait a bit longer (until 1920).
  4. Progressivism in the Cities and States
    1. Progressivism really got its start and took off on a more local level rather than national.
    2. Galveston, TX successfully used the city-manager system. The idea was to use professional people trained in their field of city management, rather than using "friends" of a corrupt mayor or city boss. The result was much greater efficiency and other cities took note of Galveston.
    3. Local Progressives cracked down on "slumlords," rampant prostitution, and juvenile delinquency.
    4. Wisconsin was the Progressive leader for states. Led by Gov. Robert "Fighting Bob" LaFollette, Wisconsin was able to grab power back from the big businesses and return it to the people.
      1. Other states took note and attacked trusts, railroads. Examples included Oregon and California (led by Gov. Hiram Johnson). Gov. Charles Evan Hughes, of New York, took on the wrongs of gas and insurance companies.
  5. Progressive Women This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Women were an indispensable catalyst in the Progressive army. They couldn’t vote or hold political office, but were active none-the-less. Women focused their changes on family-oriented ills such as child labor.
    2. Court decisions impacted women.
      1. The Supreme Court case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) said that laws protecting female workers were indeed constitutional. The case was successfully argued by attorney Louis Brandeis saying women's weaker bodies suffered harmful effects in factory work.
        1. This victory, however, came with a cost to women. Brandeis' own argument of weaker female bodies would later be used to keep women out of certain "male" jobs.
      2. A loss occurred in the case of Lochner v. New York (1905). In the case, the Supreme Court struck down a 10-hour workday for bakers.
    3. Women reformers gained speed after the Triangle Shirtwaist Company burnt down in 1911, trapping and killing 146 mostly young, women workers. The tragedy gained much attention and gave the women momentum.
      1. The public outcry prompted many states to pass laws regulating hours and conditions in such "sweatshops" and to pass workers' compensation laws.
    4. Alcohol had long been under fire by women. During the Progressive era, temperance would reach its peak.
      1. Francis Willard, founder of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) got 1 million women to join the cause against alcohol. The WCTU was joined by the Anti-Saloon League. They were well-organized and well-financed.
      2. Many states and counties went "dry." In 1914, 1/2 of Americans lived in dry areas.
      3. The movement culminated in 1919 with the 18th Amendment (AKA Prohibition) that banned alcohol's sale, consumption, and possession.
  6. TR’s Square Deal for Labor
    1. President Roosevelt had been moved the by muckrakers and the Progressives' ideals. He pursued the "three C's": (1) control of the corporations, (2) consumer protection, and (3) conservation of natural resources.
    2. A strike took place in 1902 at the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania. The workers called for a 20% pay increase and a reduction of work hours from 10 to 9 hours.
      1. Coal supplies dwindled and the nation felt the effects of the coal shortage so TR called in strike workers to the White House. Roosevelt was not impressed with the strike leaders.
      2. Roosevelt finally threatened to use federal troops to operate the mines. At this threat, the owners agreed to go to arbitration. The workers were given a 10% increase and the 9 hour day. The workers' union, however, was not officially recognized for bargaining.
    3. Roosevelt called on Congress to form the Dept. of Commerce and Labor, which it did. The department split in half ten years later.
      1. The Bureau of Corporations would investigate interstate trade and become important for breaking up monopolies during the "trust-busting" days.
  7. TR Corrals the Corporations
    1. The Interstate Commerce Commission (1887) had been designed to regulate railroads but it was proving to be ineffective. Therefore, it was decided more needed to be done.
      1. Congress passed the Elkins Act in 1903. It banned and prosecuted rebates awarded by railroaders.
      2. The Hepburn Act placed restrictions on free passes handed out by railroads (usually to the press to ensure good reports).
    2. Teddy Roosevelt nurtured the reputation of a trust buster. TR concluded, however that there were "good trusts" and there were "bad trusts." The bad trusts had to go.
      1. TR's most noteworthy target was the Northern Securities Company run by J.P. Morgan and James Hill.
        1. TR busted up Northern Securities (his decision was upheld by the Supreme Court). Busting J.P. Morgan's outfit angered Wall Street but this high-profile bust furthered TR's trust buster image.
      2. In all, Roosevelt attacked some 40 trusts, including busting the beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvester trusts
      3. Despite his reputation as a trust buster, TR allowed the "good trusts" to survive. He believed his actions against the bad trusts would prevent the good ones from going astray.
      4. William Howard Taft, who succeeded Roosevelt, would actually be more of a trust buster than TR. Taft actually busted more trusts than TR.
        1. Another example occurred over the U.S. Steel Company. U.S. Steel wanted to acquire the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company. TR had said that the move of this good trust would be okay, but Taft felt otherwise. Roosevelt was very angry over Taft's reversal of his position.
  8. Caring for the Consumer
    1. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle about the meat packing industry's horrible conditions. Sinclair's goal was to reveal the plight of the workers. But, the real effect was to gross out America and initiate action in Congress.
      1. His book motivated Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act (1906). Henceforth meat would be inspected by the U.S.D.A.
      2. The Pure Food and Drug Act was also passed. Its goal was to ensure proper labeling of food and drugs.and to prevent tampering.
    2. These acts would help Europe to trust American meat and thus help exports.
  9. Earth Control
    1. Americans had long considered their natural resources inexhaustible. By about 1900, they were realizing this was not true and that conservation was needed. Acts of Congress began preserving the land…
      1. The first conservation act was the Desert Land Act (1877). It sold desert land at a cheap rate on the promise the land would be irrigated.
      2. The Forest Reserve Act (1891) gave the president permission to set aside land as parks and reserves. Millions of acres of old-growth forests were preserved under this authority.
      3. The Carey Act (1894) gave federal land to the states, again on the promise of irrigation.
    2. Teddy Roosevelt's presidency truly started a new era in conservation. Roosevelt was a consummate outdoorsman, was very concerned about the nation's timber and mineral depletion, and started the conservation movement with action.
      1. Others helped Roosevelt in the push to conserve, notably conservationist and Division of Forest head Gifford Pinchot and naturalist John Muir, the most well-known spokesman for Mother Nature.
      2. TR got the Newlands Act (1902) passed to begin massive irrigation projects out West. The Roosevelt Dam (on Arizona's Salt River) and dozens of other western dams created reservoirs to water, and bring life to, the arid land.
      3. TR wanted to save to the trees. By 1900, only 1/4 of the nation's once-vast virgin trees still stood.
        1. Roosevelt set aside 125 million acres of forest land (3 times the acreage of his 3 predecessors). Large quantities of land were also set aside for coal and water reserves. Purely as an example, he had no White House Christmas tree in 1902.
    3. The public shared TR's concern and passion for nature.
      1. Jack London's outdoorsy novels became popular, such as The Call of the Wild about Alaska's Klondike gold rush.
      2. Outdoorsy organizations emerged, such as the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club (whose goal was/is conservation).
    4. The Hetchy Hetch Valley of Yosemite National Park exposed a philosophical rupture amongst the conservationists.
      1. Hetchy Hetch was a beautiful Gorge that John Muir and the Sierra Club wanted to save. San Francisco wanted to dam it up for the city's water supply. In this case, TR sided with the city.
        1. Notably, TR and Muir were good friends, but TR was a pragmatist—always seeking a practical solution over an idealized solution.
        2. The division was clearly shown. The question asked, "Should land be simply set aside and untouched forever?" as John Muir advocated. Or, "Should the land be wisely managed for man's benefit?", as Teddy Roosevelt advocated.
      2. The federal government gave San Francisco the okay to dam up the valley. Roosevelt's policy of "multiple-use resource management" was set. The policy tried to use the land for recreation, reservoirs (for drinking, irrigating, water recreation), saw-then-replant logging, and summer stock grazing.
  10. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907
    1. Theodore Roosevelt was loved by the people, witnessed by the "Teddy" bear. Conservatives thought of him as unpredictable due to his Progressive ways they meddled the government into businesses.
      1. After winning his election in 1904, he announced he would not seek a third term. This cut his power a bit since everyone then knew he'd be out in four years.
    2. The economy took a sudden and sharp downtown in 1907. Wall Street was pounded, banks were run, suicides went up, and there were many Wall Street "speculators" were indicted on sneaky dealings.
      1. As with any economic downtown, the president was blamed, justly or not. Conservatives, especially, charged that Roosevelt's meddling in business had fouled up the cogs of the economy. They called it the "Roosevelt Panic."
      2. The Panic did reveal the need for a more elastic currency supply. In other words, the banks needed reserves to release into circulation if times got tough.
        1. Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act (1908) authorizing national banks to release money into circulation.
        2. This law/action paved the way for the monumental Federal Reserve Act (1913).
  11. The Rough Rider Thunders Out
    1. In 1908, TR was still very popular. He used his popularity to endorse a candidate that had similar policies as himself—William Howard Taft.
      1. Taft was a big fellow and very likable. The old saying was that "everybody loves a fat man" and in Taft's case the saying seemed to fit.
      2. The Democrats put forth William Jennings Bryan yet again. Bryan also painted himself as a Progressive.
      3. Riding on TR's popularity, Taft won the election easily, 321 to 162 in the electoral.
        1. As a sign-of-the-times Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs (of Pullman Strike fame) garnered a surprising 420,000 votes.
    2. After the election, TR went to Africa on a hunting safari. His exploits were much followed and he returned as energetic as ever, still only 51 years old.
      1. TR's legacy was to begin to tame unbridled capitalism. He wasn't an enemy of business, but brought it under control. He sought the middle-ground in between the "me alone" idea of pure capitalism and the "father knows best" ideas of a government that controls people's lives.
      2. Other parts of his legacy include: (1) increasing the power of the presidency, (2) he initiated reforms, and (3) he showed that the U.S. was a world power and thus held great responsibilities.
  12. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole
    1. At first, Taft seemed just fine. He was likable, seemed capable, had a solid background in experience.
    2. Tricky problems soon bogged him down. TR had been able to work through problems due to his force-of-personality and political instincts.
      1. Taft took a hands-off approach toward Congress which did not serve him well.
      2. He was a mild progressive only, more inclined toward the status quo than reform.
  13. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat
    1. President Taft encouraged a policy called "Dollar Diplomacy" where Americans invested in foreign countries to gain power.
      1. Wall Street was urged to invest in strategic areas, especially the Far East and Latin America.
      2. The Dollar Diplomacy policy would thus strengthen the U.S. and make money at the same time. Whereas TR had used the in-your-face Big Stick policy, Taft used the sneakier Dollar Diplomacy policy.
    2. A Dollar Diplomacy mishap occurred in China's Manchuria region.
      1. Taft wanted to buy Manchuria's railroads from Russia and Japan, then turn them over to the Chinese. This would keep the Open Door policy open, and strengthen the U.S.'s position in China.
      2. Russian and Japan blocked Sec. of State Philander Knox's deal and Taft suffered a Dollar Diplomacy black eye.
    3. Latin America was a busy spot for the Dollar Diplomacy policy. The Monroe Doctrine forbade Europe from intervening, so the U.S. did.
      1. The U.S. invested heavily in Honduras and Haiti, thinking they may become trouble spots.
      2. Ordering Europe to stay away from Latin America, and investing heavily there, meant the U.S. now had a vested interest and shouldered responsibility there.
        1. Several flare-ups required the U.S. to intervene militarily including Cuba, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua (for 13 years).
  14. Taft the Trustbuster
    1. Taft was more of a trust buster than Roosevelt; Taft brought 90 lawsuits against trusts during his 4 years in office
    2. Perhaps his most noteworthy bust was the Standard Oil Company. The Supreme Court ordered in broken into smaller companies in 1911.
    3. The U.S. Steel Company was under fire from Taft, even though Roosevelt had agreed to let the company survive as one of his "good trusts." When Taft sought to break it up, Roosevelt was furious at his successor's actions.
  15. Taft Splits the Republican Party
    1. Two main issues split the Republican party: (1) the tariff and (2) conservation of lands.
    2. On the tariff, old-school Republicans were high-tariff; New/Progressive Republicans were low tariff.
      1. Taft, as the mild Progressive, had promised to lower the tariff. As president, he sought to do just that, if only a small reduction.
      2. Sen. Nelson Aldrich added many increases to the bill while it was in the Senate. When passed and signed by Taft, the Payne-Aldrich Bill actually broke his campaign promise and angered many.
        1. Pres. Taft even unwisely named it "the best bill that the Republican party ever passed."
      3. In actuality, the Payne-Aldrich Bill split the Republican party.
    3. On conservation, old-school Republicans favored using or developing the lands for business; new/Progressive Republicans favored conservation of lands.
      1. Taft did set up the Bureau of Mines to manage mineral resources. This was a "Progessive-ish" move and likely a popular one.
      2. However, Taft's involvement in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel (1910) was unpopular.
        1. Sec. of Interior Richard Ballinger said that public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska would be open for development.
        2. Chief of Forestry Gifford Pinchot was critical of the decision. Apparently siding with Ballinger, Taft fired Pinchot—an unpopular move.
    4. The Republican party split became apparent in the 1910 Congress election.
      1. In the election, the old-school Republicans and new/Progressive Republicans split the vote, thus the Democrats won heavily in the House of Rep's.
      2. Also, Socialist Eugene Berger of Milwaukee won a seat in Congress—again, showing the movement toward Socialism.
  16. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture
    1. The Republican split turned from differing opinions to different parties. The National Progressive Republican League began in 1911. Sen. Robert La Follette ("Fighting Bob" of Wisconsin) seemed destined to become their candidate.
    2. Teddy Roosevelt was so upset about Taft's policies that TR dropped hints that he'd be interested in running again for president.
      1. He finally said, "My hat is in the ring!" arguing that he hadn't wanted three consecutive terms as president.
      2. La Follette was brushed aside and Roosevelt was named as the Progressive Republican.
    3. The Taft-Roosevelt showdown came in June of 1912 at the Republican convention. Both men vied for the Republican nomination.
      1. As the sitting president, Taft was nominated as the Republican candidate for 1912.
      2. Roosevelt wasn't done, however. TR would simply run on his own as a third party candidate.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 29 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

  1. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912
    1. Democrats in 1912 felt they could take the White House (since being out for 16 years) because the Republicans had split their party.
    2. Democrats looked to Dr. Woodrow Wilson, the governor of New Jersey.
      1. Wilson had been a mild conservative but had turned become an strong progressive.
      2. His background was in education as a history professor, then as president of Princeton Univ. As governor of NJ, he made a name for himself by standing up to the bosses, trusts, and as a liberal.
      3. At their convention, it took 46 votes to choose Wilson. The final vote was cast after William Jennings Bryan threw his support behind Wilson.
    3. The Democrats now had a candidate in Woodrow Wilson and they added a platform they named the "New Freedom."
      1. The New Freedom platform was made up of liberal and progressive policies.
    4. At the Progressive party convention Teddy Roosevelt was nominated by reformer Jane Addams (of Hull House in Chicago). Roosevelt's speech enthralled its listeners.
      1. TR won the nomination (which was a foregone conclusion) and commented that he felt "as strong as a bull moose." The Progressive party then had a symbol and a nickname: the Bull Moose Party.
    5. The 1912 presidential campaign was thus set and the campaigning began.
      1. The 1912 candidates were…
        1. Republican: Pres. William Howard Taft
        2. Democrat: Woodrow Wilson
        3. Progressive: Theodore Roosevelt
      2. Talk between Taft and TR got nasty as the two old friends laid into one another. Wilson could enjoy just letting his other two opponents rip themselves.
      3. Personality wars aside, Wilson's New Freedom plan and Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" plan came front-and-center.
        1. The New Nationalism plan had been inspired by The Promise of American Life by Herbert Croly (1910). The book agreed with TR's old policy of leaving good trusts alone but controlling bad trusts.
        2. The New Nationalism also pushed for female suffrage and social programs such as minimum wage laws social insurance programs. These such programs would later be manifested during the Great Depression in Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal.
          1. These "socialistic" social welfare programs would be a hard pill to swallow for business folks and conservatives.
        3. The New Freedom plan supported small business and wanted to bust all trusts, not distinguishing good or bad. The plan did not include social welfare programs.
      4. TR was shot in the chest in Milwaukee while on the campaign trail. Though shot, TR delivered his speech, went to the hospital, and recovered in 2 weeks time.
  2. Woodrow Wilson: A Minority President
    1. With the Republicans split, it was time for the Democrats. Woodrow Wilson won the 1912 electoral vote handily: Wilson had 435 electoral votes, Roosevelt had 88, and Taft had 8.
      1. The popular vote was much different however. Wilson garnered only 41% of the people's votes, TR and Taft totaled 50%. Thus, most people in America did not want Wilson as their president.
      2. The conclusion seemed clear—Roosevelt's Bull Moose party had cost Republicans, and given the Democrats, the White House.
    2. The Socialist party continued to be on the rise. Eugene V. Debs got 6% of the popular vote—a strong showing by a third party and, again, a sign-of-the-times for people liking what the Socialists were saying.
    3. Taft didn't just go away after his one term. He would later become the chief justice of the Supreme Court.
  3. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics
    1. He was born and raised in the South who sympathized with the Confederacy's struggle to rule itself during the Civil War. This may have influenced his "self-determination" policy of post-WWI where the people chose their government.
    2. His father was a Presbyterian minister and Wilson was deeply religious himself as well as a superb speaker. It was noted that he was born halfway between the bible and the dictionary and never strayed far from either.
    3. Like Teddy Roosevelt, he believed the president should strike out and lead the country.
    4. Wilson's personality was very much unlike Roosevelt, however.
      1. Wilson was an idealist, not a pragmatist like TR. He was completely stubborn at times, not budging an inch on his ideals or beliefs. Consequently, his stubbornness meant at times not getting anything done.
      2. Wilson also was an intellectual who lacked the people's touch. Whereas TR had been loved by the people, Wilson was scholarly and arrogant. Or in other words, whereas TR might have had a beer with the people, Wilson might scoff at their ignorance and move on.
  4. Wilson Tackles the Tariff
    1. As a Progressive, Woodrow Wilson entered the White House saying he wished to attack what he termed the "triple wall of privilege": the tariff, the banks, and trusts.
    2. Wilson sought to bring the tariff down. He helped Congress pass the Underwood Tariff (1913) which did two main things…
      1. It considerably reduced tariff rates on imports.
      2. It started a graduated income tax (the tax rate went up as a person's salary went up). The 16th Amendment had recently been passed legalizing an income tax, the Underwood Tariff law simply laid out the rules.
  5. Wilson Battles the Bankers
    1. America's financial system had been set up by the National Banking Act back during the Civil War. The Panic of 1907 had shown the system to have faults and to be incapable of addressing emergency needs. Wilson set up a committee to look into the banking system.
      1. The committee was headed by Republican Senator Aldrich (of the Aldrich-Vreeland Act which addressed banking back in 1908). The committee recommended what amounted to a third Bank of the United States.
      2. The Democrats, following a House committee chaired by Arsene Pujo, concluded that the "money monster" was rooted in the banking system.
      3. And, Louis D. Brandeis wrote Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It (1914) which fired people up even more to reform a supposedly corrupt banking system.
    2. Wilson's mind was made up. In June of 1913 he asked a joint session of Congress to make broad reforms to the nation's banking system.
      1. Congress reacted and passed the monumental Federal Reserve Act (1913).
        1. The law created the Federal Reserve Board (appointed by the president) which oversaw 12 regional, federal banks.
        2. The Federal Reserve Board was given the power to issue paper money (AKA "Federal Reserve Notes"). Thus, it could regulate the amount of money in circulation by issuing, or holding back, paper money.
  6. The President Tames the Trusts This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Last on Wilson's "triple wall of privilege" were the trusts. Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) which set up a position, appointed by the president, to investigate activities of trusts.
      1. The goal would be to stop trade practices deemed unfair such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, and bribery.
    2. Congress wanted to strengthen the largely ineffective Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), so it passed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914).
      1. The Clayton Act put real teeth into anti-trust law. It added to the Sherman law's list of objectionable trust practices by forbidding price discrimination (a different price for different people) and interlocking directorates (the same people serving on "competitors" boards of trustees).
      2. It also (a) exempted labor unions from being considered trusts and (b) legalized strikes as a form of peaceful assembly.
  7. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide
    1. Several other reforms followed Wilson's attack on the "triple wall of privilege."
    2. Farmers got a bit of government help from the Progressive-minded Wilson.
      1. The Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) offered low interest loans to farmers.
      2. The Warehouse Act (1916) offered loans on on security of staple crops.
    3. Workers made gains under the Progressive-minded Wilson.
      1. Sailors were guaranteed good treatment and a decent wage under the La Follette Seamen's Act (1915). A negative result was that shipping rates shot upward with the new governmental regulations.
      2. The Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916) offered help to federal civil-service employees during a time of disability.
      3. The Adamson Act (1916) set an 8-hour workday (plus overtime) for any worker on a train engaged in interstate trade.
    4. Wilson named Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—the 1st Jew to sit on the bench. But, Wilson's Progressivism did not reach out to blacks in America. His policies actually moved toward greater segregation.
    5. Wilson played politics too.
      1. The business community largely despised all of Wilson's and the government's meddling into business. To keep business folks somewhat happy, and hopefully get reelected, Wilson made conservative appointments to the Federal Reserve Board and to the Federal Trade Commission.
      2. To get reelected in 1916, Wilson new he'd have to lure most of TR's Bull Moose backers to the Democrat party. So, despite "throwing a bone" to business, most of his energies were put into the Progressive arena.
  8. New Directions in Foreign Policy
    1. Woodrow Wilson took a very different path in foreign policy when compared to his two predecessors. Wilson was a pacifist at heart, a peacemaker. He hated TR's Big Stick Policy and Taft's Dollar Diplomacy.
      1. He got American bankers to pull out of a 6 nation loan to China.
      2. Wilson got Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act (1912) which allowed American ships to pass through the canal toll free.
    2. Wilson signed the Jones Act (1916) granting territorial status to the Philippines. It also promised independence when a "stable government" was established.
      1. The Philippines were finally granted their independence on July 4, 1946.
    3. Other foreign situations forced the peaceful president to take action.
      1. Wilson defused a situation with Japan. California forbade Japanese-Americans from owning land in the U.S. Tensions ran high and violence seemed a real threat. Wilson sent Sec. of State William Jennings Bryan to speak to the California legislature and the situation calmed down.
      2. He was forced to take military action in 1915 in Haiti. Chaos erupted there and Wilson sent U.S. Marines to protect Americans and American interests there. They stayed for over a year and a half.
      3. Marines were also sent to the Dominican Republic in the same year to keep order.
      4. In 1917, Woodrow Wilson purchased the Virgin Island from Denmark. It was clear by this time that the arms of America were reaching into the Caribbean.
  9. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico
    1. For years, the resources of Mexico had been used by American oil, railroad, and mining businesses. The Mexican people were extremely poor and they revolted in 1913.
      1. The president was assassinated. Placed as president was an Indian, Gen. Victoriano Huerta. The result of the chaos was a massive immigration from Mexico to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
    2. Huerta's regime put Wilson in a tight spot.
      1. The revolutionaries in Mexico were violent and threatened American lives and property. Americans called for Wilson to offer protection but, he would not.
      2. On the flip side, Wilson also would not recognize Huerta and his regime. Wilson allowed American arms to go to Huerta's rivals Venustiano Carranza and Francisco "Pancho" Villa.
    3. A situation emerged in Tampico, Mexico when some American sailors were seized by Mexico. Wilson sought Congress' okay to use military force and actually had the navy seize Vera Cruz, Mexico. Huerta and Carranza both were not happy about this move.
      1. The ABC Powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) stepped in to mediate the situation.
      2. Huerta was replaced after considerable pressure and Carranza became president.
    4. Carranza's rival Pancho Villa began stirring up trouble. Pancho Villa was something of a Mexican Robin Hood. He was hated by some who considered him a thief and murderer; he was loved by some who saw him as fighting for the "little man."
      1. Pancho Villa raided a train, kidnapped 16 American mining engineers, and killed them.
      2. He and his men raided Columbus, New Mexico and killed 19 more people.
    5. Wilson sent the Army, headed by Gen. John. J. Pershing, after Pancho Villa.
      1. Pershing took a few thousand troops into Mexico, fought both Carranza's and Villa's troops, but couldn't catch Pancho Villa.
      2. While hunting Villa, World War I broke out and Pershing was recalled. (Villa would soon be murdered by a Mexican rival.)
  10. Thunder Across the Sea
    1. In 1914, Austrian heir-to-the-throne Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. This started a domino-effect where Europe quickly fell into war.
    2. The powers of Europe chose sides due to culture and to alliances…
      1. The main Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey (aka the Ottomon Empire).
      2. The main Allied Powers were Russia, France, England, and Australia.
    3. Most Americans favored the Allies but many supported the Central Powers due to ethnic heritage. Nearly all Americans were happy that an ocean separated them from the war and wanted to stay neutral.
  11. A Precarious Neutrality
    1. Adding to the somber tone of the times, President Wilson's wife had recently died. He declared that the U.S. was officially neutral.
    2. Both the Central and Allied Powers sought America's support.
      1. The Central Powers of Germany and Austro-Hungary were reliant on Americans that shared their heritage. There were 11 million Americans with ethnic ties to these nations (roughly 20%).
      2. The Allies had most of the cultural, political, and economic ties with America. Generally speaking, most Americans were sympathetic to the Allies' side.
        1. The leader of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, was a military autocrat and was easy for most freedom-loving Americans to dislike. Anyone "on the fence" would almost certainly side with the Allies and against the Kaiser/Central Powers.
        2. Additionally, any fence-sitters likely had their minds made up against the Central Powers in a New York subway incident. There, a Central Powers operative left his briefcase on the subway. Inside were plans to sabotage American industries.
  12. America Earns Blood Money
    1. Being officially neutral, American businesses sought to trade with either side in the war to make money.
      1. Trade with the Allies was possible and took place.
      2. Trade with the Central Powers was much trickier with the British navy controlling the sea. This trade effectively pulled the U.S. out of a mini-recession that it'd been in prior to the war.
    2. Germany was aware of their inferior naval status and the benefits of Allied-American trade.
      1. Germany knew they could not compete with the British navy one-on-one. The German solution was to rely on U-boats, or submarines.
      2. Germany announced "unrestricted submarine warfare" on the Allies or anyone assisting the Allies. The U.S. would not be targeted, but no guarantees were made.
      3. President Wilson said Germany would be held to "strict accountability" for any American damages.
    3. The greatest U-boat attack was on the Lusitania, a British cruise liner. Nearly 1,200 souls were killed in the attack, including 128 Americans.
      1. The Lusitania and the Americans had been warned of a possible attack. Still, the effect was to motivate many Americans to call for war.
        1. William Jennings Bryan resigned from his post as Secretary of State due to the possibility of going to war.
    4. Other ships were soon sunk by German U-boats.
      1. The Arabic was sunk, a British ship, killing two Americans.
      2. The Sussex was sunk, a French passenger ship, and prompted Pres. Wilson to pressure Germany.
        1. Germany gave the "Sussex Pledge" in response. It promised that no attacks would be made on ships without warning.
        2. Germany quickly realized that such a pledge undermined the purpose of a submarine (surprise attack). They retracted the pledge and reverted back to unrestricted submarine warfare.
    5. Wilson's neutrality was teetering on the brink.
  13. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916
    1. 1916 was another presidential election year. The candidates were…
      1. Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes. He was infamous for changing his position depending on his audience. He as thus nicknamed "Charles Evasive Hughes."
      2. Democrats nominated Pres. Wilson for another 4 years. The campaign slogan was "He kept us out of war."
    2. By this time America's neutrality was slipping away. Still, the slogan was appealing.
    3. Wilson won the election, 277 to 254 in the electoral vote.
      1. The irony of the election was that Wilson would lead America into war only 5 months later, in April of 1917.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 30 - American Life in the Roaring ‘20s

  1. Seeing Red
    1. Following WWI, America's mood changed to isolationism and anti-foreigner. "Radicals" were shunned and foreigners were expected to change their ways to American.
    2. A "Red Scare" (a fear of communism) emerged. This fear was fueled by (1) the recent Russian revolution, (2) Eugene Debs growing numbers, (3) loads of strikes, and (4) a series of mail bombs.
      1. The logic went that communism was from Europe—all the more reason to shun foreigners and their ways.
      2. Right or wrong, people blamed the bombs on the reds. Atty. Gen. Mitchell Palmer vowed to round up the reds. He arrested about 6,000 people; some were deported. He slowed down a bit after a bomb blew up his house.
    3. Again, free speech, such as explaining one's political views, was under fire.
      1. States passed laws outlawing advocacy of violence for social change.
      2. Some elected officials were denied seats on the legislature because they were Socialists.
    4. The faces of the Red Scare were Sacco and Vanzetti.
      1. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian immigrants accused of murder.
      2. The importance is that although there was some evidence against them, many concluded their case was based less on evidence and more on other strikes against them. The other strikes: they were Italian, atheists, anarchists, draft dodgers. They were tried, convicted, and executed.
  2. Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK
    1. The Ku Klux Klan was somewhat re-vamped at this time. The KKK had been started as an anti-black group. In the 20's, it added to its list of "we don't likes": Catholics, Jewish, pacifists, communists, internationalists, revolutionists, bootleggers, gambling, adultery, and birth control.
    2. More simply, the KKK was pro-white Anglo-Saxon protestant ("WASP") and anti-everything else.
    3. By expanding its scope of hatred and by riding the mood of the time, the KKK reached its numerical peak during the 20's—about 5 million members strong.
      1. The KKK employed the same tactics as it always had: fear, lynchings, and intimidation.
    4. Finally, the KKK was given a stiff setback due to an internal money/initiation fee scam.
  3. Stemming the Foreign Flood
    1. Congress took action in the anti-foreign mood to limit immigrants from Europe, specifically “New Immigrants” (mostly from the southeastern Europe regions).
      1. The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 cut the number of immigrants who could enter America to 3% of their nationality's U.S. population in 1910.
        1. This law somewhat favored the New Immigrants (the group they wanted to limit) because their numbers in 1910 were so large. A new bill was desired.
      2. In 1924, the Immigration Act sliced the number down to 2% of a group's U.S. population in 1890. Changing from 1910 to 1890 (before many New Immigrants had arrived). This change clearly had racial undertones beneath it (New Immigrants out, Old Immigrants in).
        1. This law also closed the door to Japanese immigrants.
        2. Canadians and Latin Americans were not included in the law. They were desired to work jobs.
    2. In 1931, for the first time, more foreigners left American than came. Aside from the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, this marked the first restriction on immigration or the end of free and open American immigration.
    3. America was a patchwork quilt of ethnic groups, especially in the big cities. New ideas on the "melting pot" grew. Two theories emerged in the intellectual circles:
      1. Horace Kallen argued that the ethnic groups should keep their old-world traditions. They would harmonize like an orchestra.
      2. Randolph Bourne argued that the groups should interact with one another to create a trans-nationality in America.
  4. The Prohibition “Experiment”
    1. In 1919, the Eighteenth Amendment was passed prohibiting alcohol. Congress passed the Volstead Act later in the year to carry out the amendment.
    2. The amendment was more popular in the South and West.
    3. Many did not like the amendment. America has a long tradition of liking a strong drink and a weak government. Many folks violated or ignored the prohibition.
      1. Since it was costly and risky to deal in alcohol, the stronger the alcohol the better. Straight moonshine might blind or kill.
    4. There were positive results: bank savings increased and absences at work went down.
  5. The Golden Age of Gangsterism
    1. Prohibition created an entire industry for organized crime: liquor distribution.
    2. Gangs emerged and staked out their territories for liquor and their accompanying "speakeasy" bars, gambling, narcotics, whore houses, and extortion money.
    3. Chicago led the gang world. About 500 gangsters were murdered in the 20's in Chicago. Arrests were few and convictions were rare since gang members would not rat out others.
      1. "Scarface' Al Capone was the biggest and the baddest. Bloodshed and murder followed his armor-clad, bulletproof windowed car through Chicago. The feds named him "Public Enemy Number One." The "G-men" never got him for the dirty stuff; they did jail him in Alcatraz for tax evasion.
      2. By 1930, the estimate of gang income was between $12 and $18 billion—several times the income of the Washington D.C. government.
    4. Gang violence/extortion hit the headlines in 1932 when Charles Lindbergh's baby was kidnapped for ransom. The baby was soon found murdered. Congress passed the "Lindbergh Law" making interstate kidnapping punishable by death.
  6. Monkey Business in Tennessee This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Education began to change from rote memorization to more hands-on learning. This was the idea of progressive education John Dewey who advocated "learning by doing" and "education for life."
    2. Science made gains. The Rockefeller Foundation funded a health drive that nearly eliminated hookworm which mostly struck the poor. Nutrition and health care extended the life expectancy from 50 years in 1901 to 59 years in 1929.
    3. Scientists butted heads with traditionalists in the 20's in the "Scopes Monkey Trial" over Darwin's theory of evolution.
      1. Fundamentalists believed in a literal reading of the Bible. They'd grown in numbers, especially in the "Bible Belt" of the South.
      2. Tennessee passed a law banning teaching evolution in public schools. A young biology teacher, John T. Scopes broke this law and taught evolution.
      3. Dayton, TN became a national stage for the first evolution vs. creation showdown. Big-name lawyers led both sides: the evolution side was argued by Clarence Darrow, presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan argued the creation side.
        1. Bryan was passionate, a Bible expert and expert speaker. Darrow was an expert trial lawyer and likely got the better of Bryan. Perhaps the most famous "gotcha" point came when Darrow got Bryan to comment on Jonah being swallowed by a whale. Darrow then said the Bible quotes a "great fish," and not a whale.
        2. The trial itself was almost a non-factor—Scopes had broken the no-evolution law. He was convicted and given a slap-on-the-wrist.
        3. The stress and passion of the case literally led to Bryan's death. He died of a stroke only five days afterward.
      4. Fundamentalism may have gained a victory in that, through mocking, their faith was strengthened even more. And, their numbers continued to grow, especially with Baptists and the new Church of Christ.
  7. The Mass-Consumption Economy
    1. After the immediate post-war recession, the 1920's generally enjoyed a robust economy. Treasury Sec. Andrew Mellons low-tax policies helped encourage growth.
    2. Machinery got better and ran on cheap energy.
      1. The business period was personified by Henry Ford. He perfected the assembly line at his Rouge Rive Plant and could produce a new car every 10 seconds. Ford-style mass production was then applied to other industries, lowering costs, and starting mass consumption.
    3. To sell the tons of new stuff, new advertising techniques were needed. Ads began to employ persuasion and sex appeal.
      1. The ad-master was Bruce Barton. He wrote a best-seller called The Man Nobody Knows. That man was Jesus Christ, whom Barton said was the best advertiser ever and others marketers would do well to follow his steps.
      2. People began to buy things they didn't know they'd needed or wanted, until they saw the ad. Folks followed new (and dangerous) buying techniques…they bought (1) on the installment plan and (2) on credit. Both ways were capable of plunging an unsuspecting consumer into debt.
    4. The growing mass media, like newspapers, magazines, and infant radio, made America more homogeneous, more the same from coast-to-coast. This was great for mass consumption.
    5. Mass media helped sports grow in popularity. Baseball was the king of American sports with heroes like Babe Ruth. It was now practical to follow your team on a daily basis, home or away. Boxing was popular, with champ Jack Dempsey. Horse racing was the second most popular sport by attendance.
  8. Putting America on Rubber Tires
    1. Americans took European know-how and further developed the gasoline engine.
    2. Frederick Taylor promoted efficiency in production. He would put the stopwatch on a worker then orchestrate his movements to eliminated wasted movement and quicken his time. It was effective as workers became very effective (though they were little more than machine parts).
    3. Early moguls in the automobile industry were Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds (the Oldsmobile).
    4. These cars were unreliable—a driver would have to also be half mechanic. But, they were inexpensive, especially Ford's Model T. When Ford switched to the Model A, the assembly line technique made the Model A affordable for practically any working person.
      1. When the stock market crashed in 1929, there were 26 million registered cars—1 car for every 4.9 people America.
  9. The Advent of the Gasoline Age
    1. Cars created 6 million new jobs and quickly became America's number one mode of transportation.
    2. Cars brought fundamental changes to America:
      1. Roads were now needed—there was a boom in paving and cars' accompanying gasoline industry started and mushroomed.
      2. There were social changes as well. Cars brought independence to young people who "dated" in them and America began to reshape itself by spreading out into suburbs. There were many crashes too. By 1951, a million people had died in car crashes—more than all the wars combined.
  10. Humans Develop Wings
    1. The gas engine also led to airplanes. In Orville and Wilbur Wright man flew for the first time on December 17, 1903 for 12 seconds at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
    2. Airplanes grew as heard spread. Many first saw a plane when a stunt flier would barnstorm their town or county fair.
    3. Planes were used minimally in World War I—mostly for recon (spying), dog fighting each other, and crude bombing.
    4. After WWI planes really got going. They were used for air mail. The first transcontinental airmail route started from New York to San Francisco in 1920.
    5. America got a hero when Charles Lindbergh was the first to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927. It took him 33 1/2 hours, he won a $25,000 prize, and instantly became a celebrity.
      1. Lindbergh was sort of represented the anti-Jazz Age. Whereas many young people were living the high life of fast cars, illegal booze, jazz, nightclubs, "petting parties", Lindbergh was traditional, wholesome and shy. It was said that for a brief moment, the Jazz Age crowd paused their party and tipped their glasses to Lindbergh's accomplishment.
  11. The Radio Revolution
    1. Guglielmo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy in the 1890's. His invention was used in WWI. The beep-beep radio would soon give birth to voice radio.
    2. The first major radio broadcast was made by KDKA it Pittsburgh. They broadcast the results of Warren Hardings presidential victory.
      1. Radio spread out from being local, to powerful national shows that often drowned out the local stations. Entrepreneur Powel Crosley's station sent out 500,000 watts (10 times the limit today) and could be reached nearly anywhere in the U.S.
    3. Like the car, the radio also changed society.
      1. Radio standardized or homogenized Americans in a way never before possible—everyone could hear the same news at exactly the same time.
      2. Whereas the car scattered people, the radio drew them back to their homes. Sitting as a family listening to the radio was the norm. Popular shows were "Amos 'n' Andy.
      3. Radio was a new and powerful medium for advertisers as well. They sponsored shows like the "A&P Gypsies" and the "Eveready Hour."
      4. It was even easier for sports fans to follow their teams—sports grew even more in popularity.
      5. Politicians had to adjust to the new media as well.
  12. Hollywood’s Filmland Fantasies
    1. Thomas Edison helped invent/develop the "picture show" (movies).
    2. Largely considered the first movie was The Great Train Robbery in 1903. The first full-length movie was made in 1915 by D.W. Griffith called The Birth of a Nation. It dealt with the Civil War and Reconstruction and was controversial because it seemed to glorify the KKK. Technically, though, it stunned viewers with its battle scenes and ability to draw out emotions on a personal level.
      1. After viewing the movie, Pres. Woodrow Wilson said it was like writing "history with lightning."
    3. Hollywood became the movie headquarters with its sunny climate. Early films often featured nude women and "vamps" (female vampires) until criticism clothed things.
    4. Movies really took off during WWI as many propaganda shorts were created.
    5. The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson in 1927, a "minstrel" movie with white men dressed as black men, was the first "talkie" (movie with sound).
    6. Movies quickly became America's foremost form entertainment. Early movie stars like Charlie Chaplain, Douglas Fairbanks, and Mary Pickford quickly emerged.
    7. There were critics of radio and the movies. They said it turned America away from grandma's story-telling to mere clown-shows. Still, the times had changed for good.
  13. The Dynamic Decade
    1. By the census of 1920, for the first time, more Americans lived in urban areas than in rural areas. This red-letter year marked a teetering point in American history socially—the change from an agrarian to an urban society.
    2. There were many social changes during the 20's. The decade marked the break from old-to-new, from traditional-to-modern. This break often came with culture clash (the Scopes Monkey Trial is a great example).
      1. Margaret Sanger promoted birth-control for women. The National Women's Party emerged in 1923 with the ambition of getting an Equal Rights Amendment passed to the U.S. Constitution.
      2. Religion was watered-down too. "Modernists" pushed back at Fundamentalists. Modernists viewed God as an old chum, as opposed to the traditional view that man was a born sinner and in need of forgiveness through Christ.
      3. The young "Jazz Age" set of "flaming youth" shocked the older crowd. The young modern women in the 20's, the "flappers" were the worst:
        1. They dressed scantily and danced "dirty" to the Charleston.
        2. They drank booze, bobbed their hair short, courted boys in motorcars, and openly spoke of sex.
        3. It was popular to read of Sigmund Freud's psychological theories (always involving sex and violence). Freud said sexual repression led to many ills, mental and physical. Thus, sexual gratification was needed for both types of health.
    3. Jazz came on in a big way during the 20's (so that F. Scott Fitzgerald coined the term the "Jazz Age").
      1. Jazz pioneers were W.C. Handy with his Memphis blues style, "Jelly Roll" Morton, and "Joe" King Oliver. Jazz was mostly started by black artists, but white performers got most of the profits.
    4. Black pride emerged, largely in the cities.
      1. Poet Langston Hughes penned the voice of black America.
      2. Marcus Garvey founded the United Negro Improvement Association to re-locate blacks to their native homeland. They also sponsored black enterprises to try and keep blacks' money in blacks' hands.
        1. Garvey's enterprises usually failed and he was jailed for mail fraud. The sense of pride he helped create remained and helped later start the Nation of Islam (Black Muslim) movement.
  14. Cultural Liberation
    1. The 1920's was also a turning point in literature. The Victorian era writers had died: Henry James, Henry Adams, and William Dean Howells. There were a few popular writers, especially Edith Wharton and Willa Cather (who wrote plainly about life on the Plains).
    2. The new writers were from broad backgrounds (not just New England protestants) and they were very good.
      1. H.L. Mencken used wit and biting criticism to jab at almost every aspect of society in his American Monthly.
      2. F. Scott Fitzgerald was the de facto spokesman for the Jazz Age (his term). He gained fame with This Side of Paradise (partying college-kids) and then his best work The Great Gatsby (a ruined WWI vet). His stories, along with his life and wife Zelda, described the period's glamor and senselessness.
      3. Theodore Dreiser wrote in the ugly form of a realist (not a romantic) in An American Tragedy. It told of a pregnant woman murdered by her socially ambitious lover.
      4. Ernest Hemingway wrote The Sun Also Rises (young adults partying in Paris, Spain) and A Farewell to Arms (young officer fleeing war, seeking love).
        1. Roughly based on his own life, both stories showed the empty, hollow lives of young adults. Hemingway became the voice of the "Lost Generation"—those who'd gone to WWI with Wilsonian ideals, only to become disillusioned and ruined by the realities of war.
      5. Sherwood Anderson wrote Winesburg, Ohio which dredged the insides small-town America.
      6. Sinclair Lewis also depicted small-town America in Main Street and 20's materialism/consumerism in Babbitt.
      7. William Faulkner wrote hauntingly about the Southern experience in novels such as The Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and Absolom, Absolom! His books sometimes stunned or confused readers with the new, choppy "stream of consciousness" writing technique.
      8. Poetry cut new paths too, led by Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot with his poem "The Waste Land." Robert Frost wrote of New England ("The Road Not Taken"). And e.e. cummings experimented with the typeset, diction, and punctuation—his poems sounded different but also looked different, adding to their effect.
      9. Eugene O'Neill was one of America's greatest playwrights. Plays like "Strange Interlude" which meddled with Freudian ideas of sex.
    3. In New York there was a "Harlem Renaissance", an outpouring of African-American art and culture. It was led by writers Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neale Hurston. And also by jazz musicians Louis Armstrongand Eubie Blake.
    4. Architecture was perhaps the most symbolic of the changing society because it mixed art and science in a very tangible way.
      1. Frank Lloyd Wright was an understudy of Louis Sullivan (of earlier Chicago skyscraper fame). Wright stunned people with his use of concrete, glass, and steel and his unconventional theory that “form follows function.”
      2. The crowned king of skyscrapers was the Empire State Building, with its ultra modern "Art Deco" style, completed in 1931.
  15. Wall Street’s Big Bull Market
    1. Always the prelude to recession or depression, there was too much speculation in too-risky areas during the 20's.
      1. A Florida land boom shot prices on sunny property through the roof. Then a hurricane dealt reality and the land boom went bust in 1926.
      2. The stock market was the speculator's paradise in the 20's. The desire to get rich quick on rising stock prices created a "buy-now" feeling. This is turn, drove the market higher, and built on that buy-now feeling, artificially.
        1. Worse, many people bought "on margin", meaning they bought with borrowed money. Usually 10% was paid up-front, 90% borrowed. That meant wild profits if the stock went up, wild debt if it dropped.
        2. This type of structure was like building a house of cards, it could not stand forever.
    2. The federal government tried to get their financial house in order when Congress passed the Bureau of the Budget.
      1. Sec. of Treasury Andrew Mellon disliked the high taxes leftover from WWI.
        1. He felt they forced the rich to put their money in tax-exempt securities, not in factories. His idea, still around today, said that in desiring more tax revenue through high taxes, the higher rate cripples the economy and actually leads to less revenue for the government.
        2. Congress did ease the tax burden on the rich and the economy did boom during the 20's. He also succeeded in lowering the national debt.
        3. If there is such a thing as a bad side to prosperity, it was simply that the profits enabled people to give in to their greed and over-speculate in risky businesses—this was the main cause of the Great Depression.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 31 - The Politics of Boom and Bust

  1. The Republican “Old Guard” Returns
    1. Pres. Harding looked the part as president—tall, handsome, silver-haired and was friendly and popular. But, he was of average intelligence and he was gullible.
    2. The saying was that George Washington couldn't tell a lie and Harding couldn't tell a liar.
    3. Harding sought to collect the "best minds" to be in his administration.
      1. Charles Evans Hughes became secretary of state. He was very able in that role.
      2. Andrew Mellon became secretary of the treasury and managed the budget extremely well.
      3. Due to his food-saving successes in WWI, Herbert Hoover became secretary of commerce.
    4. Despite the highlights above, there were also huge duds in the Harding administration.
      1. Albert B.Fall was a schemer and anti-conservationist, yet was appointed secretary of the interior to manage natural resources.
      2. Harry M. Daugherty was a small-town lawyer, was crooked, yet was appointed attorney general.
  2. GOP Reaction at the Throttle
    1. Harding was a good man at heart, but he lacked the vigor of a strong leader. In Harding, the less-than-honest had the perfect front for their schemes.
      1. The "Old Guard", McKinley-style industrialists sought to further laissez-faire; in other words, to let business run wild and free.
      2. Harding appointed 4 Supreme Court justices. Three were standard traditionalists. The other was former president William Taft as chief justice. He judged a bit more liberal.
    2. The conservative court halted progressive laws.
      1. A federal child-labor law was stopped.
      2. In the case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital the court reversed its own reasoning that had been set in Muller v. Oregon. The Muller case had said women need special protection in the work place. The Adkins decision erased the idea of women's protection at work and wiped out a minimum wage law for women.
    3. The Anti-trust laws which had been applied during the Progressive years were set aside. The Harding-era trend was clear for businesses: it's a go for expansion and free from fear that the government might interfere.
      1. An example would be the I.C.C. (the Interstate Commerce Commission, set up to regulate the railroads). It was made up of men sympathetic to the railroad managers.
  3. Aftermath of the War
    1. With the war over, the government stepped back and away from business intervention. Two examples were that the War Industries Board was gone and control of the railroads went back to private enterprise in the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act.
    2. The federal government got out of shipping by passing the Merchant Marine Act (1920). It authorized the Shipping Board to sell some 1,500 WWI-era ships to private shippers. This meant a smaller navy and less hassles.
    3. In the era of laissez-faire and pro-business policies, the labor movement struggled badly.
      1. A bloody strike was broken in 1919, crippling the labor movement.
      2. In 1922, the Railway Labor Board cut wages by 12%. This started a two month strike. Atty. Gen. Daugherty laid down a stinging injunction and crushed the strike. This was a near-death blow to labor unions and union enrollment dropped by 30%.
    4. Veterans began organizing. Teddy Roosevelt started the American Legion in Paris in 1919.
      1. Vets got together socially, but also for other reasons, mainly seeking money. The vets sought wages lost while away and/or veterans benefits.
      2. Their pressure got Congress to pass a "bonus" bill, Harding vetoed it. Congress passed another, the Adjusted Compensation Act, Pres. Calvin Coolidge vetoed it, but Congress overrode the veto.
  4. America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens
    1. Because the Senate had not approved of the Treaty of Versailles, America was still, technically, at war. Thus, Congress passed a joint resolution officially ending the war in July of 1921.
    2. Officially, the U.S. did not participate with the League of Nations. "Unofficial observers" were at the meetings to keep a suspicious eye on things. The lack of real participation though from the U.S. helped to doom the League.
    3. In the Middle East, Harding recognized the need for oil. He secured the rights, along with England, for drilling there.
    4. Disarmament was the trend of the time. A cautious eye was on Britain and Japan who were starting a ship-building race.
    5. A "Disarmament" Conference was held in 1921-22. All major powers were invited, except Bolshevik Russia. Sec. of State Charles Evans Hughes suggested a ratio of ships at 5:5:3 (U.S. to Britain to Japan). Several treaties were made:
      1. The Five-Power Treaty set up the 5:5:3 ratio and gave Japan a bonus to save face.
      2. The Four-Power Treaty required Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to keep the status quo in the Pacific.
      3. The Nine-Power Treaty kept open the Open Door policy with China (free trade for all).
      4. At the meetings end, the Harding crowd boasted of disarmament. But, there were technicalities: (1) there was no limit on small ships and (2) the U.S. agreed to the Four-Power Treaty, but was not bound by it (it had no muscle).
    6. In keeping with Woodrow Wilson's "war to end all war" ambition, there was an international trend to end warfare as a means of solving disputes. Later, in 1928 under Pres. Coolidge, Sec. of State Frank B. Kellogg won the Nobel Peace Prize. He signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war. 62 nations signed this treaty—a beautiful idea, yet incredibly naive.
  5. Hiking the Tariff Higher
    1. In the pro-business mood of the time period, businesses sought to up the tariff to protect themselves from cheaper European goods. They got their wish in the Fordney-McCumber Tariff which increased tariff rates from 27 to 38.5%.
    2. Presidents Harding and Coolidge were given the authority to fluctuate the tariff all the way up to 50%. And, being pro-business men at heart, they leaned toward the higher rather than lower tariffs.
    3. There was a snag in this high-tariff system: Europe owed money to the U.S. for WWI, in order to pay it back, they needed to export, but the U.S. tariff crippled those exports. Thus, the WWI money was not getting paid back.
  6. The Stench of Scandal This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Pres. Harding was an honest man, but many in his administration were not. Harding either didn't, couldn't, or didn't want to see this fact.
    2. Col. Charles R. Forbes skimmed money as chief of the Veterans Bureau. He and his crowd pilfered about $200 million while building veterans hospitals. He spent a whopping two years in jail.
    3. The worst was the Teapot Dome scandal involving oil.
      1. Sec. of Interior Albert B. Fall was to manage natural resources. When oil was discovered near the "Teapot Dome" in Wyoming, Fall sneakily had the land placed under his power.
      2. Fall then accepted bribes for oil drilling rights from Edward Doheny and Harry Sinclair for about $100,000 and $300,000 respectively.
      3. Word leaked out in 1923 and it drug through the courts for six years. Doheny and Sinclair got off the hook, Fall served one year in jail.
    4. These high-priced scandals and skimpy sentences jolted people's trust in the court system.
    5. There were more scandals. Atty. Gen. "Harry Daugherty's name kept coming up for possibly selling pardons and liquor permits (this during Prohibition).
    6. Pres. Harding died at this time, August 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis. The scandals and their stress may well have added to the illness.
  7. “Silent Cal” Coolidge
    1. At Harding's death, V.P. Calvin Coolidge became president. He was serious, calm, shy, moral, boring, and unlike most politicians, didn't speak much.
      1. It was ironic that in the Twenties, the “Age of Ballyhoo,” the U.S. had a very traditional, old-timey president.
    2. Coolidge was even more pro-business than Harding had been. He once said, "the man who builds a factory builds a temple" and "the man who works there, worships there."
  8. Frustrated Farmers
    1. During WWI, farmers had enjoyed a boom. There much much food needed, they provided it, and earned good money in doing so.
    2. After the war, new technologies like the tractor made farm work much easier and increased production. But, increased supply with the same demand yields decreased prices. Whereas many enjoyed an economic boom during the decade, farmers fell onto tough times during the 20's.
    3. Farmers turned to Congress.
      1. The Capper-Volstead Act was passed exempting farmer cooperatives from antitrust laws.
      2. The McNary-Haugen Bill tried to keep the price of agricultural goods high. This was to be done by the government buying up excess surpluses then selling them to other nations. Coolidge, the thrifty conservative, vetoed this bill twice.
  9. A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924
    1. 1924 was a presidential election year. Calvin Coolidge was to be reelected for the Republicans as a conservative.
    2. John W. Davis was nominated by the Democrats after much debate. In the changing times, Democrats had a hard time defining themselves and their positions at their convention in New York City.
      1. They did define their position on race when a Democrat party vote failed to condemn the K.K.K.
    3. The Progressive party refused to die and nominated Sen. Robert La Follette. He was endorsed by the American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) labor union and by the Socialists and would receive a sizable 5 million votes.
    4. Still, times were good, thus Coolidge was reelected easily.
  10. Foreign-Policy Flounderings
    1. With regards to foreign policy, isolationism was the rule. The U.S. would have nothing to do with the League of Nations new "World Court."
    2. The U.S. pulled troops out of the Dominican Republic (1925), keep them in Haiti ('til 1934), and settled a situation with Mexico over disputed oil rights (1926).
      1. The trend in Latin America was clear by this time: Latinos didn't like big Yankee America pushing them around.
    3. The issue of Europe's debt to America was intricate; and besides, Europe was unable to pay up anyway.
  11. Unraveling the Debt Knot
    1. America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts to the U.S. They couldn't. So, they placed a huge price-tag onto Germany who certainly could not pay. Germany printed paper money en masse, thus creating inflation and making the money completely worthless.
      1. Inflation was crippling in Germany: a loaf of bread was 480 million marks, it got so bad that it was immeasurable.
    2. Coolidge, conservative and thrifty, would not just erase the debt. The situation for paying off debt was hopeless.
    3. Charles Dawes came up with the Dawes Plan for payments. America would loan money to Germany. Germany would make payments to Britain and France. Then, they would repay their loans to America.
      1. The plan was simply a circle of money from-and-back-to America. Nothing would really be gained in the U.S., but at least on paper, the debts would be repaid.
    4. The U.S. never did get repaid for the loans. The only thing America got was resent from Britain and France who thought the U.S. was a greedy bully.
  12. The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928
    1. Calvin Coolidge decided to not run for reelection in 1928. Sec. of Commerce Herbert Hoover became the nominee for Republicans and ran on the prosperity the 20's enjoyed.
      1. Hoover spoke of “Rugged Individualism” which was his view that America was made great by strong, self-sufficient individuals, like the pioneers of old days trekking across the prairies, relying on no one else for help. This was the kind of folk America still needed, he said.
    2. The Democrats nominated NY Gov. Alfred E. Smith. Smith had the people's touch, but he was Catholic (which turned off many) and he was a drinker (still the days of prohibition).
    3. Radio was a factor in the election. Hoover sounded better on the new media than Smith's New York accent.
      1. On the air Hoover spoke of rugged individualism. But, he also lived it. He'd paid his dues, done jobs well, and earned his way up the ladder. He was dignified, restrained, but somewhat aloof and very mediocre with personal skills.
    4. The campaign was full of mudslinging on both sides. The "Solid South" normally would go Democratic, but couldn't swallow Smith—an Irish Catholic, drinker, and city-slicker. It split its vote.
    5. Hoover won big, 444 to 87 electoral votes.
  13. President Hoover’s First Moves
    1. At first, Hoover enjoyed the economic prosperity of the day.
    2. Hoover's philosophy of helping one's self prompted his to get the Agricultural Marketing Act passed. It set up a Federal Farm Board which was to lend money to farmers.
      1. The board started the Grain Stabilization Corp. and Cotton Stabilization Corp. in 1930. They were to buy up surpluses of those crops to keep prices high.
    3. Isolationism was carried in the economics as well as politics. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff was hiked up to almost 60%. To other nations, this was like an economic act of war.
      1. This increase had negative effects: (1) it went against a trend toward lower tariffs, (2) it would slow trade and thus deepen the depression when it hit, and (3) it helped move the U.S. to full-fledged isolationism and thus help allow Hitler to rise to power.
  14. The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties
    1. In 1929, Hoover was growing drunk on the prosperity and thought it would be never-ending. The end came soon.
    2. The stock market had been shooting higher and higher all decade. Some saw that a house-of-cards built that high could not stand. All it took was a little something to trigger the fall.
      1. On "Black Tuesday," October 29, 1929, the bottom dropped out of the stock market on some bad economic news from Britain. The sell-off had begun and prices plummeted: stockholders had lost $40 billion in value by the end of 1929.
    3. The stock crash was the trigger and the circle-of-bad-news had begun.
      1. Businesses began to go out of business (since people couldn't or wouldn't buy now).
      2. Unemployment shot up.
      3. Over 5,000, banks went bankrupt as folks withdrew their money in fear of their bank going bankrupt (a self-fulfilling prophecy).
      4. The only things growing were soup kitchens and homeless shelters.
  15. Hooked on the Horn of Plenty
    1. Though the stock crash was the trigger, the causes of the Great Depression were deeper. At their roots, it was same as nearly all recessions and depressions: over-speculation (in stock) and over-production (in farms and factories). American production and consumerism had over-reached the consumers ability to buy things using real money.
      1. Purchasing is always good for business, purchasing on credit is too, until the debt gets called in and the consumer can't pay up.
    2. The Great Depression was an international one. Europe, who was still struggling from WWI, suffered again. The effect was for each nation to draw inward to protect themselves, further into isolationism.
    3. There were natural disasters to add to the man-made ones. A drought sizzled the Mississippi Valley in 1930 and ruined many farmers. The Dust Bowl was coming soon.
    4. Out of work and perhaps deeply in debt, Americans were hurting. Despite "rugged individualism," Americans looked to the president.
      1. "Rugged individualism" took and cynically ironic turn when folks took care of themselves in homemade slums and were called "ragged individualists." These shanty-towns would soon be named "Hoovervilles."
  16. Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists
    1. Like all presidents in economic bad times, Hoover took the blame. This was probably unfair.
      1. He didn't help himself though—his "rugged individualist" nature made him slow to take any government action.
      2. Hoover-critics pointed out that he'd fed millions in Belgium during WWI, but no one in the U.S.
      3. A true conservative would even question whether the government's "help" was beneficial or actually hindered any growth. Changing away from laissez-faire might slow the economy even more.
    2. Hoover's analysis was simple: this was a natural part of the "business cycle." The business cycle being the cyclical ups and downs of an economy, like a roller coaster.
      1. His solution was also simple: just wait it out. This is not what the people wanted to hear.
    3. Eventually, Hoover did go against his nature and get the government to take some action.
  17. Hoover Battles the Great Depression
    1. Pres. Hoover got the government involved in the Great Depression by recommending Congress dole out $2.25 billion. The theory was to jump start the economy through government spending.
      1. The massive Boulder Dam was begun in 1930, completed in 1936, and renamed to Hoover Dam. The resulting Lake Mead served to generate electricity, irrigation, flood control, and recreation. It still does.
      2. Hoover, however, didn't like all dams. He vetoed the Muscle Shoals Bill to dam the Tennessee River. This would be done later by Franklin Roosevelt under the Tennessee Valley Authority (the TVA).
    2. Hoover's most far-reaching effort wasn't construction in nature, but financial. He got the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (the RFC) passed. It would lend money to finance the massive government projects of FDR's "New Deal."
      1. The real beneficiaries of the RFC were the government agencies lending the money. They were essentially banks profiting on the interest of loans. This also was a point of criticism toward Hoover.
    3. When the economy is good, labor unions struggle (like the 1920's), when the economy is bad, labor unions tend to gain steam (like the Depression).
      1. Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act which outlawed antiunion contracts (AKA "yellow dog" contracts) which forced workers to sign promises to not join a union. It also said the federal courts could not hinder strikes, boycotts, or peaceful protesting by unions.
    4. Despite his slogan of "rugged individualism," belief in the business cycle and laissez-faire economics, and something of a reputation for not caring about people, Hoover did get the government involved in fighting the Great Depression. It just happened later rather than sooner.
  18. Routing the Bonus Army in Washington
    1. Many WWI veterans were still clamoring for "bonuses" for saving the world for democracy. The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (the BEF) was drummed up. It consisted of 20,000 people who marched to Washington, set up camp (literally), and demanded their bonuses.
      1. The situation got out of hand. Riots emerged in the unsanitary encampment.
      2. Pres. Hoover criticized the BEF as being made up of riffraff and reds (communists). Hoover ordered the BEF evicted.
    2. The eviction was carried out by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and the Army., and it was ugly.
      1. MacArthur used bayonets, tear gas, and fire to roust the BEF out. The "Battle of Anacostia Flats" was not a pretty picture in American History.
      2. The whole sad affair also hurt Hoover's image even more.
  19. Japanese Militarists Attack China
    1. Meanwhile, across the Pacific, problems were budding. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria (northern China).
      1. This involved the U.S. a bit since Open Door policy was shut in Manchuria.
    2. Those who believed in the idealistic League of Nations and the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war on paper, were shocked. This was simply a stronger nation in Japan taking over a weaker one in China.
      1. Steps were suggested the League use boycotts and blockades to put the economic stranglehold on Japan.
      2. But, the U.S. was not a member of the League of Nations.
      3. Sec. of State Henry Stimson issued words as actions. The "Stimson doctrine" said the U.S. would not recognize any territories acquired by force. These were the right words, but in the end, only words.
    3. The words may have even backfired. Japan was insulted and bombed Shanghai on the coast of China in 1932.
      1. Some Americans engaged in informal boycotts. But, this was just piecemeal and unorganized. Since the Depression was foremost on their minds, most Americans didn't care to do much else toward Japan.
    4. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 taught a lesson: aggressive nations could take over weaker nations, the free nations would complain, but they would take no action. The first step to WWII had been taken.
  20. Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy
    1. U.S. relations with Latin America had been hurting since around 1900. Hoover wanted to change that.
      1. Hoover went on a good-will tour of Latin America in attempt to extend the hand of friendship.
    2. In the Depression, Americans had less money to engage in Taft-like "dollar diplomacy" (AKA "economic imperialism") with Latin America.
    3. New policies saw American troops were pulled out of Haiti and Nicaragua.
    4. These policies laid the groundwork for FDR's "Good Neighbor" policy.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 32 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

  1. FDR: A Politician in a Wheelchair
    1. 1932 was likely the worst year of the Great Depression and it was an election year. Hoover was a goner.
    2. Hoover ran for reelection saying what he was doing was helping the situation.
    3. The Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt, better known as FDR.
      1. FDR had been as a young man tall, handsome, and athletic. He got polio in 1921, however, and was since confined to a wheelchair. This may have helped temper and humble his personality—FDR had the people's touch.
      2. He was articulate with his words and conveyed a sense of caring.
    4. His wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, was also active in politics. Essentially, they came as a buy-one-get-two team.
      1. She would by far become the most involved First Lady up to that time, maybe of all time.
  2. Presidential Hopefuls of 1932
    1. During the campaign, the Democrats appealed to the common man and exuded confidence. They took the theme song of "Happy Days are Here Again" and one of his buzzwords was "confidence." FDR had a mile-wide smile.
    2. Hoover was sour-faced and used slogans like "The Worst is Past" and "It Might Have Been Worse." Folks just looked around and saw through those words. Hoover was a goner.
  3. Hoover's Humiliation in 1932
    1. FDR won the election in a landslide, 472 to 59 in the electoral vote.
    2. A unique voting trend ended and started in this election: black voters switched from the Republican party to the Democratic party.
      1. This was a big change. The Republicans had been the Party of Abe Lincoln, anti-slavery, and Reconstruction whereas the Democrats had been the pro-slavery, anti-black party. In 1932, blacks were tired of being the "last hired, first fired" and saw the Democrats as the party to help in that department.
    3. Hoover was something of sore loser. During the four month lame duck period (when the president-elect waits for the leaving president to depart), Hoover tried to wrangle FDR into some unflattering politics. FDR stayed away.
    4. The switch of 1932-1933 was the rock bottom. Unemployment was at 25%, the highest in America's history and bankruptcies were an epidemic.
      1. Cynical opponents of FDR said he purposely allowed things to get worse just so he could emerge that much more as the savior.
  4. FDR and the Three R’s: Relief, Recovery, and Reform
    1. In his inaugural address, FDR famously said, "…the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." He was referring to people's fears of spending until things got better and that their money was not safe in banks.
      1. In essence, FDR was saying, "If we don't panic, we'll be okay. Confidence!"
      2. To help cut the panic in banks, FDR quickly issued a "bank holiday" which closed banks for one week. It was simply a "time out," to stop the bleeding, sit and relax before moving forward.
    2. FDR started the "Three R's": relief, recovery, and reform. Relief was for the right-now (food, shelter), recovery was for a year or so to get out of the Depression, reform was to ensure it wouldn't happen again.
      1. Congress was controlled by far by the Democrats. Anything FDR wanted passed, was passed.
      2. FDR's first "Hundred Days" saw a shipload of bills passed into law. The laws are often called the "Alphabet Soup" because they're a dizziness collection of acronyms, like the TVA, CCC, WPA, PWA, and on and on. The New Deal, FDR's plan for fighting the Great Depression, was under way.
  5. Roosevelt Manages the Money
    1. In only eight hours, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act which set up the bank holiday.
    2. Roosevelt saw the power of radio. Most families had one by then and FDR used a series of "Fireside Chats" to talk to America on the radio. He went over what the problems were and what was being done about them. These talks were very popular.
    3. The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act set up the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). It insured people's money in the bank up to $5,000. There was no need to fear losing one's money in the banks anymore.
    4. In fear of paper assets, people were hoarding gold. FDR took the dollar off the gold standard, ordered people to relinquish gold in exchange for paper money.
      1. FDR wanted to create inflation (a rise in prices). This would make it easier for debtors to pay off their debts (since the money had less value and was thus easier to get). Those who'd given the loans were not happy to get back not-so-valuable money.
      2. To create inflation, FDR ordered the Treasury to buy up gold at increasingly higher prices. $35 per once became the norm for 40 years. This meant more paper money in circulation, which is less valuable than gold, and did cause inflation.
      3. Critics said FDR was creating "baloney" money. FDR did backtrack and, in 1934, put the U.S. back on the gold standard partially (when trading with other nations).
  6. Creating Jobs for the Jobless
    1. FDR was willing to use government money to help those in need. One of his main weapons was to "prime the pump", or use federal money on programs in hopes that it would jump start the economy to run on its own.
    2. Likely the most popular New Deal program was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).
      1. In the CCC, young men were hired to work in the national forests. They lived in camps like boy scouts and did things like clearing land, blazing trails, planting trees, draining swamps, etc.
      2. The CCC provided some experience, some adventure, and a wage to send home to the folks—things healthy young men couldn't turn down.
    3. The Federal Relief Administration (FERA) sought relief in the form of the dole (government hand-outs). Harry L. Hopkins was placed in charge of the administration and $3 billion was given to the states for doling out.
      1. He proudly said they'd spend, tax, and get themselves reelected. Others saw this scheme as simply taking one person's money in taxes and giving it to another person to buy his vote.
    4. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) offered low interest loans to farmers.
    5. The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced people's home loans at lower interest rates.
    6. Unemployment was a lingering problem. In hopes of fighting it, FDR started the Civil Works Administration (CWA). It was to provide temporary jobs to see folks through a short period (winter).
      1. Finding jobs was hard to do and many were just made-up jobs, called "boondoggling." Critics saw the frequent result of a boondoggle job - just leaning-on-a-shovel and while collecting taxpayer money.
      2. Notably, the Great Migration was wrapping up at about this time. It's the massive movement by blacks from the rural South to the cities up North. It roughly went on between 1910 and 1930.
  7. A Day for Every Demagogue This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. There were many voices on the subject of the Great Depression. Catholic priest Father Charles Coughlin was one of the most persistent. He gave a regular radio address discussing "Social Justice."
      1. He was first pro-FDR, then very much anti-New Deal. He eventually went overboard and was silenced by higher-up clergy.
    2. One of the more flamboyant critics was Sen. Huey Long of Louisiana. He ranted about a "Share the Wealth" plan and promised "every man a king."
      1. He spoke of giving $5,000 per family to the poor, likely taking it from those who had it. The mathematics of the scheme were silly.
      2. Long got passionate responses. Many down-and-out folks loved him. Many despised him and feared he might become some type of dictator. One person assassinated him, in 1935.
    3. Dr. Francis Townsend also came up with a wild idea. He proposed to dole out $200/month to 5 million senior citizens. They would have to spend it, thus helping pump-prime the economy. Like Huey Long's idea, this was a mathematically ludicrous plan.
    4. Congress started the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in part to quiet these troublemakers. $11 billion was spent building public facilities like bridges, public buildings, and roads.
      1. The WPA's goals were to help curb unemployment (9 million people were put to work) and help improve the nation's infrastructure (roads, bridges, etc.).
      2. Many students were set up with part-time jobs. Work was also drummed up for artists and writers, although it was often boondoggling: John Steinbeck, future Nobel literature prize winner, counted dogs in Salinas county California.
      3. There was some other waste, like controlling crickets and building a monkey pen.
  8. New Visibility for Women
    1. After having the right to vote for over 10 years now, women began taking a more active role in things. Leading the way was Eleanor Roosevelt but there were other ladies too.
    2. Frances Perkins was the first female cabinet member as Sec. of Labor.
    3. Mary McLeod Bethune was in charge of the Office of Minority Affairs. She was the highest ranking black in FDR's administration. She later held found a college in Daytona, FL.
    4. Ruth Benedict, an anthropologist, studied cultures as personalities in Patterns of Cultures.
      1. One of her understudies was Margaret Mead. She wrote the landmark anthropology book Coming of Age in Samoa about adolescence in that culture.
    5. Novelist Pearl S. Buck wrote the timeless The Good Earth about a peasant farm family in China. She won the Nobel prize for literature in 1938.
  9. Helping Industry and Labor
    1. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the most complex of the New Deal programs. It's goal was to help industry, labor, and the unemployed.
      1. To try and achieve those goals, it set codes of "fair competition." This meant working hours would be spread out to more people. Maximum work hours were set up; minimum wages were set up.
      2. Labor unions were given the right to organize and collectively bargain. Antiunion yellow-dog contracts were forbidden; child-labor was curbed.
    2. Businesses could agree to go along with the NRA's principles. If they did, they displayed the blue NRA eagle and slogan, "We do our part."
      1. There was enthusiasm for the NRA. Philadelphia named their new pro football team the "Eagles." Still, FDR knew the NRA was a gimmick in essence, and temporary, saying, "We can't ballyhoo our way to prosperity."
    3. The NRA soon fell to unpopularity. Businesses, at heart, hate running themselves in any way other than what's best for them (not with artificial restrictions). Henry Ford called the eagle "that damn Roosevelt buzzard."
      1. The final blow came in the 1935 Schechtner case when the Supreme Court declared the NRA unconstitutional.
    4. In the same law as the NRA, Congress had set up the Public Works Administration (PWA). Like the PWA, it sought to build public works and infrastructure.
      1. Headed by Sec. of the Interior Harold Ickes, it started 34,000 projects. Noteworthy was the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River. It was the biggest human-built structure since the Great Wall of China.
    5. Early on, FDR and the Democrats passed legislation legalizing beer and wine with alcohol not over 3.2%.
      1. The Twenty-first Amendment (1933) repealed the Eighteenth, thus ending the prohibition of alcohol.
  10. Paying Farmers Not to Farm
    1. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) tried to help farmers by creating "artificial scarcity." It paid farmers to not farm, thus reducing the supply.
      1. The AAA's start was shaky. Cotton farmers plowed under already planted crops. Pigs were slaughtered and some of the meat turned to fertilizer. The law seemed cruel and wasteful.
      2. Farm incomes did rise, but farmer unemployment rose too.
      3. The Supreme Court ended the AAA when it declared the AAA unconstitutional in 1936.
    2. Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. It paid farmers to plant crops that preserved and reinvigorated the soil, like soybeans. The Supreme Court went along with this plan.
    3. A Second Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed in 1938. Farmers were encouraged to plant less acreage in exchange for payments. Again, it was simply payment to not farm.
  11. Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards
    1. A long drought hit the lower Plains in 1933. The winds kicked up and started the Dust Bowl. The fertile topsoil of many farms simply blew away, mostly in parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas.
      1. The causes were drought and wind, but also the "dry-farming" technique where farmers repeatedly plowed the top few inches of soil. It created a powdery layer that simply blew away.
      2. With the farms not unable to grow crops, many people headed west to California in search of farm-jobs. This inspired John Steinbeck's classic novel The Grapes of Wrath about the "Okies" long,tough trip looking for work.
    2. Congress tried to aid debtors with the Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act (1934). It held off mortgage foreclosures for 5 years. However, the Supreme Court struck it down the next year.
    3. The Resettlement Administration (1935) tried to resettle farmers onto better soil.
    4. The CCC boys planted 200 million trees trying to grow windbreaks.
    5. The government's relationship with the Indians was changing again.
      1. John Collier headed the Bureau of Indian Affairs and wanted to change the policies of the old Dawes Act (1887). It had tried to end tribes and the old ways of the Indians—to force Indians to become "white."
      2. Collier's new plan was the Indian Reorganization Act (1934), called the "Indian New Deal", did the opposite of Dawes—it encouraged Indians to keep their traditional ways.
      3. To many Indians, this was a slap in the face too. This "back-to-the-blanket movement" implied Indians were to be like museum artifacts, frozen in the stone age, hunting buffalo and weaving baskets. Almost 200 tribes accepted the Reorganization Act, 77 did not.
  12. Battling Bankers and Big Business
    1. Prior to the stock crash, some businesses had fudged on their financial reports. Investors invested, and lost, partly due to the phony numbers. Congress tried to fix this with the Federal Securities Act (AKA the "Truth in Securities Act"). It required companies to report honest financial numbers.
      1. The Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) was set up as the stock watchdog.
    2. The multi-billion dollar financial empire headed by Chicagoan Samuel Insull crashed in 1932. He held the tip of the pyramid, but headed up the entire rest of the pyramid—when he came down, everything did. Congress passed the Public Utility Holding Company (1935) in hopes of avoiding to such schemes.
  13. The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River
    1. The electricity industry attracted New Dealers. They felt electricity companies of gouging consumers with high rates. They also wanted to expand electricity to rural areas.
    2. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was set up in 1933 to build a series of dams along the Tennessee River.
      1. This would be a "double-barreled" plan: provide jobs, help with housing via the jobs, provide electricity.
      2. The TVA's area would help improve the lives of some 2.5 million people.
  14. Housing and Social Security
    1. The Federal Housing Authority (FHA) was set up to offer low interest home loans. It was a "double-barreled" program: it got people in homes and put people to work building them.
      1. It was a popular program and outlasted FDR and the New Deal.
    2. The program got a shot-in-the-arm in 1937 with the U.S. Housing Authority (USHA). It lent money to states or localities for construction projects
      1. These laws helped stop the growth of slums.
    3. The Social Security Act (1935) was perhaps the most far-ranging law.
      1. It set up a payment plan for old age, the handicapped, delinquent children, and other dependents.
      2. The payments were funded by taxes placed on workers and employers, then given to the groups above.
      3. Republicans opposed the act saying it was little more than a government-knows-best program with socialist-leaning policies. Worse, taxing one person's work and giving the money to another person seemed to discourage effort and encourage a feeling of entitlement to having someone else pay.
  15. A New Deal for Labor
    1. An epidemic of strikes occurred in 1934. Some were violent. Congress sought to replace the killed NRA and passed the Wagner Act (AKA the National Labor Relations Act) (1935). It guaranteed the right of unions to organize and to collectively bargain with management.
    2. Unskilled workers began to organize. They were usually left out because, being unskilled, they were easily replaced in a strike.
      1. John L. Lewis, head of the United Mine Workers, organized the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) which admitted the unskilled.
      2. The CIO started within the AF of L, but later split out on its own (the AF of L didn't want to weaken itself with the unskilled). The CIO scored a victory in a dispute with General Motors in a "sit-down" strike.
      3. The CIO won again vs. the U.S. Steel Company. Smaller steel companies fought back and bloody strikes ensued, like the Memorial Day massacre in Chicago killing or wounding over 60.
    3. The Fair Labor Standards Act (AKA Wages and Hours Bill) set a minimum wage, maximum working hours, and forbade children under 16 from working.
    4. Unsurprisingly, unions loved FDR. Membership in labor unions began to shoot upward.
  16. Landon Challenges “the Champ”
    1. In 1936, the Republicans nominated Alfred M. Landon, governor of Kansas, as candidate for president.
      1. Landon criticized FDR's massive spending. But, he was hurt with a weak radio voice, a poor campaigner, and the fact that he supported many of the programs that he criticized FDR for spending on.
      2. Some Democrats joined Republicans to form the American Liberty League. It didn't like the "socialist" direction the New Deal was taking America.
    2. But, with FDR's wide popularity, the election was almost a moot point. FDR won 523 to 8 in the electoral vote.
      1. FDR won because he never forgot the "forgotten man."
  17. Nine Old Men on the Bench
    1. FDR was sworn in for his second term on January 29, 1937 (instead of March 4). The Twentieth Amendment had cut the "lame duck" period by six weeks.
    2. The Democrats still controlled Congress and were essentially "yes-men" to FDR, but the Supreme Court was a thorn in FDR's side.
      1. In 1937, FDR proposed increasing the Supreme Court to perhaps 15 justices. This would greatly increase FDR's power (because he'd make the appointments).
    3. Congress was shocked at this little disguised attempt at power-grabbing. Congress didn't want the power see-saw to tip too far toward FDR, and for once, FDR did not get his way. Congress voted no. This was perhaps FDR's first mistake and his first loss.
  18. The Court Changes Course
    1. FDR was widely accused of trying to turn dictator.
    2. Although the "court-packing scheme" was voted down, the Court did begin to sway FDR's way. Formerly conservative Justice Owen j. Roberts started to vote liberal.
      1. For examples, by a 5-to-4 vote, the court upheld minimum wages for women. The court upheld the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act.
    3. So, though not expanding the court's numbers, FDR did get the Supreme Court to go his way. The only bad news for FDR was the suspicion that the court-packing scheme started. Very few New Deal-like bills were passed afterward.
  19. Twilight of the New Deal
    1. Despite the New Deals plethora of spending and programs, the depression did not go away during Roosevelt's first term.
      1. Unemployment went from 25% in 1932 to 15% in 1937, lower, but still very high.
    2. The economy took a second downturn in 1937. The "Roosevelt Recession" was caused the government's policies.
      1. Social Security was cutting into people's take-home pay, and thus, their spending power.
      2. FDR seemed to admit too much spending was risky and cut back on the spending.
    3. Then, FDR changed his mind and went back to heavy spending.
      1. British economist John Maynard Keynes ideas were coming en vogue. Keynesian economics says that it's okay, even good, for governments to engage in "deficit spending" (spending more money than they take in).
    4. Congress went along with more spending and FDR went back to work.
      1. The Reorganization Act gave FDR some authority for administrative reforms, including the new Executive Office in the White House.
    5. The Hatch Act (1939) banned federal officials from political campaigning and soliciting, except for the highest officers. The goal was to clean up campaigning and make sure federal employees weren't turned into just political campaigners.
  20. New Deal or Raw Deal?
    1. New Deal critics saw a ton of spending, a lot of waste, and little accomplished.
    2. FDR was criticized for moving away from American laissez-faire capitalism and moving toward Russian communism/socialism/Marxism.
      1. The debt had been $19 billion in 1932; in 1939, the debt was $40 billion.
      2. The U.S. seemed to be attempting to achieve prosperity without working for it. Fears were that Americans were getting a bad case of the "gimmies" and the U.S. was becoming a "handout state." When times go tough in the 1800's Americans went west, in the 1900's Americans sought handouts.
    3. The New Deal may have helped, but it did not get the U.S. out of the depression. It would take WWII to end the Great Depression.
      1. The war solved unemployment. Massive spending during the war jacked the debt up even higher, to $258 billion.
  21. FDR’s Balance Sheet
    1. FDR's supporters said the New Deal had avoided the Depression from being even worse than it was.
    2. FDR was hated by capitalists due to his taxation policies, but was also dislike by socialists. The New Deal may have actually cut down on socialism by avoiding a more radical turn to the left or right.
      1. In a very tough time, FDR provided considerable change with no revolution. Other nations (Italy, Germany) were taking very radical changes.
    3. Like Thomas Jefferson, though wealthy and of the elite class, FDR always spoke on behalf of the "forgotten man."
    4. Maybe his greatest achievement was yet to come—his leadership during WWII.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 33 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

  1. The London Conference
    1. With the goal of coming up with an international fix to the Great Depression, the London Conference was set up in 1933.
    2. FDR initially planned to send Sec. of State Cordell Hull. Later he changed his mind and reprimanded Europe for trying to stabilize currencies.
    3. Without America's participation, the London Conference got nothing accomplished (like the League of Nations).
      1. More importantly, America's non-participation in the conference solidified U.S. isolationist policies. In war and in the economy, the U.S. would go at it alone.
  2. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians
    1. The Philippines had been a headache ever since the U.S. took over the islands. With times hard, Americans were eager to let the Filipinos go.
      1. American sugar growers also wanted to cut free from Filipino sugar.
      2. Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) that said the Philippines would become independent after 12 years (in 1946).
    2. FDR formally recognized the Soviet Union in 1933.
      1. His move was not popular with many Americans who didn't like acknowledging the communist nation. His motive was hopes of trade with the huge nation and perhaps check the growing power of Germany and Japan.
  3. Becoming a Good Neighbor
    1. In his inaugural address, FDR affirmed America's ambition to be a "Good Neighbor" with Latin America.
    2. At the Pan-American Conference, FDR announced that the U.S. would no longer use military strength in Latin America. He singled out Teddy Roosevelt's "Big Stick Policy" as particularly bad.
      1. The next year, 1934, the last of the U.S. Marines left Haiti. America lessened her influence in Cuba and Panama as well.
    3. Mexico, however, seized American oil properties. This was a test to see if the Good Neighbor policy was the "Push-over Policy."
      1. Oil companies wanted armed intervention. FDR held back and came to a settlement in 1941 (though U.S. oil companies did suffer losses).
    4. All told, the Good Neighbor policy was very successful in improving America's image to Latin America.
  4. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement
    1. Sec. of State Cordell Hull believed in low tariffs. He felt low tariffs mean higher trade. He and FDR felt trade was a two-way street. Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act which set up low tariff policies.
      1. The act cut down the most offensive parts of the Hawley-Smoot tariff law merely amending them. In some instances, tariff rates were cut in half (provided the other nation did the same).
    2. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act started to reverse the high-tariff trend and started a low-tariff trend that would dominate the post-WWII period.
  5. Storm-Cellar Isolationism
    1. Post WWI chaos and the Great Depression helped spawn totalitarian regimes (dictatorships with total power), notably Joseph Stalin in the USSR, Benito Mussolini in Italy, and Adolf Hitler in Germany.
      1. In a totalitarian nation, the individual and his or her rights are nothing; the only thing that matters is the state.
      2. Hitler was the most dangerous. He was a fantastic speaker who told the "big lie" often enough that people started believing it. The big lie was that German problems were caused by the Jews and that he could lead Germany back to greatness which ran in their blood.
    2. Germany and Italy linked up when Hitler and Mussolini agreed on the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936).
    3. Japan was becoming a military dictatorship, turning super isolationist, and seeking to create a mighty Japanese empire for their god/emperor. This was a deadly mix.
      1. Like a rebel teen determined to go bad, they ignored the Washington Naval Treaty and rearmed their nation. They walked out of the London Conference and quit the League of Nations.
      2. In 1940, Japan joined Germany and Italy with the Tripartite Pact.
    4. Under Mussolini, more show than substance, Italy attacked and beat Ethiopia in 1935. Fascist nations love prepping for war, fighting, then championing their victories, even if it means beating up on a very poor nation like Ethiopia (they'd fought with spears).
      1. The League of Nations did nothing, not even cutting oil to Italy, and the League died as a nice idea that was powerless.
    5. America simply stayed isolationist. The events were an ocean away, or more, the U.S. had her own problems, and America didn't want to get drawn into Europe's problems like with WWI.
      1. Trying to avoid getting sucked further into foreign problems, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act which forbade countries that owed money to the U.S. from getting any more loans.
  6. Congress Legislates Neutrality
    1. The Nye Committee was set up (1934) to study the idea that munitions producers only helped start wars and thus earn profits. This was one of the ideas as to the causes of WWI.
    2. Determined to not get into a war, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935, 36, and 37. They said that when the president declared a foreign war existed, certain restrictions would start.
      1. The restrictions were: (1) Americans could not sail on a belligerent (nation-at-war) ship, sell/haul munitions, or make loans to belligerents.
    3. These were clearly to avoid the same mistakes that had occurred at the outset of WWI. WWII, however, would have different circumstances. The U.S. declared absolute neutrality, no matter how hideous one side would be.
  7. America Dooms Loyalist Spain
    1. The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) was a mini-WWII. It saw a fascist government led by Gen. Francisco Franco fight a republican democratic government.
      1. Naturally, the U.S. wanted the republican government to win. But, isolationism ruling, the U.S. offered no help. It was their war. America did start an oil embargo.
      2. Italy and Germany did help Franco. Knowing he'd soon put them to use, Hitler used the Spanish Civil War as a testing ground for his tanks and planes. Franco and the fascists won and this helped embolden the dictators, especially Hitler.
    2. Though neutral, America didn't build up her military for defense. America actually let the navy get weaker.
      1. Congress passed a law to build up the navy in 1938, very late in the game and only one year before WWII broke open.
  8. Appeasing Japan and Germany This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Japan invaded China in 1937. FDR did not name the action a war, however, so the Neutrality Acts were not invoked and both China and Japan could still buy American war-stuffs.
    2. In 1937, FDR gave his “Quarantine Speech." In it he asked for America to quarantine the aggressors (Italy and Japan) and to morally side against them.
      1. This was a step away from isolationism. When isolationists complained, FDR backed off a bit in his words.
    3. Japan went at it again when they bombed and sank the American gunboat the Panay. Two were killed, 30 wounded—possible grounds for war.
      1. Japan apologized, paid an indemnity, and the situation cooled.
      2. Americans in China, however, were jailed and beaten as the Japanese took out anti-American frustrations.
      3. The "Panay Incident" further supported American isolationism.
    4. Back in Europe, Hitler was taking increasingly bold steps.
      1. He broke the Treaty of Versailles by (1) making military service mandatory and (2) marching troops into the Rhineland region by France. Britain and France watched, but did nothing.
      2. Drunk on Hitler's book Mein Kampf about a German "master race", Nazi Germany began persecuting the Jews.
        1. Persecution started out with restrictions on Jews, then corralling into "ghettos", then relocation into labor camps, then to death camps to carry out the "final solution."
        2. All told, about 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, about 11 million people total.
      3. Hitler kept up his march by taking his birth nation of Austria in 1938.
      4. Next he declared he wanted the Sudetenland, a section of Czechoslovakia inhabited mostly by Germans.
        1. At each step, Hitler said this would be his last. Naively, Britain and France were eager to appease (give in) to Hitler.
        2. At the Munich Conference (Sept. 1938) British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain fell victim to Hitler's lies. Chamberlain agreed to let Hitler have the Sudetenland.
        3. Chamberlain returned and gave his infamous claim that he’d achieved “peace in our time.” True, but it proved to be a very short time.
        4. Hitler broke his promise and took over all of Czechoslovakia in March of 1939.
  9. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality
    1. The world was stunned on Aug. 23, 1939 when Russia and Germany signed the Russo-German Nonaggression Pact. In it, Stalin and Hitler promised to not fight one another. (Believing Hitler was becoming foolish and Russia got suckered here—Hitler would later break this pact.)
      1. Without having to fear a two-front war like in WWI, the nonaggression pact opened the door for Germany attack Poland.
      2. Still, little was done to halt Hitler. Britain and France did finally draw one last line-in-the-sand, saying that if Poland was taken, war would start.
    2. Hitler attacked Poland anyway on September 1, 1939, and overran the nation in only two weeks. Britain and France did declare war and WWII had begun.
    3. America rooted for Britain and France, but was committed to neutrality.
      1. The Neutrality Acts were invoked which cut supplies to belligerents. Wanting to help Britain and France, FDR and Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 which said the U.S. would sell war materials on a "cash-and-carry" basis.
        1. Cash-and-carry meant no credit and no U.S. ships hauled the stuff.
        2. Though technically open to Germany too, the British and French navies could keep the Germans away.
        3. The U.S. improved her moral standing with the law, but also made some bucks.
  10. The Fall of France
    1. When Poland was fully under German power, there was a pause in the war as Hitler moved troops and supplies to the west for an attack on France.
      1. The only action was when the USSR attacked Finland. The U.S. gave Finland $30 million for nonmilitary supplies; Finland lost to Russia.
    2. The so-called "phony war" ended when Hitler suddenly (April 1940) attacked and conquered Denmark and Norway, then the Netherlands and Belgium.
      1. The Germans used blitzkrieg ("lightning warfare") and hit with planes, tanks and ground troops very fast.
    3. The attack on France came very quickly and surrender came quickly, by late June of 1940.
      1. Mussolini attacked France while she was down to get some of the booty.
      2. The only good news was a miraculous evacuation at Dunkirk. Pinned against the English Channel, a waters suddenly settled to an unusual calm and small boats were able to cross the channel and evacuate the troops.
    4. Americans how realized Britain was now the only major European country left standing between the U.S. and Nazi Germany.
      1. FDR called for America to build up the military. Congress appropriated $37 billion, a huge number.
      2. A conscription law was passed—America's first peacetime draft. It would train 1.2 million troops yearly and 800,000 reserves.
    5. There was concern that Germany may take the orphaned Dutch, Danish, and French colonies in Latin America. At the Havana Conference, it was agreed that the Europe-stay-away policy of the Monroe Doctrine would be shared by 21 American countries.
  11. Refugees from the Holocaust
    1. Adolf Hitler stirred up the old feelings of anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews).
      1. Old violence against Jews began to reemerge in the early 1900's Germany.
      2. The most infamous was Kristallnacht or "night of broken glass."
        1. Joseph Goebbels, master of Nazi propaganda, stirred up the German people into action.
        2. Mobs raided and destroyed Jewish homes and businesses. At least 91 Jews were killed.
    2. Many Jews tried to escape.
      1. Due to immigration restrictions, only a few Jews were allowed into the U.S. Perhaps most notable was Albert Einstein, the brilliant physicist and mathematician.
      2. The vast majority of Jews were not admitted into the U.S.
        1. In one sad case, 937 Jewish passengers boarded the St. Louis and sailed to Havana, Cuba. They were not welcome.
        2. They went to Miami and FDR seemed to open his arms, but Sec. of State Cordell Hull convinced him to not allow the immigrants.
        3. In the end, they returned to various European nations and ultimately felt the wrath of Nazi Germany during WWII.
    3. As reports of a Jewish holocaust began to trickle in, FDR started the War Refugee Board. It saved thousands of Hungarians from the Auschwitz death camp.
    4. By the end of WWII, 6 million Jews had been killed in the Holocaust.
  12. Bolstering Britain
    1. Britain was next on Hitler's list. To attack Britain, Hitler first needed air superiority. He began bombing, but the British Royal Air Force fought back and halted Germany in the world's first all-air war, the Battle of Britain.
    2. In America, two voices spoke to FDR on whether the U.S. should get involved:
      1. Isolationists set up the America First Committee. Charles Lindbergh was a member.
      2. Interventionists set up the Committee to Defend the Allies.
    3. Both sides campaigned their positions; FDR chose a middle route at this time.
      1. In the Destroyer Deal (1940), America transferred 50 old destroyers from WWI days to Britain. In return, the U.S. got eight defensive bases in the Americas, from Newfoundland down to South America.
      2. The pattern (Quarantine speech, Neutrality Acts, cash-and-carry, Destroyer Deal) showed the U.S. was clearly taking steps from isolation toward intervention.
  13. Shattering the Two-Term Tradition (1940)
    1. 1940 was also an election year. Wendell L. Willkie came out of nowhere to capture the Republican nomination. Franklin Roosevelt set aside the two-term tradition, and was nominated for a third term.
      1. Willkie criticized some of the New Deal mishandlings, but the New Deal was not the big issue anymore, the war was. On foreign affairs, there wasn't much difference between the candidates. Willkie's main point of attack was the two-term tradition which was around since George Washington.
      2. FDR's camp came back with, "Better a third term a third-rater" and Lincoln's old adage to not change horses midstream was still strong. FDR also promised to not send "boys" to "any foreign war" (which haunted him).
    2. FDR won big again, 449 to 82.
  14. A Landmark Lend-Lease Law
    1. Britain needed money. FDR wanted to help, but also didn't want another WWI-like debt mess. FDR's solution would be to simply loan weapons and ships to the British. They can use them, them return them.
      1. Senator Taft countered lending tanks would be like lending chewing gum—you don't want it back afterward.
    2. The Lend-Lease Bill passed and the U.S. would become the "arsenal of democracy." By 1945, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and material to the Allies.
    3. Lend-Lease marked an almost official abandonment of isolation. Everyone realized this, from Mainstreet America to Adolf Hitler. Germany had avoided American ships 'til this point. On May 21, 1941, a German sub destroyed an American ship, the Robin Moor.
  15. Charting a New World
    1. In June of 1941, Hitler broke his pact with Russia and invaded the USSR. Neither trusted the other, so Hitler moved to double-cross Stalin first. This was great news for the democracies. Now those two could beat up on one another.
    2. The thinking was that the Germans would quickly defeat the Russians.
      1. FDR sent $1 billion to Russia to help defend Moscow. Germany made quick and early gains, but the red army slowed the Nazis until the winter set in. The Germans literally froze at the gates of Moscow.
    3. The Atlantic Conference (Aug 1941) saw Winston Churchill of England meet with FDR in Newfoundland.
    4. The Atlantic Charter was formed at the meeting and was later okayed by the Soviet Union. Oddly with the U.S. not even in the war, the Charter set up goals for after the war was won. The main points of the Charter were reflective of Wilson's Fourteen Points of WWI…
      1. There would be no territorial or government changes without the people's vote (self-determination).
      2. Disarmament would be sought.
      3. A new peace-keeping organization, like the League of Nations, would be set up.
    5. Isolationists criticized the Atlantic Conference and Charter. They simply failed to see that the U.S. was no neutral anymore.
  16. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash
    1. Sending war materials to Britain would be risky with German sub "wolfpacks" prowling around. FDR concluded that a convoy system would be used—merchant ships would be escorted by U.S. warships to Iceland. Then the British would take over the escorting.
    2. Incidents happened, including German attacks on the American destroyer Greer. FDR declared a shoot-on-sight policy.
      1. The American Kearny saw 11 men killed and was damaged.
      2. The destroyer Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk off of Iceland, killing over 100 Americans.
      3. In November of 1941, Congress stopped pretending and pulled the plug on the outdated Neutrality Act of 1939. Merchant ships could arm and enter combat zones.
  17. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor
    1. Meanwhile, Japan was marching toward their vision of an empire of the rising sun. They were still beating the Chinese.
    2. In protest of Japan's actions in China, the U.S. put an embargo on Japan. The main blow was cutting off oil, which Japan needed for its sprawling empire. Japan's solution was to attack.
    3. American code-breakers knew the Japanese were up to some no-good. The best thinking was that Japan would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.
      1. Japan certainly wouldn't try to hit Hawaii, maybe a sneak sabotage attack, but nothing foolish like an all-out attack.
    4. An all-out attack on Hawaii is what came. The attack on Pearl Harbor was one of the most surprising in history.
      1. The attack came in the morning of December 7, 1941 (FDR's "date which will live in infamy"). Japanese bombers caught the Americans sleepy.
      2. Several ships were sunk or damaged including the U.S.S. Arizona. 3,000 Americans were killed or wounded.
      3. The only good news was that the American aircraft carriers were out at sea. If they'd been destroyed, the American naval situation would've been hopeless.
    5. On December 8, the United States declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. and the U.S. declared war right back. War was now official.
  18. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent
    1. Pearl Harbor galvanized the will of America. On December 8, 1941, there was no disagreement on isolationism.
    2. America had been riding a teeter-totter for several years: wanting to stop Germany and Japan, but wanting to do it from a convenient distance. Those days were over.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 34 - America in World War II

  1. The Allies Trade Space for Time
    1. Pearl Harbor jarred many Americans' minds out of isolationism and into revenge-on-Japan mode. This was especially true on the west coast where there was only water between the U.S. and the Japanese fleet.
    2. FDR held back the reins against Japan, however, and vowed to "get Germany first." Many folks were upset at putting Japan second on the list, but Germany was the more pressing problem.
    3. The plan was to absolutely not let Britain fall to Germany and meanwhile send just enough effort to hold Japan at bay for the time being.
      1. The problem was preparedness. To execute this plan, the U.S. needed time to gear up for war.
      2. The task was monumental: to change industry for a total war, organize a massive military, ship everything in two directions across the world, and feed the Allies.
  2. The Shock of War
    1. National unity was strong after the Pearl Harbor attack.
    2. There were no ethnic witch-hunts, with the glaring exception of Japanese-Americans.
      1. Mostly living on the west coast, Japanese-Americans were rounded up and sent to internment camps.
      2. The official reasoning was to protect them from rogues on the streets who may want to take out their Pearl Harbor frustrations on them.
      3. The ulterior motive was that there was distrust. Some believed the Japanese-Americans were more loyal to Japan than the U.S. and were really spies. This was untrue.
      4. Though jailed without due process of law, the Supreme Court upheld the internment camps in the Korematsu v. U.S. case.
        1. Notably, in 1988, the government apologized and offered reparations of $20,000 to each camp survivor.
    3. Many New Deal programs were ended as the war began. Now, all jobs would be war jobs.
    4. Unlike WWI, WWII was not made out to be an idealistic crusade. It was just the dirty work of defeating the bad guys.
  3. Building the War Machine
    1. The Great Depression ended when huge orders for the war effort came in. More than $100 billion was ordered in 1942.
    2. Henry J. Kaiser was nicknamed "Sir Launchalot" because his crews could build an entire ship in only 14 days.
    3. The War Production Board took control of industry. It halted production of non-essential items like passenger cars.
      1. Rubber was a much-needed item because Japan had overtaken the rubber tree fields of British Malaya. Gasoline was rationed to help save tires.
    4. Agricultural production was incredible. Though many farm boys went to war, new equipment and fertilizers yielded record harvests.
    5. Prices rose, however. The Office of Price Administration regulated prices.
      1. Critical items were rationed to keep consumption down, like meat and butter.
      2. The War Labor Board set ceilings on wages (lower wages means lower prices).
    6. Though they hated the wage regulations, labor unions promised to not strike during the war. Some did anyway, like the United Mine Workers led by John L. Lewis.
      1. Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943) giving the federal government the authority to seize and run industries crippled by strikes. The government took over the coal mines and railroads, briefly.
      2. All-in-all, strikes were minimal during the war.
  4. Manpower and Womanpower
    1. There were some 15 million men and 216,000 women in the military during WWII.
      1. The most famous women were the WAACS (in the Army), the WAVES (Navy), and the SPARS (Coast Guard).
    2. Since most able-bodied men were off at war, industry needed workers.
      1. The bracero program brought workers from Mexico to harvest crops. The program was successful and stayed on about 20 years after the war.
      2. Women stepped up and took the war jobs. For many women, this was the first "real job" outside of the home. Almost certainly, this was the first job for women in industry—women built planes, artillery shells, tanks, everything.
        1. The symbol for women-workers was "Rosie the Riveter" with her sleeves rolled up and rivet gun in hand.
        2. Without question, the war opened things up for women in the workplace. Women "proved themselves" and gained respect.
        3. But, after the war most women (about 2/3) left the workplace. A post-war baby boom resulted when the boys got home from war. Most women returned to their other "job" of being homemakers and mothers.
  5. Wartime Migrations
    1. As during the Depression, the war forced people to move around the country.
    2. FDR had long been determined to help the economically-hurting South. He funneled money southward in defense contracts. This would plant the seeds of the "Sunbelt's" boom after the war.
    3. African-Americans moved out of the South in large numbers, usually heading Northern cities, but also to the West.
      1. Black leader A. Philip Randolph prepared a "Negro March on Washington" to clamor for more blacks in defense jobs and military. FDR responded by banning discrimination in defense industries.
      2. FDR also set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to serve as a watchdog over the discrimination ban.
      3. Blacks served in segregated units in the military.
        1. Aside from the segregation, there was discrimination such as separate blood banks for each race, and often the roles of blacks were more menial such as cooks, truck drivers, etc.
        2. Generally, however, the war and the efforts of Blacks encouraged African-Americans to strive for equality. The slogan was the "Double V"—victory overseas vs. dictators and victory at home vs. racism.
      4. Black organizations increased in membership. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) neared the half-million mark and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) was founded.
      5. The mechanical cotton picker was invented. This freed blacks from the age-old cotton picking job—another reason many moved.
    4. Native Americans also fought in the war in large numbers.
      1. Famously, Navajo and Comanche Indians were "code talkers." They traded messages using their traditional language. Their "codes" were never broken.
    5. All the moving around mixed people who weren't accustomed to it, and there were some clashes. For example, some white sailors attacked some Mexican and Mexican-Americans in L.A. in 1943. Also, 25 blacks and 9 whites were killed in a Detroit race riot.
  6. Holding the Home Front This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The United States entered WWII still in the Depression. The U.S. came out of WWII very prosperous (the only nation to do so).
      1. GNP (Gross National Product) had doubled. Corporate profits doubled too.
      2. Disposable income (money left to spend) also doubled. Inflation would suit and rise as well.
    2. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the production for WWII that ended the Great Depression.
      1. The war's cost was assessed at $330 billion (ten times WWI).
      2. To help pay for the war, four times more people were required to pay income taxes. Most of the payments, however, were on credit. This meant the national debt shot up from $49 to $259 billion.
  7. The Rising Sun in the Pacific
    1. Japan began to take action on its dream of a new empire—the land of the rising sun. The Japanese took island after island, including: Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and much of coastal China.
    2. The Philippines had been embarrassing for the U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur had to sneak away. The general made a pledge, however, to return.
      1. After the U.S. lost in the Philippines, the Japanese made the captured soldiers hike the infamous "Bataan Death March"—85 miles where, if you stumbled, you died.
      2. The U.S. finally gave up and surrendered Corregidor, an island/fort in Manila Harbor.
  8. Japan’s High Tide at Midway
    1. The first big U.S.-Japan naval battle was the Battle of Coral Sea. It was the world’s first naval battle where the ships never saw one another (they fought with aircraft via carriers). Both sides had heavy losses.
    2. Intercepted messages hinted at an attack on Midway Island. American Adm. Chester Nimitz correctly sent the U.S. fleet and the Battle of Midway (June 1942) followed. Instead of being surprised, the U.S. gave the surprise.
      1. Adm. Raymond Spruance was the the admiral on the water. Midway was a rout for the U.S. as four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk.
      2. Midway proved to be the turning point in the Pacific war, the place where Japanese expansion was halted.
    3. Japan did capture the islands of Kiska and Attu in the Aleutian chain of Alaska. The islands are home to a few hundred native Aleuts, snow, and rocks, but the mere idea the Japanese taking American soil hit hard. The northwestern states feared an invasion.
      1. The "Alcan" Highway was built from Alaska, through Canada, to the continental states to help protect Alaska.
  9. American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo
    1. Japan's expansion halted, America then began "island-hopping" toward Japan. The plan was to not attack the stronghold, take the weaker islands and build airbases on them. The stronger islands would be taken by bombing and strangling of resources.
    2. There would be two main thrusts: in the south led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and in the central Pacific led by Adm. Chester Nimitz.
      1. Island-hopping began in the south Pacific with victories at Guadalcanal (Aug. 1942). This southern strike reached New Guinea in August of 1944. MacArthur was working his way back to the Philippines.
      2. Northward, Tarawa and Makin in the Gilbert Islands were captured. Next, the Marshall Island chain was won.
        1. The "Marianas Turkey Shoot" was an American highlight where American "Hellcat" fighters had their way in the air shooting down 250 enemy planes. The Marianas Islands also were close enough so that B-29 bombers could strike Japan and return (if the winds were favorable).
        2. This would later be the take-off point for the atomic bomb planes.
    3. Though island-hopping made steady progress, it was slow, hard-fought, and bloody.
      1. American sailors shelled the beachheads with artillery, U.S. Marines stormed ashore (while the navy shelled over their heads), and American bombers attacked the Japanese. Heroism and self-sacrifice were common.
      2. One example was when Lt. Robert J. Albert piloted a B-24 “Liberator” on 36 missions. His final run was a record 18 hour and 25 minute strike. His tour of duty was complete, but his crew's was not. He volunteered to pilot the flight so that his men would not fly behind a rookie pilot.
  10. The Allied Halting of Hitler
    1. As with the Pacific, progress in Europe has slow at first. History has shown the American war machine slow to get going, but awesome when it is going.
    2. German u-boats were proving to be very effective. The German "enigma code" was broken thanks to spies' actions and lives sacrificed to get an enigma machine to decode messages. These messages helped locate German u-boat wolfpacks.
    3. The Battle of the Atlantic, the war for control of the ocean, went on until 1943 when the Allies gained control.
      1. The win over the seas was a close one. It was learned after the war that the amazing German engineers were nearing completion of a sub that could stay submerged indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots.
    4. 1942 was the turning point year in Europe (like Midway in '42 in the Pacific).
      1. The British bombed the Germans in Cologne, France. American B-17's bombed Germany itself.
      2. German Gen. Erwin Rommel (nicknamed the "Desert Fox" because he was clever with maneuvers) was having great success in North Africa. He was almost to the Suez Canal in Egypt—taking the canal would link the Mediterranean Sea (Italy and Germany) with the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Japan).
        1. However, Brit. Gen. Bernard Montgomery, at the Battle of El Alamein (Oct. 1942) stopped the Germans. From there, Germany would be pushed back.
      3. The Russians also stopped the Germans at Stalingrad (Sep. 1942). A month later, Russia began pushing back and recaptured 2/3 of their lost land in one year.
  11. A Second Front from North Africa to Rome
    1. Some 20 million Russians would die by the end of the war so the Soviet Union wanted the allies to start a second front against Germany and ease Russia's burden.
      1. Britain and the U.S. wanted this, but had different views. America wanted to ram straight at the Nazis through France.
      2. Britain wanted to lure the war away from England. Winston Churchill suggested they hit Germany's "soft underbelly", meaning up from North Africa and through Italy.
    2. The soft underbelly approach was decided upon.
      1. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower led an attack on North Africa (Nov. 1942). The Allies pushed the Germans out of Africa by May 1943.
    3. The Roosevelt and Churchill met at the Casablanca Conference to flesh out plans (Jan. 1943). They agreed to seek the "unconditional surrender" of Germany.
    4. The soft underbelly attack continued.
      1. The Allies leapfrogged to Sicily. Mussolini was overthrown (and later murdered) at about the same time and Italy surrendered (Sept. 1943). German soldiers were still in Italy, however, and they were determined to keep fighting.
      2. The Allies then moved to the lower portion of the Italian boot, then started edging northward. By this time, it was clear that the soft underbelly really wasn't very soft.
        1. The German were dug in at Monte Cassino. After taking a beachhead at Anzio, the Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944.
        2. The Allied thrust essentially bogged down and stalled at this point, roughly half way up the Italian peninsula. The D-Day invasion would make the Italian assault a mere diversion.
    5. The soft underbelly attack had mixed results. The good: it drew some of Hitler's men and supplies and it did defeat Italy. The bad: it delayed the D-Day invasion and gave Russia extra time to draw farther into Eastern Europe.
  12. D-Day: June 6, 1944
    1. Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met at the Tehran Conference (Nov.-Dec. 1943) to formulate goals and coordinate attacks.
    2. The groundwork was laid for a massive assault across the English channel (eventual D-Day invasion).
      1. Gen. Eisenhower was placed in charge of the assault.
      2. The attack would take place on the beaches of Normandy on the French coast. The Germans had guessed the sure-to-come attack would be at Calais because that's the narrowest point of the channel. The Allies offered fakes and bluffs there to confuse the enemy.
    3. The D-Day Invasion began on June 6, 1944. It was the largest amphibious assault in history.
      1. The Allies had to cross the channel, wade ashore, cross the wide beach, scale 100 foot bluffs, and overtake German bunkers—while being shot at by machine guns and artillery. The Allies did it.
      2. After gaining a toehold at Normandy, the Allies began spreading out. Gen. George S. Patton led U.S. troops across the French countryside.
      3. Paris was liberated in August of 1944—a major morale boost for the Allies.
  13. FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944
    1. Despite the ongoing war in 1944, an election year came again. The Republican party nominated Thomas E. Dewey. He was known as a liberal and attacker of corruption.
    2. The Democrats nominated FDR for a fourth term. There was no other viable choice for the party.
      1. The real question was who'd be the vice-presidential candidate. The nomination was made for Harry S Truman who was largely without enemies.
  14. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey
    1. Dewey campaigned hard against Roosevelt. He attacked "twelve long years" and emphasized it was "time for a change."
    2. FDR didn't campaign much until election day neared.
      1. Roosevelt got a lot of financial help from the CIO's new political action committee (PAC). The PAC was set up to avoid a ban on using union money for politics.
    3. FDR won the election in a big way, again. The electoral vote was 432 to 99. The main reason that he won was that the war was moving along well at this point.
  15. The Last Days of Hitler
    1. The Nazi army was on the retreat at this point. Hitler made one last big push at the Ardenne Forest. The Americans were surprised and pushed back; the result was a bulge in the battle line.
      1. The Americans held on at Bastogne. Germany asked for a surrender but Gen. A.C. McCauliffe answered, "Nuts."
      2. Reinforcements came and the U.S. won the Battle of the Bulge. From there, steady progress was made toward Berlin. Russia was simultaneously converging on Berlin.
    2. Along the way, the Allies discovered the horrors of the Holocaust.
      1. There had been rumors of such goings-on, but it was believed they were either untrue or exaggerated. They were not—the Holocaust was worse than imagined.
      2. The death camps, still stinking, made the horrors clear. Eisenhower forced German civilians to march through the camps after the war to see what they're government had done.
    3. The Russians reached Germany first. Hitler killed himself in a bunker (Apr. 1945), along with his mistress-turned-wife Eva Braun.
    4. Only two weeks prior, while vacationing at Warm Springs, GA, Franklin Roosevelt suddenly died. Truman became president.
    5. The German officials surrendered on May 7; May 8, 1945 was named V-E Day (Victory in Europe). The celebration began.
  16. Japan Dies Hard
    1. The war with Japan was still on.
      1. American subs were devastating Japanese merchant ships—1,042 were destroyed.
      2. American bombers were devastating Japanese cities. In a two-day fire-bomb raid on Tokyo in March of 1945, the destruction was: 250,000 buildings, 1/4 of the city, and 83,000 lives. This was about the equivalent of the atomic bombs that were to come.
    2. Gen. MacArthur was determined to return to the Philippines where he'd been booted.
      1. After retaking New Guinea, MacArthur made his Filipino return in October, 1944.
      2. Hard naval fighting followed at Leyte Gulf. The U.S. won, although Adm. William Halsey was suckered into a feint. Leyte Gulf was the last huge battle in the Pacific—Japan's navy was all but destroyed at this point.
      3. MacArthur then took Luzon and finally captured the capital city of Manila (Mar. 1945).
    3. The same month, the small island of Iwo Jima was captured by America in some of the toughest fighting yet. It was strategically located halfway between the Marianas Islands and Japan. Thus, it provided an important airstrip.
      1. The famous flag-raising photo was snapped atop Mt. Suribachi while the fighting still raged.
    4. Okinawa was the next target. It was the last island before the Japanese mainlands. Okinawa was taken (June 1945) after 50,000 American casualties.
      1. In a last-ditch effort, Japan unleashed the full fury of their "kamikaze" suicide pilots. Likening themselves to the samurai warriors of old the kamikazes felt they were dying for their god-emperor.
  17. The Atomic Bombs
    1. Rookie Pres. Harry Truman met with Stalin and British officials at the Potsdam Conference (July 1945). The final statement to Japan was: surrender or be destroyed.
    2. Meanwhile, the U.S. had been working on a super-secret project all along: to build the atomic bomb.
      1. Early on, many German scientists had fled Nazi Germany, notably Albert Einstein. In 1940, with FDR's blessing, these scientists started working on the bomb.
      2. FDR had gotten Congress to approve the money in fear that Germany may well develop the bomb first. The Manhattan Project secretly developed and built the world's first atomic bomb. It was tested in Alamogordo, NM (July 1945) and was ready for use.
    3. Still belligerent, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan (Aug. 6, 1945). 70,000 died instantly, 180,000 total casualties.
    4. On Aug. 8, Russia entered the war against Japan and attacked Manchuria.
    5. On Aug. 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. 80,000 were killed or missing. That's was it.
    6. Japan surrendered on Aug. 19, 1945. The Japanese emperor was aloud to stay on the throne as a symbolic gesture.
      1. The official and ceremonial surrender came a few weeks later aboard the U.S.S. Missouri. Gen. MacArthur accepted the surrender from Emperor Hirohito.
  18. The Allies Triumphant
    1. One million casualties was the American cost of WWII. But, despite the sacrifices, America came out of the war tougher and stronger-than-ever, whereas other nations came out of the war beaten down.
      1. The casualty number was incredibly large, but actually small as compared to other nations. The numbers were kept down in part due to new drugs, particularly penicillin.
      2. The American homeland was almost entirely untouched (again, unlike other nations were in rubble).
    2. Though slow-starting, America had run the war well. It was a huge undertaking, but had been undertaken in a systematic and effective manner.
      1. The U.S. had been blessed with great leaders during the war, civilian and military.
      2. Another major factor contributing to victory was America's incredible resources and industry.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 35 - The Cold War Begins

  1. Postwar Economic Anxieties
    1. Many feared a return to the Great Depression or at least a post-war recession.
      1. When the war time price controls ended, inflation did increase significantly.
    2. Labor unions had made steady gains during the Depression and the war. With the economy now strong, the pendulum now swung back against unions.
      1. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It banned "closed shops" (closed to anyone not joining the union). It also made unions liable for certain damages and that union leaders take a non-communist oath. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, Taft-Hartley weakened labor unions.
      2. Unions tried to move into the South and the West, in the CIO's "Operation Dixie." This was unsuccessful.
        1. Two factors caused the failure: (1) Workers in the South and West were generally not factory workers but were scattered around and thus not easily unionized, and (2) these areas had a longtime value on individual freedom and hard work, and thus a disdain for labor unions which focused on group action to yield more pay with lower hours.
    3. The government took steps to ward off any slow-down in the economy.
      1. War factories and government facilities were sold to businesses at rock bottom prices.
      2. The Employment Act (1946) got the government to "promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power."
      3. The Council of Economic Advisors were to give the president solid data to make solid decisions.
    4. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944) was better known at the GI Bill of Rights. It sent 8 million former soldiers to vocational schools and colleges.
  2. The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970
    1. The economy held its ground through the late 40's. By 1950, the economy began to skyrocket. America pushed toward, and reached, a new age of prosperity.
      1. By 1960, America's national income nearly doubled, then nearly doubled again by 1970. By 1973, Americans made up 6% of the world's population and held 40% of the money.
    2. The middle class was the big winner during these years. The class doubled in size and they expanded their ambitions: two cars in the garage, and a pool out back, and whatever else can be thrown in.
    3. Women benefited from the good times as well. Many women found jobs in new offices and shops. Women were 25% of the workforce at war's end, about 50% five years later.
      1. The traditional roles of women at home was still glorified in popular media. A clash was being set up between women at work and women at home.
  3. The Roots of Postwar Prosperity
    1. The postwar economic boom had several causes and propellants…
      1. The war's massive production jump-started the entire economy.
      2. Post-war military projects kept the "military-industrial complex" in business.
        1. There were tons of jobs in military-related areas, such as aerospace, plastics, electronics, and "R and D" (research and development).
      3. Energy was cheap and plentiful. High car sales reflected the cheap gas. A strong infrastructure of power lines, gas lines helped feed homes and businesses.
      4. Worker production increased. More Americans went to and stayed in school. Increased education meant increased standard of living.
    2. Farms changed and turned toward big-businesses and away from family farms. Machinery costs fueled this change. Former farmers left for other jobs. Still, with new equipment and better hybrids and fertilizers, food production increased.
  4. The Smiling Sunbelt
    1. Many babies arrived in the baby boom and many families had moved around the country. Unable to just ask her mother what-to-do question, many new moms turned to Dr. Benjamin Spock's how-to The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. It was a huge seller.
    2. The Sunbelt, from California to Florida, began a boom of its own.
      1. There was a shift-of-power from the old Northeast and Midwest to the new South and West—from the Frostbelt and Rustbelt to the Sunbelt.
        1. Symbolizing this shift, California became the most populous state in the 50's, passing New York.
      2. Immigration helped increase the Sunbelt's population.
      3. Many of the government's new military facilities were built in the Sunbelt. Good-paying jobs came with them.
      4. A political battle was shaping up. By 1990, the Sunbelt received $125 billion more federal money than the northern areas. And, with their populations increased, more Congressional and presidential votes had moved down to the Sunbelt states.
  5. The Rush to the Suburbs
    1. After the war, whites abandoned the inner-cities and moved out to the grass and trees of the suburbs.
      1. Cheap home loans offered by the FHA and the Veteran's Administration made buying a home more sensible than renting an apartment in town.
      2. 25% of Americans lived in the suburbs by 1960.
    2. The best example of a post-war suburb was Levittown on Long Island.
      1. The Levitt brothers perfected the "cookie cutter" house. They were identical but also very affordable.
      2. Despite their monotony, many in the 50's actually preferred the standardization, conformity, and comfort-factor the houses gave. It was like the McDonald's theory (which also started and boomed at the time)—no matter which McDonald's you go in, you always get the same burger.
    3. This so-called "white flight" left blacks in the inner-cities, and left the cities poor.
      1. Symbolic of this movement would be the growth of shopping centers and Wal-Marts and the the "closed" signs on downtown shops.
      2. Blacks often had a hard time getting loans, even from government agencies, due to the "risk" involved. Thus, whites were able to move to the suburbs, blacks were not.
  6. The Postwar Baby Boom This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. When the soldiers returned from war, the baby boom began. The birthrate peaked in 1957. It then slowed and started a "birth dearth."
    2. The baby boom generation has had a huge impact on America.
      1. While they grew up, entire industries rode their wave. For example in clothing, Levi's jeans went from work pants to standard teenage wear; burger joints boomed; music changed (rock 'n' roll).
      2. Prior, children and adolescents were expected to dress and act like small adults. By the 50's, youth dressed and acted their own way and did their own thing.
    3. The baby boom, and later birth dearth, created a swell and then a narrowing, in the population of generations. Simply put, the baby boomers far outnumber other generations.
      1. By 2020, when most baby boomers are retired, it is projected that the Social Security system will go broke.
  7. Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri
    1. Harry S Truman was at the helm just after WWII. He had a big smile, was a sharp dresser, and a small but very spunky fellow. He was the first president in many years without a college education.
      1. Truman was called "The Man from Independence" (Missouri). His cabinet was made of the "Missouri gang", and like Harding of the 20's, Truman was prone to stick by his boys when they got caught in some wrong-doings.
      2. Truman gained confidence as he went along. He also earned the nickname of "Give 'em Hell Harry." He also a bit prone to making hot-headed or rash decisions, or sticking with a bad decision out of stubbornness.
    2. Despite little drawbacks, Truman was decisive, "real", responsible, had moxie. He loved the sayings "The buck stops here," and "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen."
  8. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?
    1. The Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) had met at the Yalta Conference in Feb. 1945 (there last meeting). That meeting shaped the Cold War to come. It was highlighted by distrust between the U.S./Britain and the Soviet Union.
      1. FDR and Churchill did not trust Russia's ambitions for the post-war, ditto Russia the other way.
    2. Promises were made…
      1. Russia promised to enter the war against Japan. In return, Russia would get land—1/2 of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, railroads in Manchuria, and Port Arthur on the Pacific.
        1. This promise was kept. However, by the time Russia entered, the U.S. had all but won. It appeared Russia entered to just look good and accept the spoils of victory.
      2. Russia pledged free elections for Poland and a representative government; also elections in Bulgaria and Romania. These promises were flatly broken. The Soviets set up puppet communist governments.
    3. FDR was roundly criticized for doing poorly at the Yalta Conference.
      1. Promises had been accepted from Stalin only to be broken.
      2. China fell to the communists a few years later (1948) and FDR got some of the blame for selling out Chiang Kai-Shek and China to communist Russia.
    4. Defenders of FDR say he did what he could in the circumstances. If he'd not bargained with Stalin over Japan, the Soviets may have even taken more of China.
  9. The United States and the Soviet Union
    1. The post-war world had two superpowers: the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Distrust was high.
    2. The Soviet Union felt put-out by the Americans because: (1) the U.S. had waited until 1933 to officially recognize the U.S.S.R., (2) the Allies had been slow to start a second front, (3) America withdrew the lend-lease program to Russia in 1945, and (4) America rejected Russia's request for a $6 billion reconstruction loan, but gave one for Germany for $3.75 billion.
      1. Russia perceived all of these things as insults.
    3. Russia had been attacked from the west twice within about 25 years, so, Stalin wanted a protective buffer from Western Europe. To create that protection, Russia set up puppet communist governments in Eastern Europe. These "satellite nations" would serve as a buffer zone to the Soviet Union.
    4. Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had now been thrown into the international spotlight. They'd both been isolationist, but now had to drive international policies. Both had a history of "missionary" diplomacy—of trying to press their ways onto others.
    5. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. had opposing economic-political systems (capitalism and democracy vs. communism) and they didn't trust the other side. The "Cold War" had begun. Their actions and policies would dominate international affairs for the next 40 years.
  10. Shaping the Postwar World
    1. The Atlantic Charter had called for a new League of Nations. That was realized.
    2. A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, NH (1944). There, the Allies set up the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to propell world trade and regulate currency exchange rates. It also started the World Bank to give loans to needy nations (ravaged by war or just poor).
    3. Days after FDR died, a charter was drawn up for the United Nations in April 1945 in San Francisco. 50 nations participated. It's headquarters would be in New York City.
    4. The U.N. was like the League in concept, the U.N.'s structure was different. It had three main categories…
      1. The General Assembly—the main meeting place where each nation got 2 votes.
      2. The Security Council dealing with conflict and war. It had 11 member nations, 5 were permanent with total veto power (U.S., Britain, France, U.S.S.R. and China). The Security Council would prove to be the most influential and active in world affairs.
      3. Other relief-based agencies, such as UNESCO (U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Org.), the FAO (Food and Agricultural Org.) and WHO (World Health Org.).
    5. Unlike the old League of Nations, the senate was favorable to the U.N. It was accepted by a vote of 89 to 2.
    6. The U.N. helped keep the peace in Iran, Kashmir, and other hotspots. It also helped set up Israel as a homeland for the Jews.
    7. The pressing issue was atomic weaponry. America was the only nation with an atomic bomb at the time—though Russia was getting very close.
      1. U.S. delegate to the United Nations Bernard Baruch called for a U.N. agency to totally regulate atomic weapons. Russia was distrustful of American ambitions.
      2. The Soviets proposed a total ban on atomic weapons. Neither proposal was accepted and thus regulation of atomic weapons did not happen. The nations were to go at it on their own.
  11. The Problem of Germany
    1. Nazi leaders were tried at the Nuremberg Trials just after the war for crimes against humanity. Everyone's rationale was that they'd just been following their orders. Twelve hanged, seven were given long sentences. Hermann Goering killed himself with cyanide.
    2. There was disagreement with what to do about Germany. The U.S. wanted Germany to rebuild as that's good for Europe's economy. Russia wanted reparations.
      1. To avoid Germany rearming, the country was divided into four zones. The U.S., France, Britain, and Russia would oversee one zone. The idea was to reunite Germany, but Russia balked at the idea. Germany was going to remain split.
      2. West Germany would be a democracy, East Germany was a puppet communist nation.
    3. Berlin was located in East Germany (Russia's section) and it was also split into four zones. The end result was a free West Berlin located inside Russian-controlled East Germany, like an island.
      1. Russia suddenly cut off the railway to West Berlin (1948) in attempt to strangle West Berlin into giving itself over to the East.
      2. America's response was the Berlin Airlift where the U.S. simply flew in needed supplies to West Berlin. The operation was on a massive scale, and it worked. The Soviet Union ended their blockade the next year.
  12. The Cold War Congeals
    1. Wanting oil fields, Stalin failed to fulfill a treaty to remove troops in Iran, but rather he helped some rebels. Pres. Truman was not happy. By this time, deep distrust was the rule, and both sides hardened toward the other.
    2. The American position toward Russia became formal with the George F. Kennan's "containment doctrine." It simply said the U.S.S.R. was expansionist by nature and but it could be held in check by firm American containment.
      1. Pres. Truman made the containment policy official by announcing the Truman Doctrine (1947). In the doctrine he asked Congress for $400 million to aid Greece and Turkey who were feeling communist pressures.
      2. Though focused on Greece and Turkey at the time, the Truman Doctrine was greatly broadened—the U.S. was to stop communism anywhere it seemed to be trying to expand. This policy would dominate U.S. foreign policy for the next four decades.
    3. Western Europe's economy was struggling badly. To help, Truman and Sec. of State George C. Marshall started the Marshall Plan, a massive project to lend financial help to rebuild Europe.
      1. The plan helped in the formation of the European Community (EC).
      2. Some $12.5 billion was spent over four years, a huge sum. Congress thought the number too high (they'd already given $2 billion to U.N. agencies), but a Russia-sponsored revolution in Czechoslovakia changed their minds.
      3. The Marshall Plan worked. Western Europe's economies rebounded, and communist groups in those nations lost influence.
    4. Pres. Truman formally recognized Israel on May 14, 1948, the day it was started. He wanted to help the Jews after the Holocaust, but also hurt the Soviet influence there.
      1. Arab nations were not pleased. America's decision to support Israel, along with oil in the region, would long affect U.S.-Arab relations.
  13. America Begins to Rearm
    1. The military reorganized in 1947 with the National Security Act.
      1. The old War Department was replaced with the Department of Defense; the Sec. of War replaced with the Sec. of Defense. Civilian secretaries would also head the army, navy, and air force. The military heads of each branch were to meet in the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
    2. The National Security Council (NSC) was formed by the National Security Act. The council was to advise the president on security matters. The act also formed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather foreign intelligence.
    3. America fired up the propaganda machine. Congress okayed the Voice of America (1948) radio broadcast to be transmitted into Eastern Europe.
    4. The military draft was brought back. Young men 19 to 25 might be drafted by the Selective Service System.
    5. The old allies organized in 1948. The U.S. joined up with Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg united to start the North Atlantic Treaty Org. (NATO). It was an alliance where attacking one meant attacking them all. The U.S. joined despite an unwritten national policy and tradition of avoiding "entangling alliances."
      1. NATO would later grow. Greece and Turkey joined up in 1952, West Germany in 1955. NATO had 15 nations by then.
      2. Not to be outdone by the West, the Soviets set up the Warsaw Pact made up of the U.S.S.R. and the Eastern European nations.
  14. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia
    1. Japan also had to be managed after the war. Gen. Douglas MacArthur essentially ran as a dictator to draw up a new Japanese constitution based on the U.S. Constitution (1946).
      1. Japan was a success story. It quickly and successfully embraced democracy and also recovered economically to become one of the world's richest and most productive nations.
    2. China, however, was having problems.
      1. Mao Zedong led communist forces in a civil war against Chiang Kai-Shek's (AKA Jiang Jieshi) Nationalist government.
      2. Mao and the communists won in 1949. Chiang Kai-Shek and the Nationalists had to retreat offshore to the island of Formosa (Taiwan).
    3. With a huge nation like China going communist, this was a bad loss for the U.S. in the Cold War.
      1. Truman was criticized for not doing enough to stop the loss. Likely, he couldn't have stopped it anyway.
    4. The nuclear arms race began in Sept. 1949 when the U.S.S.R. announced it'd successfully detonated an atomic bomb, ending America's "nuclear monopoly."
      1. In 1952, the U.S. detonated a hydrogen bomb. The "H-bomb" (which relies on nuclear fusion of hydrogen) was a 1,000 times more powerful than an "A-bomb" (which relies on fission of a heavy element like uranium).
      2. It was so powerful that both Albert Einstein and J. Robert Oppenheimer spoke out. Einstein had written a letter to FDR to initiate the A-bomb's construction and Oppenheimer had been in charge of the Manhattan Project which built the bomb. They both advised to not build the H-bomb.
      3. Not only was the arms race on, but the H-bomb had greatly raised the stakes.
  15. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists
    1. The question then became, "Are any communists here in America?"
      1. The attorney general named 90 possibly-communist organizations. They were not allowed to defend themselves.
      2. The Loyalty Review Board was started to investigate the loyalties of some 3 million federal employees. About 3,000 either resigned or were fired. Many states made "loyalty" a priority. Teachers, especially, were often made to take "loyalty oaths."
      3. The obvious problems were the rights to free speech, press, and thought being hampered. Still, at this time, those rights were muffled.
    2. 11 communists were tried in New York in 1949 under the Smith Act. It was a peacetime anti-sedition act (the first since 1798). They were convicted, imprisoned, and their case upheld by the Supreme Court in Dennis v. U.S. (1951).
    3. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) set out to investigate "subversion".
      1. Richard Nixon made a name for himself as a red hunter by pursuing Alger Hiss. He was convicted of perjury and served five years.
    4. Sen. Joseph McCarthy wanted to show himself a red hunter too. He threw around wild accusations with little or no basis to them.
    5. Some people started to think the red hunting business was going too far—turning from concern to hysteria.
      1. Pres. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill. It was to allow the president to arrest and hold suspicious persons during an "internal security emergency." Congress passed the bill over Truman's veto.
      2. Since the U.S.S.R. had built the atomic bomb quicker than was expected, many Americans suspected spies within the U.S. had sold nuclear secrets.
        1. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were suspected of leaking U.S. secrets to Russia. They were convicted for espionage and executed. The whole nasty business of trial and execution, and their two newly orphaned children, began to sober up Americans against red hunting.
  16. Democratic Divisions in 1948
    1. The Republican had won control of the House in 1946 and were feeling confident in '48. They nominated Thomas Dewey as candidate for president.
    2. The Democrats wanted Gen. Eisenhower, but he refused the nomination. So, Pres. Truman was up for reelection. This split the party.
      1. Southern Democrats (called "Dixiecrats") nominated Gov. Strom Thurmond of SC for the States' Rights Party.
    3. A new Progressive Party offered former V.P. Henry Wallace.
    4. It was really a Dewey vs. Truman race. Dewey seemed to have the momentum, but the Democratic vote had been split three ways.
      1. The Chicago Daily Tribune jumped the gun and infamously printed the headline "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN."
      2. Truman actually won 303 to 189 in the electoral (Thurmond also got 39). The Democrats also retook Congress.
      3. Pres. Truman had gotten support from regular folks, especially farmers, workers, and blacks.
    5. Reinvigorated, he started a program named "Point Four." It was to give money and technical help to underdeveloped nations. It was a humanitarian effort, but it was also to prevent them from going communist.
    6. He outlined a new domestic program called the "Fair Deal." It was a mini-New Deal. The Fair Deal was to improve housing; increase employment, minimum wage, farm price supports; start a new TVA, and extend Social Security.
      1. Many of these programs were shot down in Congress.
      2. Its major successes were in upping the minimum wage, passing the Housing Act (1949) to provide public housing, and extending old-age benefits in a new Social Securities Act (1950).
  17. The Korean Volcano Erupts
    1. As Germany had been split, so too had Korea. North Korea had a communist government thanks to Russia, South Korea was democratic thanks to the U.S. North and South Korea were split at the 38th parallel.
    2. Things were okay until June 25, 1950 when the North suddenly invaded the South. The South was overrun except for the southernmost city of Pusan.
      1. America's Truman Doctrine policy of containment was being challenged. It was time to put-up or shut-up.
    3. Pres. Truman took action and used Korea as an opportunity to build up the U.S. military.
      1. The National Security Council had recommended in 1950 document called NSC-68 that America's defense spending be quadrupled. Truman put NSC-68 into action.
        1. NSC-68 was symbolic in that (1) it showed the fear of communism and (2) it showed the seemingly limitless production possibilities of the U.S. to even order such a massive build-up.
    4. Truman also used the U.N. With Russia and their veto temporarily out, the U.N. named North Korea the aggressor. The U.N. called for action to restore peace—this was the go-ahead to military action.
      1. Within the week, Truman sent Gen. MacArthur's troops to South Korea in a "police action." The U.N. named MacArthur commander of the entire operation, but he took orders from Washington.
  18. The Military Seesaw in Korea
    1. There were three phases of the war…
      1. First, was the North's invasion of the South in 1950.
      2. Secondly, MacArthur's troops set up at Pusan then did a bold "end-around" and hit behind enemy lines at Inchon. Surprised, the North Koreans were quickly driven northward. They went nearly all the way to the Yalu River, the China border. MacArthur thought the war nearly over. Crossing the 38th parallel into the North raised the stakes.
      3. Third, some 200,000 Chinese "volunteers" helped push back southward to the original line at the 38th parallel.
        1. MacArthur called for a blockade and bombing of China. Washington didn't want to take the war that big. MacArthur pressed the issue and went public with it.
        2. Pres. Truman fired MacArthur. Truman was criticized for removing the popular general, but he felt he had no choice. The American military is ultimately run by civilians, not the military.
        3. The war bogged down there for two more years, and that's where it ended in 1953.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 36 - American Zenith

  1. Affluence and Its Anxieties
    1. The post-WWII economy was a booming economy. 25% of all homes in 1960 were less than a decade old. 83% of the new homes were in the suburbs.
    2. The field of electronics hit a milestone with the invention of the transistor. Computers and electronics could now become small (the first computers, "UNIVAC" and "ENIAC", were room-size).
      1. This gave rise to high-tech companies like IBM. The "information age" was beginning.
    3. In the Cold War atmosphere led Pres. Eisenhower to build up the Strategic Air Command. Aerospace industries thrived, like the Boeing Company which built the first passenger jet airliner, the 707.
    4. A social milestone was hit in 1956 when "white-collar" workers outnumbered "blue-collar" workers. That is to say there were more tie-wearing professionals than workers who get their hands dirty.
      1. This was bad news for labor unions. Unions membership numbers peaked in 1954.
      2. This was good news for women who found jobs as clerks and in offices.
        1. In the media, the traditional roles of women at home were championed. For example, TV shows like "Leave it to Beaver" and "Ozzie and Harriet" featured stay-at-home moms. This so-called "cult of domesticity" would soon be challenged.
        2. Betty Friedan started the modern feminist movement with her book The Feminine Mystique (1963). A former homemaker herself, Friedan wasn't satisfied with just being a suburban mother and felt women were selling themselves short—they could get jobs of their own and do so much more. Many women liked what they read.
        3. Friedan's book showed a split in the views of the roles of women: should women focus exclusively on their families or should they pursue careers as men did? The idea was that staying at home may sell the woman short, a career woman may sell the family short.
  2. Consumer Culture in the Fifties
    1. Similar to the 1920's, the 50's were an era of consumerism.
    2. Diner's Club cards made their appearance, McDonald's started, Disneyland was built, TV's came to nearly all homes.
      1. Reflecting TV sales, $10 billion was spent on TV ads and movie attendance went down.
      2. "Televangelists" went to airwaves to save souls, like Billy Graham (Baptist), Oral Roberts (Pentecostal Holiness), and Fulton J. Sheen (Catholic).
    3. Following Americans to the west, sports shifted westward. The Dodgers moved from Brooklyn to L.A., the New York Giants to San Francisco.
    4. Sex appeal was used to sell.
      1. Elvis "the Pelvis" Presley's dance moves were dubbed inappropriate by the older generation. On his second appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show" he was only filmed from the waist up.
      2. Marilyn Monroe was featured on the cover of the new magazine Playboy and was called the "Sex Goddess for the Nuclear Age."
    5. Though mostly good news in good times, there was criticism.
      1. Writers criticized the new era's conformity, such as in The Lonely Crowd by David Riesman, The Organization Man by William H. Whyte, Jr., and in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit by Sloan Wilson.
      2. John Kenneth Galbraith, a Harvard economist, wrote The Affluent Society. The book saw a problem between a generally rich and affluent society despite public problems such as polluted air and garbage.
  3. The Advent of Eisenhower
    1. For the 1952 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson the down-home Illinois governor. The Republicans opted against Robert A. Taft, an isolationist, and went with war here Dwight D. Eisenhower. Richard Nixon was Eisenhower's running mate for V.P.
    2. Eisenhower was the clear favorite. He was a war hero, grandfatherly, had a big smile, and the "I like Ike" slogan and song was catchy. He attacked Stevenson as soft on communism.
      1. Ike's campaign hit a snap when Nixon was accused of having used a secret "slush fund" as a senator. Nixon went on TV and gave the "Checkers speech". He spoke of his dog Checkers and how his little girl loved the dog and said he wasn't a crook. People forgave him and he stayed on the ticket.
        1. Aside from pushing emotional buttons, the importance of the Checkers speech showed the new power and influence of TV.
        2. Seeing the power of TV, Ike did some question-and-answer spots for the campaign.
    3. Ike won big, 442 to 89 in the electoral.
      1. He'd promised to personally go to Korea and settle the issue.
        1. Ike did fly to Korea, but failed at ending the conflict.
        2. Seven months later, after Ike threatened nuclear bombs, an armistice was signed. The Korean War's was evaluated…
          1. 54,000 Americans had died (and maybe a million Chinese and Koreans). Tens of billions of dollars had been spent. Korea was still split at the 38th parallel, the same as the beginning of the war.
          2. On the plus side, America's mission had been to uphold the Truman Doctrine and contain communism, and that mission was accomplished.
      2. As president, Ike handled the military well. He seemed above petty political splits. On the down side, looking back, he could've used his popularity to propel the infant civil rights movement (he largely ignored it).
  4. The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Sen. Joseph McCarthy claimed that Sec. of State Dean Acheson had knowingly hired 205 communists. Despite lacking evidence, the red-hunt was on.
      1. McCarthy's claims got wilder and out of hand. He accused Gen. George Marshall as being in some kind of communist conspiracy.
    2. Ike didn't like McCarthy and didn't want to get into the dirty business. Ike did allow purges to go on at the State Dept. Many Asian specialists were removed—when the Vietnam War started, their absence hurt.
    3. McCarthy met his downfall when he threw charges at the U.S. Army. Hearings were held on TV where the nation saw him as reckless, a bully, and making the whole thing up on the fly. He was later condemned by the Senate and died three years later of alcoholism.
  5. Desegregating American Society
    1. Down South, Jim Crow laws still segregated the races. Though able to vote on paper, only about 20% of southern blacks were actually registered to vote (only 5% in the Deep South states).
    2. On top of the Jim Crow laws, Southern whites used an array of social norms to keep blacks second class.
      1. There was intimidation, threats of job loss, beatings and lynchings. These crimes often were unpunished.
    3. The rest of the world saw this American embarrassment. Swede Gunnar Myrdal wrote An American Dilemma. In his book, he pointed out the hypocrisy of "The American Creed" (liberty, equality, etc.) when placed against the reality of racism in America.
      1. This was a continuation of WWII's "Double-V" argument—how could the U.S. fight Hitler's racism yet let it carry on at home?
    4. The Civil Rights movement did get its beginnings after the war.
      1. There's a saying that "Baseball is life." Baseball certainly mirrors much of America's life and history and the race issue is prime example. In 1947, Jackie Robinson, became the first black to play in the Major Leagues. This symbolic move was the one of the first steps in the Civil Rights movement.
      2. Pres. Harry S Truman integrated the military in 1948, a major step.
      3. The NAACP instigated and won race-based cases.
        1. In Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Supreme Court ruled that black professional schools were not equal to white. This was referring to the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896) saying "separate but equal" facilities were okay.
      4. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused the custom of giving up her bus seat to white riders. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott was led by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., succeeded in changing the custom, and was thrust onto the national stage.
        1. By boycotting, King showed his tactic of "peaceful resistance" (AKA "nonviolent protest" or "civil disobedience"). This tactic was used by Henry David Thoreau protesting the Mexican War and by Mohandas Gandhi in India.
  6. Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
    1. When black soldiers were lynched in 1946, Pres. Truman made the move to integrate the military (1948). But, that's as far as it went. Eisenhower and Congress did little to propel the civil rights.
    2. The only branch of government civil rights activists had to work with was the judicial branch.
    3. The "Warren court", headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren engaged in judicial activism to make changes.
      1. The case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS (1954) was the bombshell. Building on the Sweatt v. Painter case, Brown v. Board said segregated public schools were unconstitutional and should be integrated with "all deliberate speed."
      2. The Brown case essentially overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal" case.
      3. "Deliberate speed" was slow in the South as local school districts simply didn't want to integrate.
        1. After ten years, only 2% of schools in the Deep South were integrated.
        2. Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred roughly around 1970.
    4. Other civil rights events occurred.
      1. Though reluctant to act on civil rights, Eisenhower was forced to at Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The AR governor had activated the National Guard to not admit black students into the school. Challenged, Ike called in federal troops to admit the students.
      2. Also in 1957, a Civil Rights Act was passed, the first since Reconstruction. Ike said it was the "mildest" one possible.
      3. Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) ) to organize black churches.
      4. In Greensboro, NC, the "sit-in" movement began. Black students protested segregated lunch counters by sitting at white-only counters. They wouldn't get served, but their sitting down shut down the counters until the policy was changed.
        1. With success in Greensboro, the movement spread and became wade-ins, lie-ins, and pray-ins.
        2. Black students formed the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to organize efforts.
  7. Eisenhower Republicanism at Home
    1. Ike had promised "dynamic conservatism"—be liberal with people, be conservative with money. Ike was a middle-of-the-road politician who didn't strike too far one way or the other.
    2. Eisenhower wanted to balance the federal budget and safeguard from "creeping socialism."
      1. He cut military spending, supported transferring control of offshore oil drilling to the states, and tried to cut back on the TVA by encouraging private power companies instead of government ones.
      2. When the Salk polio vaccine was given freely, Ike's secretary of health, education, and welfare said it was socialism coming in through the back door.
      3. Under Sec. of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson, the government bought up grain at the clip of $2 million per day in hopes of keeping prices up. Farmers struggled none-the-less.
      4. The Mexican government was concerned that illegal Mexican immigration into the U.S. would undermine the bracero program of legal immigrants. Ike started "Operation Wetback" to round up and return illegal Mexican immigrants.
      5. Ike again reversed the governments policy toward American Indians. FDR's "Indian New Deal" would go back to policies similar to the old Dawes Severalty Act—end tribes and assimilate into mainstream American culture. This move was unpopular and ended in 1961.
      6. Ike did keep much of the New Deal.
        1. Social Security, unemployment benefits stayed on.
        2. Ike even one-upped FDR with his Interstate Highway Act. It built 42,000 interstate miles. These highways did much to change the economic and social structure of America. They helped businesses and families move from downtowns to suburbs, from Main Street to Wal-Mart.
  8. A New Look in Foreign Policy
    1. Sec. of State John Foster Dulles wanted to go beyond the policy of containment. He wanted to "rollback" communism, to liberate countries that had been taken over.
      1. He proposed cutting back on military spending, but focusing on building nuclear weapon-carrying bombers in a "Strategic Air Command."
      2. The new policy also spoke of "massive retaliation", the threat that any nuclear action would result in a massive response.
      3. This stepping up of policy centered on "deterrence" (convincing an enemy to not act) and it greatly increased the stakes of the Cold War.
    2. Ike wanted to ease the tension a bit with Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev, but Ike was blocked.
      1. Also, the Russians ruthlessly put down a revolution in Hungary.
  9. The Vietnam Nightmare
    1. Southeast Asia, for years, had been under French colonial rule. The Asians wanted France out.
      1. Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh had tried to appeal to Woodrow Wilson for self-determination, way back in 1919. He felt FDR may be sympathetic to Vietnam's cause. However, Ho Chi Minh started going more and more communist, and the U.S. started backing away.
    2. America simply wanted to let France handle the growing communism (though the U.S. paid for 80% of France's fighting).
      1. At Dienbienphu (1954), France was surrounded, lost, and France simply decided to leave Southeast Asia. This created a void where communism could grow. This battle marks the real beginning of America's interest in Vietnam.
    3. A multinational conference at Geneva split Vietnam in half at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam wound up communist, a non-communist government in South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
    4. Like NATO, Sec. Dulles created SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization). It was more symbolic than anything, though.
  10. Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East
    1. Russia formed the Warsaw Pact (1956) to balance NATO.
    2. But, the "spirit of Geneva" (the peace conference) encouraged an ease in tensions. When Ike asked for arms reductions, Khrushchev was receptive. Also, Khrushchev publicly denounced the atrocities of Stalin (Stalin had killed some 20 million of his own people).
    3. A wake-up call happened in 1956 when Hungary was protesting against the communists. The Soviets rolled in the tanks and crushed the rebellion. The U.S. gave no aid and it was clear the Cold War would continue.
    4. Communism, colonialism, and oil combined in events in the Middle East as well.
      1. The U.S. worried Russia would invade the Middle East for its oil. The CIA pulled off a coup in Iran and placed a young shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi in charge as essentially a dictator.
        1. This operation was successful for the time, but would come back to haunt the U.S. in the 1970's.
      2. In Egypt, nationalist Gamal Abdel Nassar wanted to build a dam on the Nile. America and Britain offered some help, then Nassar flirted with communism. Sec. Dulles removed the U.S. offer and Nassar took over the Suez Canal. This threatened the oil supply to the West.
        1. Britain and France attacked Egypt (Oct. 1956) without America's knowledge. Ike would not supply oil to Britain and France and they had to withdraw. The U.N. sent in peacekeeping forces.
        2. This was to end to America's "oil weapon." In 1940, the U.S. produced 2/3 of the world's oil. By 1948, the U.S. was a net importer of oil.
      3. Ike and Congress declared the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957. It promised U.S. help to the Middle East if threatened by communism.
        1. In the Middle East, communism wasn't the real threat to the U.S., nationalism and the power of oil was. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran linked with Venezuela to form OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries). OPEC would become a major headache for America.
  11. Round Two for “Ike”
    1. The election of 1956 was a repeat of '52: Eisenhower vs. Adlai Stevenson. The Democrats attacked Ike's health and said he was a part-time president—doing more golfing than governing.
    2. Times were good and Ike was popular, he won big again, 457 to 73.
      1. However, both houses of Congress did go to the Democrats.
    3. Ike lost two of his top men. Sec. of State Dulles died of cancer in '59. Ike's assistant Sherman Adams had to step down due to bribery charges. There would be less golfing for the president.
    4. The labor unions had been getting ugly with things like gangsterism, fraud, bullying.
      1. The AFL-CIO (combined at this point) had to boot out the Teamsters because of their leader James Hoffa's rough tactics. He was convicted of jury-tampering, served a while, then disappeared (likely mobsters he'd angered finally got him).
      2. Ike got the Landrum-Griffin Act passed (1959) to watch labor unions' bookkeeping and other sleazy monkey-business.
    5. On Oct. 4, 1957, Americans were stunned to read that the Russians had placed the first satellite in orbit, the 184 pound Sputnik I. The space race was on. A month later, Sputnik II put a 1100 pound satellite in space, and a dog.
      1. Four months later, the U.S. sent up Explorer I with America's first satellite (a tiny 2.5 pounds).
      2. Americans had comfortably assumed the U.S. led in all matters scientific; apparently, not true. Worse, the logic went: if the Soviets can put a dog in space, then they can deliver a nuclear weapon to the U.S. using ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).
      3. Rocket fever started.
        1. Ike set up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and channeled money.
        2. By 1960, several U.S. satellites were up and ICBMs were tested.
        3. Schools also changed. After Sputnik, emphasis was taken from the humanities (art, drama, dance, etc.) and placed on the sciences and math. The National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) provided millions of dollars in college loans to teach science and languages.
  12. The Continuing Cold War
    1. Testing nuclear weapons was dirty business—radioactive fallout is not healthy. Both the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. said they'd stop "dirty tests." In a world of distrust, policing this wasn't possible, however.
    2. Tension was high in 1958. Lebanon was threatened by Egypt and communism. They asked for U.S. help under the Eisenhower Doctrine. Ike sent several thousand U.S. troops and the situation was resolved without any loss of life.
    3. In 1959, Nikita Khrushchev wanted to look good for propaganda purposes. He invited Ike to Russia. Khrushchev spoke to the U.N. General Assembly and offered complete Soviet disarmament (this was hollow talk).
      1. Khrushchev met Eisenhower at Camp David. Things sounded good at the Russian leader spoke of evacuating Berlin.
      2. This "spirit of Camp David" didn't last long. The next year, there was to be a summit in Paris. Berlin was to be the main topic.
        1. The night before the summit, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down. The plane had indeed been spying on Russia in their airspace (a no-no). The "U-2 Incident" was an embarrassment to the U.S and to Ike. The summit fell apart.
  13. Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism
    1. The Latin American nations were upset that the U.S. gave billions to Europe (the Marshall Plan) and millions to them.
      1. Latin America also disliked continued American interventionism, such as a CIA coup in Guatemala (1954) and support to nearly any dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.
    2. In Cuba 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista whom America supported. Castro began to nationalize Cuban lands, many were owned by Americans. Castro's plan was to take from large landowners then distribute the land to the people. His tactics, however, were bloody and merciless.
      1. Castro's communistic actions pleased and endeared him to the Soviet Union.
      2. Almost 1 million Cubans fled to America, mostly to Miami and Tampa (still headquarters for American cigars).
      3. In protest, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 and started a strict economic embargo.
      4. There was talk of invoking the Monroe Doctrine to keep Russia out. Khrushchev said the doctrine was dead and threatened nuclear missiles if Cuba was attacked.
  14. Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency
    1. The 1960 election was a memorable one. The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon (V.P. candidate Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.) and the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy (V.P. candidate Lyndon B. Johnson).
    2. Kennedy was Catholic, supposedly a drawback in an election. But, his faith might've gained as many votes as it lost.
    3. The 1960 TV debates were important. Kennedy was young, handsome, articulate, and spoke into the camera (to the viewers). Nixon came off as sweaty, shifty, and unshaven. As V.P. for 8 years, Nixon was likely the front-runner. But, the TV debates helped draw the race to dead even and again showed the power of TV.
    4. Kennedy won the very close election, 303 to 219 in the electoral. The popular vote differed by only 118,000 votes out of 68 million cast.
  15. An Old General Fades Away
    1. All-in-all, Eisenhower's eight years were respectable for their dignity, decency, sincerity, good-will, and moderation.
    2. The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limited a president to two terms. The thinking, then, was that Ike's power would diminish his last couple of years since everyone knew he was on his way out. Instead, Ike was very active in his last couple of years as president.
      1. The St. Lawrence seaway was finished in 1959. The cities of the Great Lakes were now seaports to the ocean.
      2. Two states were added: Alaska and Hawaii in 1959.
    3. The biggest failure of Eisenhower was that he didn't embrace the infant civil rights movement. Being a moderate, Ike would not shake things up with civil rights changes.
    4. Still, Ike did more good than bad: he incorporated Democratic New Deal ideas, was restrained at using the military, he ended one war and avoided others, and presided over one of America's most prosperous decades.
  16. A Cultural Renaissance
    1. Artists experimented with abstract expressionism. Jackson Pollock literally flung paint onto canvas to create modern art and Claes Oldenburg turned everyday objects, like a telephone, into giant-sized sculptures/art. Later, Andy Warhol created colorful “pop art” with paintings such as a tomato soup can.
    2. Architecture continued to break new ground.
      1. Glass-and-steel skyscrapers were thrown skyward. Example: U.N. Building in NYC.
      2. Frank Lloyd Wright was an understudy of Louis Sullivan (of earlier Chicago skyscraper fame). Wright stunned people with his use of concrete, glass, and steel and his unconventional theory that “form follows function.”
    3. Marvelous literature came at this time. Ernest Hemingway wrote The Old Man and the Sea (1952) and won the Nobel Prize for literature. He killed himself in 1961. John Steinbeck won the Prize too. He wrote East of Eden (1952) and Travels with Charley.
    4. Whereas WWI had spawned tremendous literature, WWII didn't so much. There were some WWII novels…
      1. The earlier WWII novels used cutting realism, as WWI had done. Norman Mailer wrote The Naked and the Dead. James Jones wrote From Here to Eternity about Pearl Harbor.
      2. Later WWII novels turned away from realism and used fantasy. Joseph Heller wrote a quirky Catch-22. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. wrote Slaughterhouse Five in a crazy style that jumped all over the place.
    5. Literature looked at social issues.
      1. John Updike criticized conformist affluence in Rabbit, Run. The similar theme was pursued in John Cheever's The Wapshot Chronicle.
    6. Poets boomed too. They were usually very critical of American life as being showy and hollow. Older poets were still active, such as Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, and William Carlos Williams.
      1. New poets emerged to overshadow the old. Theodore Roethke wrote about the beauty of the land, Robert Lowells tried to apply Puritan sense to modern problems in poems like For the Union Dead. Sylvia Plath wrote the poem Ariel and the novel The Bell Jar about her mental ills. She died by suicide. Poets Anne Sexton and John Berryman committed suicide as well.
    7. Playwrights wrote masterpieces. Tennessee Williams wrote about screwed-up southerners A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.
      1. Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman. It criticized the conformity culture of the 50's. The Crucible dealt with the Salem witch trials, but clearly was criticism of modern McCarthyism.
      2. More criticism of middle-class life came with Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? African-American life was shown in Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun.
    8. There was much literature written by African-Americans.
      1. Richard Wright wrote Native Son about a black Chicago killer. Ralph Ellison wrote Invisible Man arguing that a black man can't be seen as a real man.
      2. James Baldwin wrote The Fire Next Time and LeRoi Jones wrote plays like Dutchman.
    9. Southern literature had its greats. William Faulkner often wrote in the newly popular stream-of-consciousness style. His novels were hard to understand and psychologically charged. An example would be The Sound and the Fury.
      1. Flannery O'Connor wrote about her native Georgia. William Styron wrote about his native Virginia's ugly past in a novel The Confessions of Nat Turner about the slave 1831 rebellion.
    10. Jewish authors produced great books too. J.D. Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye about a sassy prep school boy.
      1. Bernard Malamud wrote about Jewish families (his most famous book was The Natural, a baseball book). Saul Bellow wrote of Jewish life in Chicago in books like The Adventures of Augie March. He won the Nobel prize in 1977.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 37 - The Stormy Sixties

  1. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit
    1. Kennedy was the youngest president ever elected (though Teddy Roosevelt had taken over at a younger age). JFK personified the glamor and optimism of a younger, robust, vibrant America. Inaugural addresses seldom are memorable, Kennedy's was memorable with the line, "…ask not, what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country."
      1. JFK also put together a young cabinet, "the best and the brightest", including his brother Robert Kennedy, 35 years old, as Attorney General.
        1. "Bobby" Kennedy focused the FBI's efforts on "internal security", not-so-much on organized crime, and none on civil rights.
        2. Longtime FBI head J. Edgar Hoover did not like the reforms.
      2. Robert McNamara left a business background to become head of the Defense Department.
    2. JFK had high expectations. He'd spoken of a "New Frontier", hinting that America was on the brink of something newly great. He was optimistic and idealistic.
      1. Kennedy started the Peace Corps where mostly young, idealistic Americans would go to third world nations to help out and teach. Usually the fields were health, agriculture, languages and math.
    3. Kennedy was wealthy, Harvard-educated, witty. He and his cabinet went to the White House very confident.
  2. The New Frontier at Home
    1. The New Frontier, his domestic social program, was threatened by both Democrat and Republican conservatives. Some of Kennedy's steps were put made…
      1. The House Rules Committee was expanded—this might help avoid conservative hang-ups.
      2. A noninflationary wage agreement was settled, contingent on companies keeping prices down. When steel companies did not, Kennedy called in their leaders into the White House, reprimanded them, and they backed down.
      3. Supporters of free enterprise and laissez-faire capitalism were not happy about these actions. They did support JFK when he said he would not increase spending but would cut taxes to stimulate the economy.
    2. Kennedy initiated the quest to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. The goal was almost unthinkable when he said it, but in July, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the moon.
  3. Rumblings in Europe
    1. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev met in 1961. Khrushchev bullied and young president. JFK was shaken, but stood his ground.
    2. East Berliners were flooding into West Berlin—this was an unacceptable embarrassment to the U.S.S.R. So, the Soviet Union began to build the Berlin Wall that same year to keep folks in.
      1. The Berlin Wall would become the most obvious symbol of the Cold War split and what Winston Churchill had called the "Iron Curtain" between the east and west.
    3. Western Europe had made a great turn-around, thanks in large part to the Marshall Plan's help.
      1. To further help Western Europe, Kennedy got the Trade Expansion Act passed. It was to lower tariffs by up to 50% and thus help the new Common Market in trade. Lowering the tariffs did increase trade substantially.
    4. France, however, was not as receptive to the U.S. Pres. Charles de Gaulle was making a name for himself by sticking up to and sticking out his chest at the Americans. For example, he'd vetoed Britain's request to join the Common Market in fear of a "special relationship" with America. He also pursued nuclear weapons for France, fearing America would not come through in a crisis.
      1. Amazingly, de Gaulle seemed to have forgotten that less than 20 years earlier, Hitler and the Nazis had controlled the streets of Paris until America pushed them out.
  4. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Response”
    1. When the French left Southeast Asia in 1954, Laos was left without a government and a civil war started.
      1. The Americans feared a communist government would emerge—Ike had put money into the country and Kennedy looked for a diplomatic way out. The Geneva Conference (1962) set up a peace, though it stood on shaky legs.
    2. Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara moved America's policy away from "massive retaliation" to "flexible response." He didn't want a small nation with relatively small problems to give America two options: backing down or nuclear holocaust. Rather, he wanted to deal with situations with a variety of options.
      1. The logic was good, the reality came to haunt the U.S.—America could now get in just a little bit, maybe a bit more, but then once in, how to get out without looking bad? This would be the story of Vietnam.
      2. To match the situation with the force necessary, Kennedy upped spending on the Special Forces (Green Berets).
  5. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire
    1. Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel. The South was led by Ngo Din Diem and back by the U.S. The shaky government wasn't a democracy in the American sense, but it wasn't communist. The North was led by Ho Chi Minh and was communist. They threatened to overrun the South.
    2. To defend from the North, Kennedy sent "military advisers" (U.S. troops) to South Vietnam. They were supposedly there to instruct on how to fight, but not fight themselves. Kennedy, "in the final analysis", said it was "their war."
      1. By the time of his death, JFK had sent about 15,000 "advisers." It was now becoming difficult to just leave without looking bad.
  6. Cuban Confrontations
    1. Kennedy improved relations with Latin America with the Alliance for Progress (called the "Marshall Plan for Latin America"). His goal was to curb the threat of rising communism by narrowing the rich-poor gap.
      1. Progress, however, was minimal. Some American "gimmies" weren't going to suddenly solve huge problems.
    2. JFK got a major embarrassment with the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961).
      1. The CIA secretly trained Cuban exiles with the goal of invading Cuba, rallying all the people, and overthrowing Castro. Castro's troops met and halted the attack at the Bay of Pigs. Kennedy would not help the attackers, there was no ground-swelling of support from within Cuba, and the attack was crushed.
      2. Added to secret American attempts to get Castro assassinated, the Bay of Pigs pushed Castro even more toward communism.
      3. JFK took full responsibility for the attack, and in doing so, his popularity actually went up.
    3. Cuba was again on the world stage with the Cuban Missile Crisis that took place in October of 1961.
      1. Aerial photos showed that the U.S.S.R. was putting nuclear missiles in Cuba. For America, Russian nukes 90 miles from Florida could not stand.
      2. Kennedy listened to options. At his brother Bobby's suggestion, JFK chose to impose a naval blockade since it was middle-ground between an invasion and an embargo. It put the ball back into Khrushchev's court.
        1. Khrushchev promised to run the blockade and continue assembling the missile sites.
      3. For 13 days, the world was as close to nuclear war as it'd ever been. Thankfully, Khrushchev backed down and the Soviet ships turned back.
      4. In return for removing the missile sites, Kennedy agreed to remove missiles from Turkey (these were outdated anyway). A "hot line" was installed between Washington and Moscow to avoid lacking communication in a crisis.
    4. Kennedy also encouraged Americans to stop thinking of the Russians as monsters, but rather as people just like them. This was the beginnings of "détente" or relaxed tensions.
  7. The Struggle for Civil Rights This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Kennedy had campaigned toward and received black support. He was slow to grab onto the civil rights movement, however. Still, things were happening fast in the movement…
    2. Freedom Riders, generally young white northerners, rode buses through the South to draw attention to segregation. Some Southerners turned violent against the buses—this drew more attention to the Freedom Riders.
    3. Kennedy slowly stepped into the civil rights movement.
      1. He was concerned that if he linked with Martin Luther King, Jr., it might be revealed that King had friends who had communist connections. Robert Kennedy had J. Edgar Hoover investigate and keep a file on MLK to that end, even tap MLK's phone line.
      2. John Kennedy did help SNCC get started with funds. They started the Voter Education Project to register southern black voters.
    4. Despite Brown v. Board 6+ years prior, integration was slow.
      1. At the Univ. of Mississippi, James Meredith was blocked from enrolling by white students. Kennedy sent in federal marshals and troops so Meredith could go to class.
      2. Martin Luther King, Jr. organized a peaceful protest of segregation in Birmingham, AL in early 1963.
        1. The protesters were attacked by police dogs, electric cattle prods, and high pressure water hoses.
        2. America watched these vicious scenes on TV. These types of instances helped to slowly start changing public opinion in favor of the protesters.
      3. Kennedy went on TV in June of 1963 and called the race situation a "moral issue" for America. He publicly aligned himself with the civil rights movement and called for new civil rights legislation.
    5. In August, 1963, MLK led 200,000 demonstrators in the famous "March on Washington." There he gave his "I Have a Dream" speech, then met with Kennedy for talks.
    6. Violence kept on, however. Medgar Evers, a black civil rights worker, was shot and killed the very night Kennedy came on TV. In September, a bomb exploded in a black church killing four black girls.
  8. The Killing of Kennedy
    1. In November of 1963 JFK made a campaign trip down South (his weakest area). Kennedy was shot and killed in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald.
      1. Oswald was shot and killed on TV a couple of days later by Jack Ruby.
    2. Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president on Air Force One heading back to Washington.
    3. America was stunned. Her young, charismatic and idealistic president was gone.
      1. Sadly, his reputation would later be hurt when his womanizing and connections to organized crime came to light.
  9. The LBJ Brand on the Presidency
    1. Lyndon Baines Johnson was a former senator and held FDR as his hero. LBJ was a master at getting Congress to go his way by giving the "Johnson treatment"—getting up-in-the-face and jabbing a finger-in-the-chest.
      1. LBJ was a true cuss from Texas. He was vain, super egotistical, and crude.
    2. LBJ went liberal as president. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act that JFK had called for and LBJ signed it.
      1. The law banned discrimination in public facilities and sought to end segregation.
      2. It also set up the Equal Employment Opportunity Comm. (EEOC) to serve as watchdog for fair hiring practices.
    3. Johnson spoke of his vision which he called the "Great Society". It was a continuation of New Deal types of programs. The idealistic thinking was that America was so prosperous, there was no reason to accept anything less than prosperity for all. He launched a "War on Poverty."
      1. He got support when Michael Harrington wrote The Other America (1962) which said that despite the affluence, 20% of Americans lived in poverty (40% of African Americans).
  10. Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964
    1. In the 1964 presidential election, Johnson sought to win on his own for the Democrats as a New Dealish liberal. The Republicans chose Sen. Barry Goldwater, a conservative.
    2. Goldwater criticized income taxes, Social Security, the TVA, civil rights laws, nuclear test bans, and the Great Society.
    3. LBJ countered as being a more poised statesman.
      1. In August 1964, there was the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. There, two U.S. warships had been attacked by the North Vietnamese. In response, the Tonkin Gulf Resolution was passed by Congress essentially giving the president a blank check for return action.
      2. Barry Goldwater talked a tough game versus the communists. He hinted that he might even use nuclear weapons if needed. LBJ seized this in an attack ad on TV. It showed a little girl picking daisies, then exploding in a nuclear mushroom cloud. The message: elect Goldwater and Ka-Boom!
    4. LBJ won the election 486 to 52.
  11. The Great Society Congress
    1. Democrats also won large victories in the Congress. This opened the door for the Great Society programs.
    2. The War on Poverty was stepped up. The Office of Economic Opportunity had its budget doubled to $2 billion. Another billion was to be spent on Appalachia, a region of America that had been little touched by modern prosperity.
    3. At LBJ's pushing two new cabinet offices were created: the Dept. of Transportation (DOT) and the Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). America's first black cabinet member, Robert C. Weaver, was named to head HUD.
    4. Johnson's Great Society sought to improve the Big Four areas:
      1. Education - Money was given to students and not schools to thus get around the separation of church and state issue. Project Head Start was preschool for kids who otherwise couldn't afford it.
      2. Medical care - Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor were passed in 1965. These programs would become staple rights in America's minds; they'd also become a major cause of national debt.
      3. Immigration reform - The Immigration and Nationality Act got rid of the old quota system around since 1921. The law doubled the number of immigrants allowed in (to 290,000), allowed family members in, and for the first time limited the number of Western Hemisphere immigrants (to 120,000). Immigration was changing from Europe to Latin American and Asia.
      4. Voting rights - LBJ wanted to get more African Americans voting (see the section below).
  12. Battling for Black Rights
    1. Voting among African Americans in the south was rare (only 5% in Mississippi) as whites used tricks to prevent black votes.
      1. The Voting Rights Act (1965) sought to end the racial discrimination that accompanied voting. It banned literacy tests and it sent registrars to the polls to watch out for dirty dealings.
      2. The Twenty-fourth Amendment forbade poll taxes where you had to pay to vote.
    2. The Civil Rights Movement marched on.
      1. In the "Freedom Summer" (1964), African Americans and whites joined hands and sang "We Shall Overcome" to protest racism.
      2. In June of that year, three civil rights workers were found beaten to death in Mississippi (one black, two white). 21 whites were arrested, including the sheriff. The white jury did not convict anyone.
      3. Martin Luther King, Jr. set up a voter registration drive in Selma, Alabama. The plan was to march from Selma to the capital of Montgomery.
        1. State police used tear gas, whips. Two people died in the chaos.
        2. Lyndon Johnson joined the Civil Rights Movement by calling for an end to "bigotry and injustice." This is when the Voting Rights Act gained steam and passed.
  13. Black Power
    1. Martin Luther King's approach was nonviolent. By 1965, he was making progress, though it was slow. To many young African Americans, it was too slow—they wanted to take matters into their own hands.
    2. A riot broke out in the Watts area of Los Angeles. The ghetto burned for a week, 34 people died.
    3. New black leaders dismissed nonviolent protest. Some made fun of MLK calling him "de Lawd."
      1. Malcolm Little changed his named to Malcolm X. He'd been influenced by black militants in the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam had been founded by Elijah Poole (who changed his name to Elijah Muhammad).
        1. Malcolm X was a fantastic speaker. 
        2. Malcolm X later turned away from Elijah Muhammad, toward mainstream Islam. He was shot and killed in 1965 by Nation of Islam gunmen.
      2. The Black Panthers roamed the streets of Oakland armed with powerful weapons "for protection."
      3. Stokely Carmichael (from Trinidad) led the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC had begun with the peaceful sit-ins of the 50's. Now, it'd taken a rather "non-Nonviolent" stance.
        1. Carmichael spoke of Black Power, a catch-all phrase calling for African Americans to carry out their political and economic power.
        2. Many African Americans interpreted "Black Power" as a separatist movement. There was a movement to emphasize uniqueness such as "Afro" hair, clothes, names for children, and African studies in colleges.
    4. More riots broke out in black ghettos, such as in Detroit (which left 43 dead) and Newark, NJ (25 dead).
    5. To whites, these actions were troubling—it seemed chaos was becoming the rule. Northern whites were shocked when riots came to their hometown. They'd figured the "negro problem" was a southern problem.
    6. Unfortunately, the voice of nonviolence ended when Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated in April of 1968.
      1. Riots followed and over 40 died. But, things changed as voter registration skyrocketed and within four years, about half of black children were in integrated schools.
  14. Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres
    1. When a revolt broke out in the Dominican Republic, Johnson saw it as communism trying to crop up. He sent 25,000 troops to quell the revolt. He was criticized for making a knee-jerk reaction.
    2. In Vietnam, things were stepping up in a big way.
      1. Johnson ordered "Operation Rolling Thunder"—full-out bombing on North Vietnam.
      2. LBJ used the Tonkin Gulf Resolution to follow a policy of "escalation." In 1965, he sent some 400,000 soldiers to Vietnam. This is usually marked as the starting-point for the Vietnam War.
      3. America's was "all in" in Vietnam at this point, win or lose. It was costing up to $30 billion per year too.
  15. Vietnam Vexations
    1. The war in Vietnam was dragging on in an ugly manner, and the U.S. was criticized internationally. Charles de Gaulle of France (who always looked for an instance to poke at America) ordered NATO out of France.
    2. In the Six-Day War (June 1967), Israel shocked and beat U.S.S.R.-supported Egypt. Israel gained land in the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the Jordan River (including Jerusalem).
      1. These lands brought 100,000 Palestinians under Israeli control. This situation still breeds problems.
    3. Back in the U.S., protests against the Vietnam War increased. Students held "teach-ins", burnt draft cards and fled to Canada to avoid being drafted.
      1. America was being split into "doves" against the war and "hawks" who supported the war.
    4. There was opposition in the government too, led by Sen. William Fulbright, head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held televised hearings where people spoke against the war.
    5. The CIA investigated people at home, a no-no. In Cointelpro, the FBI investigated "dove" leaders at home. This seemed more like a totalitarian state, but LBJ had it done anyway.
    6. By 1968, the war had become the longest and most unpopular in U.S. history. LBJ said the war's end was near, but it was not.
  16. Vietnam Topples Johnson
    1. January 1968 was the break point of the war. At that time, North Vietnam launched a massive "Tet Offensive" against southern cities. The U.S. stopped the attack, but it showed the enemy was not all-but-done and that there were years of fighting left.
      1. The war was taking a toll on Johnson too, emotionally and physically.
    2. American brass asked for more troops, but Johnson would not send them.
    3. The war also split the Democratic party (1968 was another election year).
      1. Eugene McCarthy was the voice of the doves. He was supported by peace-loving college students. He scored a high 42% of the New Hampshire primary vote.
      2. Days later, Robert Kennedy entered the race, also as a dove. He brought the Kennedy name and charisma.
      3. A bigger shock came when LBJ announced that (a) he was freezing troop levels in Vietnam and (b) he would not run for reelection. The Democratic party was wide open.
  17. The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968
    1. LBJ out of the race, V.P. Hubert H. Humphrey seemed the next logical choice. It was now McCarthy, Kennedy, and Humphrey for the Democrats.
      1. Just as it seemed Robert Kennedy would become the Democratic nominee, he was shot and killed. Humphrey would be nominated.
    2. Richard Nixon would run as the Republican. He was a "hawk" and spoke of getting law-and-order in the cities at home.
    3. Another candidate, George C. Wallace, ran for the American Independent party. He ran almost exclusively on a pro-segregation ticket saying "Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!"
    4. Nixon would win the election, 301 to Humphrey's 191. Wallace got 46 southern electoral votes.
  18. The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson
    1. Lyndon Johnson and his Great Society was drug down by Vietnam.
    2. He was in a position where no matter what he did in Vietnam, either the hawks or doves would not be happy.
    3. He went home to his Texas ranch and died in 1973.
  19. The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s
    1. The 1960's were a boom of cultural changes and challenges. Young people propelled the cultural changes—the slogan was, "Trust no one over 30."
    2. The roots of the counterculture went back to the "beatniks" of the 1950's. Poet Allen Ginsburg and writer Jack Kerouac's book On the Road were the prelude for the hippie generation.
      1. Movies hinted at a frustrated youth too, like The Wild One with Marlon Brando and Rebel Without a Cause with James Dean.
    3. One of the first big protests took place at Univ. of California at Berkeley in 1964 called the "Free Speech Movement." This protest was rather clean-cut, later ones would be "far out" with psychedelic drugs, "acid rock", and the call to "tune in and drop out" of school.
    4. A "sexual revolution" took place in the 1960's.
      1. The birth-control pill reduced pregnancies and made sex seem more casual. Feminists like the pill for freeing women from being pregnant all the time.
      2. Homosexuals called for acceptance. When some gay men in New York were attacked, the movement had some fuel. Later, in the 1980's AIDS popped up, mostly within the male homosexual community. This set back the gay movement.
    5. The group Students for a Democratic Society had stood against poverty and war. By this time, they'd started a secret group called the "Weathermen" which was essentially an underground terrorist group. They started riots in the name of fighting poverty and war.
    6. A drug culture emerged. Smoking "grass" turned into dropping LSD. The dirty underworld of drug dealers and drug addicts emerged.
    7. The older and more traditional generations were appalled at these goings-on. They'd grown up through the Great Depression and WWII, were thankful for what they had, and understood sacrifice.
      1. To traditionalists, the counterculture generation was little more than spoiled baby boomers. They had too much time in college to study mush-mush ideas and too much money in their pockets to fool around with.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 38 - Challenges to the Postwar Order

  1. Sources of Stagnation
    1. America had enjoyed a long economic boom in the 1950s and 60s. The 1970s would see that boom end.
    2. No year's productivity during the 70s would equal any year in the 50s or 60s. There were several reasons for the slow-down.
      1. Women and teens increasingly entered the workforce. Generally speaking, they were less skilled, often had temporary jobs.
      2. Machinery was getting old and run down by this time.
      3. The major cause was the upward spiral of inflation. Vietnam War spending helped cause inflation, but it was caused mostly from increased oil prices.
      4. What's more, the boom-years had put more money in people's hands. Anytime this is the case, prices go up.
    3. America's economic lead had dwindled as Germany and Japan had by then rebuilt and caught back up.
  2. Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War
    1. Nixon entered the White House promising an honorable end to the war. He pursued "Vietnamization", or returning U.S. troops and turning the war over to the Vietnamese.
      1. This became the "Nixon Doctrine" saying the U.S. would honor its commitments, but the Vietnamese would have to go it without massive American troop numbers.
    2. The policy was middle-of-the-road, enough to get him elected. Still, with America so divided, their were still opponents—hawks wanted more action, doves wanted to leave immediately. The doves protested loudly.
      1. Nixon appealed to the “silent majority”, those who supported the war, but without the sound and fury of the protesters.
    3. In the earlier part of the war especially, the fighting was done disproportionately by the poorer classes.
      1. Being in college got young men a deferment from the draft (a free pass).
      2. African-Americans suffered casualties at higher rates than whites.
      3. The result was that most Vietnam "grunts" (ground soldiers) were fresh out of high school (the average age was 19).
    4. Morale was low too. A bogged down war, with high casualties and no clear mission led to drugs, mutiny, sabotage, and "fragging" troop's own officers. Frustration was best seen in the infamous My Lai Massacre (1968).
      1. At that village, U.S. troops snapped and killed the entire village, including women and children.
      2. My Lai increased protest at home and helped lead to charges of "baby killers"—an unfair charge for nearly all of the troops.
  3. Cambodianizing the Vietnam War
    1. The North Vietnamese had been using their neighbor as a staging-ground for attacks. The land was out-of-bounds for U.S. troops, but the North channeled supplies through Cambodia down the "Ho Chi Minh Trail."
      1. In 1970, Nixon ordered the U.S. to invade Cambodia to put a stop to the uneven playing field.
    2. On U.S. universities, there was much protest to moving into Cambodia. The logic went, "The U.S. is not at war with Cambodia, why are we invading there?"
      1. A protest at Kent State University got out of hand and the National Guard was called in to disperse the protestors. For some reason, the Guard opened fire and killed four protesters.
      2. A similar situation occurred at Jackson State College killing two.
      3. The rift between hawks and doves had widened. Nixon pulled out of Cambodia after only two months. U.S. troops resented Nixon's reversal and having to fight with "one hand tied behind their back."
    3. Congress was regretting the blank check (Tonkin Gulf Resolution). The Senate repealed the Resolution (this was symbolic only).
    4. The Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) was passed. It lowered the voting age to 18. The reasoning was that 18 and 19 year olds should be allowed to vote for the politicians sending them off to war.
    5. The New York Times dropped a bombshell in June 1971. They broke the "Pentagon Papers"—a top secret study that showed goof-ups by JFK and LBJ.
      1. The Pentagon Papers helped to create the "credibility gap" which was the gap between what the government said (the war is going great) and the reality (it wasn't).
  4. Nixon’s Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow
    1. China and the Soviet Union were fighting (literally at times) over what it means to be a communist. Nixon saw this as a chance to step in and play one against the other.
    2. National security adviser Henry A. Kissinger had been secretly meeting in Paris with North Vietnamese officials in hopes of working to an end of the war. He was also preparing the way for Nixon to visit China and Russia.
    3. Nixon did visit China, in 1972. It was a symbolic visit where each side promised to get along better. Three months later, Nixon went to Russia. With better U.S.-China relations, he felt Russia would be inclined to give in a bit. He was right.
      1. The U.S.S.R. was low on food. A deal was struck where the U.S. would sell $750+ million grain to the Soviets.
      2. There was some disarmament as well. America and the Soviets agreed to an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) reduction and to a string of "Strategic Arms Limitations Talks" (SALT).
        1. This was a hollow victory though. The quantity may have been limited, but agreements could be easily ignored and were by both sides.
        2. Plus, the move was now toward "MIRVs" (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles) where several nuclear weapons were mounted on a single missile.
    4. Still, getting along better with China and Russia brought on another round of détente (eased tensions).
    5. Nixon was still against communism. This is seen in the government's involvement in Latin American governments that were possibly going red.
  5. A New Team on the Supreme Bench
    1. Under Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Supreme Court had made a noticeable shift to the left (liberal side) and was activist. Nixon fussed about this move. Several cases showed the trend…
    2. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) - Struck down a state law banning contraceptive use as a "right of privacy."
    3. A series of cases gave rights to defendants in criminal cases.
      1. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) - Said all defendants were entitled to a lawyer.
      2. The Escobedo and Miranda cases (1966) - Said arrested individuals must be told their rights.
    4. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) - A public figure could only sue for libel if "malice" on the writer's part could be proven. This opened wide the door for jabs at politicians and movies stars.
    5. Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township v. Schempp (1963) - Removed prayer and the Bible from schools, arguing the First Amendment separates church and state.
    6. Reynolds v. Sims (1964) - Forbade creative district lines that made some people's votes weigh more than others. This type of gerrymandering had been used by southern whites to keep power.
    7. Nixon sought to change the Court's liberal trend by appointing otherwise-minded justices. Warren E. Burger was quickly nominated, accepted, and became chief justice. Nixon appointed a total of four supposedly conservative justices.
      1. However, justices are free to rule as they wish, not how the president wants. The Burger Court was reluctant to undo what the Warren Court had done.
      2. Evidence of how the court was not conservative came with the Roe v. Wade decision (1973) which legalized abortion.
  6. Nixon on the Home Front This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Contrary to what one might guess from a conservative, Nixon made the Great Society programs grow. For example:
      1. Money for Medicare, Medicaid, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) increased. The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) was created to help the old, blind, and disabled. Social Security would be automatically increased with inflation.
    2. In his controversial "Philadelphia Plan", trade-unions were required to set "goals and timetables" for hiring blacks.
      1. The policy was extended to all federal contracts. It forced businesses to hire a quota of minorities.
      2. The Supreme Court backed Nixon in Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971).
        1. The court prohibited things like intelligence tests, saying they limited women and minorities in some fields. The court suggested hiring proportions should be the same ratio as the population.
      3. To many, especially white males, the idea of "affirmative action" had turned into "preferential treatment" or "reverse discrimination."
    3. Environmental laws were passed.
      1. The godmother of the modern environmental movement was Rachel Carson. She wrote Silent Spring (1962) about the ill-effects of the pesticide DDT.
      2. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was formed in 1970 along with the Occupational Health and Safety Admin. (OSHA) to set safety standards in workplaces.
      3. The Clean Air Act (1970) and the Endangered Species Act (1973) were passed. Symbolically, "Earth Day" began.
    4. Back to the economy, Nixon tried to halt inflation by imposing a 90-day wage and price freeze in 1971.
      1. He surprisingly took the U.S. off the gold standard and devalued the dollar. This ended the "Bretton Woods" system of currency stabilization set after WWII.
    5. As a minority president (he'd gotten only 43% of the votes), Nixon gathered southern support by appointing conservative justices, paying little attention to civil rights, and opposing school busing.
  7. The Nixon Landslide of 1972
    1. North Vietnam attacked across the dividing line (the "DMZ") in 1972. Nixon responded by ramping up bombings and mining the harbors of the North.
      1. The fear was that Russia and China might respond—they didn't, thanks to Nixon's smoothing of relations.
    2. The presidential election of 1972 saw Nixon seek reelection. The Democrats nominated George McGovern who promised to end the war in 90 days.
      1. McGovern was supported by young adults and women. His campaign was hurt when it became known that his V.P. candidate, Thomas Eagleton, had received psychiatric treatment.
      2. 12 days before the election, Henry Kissinger announced that "peace is at hand" and an agreement would be announced in a few days. Nixon won in a huge way, 520 to 17.
    3. The agreement Kissinger had spoken of didn't come just yet. Nixon ramped up the bombings in attempt to drive the North back to the bargaining table, it work, and on January 23, 1973 a cease-fire was reached.
      1. Nixon declared "peace with honor", but it was hollow. The U.S. would withdraw, but the North kept 145,000 soldiers and 30% of the South occupied.
  8. The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act
    1. In mid-1973, people were surprised to learn that the U.S. had made some 3,500 secret bombings of Cambodia. This despite assurances from the government that Cambodia's neutrality was intact. The "credibility gap" widened.
      1. Nixon's goal had been to hurt the communists there and help the non-communists.
      2. The end result was that, in the chaos, a tyrant named Pol Pot killed some 2 million of his own people.
    2. Congress set out to ensure that no "blank check" like the Tonkin Gulf Resolution would be passed again.
      1. Congress passed the War Powers Act (1973). It said (1) the president must report to Congress within 48 hours of putting troops in harm's way in a foreign country and (2) there would be a 60 to 90 day limit.
      2. This law helped start what was called the "New Isolationism."
  9. The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis
    1. The Arab nations were unhappy about their loss to Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967. In 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel trying to win back lands lost.
      1. America aided Israel, while Kissinger helped keep the Soviets out of the fray. After tense times, an uneasy peace was reached.
      2. But, Arab nations were not pleased at America's support of Israel.
    2. In October of 1973, Arab nations placed an embargo on oil.
      1. Long lines formed at gas stations and prices of gas skyrocketed in the U.S.
    3. The "energy crisis" changed things in America.
      1. The Alaska pipeline was approved to flow oil southward.
      2. A 55 MPH speed limit was set to conserve fuel. Americans also moved to smaller cars, like the VW Bug.
      3. There were calls for more use of coal and nuclear power.
    4. The embargo was lifted after 5 months. But, the message was clear: America was addicted to oil and the Middle East had nearly all of the cards in their hands.
      1. Using OPEC to exert their will, the Arab nations nearly quadrupled the price of oil by the end of the 70s.
  10. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President
    1. During the campaign, five men had been caught breaking into the Democratic party's headquarters in the Watergate building. They were snooping files and planting microphones. It was discovered they were part of CREEP (the Committee to Reelect the President).
      1. The question became, "Who ordered this and who knew of this?" Nixon said he knew nothing of the business.
      2. At about the same time, Nixon's V.P., Spiro Agnew, had his own mini-scandal involving past bribes. Agnew resigned and Gerald Ford was chosen as the new Vice President.
    2. The Senate investigated Watergate. A former White House lawyer, John Dean, accused Nixon of a cover-up (to quiet anyone with any knowledge). It was then learned Nixon had tape recordings of all Oval Office conversations, so the tapes were sought. Nixon refused which looked bad.
      1. Also, in the "Saturday Night Massacre", Nixon fired Watergate investigators and the attorney general, which also looked bad.
      2. Some tapes were handed over in 1974 at the Supreme Court's ruling. They revealed Nixon's foul mouth—embarrassing but not impeachable.
      3. A month later, impeachment for "obstruction of justice" was going forward so Nixon handed over all of the tapes. Those revealed Nixon had indeed ordered a cover-up—this was an impeachable offense.
    3. Rather than get booted out of office, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974. Gerald Ford was sworn in as the new president.
  11. The First Unelected President
    1. Gerald Ford became president without anyone ever voting for him, either for president or vice president.
    2. He was seen as a nice guy, more of an everyman, but a bit of an average-minded and clumsy fellow. None of the negatives were really fair, but that was much of the public view.
    3. Surprisingly, Ford pardoned Nixon for any illegal actions he might have done.
      1. This smelled stinky. The deal appeared to have been…Ford was chosen V.P. so that if Nixon ever got into trouble, Ford would cover his back. There is no way to know this, but that was the perception. This would hurt Ford in the 1976 election.
      2. Later, Ford's popularity went downhill when he gave amnesty to draft dodgers. He felt they'd not served out of heartfelt reasons, so they were welcome to return to the U.S.
    4. Ford's foreign relation activities centered on the Helsinki accords with the U.S.S.R. In these agreements, (1) the boundaries of eastern Europe were agreed upon, (2) agreements were made on traveling from the U.S. and U.S.S.R., and (3) guarantees were made of human rights.
      1. To many Americans, détente was benefiting Russia, but America was getting little in return.
  12. Defeat in Vietnam
    1. America's goal in Vietnam was to contain communism. America left in 1973, generally having done that. In 1975, however, North Vietnam overran and took over South Vietnam.
      1. It was embarrassing that the last Americans were evacuated from the rooftop of the American embassy by helicopter.
    2. Technically, America didn't lose the war. America left when it was a tie, then the U.S.-supported South Vietnam lost. But, in reality and in perception, America lost.
  13. Feminist Victories and Defeats
    1. The feminist movement of the 60s gained some steam entering the 70s.
    2. Congress passed "Title IX" (1972) which prohibited sex discrimination in any federally-funded educational program. This was best seen in the rise of girls' sports to equal boys'.
    3. The Supreme Court heard cases regarding women.
      1. Reed v. Reed and Frontiero v. Richardson, dealt with sex discrimination in laws and jobs.
      2. The Roe v. Wade (1973) case legalized abortion.
    4. The proposed "Equal Rights Amendment" (ERA) passed Congress in 1972. ERA sought to legislate equality by stating equal rights can't be denied due to gender.
      1. Next, 38 states needed to ratify ERA for passage as a Constitutional Amendment. 28 states ratified it quickly. Feminists were energized.
      2. At this point, opposition stalled ERA. Essentially, the opposition felt ERA would undercut and deteriorate the family.
        1. National child care was proposed. The thinking was that this would weaken family life.
        2. The feminist movement was seen as the cause of divorce. The divorce rate had tripled between 1960 and '76.
        3. Many despised abortion. Catholics and other Christians viewed pregnancy as a blessing and charged the feminists viewed it as an inconvenience.
        4. The leader against ERA was Phyliss Schlafly. She traveled the country advocating "STOP ERA" and advocating traditional roles for women.
        5. ERA was failed in 1982, 3 states short of the needed 38.
  14. The Seventies in Black and White
    1. The race issue wouldn't go away. In Milliken v. Bradley, the Supreme Court ruled that, while integrating schools, officials could not force students across district lines.
      1. The practicality of this was that integration took a hit. If students went to their nearest school, the schools would stay largely segregated.
      2. The "white flight" to the suburbs sped up. What was left behind to deal with the tensions of integration were the less-advantaged classes of society.
    2. "Affirmative action" (giving preference to minorities in selection) led to charges of "reverse discrimination."
      1. The idea was that affirmative action meant selection for colleges or jobs based on race, not on achievement.
      2. In the Bakke case (1978), the Supreme Court dealt with reverse discrimination.
        1. Bakke had sued saying he'd been turned down grad school due to policies that favored minorities. He won. The Court said admission preference could not be based on race.
        2. Paradoxically, the court also said race can be used in the overall admission policies to help balance out the student body's demographics.
        3. Thurgood Marshall was the only black justice. He voted against Bakke and said the decision might undo years of civil rights progress.
  15. The Bicentennial Campaign
    1. 1976 was the nation's bicentennial celebration. After years of race problems, Vietnam, and Watergate. Despite all of the turmoil and ousting a president, America and the Constitution had survived. America needed a celebration.
    2. It was also an election year. President Ford tried to get elected on his own, the Democrats chose Jimmy Carter.
      1. Carter capitalized on being a “Washington outsider,” and therefore untainted by the supposed corruption of D.C. (he’d previously been governor of Georgia).
      2. The election was very close, but the Republican "brand" had been too tarnished by Watergate nonsense. Carter won 297 to 240.
    3. Congress also went heavily Democrat. During his "honeymoon period", Carter got a new Dept. of Energy established. He also got a tax cut through.
      1. Carter's honeymoon was short though. Being a political outsider was good during the election, but not good inside Washington D.C. where "back-slapping" and "back-scratching" is how things get done.
  16. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy
    1. Jimmy Carter was a devout Christian and had a high concern for human rights. That would be his guiding principle when it came to foreign policy.
      1. For example, he expressed his concern and support for the oppressed people of Zimbabwe (called Rhodesia then).
    2. Carter's crowning foreign policy achievement was a Middle East peace settlement.
      1. Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli president Menachem Begin met Carter at Camp David in 1978.
      2. They shook hands and agreed that Israel would withdraw from lands gained in the Six-Day War (1967) and Israel's borders would be respected.
    3. Full diplomatic relations with China were reestablished.
    4. Another agreement planned to turn over the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000 (and did).
    5. To many, Carter's policies seemed nice, but soft and too willing to give.
      1. Plus, the Cold War kept on going. Thousands of Soviet backed Cuban troops showed up in various African countries to support communist forces there. Carter made no response.
  17. Economic and Energy Woes
    1. Carter had worse problems than foreign affairs—the economy was tanking.
      1. Inflation was rising by 13% in 1979 (4% is normal). The cost of importing oil was skyrocketing.
      2. Carter proposed energy conservation laws, but they weren't well received.
      3. Interest rates were very high as well. This meant borrowing money (to buy a home for example) was too expensive.
    2. Along with oil, the Middle East gave Carter more headaches in 1979 when the shah of Iran was ousted by Islamic fundamentalists. The shah had been put into power with help from the CIA and was seen as a symbol of the West and the U.S.
      1. The new Muslim government took over the oil fields. Oil production went down and OPEC raised oil prices farther.
      2. Carter went to Camp David, talked with energy experts, then scolded America for its dependence on oil and materialism. This was probably true, but it was a scolding, not an energy solution.
        1. Within a few days he fired four cabinet members and reverted to his close-knit Georgia crew. Some wondered if Carter was losing touch with the people.
  18. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio
    1. Another high-note for Carter came with the SALT II agreements. He met with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and agreed to limit nuclear weapons.
      1. The high-note was short lived—the Senate was very reluctant to ratify the agreement.
    2. At the same time, militant Muslim radicals in Iran stormed the U.S. embassy in Teheran and took everyone hostage.
      1. The militants demanded that the U.S. hand over the shah who'd fled earlier. Worse, what would the U.S. do about the 52 Americans being held hostage?
      2. Another bad event at the same time mixed the Cold War, oil, and the Muslim World.
        1. The Soviet Union suddenly attacked and took over Afghanistan (Dec. 1979). This move threatened (1) to expand communism, (2) oil fields and production, and (3) next-door neighbor Iran.
    3. Carter reacted by placing an embargo on the U.S.S.R. and by boycotting the 1980 summer Olympics in Moscow.
      1. He proposed setting up a "Rapid Deployment Force" for trouble-spots and asked that young people, including women, be required to register for a possible military draft.
      2. Carter admitted he'd misjudged the Soviets at the SALT II talks. This is when SALT II died.
    4. The Iran hostage situation was still going—it would be the undoing of Carter.
      1. The U.S. tried economic sanctions, they failed.
      2. A secret rescue mission was planned and tried. It literally went down in flames in a sandstorm.
      3. Carter was unable to resolve the Iran hostage situation. Fair or not, the American hostages in Iran became a symbol of problems which Carter could not solve.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 39 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

  1. The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980
    1. In the 1980 presidential campaign, the Democrats were in trouble from the beginning.
      1. President Carter sought reelection, but his image was deeply hurt by double-digit inflation and bungling foreign affairs.
      2. The next Kennedy, Edward (Ted) Kennedy entered the race for the Democratic nomination. His campaign was damaged with the "Chappaquiddick incident" of 1969. After a night of partying, he'd driven his car off a bridge killing his female passenger, then delayed reporting it.
    2. The Republicans had their opening and nominated Ronald Reagan—former movie star and former California governor.
      1. Reagan would be the oldest elected president. His traditional values were from the pre-60s generation.
      2. He favored small government, laissez-faire capitalism, a tough stance with Russia, personal responsibility, and "family values."
        1. These characteristics made up what came to be known as "neoconservatives."
      3. He was handsome, photogenic, and grand-fatherly. Having grown up in small-town Midwest America, Reagan had a real down-home nature that was appealing and friendly.
    3. Reagan had an appeal, but the "ABC" approach (Anyone But Carter) was likely the biggest factor in the voting. Reagan won in a landslide, 489 to 49 in the electoral.
    4. In Carter's farewell address, he encouraged disarmament, human rights, and environmental protect.
      1. One of his last acts was to sign a bill preserving 100 million acres in Alaska.
  2. The Reagan Revolution
    1. Ironically, the hostages in Iran were released the exact day Reagan was sworn into office, January 20, 1981.
    2. Reagan put together a cabinet of the "best and the rightest." He wanted to make government smaller and get federal spending under control. In his view, the government did not fix problems, the government was the problem. This message was well-received by the 1980s.
      1. There was a movement away from the ideas of a "welfare state" and governmental "entitlement" programs. Californians had a "tax revolt" with Proposition 13 cutting property taxes and governmental services. This wave spread to D.C.
    3. Reagan proposed $35 billion in budget cuts.
      1. Most of the cuts were in social programs like food stamps and federally paid-for job training programs.
      2. The Republican Senate went along, the Democratic House needed politics. Southern conservative Democrats in the House called "boll weevils" went along with Reagan. The lowered budget passed.
    4. Reagan was suddenly shot on March 6, 1981. Hit in the arm and lung, he recuperated and walked out of the hospital 12 days later.
  3. The Battle of the Budget
    1. Reagan's next step was to make substantial tax cuts, about 25% across the board.
      1. Reagan's appeal on TV and help from the boll weevils passed this bill as well.
    2. The plan called for "supply-side economics" (AKA "Reaganomics") or policies that supported businesses, such as lower taxes and less government interference.
      1. Supply-side economics would boost investment, production, hiring, and eventually through growth, would reduce the federal deficit.
    3. The plan took a hit when the economy slid into a recession in 1982. Unemployment rose to nearly 11% and several banks went bankrupt.
    4. The blame-game was on.
      1. Democrats charged that Reagan's cuts were to blame. They said the cuts were aimed at the poor and helped the rich.
      2. In fact, the "tight-money" anti-inflationary policies of President Carter were to blame for the economic downturn.
    5. The economy did turn around in 1983 and began to thrive. Supply-siders grinned.
      1. "Yuppies" (short for "young urban professionals" and a play on "hippies") went center-stage with their high success and indulgent materialism.
      2. On the bad side, the rich-poor gap did widen during the 80s.
    6. Reagan's massive military spending was also at play.
      1. Though he had a spend-less mentality, that did not apply to the military. Reagan wanted to beef up the military to stand strong against the U.S.S.R.
      2. The annual deficit (and thus the total debt) increased substantially under Reagan, almost exclusively due to military spending.
      3. The deficit in trade was also skyrocketing. America became the world's biggest borrower of money.
  4. Reagan Renews the Cold War
    1. President Reagan called the Soviet Union the "Evil Empire" and took a firm stance against them. His way of dealing with the Soviets was through strength—meaning the military was to be built up.
      1. He gambled that by ramping up the arms race, the capitalistic U.S. economy could better afford this than the communist Soviet economy.
    2. Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). More commonly called the "Star Wars" plan, SDI was to put satellites in orbit armed with lasers that could shoot down Soviet missiles.
      1. The theory sounded good. But there were questions: (1) how much would it cost? (a lot!), (2) would this actually work? (scientists were skeptical), or (3) what if the Soviets just destroy our expensive satellite?
      2. These question were too much and SDI was never built.
    3. In Poland, workers organized into a huge union in the Solidarity movement.
      1. The Soviets imposed martial law on Poland; the U.S. backed Poland by slapping economic sanctions on Russia.
    4. Things move quickly between 1982 and '85 when three old Soviet leaders died in succession.
      1. In 1982, a Korean passenger airliner went into Soviet airspace and was shot down. Several of the dead were Americans.
      2. Clearly, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. were in old-fashioned Cold War standoff mode.
  5. Troubles Abroad
    1. The Middle East kept up its turmoil when Israel invaded Lebanon to its north. Reagan sent U.S. troops to Lebanon in a peace-keeping attempt.
      1. A suicide bomber drove a truck into a Marine barracks, blew it up, and killed 200+ Marines. Afterward, Reagan pulled the U.S. troops out.
      2. Reagan's popularity kept on, earning him the nickname of the "Teflon president" because nothing stuck to him.
    2. In Nicaragua, leftist (communistic) "Sandinistas" had taken over the government.
      1. Whereas Carter had tried to extend a handshake to the Sandinistas, Reagan flatly opposed them. He said Nicaragua would be a base for Russia and accused the Sandinistas of stirring up communism in El Salvador.
      2. "Advisors" were sent to Nicaragua to support the "contras." The contras opposed the Sandinistas and were dubbed "freedom fighters."
      3. The CIA also secretly meddled in Nicaragua trying to overthrow the government.
    3. Reagan's military got involved in other places, notably the island of Grenada. There, communists had taken over so the U.S. military took over the island to supposedly protect the Americans who were on it.
  6. Round Two for Reagan This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. In 1984, Reagan ran for reelection. The Democrats nominated Walter Mondale. His V.P. candidate was Geraldine Ferraro—the first woman ever nominated by a major party.
      1. The economy was strong, Reagan was popular, and he won easily, 525 to only 13.
    2. Reagan's first term had featured budget and economic measures, his second term was marked by foreign issues.
      1. In the Soviet Union, a new leader took over in Mikhail Gorbachev.
        1. "Gorbie" was a different kind of Soviet leader—charismatic, personable, and outgoing.
        2. He spoke of "glasnost" or 'openness" by the Soviet government and of "perestroika" or "restructuring" the Soviet economy to be more free-market oriented.
        3. Gorbachev proposed to cut intermediate range nuclear forces (INF) at a meeting with Reagan in Geneva.
        4. Talks at a second meeting in Iceland broke down. At their third meeting, the INF agreement was made. Reagan gave warm remarks about Gorbachev.
      2. Reagan supported Corazon Aquino in the Philippines when he booted out dictator Ferinand Marcos.
      3. Reagan also ordered an air strike on Libya in return for its support of terrorism.
  7. The Iran-Contra Imbroglio
    1. Reagan did have foreign-policy headaches.
      1. Some Americans had been captured by Muslim militant radicals in Lebanon.
      2. The communistic Sandinista government in Nicaragua was holding onto power. Reagan wanted to send military aid, but Congress wouldn't go along.
    2. More bad news came in a U.S.-Iran-Nicaragua scheme called the Iran-Contra Affair.
      1. Lt. Col. Oliver North had secretly arranged a deal where U.S. weapons would be sold to Iran, then the money would go to the Contra "freedom fighters" in Nicaragua.
      2. This was a tricky deal and bold in that neither Congress nor the president approved it (or even knew about it).
      3. Hearings were held and Oliver North went to prison. Reagan was in lose-lose situation…
        1. If he did know of this scheme, it would appear he was circumventing Congress to aid the Contras.
        2. If he didn't know of it (which he didn't), it appeared he didn't know what was going on under his nose.
        3. True to the "Teflon president" nickname, Reagan came through the ordeal still very popular.
  8. Reagan’s Economic Legacy
    1. The traditional viewpoint of increasing government revenue was to increase taxes. Supply-side economists felt that thinking was backwards. They said cutting taxes would actually increase revenue (through growing the economy).
      1. The reality of the Reagan years was a "revenue hole" of $200 billion per year, caused by the tax cuts and increased military spending.
      2. In his eight years, Reagan added almost $2 trillion to the national debt—more than all of the previous presidents combined. (Bad as they were, even Reagan's high-debt numbers would seem small in later years).
      3. Also, much of the debt was to foreign nations, especially Japan. Paying it off in the future seemed, and still seems, bleak.
    2. Reagan was successful in halting the "welfare-state" programs that had dominated the New Deal, the Fair Deal, and the Great Society. His goal of smaller government was achieved.
    3. A sorry trend between 1970 and the year 2000 emerged. The old cliché of "the rich got richer and the poor got poorer" was true.
      1. The Reaganomics idea of “trickle-down economics”, helping the rich (who own business and grow the economy) would cause money trickle down to the working classes, seemed proven false by the statistics.
      2. Between 1970 and 2000, the poorest fifth of Americans got slightly poorer (from 5.4 to 4.3% of total income). The wealthiest fifth got fairly richer (40.9 to 47.7%). The 3/5 in the middle class got fairly poorer (53.6 to 47.9%).
  9. The Religious Right
    1. In the early 1980s, the political power of religious conservatives became apparent. They rose up in the "cultural wars" to attack the excesses of the 1960s and 70s.
    2. Rev. Jerry Falwell started the Moral Majority and registered between 2 and 3 million voters.
      1. Falwell spoke against sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and homosexuality.
    3. "Televangelists" used the media to convey their messages.
      1. They also used some of the old 60s techniques, such as "identify politics" and civil disobedience by blocking entrances to abortion clinics.
    4. Some of the leaders were plagued with scandal, but still, the "New Right" remained a powerful force in American politics.
  10. Conservatism in the Courts
    1. As previous presidents had used to Supreme Court to swing to the liberal side, Reagan used it to swing back to the right, the conservative side.
      1. He named a near-majority of the Court during his eight years.
      2. Three justices were conservative-leaning. Notable was Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman on the Supreme Court.
    2. The court dealt with affirmative action.
      1. In 1984, it ruled that a union's rules on job seniority outweighed affirmative action quotas.
      2. In Ward's Cove Packing v. Arizona and in Martin v. Wilks, the Court made it harder to prove a company practiced racial discrimination in hiring and easier for whites to prove reverse discrimination in hiring.
    3. The court ruled on abortion.
      1. Roe v. Wade had legalized abortion in 1973. Hot questions in the culture war rose up such as, "Is it legal to abort a baby the minute before a natural birth?", "The day or week or month before?", and "If it's not okay near the end of a pregnancy, why is it okay a bit earlier?" And others like, "Is it okay for a 14 year old to get pregnant, then walk into a clinic and get an abortion without the parents ever knowing? A 13 or 12 year old?" and "Should taxpayer money go toward those aborting those babies?"
      2. In Webster v. Reproductive Health Services the Court supported a Missouri law a place some restrictions on abortion.
      3. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the Court ruled that states could restrict access to an abortion if it did not place "undue burden" on the mother. In this case, a wife could not be forced to tell her husband of an abortion, a minor could be forced to tell her parents.
    4. These decisions threw gas on the fire for feminists and pro-abortion advocates. Bitter culture war battles would follow.
  11. Referendum on Reaganism in 1988
    1. In 1986, the Democrats won back the Senate and pushed back against Reagan.
      1. The Iran-Contra affair didn't help Reagan's image and the Democrats tried to seize on this.
      2. Robert Bork was rejected for nomination to the Supreme Court as being too conservative.
    2. The two deficits hurt: the annual budget deficit and the trade deficit.
    3. Dropping oil prices hurt the Southwest's economy, lowered real estate values, and badly hurt savings and loans (S&Ls).
      1. The S&L situation was so bad that the federal government had to enact a $500 billion bail out.
    4. The stock market got wild with many mergers and buyouts.
      1. The jitters kicked in on October 19, 1987 and the market dropped 508 points—the largest one day drop in history up 'til then.
    5. The Democrats hoped to rally these events right into the White House in 1988.
      1. Gary Hart was the early front-runner but had to drop out after being caught with a mistress on his yacht named "Monkey Business."
      2. Black candidate Jesse Jackson put together what he called a "rainbow coalition."
      3. The Democratic nomination went to Michael Dukakis, the calm governor of Massachusetts.
      4. The Republicans nominated V.P. George H. W. Bush, essentially to keep the Reagan years going.
      5. Despite the not-so-good news of late, America was still doing well. Plus, Dukakis installed little if any excitement. Bush won handily, 426 to 112.
  12. George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War
    1. Bush came from a well-to-do family, the son of a senator. He grew up in Connecticut, attended Yale, served in WWII, and entered the oil business in Texas. He then entered public service: congressman, emissary to China, ambassador to the U.N., director of the C.I.A., and vice president. As president, he sought "a kinder, gentler America."
    2. Communism seemed at the breaking point early in Bush's administration.
      1. In China, hundreds of thousands of pro-democracy demonstrators met in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They raised a 30 foot statue modeled after the Statue of Liberty.
        1. The Chinese leaders were not pleased and ordered the military into the Square to break up the protest. Hundreds were killed and the protest ended.
      2. In Europe, communism did fall.
        1. The Solidarity movement in led by ousting the communist government.
        2. Other communist nations quickly followed by booting the government out, including: Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania.
        3. The symbol of the Cold War was the Berlin Wall. In December of 1989, the wall came down after 45 years.
        4. Even larger, the U.S.S.R. broke apart.
          1. Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika were opening things up within the Soviet Union.
          2. Soviet hardliners tried a military ouster of Gorbachev. Russian president Boris Yeltsin helped stop the coup attempt.
          3. Gorbachev later resigned in 1991 and the U.S.S.R. busted up into 15 independent republics. These were loosely united in what was called the "Commonwealth of Independent States." Gorbachev's legacy would be that he tore down the old communistic Soviet structure.
        5. The message seemed clear: the Cold War was over, the democracies had won and communism had lost. Bush spoke of a "new world order" where democratic republics would negotiate rather than fight.
    3. With 15 new nations, the new worry was what would happen to all of the old Soviet nuclear weapons.
      1. Bush met with Yeltsin and worked out the START II treaty. It promised to reduce long-range nuclear weapons by 2/3 within 10 years.
      2. With all the huge changes happening so fast, Europe would go through quite a bit of unrest—mostly ethnic and economic.
    4. The changes also meant changes for the U.S. For the last 40 years, U.S. foreign policy had been rather simple—oppose the U.S.S.R. Now what?
      1. With the Cold War over, military cuts were made. 34 military bases were closed, a $52 billion order for navy attack planes was canceled, defense plants closed.
    5. Democracy spread to other parts of the world too.
      1. The racist South African system of "apartheid" ended. Nelson Mandela was released from prison after 27 years and was later elected South Africa's president.
      2. In Nicaragua, elections removed the communist Sandinistas. Peace also came to El Salvador after much fighting.
  13. The Persian Gulf Crisis
    1. The Middle East and oil were still troublesome. In August of 1990, Saddam Hussein invaded and took over Kuwait. He wanted Kuwait's oil fields and port to the Persian Gulf.
      1. Saddam was widely known as a ruthless thug and dictator who killed his own people if they opposed him.
    2. President Bush responded by going to the United Nations.
      1. The Security Council gave the okay to use force to remove Saddam if he didn't leave. January 15, 1991 was set as the deadline. Congress later gave their official approval.
    3. Meanwhile, Bush amassed a huge military force. There were over 500,000 Americans joined by 270,000 from 28 other nations.
    4. The Persian Gulf War was short and effective.
      1. The attack started January 16 and moved fast. First, warplanes pounded the Iraqis. Saddam shot "Scud" missiles at the U.S. troops and at Israel. Many were shot down in flight by American "Patriot" missiles.
      2. The U.S. was led by Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf ("Stormin' Norman") feared the worst when Saddam spoke of waging the "mother of all battles."
        1. Saddam had stockpiled chemical and biological weapons, poison gas, and might spread anthrax.
      3. Next, ground troops moved in with tanks in what was called "Operation Desert Storm." Desert Storm moved fast and lasted only four days. Saddam had oil dumped into the Persian Gulf and set the oil fields on fire as he pulled back. Scores of Iraqi soldiers were more-than-willing to surrender.
    5. The generals wanted to go into Baghdad and take out Saddam then and there. But, Bush said the deal was to kick Saddam out of Kuwait, not to overrun Iraq.
    6. Saddam accepted a cease-fire on February 27. But, he was still in power—a fact that would come back to haunt the U.S.
  14. Bush on the Home Front
    1. The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) banned discrimination of the disabled.
    2. A major water projects bill was signed to subsidize western waters.
    3. The culture wars continued.
      1. The Dept. of Education questioned whether college scholarships for minorities were legal.
      2. The threatened to veto a bill that would've made it easier for an employee to prove discrimination in hiring and promotion practices.
      3. Bush nominated African-American Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. Thomas appointed was opposed by the NAACP because Thomas was conservative and by NOW (National Org. for Women) because he was pro-life.
        1. Adding fuel to the fire, a woman claimed she'd been sexually harassed by Thomas. It turned into a classic he-said she-said situation. Despite the sound and fury, Clarence Thomas' appointment was approved, 52-48.
        2. The nomination process did bring sexual harassment to the fore and raised tension over the topic.
    4. Worse for George H. W. Bush was the economy.
      1. During the 1988 campaign, Bush had made the promise, "Read my lips, no new taxes." When the economy slowed and revenue dropped, and with the annual deficit at $250 billion, he had to eat those words.
      2. In 1990, Bush went along with a budget increase and a tax increase.
      3. Fair or not, like many other presidents the bad economy was blamed on Bush, and would cost him an election.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 40 - America Confronts the Post-Cold War Era

  1. Bill Clinton: the First Baby-Boomer President
    1. In the 1992 presidential election, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton for president along with Al Gore for V.P. They were the first baby boomer presidential candidates.
      1. Clinton carried some baggage—accusations of womanizing, sampling marijuana as a youth, avoiding the draft for Vietnam).
      2. The Democrats moved away from their extreme-liberal positions more "toward the center." They advocated economic growth, a strong defense, and anti-crime measures.
    2. George H. W. Bush sought reelection. J. Danforth Quayle was nominated as V.P. candidate.
      1. The Republicans championed ending the Cold War, success in the Persian Gulf, and focused on "family values" and claimed that "character matters", thus Clinton and his baggage should not be elected.
    3. Ross Perot rose as a significant third party candidate. A tech-company billionaire who spent his own money campaigning, he ran on one main issue: the U.S. must get the debt under control.
    4. Bill Clinton won the election, 374 to 168, because of two reasons…
      1. The poor economy was the #1 issue—bad news for Bush, good for Clinton. Clinton had a slogan to remind his staff, "It's the economy, stupid."
      2. Ross Perot took votes away from George H.W. Bush. Perot received 19% of the popular vote. Most Perot supporters would've voted Republican if he'd not been in the election.
    5. Both houses of Congress also went to the Democrats.
    6. Minorities also did well in 1992. Carol Moseley-Braun was the first woman ever elected to the Senate. There were minorities and women in the president's cabinet, including the first female attorney general, Janet Reno.
      1. Clinton would also appoint Ruth Bader Ginsburg to the Supreme Court giving it a second female justice.
  2. A False Start for Reform
    1. Clinton quickly pressed to allow homosexuals in the military. He had to draw back a bit and settle with the compromise of a "don't ask, don't tell" policy. Homosexuals were still banned if they said they were gay, but no one would ask. Thus, a homosexual could enter the military without having to lie.
    2. One of Clinton's main ambitions was to reform America's health-care system. The task was huge.
      1. He appointed his wife, Hillary Clinton, to head the committee of health-care reform. This was obviously a very different role for a First Lady.
      2. Meeting after meeting after meeting was held. To match a complicated problem, the plan that was developed was incredibly confusing and complicated itself. It was not going to make it through Congress and didn't.
    3. Good news came with the budget. Clinton got a deficit-reduction bill passed in 1993. By 1996, the economy was doing very well. The annual budget deficit would actually become a budget surplus and the national debt would actually go down.
    4. Guns came under fire.
      1. The "Brady Bill" was passed to place restrictions on buying a gun. It was named after James Brady who'd been shot during the Reagan assassination attempt.
      2. An $30 billion anti-crime bill was also passed to ban certain assault weapons.
    5. There were terrorist activities.
      1. A religious cult called the "Branch Davidians" gathered weapons and holed themselves up in a Waco, TX compound. After a standoff with the ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms), the feds moved in, set the compound on fire. Everyone inside, including women and children, either were killed by their leaders, committed suicide, or died from the fire.
      2. A "homegrown" anti-government terrorist blew up a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995. 168 people died.
      3. Later, in 1998, the anti-gun movement gained steam when two students killed twelve others in Littleton, CO.
        1. Those against restricting guns used two arguments: (1) the Second Amendment simply states the "right to bear arms" and, (2) that simply banning guns doesn't mean they disappear—criminals would still get them if they wanted. The slogan was, "If guns were outlawed, only outlaws would get guns."
      4. Foreign terrorists struck too. These were the work of the radical Islamic terrorist sect Al-Qaeda.
        1. In 1993, terrorists drove a truck bomb underneath the World Trade Center and detonated it. The parking garage was gutted, but the buildings stood (until 9/11/2001 when Al Qaeda struck again).
        2. In 1998, Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden sent truck bombs to the U.S. embassies in in Tanzania and Kenya. Hundreds were killed.
        3. Al-Qaeda struck again in 2000 when a suicide boat exploded against the U.S.S. Cole killed 17 American sailors.
        4. Unfortunately, little action was taken to halt this trend of terrorism.
  3. The Politics of Distrust
    1. In the 1994 mid-term elections, the Republicans pushed back, led by Newt Gingrinch.
      1. Gingrinch developed the "Contract with America"—a deal with America to reduce the deficit and cut welfare-state programs.
      2. The programs was very successful. The Republicans took over both houses of Congress. Gingrinch became the Speaker of the House.
    2. Now, with a Republican Congress, Clinton would have to play politics for sure. Things see-sawed back-and-forth.
      1. The Republicans scored victories.
        1. They passed a law restricting "unfunded mandates" where the federal government mandates the states to do something, but provides no money to do it.
        2. They also passed the Welfare Reform Bill which rolled back welfare handouts and forced able-bodied people to get off taxpayer money and go to work.
      2. The Democrats and Clinton scored victories.
        1. The very fact Clinton signed those bills hurt Republicans. He (1) stole their thunder, and (2) he moved even more "to the center" and perhaps made himself even more electable. Liberals on the left were mad, but "the center" has more voters.
        2. Gingrich began to rub many Americans the wrong way as if he were going too far. Things like his suggestion of sending children of families on welfare to orphanages didn't sit well. Also, when a budget was not agreed upon, the federal government shut down for several days. Again, it looked bad and the Republican Congress got the blame.
    3. The 1996 presidential election was almost a moot point. Clinton ran for reelection. Bob Dole ran for the Republicans.
      1. Dole was from the WWII generation and his campaign was uninspiring. To the younger baby boom generation, electing Dole would seem to be moving backward. More importantly, the economy was doing great.
      2. Clinton was reelected easily, 379 to 159. He was the first Democrat reelected since FDR.
  4. Clinton Again This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Again, Clinton governed "to the middle."
      1. He embraced the Welfare Reform Bill, which he'd initially signed with reluctance.
      2. He addressed affirmative action with a "mend it, don't end it" approach.
        1. By this time, the courts and America's mood was beginning to turn away from affirmative action. Clinton spoke out against this movement, but didn't pursue action (again, a middle ground move).
    2. Clinton was largely a popular president—always the result of a strong economy. There were some money disputes…
      1. Clinton supported the hot-topic of NAFTA (North American Free-Trade Agreement). It cut tariffs and trade barriers to set up a free trade zone between Canada, the U.S., and Mexico.
      2. Clinton supported the beginning of the WTO (World Trade Organization) to lower tariffs and trade barriers internationally.
      3. Campaign finance reform came to the fore. Many people disliked how political donors could give tons of money to a candidate. The thinking was, "I'll give you money for the campaign, and when you're in office, remember me." Both parties talked about campaign finance reform, but with big money so critical in elections, neither did anything.
  5. Problems Abroad
    1. With the Cold War over, there was a question of where and how to apply U.S. foreign policy. Clinton dotted around the globe.
    2. President Clinton deployed troops to Somalia to help restore order from chaos. Dozens of U.S. troops died. Clinton pulled the troops out without having set or accomplished a clear goal.
      1. Notably, the U.S. did not intervene in Rwanda. There, some 500,000 people were killed in ethnic fighting.
    3. In Haiti president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was ousted in a military coup in 1994. Clinton sent 20,000 U.S. troops to put Aristide back into power. (He was booted again in 2004).
    4. As a campaigner, Clinton talked tough on China's poor human rights record. As president, he realized the importance of China as a trade partner. He softened his talk and with Congress, made China a full trade partner of the U.S.
    5. Yugoslavia's many ethnic groups began fighting themselves. Clinton and NATO sent a peace-keeping force in attempt to restore order.
      1. Things there were ugly, with Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic started "ethnic cleansing." It was a miniature Holocaust.
      2. Clinton ordered an air raid in response. People scattered, but Milosevic did accept a cease-fire. (He was later arrested and tried at the International Criminal Court).
    6. Clinton also negotiated another Middle East peace treaty. This time, the leaders were Israel's Yitzhak Rabin and the controversial Palestinian Liberation Org. (PLO) head Yasir Arafat.
      1. This treaty would prove brief—two years later Rabin would be assassinated.
    7. Nearing the end of his second term, Clinton seemed eager to leave a lasting legacy to his presidency.
      1. He and his Sec. of State Madeleine Albright, worked unsuccessfully to broker another Middle East peace agreement.
      2. Clinton also tried to work peace in Ireland, the Koreas, India, and Pakistan. He wasn't successful.
  6. Scandal and Impeachment
    1. Rumors and scandal seemed to follow Clinton, earning him the nickname "Slick Willy."
      1. Womanizing rumors had followed Clinton since the campaign days.
      2. He and wife Hillary were accused of shady business in their home state of Arkansas with investments in the Whitewater Land Corporation. A special federal prosecutor investigated the Whitewater deal, but nothing ever came out of it.
      3. Eyebrows rose and conspiracy theories went wild when Vincent Foster, Jr. committed suicide. He was in charge of managing Clinton's legal and financial affairs. It seems apparent that his suicide was due to personal reasons.
    2. All scandals became secondary to the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal in the White House.
      1. Lewinsky was an intern. She and Clinton had a sexual affair.
      2. Then, while under oath for a different woman's sexual harassment lawsuit, Clinton lied about the Lewinski affair.
        1. Clinton was asked if he'd had "sexual relations", and whatever went on between he and "that woman" did not meet his definition of sex. Clinton felt he didn't lie.
        2. The DNA in the stain on Lewinsky's infamous blue dress said otherwise.
      3. For "obstruction of justice" and perjury, the House voted to impeach Clinton—the second president to be impeached after Andrew Johnson in the 1960s.
      4. However, the Senate did not get the 2/3 vote necessary to kick Clinton from office.
  7. Clinton’s Legacy and the 2000 Election
    1. Clinton wanted a lasting legacy to his presidency, one that did not involve the words "scandal" or "impeach."
      1. Clinton preserved lands, set up a "patients' bill of rights", and hired more teachers and police officers.
    2. Clinton did make some good marks.
      1. He truly did "govern to the middle"—this angered the far Left and Right, but appealed to most Americans.
      2. The economy was strong and the budget was at surplus levels. Unemployment was a bare minimum, poverty rates went down, median income reached new highs.
        1. History may in fact make the budget surplus Clinton's non-scandal legacy.
      3. Clinton left on something of a sour note.
        1. With a few days left, he negotiated a deal on the Lewinsky scandal. He got immunity from any future legal action in the case in return for paying a fine and suspension of his law license for 5 years.
        2. Also, at the last moment, he gave pardons to political donors and backers which got them out of jail.
    3. The Bush-Gore Presidential Battle
      1. The 2000 presidential election was predicted to be a close one.
      2. Vice President Albert Gore was nominated by the Democrats. Gore had a Clinton paradox—the good was that he could lay claim to the prosperity of the Clinton years, the bad was that aligning too close with Clinton also aligned with his scandals.
      3. The Republicans chose Texas governor George W. Bush, (nicknamed "W" or Texas-style, "Dubya"). Bush spoke of being a "compassionate conservative." He chose Dick Cheney as his running-mate. Cheney had been a major player in Bush's father's presidency during the Persian Gulf War.
        1. A third party, the "Green Party" nominated Ralph Nader. The party consisted mostly of environmentalists and extreme liberals.
      4. With the government collecting a more money than it spent (a budget surplus), the question became, "What should be done with the extra money?"
        1. Bush believed the money belonged to the taxpayers. Thus, he wanted to make a large tax cut to return the money "to the people."
        2. Gore wanted to make a smaller tax cut then use the rest to pay down the debt, invest in Social Security, and perhaps expand Medicare.
        3. Notably, this was age-old class warfare. Bush's plan would've helped the people who paid the taxes—generally the higher wage earners. However, some 45% of American do not pay income taxes. That group votes dominantly Democratic. Therefore, Gore's plan focused more on spending the tax money on social services.
      5. Nader, was little more than a side-show.
    4. The presidential election of 2000 was essentially a tie, and turned very controversial. Only the Hayes-Tilden standoff of 1876 was comparable.
      1. The election boiled down a few states. Florida was the critical swing state because it had the nation's fourth most electoral votes. Florida was essentially a tie, but very slightly favored Bush. There were even more twists to the election…
        1. Jeb Bush was governor of Florida, and the president's brother—perfect fuel for conspiracy theories.
        2. A recount was made. Bush was still ahead, by a margin of around 500 votes out of 6 million.
        3. The questions narrowed to Broward and Palm Beach counties. There was a large Jewish population there so it was figured it would go heavily Democratic (Gore's running-mate was Joseph Lieberman, himself Jewish).
          1. In Palm Beach County, the infamous "butterfly ballot" had supposedly tricked seniors who wanted to vote for Gore into voting for Bush. Another excruciating recount was undertaken there.
      2. The process dragged on for about a month and America still didn't know who the next president would be.
        1. The recounted votes were finally made official and Bush won the election 271 to 266 in the electoral.
      3. There were ironies in the election…
        1. The American electoral system showed its quirkiness. Gore actually got more popular votes (50,999,897 to Bush’s 50,456,002), but he lost the critical electoral vote (266 to Bush’s 271).
        2. Similar to how a third party candidate (Ross Perot) had helped the Democrats by hurting the first Bush an election in 1992, a third party candidate came back to bite the Democrats in 2000. Nader's Green Party got only 2.7% of the vote, however without him in the race, they would've almost certainly voted Democratic and Gore would've won.
      4. Election maps from the 2000 election showed how Americans broke down in terms of voters.
        1. Democrats drew from the cities, the west and east coasts, heavily Latino areas, and from African-Americans (viewing a blue-red Democrat-Republican map, the old "Cotton Belt" from the Mississippi River to Virginia is clearly seen as a blue arc).
        2. Republicans drew from rural areas, mostly the South and the West.
  8. Bush Begins
    1. Like his father, Bush was an odd mix of good ol' boy from Texas and Ivy League. Bush took office talking up his Texas upbringing (true) and talking down his family’s privileged life "Back East" (also true).
    2. Bush stepped into the culture wars, almost always siding conservative. Conservatives and Christians cheered, liberals were irate.
      1. Bush removed support from international groups that were pro-abortion.
      2. He supported federally funded faith-based welfare programs.
      3. He opposed stem-cell research, which had great medical possibilities, on the grounds that the embryo in reality was a small person and doing tests on it was nothing other than abortion.
      4. He frustrated environmentalists by questioning the legitimacy of global warming, shunning the Kyoto agreement that was to limit greenhouse emissions, and speaking of new oil exploration in Alaska. Businesses were happy by these positions.
      5. Bush went ahead with his promised tax cut amounting to $1.3 trillion. By 2004, the cut combined with the economy yielding a $400 billion deficit.
  9. Terrorism Comes to America
    1. On September 11, 2001, America’s centuries-old enjoyment of being on “our side of the pond” ended when militant Islamic radicals attacked America. The radicals hijacked passenger planes and used the planes, and hostages, as guided missiles.
      1. Two planes slammed into the World Trade Center towers in New York City. The towers caught fire, then came down.
      2. A third plane slammed into the Pentagon.
      3. A fourth plane was thought to be aiming for the White House or Capitol building, but heroic passengers took back the plane before it crashed in a Pennsylvania field.
    2. President Bush's legacy would essentially be made for him—how he responded to the 9/11 attacks. Bush proved a strong leader in the period after the attacks.
      1. The whole plan was the work of Al-Qaeda, headed by Osama bin Laden.
      2. In true Texas-style, Bush called for Bin Laden’s head. Afghanistan refused to hand him over so Bush ordered the military to go on the offensive and hunt him down. The hunt proved to be difficult in rugged Afghanistan and Bin Laden proved elusive.
      3. With the jitters high, the American economy took a turn for the worse, and a few Americans died after receiving anthrax-laden letters. Coupled with fear of another attack, anxiety loomed.
    3. Terrorism launched a “new kind of war” or a “war on terror” that required tactics beyond the conventional battlefield. Congress responded in turn.
      1. The Patriot Act gave the government extended surveillance rights. Critics charged this was a Big Brother-like infringement of rights, a reversal of the freedoms that Americans were fighting for.
      2. The Department of Homeland Security was established as the newest cabinet department with the goal of securing America.
  10. Bush Takes the Offensive Against Iraq
    1. Saddam Hussein had been a long time menace to long list of people. With Bush, Saddam's time had run out. Bush stated he’d not tolerate Hussein’s defiance of the U.N.’s weapons inspectors.
      1. Also, Bush lumped Iraq and Saddam into an "axis of evil" that he believed helped and harbored terrorists. To Bush, attacking Saddam was just one part of the "war on terror."
    2. The center of the problem was information and lack of action.
      1. Intelligence at the time suggested that Hussein had and was actively making weapons of mass destruction (“WMDs”).
      2. When the U.N. tried to validate or disprove the WMD threat, Hussein continually thumbed his nose at the weapon’s inspectors.
    3. WMD intelligence in hand, Bush decided it was time for action.
      1. Bush sought the U.N.'s approval for taking military action, but some nations, notably France, Russia, and Germany with their Security Council veto, had cold feet.
      2. So, Bush decided to go it alone. Heavy majorities of Congress in October of 2002 approved armed force against Iraq.
      3. The U.N. tried one last time to inspect, Hussein blocked the inspectors again. The U.N. and inspectors asked for more time still. The U.N. appeared to lack any muscle—they'd made a rule, but could not enforce it.
    4. For Bush, time was up and it was time for action. In March of 2003, the U.S. launched an attack and Baghdad fell within a month. Saddam went on the run, then was found nine months later, literally hiding in a hole in the ground.
      1. He would later be turned over to Iraq. The Iraqi court tried Saddam, convicted him of murder, and hanged him.
    5. Taking Iraq, though not easy, was swift and successful, but securing and rebuilding Iraq would prove tougher.
  11. Owning Iraq
    1. Most Iraqi people welcomed the Americans, but certainly not all.
      1. Factions broke out. Iraqi insurgents attacked American G.I.’s and casualties mounted to nearly 1,200 by 2004.
      2. Although removing Saddam had been successful, it was feared that if the U.S. just came home and left a political void, whatever emerged to fill the void may be worse than Saddam. Americans soon began to wonder, “How long will we be there?”
    2. The new goals were to (1) establish security in Iraq, eventually by Iraqi troops, and (2) create and turn over control to a new democratically elected Iraqi government.
      1. Training Iraqi security troops proved pitifully slow.
      2. A new government was created and limited power handed over on June 28, 2004.
      3. Meanwhile, American casualties and deaths added up due to localized fighting and roadside bombs.
    3. Iraq became a divisive issue in America. Conservatives generally supported the war and post-war efforts. Liberals charged that Bush was on some ego-tripping battle charge to hunt down phantom weapons of mass destruction.
    4. A Country in Conflict
      1. Other issues divided America:
        1. Democrats continually grumbled about the “stolen” 2000 election.
        2. Civil libertarians fumed over the Patriot Act.
        3. Pacifists said the WMD reasoning was made up from the get-go to start a war in Iraq they felt unjust.
        4. Big businesses, like Enron and WorldCom, monkeyed around with their accounting and supposedly fattened the rich and gleaned the poor. They went bankrupt and wiped out many people's retirement funds.
        5. Social warfare continued over abortion and homosexuality.
        6. Affirmative action still boiled, and the Supreme Court came up with mathematical formulae for minority admittance to undergrads. The Court also stated that in 25 years racial preferences would likely be unnecessary.
  12. Reelecting George W. Bush
    1. Republicans put Bush up for reelection in 2004.
    2. The Democrats selected Sen. John Kerry of Massachusetts.
    3. Despite the usual litany of issues (education, health care, etc.) the key issue of the 2004 election was national security.
      1. At the heart of the security issue, was the question of the war in Iraq.
      2. Bush said the U.S. was making progress and should thus “stay the course” in Iraq.
      3. Kerry took an anti-war position. However, Kerry’s position on war and his image was somewhat confounding:
        1. Kerry had been a Vietnam war hero, but then became a Vietnam war protester. This trend continued in 2004…
        2. Kerry voted for military action in Iraq, but then voted against a bill for military spending for the war and said he was against the war.
        3. Kerry gained much support by criticizing Bush’s management (or mismanagement) of the Iraq situation.
          1. Kerry charged that Bush had no plan for Iraq after the initial take-over.
          2. However, Kerry focused only on Bush’s failure and failed to effectively present voters with his own alternative course of action.
    4. Most pollsters predicted Kerry to win. But, Bush won with a surprisingly strong showing of 286 electoral votes to Kerry’s 252.
  13. Bush’s Second Term
    1. Bush said winning a second time gave him “political capital”.
    2. He scored wins by appointing conservative Supreme Justices John Roberts and Samuel Alito.
    3. But he over-estimated his capital with losses…
      1. Proposals to reform Social Security were rejected by the AARP (retired folks).
      2. His proposal for a Constitutional ban of same-sex “marriage” was not passed.
      3. His proposal for immigration reform failed as well.
  14. Midterm Elections of 2006
    1. Bush and Republicans fell into disfavor by 2006. Democrats bounced back with election wins.
      1. Nancy Pelosi was named Speaker of the House (1st female ever).
      2. The war in Iraq was likely the biggest factor in the election. At the war’s start, intelligence revealed that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). By 2006, WMDs had not yet been found. Many concluded that the cause of the Iraq war was a farce.
      3. Bush put a “surge” into action into 2007 and stabilized the situation in Iraq.
    2. Barack Obama emerged on the national political scene largely with a criticism of the Iraq war.
  15. The Presidential Election of 2008
    1. Hillary Clinton seemed poised to be the Democratic nominee for president but the upstart Barack Obama won instead.
    2. Republicans nominated John McCain, an independent-minded “Republican”, who picked conservative Sarah Palin as running-mate.
    3. Likely more than anything else, the economy was the number one factor in 2008. The economy tanked—bad news for Republicans, good news for Democrats.
      1. Bush began a huge government takeover of the housing mortgage companies, the nation’s largest insurance company, and bailed out the big banks and corporations.
      2. Democrats/Obama successfully convinced voters that McCain meant another economic meltdown. Thus, the deal was sealed and Obama won.
  16. Obama in the White House
    1. Upon election, Obama toned down his campaign rhetoric of “Hope” and “Change” and tried to scale back expectations.
    2. Obama had a Democratic Congress (both House of Reps and Senate) that were willing and onboard with him. Laws were passed.
      1. The American Relief and Recovery Act, usually known as the “Stimulus Package”, was passed. In keeping with the Democrats’ playbook, this was in the same vein as FDR’s deficit spending New Deal programs.
      2. General Motors and Chrysler were bailed out by the government.
    3. The promised quick recovery did not happen and the “Great Recession” lingered for years. Unemployment was stuck at over 9%.
    4. Health-care reform had been a long-time goal of Democrats (Bill and Hillary Clinton had tried and failed in the 1990s). The so-called Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed in 2010, better known as “Obamacare”.
    5. The Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act also passed. Its goal was to regulate the financial world and avoid a similar meltdown as occurred in 2008.
  17. A Sea of Troubles
    1. Obama had problems.
      1. The economy did not improve as promised.
      2. The federal deficit (and thus the debt) increased dramatically with Obama’s rampant government spending.
      3. Many Americans were wary of “big government” trying to control their lives.
    2. Obama named two new Supreme Court justices, both female—Sonia Sotomayor (1st Hispanic justice) and Elena Kagan.
    3. In response to Obama, the “Tea Party” emerged—named after the patriots of the Boston Tea Party days. The Tea Party claimed Obama’s ideas were nothing short of socialist and unconstitutional.
      1. By the 2010 elections for Congress, things looked bad for Obama. The recession kept on going and his ratings slid down with it.
      2. America pushed back against Obama. Democrats lost big and Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives.
    4. Before the Republicans took over though to slow the spending spree, Obama rammed through another “Stimulus Package” of $858 billion.
  18. Wars, Oil Spills, and Political Backlash
    1. The U.S. wound down presence in Iraq.
      1. President Bush had effectively concluded fighting in Iraq and a fledging Iraqi government had been set up, but many U.S. troops were still there.
      2. Obama wanted to get America out of Iraq. He promised that U.S. troops would be out by 2011. That was essentially met (some troops stayed to protect U.S. bases).
    2. Afghanistan proved to be a sticky situation.
      1. Obama never liked the Iraq war, but bought into Afghanistan. There, the Taliban ruled as Muslim radical traditionalists. Al Qaeda (those who pulled off the 9/11 attacks) were also thought to work in Afghanistan.
      2. Obama said the U.S. would begin pulling out in 2011, but before that he’d use a play from George W. Bush’s playbook and do a troop surge in Afghanistan.
      3. U.S. intelligence revealed the location of Osama Bin Laden (mastermind of 9/11). U.S. Navy Seal team 6 went into Bin Laden’s compound in Afghanistan, killed him, and retrieved his body.
    3. An environmental catastrophe occurred under Obama’s watch when an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico exploded. Oil spewed into the Gulf for four months. It was the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 41 - The American People Face a New Century

  1. Economic Revolutions
    1. In the modern era, heavy industry waned and the information age kicked into high gear.
      1. Companies like Microsoft Corp. and the internet brought about the communications revolution.
      2. Entrepreneurs led the way to making the Internet a 21st century mall, library, and shopping center.
      3. New high-tech jobs were created and other jobs were erased.
    2. White-collar jobs in financial services and high tech engineering were being outsourced to other countries like Ireland and India where wages were lower.
    3. Many discovered that the new high tech economy was also prone to boom or bust, just like the old economy.
      1. In the Spring of 2000, the stock market began its biggest slide since WWII in the "dotcom bust." By 2003, the market had lost $6 trillion in value.
        1. Many Americans' pension plans shrank to 1/3 their previous level.
        2. This showed that Americans were still susceptible to risk, mistakes, scandal, and the ups-and-downs of the business cycle.
    4. Scientific research propelled the economy.
      1. Researchers unlocked the secrets of molecular genetics (1950s).
        1. They developed new strains of high yielding, pest/weather resistant crops.
        2. They sought to cure hereditary diseases.
        3. The movement started to fix genetic mutations.
      2. The "Human Genome Project" established the DNA sequence of the 30 thousand human genes, helping create radical new medical therapies.
        1. Breakthroughs in cloning animals raised questions about the morality of cloning humans.
        2. "Stem cell research", where zygotes or fertilized human eggs, offered possible cures for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
          1. The Bush administration, and many religious groups, believed that this research was killing people in the form of a human fetus.
          2. Bush said a fetus is still a human life, despite its small size, and experimenting and destroying it is therefore wrong. For this reason, he limited government funding for stem cell research.
  2. Affluence and Inequality
    1. U.S. standard of living was still very high compared to most other nations. The median household income in 2002 was $42,400,
    2. The rich still got richer while the poor got poorer.
      1. The richest 20% in 2001 raked in nearly half the nation’s income while the poorest 20% got a mere 4%.
      2. The widening inequality could be measured in different ways as well…
        1. In 2004, over 40 million people had no medical insurance.
        2. 34 million (12% of population) lived at or below the poverty level.
      3. Causes of the widening income gap…
        1. The tax and fiscal policies of the Reagan and both Bush presidencies tended to help the business class.
        2. Intensifying global economic competition lowered wages.
        3. There was a shrinkage of high-paying manufacturing jobs for semiskilled/unskilled workers.
        4. Those who pursued higher education reaped even greater rewards.
        5. Part time and temporary work became more common and there was an increase of low-skilled immigrants.
  3. The Feminist Revolution
    1. Women were greatly affected by the large changes of the late 1900s.
    2. Women steadily increased their presence in the work place.
      1. By 1990s, nearly half of all workers were women. Most surprising was the upsurge of employment in mothers.
        1. By the 1990s, a majority of women with kids as young as one were working.
      2. Many universities opened their doors to women (1960s) such as Yale, Princeton, and even West Point, The Citadel, and Virginia Military Institute (VMI).
      3. Despite gains, many feminists remained frustrated. Women still got lower wages and were concentrated in few low-prestige, low-paying occupations.
        1. For example, in 2002, on 29% of women were lawyers or judges and 25% physicians.
        2. This was likely due to women interrupting their careers to bear and raise kids or taking a less-demanding job to also fulfill the roles of mother.
        3. Discrimination and a focus on kids also helped account for the “gender-gap” in elections.
          1. Women still voted for Democrats more than men.
          2. Women were more willing to favor government support for health and child care, education, and job equality, as well as more vigilant in protecting abortion rights.
    3. Mens’ lives changed in the 2000s as well.
      1. Some employers gave maternity leave as well as paternity leave in recognition of shared obligations of the two-worker household.
      2. More men shared the traditional female responsibilities such as cooking, laundry, and child care.
    4. In 1993, congress passed the Family Leave Bill, mandating job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off from work for family reasons.
  4. New Families and Old
    1. The nuclear family (Mom, Dad, and children) suffered heavy blows in modern America. By the 1990s, half of all marriages ended in divorce.
      1. Seven times more children were affected by divorce as compared to the beginning of the decade.
    2. Traditional families weren’t just falling apart at an alarming rate, but they were also increasingly slow to form in the first place.
      1. The proportion of adults living alone tripled in the 4 decades after 1950s. In the 1990s, 1/3 of women age 25 - 29 had never married.
      2. Every fourth child in the U.S. was growing up in a household that lacked two parents.
      3. Single parenthood was the #1 cause of poverty.
      4. Child-rearing, the age-old goal of a family, was being pawned off to day-care centers, school, or TV (the electronic babysitter).
    3. Families now assumed a variety of different forms.
      1. Kids in households raised by a single parent, stepparent, or grandparent, and even kids with homosexual parents, encountered a degree of acceptance that would have been unimaginable a century earlier.
      2. Homosexual "marriage" and teenage pregnancy was on a decline after the mid-1900s.
    4. Families weren’t evaporating, but were changing into very different forms.
  5. The Aging of America This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Old age was expected, since Americans were living longer than ever before. For someone born in 1900, the life expectancy was about 50 years. People born the year 2000 could anticipate living to an average 77 years.
    2. The longer lives were largely due to miraculous medical advances.
      1. One American in eight was over 65 years of age in 2000.
    3. This aging of population raised a slew of economic, social, and political questions.
      1. Seniors formed a potent electoral bloc that aggressively lobbied for government favors and achieved real gains for senior citizens.
      2. The share of GNP spent on health care for people over 65 more than doubled in the 30 years after Medicare started.
      3. However, the more money sent to health care meant less money elsewhere or an increased debt. The old are getting helped, but the young are being paying for it.
      4. These triumphs for senior citizens brought fiscal strains, especially with Social Security.
        1. At the beginning of the creation of Social Security, a small majority depended on it. But modern times, it has increased. And, now current workers’ Social Security contributions actually funds Social Security.
        2. Due to the baby boom generation, the ratio of active workers-to-retirees is at a low-to-high level. And, health care costs have skyrocketed in recent years.
        3. The "unfunded liability" (the shortage between what the government promised to pay to the elderly and the taxes it expected to take in) was about $7 trillion.
        4. Due to possible political repercussions, politicians are very reluctant to talk about changing Social Security. There are possible solutions are:
          1. To delay Social Security payments and persuade older Americans to work longer.
          2. To invest the current Social Security surplus in stocks and bonds to meet future obligations. This could also backfire, however, if the market drops.
          3. A portion of the Social Security money could be privatized if younger people wanted to invest some of their payroll taxes into individual retirement accounts.
  6. The New Immigration
    1. Since 1980, newcomers continued to flow into modern America, at the rate of nearly 1 million per year.
      1. Contradicting history, Europe provided few immigrants. The largest portion came from Asia and Latin America. These immigrants came for many of the same reasons all immigrants:
        1. They left countries where the population was increasing rapidly and…
        2. Where agricultural/industrial revolutions were shaking up old ways of life.
        3. Mostly, like always, they came in search of jobs and economic opportunities—a better life for their families.
      2. Some came with skills and even professional degrees and found their way into middle-class jobs. However, most came with fewer skills/less education. They sought work as janitors, nannies, farm laborers, lawn cutters, etc.
    2. The southwest felt immigration the most, since Mexican migrants naturally arrived in that section of the U.S.
      1. By the turn of the century, Latinos made up nearly 1/3 of the population in California, Arizona, and Texas, and nearly 40% in New Mexico.
      2. Latinos succeeded in making the Southwest a bi-cultural region by holding onto to their culture and language. Most immigrants had assimilated into "American" culture. Plus, it did help to have their "mothering country” right next door, not an ocean away.
    3. Some “old-stock” Americans feared modern America’s capacity to absorb all these immigrants.
      1. The Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) attempted to choke off illegal entry by penalizing employers of the illegal immigrants and by granting amnesty to many of those already here.
      2. Anti-immigrant sentiment was strong in California in the wake of economic recession in the early 1990s.
        1. California voters approved a ballot initiative that attempted to deny benefits, including free public education, to illegal immigrants (it was later struck down by courts).
        2. State then passed another law in 1998 which put an end to bilingual teaching in state schools.
    4. By 2002, the U.S. population was made up of 11.5% of foreign-born people. The historical high-point had been 15% in 1910.
    5. There were good sides to the immigration in that (1) immigrants took jobs that Americans didn’t want and (2) the infusion of young immigrants and their offspring helped counter-balance the overwhelming rate of an aging population.
  7. Beyond the Melting Pot
    1. Due to increasing immigration and high birthrate, Latinos were becoming an increasingly important minority
      1. By 2003, the US was home to about 39 million Latinos. (26 million Chicanos, Mexican American, 3 million Puerto Ricans, 1 million Cubans).
      2. Latinos flexed their political powers.
        1. Hispanic mayors were elected in Miami, Denver, and San Antonio.
        2. After many years of struggle, the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC0, headed by Cesar Chavez, succeeded in making working conditions better for Chicano “stoop laborers” who followed the planting cycle of the American West.
      3. Latinos were well organized and became the nation’s largest ethnic minority.
    2. Asian Americans also made great strides.
      1. By the 1980s, they were America’s fastest-growing minority and their numbers reached about 12 million by 2003.
      2. Citizens of Asian ancestry were now counted among the most prosperous Americans. In 2003, the average Asian household was 25% better off than that of the average white household.
    3. American Indians, numbered some 2.4 million in the 2000 census.
      1. Unemployment and alcoholism had blighted reservation life. Half had left their reservations to live in cities.
      2. Many tribes took advantage of their special legal status of independence by opening up casinos on reservations to the public.
      3. However, discrimination and poverty proved hard to break.
  8. Cities and Suburbs
    1. Cities grew less safe, crime was the great scourge of urban life.
      1. The rate of violent crimes raised to its peak in the drug infested 1980s, but then it leveled out in the 90s. Violent crime dropped notably after about 1995.
      2. Still, murder, robbery and rape remained common in cities and rural areas and drove many more people to the suburbs.
    2. In the mid-1990s, a swift and massive transition took place from cities to suburbs, making jobs “suburbanized.”
      1. The nation’s brief “urban age” lasted for only a little less than 7 decades.
      2. Some affluent suburban neighborhoods stayed secluded, by staying locked in “gated communities.”
      3. By the first decade of the 21st century, big suburban rings and beltways emerged around cities like New York, Chicago, Houston, and Washington D.C.
        1. The cities as a whole were becoming more racially and ethnically diverse, however local neighborhoods were often homogeneous.
      4. Suburbs grew fastest in the West and Southwest, in areas such as L.A., San Diego, Las Vegas, and Phoenix.
        1. Builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting up across the landscapes.
        2. A huge shift of US population was underway from East to West, from North to South.
        3. The Great Plains were hurt from the movement. The entire Plains held fewer people than the Los Angeles basin.
      5. However, some cities started to show signs of renewal in downtown areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and San Francisco.
  9. Minority America
    1. Racial and ethic tensions also exacerbated the problems of American cities. This was specifically evident in L.A. (a magnet for minorities).
      1. There, in 1992, a mostly white jury exonerated white cops who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect.
        1. The minority neighborhoods of L.A. erupted in a riot of anger. There was looting, arson, killings. Many blacks addressed their anger toward Asian shopkeepers who armed themselves in protection.
        2. The L.A. riots vividly testified to black skepticism about the U.S. system of justice.
      2. Three years later, in L.A., a televised showing of O.J. Simpson’s murder trial fed white disillusionment with the court system and with race relations.
        1. After months of testimony, the evidence (including Simpson's DNA) seemed overwhelmingly that O.J. Simpson was guilty. But, he was acquitted due to the fact some white officers had been shown to harbor racist sentiments.
        2. In a a later civil trial, another jury unanimously found Simpson liable for the “wrongful deaths” of his former wife and another victim.
      3. The Simpson verdicts revealed the huge gap between white and black America.
    2. Blacks still felt that they were mistreated, as in 2000 election when they claimed that they weren’t allowed to vote in Florida.
    3. In 2002, 52% of blacks and only 21% of whites lived in inner cities.
      1. The most desperate black ghettos were especially problematic. Blacks who'd benefited from the 60s Civil Rights Movement left to the suburbs along with whites. This left the poorest of the poor in the old city ghettos.
        1. Without a middle class to help the community, the cities became plagued by unemployment, crime, and drug addiction.
      2. Single women headed about 43% of black families in 2002, 3 times more than whites.
        1. Many single, black mothers depended on Welfare to feed their children.
        2. Social scientists made it clear that education excels if the child has warm, home environment. It seemed clear that many fatherless, impoverished black kids seemed plagued by educational handicaps which were difficult to overcome.
    4. Some segments of black communities did prosper after the Civil Rights Movement, although they still had a long way to go to reach equality.
      1. By 2002, 33% of black families had a $50,000 income, putting them at middle class level.
      2. Blacks also gained power in politics.
        1. The number of black officials elected had risen to the 9,000 mark. This included more than 3 dozen members of Congress and mayors of some big cities.
        2. Voter tallies showed that black more blacks were going to the polls.
        3. By the early 21st century, blacks had dramatically advanced into higher education. In 2002, 17% of blacks over 25 had a bachelor’s degree.
          1. To keep the numbers up and growing, the courts still preserved affirmative action in the university admissions.
  10. E Pluribus Plures
    1. Ideas of race, ethnicity, and culture were changing in the late 1900s.
    2. Sounding like early 20th century “cultural pluralists” such as Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne, many advanced the idea of “multiculturalism.” This stressed the need to preserve, rather than squash racial minorities, old ways, and ethnic traits.
      1. The old idea of a “melting pot” gave way to a “salad bowl."
    3. The nation’s classrooms became the heated area for debate.
      1. Multiculturalists attacked traditional the curriculum as being too white and advocated a greater focus on achievements of blacks, Latinos, Asians, Indians.
      2. In defense, critics said that studies on ethnic differences would destroy American values.
      3. The Census Bureau furthered the debate when, in 2000, it allowed respondents to identify themselves with more than one of the six categories: black, white, Latino, American Indian, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.
  11. The Postmodern Mind
    1. Despite the TV, American read more in the early 21st century, listened to more music, and were better educated than ever.
      1. Colleges awarded some 2.5 million degrees in 2004. One quarter of the 25-34 age group was a college grad. This fact helped the economy.
    2. What Americans read said much about Americans themselves.
      1. Some authors wrote of the American western experience.
        1. Larry McMurtry wrote about the end of the cattle drive era in Lonesome Dove (1985).
        2. Raymond Carver wrote powerful stories about the working class in the Pacific Northwest.
        3. Annie Dillard, Ivan Doig, and Jim Harrison recreated the frontier, also in the Pacific Northwest.
        4. David Guterson wrote a moving tale of interracial anxiety and love in the WWII era in Pacific Northwest in Snow Falling on Cedars (1994).
        5. Wallace Stagner produced many remarkable works like Angle of Repose (1971) and Crossing to Safety (1987).
        6. Norman MacLean wrote two unforgettable events about his childhood in Montana, A River Runs Through It (1976) and Young Men and Fire (1992).
      2. There were African-American authors.
        1. August Wilson retold the history of the blacks in 20th century emphasizing on the psychological cost of the northward migration.
        2. George Wolf explored sobering questions of black identity in Jelly’s Last Jam about the life story of jazz musician “Jelly Roll” Morton.
        3. Alice Walker gave fictional voice to the experiences of black women in her hugely popular The Color Purple.
        4. Toni Morrison wrote a haunting story of a mother's love in Beloved.
        5. Edward P. Jones inventively rendered the life of a slave-owning black family in The Known World.
          1. Morrison, Walker, and Jones won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction. Morrison also won the Nobel Prize for literature.
      3. American Indians wrote or were written about.
        1. N. Scott Momaday won a Pulitzer Prize for his portrayal of Indian life in House Made of Dawn.
        2. James Welch wrote movingly about his Blackfoot ancestors in Fools Crow.
      4. Asian-American authors flourished as well.
        1. Among them was playwright David Hwang, novelist Amy Tan, and essayist Maxine Hong Kingston.
        2. Gish Jen in Mona in the Promise Land guided her readers into the poignant comedy of suburban family relationships that was common for 2nd-generation Asian-Americans.
      5. Jhumpa Lahiris’ Interpreter of Maladies, explored the relationship struggles between immigrant Indian parents and their American-born kids.
      6. There were Latino writers.
        1. Sandra Cisneros drew from her own life as a Mexican-American kid to write on Latino life in working-class Chicago in The House on Mango Street.
  12. The New Media
    1. The internet was first created by the government as a tool to fight the Cold War. In the 1990's, the internet came to average households, then spread like crazy…
      1. In 1997, 18% of households had the internet, in 2007, 70% did.
    2. The internet's rapid growth led to a dot-com boom, and subsequent bust. The dot-com boom peaked around the year 2000.
      1. Many dot-coms failed, but those that stayed became the giants of the 'net: Amazon in retail, Google in searching, and E*trade in finance.
    3. There were other internet niches…
      1. Younger Americans flocked to social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook.
      2. YouTube became the standard for posting and watching online videos.
    4. Traditionally, a person learned of the news either through the morning paper (yesterday's news) or the 6:00 o'clock nightly news (the day's news). This changed with the internet.
      1. Now, anyone with a computer and a connection could write about on weblogs or "blogs." Facts and research were optional.
      2. This instantaneous news and information source had been challenged by 24 hour cable news channels, but the internet now involved the average person too. The big losers were the newspapers whose subscriptions dropped sharply and increasingly turned to their own websites.
  13. The American Prospect
    1. American spirit rolled on in the 21st century, as it always had, but problems continued.
    2. There were equality issues.
      1. Women still felt they were short of first class citizenship.
      2. U.S. society also wanted to find ways to adapt back to the traditional family. But this was difficult if not impossible with the new realities of women working outside the home.
      3. Full equality still seemed to be only a dream for some races.
    3. There were economic issues.
      1. Powerful foreign competitors threatened the U.S. economic status.
      2. The alarmingly unequal distribution of wealth and income threatened to turn America into a society of haves and have-nots.
    4. There were environmental issues.
      1. Coal-fired electrical energy plants produced acid rain and helped greenhouse effect.
      2. Unsolved problem of radioactive waste disposal halted the construction of nuclear power plants.
      3. The planet was being drained of oil and oil spills showed the danger behind oil exploration and transportation.
        1. The public began to look toward alternative fuel sources, such as solar power and wind mills, natural gas, electric “hybrid” cars, an affordable hydrogen fuel cell.
      4. Energy conservation and alternatives remained crucial, but elusive.
    5. All-the-while, more doors were opening for the Americans, such as…
      1. Opportunities in outer space and inner-city streets.
        1. The artist’s easel and the musician’s concert hall.
        2. At the inventor’s bench and the scientist’s laboratory.
    6. And finally, America is dynamic, always growing, evolving, and hopefully improving.
      1. American democracy is ever-changing.
        1. As Woodrow Wilson once wrote, "Democratic institutions are never done; they are like living tissue, always a-making. It is a strenuous thing, this of living life of a free people."
      2. Americans are always striving to be better.
        1. As Teddy Roosevelt once put it, "Far better it is to dare mighty things, to win glorious triumphs, even though checkered by failure, than to rank with those poor spirits who neither enjoy much nor suffer much, because they live in the gray twilight that knows not victory nor defeat."
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 15th Edition

Below are chapter notes and outlines for the American Pageant, 15th edition.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1152 pages
  • Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing; 15 edition (January 1, 2012)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 1111349533
  • ISBN-13: 978-1111349530

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

I. The shaping of North America

  1. Earth’s continent took their positions slowly; they used to all be one giant mass-continent.
    • Shifting caused mountain ranges to form
  2. About 2 million years ago a great chill covered the planet beginning the Great Ice Age When the glaciers receded and melted they scraped away topsoil and the great lakes were formed and filled.

II. Peopling the Americas

  1. The Great Ice Age did more than change the environment, it contributed to the origins of the continent’s human history.
    • As the sea level dropped, it exposed a land bridge connecting Eurasia with North America in the area of the present-day Bering Sea.
    • Across that bridge, probably following migratory herds of game, ventured small bands of nomadic Asian hunters. They spread to all parts of America in over 2,000 years.
  2. Incas in Peru, Mayans in Central America, and Aztecs in Mexico shaped stunningly sophisticated civilizations.

III. The Earliest Americans

  1. Corn growing helped the population grow and quickly became a staple crop.
  2. Everywhere it was planted, corn began to transform nomadic hunting bands into settled agricultural villagers.
    • Corn cultivation reached other parts of North America considerably later. The Mound Builders of the Ohio River valley, the Mississippian culture of the lower Midwest, and the desert-dwelling Anasazi peoples of the Southwest did * sustain some large settlements after the incorporation of corn planting.
    • But mysteriously, perhaps due to prolonged drought, all those ancient cultures fell into decline by about 1300 c.e.
  3. Maize, Beans and Squash made possible three-sister farming.
  4. The Iroquois in the northeastern woodlands, inspired by a legendary leader named Hiawatha, created in the sixteenth century perhaps the closest North American approximation to the great empires of Mexico and Peru.
    • But for the most part, the native peoples of North America were living in small, scattered, and impermanent settlements.
  5. In more settled agricultural groups, women tended the crops while men hunted, fished, gathered fuel, and cleared fields for planting.
    • The Native Americans had neither the desire nor the means to manipulate nature aggressively. They revered the physical world and endowed nature with spiritual properties.

IV. Indirect Discoverers of the New World

  1. The Scandinavians were actually the first to encounter the continent of North America.
    • They landed near Newfoundland but since their governments weren’t looking to expand or settle they lost the new settlements and America was forgotten about except in song and stories.
  2. Christian crusaders must rank high among America’s indirect discoverers.
    • Looking to expand their beliefs to Asia they eventually acquired a taste for the foreign goods. The expense of transporting items from Asia to Europe was so much that they started to look for alternate ways.

V. Europeans Enter Africa

  1. Marco Polo’s travels inspired Europeans to look for cheaper ways to get to desirable goods.
  2. Europeans had invented new ships-caravels- that could help them travel more and had discovered new trade winds that would take them home easier.
  3. The Portuguese were the first to travel to southern Africa.
    • They quickly set up trading posts for gold and slaves.
    • Slave trading became a big business
    • The seafaring Portuguese pushed still farther southward in search of the water route to Asia. Bartholomeu Dias rounded the southernmost tip of Africa in 1488. ten years later Vasco da Gama finally reached India.
  4. Meanwhile, Spain was growing stringer and also wanted to reach new wealth and discovery.

VI. Columbus Comes upon a New World

  1. Spain was ready for new power and riches. The dawn of the Renaissance in the fourteenth century nurtured an ambitious spirit of optimism and adventure.
  2. Christopher Columbus persuaded the Spanish monarchs to outfit him with three tiny but seaworthy ships.
    • Seeking a new water route to the fabled Indies, he in fact had bumped into an enormous land barrier blocking the ocean pathway. He was so sure that he had reached the Indies that he called the natives there Indians which stuck.
    • His discovery would join the four continents- Europe, Africa and the two Americas.
  3. For Europeans as well as for Africans and Native Americans, the world after 1492 would never be the same, for better or worse.

VII. When Worlds Collide

  1. New world plants such as tobacco, maize, beans, tomatoes, and especially the lowly potato eventually revolutionized the international economy as well as the European diet. In exchange the Europeans introduced Old World crops and animals to the Americas.
  2. Unwittingly, the Europeans also brought other organisms in the dirt on their boots and the dust on their clothes
    • Such as the seeds of Kentucky bluegrass, dandelions, and daisies.
  3. Most ominous of all, in their bodies they carried the germs that caused smallpox, yellow fever, and malaria.
    • The Natives didn have any antibodies against the diseases.
  4. Enslavement and armed aggression took their toll, but the deadliest killers were microbes.

VIII. The Spanish Conquistadores

  1. The Europeans realized that there were riches in the Americas.
  2. The Treaty of Tordesillas was established dividing the new world between Portugal and Spain.
    • Lots of explorers then thirsted for riches and went forth to discover new things and conquer people both in North and South America.
    • The New World gold helped transform the world economy.
  3. The Europeans used techniques to subdue the natives; the most popular one was the Encomienda system which was still slavery.

IX. The Conquest of Mexico

  1. In about 1519, Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba with men and horses.  Along the way, he picked up two translators - A Spanish prisoner of Mayan-speaking Indians, and an Indian slave named Malinche.
  2. The Spaniards arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital with the intention of stealing all of the gold and other riches; superstitious Moctezuma- the Aztec ruler also believed that Cortés was the god Quetzalcoatl.
    • He allowed Cortez to come near the city unopposed.
  3. Because of the Spanish treatment, the Indian population in Mexico went from 20 million to 2 million in less than a century.
  4. The invader brought more than conquest and death. He brought his crops and his animals, laws and language.

X. The Spread of Spanish America

  1. Spain’s colonial empire grew swiftly and impressively.
    • A lot of Spanish cities flourished and by this time other countries wanted in on the wealth. The Spanish began to fortify and settle their North American borderlands and to block the entrance of the French and others.
  2. The natives, tired of being forced into a different religion, launched a rebellion known as Popes Rebellion, where they burned down churches and killed priests.
    • It took nearly half a century for the Spanish fully to reclaim New Mexico from the insurrectionary Indians.
  3. The Spaniards, who had more than a century’s head start over the English, were genuine empire builders and cultural innovators in the New World.
    • They eventually intermarried and mixed their culture with the indigenous people instead of shunning them like the English did.
    • The Spanish invaders did indeed kill, enslave, and infect countless natives, but they also erected a colossal empire and set the foundation for many Spanish-speaking nations.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings 19.94 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

Most of the new world had been changed profoundly as the seventeenth century dawned. North America was largely unclaimed (the area over Mexico). And the Spanish had set up much of the control in Central and South America.

I. England’s Imperial Stirrings

 

  1. England didn’t put in much effort to colonize as the Spanish did.
  2. After King Henry VIII broke with Church he launched the English Protestant reformation. At first England and Spain were allies but after the Protestant Elizabeth ascended to the English throne a rivalry with Catholic Spanish intensified. Catholic Ireland, originally under English rule sought help from Spain but they failed and England put protestants there. Many English developed contempt for the “savage” Irish.

 

II. Elizabeth Energizes England

 

  1. Elizabeth encouraged English raiding the Spanish. The most famous seadog was Sir Francis Drake. Elizabeth knighted him, and that angered the Spanish.
  2. When English attempted colonization they had many failures. The first one was Roanoke Island which mysteriously vanished swallowed by the wilderness. The Spanish had better luck colonizing.
  3. King Philip II of Spain sent an armada to invade England but the English fought back. The English inflicted heavy damage and a storm arose which scattered the crippled Spanish.
    • The year 1588 marked the beginning of Spain’s downfall. Spanish Caribbean slipped from Spain, and Holland got independence.
    • England’s victory dampened Spain’s fighting spirit and increased England’s naval dominance. England was a strong, united nation under a popular monarch, nationalism.
  4. The Golden age of literature dawned with William Shakespeare. English had a thirst for adventure & curiosity.
  5. England and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.

 

III. England on the Eve of an Empire

 

  1. Population was growing when economic depression hit the woolen trade and thousands of farmers left.
  2. Laws of primogeniture - Only the eldest sons were eligible to inherit estates.
  3. In the early 1600’s Joint Stock Companies let investors pool money and share losses/profits.
  4. New Enclosure policies (which means fencing in land) meant that there was less or no land left over for the poor.

 

IV. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling

 

  1. Virginia Company got a charter from King James I; they wanted gold and passages to the Indies. Stock holders wanted to form the company, get profit and then quickly sell it.
  2. The charter of the Virginia Company was a significant document in American history and guaranteed overseas settlers the same rights of Englishmen in Britain.
  3. Settlers arrived on May 24, 1607 to Jamestown. It was an unhealthy and mosquito infested place.
    • There were about 100 men who disembarked and 40 additional colonists perished on the voyage.
    • On the shore they died of disease, malnutrition and starvation. They were “gentlemen” who didn’t want to do any work. Problems a) swampy site – poor drinking water – mosquitoes causing malaria and yellow fever. B) men wasted time looking for gold. C) There were 0 women. D) The supply ship that was supposed to come was wreaked in the Bahamas in 1609.
    • The colonists were saved from collapse by John Smith he said “he who shall not work, shall not eat.”

 

V. Maryland: Catholic Haven

 

  1. Maryland was founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore for religious diversity- It was the second plantation colony and fourth overall colony to be formed.
  2. It was to be a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge of safe haven. Lord Baltimore gave huge estates to his catholic relatives.
    • However, the poor people who were needed to settle there were mostly Protestant, creating friction.
  3. Maryland prospered with tobacco sales like Virginia.
    • It depended on labor = White indentured servants. In later years of the 17th century. Black slaves started to be imported.
  4. Catholics of Maryland passed the Act of Toleration in 1649 which grated toleration to all Christians. Gave the death penalty to those who denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, (The Jews & Atheists) actually made the colonies less tolerant, but the catholic were protected.

 

VI. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

 

  1. As the British were colonizing Virginia they were also colonizing the West Indies colonies that weakening Spain was letting go- along with Jamaica in 1655.
  2. Sugar formed West Indian economy.
    • Tobacco was poor man’s crop. Sugar was rich man’s crop.
    • The rich grew lots of sugar on brutal plantations. Only the wealthy owners could succeed in sugar.
    • They brought in African slaves. ¼ of a million slaves were brought in 50 years time.
  3. Blacks were more abundant than whites 4 to 1, even today the region’s population is predominantly black.
  4. To control slaves the English made “codes” that defined slave’s legal statues.
    • The Barbados slave code of 1611 denied most fundamental rights to slaves and gave masters control.
    • West Indies depended on America for foodstuffs.
    • At first Indians were intended to be used as slaves but disease killed about 90 % of all natives.
    • A group of English settlers from the West Indies brought enslaved Africans and the model of slave code. Carolina adapted one like it in 1690.

 

VII. Colonizing the Carolinas

 

  1. In England, King Charles I, had been beheaded. There was a civil war in the 1640’s.
  2. Oliver Cromwell ruled for 10 very strict years.
  3. Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne in “the restoration” of 1660.
  4. Carolina was named for Charles II.
    • The king granted land to court families who hoped to grow foodstuffs.
  5. Carolina prospered by developing close economic ties with English West Indies. Many settlers came from Barbados and established a slave trade in Carolina. Native Indians were looked for to be slaves.
    • Lord Proprietors in London protested against Indian slave trading. Indian slaves were sent to the West Indies to work. Others were sent to new England.

      • In 1707 Savannah Indians ended allegiance with Carolinas and migrated back to Maryland and

    • Pennsylvania where a Quaker colony promised better relations between Indians and Whites. Carolinians killed a lot of them before they left though.
    • Rice emerged as the principal export crop. Africans knew how to grow it, and had a relative immunity to malaria which made them ideal laborers on hot and swampy rice plantations.
  6. In Charlestown Jews and others were attracted by religious tolerance despite violence with Spanish and Indians. Carolinas were too strong to be wiped out.

 

VIII. The emergence of North Carolina

 

  1. Newcomers to North Carolina were called squatters. They were people from Virginia and owned no land.
    • North Carolinians regarded them as riff-raff. They were also hospitable to pirates, and they developed resistance to authority. They existed in graphical isolation.
  2. North Carolina separated from South Carolina in 1712.
  3. Aristocratic and wealthier people were down south around plantations. The strong willed and independent minded lived up north. North Carolina and Rhode Island were the most independent and least aristocratic.
  4. They had bloody relations with Indians. Aided by south Carolinians they crushed the Indians in Tuscarora War, where they sold hundreds into slavery. South Carolina also defeated Yamasee Indians. Virtually all Indian southern tribes had been devastated by 1720.

 

IX. Late-coming Georgia: The Buffer Colonies

 

  1. Georgia- The last of 13 colonies was formed 126 years after the first colony and 52 years after the 12th colony.
    • It was intended to be a buffer to protect the Carolinas from the in Spaniards in Florida and buffer against French from Louisiana. They got money from the British.
    • Georgia was named in honor of King George II. It was launched by philanthropists made silk and wine, haven for wretched souls imprisoned for debt, the founders wanted to keep slavery out of Georgia.
  2. James Oglethorpe was the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier. He was a statesman, repelled panish attacks and saved the “charity colony” by his energetic leadership and by using his own fortune to help with the colony,.
  3. Georgia was a melting pot community.
    • All Christian worshippers except Catholics enjoyed religious tolerance.
    • Many missionaries arrived in Savannah to work among debtors and Indians, they tried to convert them. John Westley was one of them who later returned to England and founded the Methodist church.
  4. Georgia grew very slowly it was the least populous. It had an unhealthy climate, slavery restrictions and Spanish attacks.

 

X. The plantation colonies

 

  1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies devoted to exporting commercial agriculture products and profitable staple crops.
    • Growth of cities was often stunted by forests. Wide scattering of plantations and rivers slowed the development of cities as well. Rivers drove settlers west.
  2. All plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration.
    • In the south crops were tobacco and rice. In south Carolina there was “soil butchery” because of tobacco.

 

AttachmentSize
File Chapter 2 - The Planting of English America21.83 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

Chapter 3 Settling the Northern colonies 1619-1700

I. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

  1. Martin Luther nailed his protests against Catholicism on the Wittenberg Cathedral in 1517.
    • Said that the bible only was God’s word and started Protestant Reformation.
  2. John Calvin of Geneva believed in the Reformation so much he had ideas that affected America’s future generations.
  3. Calvinism was the main religion for New England.
    • Calvin wrote institutes of the Christian Religion (1536). It said God was good, powerful and already predestines who was going to heaven (the elect) and hell before they were born and said that humans were weak and evil.
  4. Those who were sure to go had signs of conversion where god told them they were of the elect and were then expected to live the life of a visible saint.
    • Calvinism swept through England in the 1530’s where King Henry the 8th broke the Roman Catholic Church.
  5. The Puritans wanted to completely de-catholicize the church.
    • Devout Puritans thought that only visible saints belonged in the church but the king let everyone in.
    • This mix angered a group called the separatists who broke away from the church of England.

II. The Pilgrims end their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

  1. They were unhappy and they wanted to move to a place where they could still keep their English values.
    • They negotiated with the Virginia Company to get the Mayflower ship charter.
  2. When reaching America the ship missed its mark and landed at Plymouth.
    • Fewer than half the people on the ship were separatists; before disembarking 41 adult males not including servants or seamen signed the Mayflower compact – a simple agreement to form a crude government and submit to the will of the majority.
    • After the first winter (1620-1621) only 44/102 pilgrims survived. They weren’t ready at all for it. The men who went considered themselves “gentlemen” and didn’t want to farm and make settlements. They were looking for gold.
    • In the autumn of 1621 they started to see improvements in harvest and celebrated the first Thanksgiving.
    • Pilgrims were blessed with William Bradford who was elected governor 30 times he was a great leader.

III. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

  1. In 1630 Massachusetts Bay colony was established by non-separating puritans, it soon grew to be the largest and most influential of the colonies.
  2. The great migration started in 1630- 70000 refugees left England-not all of them were puritans.
    • John Winthrop became Massachusetts 1st governor for 19 years. The Puritan Bay colonists believed that they had a covenant with God, an agreement to build a holy society that would be a model for all humankind.

IV. Building the Bay Colony

  1. Nonbelievers as well as believers paid taxes for the government- this supported the church.
    • A congregation had the right to hire and fire its ministers and set his salary. Clergymen were also barred from holding formal political office.
    • They endorsed the idea of separating church and state. The freemen annually elected the governor and his assistants and a representative assembly called the General Court.
  2. Winthrop didn’t like democracy.

V. Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth

  1. The Bay commonwealth enjoyed a high degree of social harmony.
    • The Quakers were persecuted with fines, floggings and banishment.
    • Antinomianism was the belief that the elect need not obey the laws of either God or man; most notably promoted in the colonies by Anne Hutchinson.
    • She was banished and fled to Rhode Island, eventually killed by Indians.
  2. Roger Williams, an extreme Separatist, was a popular Salem minister who also challenged the Church. He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

VI. The Rhode Island “Sewer”

  1. Aided by friendly Indians, Roger Williams fled to Rhode Island in 1636. He built the first Baptist church, and established complete freedom of religion even for Jews and Catholics.
    • There were no taxes demanded for the church, no oaths had to be made for religious beliefs.
  2. Rhode Island became individualistic and stubbornly independent.

VII. New England Spreads Out

  1. Hartford and Connecticut were founded in 1635.
  2. In 1639 the settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted the Fundamental orders.
  3. 1638- New Haven was established in Connecticut, it was a community founded by puritans. In 1662 Charles II granted Connecticut a charter. In 1641, New Hampshire was absorbed by the greedy Massachusetts Bay. The king took it back and made New Hampshire a royal colony in 1679.

VIII. Puritans Versus Indians

  1. Wampanoag Chieftain signed a treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims and helped them celebrate the first thanksgiving.
  2. Hostility arose between English settlers and Pequot tribe. The English and their Narragansett Indian allies annihilated the Pequot tribe.
  3. In 1675 King Philip, a Massasoit attacked colonist tribes, was defeated in 1676. IX. Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence
  4. In 1643 four colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation.
  5. During the English civil war there was armed conflict between the between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in the victory of pro-parliament forces and execution of Charles I. X. Andros Promotes the First American Revolution
  6. Massachusetts suffered humiliation when the Dominion of New England was created by royal authority. The leader of the Dominion was Lord Edmund Andros who was disliked because of his harsh regulations. He was shipped back to England.
  7. The glorious (bloodless) revolution occurred in England to dethrone king James II.
    • A period of salutary neglect –where navigation laws were only weakly enforced- started.

XI. Old Netherlands at New Netherlands

  1. Netherlands revolted against Spain and got their independence in the late 16th century.
    • The 17th century was a golden age in Dutch history
  2. The Dutch East India Company employed henry Hudson to search for riches.
  3. The Dutch West India Company mostly raided other ships, most importantly bought Manhattan Island for very little. New Amsterdam- later called New York was run by the company. It attracted all kinds of people. XII. Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors
  4. New England wasn’t happy about their Dutch neighbor growing.
  5. Sweden also came into America to colonize in their golden years but their rule came to an end when the Dutch sent a military dispatch over and New Sweden was absorbed by new Netherlands.

XIII. Dutch Residues In New York

  1. The English regarded the Dutch as invaders
    • Charles II granted the area to his brother the Duke of York, whom it was named after.
    • They sent over troops to fight the Dutch and conquered the area. The aristocratic atmosphere discouraged European immigrants from coming and retarded the growth of the city.
    • The Dutch left many influences in New York such as street names, Santa Claus and golf. XIV. Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania
  2. The Quakers (the Religious Society of Friends were a group of dissenters who were unconventional, they refused to sign oaths, or pay taxes to the Church of England. They hated war and violence.
  3. William Penn was attracted to the Quaker faith; he was paid a monetary debt that was owed to his father with a tract of land called Pennsylvania (Penn’s Woods).
    • It welcomed immigrants and it had fertile land.

XV. Quaker Pennsylvania and its Neighbors

  1. He formally launched his colony in 1681; thousands of squatters lived here already.
    • Philadelphia- the city of brotherly love- was one of the best planned cities with wide streets.
  2. He had peaceful relations with Indians.
    • They went among each other without weapons and Quakers even used some as babysitters.
    • Unfortunately non-Quakers who came on the Quaker land to settle provoked bad feelings towards the Indians.
  3. Pennsylvania had many liberal features such as, unrestricted immigration and paying taxes for church was not mandatory.
    • Attracted a big mix of ethnicity.
  4. Penn wasn’t appreciated or liked because he was friends with King James II
  5. Delaware and New Jersey also formed next to Pennsylvania.

XVI. The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies

  1. The middle colonies- New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania- had fertile soil, rivers and forests.
  2. They were intermediate in size, held a higher degree of toleration, and had an ethnically mixed group of people.
  3. Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, entered Philadelphia as a seventeen-year-old in 1720 and loved it.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 3 - Settling the Northern Colonies25.36 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century

Chapter 4 – American Life in the Seventeenth Century

I. The Unhealthy Chesapeake

  1. Malaria, dysentery and Typhoid took a cruel toll on the Chesapeake settlers, cutting ten years off the life expectancy of newcomers from England.
    • The Great Majority of immigrants were single men in their late teens.
    • Most died after arrival.
    • Surviving males competed for the attentions of the extremely scarce women which outnumbered them 6:1.
  2. Yet despite hardships, the Chesapeake colonies struggled on.
    • The native-born in habitants eventually acquired immunity to killer diseases.
    • The presence of more women allowed more families to form.

II. The Tobacco Economy

  1. The Chesapeake was hospitable to tobacco cultivation.
    • Relentless seeking of fresh fields to plant tobacco made settlers plunge even father up river valleys provoking Indian attacks. 1.5 million pounds of tobacco came out of the Chesapeake Bay.
  2. Indentured servants were willing to be slaves for a couple years in order for someone to pay their transatlantic trip.
    • At the end they’d receive their freedom dues which included food, some tools and a small parcel of land.
  3. Some states practiced the headright system which granted 50 acres of land to whoever paid the passage of a labor to America.
    • Ravenous for labor and land the Chesapeake planters brought some 100,000 indentured servants to the region by 1700’s.
    • As land became scarcer, permit less, poor, freed workers had to hire themselves for pitiful wages back to their former masters.

III. Frustrated Freedmen and Bacon’s Rebellion

  1. Virginia’s governor William Berkley had to deal with one thousands Virginians breaking out of control in 1676.
    • The rioters were led by 29- year old Nathaniel Bacon.
    • They fiercely resented Berkley’s friendly politics towards the Indians. Especially when Berkley refused to retaliate against a series of brutal Indian attacks on frontier settlements.
    • Bacon and his followers murdered the Indians, chased Berkley from Jamestown and set fire to the capital.
    • Eventually Berkley hung 20 rebels and Bacon died of disease.

IV. Colonial Slavery

  1. More than 7 million Africans were carried in Chains to the New World in the 3 centuries following Columbus’s landing.
    • In 1700 about 400,000 ended up in North America.
  2. In 1680 the rising wages in England shrank the pool of penniless folk willing to gamble a new life or an early death as an indentured servant in America.
  3. In 1698 they Royal African Company lost its crown granted monopoly on carrying slaves to the colonies.
    • Enterprising Americans, especially Rhode Islanders rushed in to cash in on the lucrative slave trade and the supply of slaves rose steeply.
  4. The captives, usually branded and bound, were herded aboard sweltering ships for the tiresome middle passage.
    • Death rates ran as high as 20 percent.
    • Slaves were then sent to slave auctions in the new world ports, where a giant slave market traded in human life and misery for a century.
  5. “Slave Codes” made blacks and their children the property of their white masters for life.
    • Some colonies made it a crime to teach a slave to read or write. Not even a conversion to Christianity could qualify a slave for freedom. V. Africans in America
  6. In the deepest south the climate was hostile to health and the labor was life-draining,
    • There were rice and indigo plantations in South Carolina with far distances in between known for being lonely hells on earth.
    • Blacks in the tobacco-growing industry were somewhat better off because tobacco was a less physically demanding crop.
  7. Native born African Americans contributed to the growth of a stable and distinctive slave culture- a mixture of African and American religion, speech and folkways.
    • Around South Carolina blacks evolved a unique language called Gullah (a mix of English with African languages).
    • Some African words have even been passed into American speech- Goober (peanut), gumbo (okra) and voodoo (witchcraft).
  8. In 1712 there was a slave revolt where 21 were executed once the revolt was controlled.
    • In 1739 there was another slave revolt where 50 blacks tried marching along to Spanish Florida; they were stopped by the militia.

VI. Southern Society

  1. The rich planters were at the top of society.
    • They had wealth, prestige and political power.
    • Beneath them were the small farmers who made up the largest social group. Then came the ex-indentured slaves, then the people still serving out their indenture. The bottoms of the bottom were the black slaves and they slowly replaced the indentured slaves.
  2. Southern life revolved around the great plantations.
    • Waterways provided the principal means of transportation.
    • Roads were so wretched in bad weather that sometimes funeral parties couldn’t reach church burial grounds- an obstacle that accounted for the development if family burial plots.

VII. The New England Family

  1. Clean water and cool temperatures retarded the spread of killer microbes in the New England area.
    • In contrast to the Chesapeake, New England settlers added ten years to their life spans by migrating from the old world. The average life span was 70 years.
  2. They also tended to migrate as families instead of lone men. So the population grew more swiftly from natural reproduction.
    • Early marriage also encouraged the booming birthrates A married woman could expect up to 10 pregnancies and rear as many as 8 surviving children.
  3. The fragility of Southern families advanced the economic security of the southern women especially of women’s property rights because southern men frequently died young, leaving widows with small children to support.
    • The southern colonies generally allowed married women to retain separate properties and gave widows the right to inherit their husband’s estates.
  4. In the 17th century a rudimentary conception of woman’s rights as individuals was beginning to appear.
    • Women still couldn’t vote and popular attitude insisted that they were morally weaker.
  5. The laws of Puritan New England sought to defend the integrity of marriages. Divorce was exceedingly rare and the authorities would order separated couples to reunite.

VIII. Life in the New England Towns

  1. Proprietors were the sober-minded town fathers.
    • New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities and the distribution of land was entrusted to the laws of proprietors.
    • The center usually consisted of a meetinghouse as a place of worship and a townhall.
  2. Towns of more than 50 families were required to provide elementary education. Half the adults were literate.
    • In 1636- Harvard College was established in Massachusetts. And in 1693 the William and Mary College in Virginia.
  3. Puritans ran their church democratically and that lead to democratic government.

IX. The Half-way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials

  1. Jeremiad- Often fiery sermons lamenting the waning piety of parishioners.
  2. There was a decline of conversions and in 1662 the half-way covenant was established.
    • t modified the “covenant” to admit baptism but not full communion of the children of baptized but not yet converted existing members.
  3. The half-way covenant weakened the distinction between the elect and others.
  4. A group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women starting off The Salem Witch trials.
    • Lead to 19 individuals hanged, one pressed to death and two dogs killed.
    • The Trials ended in 1693 when the governor was alarmed by the accusations against his wife. The term “which hunting” developed into a metaphor for the dangerously irrational urge to find a scapegoat for social resentments

X. The New England way of Life

  1. The Climate was uncomfortably hot is the summers and the winter was cruelly cold.
  2. Rocky soil forced the new Englanders to work hard, be industrious and frugal.
    • They turned to the ports and fishing became the Gold mine of New England.
  3. The Americans thought that the natives “wasted land” by not doing anything on it.

XI. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways

  1. Each member of the family did their jobs. Life was humble but comfortable and land was cheap.
    • Women, whether they were slaves or free or worked on southern plantations or in the north had similar duties all over.
    • They wove, cooked, cleaned and cared for children.
    • The men cleared land, fenced planted and cropped it, cut firewood and butchered livestock as needed.
    • The children helped with all these tasks while picking up as much schooling as they could.
  2. In New York the animosity between lordly landholders and aspiring merchants fueled Leister’s Rebellion from 1689-1691.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 4 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century19.94 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

Chapter 5 1700-1775 Colonial society on the eve of Revolution

I. Conquest by the Cradle
  1. By 1775 the population numbered 2.5 million people and 90 percent lived as rural farmers.
    • Americans were multiplying well; the average age to have a kid was 16.
II. Mingling of the Races
  1. America was a melting pot including of Germans (6%) who settled in Pennsylvania, and Scots-Irish (7%).
    • Most of the population (95%) was cooped up east of the Alleghenies
  2. The Scots-Irish over many decades had reached America and became squatters.
    • They were good frontiers men but lawless and individualistic.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 5 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution11.95 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

Chapter 6 the duel for North America 1608-1763

I. France Finds a Foothold in Canada

  1. Like England and Holland, France was a late comer in the colony race. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife.
  2. In 1518 the Edict of Nantes was issued. It allowed limited toleration to the French Huguenots.
    • When King Louis XIV became king he started having interest in over sea colonies.
  3. 1608- France established Quebec, overlooking St. Lawrence.
    • Samuel de Champlain, soldier and explorer is the “Father of New France”
    • He had friendly relations with neighboring Huron Indians and helped defeat Iroquois.
    • The Iroquois hampered French efforts.
  4. Unlike English colonist, French didn’t come by hordes, peasants were too poor and Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave.

II. New France Fans Out

  1. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver.
    • Beaver hunters: Coureurs de Bois and gave lots of names to land. Ex: Baton Rouge and Des Moines
  2. French voyageurs recruited Indians to hunt beaver. They succumbed to disease and alcohol. The Beaver was heavily extinguished.
  3. French missionaries tried to convert Indians. French tried to thwart English from expanding which lead to the finding of Detroit
  4. Louisiana was founded in 1682 by Robert de la Salle to stop Spanish expansion. They came back three years later, landed in Texas and was killed by his crew.
  5. Illinois was very fertile, lots of ports and trading posts established.

III. The Clash of Empires

  1. King Williams war and Queen Anne’s war
    • English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and Indians.
    • Neither side considered America important enough to end real troops
  2. French inspired Indians to ravage New England cities
  3. Britain failed to capture Quebec and Montreal. Peace treaty in Utrecht in 1713 gave Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Hudson Bay New England and limited rights with Spanish America.
  4. The war of Jenkins Ear
    • England captain Jenkins: ear was cut off. War continued to Caribbean Sea and Georgia, merged with war of Austria succession called King George’s war.
  5. France allied with Spain, English troops captured fort.
    • Peace terms gave fort back which outraged colonists. (Louisburg Fort)

IV. George Washington Inaugurates War with France

  1. The Ohio valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British and French
    • Lush, fertile and very good land.
  2. 1754 governor of Virginia sent 21 year old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about one hundred and fifty minute men.
    • Encountering some French in the foment forty miles from Fort Buguense troops fired and killed French leader.
    • Later French returned and surrounded Washington’s crude Fort necessity and fought “Indian Style” ten hours and made him surrender.
    • He was permitted to march away with full war honors.

V. Global war and colonial disunity

  1. The fourth of these wars between Empires started in America unlike the first three.
    • The French and Indian war (a.k.a. seven years’ war) began with Washington’s battle with the French.
    • It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria and Russia.
    • In Germany (Prussia) Fredrick the Great won his title of “Great” by repelling French, Austrian and Russian armies even though he was badly outnumbered three to one.
    • Many Americans sought for the American colonies to unite, for strength lay in numbers.
  2. In 1754 seven of the thirteen colonies met for an inter-colonial congress held in Albany, New York
  3. Albany Congress
    • A month before congress, Ben Franklin published famous “Join or die” cartoon, featuring a snake in pieces representing the colonists.
    • Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but failed because states and England didn’t like it.
    • It was a step toward unity.

VI. Braddock’s: Blundering and its Aftermath

  1. In the beginning, the British sent haughty sixty year old General Edward Braddock to lead a bunch of inexperienced soldiers with slow, heavy artillery. In a battle with the French, the British were ambushed routed by French using “Indian tactics”.
    • In this battle, Washington reportedly had two horsed shot under him and four bullets through his coat but never through him.
    • Afterwards, the frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina felt the Indian wrath, as scalping occurred everywhere.
  2. As the British tried to attack a bunch of strategic wilderness posts, defeat after defeat piled up.

VII. Pitt’s Palms of Victory

  1. In this hour of British trouble; William Pitt, the “Great Commoner”, took the lead.
    • 1757- he became the foremost leader in the London government and later earned the title “Organizer of Victory”.
  2. Changes Pitt made-
    • He pedaled assaults on the French West Indies, from place that snapped British strength and concentrated on Quebec- Montreal.
    • He also replaced old, cautious officers with younger, daring ones.
  3. 1758- Louisbourg fell supplies dwindled. Thirty two year old James Wolfe, dashing and attractive to detail, commanded an army that boldly stalled chief wales of a part protecting Quebec.
    • French troops near the plains of Abraham and in a battle where, he and the French commander Marquis de Montrealm both died, the French were defeated and Quebec surrendered
  4. 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history. 1760 is the last last time French flags flew on American soil.
    • Ended by The peace treaty of Paris in 1763.
  5. France was totally kicked out of North America meant British can go to Canada and land to Mississippi R.
  6. French allowed to keep small valuable sugar islands and fishing stations
    • France Final blow gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war.
    • Great Britain took its place as leading naval power in the world and a great power in North America.

VIII. Restless Colonies

  1. The colonists having experienced was 1st hand and come out victors, were very confident.
    • The myth of British invincibility had been shattered.
  2. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors”
    • I.e., the British refused to recognize any American officers above captain rank.
    • The hardworking Americans believed that they were equal to the red coats which caused trouble.
  3. Brits were concerned with American secret trade with enemy during war. British forbid export of all supplies from New England and middle colonies. Many Americans refused to fight French until Pitt offered to reimburse them.
    • During French and Indian war, even though Americans were from different colonies, they found they had a lot in common and the barriers began to break between them.

IX. War’s Fateful Aftermath

  1. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain.
    • The French consoled themselves with the idea that maybe the Brits would lose their empire too. Spain- eliminated from Fl. Indians had to deal with only Great Britain.
  2. 1763- Ottawa Chief Pontiac, went to men and French men to kill Brits in Ohio Valley, killed 2000.
    • Whites gave Indians blankets with smallpox
    • Whites put troops on frontier borders
    • Now, land hungry Americans would now settle west of Appalachians, but in 1763 Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, which prohibits settlement beyond Appalachians.
    • Document supposed to work out Indians’ problems to draw bound but colonists saw it as more oppression from far away country.
    • “Didn’t we just fight a war to win that land?” 1765- an estimated 1000 wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury North Carolina. On their way up west in defiance of Proclamation .
    • British- Proud and haughty didn’t want to accept blatant disobedience from lowly Americans. Revolutionary war stage was set.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 6 - The Duel for North America26.44 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

Ch. 7 - The Road to Revolution (1763-1775)

I. The Deep Roots Of Revolution

  1. Two ideas had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid-18th century
    • Republicanism: a just society as one in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good
  2. Both the stability of society and the authority of government depended on the virtue of the citizenry (selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage, especially its appetite for civic involvement)
    • It was opposed to hierarchical and authoritarian institutions such as aristocracy and monarchy
    • A group of British political commentators know as Radical Whigs
  3. They feared the threat of liberty posed by the arbitrary power of the monarch and his ministries relative to elected representatives in Parliament. They called the bribing and patronage of the King's ministers - "corruption in a sense of rot or decay. They warned the citizens to be on guard against corruption and to be eternally vigilant against conspiracies.
  4. The Americans had grown accustomed to running their own affairs, distance weakens authority

II. Mercantilism And Colonial Grievances

  1. Britain's empire was acquired in a "fit of absentmindedness;" all except Georgia, of the 13 colonies were haphazardly founded by trading companies, religious groups, or land speculators.
  2. Mercantilism: wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth (military and political power also) could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury
  3. The London government looked at the American colonists as tenants. They were expected to furnish products needed in the mother country
  4. From time to time Parliament passed laws to regulate the mercantilist system
    • The Navigation Law (1650) was aimed at rival Dutch shippers trying to elbow their way into American carrying trade
  5. Euro goods destined for America first had to be landed in Britain, the colonists regularly bought more from Britain than they had sold there, the difference had to be made up of hard cash. Currency issues came to a boil when dire financial need forced many of the colonies to issue paper money, which slowly depreciated
  6. Parliament prohibited the colonial legislatures from printing paper currency and from passing indulgent bankruptcy laws - practices that might harm British merchants.
  7. The British crown reserved the right to nullify any legislation passed by the colonial assembles if such laws worked mischief with the mercantilism system

III. The Merits And Menace Of Mercantilism

  1. 1763 - the Navigation Laws imposed no intolerable burden mainly because they were only loosely enforced
  2. John Hancock - wholesale smuggling
    • Benefits: London paid liberal bounties to colonial producers of ship parts, over the protests of British competitors Virginia tobacco planters enjoyed a monopoly in the British market The protection of British Navy and strong, seasoned redcoats for free
    • Burdens: Stifled economic initiative and imposed a ranking dependency on British agents and creditors Debasing - felt used, kept in a state of perpetual economic adolescence
  3. Revolution broke out, as Theodore Roosevelt, later remarked, because Britain failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one

IV. The Stamp Tax Uproar

  1. Wining the Seven Years' War brought on a huge debt
  2. Prime Minister George Grenville first aroused the resentment of colonists in 1763 by ordering the British Navy to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Laws
  3. He also secured from Parliament the so-called Sugar Act of 1764 which raised tax revenue in the colonies for the crown
  4. Resentment was kept burning by the Quartering Act of 1765, this measure required certain colonies to provide food and quarters from British troops; Stamp Act of 1765 raised revenues to support the new military
  5. The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax; Grenville regarded all these measures as reasonable and just. Both the Sugar and Stamp Acts provided for trying offenders in the hated admiralty courts, where juries were not allowed
  6. Angry Americans made a distinction between "legislation" and "taxation"
    • The principle of no tax without representation was supremely important, and the colonists clung to it with tenacious consistency

V. Forced Repeal Of The Stamp Act

  1. 1765 - the assemblage of the Stamp Act Congress which brought together NYC; 27 distinguished delegated from 9 colonies
  2. They drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and beseeched the King and parliament to repeal; more effective than the Congress was the widespread adoption of non-importation agreements against British goods
  3. Violence accompanied colonial protest, groups of ardent spirits known as the Sons Of Liberty and Daughters Of Liberty took the law into their own hands
    • When tax machines broke down stamp agents were forced to resign
  4. England was hit hard, America then brought about one-half of British shipping was devoted to the American trade 1766 - Parliament repealed Stamp Act, then they passed the Declatory Act - It defined the constitutional principle it would not yield; absolute and unqualified sovereignty over its North American colonies

VI. The Townshend Tea Tax And The Boston "Massacre"

  1. Charles Townshend persuaded Parliament in 1767 to pass the Townshend Acts - a light import duty on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea
  2. The Americans became rebellious, the English government suspended the legislature of NY in 1767 for failure to comply with the Quartering Act
    • They found, however that they could secure smuggling tea at a cheap price
  3. Liberty-loving colonists, resenting the presence of the red-coated "ruffians," taunted the "bloody backs" un-mercilessly
  4. March 5, 1770, 60 people taunted redcoats. Nervous and provoked troops opened fire and killed or wounded 11 citizens, an event known as the Boston Massacre; one of the people who died was Crispus Attucks. Only two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. The soldiers were released after being branded on thumbs.

VII. The Seditious Committees Of Correspondence

  1. Lord North persuaded Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties, but tea was still taxed; flames of discontent still continued to burn
  2. Samuel Adams: master propagandist and engineer of rebellion, he organized in mass the local committees of correspondence. Their chief function was to spread the spirit of resistance by exchanging letters and thus keep alive opposition to British policy
  3. Within a short time every colony established a central committee. They evolved directly into the first American colonies

VIII. Tea Brewing In Boston

  1. Non-importation was weakening, 1773 - British East India Company was facing bankruptcy. If it collapsed, the London government would lose heavily in tax revenue
  2. Not a single one of the several thousand chests of tea shipped by the East India Company ever reached the hands of the consignees
    • December 16, 1773, a hundred Bostonians, disguised as Indians, smashed 342 chests of tea and dumped their contents into the Atlantic. The action was known as the Boston Tea Party. They wanted to make sure that its cheap price did not pose an "invincible temptation" to the people

IX. Parliament Passes The "Intolerable Acts"

  1. 1774 - a series of acts was passed designed to chastise Boston and Massachusetts. Most drastic of all was the Boston Port Act. It closed the tea-stationed harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured; By other "Intolerable Acts" many of the chartered rights of Massachusetts were swept away
  2. The Quebec Act (1774) - The French were guaranteed their Catholic religion. They were also permitted to retain many of their old customs and institutions; the boundaries of Quebec extended southward all the way to the Ohio River

X. Bloodshed

  1. A response to the "Intolerable Acts" was the summoning of the First Continental Congress in 1774. It was to meet in Philly to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances. 12 out of 13 colonies (Georgia missing) sent 55 men
  2. John Adams led the argument in drawing up several dignified papers. This included a ringing Declaration Of Rights. This made the creation of The Association, it called for a complete boycott of British goods: non-importation, non-exportation, and non-consumption.
  3. They sought out merely to repeal the offensive legislation and return to ht days before tax. Parliament rejected the Congress's petitions.
  4. April 1775 - British Commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby Lexington and Concord. They were to seize stores of colonial gunpowder and to bag the "rebel" leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Minutemen refused to disperse fast enough and killed - "Lexington Massacre"

XI. Imperial Strength And Weakness

  1. Britain boasted a professional army of 50,000 men but many earnest and God-fearing British had no desire to kill their American cousins.

XII. American Pluses And Minuses

  1. They were fighting defensively against all odds; they were badly organized for war
  2. The Americans enjoyed the moral advantages. Economic difficulties were nearly insuperable. They were forced to print "Continental" paper money in great amounts.

XIII. A Thin Line Of Heroes

  1. Basic military supplies were dangerously scanty, sufficient stores of gunpowder, cannon, and other armament could not be found
  2. At Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, shivering American soldiers were without bred for 3 days in the winter of 1777-1778. Manufactured goods were generally in short supply. American militia-men were numerous but highly unreliable.
  3. Women maintained farms and businesses while men fought. Large numbers of Camp Followers accompanied the American army, cooking and sewing for troops in return for money or rations.
  4. Virginia and Maryland heightened slave patrols but within one month, 300 slaves had joined "Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment"

fbur

AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 7 - The Road to Revolution51.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

I. Congress Drafts George Washington

  1. The Congress selected George Washington (43 years) to lead the hastily improvised army besieging Boston. He had never risen above the rank of a colonel in the militia. He was gifted with leadership and a strong character. He was a moral force rather than a military mind.
  2. His selection was largely political. Already wealthy he couldn't be accused of being a fortune-seeker. He was from Virginia and as an aristocrat he could be counted on to check the "excesses of the masses."

II. Bunker Hill And Hessian Hirelings

  1. The clash of arms continued on a contradictory basis. On one hand, Americans were emphatically affirming their loyalty to the King and earnestly voicing their desire to patch up difficulties
  2. On the other hand, they were raising armies and shooting down his majesty's soldiers.
  3. May 1775 - A tiny American force under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold surprised and captured the British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point (New York)
    • They secured a store of gunpowder and artillery for the siege of Boston.
  4. June 1775 - Colonists seized a hill, now known as Bunker Hill (actually Breed's Hill) British blundered bloody when they launched a frontal attack with 3,000 men Americans mowed down the British but they ran out of ammo and they ran away. It was defeat but the Americans won because the British would have no army left in America
  5. July 1775 - The Continental Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition, professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the King to prevent further hostilities
  6. But following Bunker Hill, the King slammed the door to all hope of reconciliation.
    • Because most of these soldiers-for-hire came from the German principality of Hesse, the Americans called all Euro-mercenaries Hessians.
    • Hessians hirelings proved to be good soldiers but many wanted money than duty.

III. Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion

  1. London officials adopted an intricate scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River Valley in 1777. The main invading force, under an actor - playwright - soldier, General John Burgoyne, would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's troops in New York could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany.
  2. Colonel Barry St. Leer would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. While the British stopped to construct a sizeable fleet, the tireless Arnold assembled and fitted out every floatable vessel. They were destroyed and winter was descending. General Burgoyne had to start anew from this base the following year.
  3. Burgoyne had begun to bog down North of Albany. In a series of sharp engagements, in which General Arnold was again shot in the leg at Quebec, the British army was trapped. Unable to advance or retreat, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777, to the American General Horatio Gates.

IV. Revolution In Diplomacy

  1. Rebellious Americans wanted an end to colonialism and mercantilism. They supported free trade and freedom of the seas. Summer 1776 - The Continental Congress had drafted a Model Treaty to guide the American commissioners, it was about to dispatch to the French court.
  2. John Adams described its basic principles:
    • No political connection
    • No military connection Only a commercial connection
  3. After the humiliation at Saratoga in 1777, the British Parliament belatedly passed a measure that in effect offered the Americans home rule within the empire. On February 6, 1778, France offered the Americans a treaty of alliance.

V. The Colonial War Becomes A Wider War

  1. England and France thus come to blows in 1778 and the shot fired at Lexington rapidly widened into a global conflagration. In 1780 the imperious Catherine The Great of Russia took the lead in organizing the Armed Neutrality.
  2. The Americans deserve credit for having the war going until 1778, with secret French aid. In June 1778 the withdrawing redcoats were attacked by General Washington at Monmouth, New Jersey.

VI. The Abortive Conquest Of Canada

  1. An assault, launched on the last day on 1775, resulted in the death of Richard Montgomery and the wounding of General Benedict Arnold
  2. French-Canadian leaders showed no real desire to welcome the plundering anti-Catholic invaders. In January 1776, the British set fire to the Virginia town of Norfolk.

VII. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

  1. Loyalty to the empire was deeply engrained, many Americans continued to consider themselves part of a transatlantic community in which the mother country played a leading role. Gradually the Americans were shocked into recognizing the necessity of separating from the crown. In January 1776, the King's health was deteriorating.
  2. Common Sense (1776) - one of the most influential pamphlets ever written. Its author was the radical Thomas Paine; became a best seller.
  3. He went a long way to convey the American colonists that their true cause was independence rather than reconciliation with Britain, without independence they could not hope for foreign assistance.

VIII. Paine And The Leaders Of "Republicanism"

  1. Paine's protest not simply for independence but for the creation of a new kind of society, a (republic) where power flowed from the people themselves, not from a corrupt and despotic monarch. Republicanism was not originated from Paine. It appealed in the hands of the King and his advisors.
  2. The colonists' experience with governance had prepared them well for Paine's summons to create a republic. Because political power no longer reject with the central, all-powerful authority of the King, individuals in a republic needed to sacrifice their personal self-interest to the public good. The collective "good of the people" mattered more than the private rights and interests of individuals.

IX. Jefferson's "Explanation" Of Independence

  1. June 7, 1776 - Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved that "these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." July 7, 1776 - The motion was adopted; the passing of Lee's resolution was the formal "declaration" of independence by the American colonies
  2. Congress appointed a committee to prepare a more formal statement of separation; Thomas Jefferson was chosen to write it. July 4, 1776 - The Declaration of Independence formally approved by congress. He gave his appeal universally by evoking natural rights"" of mankind. He then set forth a long list of the presumably tyrannous misdeeds of George III. The Declaration of Independence soon became an inspiration to countless other revolutionary movement. Lafayette hung a copy on his wall in his home, leaving beside it room for a future French Declaration of the Rights of man

X. Patriots And Loyalists

  1. The war of independence was a war within a war. Colonists loyal to the King (loyalists) fought the American rebels (Patriots) while the rebels also fought the British redcoats. Loyalists were derisively called "Tories," after the dominant political factions in Britain, whereas Patriots were called "Whigs" after the opposition factions in Britain
  2. The American Revolution was a minority movement. Byrds of Virginia - neutral; Loyalists remain true to the King, Many people of education and wealth, of culture and caution, remained loyal.
    • Loyalists were older people, young people make revolutions
    • Loyalists were less numerous in New England

XI. The Loyalist Exodus

  1. Rebels regarded loyalists as traitors. About 80,000 loyalists were driven out, or they fled. Their estates were confiscated and sold.

XII. General Washington At Bay

  1. Fall 1776 - out generated and out numerated they were routed at the Battle of Long Island where Paine seized the raw recruits. By the narrows of margins and thanks to a favoring wind and fog, Washington escaped to Manhattan
  2. Island General Home was Washington's adversary.
  3. December 26, 1776, At Trenton, Washington surprised and captured 1000 Hessians who were sleeping off their Christmas celebration

XIII. Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion

  1. London offers a complicated scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River Valley in 1777, which could sever New England from the rest of the colonies
    • Plan: General Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada
    • General Howe's troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany. A 3rd and much smaller British force commanded by Colonel Barry St. Leader would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and Mohawk Valley
  2. However, Benedict Arnold after Quebec failure went back to Lake Champlain
    • British stopped to build a huge force, Arnold's "navy" destroyed, but gained time - winter set in and British had to go back to Canada and restart in Spring
    • Had Arnold not contributed the British most likely would have recaptured Ticonderoga and Burgoyne could have won
  3. General Howe deliberately embarked for attack on Philadelphia instead of starting up Hudson. Washington transferred his troops to Philadelphia - defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown.
  4. Washington retired for the winter at Valley Forge his troops were cold and hungry. Bon Von Steuben whipped troops in shape
  5. Burgoyne's troops bogged down, rebels surrounded them and Burgoyne surrendered a Battle of Saratoga on October 17, 1777.

XIV. Revolution In Diplomacy

  1. France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and secretly supplied the American throughout much of the war
  2. The Continental Congress sent delegates to France; the delegates were guided by a "model treaty" which sought no political or military connections but only commercial ones.
  3. After the Saratoga humiliation, the British offered the Americans a measure that gave them home rule - everything they wanted minus independence
  4. After Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to enter the war against Britain
    • Louis XVI's ministered argued that this was the perfect time to act because if Britain can regain control, she might try to capture the French West Indies for compensation for the war.
    • Now was the time to strike, rather than risk a stronger Britain with its reunited colonies.
  5. France, in 1778 offered a treaty of alliance, offering America everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of independence
    • Americans accepted the agreement with caution, since France was pro-catholic but they took the needed help.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 8 - America Secedes from the Empire22.05 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

Chapter 9 The Confederation and the Constitution 1776-1790

I. The Pursuit of Equality

  1. Most states reduced property holding requirements for voting
  2. One example of social custom change was the change of the title given to an employer from “master” to boss.
    • In 1984, New York released a shipload of indentured servants because their status violated democratic ideals
  3. Society of Cincinnati- an exclusive hereditary order formed by continental army officers
  4. The continental congress called for the Abolition of slavery trade in 1774, some states (especially northern ones) asked for a complete abolition of slavery.
    • No state south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery
    • Laws still discriminated against blacks and slaves; slavery was not abolished because the continental congress wanted to keep the new nation together.
  5. Civic virtue- the notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good.
  6. Republican motherhood- women would be raising the next generation of patriots.

II. Constitution Making in the States

  1. Many of the state constitutions had many features in common
    • Many included a requirement of the annual election of legislators.
    • All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial branches, at least by present-day standards Legislatures were given the most power; they had to follow the will of the people in the state.

III. Economic Crosscurrents

  1. States seized control of former crown lands.
    • Many of the large loyalist holdings were confiscated and turned into small farms.
    • In the US, economic democracy preceded political democracy.
  2. A share stimulus was given to manufacturing by the prewar non-importation agreements and later by the war itself.
    • Goods that had formerly been imported from Britain were mostly cut off and the ingenious Yankees were forced to make their own.
    • Economically speaking, independence had draw backs.
    • Much of the commerce of Britain was still reserved for the loyalists of the empire.
  3. American spies were now barred from British and British West Indies’ harbors.
    • New commercial outlets compensated partially for the loss of the old ones
    • American ships ventured boldly (and profitably) into the Baltic and China seas.
    • States still borrowed more money during the war than they could repay.

IV. Shaky Start Toward Union

  1. Creating a brand new government was a large responsibility given to the new Americans especially harder than adopting a pre-made government.
    • Many of the colonies had similar government structures.
    • America had strong political leaders such as George Washington, James Madison, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilngton

V. Creating a Confederation

  1. Articles of Confederation- first constitution. Written in 1776.
    • The articles were not ratified until 1781.
    • One of the major arguments between states was that states with a lot of land could sell the land and pay off their debt easier than the states with smaller land mass, who would probably have to tax themselves.
    • The smaller states asked why not turn the whole western area over to the central government?
    • A unanimous approval of the articles of confederation by the thirteen states was required
    • Land starved Maryland held out until March 1st 1781 only because New York and Virginia were going to surrender western land claims.
  2. Congress pledged itself to dispose of these vast areas for the common benefit
    • Planned to make land claims into states that could be admitted into the union.
    • Fertile public lands thus transferred to the central government. It later proved to be an invaluable bond of union.
    • Pioneers in the west and the common people began to view the government as a national government rather than separate state governments in which they had been used to before.

VI. The Articles of Confederation: America’s First Constitution

  1. The articles provided for a loose confederation or “firm league of friendship”
    • Basically said that the thirteen states were linked together for joint action in dealing with common problems, such as foreign affairs.
  2. There was no executive branch since George III had left a bad taste.
    • Judicial arm was left almost exclusively to the states.
    • Each state had a single vote, giving smaller states the same voice as larger states.
  3. Any bills dealing with subjects of importance required the support of nine states.
    • Amendments of the articles of confederation required a unanimous vote.
    • The national government in Philadelphia could advice, advocate and appeal.
  4. The articles were a significant stepping stone towards the present constitution. It outlined the general powers that were to be exercised by the central government, such as making treaties and establishing a postal service.

VII. Landmarks in Land Laws

  1. Old Northwest: area of land that lay northwest of the Ohio River, east of the Mississippi river, and south of the Great Lakes
  2. The Land Ordinance of 1785 provided that the acreage of the old northwest should be sold and that the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt.
    • The new land would be surveyed before sale and settlement, thus forestalling endless confusion and law suits.
    • These lands areas were to be divided into townships. Townships were land areas 6 miles by 6 miles split into 36 section with the 16th section reserved for public schools.
  3. Northwest ordinance of 1787 included temporary protection then permanent equality.
    • First there would be two stages of territory in which the area would belong to the federal government. Then when it reaches a population of sixty thousand it might be admitted by congress as a state, with all the privileges as the thirteen original colonies.

VIII. The World’s Ugly Duckling

  1. Britain officially closed trade between the West Indies and America, through America still smuggled and traded anyway. Britain still had trading posts in America.

IX. A Convention of Demigods

  1. There was a convention called for control of commerce in Annapolis but only 5 states showed up and nothing much could be done.
  2. Congress belatedly issued the call for a convention “for the sole and express purpose of revising” the Articles of Confederation.
    • Every state chose a representative except for independent Rhode Island.
    • On May 25th 1787, 55 emissaries from twelve states finally met in Philadelphia. Sessions were held in complete secrecy with armed sentinels at the doors.
  3. The caliber of the participants was high. Jefferson called them “demigods.” The urgency of the crisis called for the blest of men to come to the aid of the country.
    • Most of them were fortunately involved in making the constitutions of their own states.
    • George Washington was unanimously elected chairman. His enormous prestige served to quiet tempers.
    • Benjamin Franklin was the oldest statesmen and inclined to be talkative in his declining years.
    • James Madison made contributions so notable that he has been dubbed the father of the constitution

X. Patriots in Philadelphia

  1. The fifty-five delegates were conservative, well-to-do nationalists interested in preserving and strengthening the young republic. They strongly desired a strong, firm, dignified and respected government.
  2. Delegates were determined to preserve the union, forestall anarchy and ensure security of life and property against dangerous uprisings.

XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises.

  1. Some delegates wanted to completely scrap the old articles of confederation, despite the instructions from congress to revise them.
  2. A scheme proposed by populous Virginia “the large-state plan” was first pushed forward as the framework of the constitution.
    • The Virginia plan’s essence was that the representation in both houses should be based on population- which would give the larger states an advantage.
  3. Tiny New Jersey, countered with the “small-state plan”. The New Jersey plan provided for equal representation in a unicameral congress regardless of size and population.
  4. After bitter and prolonged debate, the Great Compromise was agreed on. The larger states were represented by population in the house of representative and the smaller states were appeased by equal representation in the senate.
    • The critical compromise broke the logjam and success was within reach.
  5. The final constitution was short. It mostly provided a flexible guide of broad rules or procedures rather than a fix set of detailed laws.
  6. The president was to have broad authority to make decisions yet the presidential power was far from absolute.
  7. Another issue was determining whether the voteless slaves of the south should count as representation.
    • The south answered “yes” but the north replied “no.” as a compromise between total representation and none at all it was decided that a slave would count as three-fifths of a person- The Three-fifths Compromise.
    • Slave trade was forbidden after 1807.

XII. Safeguard for Conservatism

  1. Most of the delegates were in basic agreement economically, and were scared of rebellions like Daniel Shay’s and made sure to take steps to keep the nation peaceful.
  2. At the end of 17 weeks only 42 of the original 55 members remained to sign the constitution. Three of the 42 refused to sign it.

XIII. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists

  1. The delegates knew that acceptance of all 13 states wouldn’t be easy. Delegates stipulated that when nine states registered approval the Constitution would become supreme law of the land.
  2. The American people were astonished and split into two.
    • The Antifederalists, who opposed the stronger federal government, were arrayed against the federalists who favored it.
    • A large number of antifederalists saw the constitution as a plot by the upper crust to steal power back from the common folk.
    • Federalists had power and influence on their side. Had support from George Washington and Benjamin Franklin.

XIV. The Great Debate in the States

  1. Nine states accepted the constitution and on June 21st 1788 the document was officially adopted.

XV. The Four Laggard States

  1. Virginia, New York, North Carolina and Rhode Island provided fierce antifederalist opposition.
    • Eventually Virginia and New York they saw that they could not continue as independent states and accepted the Constitution.

XVI. A Conservative Triumph

  1. The minority had triumphed- twice. The militant radicals had engineered the military revolution against the British and only about one-fourth of the adult white males had voted for delegates to ratify the constitution.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 9 - The Confederation and the Constitution22.34 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

  1. Growing Pains
    1. After 12 years of government-disabling, now America had to begin nation-building. During the Revolutionary time period though, a strong distrust of government had been instilled in people.
    2. The U.S. financial situation was grim.
      1. Revenue was very small yet the debt was mounting due to interest.
      2. Hard (metal) money was scarce and the paper money was worthless.
      3. The financial situation was the number 1 problem the new nation faced.
      4. Still, America was trying to create a democracy on a scale never been done before and make it fly.
    3. The U.S. Constitution went into effect in 1789.
      1. The population was doubling every 20 years. The largest cities in the 1790 census (in order) were Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.
      2. 90% of the people were rural. 5% lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. These folks lived mostly in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio which soon became new states. Vermont became state number 14 in 1791.
    4. Foreigners thought the Americans were rough and crude people due to the primitive pioneer lifestyle.
  2. Washington for President
    1. George Washington was the choice for president.
      1. He was the war hero and the looked the part—6 foot 2 inches, 175 pounds, broad shoulders.
      2. His top attribute was impeccable and highly respected character.
      3. He reluctantly accepted the call to the presidency and was unanimously elected by the electoral college.
    2. Washington made something of a parade route from his Mt. Vernon Virginia home to New York City (the temporary capital) to be sworn in.
      1. He was sworn in on April 30, 1789 on Wall Street.
    3. He quickly established a cabinet. It consisted of…
      1. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
      2. Secretary of the Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
      3. Secretary of War: Henry Knox
  3. The Bill of Rights
    1. The Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights—this deeply bothered several states. They ratified it on the promise that as soon as the new government began, they'd add a Bill of Rights. The government kept its word.
    2. James Madison wrote the Bill of Rights then channeled them through 2/3 of Congress. The next step was to get 3/4 of the states to adopt them. The required number of states ratified the Bill of Rights in 1791.
    3. The Bill of Rights (for history purposes, Amendments 9 and especially 10 are the most important)…
      1. Amendment 1 - Freedom of religion, speech, press, right to peaceful assemble and petition.
      2. Amendment 2 - Right to bear arms.
      3. Amendment 3 - Protection from quartering soldiers in homes.
      4. Amendment 4 - Protection from searches or seizures without a warrant.
      5. Amendment 5 - Right to not testify against one's self and protection from double jeopardy.
      6. Amendment 6 - Guarantee of a proper trial.
      7. Amendment 7 - Guarantee of a jury trial.
      8. Amendment 8 - Protection from excessive bail or fines.
      9. Amendment 9 - Statement that people have rights that are not even listed here. (The "People's Rights Amendment).
      10. Amendment 10 - Statement that any power not granted in the Constitution is left to the states. (The "State's Rights Amendment).
    4. To complete the 3 branches of the government, Congress passed and Pres. Washington signed the Judiciary Act of 1789 that set up the Supreme Court and the Federal Court System.
      1. John Jay then became the first Supreme Court Chief Justice.
      2. With this law, the U.S. government was then fully complete and fully functional.
  4. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit
    1. Hamilton was a brilliant but arrogant fellow that many Americans didn't warm up to. He was born in the British West Indies and loved British institutions, but said he loved America more. Still, he was often accused of being more British than American.
    2. As Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton had to overcome America's top problem…the money-problem (or lack-of-money problem). He'd eventually come up with a 4-part plan to get America on its financial feet. The plan included…
      1. Paying off all debts in full.
      2. A tariff (tax on imports).
      3. A tax on whiskey.
      4. A National Bank.
    3. Paying off the debts…
      1. Hamilton insisted on paying debts in full or at 100% face value in what was called Funding at Par.
        1. Hamilton insisted that Funding at Par was crucial, basically because it would get respect. How could Americans respect their government if they only paid half their debts? Or worse, how would other nations, like France, view America if they paid only a bit?
      2. Hamilton also urged what he called Assumption. In Assumption, the federal government would assume the states' debts, or in other words, the states would simply give their debts over to the federal government. The reason for assuming state debts was to tie the states together in a common endeavor—to jointly pay off the debt.
        1. Massachusetts had a huge debt and liked the idea. Virginia didn't have much of a debt and disliked the idea. A compromise had to be made.
        2. The bargain said that Massachusetts would get the Assumption clause passed. Virginia would see the new national capital on the Potomac River—the site of Washington D.C.
  5. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes
    1. Hamilton was determined to pay the full $75 million debt, plus interest. He felt the debt was actually a good thing since it tied the states together.
    2. The question then became, "How would a poor country pay off the debt?" Hamilton proposed that revenue be made through a tariff (tax on imports).
      1. Hamilton had the long-range vision to see that industry in America would eventually boom. Along with it, trade would grow, and the tariff would earn money.
    3. An excise tax on whiskey was imposed to raise a bit more money. This whiskey tax on 7 cents/gallon hit the whiskey-makers in the backwoods who often used whiskey as money.
  6. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The last part of Hamilton's plan was to create a National Bank to stabilize the economy.
      1. It was modeled after the Bank of England and was to be a private institution but with the government as the major stockholder.
      2. Its purposes would be to (a) store government money, (b) lend to businesses, and (c) print money and thus stabilize currency.
      3. The snag that was hit was the question, "Is this bank Constitutional?" since it was not written into the Constitution. Thomas Jefferson argued against the bank saying it was not.
    2. The National Bank debate…
      1. Thomas Jefferson's point-of-view…
        1. He felt that whatever is not permitted in the Constitution is prohibited. A bank was not in the Constitution.
        2. The bank should be left to the states because that's what Amendment 10 said (any power not listed in the Constitution is reserved to the states).
        3. This point-of-view is called a strict interpretation of the Constitution that said something must specifically be written into the Constitution in black-and-white for it to be legal.
      2. Alexander Hamilton's point-of-view…
        1. he felt that whatever is not prohibited in the Constitution is permitted. The bank wasn't specifically prohibited so it was okay.
        2. He brought up the "Elastic Clause" of Congress (AKA the "Necessary and Proper" Clause) that said Congress has the power to do whatever is necessary and proper to carry out its appointed duties. He reasoned that Congress was given the duty of regulating commerce and collect taxes; to properly do this, a national bank was necessary and proper.
        3. This reliance on the Elastic Clause was also called a "Loose Interpretation" of the Constitution.
      3. In the end, Hamilton won the argument.
        1. The Bank of the United States was started in 1791 with a charter good for 20 years.
        2. It was built in Philadelphia, was to have $10 million worth of capital, and sold out its public stock in only two hours.
  7. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania
    1. The whiskey-makers of the frontier region were upset over Hamilton's tax on whiskey.
      1. They said they’d been unfairly singled out to be taxed.
      2. They cried “taxation without representation” since many were from Tennessee and Kentucky which were not yet states and had no one in Congress.
    2. Things came to head in 1794 when violence broke into the Whiskey Rebellion frontier Pennsylvania.
      1. The question now was, "Is the government strong enough to force someone to obey laws, or can some people just pick and choose the laws they like?"
      2. Pres. Washington responded quickly. He sent 13,000 soldiers to quell the revolt of a couple of hundred. A couple of people were killed but most just fled the scene. The revolt was crushed.
        1. Washington actually got criticism from Anti-Federalists about reacting too strongly. They said he'd used a sledgehammer to crush a gnat.
    3. The lesson of the Whiskey Rebellion was that this new government was strong, unlike the Articles that worried people over Shays' Rebellion.
  8. The Emergence of Political Parties
    1. Hamilton's policies had an unexpected side-effect—they created the two-political party system.
    2. The two initial parties were sometimes called by their leaders' names…the Hamiltonians and the Jeffersonians.
      1. From there, a long series of names and name-changing could roughly be followed down to modern-day Republicans and Democrats.
    3. The Founding Fathers hadn't anticipated multiple political parties. They'd had factions, but those came over an issue, ran their course, then faded. Permanent political parties were something new.
      1. Also, the consensus then was that political parties hurt the situation rather than help because they create dissent, argument, and bog down the government.
      2. It seems however, that having two parties has helped our country simply by always given voters a different choice. If a voter doesn't like the situation in Washington currently, the other party will take opposing views and the voter can vote the new party in. With only one party, there is no 2nd choice.
  9. The Impact of the French Revolution
    1. The American Revolution partially inspired the French Revolution as they figured, "If the Americans can pull it off, why can't we?"
    2. The French Revolution of the 1780s and 90s started innocently enough then grew complicated.
      1. Initially, Americans were very happy to hear of democracy over-throwing a monarchy.
      2. A minority of conservatives were upset over the "mobocracy" and disorder.
      3. In 1792, the French Revolution became more of a world war. In a nutshell, the French Revolution had two arenas: (a) it was a civil war of the French people vs. the French upper classes, but also (b) the French nation vs. nearly every other European nation (the other nations feared similar revolutions in their own countries if the French people pulled it off).
      4. The Revolution went sour when the "Reign of Terror" got out the guillotine and thousands of nobles had their heads chopped off.
    3. The question of how America would respond became a bit trickier. The two brand new political parties had something else to disagree over…
      1. Conservatives (the Federalists) were thoroughly appalled at the treachery.
      2. Liberals like Thomas Jefferson (the Democratic-Republicans) felt that a few nobles' heads were a small price to pay for freedom and democracy.
    4. When England joined the war vs. France, things got even trickier for Americans over two questions…
      1. Whom would the U.S. support, France or England?
      2. How would this affect land holdings over on the North American side of the Atlantic?
  10. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation
    1. The most pressing question was, "Which side would the U.S. support?"
    2. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans said the U.S. should side with France.
      1. Looking at it from the State Dept. perspective, he said the U.S. should side with France because of the Franco-American alliance of 1778. Jefferson said that since France had helped in the American Revolution, it was time to repay the favor.
    3. Hamilton's Federalists said the U.S. should side with England.
      1. Looking at it from the Treasury Dept. perspective, he said siding with the British would be economically advantageous to the young American nation.
    4. Pres. Washington got to make the call. He sided with neither and said that America would stay neutral. This decision well illustrates the emerging American policy of acting in self-interest.
      1. He simply took a practical perspective—the U.S. was too young to get into a huge war. It would be too destructive to a nation just getting its feet settled underneath it.
      2. Washington gave his "Neutrality Proclamation" in 1793. It stated America's neutral position and urged Americans to think and act that way.
        1. Though neutral, it was really a victory for Hamilton/Federalists/England who all liked the decision.
        2. France and the Democratic-Republicans were thoroughly upset and felt the U.S. had betrayed the Franco-American treaty.
          1. An offshoot of the decision was the action of French Citizen Edmond Genêt. He came to Charleston, SC and thought Washington's decision didn't reflect the American people's views. He foolishly thought the Americans would rise up and somehow overturn the neutrality or government. Washington had him replaced.
          2. France actually might've been helped by the neutrality since that prevented a British naval blockade and enabled American foodstuffs to go to France.
          3. And, technically speaking, America didn't have to honor the Franco-American alliance because France didn't call upon it to honor it.
  11. Embroilments with Britain
    1. A couple of issues with England weren't going away, but were actually growing…
    2. England still had several frontier posts in America to trade furs and create an Indian buffer to the Americans. This bothered the Americans but they put up with it.
      1. A turning point came with Gen. "Mad" Anthony Wayne who led the Army in defeat of the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in August of 1794.
        1. When the smoke cleared from the battlefield it became clear that the Indians had been using English guns. This was too much.
        2. In 1795 the Indians signed (half signed, half forced-to-sign) the Treaty of Grenville where the Indians surrendered much of the Ohio Valley.
    3. A second problem was occurring in the Caribbean with the British Navy.
      1. The British Navy was at war there with France, but also harassed American ships. The Royal Navy seized about 300 U.S. ships and impressed (or kidnapped) many U.S. sailors.
      2. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans were furious. They wanted to either go to war with England or at least halt trade with them. Calmer Hamiltonians (Federalists) stayed the course of neutrality. War would do the infant U.S. no good.
  12. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
    1. Pres. Washington didn't want war and in 1794 he sent John Jay to England to smooth things over.
      1. Strangely though, Alexander Hamilton had undermined Jay's mission. Hamilton had given the British Jay's bargaining strategy so Jay was one step behind already.
      2. The results of the "Jay's Treaty" were not the best for America…
        1. The U.S. would have to pay off its debts to England from pre-Revolution days.
        2. The British would leave the American frontier posts. (This was a hollow promise since they'd already given that promise 20 years prior, to John Jay none-the-less!).
        3. England said they'd pay for damages during impressment. (But they said nothing about stopping future impressment. This was the number 1 complaint!).
        4. War was avoided. (This was the only good thing the U.S. got, was the top goal at the meeting, and Jay returned to America feeling successful).
    2. The reaction of Americans to Jay's Treaty was harsh.
      1. Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans especially hated the treaty. They felt that the U.S. just laid down and surrendered to England.
      2. They felt that southern farmers would have to pay the debt, but northern merchants would collect the impressment payments. Jay’s effigy (a dummy representing him) was burnt in the streets.
    3. The next year, a second treaty emerged that was good for the U.S.—the Pinckney Treaty with Spain.
      1. Spain looked at the Jay's Treaty and thought the U.S. was "buddying up" to England. So, Spain wished to give a little good will to America to keep relations friendly.
      2. The Pinckney Treaty (1795) gave Americans (a) the right to travel down and out the Mississippi River and (b) the disputed area of Florida.
    4. Pres. Washington could've run for a third term, but instead he stepped down saying two terms was enough. He gave a Farewell Address and warned…
      1. America should avoid political parties (as he thought them to be divisive).
      2. America should avoid "permanent alliances" with other nations and simply make decisions independently and in America's own best interest.
  13. John Adams Becomes President
    1. Even though George Washington warned of political parties, his policies and decisions would've made him a Federalist. Alexander Hamilton, being the leader of the Federalists, would seem to be the next-in-line. But, his policies and arrogance had made him too many rivals. He was passed up for someone with fewer enemies.
    2. John Adams was nominated by the Federalists for president in 1796.
    3. The Democratic-Republicans (who were now going by just "Republicans") nominated their leader, Thomas Jefferson.
    4. Adams won the electoral vote 71 to 68. Jefferson came in as runner-up and thus became Vice-President (that was the system then).
    5. So, Adams became president in an uncomfortable situation…
      1. He was something of a "cold fish" New Englander—stuffy, stern, crusty, bookish, stubborn.
      2. He had a vice-president from a totally different political party.
      3. Hamilton hated him. Hamilton headed up the "High Federalists" and sometimes plotted to undermine Adams.
      4. And, the situation with France was only one step shy of busting into war.
  14. Unofficial Fighting with France
    1. France was still fuming mad over the Neutrality Proclamation and Jay's Treaty.
    2. French warships began seizing some 300 American ships in the Caribbean Sea. In practical terms, an unofficial war existed there.
    3. Many Americans became hyper for war. Adams stayed cool. Like Washington, Adams felt that a war would just stunt the new nation.
    4. Adams sent delegates to France to smooth things over. This became known as the XYZ Affair.
      1. Their main goal: avoid war. The U.S. delegates were officially rejected by France.
      2. Then undercover, Mr. "X", "Y", and "Z" made a secret offer. If the U.S. delegates issued an apology from Pres. Adams, gave France a loan, and gave the men a bribe, then the Americans would be allowed to speak with the French official Talleyrand.
      3. The American delegates refused this lop-sided deal and just came home.
      4. The American people cheered the delegates for not giving in (like John Jay) and called for war with more passion.
    5. The unofficial war in the Caribbean kept on and stepped up. American ships captured over 80 French ships. American ships were also lost. It was really a free-for-all on the high seas where a ship did whatever it wished.
  15. Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party
    1. France also let calmer minds prevail. Talleyrand knew France didn't need yet another enemy. So, he said that American delegates would be received with respect.
    2. If he went to war, Adams had a chance to gain huge popularity, maybe win Florida and Louisiana, and likely win re-election.
      1. He chose to not go to war. Like Washington, he knew a war would stunt the infant nation.
      2. Adams sent new delegates to France to speak with Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon had other plans (take over Europe) and was eager to close the American mess. They made the Convention of 1800 that said…
        1. The Franco-American Alliance was over.
        2. Americans had to pay damages to French shippers.
    3. Adams decision to go the peace-route was unpopular. It cost him re-election (Jefferson was elected in 1800). But, it was the best thing for America at the time and the right thing to do.
  16. The Federalist Witch Hunt
    1. Federalists used the anti-French passion to pass a couple of tricky laws. The laws had two levels: (a) a surface level that was stated openly, and (b) an ulterior, sneaky motive by the Federalists.
      1. The Alien acts made it tougher for immigrants to come to the U.S. and become citizens. They had the stated purpose of protecting Americans from foreigners who might come into the country and undermine the U.S. The theory was that the immigrant was more loyal to his home country than the U.S.
        1. The law raised the residency requirement from 5 to 14 years, supposedly so the immigrant would be fully assimilated before voting. This was a large change from America's welcoming tradition.
        2. Also, the president was authorized to deport foreigners deemed troublemakers.
        3. The ulterior and sneaky motive by the Federalists was to delay immigrant voting. Federalists knew the immigrants would most likely join the Republican party and vote that way. So, Federalists bought themselves some time. As far as deporting troublemakers, that would be handy for anyone who criticized the government (Federalists).
      2. The Sedition Act limited the speech and writings of critics of the government. "Sedition" is a strong word that implies stirring up discontent against the government with the intent of overthrowing it.
        1. The Sedition Act said anyone criticizing the government in a manner that was deemed counter-productive could be fined or jailed. The stated purpose was to prevent foreigners from stirring up trouble in the U.S.
        2. The ulterior motive was to silence critics of the Federalists.
        3. The Sedition Act was a direct shot at the 1st Amendment rights to freedom of speech and press.
        4. Many newspaper editors criticized the law and were thrown in jail (under the Sedition Act's authority) for doing so.
          1. The most noteworthy was Matthew "Spitting Lion" Lyon who'd criticized Pres. Adams in his writings. The criticisms were very mild and kind of humorous in a cute way by modern standards.
      3. These pro-Federalist laws were (a) contrary to the welcoming spirit of America and (b) unconstitutional, but were passed by a Federalist Congress, signed by a Federalist president, and upheld by a Federalist-dominated court system.
        1. Self-serving to the end, the Sedition Act was even designed to expire in 1801 so that it couldn't then be used against the Federalists if the Republicans took over.
      4. Although the Republicans fussed, the average person responded well to the Federalists and their laws in the election booth. The Federalists did very well in the Congressional elections of 1798-99. This would be the Federalists' high-water mark, however.
  17. The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions
    1. Stirred by the Alien and Sedition Acts, Jefferson and the Republicans entered into a war of words and laws.
    2. In response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. In simple terms, the resolutions said the federal government had overstepped the authority that the states had awarded when it passed the Alien and Sedition Acts.
      1. The resolutions were built on the “compact theory” saying the 13 states had entered a compact (or contract) when they formed the federal government to abide by federal laws that the states approved. In other words, the states had made the federal government, the federal government then makes laws, but since the states made the federal government, the states reserved the right to nullify those federal laws. Notably, this theory goes by several names, all synonymous: the “compact theory,” “states’ rights theory,” or “nullification.”
      2. The idea was that other states would follow suit and adopt similar resolutions and the Alien and Sedition Acts would be shot down. The other states did not follow, however.
      3. Federalists countered the compact theory by arguing that the people actually, and not the states, had created the federal government, and therefore the states did not have the right to nullify federal laws.
    3. At this point, these arguments are just a lesson in words, rhetoric, and logic. But, these exact arguments will be heard again in the 1830s regarding the tariff and then in the 1850s and 60s slavery when the Civil War breaks.
  18. Federalists Versus Democratic-Republicans
    1. Federalists were supported by the upper classes. Generally speaking…
      1. They were led by Hamilton who envisioned an industrial America of big cities.
      2. They were from the wealthy classes, such as merchants, bankers, manufacturers. They often lived along the eastern seaboard—the older regions that were close to the coast and trade.
      3. They were pro-British (since that was good for trade).
      4. They liked a strong federal government, run by the educated elite. They distrusted the common person as uneducated and unable to run a nation. They felt democracy was one step shy of "mobocracy."
    2. The Democratic-Republicans (or just Republicans at this time) were supported by the poor and common classes. Generally speaking…
      1. They were led by Jefferson who envisioned an agricultural America of small towns.
      2. They felt that even an uneducated man can make common-sense decisions and thus run himself and his nation through voting. Republicans favored expanding the vote to more people (though it was still a very narrow group).
      3. They were mostly farmers and lived in the interior areas and along the frontier. They felt farming was good for the soul—it kept the farmer humble and close to God.
      4. They were pro-French (since France had helped the U.S. against England).
    3. By the election of 1800, there were clearly two separate political camps in the U.S.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Republic

  1. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers
    1. By 1800, the Federalists had earned themselves many enemies. First there were the Alien and Sedition Acts. Worse, Pres. Adams had opted against war, an unpopular move.
      1. One benefit was that the American navy had gotten a solid start. Adams ("Father of the American navy") had the navy built up, then wouldn't use it in war. The drawback was the appearance of wasting money.
    2. Alexander Hamilton even attacked Pres. Adams in a pamphlet. The pamphlet became public and Republicans used it against Adams.
    3. Federalists fought back with a smear-campaign of Jefferson. Federalists charged Jefferson robbed a widow of her trust fund, fathered mulatto children (which turned out to be true), and of being an atheist (he was actually a Deist).
  2. The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”
    1. Jefferson won the election of 1800 by an electoral vote of 73 to Adams' 65.
      1. Oddly, Adams got more popular votes, but Jefferson won the swing state of New York thanks to the dealings of Aaron Burr.
      2. Also, due to a technicality, Jefferson and Burr actually tied. Burr was supposed to be Vice-President, but the way the electoral balloting system was set up officially got him 73 electoral votes for president also. How was the tie to be broken?
        1. The Constitution puts such a situation into the hands of the House of Representatives where each state gets one vote.
        2. The House voted, and got another tie, some 30+ times! The deadlock occurred because many Federalists disliked Jefferson terribly, so they voted for Burr as the lesser-of-two evils.
        3. After months, since a new president was needed quickly, a few votes were changed and Jefferson was elected. The change was at the urging of Alexander Hamilton and John Adams who knew that a Burr victory would be blamed on Federalists and thus doom their party.
    2. Jefferson's election is called the "Revolution of 1800" for two main reasons…
      1. There was a peaceful exchange of power between two parties in a major nation. This was a historic first for the U.S. and the world.
      2. The Republicans were something of the "people's party" and, through Jefferson, the people sort of entered the White House.
  3. Responsibility Breeds Moderation
    1. Jefferson was inaugurated in March of 1801. Washington D.C. was a brand new, woodsy, country capital.
    2. Jefferson's inaugural address stressed moderation between Republicans and Federalists.
      1. His goal was to soothe Federalists fears by saying, "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."
      2. He also outlined his foreign policy by saying, "…honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." After the mistake of the Franco-American alliance, the U.S. was learning lessons.
    3. Jefferson proved to be very unconventional.
      1. He was a sloppy dresser and frugal.
      2. He made a point of not being or appearing aristocratic, the way the Federalists might have done things.
        1. He wore simple worker's clothes.
        2. He rode around Washington horseback (as opposed to a carriage that he felt too royal).
        3. He seated guests at the White House in random order (as opposed to seating by "rank").
        4. He started the tradition of reporting to Congress through a clerk (rather than himself which he felt too pompous).
    4. There were two Jeffersons…
      1. First, the scholarly philosopher.
      2. Second, the politician who learned that theories don't always work out cleanly in real life.
    5. Jefferson stayed true to his theme of moderation while in office. Many Republicans wanted him to "clean house" after the Federalists; he didn't. He felt it would be counter-productive for one president to try and undo everything the prior one had done, even if he disagrees.
  4. Jeffersonian Restraint
    1. Jefferson did make a few "un-Federalist" actions. He hated the Alien and Sedition Acts and wanted to undo them.
      1. He pardoned those who'd been convicted under the Sedition Act.
      2. He got the residency requirement to become a citizen moved back to 5 years from the 14 that the Alien Act had set.
      3. He also removed the excise tax on whiskey thinking it unfair. The drawback here was not getting the $1 million per year in revenue.
    2. The Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was very capable at budgeting the nation. Despite little income, he managed to balance the budget and reduce the debt.
    3. Aside from the excise tax, the rest of Alexander Hamilton's programs were left untouched by Jefferson (even though he disliked them).
    4. Jefferson's moderation showed that one party's loss would not be the end of the nation. This helped solidify the two-party system.
  5. The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary
    1. Although voted out of the White House, the Federalists had one last trick up their sleeves…
      1. They passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 which created 16 new federal court districts.
      2. Then, in his last hours as president, John Adams packed the federal courts with "midnight judges". The goal was to pack the federal government with Federalist judges, who serve for life, and thereby sustain the Federalist influence.
    2. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall proved to be a strong and lasting supporter of Federalist causes—mainly to strengthen the federal government.
    3. The first major Supreme Court case was Marbury v. Madison in 1803. The technicalities of the case involved a judge (Marbury) not being appointed to a bench by Sec. of State Madison, then Marbury appealing to get that appointment. The technicalities are really unimportant. The importance of Marbury was…
      1. For the first time, the Supreme Court struck down a law as unconstitutional.
      2. This act is called "judicial review"—the power of the Court to review the constitutionality of laws and keep or strike them. This is the Courts supreme power.
    4. After Marbury, the Republicans were out for blood. They set their sights on Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase. Chase was a strong Federalist and a bit of a loud-mouth—a perfect target for Republicans.
      1. The Republicans in the House voted to impeach Chase for "high crimes and misdemeanors" (as the Constitution prescribes).
      2. But, in the Senate trial, it became clear there were no crimes or misdemeanors, just loud-mouthing. Chase was not kicked off the Court.
      3. This failure to oust a justice showed that the judicial branch truly was independent of the other two branches.
  6. Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior<font color=white>This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com</font>
    1. Jefferson's nature was toward being a "peace-president" rather than a "war-president."
      1. Hailing from the revolutionary days, he distrusted large, standing armies—they could be used against the people themselves. He preferred armies that were called to duty when needed, like the militia.
      2. He downsized the military to only 2,500 soldiers. The navy, though less worrisome, was almost nothing. Jefferson thought it was pointless since the U.S. was not at war.
    2. Issues in the Mediterranean Sea changed Jefferson's mind.
      1. In the Med. Sea, North African "Barbary Pirates" were pirating American (and European) ships.
      2. Back in the Federalist days, the U.S. felt it simpler to pay off the Barbary Pirates "tribute" or "bully money" to not harass U.S. ships. This was both more convenient than fighting but also somewhat embarrassing.
      3. Then, the pasha of Tripoli cut down the American consulate's flagstaff in a sign of warfare. Peaceful Jefferson had had enough.
        1. Jefferson sent the navy to the "shores of Tripoli." Their sea-to-land amphibious expedition spawned the Marines Corps.
        2. The most famous incident involved Stephen Decatur and his men when they daringly re-captured the ship Intrepid.
        3. The U.S. military took care of business and got a treaty formed. It paid $60,000 as ransom to free prisoners. But, the Barbary Pirate days were over.
    3. After the Tripolitan War, as it was known, Jefferson decided to strengthen the navy after all. But, he wanted small, fast, and cheap gunboats, not ships. He had about 200 gunboats built. Later, this would prove to be a waste—for a navy, warships were better than toy boats.
  7. The Louisiana Godsend
    1. In 1800, Napoleon got the king of Spain to hand over Louisiana to France. The "right of deposit" (the right to go down the Mississippi River) that the Pinckney Treaty gained was then revoked.
    2. Now, powerful France was next-door again and the Ohio Valley was essentially isolated west of the mountains. Jefferson had a problem on his hands.
      1. Jefferson sent Robert R. Livingston to France in attempt to make a deal. Livingston could offer up to $10 million to buy a small piece of Louisiana—enough to get down the river to the Gulf of Mexico.
      2. France's counter-offer asked if the U.S. would like to buy all of Louisiana for $15 million. This stunned the American delegates and they couldn't refuse the deal.
        1. As to why did France sell it? There were two reasons…
          1. An uprising in Haiti led by Toussaint L'Overture made Napoleon decide the troubles in America weren't worth it.
          2. Napoleon was planning war on Europe, knew he'd not be able to hold it anyway, and needed quick cash.
    3. With news of the purchase, Jefferson was put in a dilemma…
      1. On the one hand, his delegates had (a) only been authorized to spend $10 million and (b) a strict interpretation of the Constitution (which Jefferson liked to do) meant the president really didn't have the power to buy lands from foreign nations.
      2. On the other hand, this was just too good of a deal to pass up! It'd double the size of the country for little more than they were willing to pay for a city.
    4. Jefferson wrestled with the issue, especially the Constitutional part of it, but practicality took over—he made the purchase anyway by sending it to the Senate which quickly passed it.
    5. It's worth noting that the political parties each flip-flopped on this issue…
      1. Jefferson (and the Republicans) had normally been a strict interpreter of the Constitution, but he was now using a loose interpretation.
      2. Federalists, normally loose interpreters, took a strict interpretation and opposed the purchase. Federalist didn’t want the new lands because they correctly foresaw that new lands meant new settlers, and that meant new states, which meant more farmers, and ultimately more Republicans.
  8. Louisiana in the Long View
    1. In one quick and bloodless move, the size of the U.S. had been doubled. The price amounted to about 3 cents per acre.
    2. Jefferson's dream of nearly endless amounts of land for anyone who wanted to farm it seemed to be reality.
    3. One problem was that the land was nearly entirely unknown. So, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on the famous "Lewis and Clark" expedition.
      1. They traveled from St. Louis up the Missouri River to its headwaters, hiked over the Rocky Mountains, then traveled down the Snake and Columbia Rivers to the Pacific Ocean.
      2. Along the way, their goals as set by President Jefferson were to (a) meet and befriend the Indians and (b) take notes of what they saw (animals, plants, land, etc).
      3. Their 2 and a half year trek was recorded in Clark's journal and became one of history's greatest adventures.
    4. Less well-known was Zebulon Pike who explored the Spanish-owned areas of the American Southwest.
      1. He went into Colorado (hence Pike's Peak), then south into current New Mexico, Mexico, and Texas.
      2. Although this was Spanish land at the time, it seems Pike was "scouting it out" for the future.
  9. The Aaron Burr Conspiracies
    1. Aaron Burr had been Vice-President in Jefferson's first term. For Jefferson's second term, Burr was out. Burr then got into a couple of questionable schemes…
      1. Scheme #1 was for New York and New England (the Federalist stronghold) to break away from the rest of the country.
        1. Ironically, Alexander Hamilton ended this scheme when he revealed the plan to Jefferson. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, Hamilton reluctantly showed up to the fight, and Hamilton was killed.
      2. Scheme #2 had Burr heading west to the frontier.
        1. His goal, apparently, was to travel down the Mississippi River to the Missouri area, separate the western U.S. from the east, then create a new nation by invading Spanish lands.
        2. Jefferson heard of the plan, arrested Burr and charged him with treason.
        3. At Burr's trial the required two witnesses needed couldn't be drummed up so he was found not guilty. Still, his name was shamed and he slunk away in disgrace.
    2. The lesson was that governing such a large tract of new land was tricky business. This would prove painfully true as the Civil War neared.
  10. A Precarious Neutrality
    1. In 1803, Napoleon plunged Europe into war.
    2. For America, this was good news economically speaking. This meant that the U.S. could trade with either side in the war, sell them any of the things they needed, and make money all the while.
      1. America's free-reign of the sea was short-lived though. In 1805 British Adm. Horatio Lord Nelson's fleet won at the Battle of Trafalgar. This ensured that Britain ruled the seas.
      2. At the Battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon and the French won. This ensured that France ruled the land.
    3. These events had nothing to do with America until…
      1. In 1806, London issued what was called Orders in Council. These rules stated that any foreign (U.S.) ship headed to France must first check-in at a British port for inspection.
      2. Likewise, France announced they'd seize any foreign ships entering British ports.
      3. America was stuck in the middle. And just to address the question, "How can they tell us what to do?" The answer is that their navy is stronger than the American navy.
    4. The issue of impressment (kidnapping at sea) was even more troublesome.
      1. About 6,000 American sailors were impressed. Often they'd be knocked out with a club and when they awoke, they were scrubs on a British ship.
    5. In 1807, the British ship Leopard attacked the American Chesapeake off of Virginia.
      1. The Leopard demanded men, then shot, and the wounded Chesapeake limped back to port.
      2. The British government apologized, but the effect was to energize the American people to call for war. Jefferson, the peace-maker, was slow to take up arms.
  11. The Hated Embargo
    1. Jefferson felt that a shipping clash and war with England or France was coming. The only way to avoid this would be to impose an embargo (halt on exports). He mistakenly didn't see the impact such a shut-down would have on American merchants.
    2. In 1807, the Embargo Act was passed. It forbade all exports to any nation, whether they were at war or not.
      1. New England was hit hardest by this act. Ships simply sat dormant in the harbors as the merchants went broke.
      2. The South and West were also hurt, though to a lesser degree, as their crops began to pile up.
      3. Not surprisingly, smuggling returned. This time things were smuggled out of the country rather than in.
    3. In 1809, after much protest and seeing the results of having no trade, Congress repealed the Embargo Act. The logic was, "Why limit all trade when it's just England and France that we're worried about?" Congress then passed the Non-Intercourse Act which outlawed shipping to England and France only.
      1. This new act made sense, on paper. In reality however, this act had the same effect as the Embargo Act because America’s #1 and #2 trade partners were Britain and France.
    4. The embargo (and Non-Intercourse Act) were not successful.
      1. They failed due to excessive smuggling and to the fact that the British relied on America much less than Jefferson suspected.
      2. Essentially, the embargo hurt America without doing much good. With the money that was lost, the U.S. could have built a strong navy that might have dealt with the British navy on equal terms.
    5. The embargo did have some unexpected benefits.
      1. It forced American industry to get going on its own. Ironically, this helped Jefferson's arch-enemy Alexander Hamilton who'd envisioned an industrial America.
  12. Madison’s Gamble
    1. James Madison followed Jefferson to the presidency. Madison was small, bookish, and like Jefferson, a poor speaker.
    2. The embargo was clearly not successful so Madison came up with Macon's Bill No. 2.
      1. This bill proposed to allow trade with other nations but also to exclusively reinstate trade with either England or France, whichever one pledged to drop its trade restrictions.
      2. Napoleon pounced on this opportunity and promised to drop restrictions and open trade with the U.S.
      3. He was being very self-serving however. His ambition was only to effectively turn America against England and to backstab America in the future if it then became convenient.
      4. Madison smelled some dishonesty but was trapped in his own proposal. Reluctantly, Madison went along with France.
  13. Tecumseh and the Prophet
    1. In 1811, Congress was different.
      1. Younger men had ousted older "submission men." The young Congressmen were from the West and South, and were fiery-tempered. The were called "War Hawks" since they pushed for war.
      2. Most noteworthy of these War Hawks was Henry Clay, a young Kentuckian, named Speaker of the House at age 34.
    2. The War Hawks wanted the Indians cleared out of the west (the Ohio Valley) so whites could settle there without fear.
      1. Indian opposition was led by Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and the Prophet.
      2. They encouraged traditional Indian clothes and culture, urged Indians to not give up or sell their lands, and organized a coalition of Indians (which was very unusual).
      3. The brothers were considered a threat and in November of 1811 Indian governor William Henry Harrison attacked and defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe. The Prophet was killedd.
        1. This battle made William Henry Harrison a national hero and earned him the nickname of "Tippecanoe."
        2. The battle also turned Tecumseh to join the British.
        3. Notably, two years later William Henry Harrison would also kill Tecumseh during the War of 1812.
  14. Mr. Madison’s War
    1. By 1812, war was seen as inevitable. Madison asked Congress to declare war on England and they did in June of 1812. To answer the question, "Why did America go to War in 1812?"…
    2. …in brief, America’s reasons for entering the War of 1812__ were…
      1. “Freedom of the seas”—The U.S. wanted the right to sail and trade without fear.
      2. The possibility of land—The U.S. might gain Canada or Florida.
      3. To resolve Indian issues—Americans were still upset about British guns being giving to Indians (Battle of Fallen Timbers) and Indian attacks on the frontier.
      4. On a theoretical level, fighting and defeating England would be make a major statement. America would have to be considered as an equal amongst other nations, rather than a scrawny upstart. This is why the War of 1812 is often called the "Second War for American Independence."
      5.  
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

Chapter 12- The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

I. On to Canada over Land and Lakes

  1. On the eve of the war of 1812 America had a weak, poorly trained army and old generals. Britain and Canada had better forces.
  2. British forces were the weakest in Canada.
    • Americans had a poor offense strategy; they attacked in a three-pronged invasion stemming from Detroit, Niagara and Lake Champlain.
  3. The Americans tried their luck with the Navy and fared better. They had superior gunners, thicker ship sides to protect against enemies and larger crews.
  4. American naval officer Oliver Hazard Perry captured a British fleet on Lake Erie and Americans continued to beat the British from the great lakes.
  5. By 1814 Americans were defending their soil effectively against the British.
    • An American fleet managed to stop British from sending supplies to an effort that would destroy New York.
    • The invading Brits were forced to retreat. Thomas Macdonough saved the union from possible dissolution.

II. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defeated

  1. In 1814 a second British force landed in Chesapeake Bay.
    • The British force entered the capital and set fire to most Public buildings- for example the Capitol and the White House.
    • However the British hammered Fort McHenry but couldn’t capture the city.
    • Francis Scott Key watching the bombardment of the British was inspired to write the Star Spangled Banner.
  2. British came a third time aimed at New Orleans
    • Andrew Jackson was in command, he had 7,000 men.
    • The overconfident British had the worst defeat in the whole war loosing over 2,000 men in half an hour compared to the 70 men that the Americans lost.
  3. Jackson became a national hero for his victory in the battle of New Orleans which had restored honor, nationalism and self confidence.
    • A Peace treaty had been signed at Ghent in Belgium two weeks before the battle.
  4. The Royal navy threw up blockades and raided Americans, American economic life was crippled.

III. The Treaty of Ghent

  1. Tsar Alexander I of Russia proposed mediation between England and America. Five American Peacemakers went to Ghent.
    • The British made high demands that the Americans flatly refused but news of the war weakening for the British and news of their losses made them more willing to compromise.
  2. The Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas eve 1814. It was an armistice.
    • Both sides agreed to stop fighting and restore conquered territory.
    • No mention was made about the rights the Americans had been fighting for.

IV. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

  1. The New England area prospered during the war because of illicit trade with Canadian enemies.
  2. New England minority proposed secession from the Union.
  3. Discontent was manifested in the Hartford Convention.
    • It was a convention at Hartford, Connecticut where states got together to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs.
    • It wasn’t so radical it just gave the minority a place to vent.
    • They demanded financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and then proposed that the constitution need a with 2/3rds majority before an embargo could pass. They also wanted to abolish the 3/5th clause, limit presidents to one term and to prohibit successive state presidents.
  4. When they went to give the demands to Washington they found the city burnt down and also heard the news about New Orleans.
    • Their complaints now seemed petty at best and traitorous at worst.
  5. The federalists were never again to have a successful presidential campaign, however; their ideas of disunity still survived.

V. The Second War for American Independence

  1. The war of 1812 wasn’t a big global war because Napoleon had Europe distracted but it was important in America.
    • When naval officers or people who were leaders negotiated in other countries, they were now treated with less scorn and listened to.
    • In a diplomatic sense this was a second Independence war. The new Nation was solidified and brought together; under this time sectionalism was frowned upon.
  2. War heroes such as Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison emerged and became presidents.
  3. Manufacturing prospered, industries were stimulated because of the British blockade. This helped make less dependency on English goods.
  4. Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent.
    • They were upset that they didn’t even get an Indian buffer state or mastery of the Great lakes.
    • Indians were left out in the treaty of Ghent so they made any treaties they could.
  5. The Rush-Bagot agreement between England and U.S. limited naval armament on lakes.
    • Happily, better relations brought down border fortifications in 1870. U.S. and Canada now share the world’s largest unfortified border of 5,527 mi.
  6. After Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo, Europe slumped into an exhausted peace. Americans turned their back on the old world and focused on building up their nation.

VI. Nascent Nationalism

  1. America emerged as one nation after the 1812 war.
    • People started to write about America, for Americans and paint America proudly.
    • Congress revived the bank of the United States and rebuilt the capital. The Army was expanded, the navy won more battles.

VII. The American System

  1. The Americans took pride in their mushrooming factories.
    • After the war England tiered to kill off any industrialization with their below cost prices.
    • Congress passed the tariff of 1816 because industries needed protection.
  2. Henry Clay launched a plan- “The American System” It had three main parts:
    • A strong banking system with easy credit
    • A network of roads and canals to be able to send materials
    • This helped the country become closer economically and politically.
  3. What most stuck with people was the need for transportation. But funding was hard to agree on and come by.

VIII. The So Called Era of Good Feelings

  1. James Monroe was nominated in 1816; he won with 183 to 34 votes. The Federalist Party was dying out.
    • He straddled two generations- the founding fathers and the new nationalism.
  2. He was the least distinguished of the first eight presidents.
  3. He took a tour around the United States and the people liked him. This ushered in the Era of good Feelings. Which was a actually a misnomer because it was only nice for the first couple years. Conflict and disagreements were about to begin.

IX. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

  1. Economic panic started because of over speculation in the frontier lands followed by deflation, depression, bankruptcy, and unemployment. This ended the goodness of the feelings.

  2. The Panic of 1819 created trouble in the political and social world. People were imprisoned for debt; mothers were taken from their children for owing a few dollars. X. Growing Pains of the West

  3. The nation was up to 22 states, the “Ohio fever” had people moving and expanding west.

    • Eager new comers were beginning to stream in impressive numbers. Bad soil, exhausted from tobacco, economic distress during the embargo years and the crushing of Indians opened the frontier and drove people westward. The steam boat also helped with upstream navigation.
  4. The west however was still weak in population and independence.
  5. The Land act of 1820 made people buy 80 acres at once at a minimum of $1.25 per acre. They also got cheap transportation.

XI. Slavery and the Sectional Balance

  1. Rivalry between the north and south over who would control the west revealed itself in 1819.
  2. The House of Representatives passed the Tallmadge Amendment which meant no more slaves should be brought into Missouri and granted gradual emancipation of the slave children.
    • There was much anger from the southerners. They were falling behind in population yet they still wanted equal representation.
    • The future of their peculiar institution made them uneasy. Moral questions about the evils of slavery were popping up.

XII. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

  1. Congress agreed to admit Missouri as a slave state but at the same time to separate part of Massachusetts and add Maine as a state.
  2. Missouri could keep their slaves but no more was permitted in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase.
    • Both the north and south seceded and gained something- The north got no more slave states in that territory and the south got Missouri as a slave state.
  3. The Missouri compromise lasted 34 years it was vital to form the republic. But it was only sweeping under the rug an issue that would resurface and test the country. Monroe was elected a second time.

XIII. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

  1. Chief Justice John Marshall dominated the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court was the one who decided if agreements/laws were constitutional.
    • McCulloch Vs. Maryland- Maryland wanted to tax banks but he wouldn’t permit it.
    • His ruling showed that he followed the loose interpretation of the constitution. He agreed that the constitution was intended to endure for ages and to be adapted.
    • Cohen’s Vs. Virginia - Virginia found the Cohen brothers to be illegally selling lottery tickets, Virginia won the case.
    • Gibbons Vs. Ogden – New York gave a monopoly for easier trading. Marshall said that states couldn’t control or govern interstate commerce.

XIV. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

  1. Fletcher v. Peck in 1810- Georgia legislature granted 35 million acres to private speculators then cancelled it.
    • The Supreme Court ruled that the grant was a contact and the constitution forbid states to impair contracts this law helped protect property rights.
  2. Dartmouth College v. Woodward- Dartmouth had a charter from King George III but New Hampshire wanted to change it.
    • Marshall ruled that the charter must stand because it was a contract.
  3. Marshall’s decisions endure until today he kept the new nation among conservative lines.

XV. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida.

  1. Nationalism helped shape foreign policy.
  2. Monroe teamed with John Quincy Adams- one of the greatest secretaries of state.
  3. Anglo- American convention of 1818 was talked over with Britain. Let Americans share Newfoundland fishing area with Canadians, and fixed the Louisiana limits at 49 parallel. They had a 10 year joint occupation of Oregon Country.
  4. Americans thought that Florida should be part of the United States; they had already taken western Florida and wanted the rest.
  5. Revolutions broke out in South America. Americans cheered South America’s independence but were eventually disappointed. Spain sent troops from Florida to squash the rebellion.
  6. General Jackson saw an opportunity to take the swampland by saying that hostile and fugitive slaves were there and he had to go “get them back”. Jackson killed people and took 2 posts to capture Florida, exceeding Washington’s instructions.
  7. All of Monroe’s cabinet wanted to punish Jackson, except for John Quincy Adams.
  8. In the Florida Purchase treaty or Adams-Onis Treaty The US got Spanish Florida and some of Oregon in exchange that the US give up claims to Texas to the Spaniards.

XVI. The Menace of Monarchy in America

  1. Europe did not like democracy; they feared it because of what they had seen from the French Revolution.
  2. The crown of England stopped rebellions in Italy and Spain and apparently wanted to stop them In South America too.
    • The Americans were alarmed: they felt that if Europeans intervened in the new world republicanism would be harmed.
  3. Britain proposed to Americans a joint document that would renounce interest in getting South American territory

XVII. Monroe and His Doctrine

  1. Secretary Adams was wary of Britain wanting an alliance. He didn’t want to be tied down and thought that they were just doing it to keep Americans from expanding.
  2. Monroe doctrine in 1823 was a stern warning to the European powers with two basic features- 1) noncolonization and 2) nonintervention.

XVIII. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

  1. The monarchs of Europe were enraged but they couldn’t do much about it. The Latin nations didn’t really take notice and the treaty wasn’t significant and was forgotten about for a while.
  2. The Tsar decided to retreat even before Monroe’s message Russo- American treaty of 1824 fixed the lines at 54 degrees 40’
  3. The doctrine was more of a self defense policy. It was never actually a law, agreement or a pledge. Just a statement of policy Monroe had said and presidents over time have changed it.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism25.26 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 13 - The Rise of a Mass Democracy

Chapter 13 The rise of a Mass Democracy 1824-1840

I. The “corrupt bargain” of 1824

  1. The four candidates emerged for the next election after James Monroe’s second term 1) John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts 2)Henry Clay of Kentucky 3) William Henry Crawford of Georgia and 4) Andrew Jackson of Tennessee.
    • All four were republicans there was a deadlock between the candidates, so the house of representatives was called to vote.
  2. Adams was elected president and Henry Clay was secretary of state.
  3. Jackson’s supporters accused Adams of Bribing Clay with the position of secretary of state so Adams would get elected. Angry Jacksonians protested against this “corrupt bargain”.

II. A Yankee misfit in the White House

  1. John Quincy was short, thickset and billiard-bald. He ranks as the most successful secretary of State but least successful president.
  2. Less than a third of voters had voted for him, he was a “minority president”. He was a cold, austere man and didn’t win popular support.
  3. He was a nationalist in a time where people wanted to more state’s rights.

III. Going “whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828

  1. The republicans split into two – The national republicans with Adams as their standard. The other was the Democratic-republicans heady by Jackson.
  2. Jackson’s followers denounced Adams as a corrupt aristocrat. They wanted Jackson to “reform” the wrong ways.
  3. Mudslinging reached new lows in 1828.
  4. On the next voting day General Jackson’s triumph couldn’t be denied and he won the election.

IV. “Old Hickory“ as President

  1. The new president was tall, lean and had blue eyes, born in the Carolinas and was early orphaned.
    • Jackson moved to Tennessee and became a member of the congress.
    • He was the first president from the west, didn’t have a college education, owned many salves and lived in a great mansion.
  2. “Hickorites” poured into Washington from all over, hoping to see the man they elected go into office. Nobodies mingled with noticeables as the white house was opened to the first time to the public.

V. The Spoils System

  1. The democrats rewarded their political supporters with public office. The question was not anymore “what can he do for the county?” but “is he loyal to Jackson?”.
  2. This was scandalous. Men who had bought their posts were given office, so were illiterates, incompetents and crooks. Samuel Swaitwout stole 1 million dollars from the government and escaped to England.
  3. Despite its abuse, the spoils system as important for loyalty in office.

VI. The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations”

  1. Tariffs protected American industry against European competition. The middle states and new England were supporters but the southerners weren’t.
  2. Branded as the black Tariff or the Tariff of abominations, several southern sates adopted formal protest the south was falling in hard times and felt that that they got stuck with paying the bill.
  3. The southerners were secretly anxious about federal interference with then institution of slavery

VII. “Nullies” in South Carolina

  1. The nullies tried to muster the vote nullification in the S. Carolina legislature.
  2. Congress passed a new tariff of 183 2 that took away most of the abominations but was still protective.
  3. The State legislature called for a special convention.
    • Declared the tariff to be null and void within South Carolina.
    • They threatened to take South Carolina out of the union if Washington attempted to collect customs by force.
  4. Andrew Jackson wasn’t intimidated and wouldn’t permit defiance or disunion.
    • He privately threatened to invade the state and hang nullifiers.
  5. Henry Clay made a compromise bill that would reduce the tariffs by 10 percent over 8 years – the compromise tariff of 1833. Northern states were upset
  6. The force bill was passed- authorized president to use army and navy to if necessary to collect tariffs.
  7. Neither side won a clear victory, but Clay was the true hero of the hour for saving the country.

VIII. The Trail of Tears

  1. Jackson’s democrats wanted western expansion but there were native people living on the lands. The tribes were seen as separate nations and the US agreed to acquire lands only through treaties, but Americans violated their own rules to the expense of the natives.
  2. Many Americans thoughts that the natives could be “civilized” and had respect and admiration for them.
  3. However many tribes resisted but some accommodated.
    • Cherokees of Georgia made remarkable efforts to learn the way of the whites. They gave up their semi-nomadic ways and turned to agriculture.
  4. The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Seminoles were among the “five civilized tribes”.
  5. This embrace of white customs was not enough; in 1828 the Georgia legislature declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal.
    • They appealed to the supreme court, but Jackson who wanted to expand further ignored their ruling
    • He proposed the removal of the western tribes beyond the Mississippi river.
  6. In 1830 the Indian removal act was passed. It forced uprooting of the native tribes with a promise of a “permanently” white man free land.
    • Their “permanent” land didn’t last more than 15 years.
  7. Some were suspicious of White’s intentions form the start, and they resisted eviction leading to the black hawk war in 1832. The Indians were crushed in this war.
  8. The Seminoles fled to Florida with runaway slaves but were destroyed as well.

IX. The Bank War

  1. Jackson distrusted monopolistic banking and overbig businesses. The US bank was a monster in his eyes.
    • It was the most powerful bank in the US, it controlled most of the nation’s gold and silver.
    • It was a source of credit and stability- an important part of the expanding nation’s economy.
  2. Others saw the bank as unconstitutional and didn’t like the power the president of the bank- Nicholas Biddle or “Czar Nicholas I” had. They west wasn’t fond of the bank’s foreclosing powers. Profit not public service was the bank’s first priority.
  3. The bank war erupted in 1832 when Daniel Webster and Henry Clay proposed a bill to renew the bank’s charter.
    • Clay’s scheme was to send the Bill to congress. If Jackson signed it he would lose his western followers. If he vetoed it he’d probably lose the election. Jackson ended up vetoing it and Clay’s assumptions were wrong.

X. “Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832

  1. For the first time there was a new third party- the anti- Masonic part whom apposed the Masonic order, they appealed to the secret societies.
    • Also for the first time they called national nominating convention to name candidates.
  2. Clay had lots of money coming into his campaign but still lost the presidency.

XI. Burying Biddle’s Bank

  1. Jackson took the government’s funds out of The US bank to ensure that the bank would close. His cabinet didn’t agree with this.
  2. The death of the US bank left a financial vacuum in the American economy- paper currency became unreliable.
    • A Specie circular was passed; it required all public lands to be purchased with hard “metal” money. This contributed to the financial crash of 1837.
  3. Jackson never had to deal with the damage.

XII. The Birth of the Whigs

  1. The Whigs appeared because of opposition to Jackson and his exercise of power.
    • They attracted groups alienated by Jackson they thought of themselves as conservatives but they were progressive in their support of active government reforms.
    • They aimed to be the defenders of the common man and declared the democrats corrupted.

XIII. The election of 1836

  1. Martin Van Burren was Jackson’s choice for his successor
  2. The Whigs appointed various “favorite sons”.
    • The leading one was William Henry Harrison
  3. Van Burren the “little magician” won anyways

XIV. Big Woes for the “Little Magician”

  1. Van Burren the 8th president, was the first to be born under the American flag
  2. He wasn’t exactly liked by the democrats who felt that he’d been smuggled into the office under Jackson’s tailcoats
    • People felt left down, he wasn’t as brash as Jackson.
  3. His 4 years were filled with trouble and he had to battle a panic of depression and a wave of discontent people.

XV. Depression Doldrums & the Independent Treasury

  1. The main Cause if the Panic of 1837 was because speculators were promoting western lands and doing business on shaky currency.
    • Failure of wheat crops deepened distress
    • Europe’s economic distress made things worse for the U.S.
  2. Hundreds of Banks and factories closed, the unemployed were in the street.
  3. Van Burren passed the “Divorce Bill”- This bill divorced the government from banking. Government funds would be safe when they locked their surplus money into vaults.

XVI. Gone to Texas

  1. Americans continued to settle more lands- now in Texas.
  2. Mexicans won their independence from Spain in 1821, they wanted American families to populate the area and be “mexicanized”.
    • Most of the settlers were law abiding people but some came to evade the police
    • Americans ignored the decrees set by the Mexicans, Stephen Austin went to talk to Santa Anna- the Mexican leader- but was put in jail
  3. Santa Anna started to raise an army to suppress the Texans

XVII. The Lone Star Rebellion

  1. In 1836 Texans declared independence
    • Santa Anna fought back- wiped out Texans at the battle of the Alamo
    • Slain Heroes like Davy Crocket became legendary. Vengeful Americans came to their compatriot’s aid.
  2. At San Jacinto Americans overcame Mexicans and made Santa Anna sign treaties. 1) He agreed to withdraw Mexican troops and 2) recognize Rio Grande as the extreme southwest border of Texas.
  3. Texas wanted to join the Union but northerners were upset and didn’t want another salve state being added.
  4. Mexicans complained that the US had not stayed neutral.
    • The American public didn’t care

XVIII. Log Cabins and Hard Cider

  1. The next election was between Democrat Martin Van Burren and The Whig’s William Henry Harrison.
    • Harrison was issueless, enemy less and best remembered for his success against Indians and Brits at the battle of Tippecanoe.
    • His Vice president was John Tyler
  2. Whigs hoped that the people would embrace Harrison as a hero that had been called from his Cabin to drive corrupt Jackson spoils men from the presidential palace.
    • Harrison did win the election

XIX. Politics for People

  1. Election of 1840 showed two changes in politics since the era of good feelings 1) Triumph of a populist democratic style instead of aristocracy.
    • No one liked snobs and prominent men had to be more relatable to “common men” to win support.

XX. The Two Party System

  1. The second change in politics was a formation of a durable two-party system.
    • Differences: Jackson democrats glorified individual liberties, states rights and federal restraint. They were more humble people. The Whigs were more prosperous and liked natural harmony in society, they also favored internal improvements.
    • In common: They were mass-based, so they tried to mobilize as many voters for their cause. They were pretty intermixed within their own parties which prevented extremes.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 13 - The Rise of a Mass Democracy23.08 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy

Chapter 14 Forging the national economy 1790-1860

I. The Westward Movement

  1. The west, with its raw frontier was the most American part of America.
    • The wild west was very alluring, and young people moved out to settle
  2. Pioneers led grim, hard lived.
    • Poorly fed, they were victims of diseases, depression and premature death.

II. Shaping the Western Landscape

  1. The pioneers changed the western landscape- they exhausted the soil with tobacco, burnt lands to make pastures and killed many animals almost to the point of extinction.
    • American fur trappers worked with Indians and traded manufactured goods for beaver pelts, bison robes and sea-otter pelts.
  2. Yet Americans revered nature and admired its beauty.
    • It’s pure, wild lands were the nation’s defining attributes
    • George Catlin was one of the first to advocate preservation of nature and the idea of national parks.

III. The March of the Millions

  1. In the mid 18 hundreds the population doubled every 25 years.
    • By 1860 there were 33 states and America was the fourth most populated nation in the world.
  2. Urban growth brought diseases and bad living standards.
    • In 1840’s -1850’ the immigration rate rose greatly because it seemed that Europe was running out space.
  3. America beaconed strongly to struggling people because it was the land of freedom and opportunity.
  4. Steamships made it faster and cheaper to reach America.

IV. The Emerald Isle Moves West

  1. The “Black Forties” was a terrible famine time where the potatoes the Irish depended on rotted. Consequently the Irish moved to American cities.
    • They were disliked in America and forced to live in squalor because they were poor. They were also discriminated against and not often given work.
    • There were race riots because the Irish and Blacks hated each other.
  2. Eventually some became property owners and the Irish influential in politics.

V. The German Forty-eighters

  1. There was a huge influx of German between 1830-1860 because of crop failures and other hardships.
    • Unlike the Irish the German weren’t as poor coming into America, but similarly they were an influential political group.
  2. The German were well-educated and brought in lots of ideas- they supported public schools and were opposed to slavery.
    • Slightly distrusted because they strived to keep their language and customs by keeping to themselves mostly.

VI. Flare-ups of Antiforeignism

  1. The massive immigration made American “nativists” feel threatened.
    • Americans felt that the foreign people would outbreed, outvote and overwhelm the native people.
    • Not only did the new comers take away native’s jobs but they brought in new religions.
  2. The nativisits wanted restrictions on immigration and naturalization. They would make up shocking stories about the immigrants.
    • The occasional mass violence between them would kill and injure people and sometimes even burn churches.
  3. Immigrants were making the US one of the most ethnically and racially varied in the world.
    • Immigrants were actually helpful and necessary for shaping and helping the US economy.

VII. Creeping mechanization

  1. Americans were slow to embrace machinery over agriculture.
    • Europe had already started up their industrial revolution and put up laws to protect themselves and passed laws that wouldn’t let machines or mechanics who knew how to make them leave the country.
    • Labor was hard to find until immigrants came, land was cheap in America and no one wanted to be stuck in a factory.
  2. Not until past mid 19 century was the factory more profitable than the farm.

VIII. Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine

  1. Samuel Slater is known as the father of the factory system in America. He escaped Britain with the plans for a machine memorized.
  2. Eli Whitney built the cotton gin in 1793
    • It was 50 times more effective at picking out cotton it affected America and the rest of the world.
    • Increased the demand for cotton and consequently the demand for slaves.
  3. New England favored industry because it didn’t have good soil for agriculture it had a dense population for working along with fast rivers to power factories and it was close to seaports.

IX. Marvels in Manufacturing

  1. The was or 1812 and the embargo caused factories to boom
    • Patriotism arose and “Buy American” “wear American” became popular slogans.
  2. The treaty of Ghent almost let British with their cheap goods ruin American industry but the protective tariff of 1816 helped to stop it.
  3. Eli Whitney once again helped to make another machine to help the firearm industry.
    • He introduced the concept of interchangeable parts it caught on in 1850 and became the basis for mass-production.
  4. The sewing machine was invented by Elias Howe in 1846 and it was perfected by Issac Singer.
    • The sewing machine became the foundation of the ready-made clothing industry.
  5. Limited liability helped investors risk no more than their own share of the corporation’s stock.
    • Laws of “free incorporation” meant that businessmen could create corporations without applying for individual charters from the legislature.
  6. Samuel Morse invented the telegraph- it was a huge hit; it brought fame and fortune to Morse.
    • It put distantly separated people in almost instant communication.

X. Workers and “Wage Slaves”

  1. With factories gone were the friendly relationships that were once held between close workers.
  2. Factory workers didn’t have many rights and were forbidden by law to form labor unions to raise wages.
  3. Children were used to toil in the factories most were under 12 years old.
  4. Adult wage workers voted for the Jacksonian democracy to lighten their burdens.
    • Van Buren established the 10 hour work day in 1840
  5. Laborers leaned that they had the power when they rebelled.
    • A Supreme Court case – common wealth vs. Hunt deemed labor unions not illegal as long as they were honorable and peaceful.

XI. Women and The Economy

  1. In the preindustrial world, farm women and girls had an important place spinning yarn, weaving cloth, making soap, butter, cheese and candles.
  2. Factories cranked these goods faster but gave jobs to those women they were displacing.
    • Factory jobs promoted women’s independence. “Factory girls “worked 6 days a week earning very little for their long hours.
    • However factory jobs were unusual for women.
  3. 10% of white women were working mostly in feminine jobs like teaching, nursing and domestic service. Most of them were single.
  4. The cult of domesticity glorified women’s home duties and made them more important as the family’s moral teacher.
    • During the industrial revolution family sizes dropped making them more affectionate and child centered, provided a special place for women.

XII. Western Farmers reap a Revolution in the Fields

  1. The trans-Allegheny was becoming the nation’s bread basket.
    • Corn was versatile and important too. It could be changed into liquor or given to hogs to eat. Those became the western farmer’s staple market items.
  2. Farmers were expanding west and wanting to plant more.
    • John Deere invented a steel plow then Cyrus McCormick invented a mechanical reaper that let one man do the work of five.
    • Planters were now striving for ways to increase their money and acres of land.

XIII. Highways and Steamboats

  1. There were primitive unsafe ways of sending things.
    • The Lanchester turnpike was highly successful. It was made in 1790’s and had a hard pavement highway of 62 miles.
  2. Then started the steamboat craze- people could now defy wind, wave, tide and downstream currents.
    • They played a vital role in opening the west and south.

XIV. “Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York

  1. Next was a canal cutting craze to parallel the others.
    • New York under the leadership of Governor Dewitt Clinton dug the Erie canal aka- “Clinton’s Big Ditch”
    • This decreased the cost of shipping along with shipping time. It opened more land for settlement.

XV. The Iron Horse

  1. Appearing in 1828, the most significant transportation yet was the railroad.
    • Railroad fast, reliable, cheaper to construct compared to canals and it wasn’t frozen in winters.
    • It was opposed at first because it had safety flaws by canal backers.

XVI. Cables, Clippers and Pony Riders

  1. A cable (telegraph) was strung from the US to Europe.
  2. In the 1840’s and 185o’s clipper ships arose they were long, narrow and majestic. They glided across the sea.
    • Sacrificed cargo space for speed.
    • Faded away after more reliable, bigger steamboats were made profitable.
  3. The Pony express was established in 1860 to carry mail; the service was stopped after 18 months because of Samuel Morse’s invention.

XVII. The Transport Web Binds The Union.

  1. The desire to expand westward sparked the transportation revolution.
  2. Each region was separated- the south made cotton, the West was in charge of grain and livestock, the East made machines for the south and the west.

XVIII. The Market Revolution

  1. The Market Revolution transformed a sustenance economy into a national network of industry and commerce.
    • Greater mechanization raised legal questions
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy20.27 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

Chapter 15 The Ferment of Reform and Culture 1790- 1860

I. Reviving Religion

  1. Church attendance was still regular but deism was being promoted widely.
    • It relied on science more than the bible and denied the divinity of Christ.
    • Deism helped spin off the Unitarian faith- believed that God existed only in one person and he was a loving father figure not a stern creator. This appealed mostly to the intellectuals.
  2. Second Great Awakening started in the 1800s.
    • It converted people, shattered/ reorganized churches, and encouraged evangelicalism, prison reform, women’s movements and a crusade to abolish slavery.
    • Peter Cartwright was a well known traveling frontier preacher and converted thousands to Christianity.
    • Charles Grandison Finney was the greatest revival preacher.
  3. Women played a bigger role in religion this time around.

II. Denominational Diversity

  1. Preachers went to Western New York where the puritans had settled; it was called the burnt over district.
    • The second great awakening widened lines between classes and religion, issues about slavery split churches apart.

III. A Desert Zion in Utah

  1. Joseph Smith reported having received golden plates from an angel and when deciphered they constituted the book of Mormon and this launched the Church of Latter-day Saints (Mormons).
    • Hostility arose towards them; Smith and his brother were murdered. Brigham Young took over and led the Mormons to Utah.
    • They had problems with the US and becoming a state because of their polygamy practices.

IV. Free Schools for a Free People

  1. Tax supported schools came along in 1825-1850, the rich realized that the children (even the poor ones) were the future of America and didn’t want the majority voters to be ignorant.
  2. Schools housed 8 grades in one room and the male teachers were ill-trained, ill-tempered and underpaid.
  3. Horace Mann campaigned for reform- better school houses, longer school years, more curriculum and higher teacher pay.
    • Blacks were still excluded from education opportunities.
    • Noah Webster made a dictionary to standardize the language. V. Higher Goals for Higher Learning
  4. There weren’t many good colleges that offered a wide-curriculum.
  5. The first state supported universities came in 1795. The University of Virginia was founded by Thomas Jefferson.
  6. Women’s higher education was frowned upon- too much learning was thought to injure the feminine brain, undermine heath and made women unfit for marriage.
    • Oberlin College in Ohio was the 1st coeducational university and it also opened its doors to blacks.

VI. An Age of Reform

  1. People now had a desire to change for a perfected society.
    • Debtor’s prisons were abolished and criminal codes were being softened. Brutal punishments were being slowly eliminated
  2. New ideas were taking place- i.e. Prisons should help reform people as well as punish them
    • People who were insane were treated terribly because of the old beliefs that they were possessed by demons.
    • Dorthea Dix helped people understand that the people were mentally ill and not doing it on purpose.
    • In 1826 the American Peace Society was formed by William Ladd.

VII. Demon Rum- the “Old Deluder”

  1. There was a problem with excessive drinking among not only men, but also women, clergymen and congress members. It decreased efficiency of labor and increased accidents at work. Excessive drinking also threatened the sanctity of family.
  2. The American Temperance society was formed in 1826 to reform drunkards.
    • Some people just wanted to have people cut back on drinking but some like Neal Dow “The father of prohibition” wanted it gone completely.

VIII. Women In Revolt

  1. In the 19th century women roles were the ones of the weak bodied and weak minded but artistically refined homemakers.
    • American women were a little better off than their European counterparts.
    • Gender Differences were strongly emphasized by the distinct economic roles the market economy brought.
  2. Women started a reform movement in the mid 19th century.
    • Feminists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Blackwell- the first female medical graduate- challenged the men’s world.
    • Women also campaigned against the evils of slavery.
    • Feminists met in 1848 for the women’s rights convention at Seneca Falls in New York, they rewrote the Constitution to include women they managed to launch the woman’s rights movement.

IX. Wilderness Utopia

  1. Robert Owen, seeking human betterment founded a community.
    • All of the Utopias: New Harmony, Brook Farm, Oneida Community and the shakers all failed because of competition with the democratic free enterprise and free lands

X. The Dawn of The Scientific Achievement

  1. Americans were more interested in practical gadgets than in pure science. They borrowed and adapted Europeans findings.
  2. Medicine in America was still primitive my modern standards.
    • Illness often resulted from improper diet, hurried eating, perspiring and cooling off too rapidly and ignoring germs/ sanitation.
    • In the 1840’s doctors and dentists started to use laughing gas and ether as anesthetics.

XI. Artistic Achievements

  1. Architecturally Americans chose to imitate old world values borrowing from classical Greek and Roman examples.
  2. Painting and theater suffered because there was not enough wealthy to sit and pay for art and entertainment in their leisure time.
    • Artists were exported to learn in Europe and art was imported.
    • Charles Willson Peale painted some 60 portraits for President George Washington; one of them is on our dollar bill.
    • After 1812 painters changed their subjects from portraits to landscapes.
    • Romantic Art spawned in this era (1820’s).
    • Painters had some competition when crude photography showed up.
  3. Music was changing- turning away from puritan disapproval.
    • American folk music had slave spirit influences.

XII. The Blossoming of National Literature

  1. Before 1820 there wasn’t any good American literature. Americans were too busy conquering a continent.
    • After the arrival of romanticism in 1820 the wave of nationalism inspired many authors – they now emphasized imagination over reason, nature over civilization, intuition over calculation and self over society. American literature flowed like never before.
    • Washing ton Irving was the 1st American to win international recognition as a literary figure. Also important and wildly recognized were writer James Fenimore Cooper and poet William Cullen Byrant.

XIII. Trumpeters if Transcendentalism

  1. The next literary movement was the transcendentalism which rejected that all knowledge comes to the mind though the senses they thought the truth rather “transcends” the senses.
    • Commitment to self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline were parts of the beliefs that bred hostility to authority.
    • Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were well known for being nonconformist poets and essayists. Margaret Fuller and Walt Whitman were important transcendentalists too.

XIV. Glowing Literary Lights

  1. Not all poets of the time were influenced by transcendentalism. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote for the refined class and it was adopted by the less culture classed. His writing was also liked in Europe.
    • John Greenleaf Whittier wrote abolitionist poems
    • Professor James Russell Lowell was a distinguished essayist and poet opposing the Mexican war.
    • Louisa May Alcott wrote “Little Women” to support her family.
    • Emily Dickenson lived reclusively; she explored universal themes of love, nature, death and immortality in her writing.
    • Novelist William Gilmore Simms dealt with book about the southern frontier in colonial days and he believed in slavery.

XV. Literary Individualists and Dissenters

  1. Not all writers were interested in human goodness. Contrary minded authors played with the darker realms of human experience- Pain, fear, death, grief, supernatural and the unconscious.
    • Edgar Allen Poe had a miserable life but was a gifted lyric poet and excelled in the short story. He showed a lot of gothic morbid-ness in his writings.
  2. Nathaniel Hamilton was influenced with Calvinist obsession with original sin and struggle between good and evil as seen in the “Scarlet Letter”
  3. Herman Melville wrote Moby Dick the story of struggle between a whale with an allegory between good and evil.

XVI. Portrayers of the Past

  1. A distinguished group of American historians was emerging at the same time. George Bancroft – “father of American history” published volumes about American history.
  2. William H. Prescott and Francis Parkman had terrible vision but published accounts of American history.
  3. Most of the early historians came from the New England Area because there were better stocked libraries.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture19.95 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

Chapter 16 – The south and the slavery controversy 1793-1860

I. “Cotton is king!”

  1. Cotton brought quick profits; it made the nation’s wealth grow.
    • Cotton was ½ of all American exports after 1840 and the south produced more than half of the world’s supply of cotton.
  2. Britain depended on America for its cotton.

II. The Planter “Aristocracy”

  1. The south was more of an oligarchy than a democracy before the civil war.
    • Only some wealthy few influenced the government.
  2. The women slaves were commanded by the slave owner’s wives.
    • Relationships between them ranged from affectionate to brutal.
    • Almost no women believed in abolition.

III. Slaves of the Slave System

  1. The economic structure of the south became monopolistic and people eager for profit sold their lands and moved on west after using up the soil.
  2. There was a financial instability in the plantation system
    • Dependence on a one-crop economy was dangerous.
  3. The south was envious of the prosperous north.

IV. The Whole Majority

  1. The majority of the slave owners were the small-farm slave owners; however they didn’t own most of the slaves.
    • 3/4ths of the south white population didn’t own slaves but were still for slavery because they liked knowing they were better off socially than someone else and liked being able to hope that one day they’d own slaves too.
    • They were known as “poor white trash” and “hillbillies.”
  2. The mountain whites lived in the Appalachians away from civilization; they hated the southern whites and their gangs of blacks.

V. Free blacks: Slaves without masters

  1. The free blacks in the south were kind of a “third race”.
    • Some had been emancipated, some were mulatto children and some had bought their freedom. Some even owned their own slaves.
    • They were prohibited from certain jobs and from testifying against whites.
  2. They weren’t liked in the north either.
    • They weren’t allowed in some states, not allowed to vote, not allowed ion public schools and were not liked by the Irish.

VI. Plantation Slavery

  1. Importation of black slaves was illegal but the price of “black ivory” was so high slaves were still being smuggled in.
    • Most slaves were the children of slaves in America.
    • Slaves were considered investments and slave owners took care that the slaves didn’t die.
  2. Slave auctions were brutal - animals and slaves were sold in the same way.
    • Families were split apart.

VII. Life under the Lash

  1. Slaves usually worked form dawn to dusk in the fields under the watch of an overseer with a whip.
    • They had no civil or political rights.
  2. Most slaves were used in the region that was furiously growing cotton called the black belt made up of South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama and Louisiana.
    • Slaves managed to retain some family life in the Deep South and didn’t intermarry.
    • African roots were visible in their religious practices.

VIII. The Burden if Bondage

  1. Slavery was degrading- deprived of dignity and independence. T * hey were denied education because reading and writing brought ideas, and the owners wanted to keep them dim witted.
  2. Slavery was known as the “peculiar institution”.
    • Slaves tried to sabotage their masters and always freedom.
  3. Rebellions and people trying to escape were stopped, and sometimes caught and killed.
  4. Slavery tainted the whites too.
    • They were made more cruel and paranoid.

IX. Early Abolitionism

  1. Quakers were some of the first to advocate antislavery
  2. The American Colonization Society was founded in 1817 to send slaves back to Africa- They sent some back to Liberia in west Africa but by the 1860’s most slaves were American born and didn’t want to be sent to a strange country they didn’t know much about.
  3. The Abolitionist Movement really expanded in the 1830’s.
    • The second great awakening helped people notice the sin of slavery.
    • Theodore Dwight Weld was an abolitionist who spoke against slavery he wrote a pamphlet against slavery “American slavery as it is” and influenced “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”.

X. Radical Abolitionism

  1. William Lloyd Garrison published “The Liberator”- an anti-slavery newspaper in 1831.
  2. Other abolitionists founded the American Anti-slavery society in 183.
  3. Black abolitionist advocated an end to white supremacy.
    • Sojourner Truth a free black woman, fought for emancipation and women’s rights.
    • Frederick Douglass escaped from slavery was a gifted orator, writer and editor. He lectured widely for his cause and looked to politics to end slavery.

XI. The South Lashes Back

  1. Virginia defeated emancipation proposals and slave states tightened their restrictions.
    • Garrison was condemned a terrorist because of his newspaper.
    • States were making emancipation illegal.
  2. The nullification crisis caused a decrease in abolitionism.
    • White pro-slave owners defended slavery by saying it was a positive good thing supported by the bible.
  3. The southerners compared their slaves with the northern factory workers
  4. The Gag Resolution required all antislavery appeals to be disabled without debate- It was basically an attack on freedom of speech.
    • Antislavery propaganda was burnt.

XII. The Abolitionist Impact in the North

  1. Northerners didn’t think slavery should be abolished.
    • Textile mills depended on the cotton raised by the slaves.
    • The northerners didn’t want a disrupted labor system.
  2. Mobs broke out and killed abolitionists
  3. Few people wanted to abolish slavery outright but a growing number opposed extending it to the western territories.
    • These people were called the “free soilers” and their numbers grew as the civil war approached.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy17.37 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

Chapter 17- Manifest Destiny and its Legacy 1841-1848

I. The Accession of “Tyler Too”

  1. John Tyler took the presidency four weeks into President Harrison term because President Harrison died.
    • People were upset because Tyler was a “Democrat in Whigs clothing”.

II. John Tyler: A President without a Party

  1. Tyler was against Fiscal Banks, much to the Democrats’ relief but the Whigs disliked him.
    • His entire cabinet resigned with the exception of his secretary of state who was in the midst of negotiations with Europe.

III. A War of Words with Britain

  1. The British were hated during the 19th century and The US soon started the “third war with England” only this time it was fought with ink and books and no guns were fired.
  2. There was a small rebellion in Canada where a steamer called the Caroline was attacked.

IV. Manipulating the Maine Maps

  1. In 1842 the British wanted to build a road westwards from the seaport of Halifax to Quebec. It ran through a disputed territory and small scale lumberman clash – The Aroostook War began.
  2. The London foreign office sent a nonprofessional diplomat- Lord Ashburton to settle the dispute.
    • The US got 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 square mile area and Britain got the land they wanted for the train.

V. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

  1. Mexico refused to recognize Texas’ independence- they saw Texas as a province in revolt that they could take back.
    • They threatened American with war if America protected Texas
  2. Texas opened treaties with Britain and France Britain wanted a free Texas so it could watch over America and make sure America didn’t become too powerful.

VI. The Belated Texas Nuptials

  1. Texas became an issue in the presidential campaign of 1844.
    • Democrats were pro-expansionists
    • Tyler signed a resolution that made Texas the 28th state and the Mexicans were thoroughly upset.

VII. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

  1. Oregon country was huge claimed by Spain, Russia, Britain and the US.
    • Spain and Russia eventually dropped out of their claims because of treaties they had made.
  2. Britain had a strong hold of the land north of the Colombia River because they actually occupied it and explored it.
  3. Americans had explored and occupied the territory south of the Colombia River.
  4. A scheme for peaceful joint occupation was adopted; American and British pioneers lived peacefully side by side.
  5. A lot of Americans migrated over to Oregon; the British had less population but didn’t want to give up its claims.

VIII. A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny

  1. In the election of 1844, the Whig party chose Henry Clay; the Democrats chose James K. Polk.
    • Polk Beat Clay in the election. Clay straddled the issue of whether or not to annex Texas.
  2. In the 1840’s and 1850’s Americans felt that God had destined Americans to spread themselves over the whole continent.

IX. Polk to Purposeful

  1. Polk – the Young Hickory- was not as impressive as the Old Hickory and took life seriously, developed a successful four point program.
    • He lowered tariffs, restored the treasury, acquired California and settled the Oregon dispute.
  2. England finally compromised to split the area along the line of 49 degrees without there being war.

X. Misunderstandings with Mexico

  1. Polk was eager to buy California from Mexico but after the Texas annexation diplomatic relations with Mexico were severed.
  2. There were rumors about the British wanting to buy or seize Mexico so Polk sent an envoy to offer up to $25 million for California but the Mexicans wouldn’t hear of it.

XI. American Blood on American (?) Soil

  1. Everyone was anxiously waiting for war between Mexico and the US
    • Polk almost declared war first but on April 25th 1846 Mexican troops killed Americans on disputed “American Soil”.
  2. Polk sent war message to the congress and they voted for war, the patriotic country agreed that something had to be done.
  3. Abraham Lincoln was so concerned with what place the war actually started that he was known as “Spotty Lincoln”.
  4. Polk had provoked the war in efforts to gain California, Mexico also wanted to fight with America.
    • Both sides believed that the other was the aggressor, the Yankees had polluted the Mexican’s lands and the Mexicans had killed the first Americans.

XII. Mastering of Mexico

  1. Polk wanted California- not war, but he got war and hoped to pull out quickly.
    • Previously exiled Santa Anna said that he would sell out his country if they helped him get back to Mexico, he lied and rallied the Mexican troops to fight.
  2. American operations in the Southwest and California were completely successful. Captain John C. Fremont helped collaborate in the war.
    • General Zachary Taylor- “Old Rough and Ready” became the hero of Buenavista when he and his 5,000 troops attacked 20,000 Mexicans troops and won.
  3. General Winifred Scott battled up to Mexico City.

XIII. Fighting Mexico for Peace

  1. Polk wanted to end the war soon, sent Nicholas P. Trist to arrange and armistice as $10,000
  2. Trist wasn’t a good negotiator but he managed to sign the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The treaty terms: confirmed American title to Texas and got the area from Oregon to California, which was bout ½ of Mexico and added 1/3 more land to America for $15 million.
  3. Some Southerners wanted all of Mexico and some wanted none of it, the government couldn’t please everyone.

XIV. Profit and Loss in Mexico

  1. Mexican War was comparably small as wars go but the gains were big.
    • They gained more land than in the Louisiana Purchase.
  2. The Mexican war proved to be field experience for most of the future officers in the civil war.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy16.93 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

Chapter 18- Renewing the sectional struggle- 1848-1854

I. The Popular Sovereignty panache

  1. Both parties (Democrats and The Whigs) had powerful support in the north and south. Politicians ignored the slavery issue for the most part.
  2. Lewis Cass father of popular sovereignty was nominated for democrat president candidate.
    • Doctrine that stated that the sovereign people of a territory, should determine the status of slavery in the land themselves.
    • It was liked by the people because it was democratic and they could choose what was best for them.
    • Liked by Politicians because the slavery problem was now the people’s problem.
    • The only bad part was that that it might spread even more slavery.

II. Political Triumphs for General Taylor

  1. Zachary Taylor was nominated for Whig’s candidate; none of the candidates gave an opinion about slavery.
    • The free soil party was organized against slavery. “Free soil, free speech, free labor and free men”. It was run by Van Buren and he was their presidential candidate.
  2. Taylor’s wartime popularity pulled the votes in his favor.
    • The free soil Van Buren diverted enough votes away from Cass to help Taylor.

III. “Californy Gold”

  1. The discovery of gold in California in early 1848 brought hordes of adventures.
  2. A fortunate few “struck it rich” but many would have been better off staying at home.
    • The California gold rush attracted tens of thousands of people most of them criminals. It was a very dangerous place and there was lots of crime.
  3. California drafted a constitution, which included slavery and appealed to congress for admission as a state.

IV. Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad

  1. The south in the 1850s was pretty well off. It had lots of power in the cabinet and supreme court.
    • However it was worried because the north had been growing in population and the possible slave state areas were running out.
  2. Southerners were angered at the fact that they were losing slaves to the north via the Underground Railroad.
    • “Conductors” were abolitionists that brought “passengers” to free-soiled Canada.
    • Harriet Tubman was an amazing conductor.
    • About 1,000 slaves ran away every year

V. Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

  1. The congregational debate of 1850 was called to address the possible addition of California to the union.
  2. The “Immortal Trio” – Clay, Calhoun and Webster appeared to speak at the debate.
    • Henry Clay the great compromiser suggested that the north enact a tougher fugitive slave law.
    • John Calhoun “The great nullifier” proposed leaving slavery alone, return runaway slaves and restore rights. He had an unworkable scheme of electing two presidents, one from the south and another from the north.
    • Daniel Webster was against slavery but proposed a harsher new fugitive slave law. VI. Deadlock and Danger On Capitol Hill
  3. William H. Seward was a freshman senator from New York against concession. He argued that people had to follow God’s moral laws over the constitution.
  4. Zachary Taylor vetoed any compromise passed by congress.

VII. Breaking the Congregational Logjam

  1. In the 1880 presidential Taylor died vice-president Millard Fillmore took over.
    • He was more willing to sign compromises.
  2. Fire-eaters of the south were very aggressive towards the north.
  3. The second era of good feeling dawned
    • People wanted peace and that slavery issues just be buried and forgotten.
    • It didn’t last long.

VIII. Balancing the Compromising Scales

  1. The northern states got the better deal in the compromise of 1850.
    • California was added as a free state and not many more slave states were going to be made.
  2. New Fugitive slave law of 1850 -“the blood-hounded bill” was harsh.
    • Fleeting slaves weren’t allowed to testify and were denied judicial
    • Northerners were even more eager to go against the law, even though they risked getting fined and jail time if caught.

IX. Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

  1. The new democratic nominee was Franklin Pierce
    • He endorsed the compromise of 1850
  2. Whigs turned to another military hero- Winfield Scott
    • He was huge and imposing but was too haughty to be liked.
  3. The parties attacked each other’s personalities.
    • Luckily for the Democrats the Whig party was hopelessly split between the north and the south. The north accepted the candidate and disliked the platform; the south accepted the platform but didn’t like the candidate.
    • The Whigs’ demise started the eclipse of a national party and was the start of the sectional parties.
  4. Franklin Pierce won the election of 1854
    • Whigs died on the fugitive-slave law issue.

X. Expansionist Stirrings South of the Border

  1. The Manifest Destiny was reinvigorated.
  2. The US and what was later to be Colombia signed a treaty letting Americans pass across the Isthmus as long as Americans kept their agreement of neutrality.
    • A railroad was made there
    • Clayton- Bulwer treaty – neither US nor British could seek exclusive control of and isthmus or water ways
  3. William walker tried taking Baja California as a slave state but was quickly defeated.
  4. Polk had offered $100 million for Cuba but Spanish denied their offer
    • Southerners tried taking over Cuba but failed
  5. Ostend Manifesto offered 120 Million dollars for Cuba; if Spain refused the US would be justified in taking the island. The secret got out and Pierce wasn’t able to go through with it.

XI. The Allure of Asia

  1. Britain had gotten some control of the Asian ports and the United States wasn’t about to be left behind.
    • Caleb Cushing was sent to work out something. He impressed the Chinese so much that they signed the treaty of Wanghia in 1844- The first diplomatic agreement between The United States and China.
    • Missionaries now flooded to convert the heathen Chinese.
  2. Success in China only made the United States more eager to open trading with Japan.
    • Japan had secluded themselves for almost two centuries.
    • President Fillmore sent Matthew C. Perry and some men to request free trade and friendly relations.
    • A year later they came back to receive Japan’s answer- he persuaded them to sign the treaty of Kanagawa which granted American coaling rights in Japan and established friendly trading relations.

XII. Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsen Purchase

* It was hard to get to the far away states * A transcontinental railroad was the only real solution. * Building railroads was expensive so only one could be made. * The best route seemed to travel through a tip of Mexico. * James Gadsen bought the area for $10 million. * It was built in the South because it was easier to pass the railroad through the lower mountains and it would pass through already organized territory. * Northerners were upset.

XIII. Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

  1. Senator Stephen A. Douglas wanted Chicago to turn into a major railroad center.
  2. He also wanted to split Nebraska into two territories- Nebraska and Kansas and let popular sovereignty decide about slavery. It contradicted the Missouri Compromise.
  3. President Pierce was for it but the northerners in congress were very much against it.
    • Douglas underestimated the future effects.

XIV. Congress Legislates a Civil War

  1. The Kansas-Nebraska act was one of the most momentous measures to be passed- it greased the slippery slope to the Civil War.
    • It made the North was less willing to compromise on anything slavery related ever again.
  2. The democrats were shattered over the Kansas- Nebraska act.
    • But the new Republican Party sprang up, gathered together and bonded and stayed unified.
    • Never before had a third party movement had risen overnight to be so predominant.
  3. Sectional rifts had appeared. The union was in dire peril.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle18.88 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion

Chapter 19 – Drifting towards Disunion 1854-1861

I. Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries

  1. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe, was a great success at showing the people the evils of slavery.
    • It was a great political force as well that helped start and win the civil war, it was very influential.
    • The novel was popular abroad.
  2. The Impending Crisis of the South also was influential and was written by Hinton R. Helper.
    • It was banned in the south.

II. The North-South Contest for Kansas

  1. Most of the people coming into Kansas were westward moving pioneers.
    • Some were financed by a northern abolitionist group – New England Aid Company.
  2. Southerners cried betrayal and set up their own government at Shawnees, Missouri
    • Free spoilers set up their own government in Topeka, Kansas.

III. Kansas in Convulsion

  1. John Brown, an abolitionist led a band to hack to pieces 5 men, besmirching the free-soil cause.
  2. Civil War in Kansas erupted destroying property and lives.
  3. By 1857 Kansas was ready to apply for statehood.
    • Proslavery forced devised the Lecompton Constitution which wouldn’t let people vote for or against the constitution, insuring slavery in Kansas.
  4. James Buchanan Succeeded Pierce, and approved the Lecompton Compromise.
    • Eventually another compromise let the people vote on the Lecompton Compromise and it was revoked.
  5. The Democrats, the last national party was divided and so was the union.

IV. “Bully” Brooks and His Bludgeon

  1. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was disliked one day he was giving a speech insulted many people Congressman Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina got offended and beat Sumner with his cane until Sumner passed out and his cane had broken.
    • The speech made by Sumner was applauded in the north angering the south.
  2. Broadly speaking these were among the first blows of the civil war.

V. “Old Buck” Versus the “Pathfinder”

  1. The democrats chose James Buchanan as their presidential candidate because he wasn’t tainted by the Kansas-Nebraska act.
  2. The republicans chose John C. Fremont.
  3. New immigrants alarmed the nativists.
    • The Know-Nothing party was organized by protestants who said “Americans must rile America”.

VI. The Electoral Fruits of 1856

  1. James Buchanan won the election of 1856 It was a good thing because if a republican would have won the nation would have split earlier.
  2. The republicans were only a group of 2 years old but had given the democrats a run for their money.

VII. The Dread Scott Bombshell

  1. A Black Slave sued for his freedom because he lived on free soil.
    • Supreme Court said that he couldn’t sue in federal courts.
    • They also decided that a slave was property and could be taken into any territory and held there as a slave.
    • The Court went further and said that the Missouri compromise was unconstitutional; and congress had no right to ban slavery.
  2. This unexpected victory delighted the southerners.
    • Northerners defined this “opinion”.

VIII. The Final Crash of 1857

  1. The Panic of 1857 was psychologically the worst of the 19th century.
    • California Gold inflated the currency.
    • Crimean war had over stimulated grain growth. 5 thousand businesses failed in one year.
    • The North was hardest hit, south still had could get favorable prices for their cotton and rode out the storm.
  2. Northerners wanted to make farming land available to the pioneers for free.
    • Industrialists feared that they would lose workers and southerners feared that it would fill with anti-slavery farmers.
  3. Congress passed Homestead Act making public land available at $ .25 per acre but President Buchanan had vetoed it.
  4. Congress had enacted the Tariff of 1857, reducing duties on goods about 20%.
    • The north blamed it for causing the panic.

IX. An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges

  1. The Senatorial elections in Illinois were coming up and republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln- and awkward yet imposing figure.
  2. He wasn’t very educated but was an avid reader and became a lawyer earning the nickname “honest Abe” because he wouldn’t take cases that he didn’t feel right about defending. X. The Great Debate : Lincoln Versus Douglas
  3. Lincoln challenged Douglas to seven debates.
    • Douglas was a great debater and the candidates seemed ill matched.
    • Most famous debate was at Freeport, Illinois.
  4. Douglas won the Senate seat but Lincoln seemed to be playing for larger stakes.

XI. John Brown: murderer or martyr

  1. John Brown, with a group of men, wanted to raid Harpers Ferry- a federal arsenal, and then give the weapons to the slaves so they would start and uprising.
    • He failed and was captured by the marines.
    • Convicted of murder and treason, he pleaded insanity.
    • Acted very bravely towards his death and was seen as a martyr by the free-soilers.

XII. The Disruption of the Democrats

  1. The democrats almost chose Douglas as candidate for presidency but the southern democrats didn’t agree and left.
    • Not enough votes for the 2/3 majority to choose Douglas so the whole body dissolved.
  2. They tried again in Baltimore, the northerners chose Douglas. The Southerners chose John C. Breckinridge.
  3. A Middle-of-the-road group organized the Constitutional Union Party.
    • Mainly consisted of former Whigs and know-nothings.
    • Nominated John Bell

XIII. A Rail- Splitter Splits the Union

  1. Republicans were happy about their opponents splitting, and they eventually chose Lincoln.
  2. Republicans appealed to the important non-southern groups: the freesoilers, because of the non extension of slavery; northern manufacturers for a protective tariff; for the immigrants, no abridgement of rights; people in the north west, pacific railroad; for the west, internal improvements and for farmers, free homesteads.

XIV. The Electoral Upheaval of 1860

  1. Awkward “Abe” Lincoln ran a curious race.
    • He was a minority president, {60 percent of voters preferred some other candidate} and he wasn’t allowed on some southern state’s ballots.
  2. Douglas campaigned for himself instead of the usual presidential dignified silence.
  3. Still, Lincoln won 180 to 123 electoral votes

XV. The Secessionist Exodus

  1. Now that Lincoln won, South Carolina’s legislature voted unanimously to secede.
    • During the next six weeks, six other states seceded and later on four more did.
  2. The seceding states formed a new government called the confederate states of America.
    • Their president was Jefferson Davis.
  3. Lincoln, even though elected, couldn’t take office for four more months.
  4. President Buchanan was blamed for not holding the seceders in the union.
    • His small army was occupied controlling the Indians in the west and as ling as no shots were fired everyone still hoped for reconciliation.

XVI. The Collapse of Compromise

  1. The Crittenden amendments were proposed to appease the south.
    • Slavery was prohibited north of the 36, 30’ line but south of that got protection in all territories now and the ones to be acquired (made with the Caribbean in mind).
  2. Lincoln flatly rejected the Crittenden scheme.
    • All hope of compromise evaporated,
  3. If Buchanan had used force on keeping South Carolina he might have started the war three months earlier and under worst conditions.

XVII. Farewell to the Union

  1. Sectionalists left mostly because of slavery issues.
    • They were alarmed by the growing northern numbers and were dismayed by the republicans winning because they felt that their rights as the slaveholding minority were being threatened.
  2. Jefferson Davis said “All we ask is to be left alone”.
  3. The Southerners didn’t think that the northerners could fight them
    • They wanted to trade with less tariffs, and didn’t think they were doing anything wrong or immoral by seceding.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion18.39 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South

Chapter 20 – Girding for War: The North and the South 1861- 1865

I. The Menace of Secession

  1. Lincoln’s inaugural address was conciliatory
    • He said there wouldn’t be conflict unless the south provoked it.
    • The dis-united Americas were bound together geographically
  2. Separation would cause too many problem
    • Like how to split national debt and territories
    • And the fact that the European nations could conquer them easier

II. South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

  1. The southern territories took thsumbter t it.e arsenals, mints and public property in their borders when they seceded.
  2. The north only had 2 forts left.
    • The most important one was fort Sumter and they needed supplies but the southerners were very weary wouldn’t let them send any.
    • Lincoln sent provisions for his soldiers not reinforcements but the south was suspicious and attacked anyways.
  3. Obviously the north had to defend their honor so they fought back
    • 4 more states ended up seceding from the nation

III. Brothers Blood and Border Blood

  1. The only slave states left were the much needed Border States.
    • Lincoln didn’t only persuade the Border States to stay, he occasionally used martial law. Any official statement from the North was said with the teetering Border States in mind
    • They were important because they held lots of population, animals and river transportation.
  2. Most of the 5 civilized tribes in the territories sided with the confederacy.
    • They supplied troops in congress for them and federal expenses paid.
  3. Most of the Plain Indians and some Cherokees were on the union side.

IV. The Balance of Forces

  1. At first the south seemed to have the advantage
    • They didn’t even have to win the war to get independence- only succeed in a draw.
    • They had great morals at first and better military officers.
    • Their boys were accustomed to firearms and horses so they had plenty of foot soldiers.
  2. Economy was the greatest southern weakness and the greatest strength for the North
    • The north controlled the sea and established a blockade; they could also get supplies from Europe.
    • The north had more people (22 million in N and only 9 million in the south) and they had immigrants coming in all the time.
    • However they didn’t have great commanders.

V. Dethrone King Cotton

  1. Successful revolutions generally have succeeded because of foreign intervention; however, the south didn’t get that.
    • Ruling classes sympathized with the south
    • The Working class rooted for the north.
  2. The south thought that England would need cotton exports but England had actually been stockpiling them for a long time and didn’t need them as desperately as the south thought they would.
    • Britain got cotton from Egypt and India and even the north sent over the cotton sometimes.
  3. King wheat and King corn were rulers now
    • Blessed with good weather the north had lots of wheat to supply Britain whose crops were failing that year.

VI. The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

  1. 1st major crisis came over the Trent affair.
    • Union ships stopped a British ship and took to confederate diplomats,
    • The Alabama was a confederate ship in Britain; it captured 60 vessels but was eventually destroyed.

VII. Foreign Flare-ups

  1. Laird Rams: two confederate warships constructed in Great Britain
    • London repented and didn’t send the ships over.
  2. Americans also raided Canada; the British formed the dominion of Canada in defense to make Canada a more united nation.
  3. Emperor Napoleon III of France sent Maxmilian to invade and become emperor of Mexico.
    • That action violated the Monroe Doctrine and the U.S. government aided the Mexican resistance.

VIII. President Davis vs. President Lincoln

  1. The confederate government, stemming from secession couldn’t prohibit secession from other states.
    • President Jefferson Davis wanted a united government but states’ rights supporters fought him.
    • Davis couldn’t handle all the problems
  2. Lincoln did have problems with the government too but they were easier to solve and Lincoln was a tactful, quite, patient yet firm person.

IX. Limitations on Wartime Liberties

  1. Lincoln ruled without congress or court approval and did things unconstitutionally during the war time.
    • Proclaimed blockades, suspended writ of habeas corpus, increased the army size and even “supervised” the voting

X. Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

  1. The war needed lots of men.
    • At first, the north had volunteers but those eventually dwindled and so they ended up drafting men.
    • The Rich could get out of the draft by having a substitute go in their place or paying 300 dollars
  2. There were draft riots in New York caused because of draft resentment.
  3. Eventually the government offered enlistment bounties but a lot of people deserted the army.
  4. The south too originally ran on volunteers and the rich got to exempt.

XI. The Economic Stresses of War

  1. The north had more money than the south.
    • The north taxed tobacco, alcohol and introduced income taxes.
  2. The Morrill Tariff increased duties some 5-10%
    • The republicans came o be identified with protective taxes.
  3. Borrowing and bonds was a good way of make money.
    • Banks were trying to establish standard currency.
  4. The south had problems generating money
    • Only 1% came from taxes, the government was forced to print more paper money and had a huge inflation.

XII. The North’s Economic Boom

  1. New factories mushroomed
  2. The Civil war bred a million class for the first time.
    • Unfortunately a lot of people put profit before patriotism and sold the war effort shoddy wool, fast disintegrating uniforms and cardboard soled shoes.
  3. Machinery proved to be very helpful now that there was less man-power.
    • Mechanical reapers and sewing machines were remarakable.
  4. Petroleum was discovered and sent the “59-ers” to Pennsylvania.
    • A new industry was formed.
  5. Civil war was a women’s war too, it opened new opportunities for women.
    • Women took over men’s jobs and went into industrial employment when the need for shoes and clothes was combined with the sewing machine.
    • Women buoyed men’s spirits and gave up costly silks and satins from their skirts.
  6. More than 400 women followed their men into battle posing as male soldiers.
  7. Elizabeth Blackwell- America’s first female doctor organized medical assistance for men in the fields.
    • Nursing became a respected profession.

XIII. A Crushed King Cotton

  1. The southern blockade and the war destruction took terrible tolls.
  2. Transportation collapsed, tracks were taken off the less used routes to patch up the main areas.
  3. Cotton capitalism had lost out to industrial capitalism.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South18.72 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War

Chapter 21 The Furnace of Civil War 1861-1865

I. Bull Run ends the “Ninety –Day War”

  1. A union army of some thirty thousand men drilled near Washington in the summer of 1861.
    • It was ill-prepared for battle but the press and the public clamored for action.
    • Lincoln decided to attack Bull Run (Manassas Junction)- if successful it would demonstrate how superior they were.
    • If Richmond fell, (the Confederate capital) succession would be thoroughly discredited and the union could be resorted without damage to the economy/ social system of the south.
  2. Victory was worse than defeat in the south because it inflated an already dangerous overconfidence.
  3. Defeat was better than victory for the union because it dispelled all illusions of a one-punch war and caused the northerners to buckle down to the staggering task at hand.
    • It sets the stage for a war that would be waged for the abolitionist ideal of emancipation.

II. Tardy George McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

  1. 1861- General George B. McClellan took command of the army of Potomac. He was dubbed “Young Napoleon”.
    • He was a suburb organizer and drillmaster, but was a perfectionist that wasted a lot of time trying to make an impossibly perfect army.
  2. The song of the hour was “tardy George” (McClellan). After threatening to “borrow” the army if it was not going to be used, Lincoln finally issued firm orders to advance.
  3. Peninsula Campaign was McClellan’s filed attempt to seize Richmond. If he had succeeded in taking Richmond and ended the war in mid 1862- the union would probably have been restored but slavery would have survived.

III. The war at Sea

  1. The blockade started slowly; it was not clamped down all at once but was extended by degrees.
  2. Britain, the greatest maritime nation, recognized the blockade as binding and warned its shippers to ignore it at their peril.
  3. Blockade running was risky but profitable.
  4. The Northern navy enforced the blockade with high handed practices.
    • Yankee captains would seize British freighters on the high sea if laden with war supplies for the port of Nassau.
  5. The most alarming Confederate threat to the blockade came in 1862.
    • Resourceful southerners raised and reconstructed a former wooden U.S. warship. The Merrimack, and plated its sides with old iron railroad rails.
    • The Monitor (from the union) arrived on the scene to fight and then destroy the Merrimack.

IV. The Pivotal Point: Antietam

  1. Robert E. Lee broke the back of McClellan’s assault on Richmond then he moved northward. Emboldened by this success, Lee daringly thrust into Maryland.
    • Events finally converged toward a critical battle at Antietam Creek, Maryland.
  2. Lincoln restored McClellan.
    • His union soldiers found a copy of Lee’s battle plans wrapped around a packet of three cigars, dropped by a careless confederate officer.
    • He succeeded in halting Lee at Antietam on September 17th, 1862 in one of the bitterest and bloodiest days of the war.
  3. Bloody Antietam was the long awaited “victory” that Lincoln needed for launching his Emancipation Proclamation.
    • By midsummer of 1862, with the Border States safely in the fold, Lincoln was ready to move. The halting of Lee’s offensive was just enough of a victory to justify Lincoln’s issuing of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.

V. A Proclamation without Emancipation

  1. Lincoln’s emancipation proclamation declared “forever free” the slaves in those confederate areas still in rebellion.
  2. The presidential pen did not formally strike the shackles from a single slave. Where Lincoln could presumably free the slaves – in the loyal border states- he refused to do so, lest he spur even more disunion. But where he couldn’t- The confederate states- he tried to anyways. By his proclamation he addressed the refugee’s plight and strengthened the moral cause of the union at home and abroad. He also removed any chance of a negotiated settlement

VI. Black’s Battle Bondage

  1. The army contained no blacks at the beginning of the war but manpower ran low, emancipation was proclaimed and black enlistees were accepted.
    • They were accounted for about 10% of total enlistment.
  2. Weren’t considered prisoners of war until 1864 by the south and were usually put to death.
  3. The confederacy didn’t enlist black slaves until 1 month before he war but it was too late.
    • Slaves tried to diminish productivity by revolts, slowdowns and disobedience.

VII. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg

  1. Lincoln replaced McClellan with General A.E. Burnsides as commander of the army.
    • He proved unfit for the job when he launched a rash frontal attack where there were more than 10,000 killed or wounded.
  2. Joseph Hooker took control next but was attacked by Lee’s army that had split into two.
    • “Stonewall” Jackson was killed by his own side accidentally.
    • Lee was ready to invade the north again.
  3. George G. Meade replaced Hooker and took over a new battle near Gettysburg.
    • The union won and from now on the south was doomed.
  4. Lincoln went to Gettysburg and gave a two minute speech that wasn’t given much attention to at the time.

VIII. The War in the West

  1. Finally the Union found a good general with Ulysses S. Grant
    • He had been a heavy drinker with many failed attempts at businesses.
    • His first triumph was at fort Henry and fort Donelson in Tennessee
    • Lincoln resisted all demands for removal of Grant, there was no evidence that Grant’s drinking habits seriously impaired him.
  2. Union victory at Vicksburg Mississippi, the city surrendered on July 4th 1863
    • The union’s victory stopped any possible help to the south from France and Britain.

IX. Sherman scorches Georgia

  1. General Grant won the battle at Chattanooga and Tennessee was cleared of confederates.
    • He was made the General in Chief.
  2. General William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta and then burned it.
    • Destroyed railroads, buildings and valuables to weaken the confederate army and destroy supplies
    • His methods were brutal and “Sherman the Brute” was damned in the south.
  3. Sherman seized Savannah and marched to South Carolina.

X. The Politics of War

  1. The election of 1864 fell in the midst of war.
    • The congressional committee on the conduct of war was burdensome- kept pressing on emancipation
  2. Most dangerous to the union were the northern democrats
    • Their leader-Stephen A. Douglas had died and democrats were divided between the “war democrats” who supported Lincoln but the peace democrats didn’t.
    • The most extreme were the copperheads who were against the union, emancipation, the war and the draft.

XI. The Election of 1864

  1. Fearing defeat the Republicans Joined with war democrats and called themselves the union party.
    • Lincoln was re-nominated, but there was some opposition. His running mate was Andrew Johnson to attract more voters.
  2. The copperheads and other democrats nominated the war hero General McClellan.
  3. As the war victories mounted, Lincoln pulled through.

XII. Grant outlasts Lee

  1. President Lincoln chose General Grant to lead the assault in the confederate capital- Richmond
    • His personal motto was, “when in doubt, fight”.
    • With 100000 men he engaged Lee in lots of battles in the Virginia wilderness; this was called the “wilderness campaign”.
  2. June 3rd, 1864 Grant ordered a frontal assault where 7000 men were killed in only a few minutes. Critics cried that Grant had gone insane but it was actually Lee who had chosen the battle grounds.
  3. In February the confederates tried to negotiate for peace between the two countries.
    • Lincoln met with a confederate representative to discuss peace terms but he would accept nothing short of union between both countries and emancipation while the southerners could accept nothing short of independence.
  4. The union cornered the confederates at Appomattox courthouse in Virginia and granted them generous surrender terms. Grant said “The war is over the rebels are our countrymen again”.

XIII. The Martyrdom of Lincoln

  1. On April 4th, 1865 only 5 days after Lee’s surrender a half crazed, pro-southern actor- John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln in the head at Ford Theater.
  2. His dramatic death helped erase the memories of his flaws and made his noble side clearer.
  3. At first the south cheered at his death but then realized that their treatment would have been better with kindhearted Lincoln
  4. Andrew Johnson took over as president, was disliked and wasn’t as tactful as Lincoln

XIV. The Aftermath of the Nightmare

  1. The Civil war took a huge toll, claimed 600,000 men’s lives.
    • The cream of young manhood and leadership was lost and not many babies were made,
  2. The war cost over $15 billion
  3. English reform bill- Britain became a true political democracy inspired by the US
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War21.7 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction

Chapter 22 The Ordeal Of Reconstruction

I. The Problems of Peace

  1. After the war there was the question of what to do with the Confederate leaders
    • They were temporarily imprisoned but then released and pardoned by President Johnson
  2. Cities along with economic and social structures had collapsed
  3. Factories were closed and businesses as well as banks had locked their doors
    • Fields overrun with weeds
  4. Southerners still cursed the "damn Yankees" and continued to believe their secession view correct

II. Freedmen Define Freedom

  1. Emancipation for slaves did not come quickly; there was general confusion about it
    • Eventually all masters were forced to recognize their slaves' freedom
  2. The emancipated blacks took to the roads to better their lives and find their families
  3. Church became focus of black community and helped protect their freedom
  4. Emancipation also leads to education, a privilege that had been denied to slaves
    • The demand for teachers was more than they had so white women from the American missionary volunteered as teacher.

III. The Freedman's Bureau

  1. Congress created the Freeman's Bureau intending to be a kind of primitive welfare a kind of welfare agency
    • It was to provide food, clothing, medical care, and education
    • Oliver O. Howard headed the bureau
    • Achieved great success in education; taught about 200,000 blacks to read
  2. In other areas the bureau wasn't great
    • It did not often give slaves land and made them sign labor contracts to former masters
    • Andrew Johnson didn't like it and expired it in 1872

IV. Johnson: The Tailor President

  1. Came from the most humble beginnings
    • He was apprenticed to a tailor at 10 and orphaned early
    • Self-taught mostly
  2. Stuck into Vice Presidency because of need to attract support from the war Democrats
    • A misfit to the White House, although intelligent and honest he didn't understand the North, was distrusted by the South and was the wrong man at the wrong time.

V. Presidential Reconstruction

  1. Lincoln thought it would be easy to restore the Union
    • He had proclaimed a "10%" reconstruction plan
    • When 10% of a state's voters agreed to emancipation and oath of allegiance to the U.S. they could be reintegrated
  2. Congress made the Wade-Davis Bill require 50% of voters to agree and stronger emancipation safe guards
  3. Controversy marked the difference between Lincoln and Congress
    • Two factions among the Republicans 1) majority moderate group who wanted the South back in simply, swiftly, and reasonably 2) the minority radical group who wanted to see the South punished
  4. Johnson agreed with Lincoln that the seceded states had never been legally out of the Union and agreed to let them in with Lincoln's 10% government

VI. The Baleful Black Codes

  1. Black codes are laws designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated blacks
    • Penalties imposed on black who "jumped" their labor contracts which made them work for 1 year for minimal pay
  2. Codes also restored pre-emancipation race-relations They weren't allowed to be on jury and couldn't vote
    • ·Oppressive laws mocked the ideal of freedom It was hard to rise economically and the emancipated blacks became slaves to the soil once again

VII. Congressional Reconstruction

  1. In December 1865, Southern states chose their former Confederate Generals and Colonels as Congress representatives
    • This infuriated Republicans in Congress because they didn't want to let their enemies in the Capitol again
  2. Republicans had enjoyed a rule without an opposing party
    • This time the South would have more representation because ex-slaves now counted as a whole person and not 3/5th of a person
    • They feared the South would take over Congress
  3. The angry Republicans did not let the new delegates in on the 1st day of Congressional session President Johnson angered Northerners when he announced that the previously rebellious states were to be fully part of the Union

VIII. Johnson Clashes With Congress

  1. A clash between the President and Congress erupted in February
    • Johnson vetoed a bill extending Freeman's Bureau and then Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill giving blacks privileges
  2. Fearing that Southerners in Congress might one day repeal the bill, they passed the 14th Amendment
    • It gave civil rights and citizenship to freedmen, reduced Congress representation of states that didn't let blacks on the ballot; also disqualified from office former Confederates and guaranteed federal debt
  3. But President Johnson advised the Southern states to reject it

IX. Swinging Around The Circle With Johnson

  1. Congress and President still disagreeing
  2. Johnson was still sympathetic to the South
    • He went on tour to speak, denouncing the radical Republicans of murders and riots, his reputation dropped 2/3rd of ballots in Congress had gone to the Republicans

X. Republican Principles And Programs

  1. Republicans had a veto-proof Congress under control 1 of 2 radicals: Charles Sumner (in the Senate) - labored for black equality 2 of 2 radicals: Thaddeus Stevens (in the House) - a friend to blacks2.
  2. 2 radicals were opposed to rapid Southern restoration and wanted to bring a drastic and economic change in the South
  3. Moderates didn't want to infringe as much on state's rights
    • Both influences were felt in Congress, both agreed that blacks should vote

XI. Reconstruction By The Sword

  1. Congress passed the Reconstruction Act on March 2, 1867.
    • Divided the South into 5 military districts, each commanded by a general.
    • Required that states wishing to be administered had to pass the 14th Amendment
  2. 15th Amendment passed in 1869 - granted black men the right to vote
  3. Military reconstruction of the South set up martial regime.
    • Once troops left, the South went back to its old government
    • finally in 1877 last federal muskets were removed and a Democratic South was made

XII. No Women Voters

  1. The Reconstruction era's new amendments delighted the abolitionists but no mention was made off the women who helped so much and were so crucial in this time
    • ·Women's Legal League gathered about 400,000 signatures to get congress to prohibit slaves
  2. Women were shocked when the word "male" was added to the constitution under the 14th Amendment
    • Frederick Douglas believed this was "the negro hour"

XIII. The Realities Of Radical Reconstruction In The South

  1. Blacks now had some more freedom
  2. They organized politically and used the Union league
    • It turned into a network of political clubs that educate members in civic duties African Americans movies helped show pride but didn't get to vote
  3. 3 former slave owners were upset and called freedman's white allies scalawags and carpet baggers

XIV. The Ku Klux Klan

  1. Many whites resorted to savage measures the most notorious was the "Invisible Empire of the South" a.k.a. The Ku Klux Klan
    • They pretended to be ghosts and hurt the blacks
    • Also hurt and killed many blacks
  2. Congress passed the Harsh Force Acts
    • Managed to stamp out these cruel acts

XV. Johnson Walks The Impeachment Plank

  1. Radicals didn't like President Johnson and tried to impeach him

XVI. A Not Guilty Verdict For Johnson

  1. Charged him with "high crimes and misdemeanors" the Senate tried to impeach Johnson and the House prosecuted the president
  2. Voted not guilty by margin of one vote

XVII. The Purchase Of Alaska

  1. In 1867 Secretary of State William Seward signed a treaty with Russia that bought Alaska for 72 million dollars.
    • Russia didn't want to lose Alaska to Britain and wanted to make the U.S. stronger
  2. The common folk thought it was a waste of money but Congress didn't want to offend Russia so they bought it (plus the potential gold)

XVIII. The Heritage Of Reconstruction

  1. Despite good intensions by Republicans they resented the old South than reconstructed it
    • Southerners felt that the reconstruction was more painful that the war itself.
    • It would take generations to stop the racial discrimination.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction19.58 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

  1. The “Bloody Shirt” Elects Grant
    1. In the 1868 presidential election, the Republicans offered Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Although he had no political experience, the idea was that his war-hero status would carry him to victory.
    2. The Democratic party was hopelessly disorganized. They agreed on their criticism of military Reconstruction, but little else. The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour.
      1. Seymour's popularity took a hit when he said he did not support redeeming greenback money at full value.
    3. Consequently, Grant won, narrowly. His main technique was to "wave the bloody shirt," meaning to constantly remind voters of his military record and that he'd led the North to victory.
    4. The close victory signaled a couple of things for the future: (a) tightly run and hard-fighting political parties and (b) narrow election margins of victory.
  2. The Era of Good Stealings
    1. Corruption became all too common in the post-Civil War years.
      1. The corruption often came via the railroads, meddling with stock prices, and through corrupt judges.
    2. Of special note were the exploits of "Jubilee" Jim Fisk and his partner Jay Gould. These two came up with, and nearly pulled off, a scheme in 1869 to corner the gold market to themselves. They tried, unsuccessfully, to get President Grant involved as well as his brother-in-law.
    3. In New York City, Boss Tweed ran Tammany Hall, a local political district. Boss Tweed used bribes, graft, and rigged elections to mooch money and ensure continual power for himself and his buddies.
      1. Thomas Nast was a cartoonist who relentlessly attacked Tweed's corruption. Tweed despised Nast because, although many people in Tweed's district couldn't read about the corruption, they could understand those "them damn pictures."
      2. Nast's cartoon's brought down Tweed. Samuel J. Tilden gained fame in prosecuting Tweed. Tweed eventually died in jail.
      3. Tilden would ride the fame to become the nominee for president in 1876 vs. Rutherford B. Hayes.
  3. A Carnival of Corruption
    1. President Grant was an honest man but there was much corruption underneath his administration. He either wasn't aware of it or failed to properly deal with it.
      1. Many in the Dent family, his in-laws, obtained government "jobs" for themselves.
    2. One of the worst situations was the Crédit Mobilier scandal
      1. The company was constructing the trans-continental railroad and effectively sub-hired itself to get paid double.
      2. They also gave stock to Congressmen in order to avoid getting busted.
      3. A newspaper finally exposed the scandal, two Congressmen went down, and the Vice President of the U.S. had even taken payments. Though uninvolved, Grant's name was scarred.
    3. The so-called "Whiskey Ring" also looked bad for Grant. Folks stole whiskey tax money from the government. Grant's own secretary was involved and, despite him saying "Let no guilty man escape," Grant helped let the thief off the hook.
    4. Lastly, the Secretary of War William Belknap was caught swindling $24,000 by selling trinkets to the Indians.
  4. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872
    1. By the 1872 election, many people had had enough. Reformers started the Liberal Rebpublican Party to clean things up.
      1. The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, as their candidate.
      2. Strangely, the Democrats also endorsed Greeley since they were so eager to gain office.
        1. Greeley had lambasted the Democrats through his paper, but he was soft on allowing the South to return to the nation, which the Democrats liked.
    2. The campaigning was nasty, but colorful. Greeley was called an atheist, communist, free-lover, vegetarian, brown-bread eater, and co-signor of Jefferson Davis' bail bond. Grant was called a drunk ignoramus and swindler.
    3. Grant won the election handily, 286 to 66.
    4. The Liberal Republicans did spook the Republican Congress into passing some reforms. (1) An amnesty act was passed which removed restrictions that'd been placed on many Southerners. Also, (2) there was effort to reduce the tariff rates and (3) to clean up/out the Grant administration.
  5. Depression, Deflation, and Inflation
    1. The Panic of 1873 brought economic troubles.
      1. It was started by over-spending with borrowed money, this time in railroads and factories. Growth was too fast and over-extended what the market could sustain.
      2. The causes of the panic were the same old ones that’d caused recessions every 20 years that century: (1) over-speculation (or over-spending) and (2) too-easy credit given by the banks.
      3. Initially, the panic was sparked when banks and businesses began to go bankrupt. The situation quickly snowballed from there.
      4. Blacks were hit especially hard. Always last-to-be-hired, and now the Freedman's Savings and Trust Co. went bankrupt, black Americans lost some $7 million in savings.
    2. The tough times hit debtors hard. They wanted inflationary policies to be pursued. Specifically, debtors wanted paper money ("greenbacks") printed to create inflation and thus make it easier to pay off debts. This strategy was called soft money or cheap money policies.
    3. Opponents, usually bankers and the wealthy, favored hard money policies. That is, they favored keeping the amount of money stable (and backed by gold). To hike up inflation just to pay a debt would be unfair, they said, since the money paid back wouldn't be as valuable as when it was lent.
      1. Grant vetoed a bill to print more money. Also, the Resumption Act was passed to actually start to (1) lower the number of greenbacks in circulation and (2) to redeem paper money at face value starting in 1879.
    4. Cheap money advocates also wanted more silver to be coined—the more money in circulation, the more inflation. Games were played over the value of silver, but the bottom line is that more silver coins would mean more inflation and thus make it easier to pay off debt.
    5. Under Grant's lead, the nation entered into a period of "contraction." This meant that the amount of money in circulation, per person, actually decreased during the 1870's
      1. Contraction likely didn't help the recession, but it did raise the value of the dollar bill. Come 1879, few people turned in their greenbacks for gold.
    6. The effect of Republican hard money policies was that the Democrats took over the House of Representatives in 1874.
    7. And, the Greenback Labor Party was started in 1878 with the main mission of bringing cheap money policies to life.
  6. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The term "the Gilded Age" was a phrase coined by Mark Twain to describe the late 1800's. It hinted that the times looked good (as if they were gilded or gold-covered), yet if one scratched a bit below the surface, there were problems.
      1. The Gilded Age largely contained tight and hotly contested political races, much corruption, and shady business deals.
      2. The Republicans of the day hinted back to Puritan ancestry and were supported in the North and West. The G.A.R., the Grand Army of the Republic, was a military veteran group that supported Republicans.
      3. Democrats got most of their support from the South. They were supported by Lutherans and Catholics.
    2. A split developed in the 1870's and 80's within the Republican party.
      1. The Stalwarts were led by Roscoe Conkling.
      2. The Half-Breeds were led by James G. Blaine.
  7. The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876
    1. Pres. Grant considered running for a third term in 1876. The House soundly voted down that option and Grant backed off.
    2. The Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes. He was called the "Great Unknown", for obvious reasons.
      1. He was neutral in the Conkling and Blained wars within the Republican party.
      2. And, his greatest attribute, he came from Ohio, an important state in winning the race.
    3. The Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden.
      1. Tilden's claim-to-fame was that he'd nailed Boss Tweed.
      2. Tilden got 184 electoral votes; he needed 185 to win.
      3. 20 votes were hanging in the balance due to questionable returns. Picking up only 1 vote would seee Tilden elected.
    4. Both sides sent people to the questionable states (LA, SC, FL, and OR) and both men claimed victories there.
      1. The question then became, "Which branch of Congress would count the states' votes?" Depending on who counted, the Democratic House or the Republican Senate, the vote would likely go that way.
      2. Weeks passed and the election was at a stalemate.
  8. The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction
    1. With a president needed, Congress passed the Electoral Count Act that set up a commission to resolve the crisis.
      1. There were 15 men (from the House, Senate, and Supreme Court) on the commission.
      2. 8 men were Republicans, 7 were Democrats
    2. The Republicans had the upper hand and were heading toward victory among the disputed states. Democrats were outraged and began to filibuster to tie up the process.
    3. Finally, a deal was made in the Compromise of 1877. True to a compromise, both sides did some give-and-take.
      1. The North…
        1. Got Rutherford B. Hayes elected as a Republican president.
      2. The South…
        1. Got a pledge that Hayes would removal of military occupation in the South.
        2. This did happen, thus ending Reconstruction. The bad news for the freedmen was that Southern blacks were now effectively left alone to fend for themselves. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 supposedly gave equal rights to blacks, but the Supreme Court had struck much of it down. Also, white Southerners began to reclaim a strong hold on power.
        3. Additionally, money would be spent on the Texas and Pacific railroad.
  9. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South
    1. With the military gone, white Southerners reasserted their power over blacks. Fraud and intimidation were the tools.
    2. Most blacks had no option but to become sharecroppers. They farmed land they didn't own, then paid hefty fees to the landlord come harvest time. The system was stacked against them so that they'd never get out of debt.
      1. Now "free", blacks likely farmed the same land for the same man as before the Civil War.
    3. Segregation (the separation of the races) also became institutionalized.
      1. First, the states enacted codes called Jim Crow laws that legalized the segregation.
      2. Then, the U.S. Supreme Court gave the federal okay. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) stated that "separate but equal" facilities for the races were legal.
        1. In reality, however, the races were indeed separate, but the facilities were hardly equal.
        2. Segregation was carried out in nearly all public facilities such as schools, theaters, transportation, and restrooms.
      3. Violation of these codes could have legal penalties. Or, worse, lynchings of blacks reached a record level as whites "enforced" the codes themselves.
  10. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes
    1. As well as ending Reconstruction, 1877 was a year of other conflicts…
    2. The 4 largest railroads got together and decided to cut employee wages by 10%. The workers fought back by going on strike.
      1. This railroad shut-down crippled the nation and President Hayes called in federal troops to stop the unrest amongst the striking workers.
      2. The trouble went on several weeks but eventually ended with the workers losing on the losing side. This failed strike showed the weaknesses of the labor movement at the time.
    3. Ethnic clashes were common.
      1. The clashes came when the Chinese competed for low-paying jobs, usually with the Irish.
      2. Most Chinese were young, poor men who'd emigrated to California. They frequently got jobs building the railroads. After the railroad boom, many returned to China, many stayed and looked for odd jobs.
      3. Irishman Denis Kearney fired up the Irish against the Chinese in San Francisco. The argument was that the "rice eater" (Chinese) could afford to work for a cheaper wage than the "beef eater" (Irish).
        1. The solution was for Irish gangs to take to the streets and deal their vengeance on the Chinese.
      4. Finally, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. It forbade the immigration of Chinese to America.
        1. This was the first immigration restriction America passed; until this point in history, immigrants simply came to America without hindrance.
  11. Garfield and Arthur
    1. The 1880 election pitted Garfield against Scott.
      1. The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield and, as his running mate, Stalwart Chester Arthur.
        1. Garfield was a "dark horse" candidate (a previously unknown person) but he came from the critical state of Ohio.
      2. The Democrats nominated Gen. Winfield Scott, the Civil War hero.
      3. Garfield won the election, but found himself trapped in the middle of the Republican feud between the Stalwarts and Half-Breeds.
      4. Garfield's Secretary of State James Blaine (Half-Breed leader) battled his arch-enemy, Stalwart Roscoe Conkling (Stalwart leader) at every chance.
    2. Garfield was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau in September of 1881.
      1. Guiteau said he was a Stalwart, like V.P. Chester Arthur, and his lawyers essentially used the insanity defense saying he didn't know right from wrong.
      2. Regardless, he was found guilty and hanged.
    3. As vice president, Chester Arthur became president.
      1. Despite being considered a partisan politician, Arthur was actually reform-minded. He largely stood firm against his Stalwart buddies in their quest for the riches that come with power
      2. The Pendleton Act was the height of political reform. It was called the "Magna Carta of civil service reform" meaning it required merit to get jobs, not simply knowing someone in a high position.
      3. The Civil Service Commission awarded jobs based on performance rather than on how much "pull" a person had (how many buddies they had in high places).
      4. The Pendleton Act first affected only 10% of federal jobs, but it (a) stopped the worst offenses of giving jobs to buddies and (b) it set the tone for civil service reform in the future.
  12. The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884
    1. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine for president in the 1884 election.
      1. Reform-minded Republicans didn't like this choice and went over to the Democrats. They were called "Mugwumps", supposedly with "their mug on one side and their wump on the other".
    2. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland as their candidate.
      1. The mudslinging reached the worst level up until that point during the campaign. A popular topic was Cleveland's affair and the child it had produced some 8 years earlier.
    3. Despite the drama that Cleveland had fathered a bastard love-child, he won the election.
  13. “Old Grover” Takes Over
    1. Grover Cleveland was a Democratic president during a string of Republicans in the White House. He had a laissez-faire capitalism mindset, which made business folks very happy.
    2. He helped bridge the North-South gap by naming two former Confederates to his cabinet.
    3. Cleveland was a man of principle who tried to do the right thing. His initial thought was to award jobs based on merit (civil service reform).
    4. Two former Confederates were named by Cleveland to his cabinet. He tried to follow the merit system (jobs went to the qualified), but was largely unsuccessful with this approach.
      1. When pressure mounted, Cleveland fired about 80,000 of 120,000 federal employees. 40,000 were Republicans dismissed to open up jobs for Democrats.
    5. Military pensions were a pain to Cleveland. The G.A.R. (Grand Army of the Republic) had considerable political clout and was mostly Republican. They pushed several bills through Congress that gave pensions to loads of veterans; many of the bills were simply money-grabbers.
      1. Cleveland was a Democrat and not a veteran himself, thus he was in an awkward position to halt military pensions. Still, Cleveland did veto many of these military pension bills.
  14. Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff
    1. Cleveland had an unusual problem—a budget surplus. He couldn't justify the government profiting off of the people by taking in more than the government needed.
    2. There were two ways to get rid of the surplus: (1) increase the spending by inventing things to spend it on, or (2) taking in less by cutting taxes. Cleveland chose the second option.
    3. The extra surplus money largely came in from the tariff. Many people wanted it lowered. Businesses, which benefit from inflated foreign prices that a tariff provides, wanted to keep it high.
      1. Pres. Cleveland asked Congress to reduce the tariff. The issue became a divisive one with Democrats favoring the lower tariff and Republicans favoring a higher one. Republicans began building their "war chest" of money for the next presidential campaign.
    4. The tariff issue came to a full head of steam in the election of 1888.
      1. Cleveland was up for re-election by the Democrats, Benjamin Harrison was up as the Republican.
      2. Harrison won in a very close race in 1888. Cleveland became the first president voted out of office since Martin Van Buren.
  15. The Billion Dollar Congress
    1. After being out of the White House for 4 years, the Republicans were eager to assert their power in Congress.
    2. The Republicans found their leader in Speaker of the House Thomas "Czar" Reed. Reed was a tall man, super debater, and had an acid-sarcastic tongue that cut at opponents. He ran the House of Representatives like a dictator.
      1. Democrats planned to fight back by not answering to roll call and thus not achieving a quorum (minimum number necessary for a meeting).
      2. Czar Reed solved the quorum battle by counting Democrats as present if they were there but hadn't answered the roll call.
    3. With his quorum met, Czar Reed got down to business and had many bills passed…
      1. The first "Billion Dollar Congress" where the U.S. government doled out that much money for the first time.
      2. Pensions were liberally given to veterans.
      3. More silver was purchased.
      4. The McKinley Tariff (1890) hiked rates to roughly 48%, the highest peacetime rate ever.
        1. The tariff was a double-edged sword: business folks loved the protection it gave, but farmers disliked the fact that manufactured goods were now more expensive.
  16. The Drumbeat of Discontent
    1. In 1892, a new political party emerged—the Populist Party (AKA the People's Party). It was made up of unhappy farmers and sprung out of the Farmers' Alliance.
    2. The Populists demanded…
      1. Inflation through "cheap money" policies of printing paper money and coining silver. They felt inflation would make it easier to pay off their debts. This was their top priority.
      2. Other desires were: a graduated income tax (a person pays more with a higher salary); government regulation of railroads, the telegraph, and telephone; direct elections of U.S. senators by the people; initiative and referendum (so people can propose and pass laws themselves); a shorter working day; and immigration restrictions.
    3. The Populist Party did surprisingly well in the election. They got 22 electoral votes by winning four western states.
    4. The South was reluctant to vote for the Populists due to race reasons. The Populists had reached out to Southern blacks so Southern whites turned away. After the election, Southern whites tightened the screws on blacks.
      1. Literacy tests and poll taxes were used more than ever to prevent blacks from voting.
      2. "Grandfather clauses" were employed to allow anyone to vote whose grandfather could (thus only whites were grandfathered in).
  17. Cleveland and Depression
    1. "Old Grover" Cleveland won the election and became president again (after 4 years off).
    2. However, the Depression of 1893 soon began. It was the first recession or depression during the industrial age. This completed the almost predictable, every-20-year cycle of panics during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893).
      1. Nearly 8,000 U.S. businesses went out of business in 6 months. Railroads went under too and soup kitchens popped up to feed wandering hoboes.
    3. There were other money problems to deal with…
      1. Cleveland now had a budget deficit, whereas he'd enjoyed a surplus before.
      2. The nation's gold supply was getting dangerously low.
        1. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) had created a cycle: the government had to buy silver and print paper money to pay for it, the people could then turn in the paper money for gold, which they did.
        2. The nation's gold supply once dipped below $100 million, the safe minimum.
          1. Meanwhile, Cleveland had a malignant tumor removed from his mouth. If he'd died, Vice President Adlai Stevenson would've taken over. Stevenson was a "soft money" advocate and the gold problem would've likely worsened.
        3. Congress debated repealing the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.
          1. A young 30-year old named William Jennings Bryan became the foremost spokesman for silver and "cheap money."
          2. Despite the arguing, the Sherman Act was repealed.
        4. The exchange of paper money-for-gold continued still. This time the gold reserves fell to only #41 million.
          1. Finally, Cleveland turned to J.P. Morgan. Morgan and his banker-friends agreed to lend the U.S. government $65 million in gold (of course the bankers made $7 million in profit).
          2. This deal restored confidence and largely stemmed the problem.
  18. Cleveland Breeds a Backlash
    1. Grover Cleveland, who'd been seen as a "common-man's president", looked sneaky in his dealings in gold and with J.P. Morgan.
    2. Cleveland was embarrassed again by the Wilson-Gorman Tariff.
      1. Democrats had promised lower tariffs. The Wilson-Gorman barely changed the McKinley Tariff at all. Worse, the Wilson-Gorman law allowed for a 2% income tax on income over $4,000. The Supreme Court struck this down, but it looked like Cleveland and the government was giving in to the rich "fat-cats."
    3. The Republicans began to benefit from Cleveland's recent actions.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes Of Age (1865-1900)

I. The Iron Colt Becomes The Iron Horse

* When Lincoln was shot in 1865 there was only 35,000 miles of stream 

railways in the United States. By 1900 there were 192,556 miles. *Transcontinental railroad building was very costly and risky; the  government gave railroad companies loans 2. Frontier settlements touched with railroads became flourishing cities,  cities that were bypassed withered to ghost towns * Towns fought for host privileges

II. Spanning The Continent With Rails

  1. When the South seceded the union wanted to bind the pacific coast
    • The Union Pacific Railroad was commissioned by congress.
  2. The construction companies made fabulous profits; they used construction  gangs containing many Irish "paddies"
  3. When Indians would attack to defend their lands; the paddies would grab  their rifles
  4. On the California end the Central Pacific Railroad was in charge of  working Eastward
    • They used Chinese laborers and had a hard time chipping through Sierra  Nevada
  5. A wedding of the rails was consummated near Ogden, Utah. The Union  *acific built 1,086 miles; the Central Pacific 689 miles
  6. Completion of the transcontinental line was one of America's most  impressive peacetime undertakings. It facilitated trade, penetrated through  deserts and linked the nation.

III. Binding The Country With Railroad Ties

  1. Four other railroads were completed by the century's end:
    • North Pacific (1883) - from lake Superior to Puget Sound
    • The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe (1884) - Through deserts to  California
    • The Southern Pacific (1884) - New Orleans to San Francisco
    • The Great Northern - from Duluth to Seattle
  2. Some railroad companies bankrupt in post-Civil War decades

IV. Railroad Consolidation And Mechanization

  1. "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt offered superior, cheaper railway  services and became rich.
  2. The steel rail was a new improvement, tougher than the iron rails, safer  and more economical because it could carry heavier load
    • Standard track gauge came into use, eliminated inconveniences;  Westinghouse air brake contributed to efficiency and safety.

V. Revolution By Railways

  1. For the first time the nation became untied with ribs of iron and steel,  railroads emerged as the nation's biggest business. The railroad had an amazing  economic growth, trains hauled raw materials to factories and then back as  finished goods
  2. Railroads simulated immigration by offering land
  3. Railroads helped regulate time, until the 1880's every town had its own  local time, dictated by the sun. It was a nightmare for figuring out schedules  thus on November 18, 1883 railroad lines decided that the continent would be  divided into 4 "time zones".

VI. Wrongdoing In Railroading

  1. Corruption lurked nearby the fortune made by the railroads; one of the  favorite devices of corruption was "stock watering" - where stock promoters  inflated claims about a line's assets and sold more stocks than the railroad's  actual value.
  2. The railroaders abused the public and bribed judges and legislatures  when breaking the law. The railroad kings were virtual industry monarchs.  Eventually the companies allied together in dependence of their profits.

VII. Government Bridles The Iron Horse

  1. Farmers wondered if America has escaped slavery only to fall into  economic injustice. The depression of 1870 led people to protest the railroad  monopoly.
  2. The Supreme Court decreed that individual states had no power to  regulate interstate commerce. If the mechanical monsters were to be stopped, it  was up to the federal government
  3. Congress passed the Commerce Commission - forbade unfair behaviors and  promoted orderly forums
    • 1st large scale attempt by Washington to regulate hustlers in the  interest of society at large.

VIII. Miracles Of Mechanization

  1. Post-war industrial expansion grew and America ranked 1st in  mechanization by 1894.
  2. The term millionaire coined for the first time in 1840's. The civil war,  though profiteering created fortunes. Investors loaned more money than the U.S.
  3. Innovations in transportation fueled growth too, by bringing the  nation's natural resources to the factory door.
  4. Anyone who could make an appealing new product available for good price  in large quantities and could market it, thrived. Machines made it possible to  replace skilled workers with masses of immigrants working 12 hour shifts, 7 days  a week.
  5. Thomas Edison, a great inventor, best known for the light bulb.

IX. The Trust Titan Emerges

  1. Competition was the driving force of most business leaders. Carnegie -
    • The Steel King - pioneered the tactic of vertical integration: combining into  one organization, all phases of manufacturing. Helped control quality. 
    • Horizontal integration: allying with competitors to monopolize a given market.
  2. Interlocking directorates - placing his own officers on other's boards  of directors.

X. The Supremacy Of Steel

  1. Steel was a scarce commodity in the America of Lincoln and was  expensive; was used for cutlery. Within 20 years America started pouring out  more steel.
  2. What caused the transformation? A new method of making cheaper steel -  the Bessemer Process.

XI. Carnegie And The Sultans Of Steel

  1. Andrew Carnegie worked hard from a young age, he surrounded himself with  influential people and then became rich and involved with steel.

  2. J. Pierpont Morgan, another financial giant, also was involved in steel  business. 

  3. Carnegie sold his industry to Morgan for 400 million. He gave away about  350 million to giants or libraries. Morgan's new company was America's 1st  billion dollar corporation.

XII. Rockefeller Grows An American Beauty Rose

  1. The oil industry grew almost overnight.
    • Kerosene - 1st major product, made fire burn brighter than whale oil.
    • Whaling became a sick industry while oil rose
  2. Eventually the light bulb diminished the market for kerosene but with  the invention of the automobile, oil for gas shot up
  3. John D. Rockefeller came to dominate the oil industry. He became a  successful businessman at 19. He was aggressive and extinguished other  companies.
  4. New trusts for every industry were sprouting up and the "new rich" were  elbowing aside the aristocracy.

XIII. The Gospel Of Wealth

  1. "Godliness is in league with riches" preached a bishop of Massachusetts.  They thought that millionaires are a product of natural selection. Poor people  were only poor because they didn't try hard enough.
  2. Trusts sought refuge behind the 14th amendment. Courts interpreted  corporations to be a legal "person" and couldn't be deprived of rights. XIV. Government Tackles The Trust Evil
  3. Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 forbade combination in restraint of trade  without distinguishing "good" trusts from "bad." Not very effective and had lots  of loop holes until 1914.

XV. The South In The Age Of Industry

  1. The North's increase in industry after the civil war was not shared by  the south.
  2. The South received a welcome boost when machine made cigarettes shot up  tobacco consumption. James Buchanan Duke absorbed his main competitors into the  American Tobacco Company.
  3. Industrialists tried coaxing the South into the factories but they had  obstacles that kept them from it. The South did have cotton and textile mills  which was a mixed blessing. The southern workers were paid half what the  northerners were but it provided the first steady jobs and wages.

XVI. The Impact Of The Industrial Revolution On America

  1. The standard of living rose sharply and Americans enjoyed more physical  comforts than their counterparts in another industrial nation.
  2. Older way of life changed. Rural immigrants used to living by nature had  to adapt to factory whistles.
  3. Women were profoundly affected by the new industrial age. They were  introduced to the age with the typewriters and telephone switchboard, a new  image of an independent and athletic girl came out.
  4. The machine age also accentuated class driven. By 1900 1 of 10 people  owned 90% of the nation's wealth.
  5. By the 1900's 2/3 workers depended on wages and the economy's swing or  worker's illness could mean disaster for the whole family. International trade  was becoming faster, cheaper, and easier.

XVII. In Unions There Is Strength

  1. Individual originality and creativity were stiffed when it came to the  workers.
  2. New machines displayed employees in the short run.
  3. Railroads let bosses bring in laborers that would work cheaper from all  over the country.
  4. The workers didn't have much power to battle against giant industry.  Middle class annoyed by constant strikes grew deaf to the outcries.

XVIII. Labor Limps Along

  1. Labor unions were given a strong boost by civil war because human lives  and labor was valued after the drain on human resources.
  2. The National Labor Union, 1866, represented a great change. It claimed  to unify workers across locals and trades to challenge their bosses. It lasted 6  years with 600,000 members but it was the 1870's depression knocked the union  out.
  3. Knights of Labor began inauspiciously in 1869 as a secret society with a  private ritual, passwords and special handshakes. It was sought to include all  workers in "one big union." They wanted reform and membership was 3/4 million  workers.

XIX. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

  1. The knights eventually fell because of a run-in with anarchists where a  bomb went off in Chicago – a.k.a. The Haymarket Square episode.
  2. They lost their skilled members and they ended dwindling to 100,000  members.

XX. The AF of L to the Fore

  1. The elitist American Federation of Labor, 1886, only for skilled  laborers, mainly ran by Samuel Gompers. He didn't like socialism and demanded  fairer share of labor. He sought better wages and working conditions.
  2. Public eventually gave in to workers rights and made a legal holiday.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age19.05 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City

  1. The Urban Frontier
    1. The population of the U.S. doubled between 1870 and 1900. The population of cities tripled. Cities grew outward, but also upward.
      1. Cities grew outward thanks to the electric trolley. The old "walking city" of Europe had expanded to become larger than was practical to walk across. People now rode trolleys.
      2. Cities grew upward thanks to skyscrapers. Working in Chicago in the 1880's, architect Louis Sullivan was the father of the skyscraper. He used steel, concrete, newly invented elevators, and the motto "form follows function." A bit ahead of his time, his techniques would later influence Frank Lloyd Wright and become accepted.
    2. Cities attracted people from the farms partly due to jobs, partly to the excitement of the city, partly due to advances.
      1. Cities had city lights, indoor plumbing, telephones, and skyscrapers. There were department stores like Marshall Field's in Chicago and Macy's in New York.
      2. New York's Brooklyn Bridge was completed in 1883. The suspension bridge came to symbolize American ingenuity, technology, commerce, and can-do attitude.
    3. Author Theodore Dreiser captured big-city life (for both good and bad) in his novel Sister Carrie. In a nutshell, it's about the struggles of a young woman who wants to leave boring country life for the hustle-bustle of Chicago. She finds upward mobility by sleeping with men she thinks are her ticket up the social ladder. Notably, Dreiser was a "realist" writer—Carrie's life and Chicago are written about plainly, without "sugar coating", and rather depressingly.
      1. There was another way for country folks to gain a bit of the big city—via mail order catalogs. Companies like Sears and Montgomery Ward sent catalogs yearly and people could buy anything in the catalog and have it sent to their rural homes.
    4. The rapid growth of cities had negative effects as well, mainly in sanitation.
      1. Trash piled up in the streets, drinking water was poor, sewage systems were ineffective, air quality was terrible, animal droppings were everywhere. The result was unhealthy and unclean conditions in the streets.
      2. Slums popped up as well. They were far too over-populated and far to unsanitary. Those two conditions simply added to one another literally making the slums death-traps.
        1. An early godsend was the "dumbbell" apartment. Getting clean air into the tenement apartments was a problem. The dumbbell apartment had an air shaft vertically down the through the building to let in air. It wasn't perfect, but was much healthier than a cubicle box shaped apartment with no air shaft.
        2. People usually moved up and out of the slums. The slums would then be re-inhabited by the next wave of immigrants.
    5. A notable statistic occurred in 1920: for the first time, America was more urban than rural. That is to say, more people lived in cities (of 2,500 people or more) than in the country.
  2. The New Immigration
    1. Immigration was speeding up and it was changing.
    2. Before 1880, most immigrants to America were from "Old Immigration."
      1. They came from northern and western Europe—Britain, Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia. They largely came from nations with some democratic backgrounds and were of the fair-skinned Anglo-Saxon type.
      2. They were Protestant (except for the Irish and a few Germans).
      3. They were generally better educated and with a bit of money behind them.
    3. Around 1880, things changed over to "New Immigration."
      1. They came from southern and eastern Europe—Poland, Italy, Slovakia, Croatia. They largely came from nations with little democratic traditions.
      2. They were usually Catholic, uneducated, and were generally penniless.
    4. In 1880 they made up 19% of immigrants; 1910 they were up to 66% of immigrants.
    5. They generally came to areas consisting of their home-country neighbors. Places popped up like "Little Italy" and "Little Poland." Americans felt these newcomers could not or would not melt into the American way of life.
  3. Southern Europe Uprooted
    1. The New Immigrants came to America for many reasons: the population in Europe had grown very fast, there had been wars, there was discrimination, but the main reason for emigrating to America, as usual, was economic opportunities. Trans-Atlantic steamships also made passage easier.
      1. American businesses loved the immigration boom. It meant a steady and cheap labor force.
    2. Jews emigrated largely to New York City. They were unusual in that they'd come from cities of Europe and brought their city-life skills.
    3. Many young men (about 25% of the immigrants) came to America not to live, but to work and then return to Europe.
    4. Immigrants struggled between keeping Old World customs and adopting the New World. To keep the old, Catholics set up school systems, their were foreign language newspapers, ethnic restaurants, theaters and social clubs. The children of the immigrants normally grew up "American" and become wholly "American."
  4. Reactions to the New Immigration
    1. Immigrants were left on their own once entering America. City bosses, such as the infamous Boss Tweed of the Tammany Hall district in New York City, pretty much ran the immigrants' lives.
    2. Eventually, people's social conscience kicked into gear.
      1. Protestant clergy called for Christian charity. They called for the "social gospel" where churches should address social issues and problems.
      2. Leading preachers of the social gospel were Walter Rauschenbusch (German Baptist) and Washington Gladden (Congregational).
    3. Most notable of social reformers of the late 1800's was Jane Addams.
      1. Addams founded Hull House in Chicago (1889). It was a "settlement house"—immigrants came there for counseling, literacy training, child care, cultural activities, and the like.
      2. A well-known spin-off of Hull House was the Henry Street Settlement in New York run by Lillian Wald.
    4. Settlement houses became hot-beds for activism.
      1. Women in particular began to be active in issues, particularly in addressing discrimination against women for jobs.
      2. Jobs for women, were few to begin with, and depended on a woman's race, ethnicity, and class. Each "brand" of woman was pigeon-holed into a certain group of jobs.
      3. Still, the big cities generally offered more opportunities in jobs and entertainment than the small towns back home.
  5. Narrowing the Welcome Mat This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. With the boom of immigration, "nativism" (bias against foreigners) reappeared from its 1840's roots. By the 1880's it was the "New Immigrants" being looked down upon.
      1. The Old Immigrants from northern Europe disliked the New because they were poorly educated, poor, Catholic, were from the "inferior" regions of Europe, and had high immigration and birth rates.
      2. In simple dollars-and-sense, these New Immigrants would work for pennies. This kept everyone's wages low. Also, immigrants were used as scabs (strike-breakers) and were hard to unionize due to language issues. This fostered even more resent.
      3. Politically, they had no democratic background. They came from areas of dictatorships, socialism, and some were anarchists. These ideas mingled in natives minds and spawned fear.
    2. Nativist organizations emerged (reminiscent of the old Know Nothing Party of the 1840's and 50's).
      1. The American Protective Association (APA) gained millions of members and urged voting against Catholics.
    3. Eventually laws followed people's feelings.
      1. The first law restricting immigration to America was passed in 1882. It banned paupers (a very poor person), criminals, and convicts.
      2. Another law in 1885 forbade importing workers under contract at substandard wages.
      3. Other laws banned more "undesirables" and literacy tests kept many immigrants out until 1917.
      4. A red-letter law was passed in 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act. It banned the immigration of Chinese. This was the first immigration law to specifically target and ban a specific ethnicity.
    4. Ironically, the Statue of Liberty (1886) was given to the U.S. by France during the days of such anti-foreigner feelings. Poet Emma Lazarus words were inscribed on the bottom: Give me your tired, your poor Your huddled masses yearning to be free,…"
  6. Churches Confront the Urban Challenge
    1. Changes in city were also affecting the churches.
      1. In the shift to the cities, churches seemed to be losing their place in society.
      2. Many people began to question the motives of the churches. The established churches largely had established church-goers. They seemed to be materialistic and happily stagnant. It was as if the wealthy parishioner didn't want to get his hands dirty dealing with the issues of the poor.
    2. Within this set of circumstances, religious changes would occur…
      1. Some preachers had been influenced by Unitarianism of the the 2nd Great Awakening days. These liberal groups spun their own twist on religion: they rejected a literal interpretation of the bible, rejected original sin of mankind, and pushed for the social gospel.
      2. Dwight Lyman Moody started the Moody Bible Institute and pushed for Christian charity and kindness. His goal and achievement was connect biblical teachings and Christianity to modern city life.
      3. The Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were growing largely in numbers due to the New Immigration.
      4. America had 150+ varieties of faiths by 1890. A good social gospel example was the Salvation Army which helped anyone struggling to make a go of things by doling out soup.
      5. A new religion emerged: Mary Baker Eddy started the Church of Christ, Scientist (AKA "Christian Science"). The main belief of Christian Science was healing through prayer, not through medical treatment.
      6. Membership in the YMCA or YWCA (the Young Men's/Women's Christian Association) grew quickly. They mixed religion with exercise and activity.
  7. Darwin Disrupts the Churches
    1. Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859. His theory of evolution argued that higher forms of life had evolved from lower forms of life via random mutation and survival-of-the-fittest.
      1. At first, scientists rejected Darwin's views. Many people followed Frenchmen Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's version of evolution saying things that happened during an organism's life could be the surviving factor (not necessarily genetic mutation). By the 1920's, Darwin's view was largely accepted by scientists.
    2. Darwin's review thus rejected divine creation. Three groups were now in a culture war…
      1. "Fundamentalists" believed the bible as it is written, without any errors. They accepted Genesis 1:1 that states, "In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth."
      2. Liberal Christians blended evolution with divine creation. They justified evolution as acts of God.
      3. "Modernists" rejected religion and accepted Darwin's theory of evolution and his rationale for the beginnings of life and of life's variety.
  8. The Lust for Learning
    1. Education continued to march forward. The idea of "free compulsory eduction," paid for by taxpayers, was a reality, but generally only up to the 8th grade.
      1. High schools were now growing and were to 6,000 in number by 1900.
      2. Other areas of education grew: (a) kindergartens, (b) "normal" (teacher training) schools, and (c) the fast growth of parochial schools (especially Catholic).
    2. Adults were left out of this system. But, many adults participated in the Chataqua movement. It was a series of lectures, a descendant of the earlier "lyceum" circuit. Many well-known speakers, like Mark Twain, spoke.
    3. Stats reflect the benefits of education: the illiteracy rate fell from 20% (1870) to 10.7% (1900).
  9. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People
    1. In the post-war South, many still struggled, especially blacks. They were largely poor and poorly educated.
    2. Booker T. Washington developed a plan for bettering the lots of blacks.
      1. He developed the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. It was a normal school for black teachers and taught hands-on industrial trades.
      2. George Washington Carver studied the peanut, sweet potato, and soybean there and came up with many uses for them: shampoo, axle grease, vinegar, and paint.
      3. He felt the way for blacks to advance in the South was through bettering themselves economically. Social justice would come later.
    3. Washington's largest critic was W.E.B. DuBois.
      1. DuBois was a Harvard intellectual. He criticism was that Washington's method put blacks in a little box of manual labor only.
      2. DuBois help start the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and called for the "talented tenth" of the black community to be given full access and equality.
    4. On a day-to-day level, many blacks related much better to Washington and his practical approach.
  10. The Hallowed Halls of Ivy
    1. Upper education expanded after the Civil War.
      1. Women gained more colleges, often in the Midwest, like Vassar.
      2. Black colleges emerged, like Howard University in Washington D.C. and Atlanta University.
    2. Two laws helped the growth of colleges: the Morrill Act (1862) and then the **Hatch Act (1887). They provided money to states for "land-grant colleges." A focus was on agricultural research at the universities.
      1. They gave birth to 100+ colleges and universities, such as University of California, Texas A&M, and Ohio State.
    3. Philanthropy or private donations went a long way for colleges. Examples included Cornell, Stanford University from railroad tycoon Leland Stanford, and the University of Chicago from John D. Rockefeller.
    4. Johns Hopkins University became the first top-rate graduate school.
  11. The March of the Mind
    1. With new topics like evolution, universities began to struggle to reconcile science with religion. The "solution" was to drop moral instruction.
    2. The curriculum changed as well.
      1. Traditionally, the curriculum consisted of languages, notably Latin and Greek for bible study, and grammar or rhetoric. Universities in America had been started to train preachers.
      2. Now, the movement was toward a more practical curriculum. Also, the elective system became very popular as it gave students choices of classes.
      3. The reform of education jumped forward when chemist Dr. Charles W. Eliot was named president of Harvard. Symbolically, he changed Harvard's motto from Christo et Ecclesiae (for Christ and Church) to Veritas (Truth).
    3. Medicine and med-schools improved.
      1. Louis Pasteur (pasteurization) and Joseph Lister's (antiseptics) work helped move medicine from superstition to science. People now understood germs and life expectancy rose.
    4. Henry James wrote influentially on psychology with books like Principles of Psychology and Pragmatism (saying America's contribution to any idea was its usefulness, or not).
  12. The Appeal of the Press
    1. Books had always been popular, but by 1900 people were starving to read. Libraries and newspapers satisfied that urge.
    2. The Library of Congress opened in 1897 and Andrew Carnegie had given $60 million to build local libraries across the U.S.
    3. Newspapers were on the rise as well with the invention of Linotype. People were hungry to read the latest goings-on.
      1. Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) mastered sensational reporting, called yellow journalism after his comic "The Yellow Kid."
      2. William Randolph Hearst (San Francisco Examiner) was also a yellow journalism editor and put together a newspaper empire made of a chain of newspapers.
      3. Daily newspapers immensely helped unify the U.S. People were now much more on the "same page," literally, as someone in another section of the nation. Notably, this is when the popularity of national sports, especially baseball, took off since one could follow his team each day.
      4. Drawbacks rose however: one as the influence of advertisers in the expanding newspaper business; another was that reporting was focussed more on selling papers than on accuracy (a "juicy" story was better than an accurate story).
      5. The establishment of the Associated Press (AP) and their accuracy helped balance the yellow journalism.
  13. Apostles of Reform
    1. Magazines were popular, such as Harper's, Atlantic Monthly, and Scribners.
    2. Editor Edwin L. Godkin's liberal magazine Nation was very influential.
      1. It was read by intellectuals and thinker-types and was reform minded.
      2. It pushed for civil service reform (government jobs based on talent, not connections), honest government, and a mild tariff.
    3. Henry George wrote Progess and Poverty which examined the relationship between those two concepts. His theory was that "progress" pushed land values up and thus increased poverty amongst many.
      1. His solution to the distribution of wealth was to propose a 100% tax on profits—a very controversial proposal.
    4. Edward Bellamy published the novel Looking Backward. It's character fell asleep and awoke in the year 2000 to an ideal society. His solution was that the government had taken over all business, communist/socialist-style, and everything was rosy. Intellectual-types enjoyed discussing the book and its ideas.
  14. The New Morality
    1. "Modern" times and morality were changing, or perhaps more accurately, morality didn't change but was challenged.
    2. Two sisters, Victoria Woodhull and Tennessee Claflin published a periodical that shocked proper, Elizabethan society. Woodhull announced her belief in free love, they both pushed for women's propaganda, and charged that respectable Henry Ward Beecher had been having a long affair.
      1. Anthony Comstock made it his mission to stop all moral threat. Armed with the "Comstock Law," he collected dirty pictures and pills/powders he said abortionists used.
    3. The "new morality" began to take place in the form of higher divorce rates, increased birth control, and more open sex talk. These changes had largely been prompted by the increased independence of women that there own jobs provided.
  15. Families and Women in the City
    1. Families were stressed in the new urban society.
      1. On the farm, another child was another helping hand; in the city, another child was a liability—another mouth to feed. Thus, birth rates declined. Under the stress of the city, divorce rates shot up.
    2. Paradoxically, people seemed more lonely in crowded cities than on farms. Families became critical companionship.
    3. Feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman published Women and Economics, a classic of feminism. She (1) shunned traditional femininity, (2) said there were no real differences between men and women, and (3) called for group nurseries and kitchens to free up women.
    4. Ladies still pushed for female suffrage. The push for the right to vote had taken a time-out to push for blacks' rights; now the push was on again.
      1. The National American Suffrage Association was started in 1890 with Elizabeth Cady Stanton (from the old Seneca Falls Convention of 1848) and Susan B. Anthony.
      2. A new leader was Carrie Chapman Pratt. She changed the argument from "women deserve to right to vote since they're equal" to "women deserve the right to vote in order to carry out their traditional roles and homemakers and mothers."
        1. This new argument linking voting to traditional women's roles seemed to pay dividends. Western states, which had always been more accepting of an independent woman, began to give women the right to vote (Wyoming being the first).
    5. Women's Clubs popped up in cities and garnered some 200,000 members in 1900.
    6. Female suffrage was reserved to white women only. Black women found other causes: Ida Wells led a nationwide push against lynching and helped start the National Association of Colored Women (1896).
  16. Prohibiting Alcohol and Promoting Reform
    1. The movement to prohibit alcohol gained steam as well as corner bars were everywhere in the city. The argument, mostly by women, was that alcohol and the bars kept the men drunk, took the family's wages, and increased violence at home.
    2. The National Prohibition Party (1869) got a handful of votes, though not many, for president.
    3. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (1874) was more aggressive. It was led by Francis E. Willard and Carrie A. Nation whose trademark was to literally walk into a bar and chop it up with a hatchet.
    4. The Anti-Saloon League (1893) increased the push against alcohol by singing anti-liquor songs.
    5. Gains were made…
      1. On a local level, some states/counties banned alcohol, led by Maine.
      2. On the national level, the 18th Amendment (1819) was the culmination of the prohibition movement. Amendment 18 (AKA "Prohibition") simply banned alcohol in the U.S. It was short-lived. The 21st Amendment repealed the ban on alcohol.
    6. Notably other crusades popped up at the same time: the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the American Red Cross (1881) led by Clara Barton, the famous Civil War nurse.
  17. Postwar Popular Fiction
    1. People read like wildfire after the Civil War. "Dime novels" were very popular, especially about the Wild West with characters like "Deadwood Dick."
      1. Harlan F. Halsey wrote about 650 dime novels and became rich.
    2. Gen. Lewis Wallace wrote Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ. It countered Darwinsm with faith in Christ and sold 2 million copies.
    3. A very influential writer was Horatio Alger. He wrote rags-to-riches stories, usually about a good boy that made good. They all championed the virtues of honesty and hard work that lead to prosperity and honor. His best known book was titled Ragged Dick.
    4. Walt Whitman revised his classic "Leaves of Grass." He also wrote "O Captain! My Captain!", inspired by Lincoln's assassination.
    5. Emily Dickinson became famous as a poet after she died and her writings were found and published.
  18. Literary Landmarks
    1. Writing was going through a change of flavor: in the early 1800's "romanticism" ruled (for example, The Last of the Mohicans), by the late 1800's "realism" took over (for example, Sister Carrie). The switch to realism was spawned by the industrial revolution and growth of cities.
    2. Kate Chopin wrote openly about adultery, suicide, and the ambitions of women in The Awakening (1889).
    3. Born Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Mark Twain took that pseudonym since he'd worked on a Mississippi riverboat as a boy and that was the captain's yell to mark the depth. He was already famous with the story "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County".
      1. He traveled through the West and wrote Roughing It (1872) recounting the trip. It was a mix of truths, half-truths, and tall tales, and readers loved it.
      2. He co-wrote with Charles Dudley Warner The Gilded Age (1873) that laid bare the questionable politics and business of the day.
      3. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) told of the likable huckster and school-skipper and his gal Polly.
      4. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) told of buddies runaway Huck and runaway slave Jim as they rafted down the Mississippi. The book was immensely popular and influential. Ernest Hemingway later said, "All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn."
    4. Bret Harte wrote of the West in his gold rush stories, especially "The Luck of Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat."
    5. William Dean Howells, editor of Atlantic Monthly, wrote about common people and controversial social topics.
    6. Stephen Crane wrote brilliantly and realistically about industrial, urban America in Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893). It old of a girl-turned-prostitute and then suicide.
      1. His most famous work was The Red Badge of Courage (1895) about a Civil War soldier and his sacrifice.
    7. Henry Adams, grandson of John Adams, wrote a history of the early U.S. and The Education of Henry Adams, his best known.
    8. Henry James, brother of philosopher William James, usually wrote about innocent Americans, normally women, thrown amid Europeans. His best works were Daisy Miller (1879), The Portrait of a Lady (1881), and The Bostonians(1886).
    9. Jack London wrote about the wilderness in The Call of the Wild (1903), White Fang, and The Iron Heel.
    10. Frank Norris's novels criticized corrupt business. The Octopus (1901) was about railroad and political corruption and The Pit was about speculators trading in wheat.
    11. Two black writers gained prominence using black dialect and folklore.
      1. Paul Dunbar wrote poetry, notably with "Lyrics of Lowly Life" (1896).
      2. Charles W. Chesnutt wrote fiction, notably The Conjure Women (1899).
    12. As mentioned prior, Theodore Dreiser was the champion of realism with his novel Sister Carrie (1900). Carrie moved in with one man then eloped with another (who was already married), then left them both for a career on stage. It morality of the novel was shocking to proper society.
  19. Artistic Triumphs
    1. In the early days of America, art had been on hold while the nation was built. By the end of the 18th century, American art was coming into its own.
    2. Many new artists emerged…
      1. James Whistler lived an eccentric life. His best-known painting was of his mother.
      2. John Singer Sargent painted portraits of European nobility.
      3. Mary Cassat painted women and children, as with her "The Bath" showing a mother bathing a small girl.
      4. George Inness painted landscapes.
      5. Thomas Eakins painted realistically, as seen in his graphic surgical painting "The Gross Clinic."
      6. Winslow Homer was perhaps the most "American" painter. He typically painted scenes of daily New England life and the sea. Homer's topics included schoolhouses, farmers, young women, sailors, and coastlines.
      7. Sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens made the Robert Gould Shaw (leader of 54th black regiment in the Civil War) memorial in Boston Common.
    3. Music made steps with symphonies in Boston and Chicago and New York's Metropolitan Opera House.
      1. Black folk tunes were giving birth to jazz, ragtime, and blues. These genres would later spawn country and rock 'n roll, as by Elvis Presley.
      2. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph which recorded sound and music for playback.
    4. Architecture mimicked older, classical styles.
      1. Architect Henry H. Richardson designed buildings with his trademark high-vaulted arches in his "Richardsonian" style. His style was very ornate and reminiscent of Gothic cathedrals. The Marshall Fields building in Chicago was his masterpiece.
      2. The Columbian Exposition (1893 in Chicago) revived classical architectural forms and setback realism or Louis Sullivan's new "form follows function" style.
  20. The Business of Amusement
    1. American entertainment went to the national level. This was due to increased free time due to hourly jobs in cities and increased national unity due to newspapers.
    2. Phineas T. "P.T." Barnum (who quipped, “There’s a sucker born every minute,” and “the public likes to be humbugged.”) and James A. Bailey started the circus and adopted the slogan, "The Greatest Show on Earth".
    3. Wild west shows were popular. "Buffalo Bill" Cody's was well-known. It featured Annie Oakley who shot holes through tossed silver dollars.
    4. Baseball, became very popular. Baseball was emerging as the clear "American pastime" and a professional league started in the 1870's.
    5. Horse racing was also being organized and would soon become the nation's second national pastime. The first Kentucky Derby was run in the early 1870's, even before the first World Series.
    6. Other sports emerged: (1) basketball was invented by William Naismith in 1891, (2) people liked the rugged nature of football, and (3) boxing took on gloves and became more of a spectator sport.
    7. Two crazes hit at the end of the 1800's—croquet and bicycling. Croquet was considered risqué because it exposed women's ankles and encouraged flirting.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution

Chapter 26 - The Great West And The Agricultural Revolution (1865-1896)

I. The Clash Of Cultures On The Plains

  1. Native Americans numbered about 360,000 in 1860, to their misfortune they stood in the path of the advancing white settlers. They already had been fighting between tribes.
  2. White settlers unwittingly spread disease to the Natives and put pressure on the already dwindling buffalo population.
  3. Federal government tried to pacify The Plain Indians by signing treaties with the "chiefs" of various "tribes"
    • The treaties marked the beginnings of the reservation system.
    • They established boundaries for the territory of each tribe.
    • But the white treaty makers misunderstood both Indian government and society - many Native-Americans didn't follow the main chiefs and couldn't understand the concept of living in one defined territory.
  4. In the 1860's the government herded the Indians on to even smaller confines, the Indians surrendered their ancestral lands only when they received solemn promises that they would be left alone and provided with food, clothing and other supplies.
    • Sadly they were lied to and given defective provisions; moth-eaten blankets and spoiled beef.

II. Receding Native Population

  1. Indian wars in the west were often savage clashes. Innocent natives were shot on sight by aggressive whites, women and children filled in cold blood.
  2. In 1866 a Sioux war party ambushed and killed 81 soldiers and civilians under captain Fetterman.
  3. The battle of Little Bighorn - Gold was found on Sioux territory and they attacked the greedy gold-seekers and wiped out 250 soldiers sent to suppress the Indians.
  4. Fierce Apache tribes of Arizona and New Mexico were the most difficult to subdue
  5. "Taming" of the Indians was engineering by many factors. The government's willingness to back its land claims with force. The railroad could bring out unlimited numbers of white people to settle and fight and the Indians were ravenged by new diseases. Over hunting of the buffalo doomed the Plains Indian way of life.

III. Bellowing Herds Of Bison

  1. Tens of millions of buffalo existed when the whites first arrived. These animals were the staff of life for the Native Americans.
  2. The buffalo were in danger of extinction by 1805.

IV. The End Of The Trail

  1. By the 1880's the national conceive began to stir uneasily over the plight of the Indians debates seesawed.
  2. There were the humanitarians who wanted to treat the Indians kindly and make them assimilate. The hard-liners insisted on containment and punishment, neither side showed respect for their culture.
  3. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 dissolved many tribes, took away their land ownership and gave them different land.
  4. Schools were formed to instill while values to Indian children.
  5. By 1900 the Indians had lost 50% of their lands
  6. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 tried to restore the tribes. V. Mining From Dishpan To Ore Breaker
  7. When gold was first found avid miners went to make their fortunes, many didn't strike it rich.
  8. Smaller "Lucky Strikes" drew gold and silver seekers to western states like Montana and Idaho. Towns sprouted from the sand and when diggings petered out the towns became ghost towns.
  9. Once there was no more loose surface gold, the big businesses took over the mining industry to smash the gold-bearing quartz.

VI. Beef Bonanzas And The Long Drive

  1. Cow-meat business sprang into existence as a main pillar of the economy.
  2. Texas cowboys - black, white, and Mexican - drove herds of 1,000-10,000 slowly from the plains to the railroad terminals. As long as lush grass was available the long drive was profitable.
  3. Intruders like the homesteader and the sheep herder built too many barbed wire fences and many cows died.
  4. Over expansion and overgrazing also took its toll, cowboys became part of folklore.

VII. The Farmer's Frontier

  1. The Homestead Act of 1862 - allowed a settler to acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for five years. Improving it and paying about $30. Before land was sold for revenue, now it was given away to fill empty spaces.
  2. The Act turned out to be a huge hoax, the land proved to be quite inadequate on the rain-scarce Great Plains.
  3. Prairie soil was astonishingly fruitful when the sod was broken with heavy plows. Lacking trees for lumber for lumber settlers built sod houses and burned corncobs.
  4. Lured by wheat farming settlers pushed further west past the 100th meridian where rain was rare.
  5. Dry farming - shallow cultivation that over time created a finely pulverized surface soil.
  6. Other adaptations: tough strains of wheat, resistant to cold and drought imported from Russia. Corn was abandoned in favor or Sorghum and barbed wire was perfected.
  7. Irrigation Projects caused The Great American Desert to bloom.

VIII. The Far West Comes Of Age

  1. The Great West experienced a migration surge and consequently new states joined the Union. IX. The Fading Frontier
  2. By 1890 all the unsettled areas were now broken into by American settlement.
  3. As the 19th century ended the American people were disturbed to find that their fabled tree land was going or gone. Its passing ended a romantic phase in the nation's development.
  4. The Western colonization was an important chapter of American history. X. The Farm Becomes A Factory
  5. Farms and farmers are changing, before they were self-reliant but then concentrated on cash crops and used the money to buy necessities at the stores.
  6. Farms were mechanized, they had to buy expensive machinery to plant and harvest crops.
  7. The farm was attaining the status of an outdoor grain factory.

XI. Deflation Dooms The Debtor

  1. Once farmers became chained to a one-crop economy they were engaged in a fiercely competitive business and were not the masers of their destinies. The price of their products was determined by the world market and how much was in production elsewhere.
  2. low prices and deflated currency were the chief worries
  3. Despite their toils they operated year after year at a loss, their farm machinery increased their output of grain and prices lowered and pushed them further into debt.
  4. Harsh interest rates, 8-40%, were charged on mortgages.

XII. Unhappy Farmers

  1. Even mother nature ceased smiling as she conspired against agriculture. Mile-wide clouds of grasshoppers periodically revenged prone farms. Good Earth was going sour, floods added to erosion causing the loss of topsoil. Expensive fertilizers were needed. A series of drought started in 1887.
  2. Farmers had to pay high taxes to the government, but sold their products in the unprotected world market while having to buy high priced goods in home market.
  3. Other companies and industries like the railroads increased their rates but the farmers couldn't protest.
  4. Farmers made up one-half of the population in 1890 but were disorganized. They were independent and individualistic. Never did they successfully organize until Roosevelt.

XIII. The Farmers Take Their stand

  1. Farmers unsuccessfully sought relief from low prices and high indebtedness by demanding a paper currency inflation.
  2. The National Grange of the Patriots of Husbandry - The Grange - organized in 1867. Lead by Oliver H. Kelly who wanted to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through socialization activities.
    • By 1875 it claimed 800,000 members, they raised goals for self-improvement.
    • Many went into politics but many "Granger-laws" were badly drawn and were later reversed. Influence shortly faded away.
  3. The Green-backers labor party combined the inflationary appeal and a program for improving the lot of labor.

XIV. Prelude To Populism

  1. Farmer's alliance founded in 1870's. Farmers came together to socialize and break the grip railroads and manufacturers had on them.
  2. They weakened themselves by not including tenant or black farmers. But the radical division made it hard for black and white farmers to work together.
  3. A new political party emerged in the 1890's - The People's Party or the Populists. They called for nationalizing the railroads, telephone, and telegraph; instituting income tax and creating a "sub treasury' to provide farmers with loans. Also wanted free and unlimited coinage of silver.
  4. The Capital Populists were leading an earnest companion to relieve the farmers' many miseries.

XV. Coxey's Army And The Pullman Strike

  1. The panic of 1893 strengthened the Populists' arguments. Ragged armies of the unemployed began marching to protest their plight.
  2. The most famous marcher was "General" Jacob Coxey. He took a march to Washington nut was arrested before reaching their destination.
  3. The Pullman Strike of 1894, the car company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages about 1/3. The American federation of labor declined to support the strikes.
  4. U.S. attorney General Richard Olney urged the dispatch of federal troops under the legal grounds that the strikers were interfering with mail. President Cleveland supported Olney.
  5. The troops crushed the Pullman Strike.

XVI. Golden McKinley And Silver Bryan

  1. The leading candidate for the Republican nomination of 1896 was William McKinley of Ohio.
  2. Cleveland had become the most unpopular man in the country.
  3. The Next democratic candidate was William Bryan of Nebraska.

XVII. Class Conflict: Plow-holders Versus Bondholders

  1. Free silver became a big issue; Bryan was hailed to take "silverites" out of debt.
  2. Bryan created panic among the "gold bugs" - eastern conservatives.
  3. Employers threatened to pay their employees in 50 cents pieces instead of dollars if Bryan won.
  4. On Election Day McKinley triumphed.
  5. The free-silver election of 1896 was perhaps the most significant political turning point since Lincoln's victories.

XVIII. Republican Stand Enthroned

  1. McKinley took the inaugural oath in 1897. Cautious conservative nature caused him to shy away from reform.
  2. Prosperity began to return with a rush in 1897.
  3. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 provided that paper currency be redeemed freely in gold, moderate inflation arose at the discovery of new gold.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution21.28 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 27 - Empire and Expansion

  1. America Turns Outward
    1. By the 1890's, America turned away from its isolationist policies and was beginning to look overseas, toward imperialism. The European nations had been gobbling up colonies all during the 1800's, now America wanted a slice of the world pie.
    2. There were several influences pointing toward imperialism…
      1. Yellow journalism, or sensationalism in reporting, stirred up the desire to take over lands. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers painted the far off lands as exotic, adventurous, and captured young people's imaginations.
      2. Missionaries wanted to save souls in un-Christian lands. Namely, Rev. Josiah Strong pushed for imperialism in his book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis.
      3. Some people (like Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge) applied Darwin's survival-of-the-fittest theory to nations. It was the order of things for the strong to conquer the weak.
      4. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783. It said that the key to a nation's power is through naval power. Thus, to become a world power, the U.S. needed to build up her navy.
    3. The U.S. had several international, political balancing-acts and/or crises at the time…
      1. James G. Blaine advocated the "Big Sister" policy toward Latin America. The idea was to get Latin American countries behind the leadership of the U.S. To that end, he led the Pan-American Conference in Washington D.C.
      2. A U.S.—Germany standoff occurred down in Samoa. Samoa was split in half.
      3. A U.S—Italy standoff occurred in New Orleans over captured Italians. The U.S. made payments.
      4. A U.S.—Chile standoff occurred over murdered Americans. Chile made payments.
      5. A U.S.—Canada standoff occurred over seal hunting rights. It was settled in arbitration (mediation).
      6. A U.S.—Britain standoff occurred over gold discoveries down in Guiana. The actual dispute was between Britain and Venezuela; the U.S. just got in to stick up for her "little sister" by saying the Brits were breaking the Monroe Doctrine's "stay out!" policy.
        1. Things got very tense, nearly to war. Finally, Britain (a) had other distractions by the Germans down in South Africa and (b) decided a war with the U.S. simply wasn't worth it. The gold lands were basically split and the crisis was over.
  2. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear
    1. Hawaii had been alluring to Americans since the early 1800's when shippers, sailors, whalers, and missionaries went there.
    2. By the later 1800's, a few things were pertinent to the Hawaii situation…
      1. America largely regarded Hawaii as an unofficial part of the U.S. America had warned other nations to leave Hawaii alone (or, leave Hawaii to the U.S.).
      2. American fruit and sugar companies were deeply entrenched in Hawaii. They largely ran the islands due to their economic power.
      3. There was growing resistance by the native Hawaiians __toward the U.S. due to the increased influence by Americans.
    3. The sugar companies grew restless. Concerns were that (a) Japan might try to take over and (b) the McKinley tariff had raised prices of Hawaiian sugar/fruit imported to the U.S.
      1. The solution, they figured, was to get Hawaii officially__ and for good.
      2. Queen Liliuokalani resisted. She said the native Hawaiians should run Hawaii.
      3. In 1893, the whites staged a revolt and the U.S. military helped to dethrone the queen. Notably, this was all done locally in Hawaii, completely unofficially from Washington D.C. Papers were drawn up to annex Hawaii and sent to Washington.
      4. Grove Cleveland had just become president and he didn't like the way Hawaii was taken and stopped the annexation. (The U.S. would get Hawaii 5 years later, in 1898).
  3. Cubans Rise in Revolt
    1. Cuba revolted against Spain in 1895. The Cuban "insurrectos" on the Sugar plantations revolted against their Spanish overlords by burning everything.
    2. America watched with interest and the U.S. rooted for the Cubans since (a) America loves liberty and independence, (b) it would be good for the Monroe Doctrine to get a European country out of the neighborhood, (c) Cuba was at the gateway to the Caribbean where the U.S. was dreaming of a Panama Canal.
    3. Spain sent Gen. Valeriano "Butcher" Weyler to stop the revolt. He cracked down harshly and started prison camps where scores of insurrectos died from disease.
      1. The "yellow press" in America loved the Cuban revolution and Butcher Weyler's activities only made the storylines even juicier. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers tried to "outscoop" each other.
        1. Hearst sent artist Frederic Remington down to Cuba and said, "You furnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war." Remington drew Spanish men stripping and searching American women (in actuality, women searched). Still, the result of the stories and pictures was to fire up Americans. The U.S. was decidedly leaning toward Cuba and away from Spain.
    4. More strain emerged with the de Lôme letter. Spanish official Dupuy de Lôme wrote a letter which criticized Pres. McKinley and pointedly called him a wimp. William Randolph Hearst published the letter for all to read; Americans were upset.
    5. The greatest event occurred on February 15, 1898, when the U.S.S. Maine exploded at night in Havana harbor killing 260 American sailors.
      1. The cause of the explosion was a mystery, but in the public's mind, the cause was simple—Spain had done it. (Though still a bit of a mystery today, it was much later concluded that the explosion was an accident.)
      2. The yellow press went berserk with the Maine story. The American public clamored for war with the battle cry, "Remember the Maine!". Pres. McKinley was still sluggish to enter the war though.
        1. War-hawk Teddy Roosevelt said that McKinley had "the backbone of a chocolate éclair."
      3. McKinley gave in to the public demand and on April 11, 1898 he sent a message to Congress asking for war. Congress happily voted for war.
        1. Congress also passed the Teller Amendment that said the U.S. would give Cuba its freedom after kicking out Spain.
  4. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. America entered the war in a giddy, confident mood.
    2. Even before war was declared, under-secretary of the Navy Teddy Roosevelt ordered Commodore George Dewey to move to the Philippines (controlled by Spain) if war broke out.
      1. On May 1, 1898, Dewey carried out Roosevelt's orders.
      2. America had 6 ships, Spain had 10. But, America's were modern whereas Spain's were antiques. Plus, America's guns could literally out-shoot Spain's. The naval battle was very one-sided for the Americans.
      3. Dewey had won the naval battle, but could not storm the fort ashore in Manila with sailors. Tensions grew when German ships arrived. He had to wait until foot soldiers arrived—they did and they captured Manila on August 13th.
        1. The U.S. was aided by Emilio Aguinaldo who led a group of Filipino insurgents against Spain. He'd been exiled in Asia, but was brought along for this mission—a decision the U.S. would later regret when he turned against the U.S.
    3. The U.S. grabbed the Philippines quickly. Now, the U.S. wanted to grab Hawaii to use as a half-way coaling station between California and the Philippines. Congress and McKinley agreed to annex Hawaii on July 7, 1898.
  5. The Confused Invasion of Cuba
    1. When war broke, Spain sent their fleet to Santiago, Cuba where they entered a narrow harbor there.
    2. The U.S. hastily mounted up in Tampa, FL.
      1. The Spanish-American War is known for being very ill-prepared. For example, the men had wool uniforms for use against Indians out west, not for the Caribbean tropics. Also, more U.S. soldiers would die from disease than from fighting due to poor medication and planning.
      2. The U.S. was led by Gen. William Shafter, a large, gouty man.
      3. The "Rough Riders" cavalry were organized by Teddy Roosevelt. Eager for action, he'd resigned his navy administration post. The Rough Riders were headed by Col. Leonard Wood, Roosevelt served as Lt. Col.
        1. As another example of poor planning, the Rough Riders would eventually fight on foot, horseless. No one had planned how to get the horses to the beach, so they forced the horses to swim ashore—most of them drowned.
    3. The U.S. sent ships and troops down to Santiago. The navy trapped the Spanish fleet by blockading the mouth of the harbor and the Army went ashore further up the beach.
      1. The Army swept around behind Santiago and began a strangle-hold on the city. The Spanish fleet was surrounded and decided to run the gauntlet out of the harbor. They did so, and the U.S. navy mowed down the Spanish ships.
    4. U.S. forces quickly went into Puerto Rico, met little resistance, and took the island.
    5. Seeing the loss, Spain signed an armistice on August 12 and the so-called "splendid little war" was over.
    6. The U.S. forces that lingered in Cuba began dying by scores due to disease. There were 4,000 deaths in battle, 5,000 deaths from disease.
  6. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire
    1. Peace negotiations were held in Paris to "settle" the war. The stipulations were…
      1. Cuba was free and independent, as the Teller Amendment had said it would be. But there were strings attached (see below).
      2. The U.S. gained (1) Puerto Rico, (2) Guam, and (3) assumed control of the Philippines.
    2. The Philippines posed the largest problem. Following are America's options and their consequences:
      1. Give the Philippines back to Spain. This option was out due to decades of Spanish misrule and abuse.
      2. Let the Filipino people run the country themselves. This was luring but the fear was that competitive warlords would throw the country into total chaos.
      3. Take over the islands. This would make the U.S. look like an imperial bully. Plus, after finally getting Spain off of their backs, the Filipino people didn't really want the U.S. controlling them.
      4. McKinley fretted over the decision, then finally decided the U.S. should take over the Philippines. This decision conveniently meshed with the interests of the public and businesses.
        1. $20 million was paid to Spain for the Philippine islands.
    3. The Senate still had to okay the treaty so the question then became, "Should the U.S. Senate accept the Paris treaty and thus acquire the Philippines?"
      1. Those against acquiring the island got organized. The Anti-Imperialist League emerged to halt annexation.
        1. The difference was that the other lands were generally in North America. Plus, Alaska and Hawaii were sparsely populated.
        2. The League held some prominent members including Mark Twain, William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.
      2. Imperialists countered the argument. They said that the Philippines could eventually flourish, like Hong Kong.
        1. Brit Rudyard Kipling (author of The Jungle Book) wrote of "The White Man's Burden." He encouraged the U.S. to hold onto and civilize the Philippines.
        2. Passage of the Paris treaty was in the balance until William Jennings Bryan threw his weight in favor of it. Once he did, the treaty passed by a single vote.
  7. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba
    1. Puerto Ricans was owned by the U.S. but was neither a territory nor state. It was given a limited elected government under the Foraker Act. Full U.S. citizenship was granted to Puerto Ricans in 1917.
      1. Much improvement was done to the island in terms of sanitation, transportation, etc. Many islanders moved to New York to become "New York Ricans."
    2. A question arose over taking Puerto Rico and the Philippines…"Do American laws and rights apply to these lands and peoples?"
      1. The Supreme Court declared in the so-called Insular Cases that America's laws and customs do not necessarily extend to these new lands.
    3. In Cuba, a military government was set up by Col. Leonard Wood. Much improvement was done there in government, education, agriculture, etc.
      1. Col. William C. Gorgas and Dr. Walter Reed combined efforts to nearly wipe out the mosquitoes and yellow fever.
      2. The Teller Amendment had said that the U.S. would leave Cuba to be independent; the U.S. kept this promise and left in 1902. But, the U.S. wrote the Platt Amendment which said…
        1. Cuba couldn't make treaties that the U.S. didn't like.
        2. Cuba couldn't take on too much debt. The U.S. could intervene in these situations if necessary.
        3. Cuba must lease coaling stations for the U.S. military to use. This became the "Guantanamo Bay" military base.
  8. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres
    1. Sec. of State John Hay called the 113 day Spanish-American War a "splendid little war."
      1. It showed the world that the U.S. was a world power, likely the world's strongest. Other nations, like Russia, Britain, and France, took note and stepped up their diplomatic headquarters in Washington D.C.
    2. America was marching to a joyous patriotism.
      1. Literally, they marched to the 2/4 marching beat of band-master John Philip Sousa, such as his with "Stars and Stripes Forever."
      2. A strong military was accepted as a need. Folks were convinced of Cpt. Alfred Thayer Mahan's concept of a powerful navy. And, Sec. of War Elihu Root started a War College.
      3. The old North-South divide seemed to narrow a bit. At least in part, the enemy ceased to be one another and became Spain. Old Confederate Gen. Joseph "Fighting Joe" Wheeler had even been given command in Cuba. He'd apparently yelled in battle, "To hell with the Yankees! Dammit, I mean the Spaniards."
    3. Despite the spoils of war, however, the Philippines pan out to be a thorn in America's side.
  9. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines
    1. The Filipino people felt tricked when they weren't given their independence after the Spanish-American War.
    2. An insurrection began against the American troops by the Filipinos on February 4, 1899.
      1. Their leader was Emilio Aguinaldo, who'd fought with the U.S. and against Spain. Like most Filipino's, he'd believed the Philippines would gain independence from Spain. When it didn't happen, he simply turned his aggression toward the U.S.
      2. America stooped below her ideals by (1) using the "water cure" of forcing water down throats to force cooperation, (b) setting up prison camps similar to the ones Butcher Weyler had made in Cuba, and (c) attacking people who simply wanted freedom.
      3. Fighting was sporadic and guerrilla-style, frustrating the Americans. It lasted well over a year and killed 4,234 Americans.
    3. The Americans gained the upper hand in 1901. Pres. McKinley sent William H. Taft to serve as the Philippines' civil governor.
      1. A large (350 pounds) and jovial man, Taft got along well with the Filipinos. They generally like him and he called them his "little brown brothers."
      2. Under Taft, America pursued a policy called "benevolent assimilation"—to kindly bring the Philippines up to civilization. The process was slow but it bore fruits…
        1. With millions in American money, the infrastructure (roads, sanitation, etc.) was greatly improved. Public health improved as well.
        2. Trade between the U.S. and the Philippines began, largely in sugar.
        3. Schools were built and American teachers were sent over.
        4. Still, the Filipino's wanted freedom. Independence was finally granted just after WWII, on July 4, 1946.
  10. Hinging the Open Door in China
    1. After Japan had defeated China in 1894-1895, China had been sliced up by Europe into "spheres of influence."
      1. This usually meant that a European nation controlled a coastal city and its surrounding area. The European nation held exclusive trade rights for that city and area (for example, Britain's control of Hong Kong).
      2. Needless to say, the Chinese people despised this situation.
    2. America was mostly uninvolved in this situation. Except, missionaries were concerned about access, and American businesses worried they'd be shut out.
      1. Sec. of State John Hay drafted the Open Door Policy saying spheres of influence should be dropped and Chinese cities should be open to all nations for business. Europe was not interested in giving up their sweet situations.
    3. China took matters into their own hands with the Boxer Rebellion. In this, the Chinese rose up to oust/kill foreigners who controlled their cities. 200 foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians were killed.
      1. Europe and the U.S. responded together and smashed China, then charged China for damages.
      2. China's fine was $333 million; America's cut would be $24.5 million. Feeling guilty about such a high amount, the U.S. used $18 million to educate Chinese students in American universities.
      3. Sec. of State Hay sent the Open Door Policy along again and this time it was accepted. China's borders were to be respected and its cities open to trade to all.
  11. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?
    1. The 1900 election was a repeat of 4 years earlier: William McKinley versus William Jennings Bryan again.
      1. McKinley just held fast while Bryan did the personal campaigning. McKinley's running-mate was Teddy Roosevelt. "TR" did considerable campaigning for McKinley.
    2. Bryan attacked imperialism. This was unproductive since people had grown weary of the subject by then.
    3. McKinley attacked what he called "Bryanism" as being the problem. McKinley struck fear again by implying that a President Bryan would undercut America's prosperity.
      1. McKinley won his reelection easily.
  12. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick
    1. Only six months after being reelected, McKinley was shot and killed in Buffalo, NY by a mentally unstable man. V.P. Teddy Roosevelt became the youngest president ever at only 42 years old.
    2. Roosevelt was a very interesting character. Small of frame as a youth, and picked on, he put himself on a rigorous workout routine and built himself into a short, barrel-chested powerhouse.
      1. He'd been born into an elite family and was a Harvard grad. His motto was, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," which was odd in that Roosevelt was not one to speak softly.
      2. He had a temper, was boisterous, stubborn, decisive, passionate, always thought he was right, and was always the center of attention.
    3. Roosevelt was a fantastic politician. The people adored the likeable "Teddy." Cartoonists loved his wire-framed glasses, huge teeth, rowdy nature—he was almost a walking, living caricature of himself.
      1. As president, TR's opinion was that the president should lead, and he did. He's often considered the "first modern president."
  13. Building the Panama Canal
    1. America, and Teddy Roosevelt, lusted after a canal across isthmus of Central America.
      1. The Spanish-American War showed that lacking a canal meant naval weakness. The U.S.S. Oregon had been "trapped" in the Pacific Ocean and took weeks to travel around South America to the Caribbean.
      2. A canal would also be a huge boost for business.
    2. There were obstacles to building a canal.
      1. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain (1850) said the U.S. couldn't control the isthmus route alone. By the early 1900's, Britain was willing to let this slide however. Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) that gave the U.S. the okay to go solo.
      2. The next question was the location of the canal.
        1. Nicaragua was the initial choice, but the volcano Mt. Pelée erupted, killed 30,000 people, and changed minds about the location.
        2. A French company was eager to move the U.S.'s attention to Panama where it'd tried and failed at constructing a canal. Engineer Philippe Bunau-Varilla got the price of the canal holdings dropped from $109 to $40 million. Congress decided to give it a go.
        3. Panama was a part of Colombia, posing the next problem.
          1. TR worked a deal with the Colombian president to lease the canal zone, but the Colombian senate reneged on the deal. TR was furious.
          2. Bunau-Varilla worried the whole deal would fall through. He incited Panama to revolt against Colombia. The revolution began on November 3, 1901 with the killing of a Chinese citizen and a donkey. The U.S. navy was conveniently offshore to give aid and the revolution was pulled off.
          3. TR recognized Panama as independent and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed. It leased the canal to the U.S. for $10 million and $250,000/year for a 10 mile wide canal strip.
    3. Roosevelt didn't try to sever Panama from Colombia, but it looked that way and was perceived that way. U.S.—Latin American relations took a major hit by Teddy Roosevelt's use of his Big Stick policy (bullying).
    4. Construction began in 1904. There were huge obstacles yet again.
      1. Obstacle #1 was sanitation. Tropical diseases forbade workers from even getting to the job site. Col. William C. Gorgas drained the swamps and eradicated the mosquitoes and diseases.
      2. Obstacle #2 was the scope of the task. It was likely the largest modern engineering undertaking to date. West Point engineer Col. George Washington Goethals headed up construction to its fruition—a modern marvel when completed in 1914. It'd cost $400 million to construct.
  14. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine
    1. Relations with Latin America would take another turn-for-the-worse. Nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were constantly behind in loan payments to European lenders. R
      1. Roosevelt worried that Europe would take action to collect their money, and thus violate the Monroe Doctrine. This put TR in a bit of a pickle: would he allow delinquency of payments or allow Europe to breech the Monroe Doctrine? He chose neither.
    2. His decision was the Roosevelt Corollary (an addition to the Monroe Doctrine). It said that the U.S. would intervene in Latin America and collect the debts for Europe.
      1. Whereas the Monroe Doctrine had said, "Europe, don't intervene!" the Roosevelt Corollary added, "We'll intervene for you!"
      2. In practical terms, the U.S. would take over customs houses and collect taxes and/or use the U.S. navy to seal off Latin American ports for tax collection purposes.
    3. Latin America did not appreciate TR's Big Stick being thrown at them again. The Good Neighbor policy seemed to be more like the "Bad Neighbor" policy.
      1. The Big Stick fell on Cuba in 1906. Revolutionaries created great instability and the Cuban president asked for U.S. assistance. U.S. Marines moved in for 3 years to offer their help. Still, it was seen as another Bad Neighbor policy move by the bully U.S.
  15. Roosevelt on the World Stage
    1. Teddy Roosevelt jumped onto the international scene in 1904 when Russia and Japan went to war.
      1. The two nations were fighting over land, namely the Manchuria area and Port Arthur in particular.
      2. When peace negotiations broke down, Japan asked TR to mediate. This was a bit ironic for the War Hawk Teddy Roosevelt to have turned peace-maker.
    2. TR negotiated a treaty at Portsmouth, NH (1905).
      1. Both nations wanted the Sakhalin island. Japan wanted payments since they felt they'd won the war.
      2. Russia got half of Sakhalin island. Japan was awarded no money but gained control over Korea. Neither side was overjoyed, Japan was especially unhappy, but the war was over.
      3. With both countries going home disgruntled over the outcome of the war, America's friendship with Japan and Russia went sour.
    3. Roosevelt also mediated a North African dispute in 1906 at a conference in Spain. For his peace-making, Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
  16. Japanese Laborers in California
    1. Another issue with Japan emerged when Japanese laborers began to migrate into California. Their population was only 3% of state's total, but a "yellow peril" swept over California.
    2. In 1906, San Francisco was recovering from a devastating earthquake and fires. The school board ordered segregation of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students.
      1. The issue quickly erupted and the yellow press on both sides went wild. There was even talk of possible war.
      2. Roosevelt invited the school board to the White House where he mediated a deal known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement." It said that the school board would repeal the segregation policy and Japan would halt the emigration of laborers to California.
    3. Roosevelt worried that Japan might interpret his actions as being motivated through fear—he wanted to show America's strength.
      1. TR ordered the sparkling new U.S. naval fleet on a world-wide tour. The "Great White Fleet" went to Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. It was a diplomatic good-will mission on the outside, and a not-so-subtle show of military muscle underneath.
      2. The U.S. had been cheered all along, but Japan was especially welcoming. The U.S. and Japan signed the Root-Takahira agreement where both nations promised to respect one another's territorial boundaries to honor China's Open Door policy.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 28 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

  1. Progressive Roots
    1. When the 1900's dawned, there were 76 million Americans. 1 out of 7 were foreign-born.
    2. A new reform movement immediately began, led by "Progressives". Their goals were to stop monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.
      1. The method of the progressives was to strengthen the state—to give more powers to the government. Their over-arching goal was to use the government "as an agency of human welfare."
    3. The roots of Progressivism began with the Greenback Party (1870's) and the Populist Party (1890's). A modern industrial society seemed to call for more government action and to take a step back from pure, laissez-faire capitalism.
    4. Writers used the power of the pen to make their progressive points.
      1. Henry Demarest Lloyd wrote Wealth Against Commonwealth (1894) which struck at the Standard Oil Company.
      2. Thorstein Veblen wrote The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) criticizing people who made money seemingly for money's sake. He spoke of "predatory wealth" and "conspicuous consumption."
      3. Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives (1890) about the lives of the poor. He wanted to divert attention from America's infatuation with how the rich live and show the life of squalor in the New York slums. This book would influence Teddy Roosevelt, a future New York police commissioner.
      4. Theodore Dreiser made his points through his realist fiction. In The Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914) he criticized promoters and profiteers.
    5. Other causes gained steam during the Progressive era.
      1. Socialists, influenced by strong European governments, called for more government action in the U.S. and started gaining votes in the ballot box.
      2. Advocates of the "social gospel" (Christian charity) called for helping the poor.
      3. Female suffragists also called for social justice, as well as the right to vote. They were led by Jane Addams and Lillian Wald.
  2. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers
    1. Around 1902, a new group of social critics emerged—the muckrakers. They typically exposed what they saw as corruption or injustice in writings. Favorite outlets for the muckrakers were liberal, reform-minded magazines like McClure's, Collier's, Cosmopolitan, and Everybody's.
      1. They were called "muckrakers" first by Teddy Roosevelt. It was a derogatory term, him being unimpressed with their tendency to focus on the negatives and "rake through the muck" of society.
    2. The muckrakers were very active and prolific…
      1. Lincoln Steffens wrote "The Shame of the Cities" (1902) which exposed city corruption in cahoots with big business.
      2. Ida Tarbell wrote an exposé in McClure's that laid bare the ruthless business tactics of John D. Rockefeller and the Standard Oil Company. Some thought she was just out for revenge because her father's business had been ruined by Rockefeller. But, all of her facts checked out.
      3. Thomas Lawson exposed the practices of stock market speculators in "Frenzied Finance" (1905-06), published in Everybody's. (He'd made $50 million himself playing the market.)
      4. David Phillips wrote "The Treason of the Senate" (1906) in Cosmopolitan. He said that 75 of the 90 U.S. senators represented big businesses rather than the people. He backed up his charges with enough evidence to also impress Teddy Roosevelt.
      5. John Spargo wrote The Bitter Cry of the Children (1906) exposing, and critical of, child labor.
      6. Ray Stannard Baker wrote Following the Color Line (1908) about the still-sorry state of life for Southern blacks.
      7. Dr. Harvey Wiley criticized patent medicines which were largely unregulated, habit-forming, and normally did more bad than good. He and his "Poison Squad" used themselves as guinea pigs for experiments.
    3. Muckrakers were loud about the ills, but didn't offer cures. To the muckrakers, the cure for societal ills was democracy. They had no faith in politicians leading the charge, but wanted to get the story out to the public. Muckrakers believed that the public conscience would eventually remedy the problems.
  3. Political Progressivism
    1. The progressives generally came from the middle class. They felt somehow sandwiched between the big business trusts and tycoons on the top and the immigrant, working class on the bottom.
    2. Progressives pushed for a variety of political reforms to help their cause. They favored and generally got the following accomplished:
      1. The initiative where voters could initiate laws, rather than waiting and hoping a legislator might do it.
      2. The referendum where voters could vote proposed bills into law, circumventing unresponsive legislators altogether.
      3. The recall where voters could remove elected officials rather than waiting for his term to expire. The thought was, "We voted them in, we can vote them out."
      4. The secret ballot, called the Australian ballot, to help get a true vote and avoid intimidation at the polls.
      5. The direct election of senators by the people. At the time, U.S. senators were chosen by state legislators, not the people. This became reality in 1913, with the 17th Amendment.
      6. And female suffrage. This would have to wait a bit longer (until 1920).
  4. Progressivism in the Cities and States
    1. Progressivism really got its start and took off on a more local level rather than national.
    2. Galveston, TX successfully used the city-manager system. The idea was to use professional people trained in their field of city management, rather than using "friends" of a corrupt mayor or city boss. The result was much greater efficiency and other cities took note of Galveston.
    3. Local Progressives cracked down on "slumlords," rampant prostitution, and juvenile delinquency.
    4. Wisconsin was the Progressive leader for states. Led by Gov. Robert "Fighting Bob" LaFollette, Wisconsin was able to grab power back from the big businesses and return it to the people.
      1. Other states took note and attacked trusts, railroads. Examples included Oregon and California (led by Gov. Hiram Johnson). Gov. Charles Evan Hughes, of New York, took on the wrongs of gas and insurance companies.
  5. Progressive Women This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Women were an indispensable catalyst in the Progressive army. They couldn’t vote or hold political office, but were active none-the-less. Women focused their changes on family-oriented ills such as child labor.
    2. Court decisions impacted women.
      1. The Supreme Court case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) said that laws protecting female workers were indeed constitutional. The case was successfully argued by attorney Louis Brandeis saying women's weaker bodies suffered harmful effects in factory work.
        1. This victory, however, came with a cost to women. Brandeis' own argument of weaker female bodies would later be used to keep women out of certain "male" jobs.
      2. A loss occurred in the case of Lochner v. New York (1905). In the case, the Supreme Court struck down a 10-hour workday for bakers.
    3. Women reformers gained speed after the Triangle Shirtwaist Company burnt down in 1911, trapping and killing 146 mostly young, women workers. The tragedy gained much attention and gave the women momentum.
      1. The public outcry prompted many states to pass laws regulating hours and conditions in such "sweatshops" and to pass workers' compensation laws.
    4. Alcohol had long been under fire by women. During the Progressive era, temperance would reach its peak.
      1. Francis Willard, founder of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) got 1 million women to join the cause against alcohol. The WCTU was joined by the Anti-Saloon League. They were well-organized and well-financed.
      2. Many states and counties went "dry." In 1914, 1/2 of Americans lived in dry areas.
      3. The movement culminated in 1919 with the 18th Amendment (AKA Prohibition) that banned alcohol's sale, consumption, and possession.
  6. TR’s Square Deal for Labor
    1. President Roosevelt had been moved the by muckrakers and the Progressives' ideals. He pursued the "three C's": (1) control of the corporations, (2) consumer protection, and (3) conservation of natural resources.
    2. A strike took place in 1902 at the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania. The workers called for a 20% pay increase and a reduction of work hours from 10 to 9 hours.
      1. Coal supplies dwindled and the nation felt the effects of the coal shortage so TR called in strike workers to the White House. Roosevelt was not impressed with the strike leaders.
      2. Roosevelt finally threatened to use federal troops to operate the mines. At this threat, the owners agreed to go to arbitration. The workers were given a 10% increase and the 9 hour day. The workers' union, however, was not officially recognized for bargaining.
    3. Roosevelt called on Congress to form the Dept. of Commerce and Labor, which it did. The department split in half ten years later.
      1. The Bureau of Corporations would investigate interstate trade and become important for breaking up monopolies during the "trust-busting" days.
  7. TR Corrals the Corporations
    1. The Interstate Commerce Commission (1887) had been designed to regulate railroads but it was proving to be ineffective. Therefore, it was decided more needed to be done.
      1. Congress passed the Elkins Act in 1903. It banned and prosecuted rebates awarded by railroaders.
      2. The Hepburn Act placed restrictions on free passes handed out by railroads (usually to the press to ensure good reports).
    2. Teddy Roosevelt nurtured the reputation of a trust buster. TR concluded, however that there were "good trusts" and there were "bad trusts." The bad trusts had to go.
      1. TR's most noteworthy target was the Northern Securities Company run by J.P. Morgan and James Hill.
        1. TR busted up Northern Securities (his decision was upheld by the Supreme Court). Busting J.P. Morgan's outfit angered Wall Street but this high-profile bust furthered TR's trust buster image.
      2. In all, Roosevelt attacked some 40 trusts, including busting the beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvester trusts
      3. Despite his reputation as a trust buster, TR allowed the "good trusts" to survive. He believed his actions against the bad trusts would prevent the good ones from going astray.
      4. William Howard Taft, who succeeded Roosevelt, would actually be more of a trust buster than TR. Taft actually busted more trusts than TR.
        1. Another example occurred over the U.S. Steel Company. U.S. Steel wanted to acquire the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company. TR had said that the move of this good trust would be okay, but Taft felt otherwise. Roosevelt was very angry over Taft's reversal of his position.
  8. Caring for the Consumer
    1. Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle about the meat packing industry's horrible conditions. Sinclair's goal was to reveal the plight of the workers. But, the real effect was to gross out America and initiate action in Congress.
      1. His book motivated Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act (1906). Henceforth meat would be inspected by the U.S.D.A.
      2. The Pure Food and Drug Act was also passed. Its goal was to ensure proper labeling of food and drugs.and to prevent tampering.
    2. These acts would help Europe to trust American meat and thus help exports.
  9. Earth Control
    1. Americans had long considered their natural resources inexhaustible. By about 1900, they were realizing this was not true and that conservation was needed. Acts of Congress began preserving the land…
      1. The first conservation act was the Desert Land Act (1877). It sold desert land at a cheap rate on the promise the land would be irrigated.
      2. The Forest Reserve Act (1891) gave the president permission to set aside land as parks and reserves. Millions of acres of old-growth forests were preserved under this authority.
      3. The Carey Act (1894) gave federal land to the states, again on the promise of irrigation.
    2. Teddy Roosevelt's presidency truly started a new era in conservation. Roosevelt was a consummate outdoorsman, was very concerned about the nation's timber and mineral depletion, and started the conservation movement with action.
      1. Others helped Roosevelt in the push to conserve, notably conservationist and Division of Forest head Gifford Pinchot and naturalist John Muir, the most well-known spokesman for Mother Nature.
      2. TR got the Newlands Act (1902) passed to begin massive irrigation projects out West. The Roosevelt Dam (on Arizona's Salt River) and dozens of other western dams created reservoirs to water, and bring life to, the arid land.
      3. TR wanted to save to the trees. By 1900, only 1/4 of the nation's once-vast virgin trees still stood.
        1. Roosevelt set aside 125 million acres of forest land (3 times the acreage of his 3 predecessors). Large quantities of land were also set aside for coal and water reserves. Purely as an example, he had no White House Christmas tree in 1902.
    3. The public shared TR's concern and passion for nature.
      1. Jack London's outdoorsy novels became popular, such as The Call of the Wild about Alaska's Klondike gold rush.
      2. Outdoorsy organizations emerged, such as the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club (whose goal was/is conservation).
    4. The Hetchy Hetch Valley of Yosemite National Park exposed a philosophical rupture amongst the conservationists.
      1. Hetchy Hetch was a beautiful Gorge that John Muir and the Sierra Club wanted to save. San Francisco wanted to dam it up for the city's water supply. In this case, TR sided with the city.
        1. Notably, TR and Muir were good friends, but TR was a pragmatist—always seeking a practical solution over an idealized solution.
        2. The division was clearly shown. The question asked, "Should land be simply set aside and untouched forever?" as John Muir advocated. Or, "Should the land be wisely managed for man's benefit?", as Teddy Roosevelt advocated.
      2. The federal government gave San Francisco the okay to dam up the valley. Roosevelt's policy of "multiple-use resource management" was set. The policy tried to use the land for recreation, reservoirs (for drinking, irrigating, water recreation), saw-then-replant logging, and summer stock grazing.
  10. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907
    1. Theodore Roosevelt was loved by the people, witnessed by the "Teddy" bear. Conservatives thought of him as unpredictable due to his Progressive ways they meddled the government into businesses.
      1. After winning his election in 1904, he announced he would not seek a third term. This cut his power a bit since everyone then knew he'd be out in four years.
    2. The economy took a sudden and sharp downtown in 1907. Wall Street was pounded, banks were run, suicides went up, and there were many Wall Street "speculators" were indicted on sneaky dealings.
      1. As with any economic downtown, the president was blamed, justly or not. Conservatives, especially, charged that Roosevelt's meddling in business had fouled up the cogs of the economy. They called it the "Roosevelt Panic."
      2. The Panic did reveal the need for a more elastic currency supply. In other words, the banks needed reserves to release into circulation if times got tough.
        1. Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act (1908) authorizing national banks to release money into circulation.
        2. This law/action paved the way for the monumental Federal Reserve Act (1913).
  11. The Rough Rider Thunders Out
    1. In 1908, TR was still very popular. He used his popularity to endorse a candidate that had similar policies as himself—William Howard Taft.
      1. Taft was a big fellow and very likable. The old saying was that "everybody loves a fat man" and in Taft's case the saying seemed to fit.
      2. The Democrats put forth William Jennings Bryan yet again. Bryan also painted himself as a Progressive.
      3. Riding on TR's popularity, Taft won the election easily, 321 to 162 in the electoral.
        1. As a sign-of-the-times Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs (of Pullman Strike fame) garnered a surprising 420,000 votes.
    2. After the election, TR went to Africa on a hunting safari. His exploits were much followed and he returned as energetic as ever, still only 51 years old.
      1. TR's legacy was to begin to tame unbridled capitalism. He wasn't an enemy of business, but brought it under control. He sought the middle-ground in between the "me alone" idea of pure capitalism and the "father knows best" ideas of a government that controls people's lives.
      2. Other parts of his legacy include: (1) increasing the power of the presidency, (2) he initiated reforms, and (3) he showed that the U.S. was a world power and thus held great responsibilities.
  12. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole
    1. At first, Taft seemed just fine. He was likable, seemed capable, had a solid background in experience.
    2. Tricky problems soon bogged him down. TR had been able to work through problems due to his force-of-personality and political instincts.
      1. Taft took a hands-off approach toward Congress which did not serve him well.
      2. He was a mild progressive only, more inclined toward the status quo than reform.
  13. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat
    1. President Taft encouraged a policy called "Dollar Diplomacy" where Americans invested in foreign countries to gain power.
      1. Wall Street was urged to invest in strategic areas, especially the Far East and Latin America.
      2. The Dollar Diplomacy policy would thus strengthen the U.S. and make money at the same time. Whereas TR had used the in-your-face Big Stick policy, Taft used the sneakier Dollar Diplomacy policy.
    2. A Dollar Diplomacy mishap occurred in China's Manchuria region.
      1. Taft wanted to buy Manchuria's railroads from Russia and Japan, then turn them over to the Chinese. This would keep the Open Door policy open, and strengthen the U.S.'s position in China.
      2. Russian and Japan blocked Sec. of State Philander Knox's deal and Taft suffered a Dollar Diplomacy black eye.
    3. Latin America was a busy spot for the Dollar Diplomacy policy. The Monroe Doctrine forbade Europe from intervening, so the U.S. did.
      1. The U.S. invested heavily in Honduras and Haiti, thinking they may become trouble spots.
      2. Ordering Europe to stay away from Latin America, and investing heavily there, meant the U.S. now had a vested interest and shouldered responsibility there.
        1. Several flare-ups required the U.S. to intervene militarily including Cuba, Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua (for 13 years).
  14. Taft the Trustbuster
    1. Taft was more of a trust buster than Roosevelt; Taft brought 90 lawsuits against trusts during his 4 years in office
    2. Perhaps his most noteworthy bust was the Standard Oil Company. The Supreme Court ordered in broken into smaller companies in 1911.
    3. The U.S. Steel Company was under fire from Taft, even though Roosevelt had agreed to let the company survive as one of his "good trusts." When Taft sought to break it up, Roosevelt was furious at his successor's actions.
  15. Taft Splits the Republican Party
    1. Two main issues split the Republican party: (1) the tariff and (2) conservation of lands.
    2. On the tariff, old-school Republicans were high-tariff; New/Progressive Republicans were low tariff.
      1. Taft, as the mild Progressive, had promised to lower the tariff. As president, he sought to do just that, if only a small reduction.
      2. Sen. Nelson Aldrich added many increases to the bill while it was in the Senate. When passed and signed by Taft, the Payne-Aldrich Bill actually broke his campaign promise and angered many.
        1. Pres. Taft even unwisely named it "the best bill that the Republican party ever passed."
      3. In actuality, the Payne-Aldrich Bill split the Republican party.
    3. On conservation, old-school Republicans favored using or developing the lands for business; new/Progressive Republicans favored conservation of lands.
      1. Taft did set up the Bureau of Mines to manage mineral resources. This was a "Progessive-ish" move and likely a popular one.
      2. However, Taft's involvement in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel (1910) was unpopular.
        1. Sec. of Interior Richard Ballinger said that public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska would be open for development.
        2. Chief of Forestry Gifford Pinchot was critical of the decision. Apparently siding with Ballinger, Taft fired Pinchot—an unpopular move.
    4. The Republican party split became apparent in the 1910 Congress election.
      1. In the election, the old-school Republicans and new/Progressive Republicans split the vote, thus the Democrats won heavily in the House of Rep's.
      2. Also, Socialist Eugene Berger of Milwaukee won a seat in Congress—again, showing the movement toward Socialism.
  16. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture
    1. The Republican split turned from differing opinions to different parties. The National Progressive Republican League began in 1911. Sen. Robert La Follette ("Fighting Bob" of Wisconsin) seemed destined to become their candidate.
    2. Teddy Roosevelt was so upset about Taft's policies that TR dropped hints that he'd be interested in running again for president.
      1. He finally said, "My hat is in the ring!" arguing that he hadn't wanted three consecutive terms as president.
      2. La Follette was brushed aside and Roosevelt was named as the Progressive Republican.
    3. The Taft-Roosevelt showdown came in June of 1912 at the Republican convention. Both men vied for the Republican nomination.
      1. As the sitting president, Taft was nominated as the Republican candidate for 1912.
      2. Roosevelt wasn't done, however. TR would simply run on his own as a third party candidate.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 29 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

  1. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912
    1. Democrats in 1912 felt they could take the White House (since being out for 16 years) because the Republicans had split their party.
    2. Democrats looked to Dr. Woodrow Wilson, the governor of New Jersey.
      1. Wilson had been a mild conservative but had turned become an strong progressive.
      2. His background was in education as a history professor, then as president of Princeton Univ. As governor of NJ, he made a name for himself by standing up to the bosses, trusts, and as a liberal.
      3. At their convention, it took 46 votes to choose Wilson. The final vote was cast after William Jennings Bryan threw his support behind Wilson.
    3. The Democrats now had a candidate in Woodrow Wilson and they added a platform they named the "New Freedom."
      1. The New Freedom platform was made up of liberal and progressive policies.
    4. At the Progressive party convention Teddy Roosevelt was nominated by reformer Jane Addams (of Hull House in Chicago). Roosevelt's speech enthralled its listeners.
      1. TR won the nomination (which was a foregone conclusion) and commented that he felt "as strong as a bull moose." The Progressive party then had a symbol and a nickname: the Bull Moose Party.
    5. The 1912 presidential campaign was thus set and the campaigning began.
      1. The 1912 candidates were…
        1. Republican: Pres. William Howard Taft
        2. Democrat: Woodrow Wilson
        3. Progressive: Theodore Roosevelt
      2. Talk between Taft and TR got nasty as the two old friends laid into one another. Wilson could enjoy just letting his other two opponents rip themselves.
      3. Personality wars aside, Wilson's New Freedom plan and Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" plan came front-and-center.
        1. The New Nationalism plan had been inspired by The Promise of American Life by Herbert Croly (1910). The book agreed with TR's old policy of leaving good trusts alone but controlling bad trusts.
        2. The New Nationalism also pushed for female suffrage and social programs such as minimum wage laws social insurance programs. These such programs would later be manifested during the Great Depression in Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal.
          1. These "socialistic" social welfare programs would be a hard pill to swallow for business folks and conservatives.
        3. The New Freedom plan supported small business and wanted to bust all trusts, not distinguishing good or bad. The plan did not include social welfare programs.
      4. TR was shot in the chest in Milwaukee while on the campaign trail. Though shot, TR delivered his speech, went to the hospital, and recovered in 2 weeks time.
  2. Woodrow Wilson: A Minority President
    1. With the Republicans split, it was time for the Democrats. Woodrow Wilson won the 1912 electoral vote handily: Wilson had 435 electoral votes, Roosevelt had 88, and Taft had 8.
      1. The popular vote was much different however. Wilson garnered only 41% of the people's votes, TR and Taft totaled 50%. Thus, most people in America did not want Wilson as their president.
      2. The conclusion seemed clear—Roosevelt's Bull Moose party had cost Republicans, and given the Democrats, the White House.
    2. The Socialist party continued to be on the rise. Eugene V. Debs got 6% of the popular vote—a strong showing by a third party and, again, a sign-of-the-times for people liking what the Socialists were saying.
    3. Taft didn't just go away after his one term. He would later become the chief justice of the Supreme Court.
  3. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics
    1. He was born and raised in the South who sympathized with the Confederacy's struggle to rule itself during the Civil War. This may have influenced his "self-determination" policy of post-WWI where the people chose their government.
    2. His father was a Presbyterian minister and Wilson was deeply religious himself as well as a superb speaker. It was noted that he was born halfway between the bible and the dictionary and never strayed far from either.
    3. Like Teddy Roosevelt, he believed the president should strike out and lead the country.
    4. Wilson's personality was very much unlike Roosevelt, however.
      1. Wilson was an idealist, not a pragmatist like TR. He was completely stubborn at times, not budging an inch on his ideals or beliefs. Consequently, his stubbornness meant at times not getting anything done.
      2. Wilson also was an intellectual who lacked the people's touch. Whereas TR had been loved by the people, Wilson was scholarly and arrogant. Or in other words, whereas TR might have had a beer with the people, Wilson might scoff at their ignorance and move on.
  4. Wilson Tackles the Tariff
    1. As a Progressive, Woodrow Wilson entered the White House saying he wished to attack what he termed the "triple wall of privilege": the tariff, the banks, and trusts.
    2. Wilson sought to bring the tariff down. He helped Congress pass the Underwood Tariff (1913) which did two main things…
      1. It considerably reduced tariff rates on imports.
      2. It started a graduated income tax (the tax rate went up as a person's salary went up). The 16th Amendment had recently been passed legalizing an income tax, the Underwood Tariff law simply laid out the rules.
  5. Wilson Battles the Bankers
    1. America's financial system had been set up by the National Banking Act back during the Civil War. The Panic of 1907 had shown the system to have faults and to be incapable of addressing emergency needs. Wilson set up a committee to look into the banking system.
      1. The committee was headed by Republican Senator Aldrich (of the Aldrich-Vreeland Act which addressed banking back in 1908). The committee recommended what amounted to a third Bank of the United States.
      2. The Democrats, following a House committee chaired by Arsene Pujo, concluded that the "money monster" was rooted in the banking system.
      3. And, Louis D. Brandeis wrote Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It (1914) which fired people up even more to reform a supposedly corrupt banking system.
    2. Wilson's mind was made up. In June of 1913 he asked a joint session of Congress to make broad reforms to the nation's banking system.
      1. Congress reacted and passed the monumental Federal Reserve Act (1913).
        1. The law created the Federal Reserve Board (appointed by the president) which oversaw 12 regional, federal banks.
        2. The Federal Reserve Board was given the power to issue paper money (AKA "Federal Reserve Notes"). Thus, it could regulate the amount of money in circulation by issuing, or holding back, paper money.
  6. The President Tames the Trusts This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Last on Wilson's "triple wall of privilege" were the trusts. Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act (1914) which set up a position, appointed by the president, to investigate activities of trusts.
      1. The goal would be to stop trade practices deemed unfair such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, and bribery.
    2. Congress wanted to strengthen the largely ineffective Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890), so it passed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914).
      1. The Clayton Act put real teeth into anti-trust law. It added to the Sherman law's list of objectionable trust practices by forbidding price discrimination (a different price for different people) and interlocking directorates (the same people serving on "competitors" boards of trustees).
      2. It also (a) exempted labor unions from being considered trusts and (b) legalized strikes as a form of peaceful assembly.
  7. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide
    1. Several other reforms followed Wilson's attack on the "triple wall of privilege."
    2. Farmers got a bit of government help from the Progressive-minded Wilson.
      1. The Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) offered low interest loans to farmers.
      2. The Warehouse Act (1916) offered loans on on security of staple crops.
    3. Workers made gains under the Progressive-minded Wilson.
      1. Sailors were guaranteed good treatment and a decent wage under the La Follette Seamen's Act (1915). A negative result was that shipping rates shot upward with the new governmental regulations.
      2. The Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916) offered help to federal civil-service employees during a time of disability.
      3. The Adamson Act (1916) set an 8-hour workday (plus overtime) for any worker on a train engaged in interstate trade.
    4. Wilson named Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—the 1st Jew to sit on the bench. But, Wilson's Progressivism did not reach out to blacks in America. His policies actually moved toward greater segregation.
    5. Wilson played politics too.
      1. The business community largely despised all of Wilson's and the government's meddling into business. To keep business folks somewhat happy, and hopefully get reelected, Wilson made conservative appointments to the Federal Reserve Board and to the Federal Trade Commission.
      2. To get reelected in 1916, Wilson new he'd have to lure most of TR's Bull Moose backers to the Democrat party. So, despite "throwing a bone" to business, most of his energies were put into the Progressive arena.
  8. New Directions in Foreign Policy
    1. Woodrow Wilson took a very different path in foreign policy when compared to his two predecessors. Wilson was a pacifist at heart, a peacemaker. He hated TR's Big Stick Policy and Taft's Dollar Diplomacy.
      1. He got American bankers to pull out of a 6 nation loan to China.
      2. Wilson got Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act (1912) which allowed American ships to pass through the canal toll free.
    2. Wilson signed the Jones Act (1916) granting territorial status to the Philippines. It also promised independence when a "stable government" was established.
      1. The Philippines were finally granted their independence on July 4, 1946.
    3. Other foreign situations forced the peaceful president to take action.
      1. Wilson defused a situation with Japan. California forbade Japanese-Americans from owning land in the U.S. Tensions ran high and violence seemed a real threat. Wilson sent Sec. of State William Jennings Bryan to speak to the California legislature and the situation calmed down.
      2. He was forced to take military action in 1915 in Haiti. Chaos erupted there and Wilson sent U.S. Marines to protect Americans and American interests there. They stayed for over a year and a half.
      3. Marines were also sent to the Dominican Republic in the same year to keep order.
      4. In 1917, Woodrow Wilson purchased the Virgin Island from Denmark. It was clear by this time that the arms of America were reaching into the Caribbean.
  9. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico
    1. For years, the resources of Mexico had been used by American oil, railroad, and mining businesses. The Mexican people were extremely poor and they revolted in 1913.
      1. The president was assassinated. Placed as president was an Indian, Gen. Victoriano Huerta. The result of the chaos was a massive immigration from Mexico to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
    2. Huerta's regime put Wilson in a tight spot.
      1. The revolutionaries in Mexico were violent and threatened American lives and property. Americans called for Wilson to offer protection but, he would not.
      2. On the flip side, Wilson also would not recognize Huerta and his regime. Wilson allowed American arms to go to Huerta's rivals Venustiano Carranza and Francisco "Pancho" Villa.
    3. A situation emerged in Tampico, Mexico when some American sailors were seized by Mexico. Wilson sought Congress' okay to use military force and actually had the navy seize Vera Cruz, Mexico. Huerta and Carranza both were not happy about this move.
      1. The ABC Powers (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) stepped in to mediate the situation.
      2. Huerta was replaced after considerable pressure and Carranza became president.
    4. Carranza's rival Pancho Villa began stirring up trouble. Pancho Villa was something of a Mexican Robin Hood. He was hated by some who considered him a thief and murderer; he was loved by some who saw him as fighting for the "little man."
      1. Pancho Villa raided a train, kidnapped 16 American mining engineers, and killed them.
      2. He and his men raided Columbus, New Mexico and killed 19 more people.
    5. Wilson sent the Army, headed by Gen. John. J. Pershing, after Pancho Villa.
      1. Pershing took a few thousand troops into Mexico, fought both Carranza's and Villa's troops, but couldn't catch Pancho Villa.
      2. While hunting Villa, World War I broke out and Pershing was recalled. (Villa would soon be murdered by a Mexican rival.)
  10. Thunder Across the Sea
    1. In 1914, Austrian heir-to-the-throne Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist. This started a domino-effect where Europe quickly fell into war.
    2. The powers of Europe chose sides due to culture and to alliances…
      1. The main Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey (aka the Ottomon Empire).
      2. The main Allied Powers were Russia, France, England, and Australia.
    3. Most Americans favored the Allies but many supported the Central Powers due to ethnic heritage. Nearly all Americans were happy that an ocean separated them from the war and wanted to stay neutral.
  11. A Precarious Neutrality
    1. Adding to the somber tone of the times, President Wilson's wife had recently died. He declared that the U.S. was officially neutral.
    2. Both the Central and Allied Powers sought America's support.
      1. The Central Powers of Germany and Austro-Hungary were reliant on Americans that shared their heritage. There were 11 million Americans with ethnic ties to these nations (roughly 20%).
      2. The Allies had most of the cultural, political, and economic ties with America. Generally speaking, most Americans were sympathetic to the Allies' side.
        1. The leader of Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, was a military autocrat and was easy for most freedom-loving Americans to dislike. Anyone "on the fence" would almost certainly side with the Allies and against the Kaiser/Central Powers.
        2. Additionally, any fence-sitters likely had their minds made up against the Central Powers in a New York subway incident. There, a Central Powers operative left his briefcase on the subway. Inside were plans to sabotage American industries.
  12. America Earns Blood Money
    1. Being officially neutral, American businesses sought to trade with either side in the war to make money.
      1. Trade with the Allies was possible and took place.
      2. Trade with the Central Powers was much trickier with the British navy controlling the sea. This trade effectively pulled the U.S. out of a mini-recession that it'd been in prior to the war.
    2. Germany was aware of their inferior naval status and the benefits of Allied-American trade.
      1. Germany knew they could not compete with the British navy one-on-one. The German solution was to rely on U-boats, or submarines.
      2. Germany announced "unrestricted submarine warfare" on the Allies or anyone assisting the Allies. The U.S. would not be targeted, but no guarantees were made.
      3. President Wilson said Germany would be held to "strict accountability" for any American damages.
    3. The greatest U-boat attack was on the Lusitania, a British cruise liner. Nearly 1,200 souls were killed in the attack, including 128 Americans.
      1. The Lusitania and the Americans had been warned of a possible attack. Still, the effect was to motivate many Americans to call for war.
        1. William Jennings Bryan resigned from his post as Secretary of State due to the possibility of going to war.
    4. Other ships were soon sunk by German U-boats.
      1. The Arabic was sunk, a British ship, killing two Americans.
      2. The Sussex was sunk, a French passenger ship, and prompted Pres. Wilson to pressure Germany.
        1. Germany gave the "Sussex Pledge" in response. It promised that no attacks would be made on ships without warning.
        2. Germany quickly realized that such a pledge undermined the purpose of a submarine (surprise attack). They retracted the pledge and reverted back to unrestricted submarine warfare.
    5. Wilson's neutrality was teetering on the brink.
  13. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916
    1. 1916 was another presidential election year. The candidates were…
      1. Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes. He was infamous for changing his position depending on his audience. He as thus nicknamed "Charles Evasive Hughes."
      2. Democrats nominated Pres. Wilson for another 4 years. The campaign slogan was "He kept us out of war."
    2. By this time America's neutrality was slipping away. Still, the slogan was appealing.
    3. Wilson won the election, 277 to 254 in the electoral vote.
      1. The irony of the election was that Wilson would lead America into war only 5 months later, in April of 1917.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 30 - The War to End Wars

  1. War by Act of Germany
    1. By January 22, 1917, Woodrow Wilson still wanted the U.S. to avoid war. He gave a speech and called for “peace without victory” (defeating Germany without embarrassing them).
    2. Germany responded with an iron fist. They announced they would erase the Sussex pledge and turn to a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. This meant any ship, warship or civilian, belligerent or peaceful, was fair game to German u-boats.
      1. Woodrow Wilson sought to arm merchant ships. But, he was met with opposition by a group of Midwestern senators.
    3. The "last straw" came in the Zimmerman note.
      1. German foreign secretary sent a secret telegram from Germany to Mexico. The telegram, however, was intercepted by British spies.
      2. In the note, Germany encouraged Mexico to wage war against the U.S. After a victory, Mexico would regain Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
    4. Meanwhile, German u-boats were indeed sinking ships. Four unarmed American merchant ships were sunk by German subs.
    5. And to the east, Vladimir Lenin's communist revolution overthrew the Russian czar.
    6. President Wilson decided the time had undoubtedly come for the U.S. to enter the war. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress to declare war. Congress declared war on April 6, 1917.
  2. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned
    1. The challenge now was to lead many reluctant Americans into war.
      1. Six senators (including the first congresswoman, Jeanette Rankin) and 50 representatives had voted against the war.
    2. Stopping u-boats would not be convincing enough to Midwesterners. Thus, Wilson's new slogan and purpose for the war was to, "make the world safe for democracy."
      1. This slogan laid out a very idealized goal: not to fight for the riches or war, but to free others from the tyranny of autocrats.
      2. Wilson successfully sold the idea. Americans eagerly joined the effort to "hang the Kaiser." The expense was Wilson's initial goal of "peace without victory."
  3. Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points
    1. Wilson became the de facto moral leader of the war. In January of 1917 he gave his Fourteen Points Address to Congress.
    2. The Fourteen Points laid out Wilson's idealistic goals. Oddly, before ever entering the war, Wilson was laying out his goals for peace after the war. The main points were…
      1. Abolishing secret treaties.
      2. Freedom of the seas.
      3. Removal of economic barriers between nations.
      4. Reduction of armaments.
      5. Changing colonial claims to help both colonizers and native peoples.
      6. "Self-determination" where groups choose their government for themselves.
      7. A committee called the League of Nations to hopefully settle international disputes peacefully. This was idealistic Wilson's most desired point.
  4. Creel Manipulates Minds
    1. In order to ratchet up and to keep up the war's enthusiasm in America, the Committee on Public Information was created to sell the war.
    2. George Creel headed up the committee and was very successful using the following tactics:
      1. He sent out 75,000 "four-minute men" to give patriotic speeches.
      2. Posters were pasted everywhere saying things like "Battle of the Fences" or encouraging people to buy war bonds.
      3. Leaflets and pamphlets told of the idealistic goals of the war.
      4. Although radio and TV hadn't been invented yet, the movies had. Creel used movie shorts (often featuring America's first big movie star, Charlie Chaplin) or propaganda films like The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin or To Hell with the Kaiser.
      5. Songs helped sell the war too, especially Over There.
    3. Perhaps a drawback of Creel's success was that he was too successful. Americans entered the war with too-lofty ideals. The reality was a dirty war in the trenches, with no glorious battle, high casualties, and a generation of disillusioned young men who survived. This would be later immortalized in Hemingway's novels The Sun Also Rises and especially in A Farewell to Arms.
  5. Enforcing Loyalty and Stiffing Dissent
    1. German-Americans (about 8% of the U.S. population) were largely loyal to the United States. However, rumors and gossip spawned the wide belief that they were actually spies and saboteurs loyal to Germany. Some were tarred-and-feathered or beaten.
    2. Anti-German feelings affected all.
      1. German names were re-branded. For example, German composers like Beethoven were not performed by orchestras, sauerkraut became "liberty cabbage," dachshunds became "liberty pups."
    3. Congress joined the general mood by passing two anti-foreign laws.
      1. The Espionage Act of 1917 sought to prosecute "spies". 1,900 prosecutions followed under the Espionage Act.
        1. Noteworthy was Eugene V. Debs, the leader of the Socialist. He was sentenced to ten years under the law.
        2. Also targeted were members of the Industrial Workers of the World (I.W.W.), a group that held the goal of creating an international labor union. The leader of the I.W.W., William D. Haywood, also was convicted under the Espionage Act.
      2. The Sedition Act of 1918 sought to prosecute anyone engaging in "seditious" activity.
        1. Essentially any activity interpreted as anti-government could be prosecuted—a very general definition that could be applied widely.
        2. Both the Espionage and Sedition Acts pushed the boundaries of the First Amendment, and likely flat-out broke them.
        3. Notably, these two laws were very similar to the Alien and Sedition Acts of the 1790's, under President Adams'.
        4. After the war, presidential pardons were given to many of those jailed under these laws. Eugene Debs was pardoned by President Warren G. Harding in 1921.
  6. The Nation’s Factories Go to War This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The U.S. entered the war very unprepared. Wilson had taken a few steps early on, including (1) forming a Council of National Defense to study economic mobilization, (2) increasing shipbuilding, and (3) increasing the size of the army (although the U.S. still ranked 15th in the world in size).
    2. The first major problem was mobilizing industry. There was much ignorance everywhere and reluctance by states-rights advocates who didn't want the federal government ramming things down their throats.
      1. Somewhat late, in March of 1918, Wilson appointed Bernard Baruch leader of the War Industries Board to orchestrate industry in the war effort. Baruch was a savvy stock speculator and very able, but the Board's powers were a bit weak. America's love of laissez-faire (government staying out of business) was strong even in time of war.
  7. Workers in Wartime
    1. Americans went to work in large measure, motivated by the governments "work or fight" policy.
    2. Former Pres. Taft headed the National War Labor Board to settle any worker disputes and thus keep folks on the job.
      1. Businesses were encouraged to keep wages high and hours long.
      2. The government did not agree to workers' top desire—a government guarantee to organize labor unions.
    3. Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor (AF of L), loyally supported the war.
      1. Some smaller unions, including the I.W.W., did not support the war. The "I Won't Work" union engaged in some sabotage in complaint of poor working conditions.
      2. The AF of L, however, benefited from its work and loyalty. By war's end, membership had more than doubled to over 3 million and wages in certain industries had increased by 20%.
    4. Problems still remained.
      1. Wartime inflation threatened to negate the wage increases.
      2. Strikes ran rampant—there were some 6,000 strikes, often violent.
        1. For example in 1919, over 250,000 steel workers struck (America's largest strike). Steel officials would not bargain. Instead, 30,000 African-American workers were brought in to keep the mills going. Violence followed, a dozen workers were killed, and the strike failed.
    5. African-Americans began moved north during the war by the tens of thousands seeking jobs. Appearing in formerly all-white neighborhoods, tension and sometimes violence resulted. Chicago and St. Louis are good examples.
  8. Suffering Until Suffrage
    1. While the men were at war, many women took jobs.
    2. Women working created a split in the women's movement—those against and for the war.
      1. Against the war, the National Woman's party were pacifists. The party was led by a Quaker, Alice Paul. She organized marches and hunger strikes against Germany.
      2. Most women supported the war. The National American Woman Suffrage Association backed Pres. Wilson's efforts. They argued that women must engage in the war effort in order to participate after the war. They gained Pres. Wilson's endorsement of women's suffrage.
    3. Several states began granting women the right to vote including New York, Michigan, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. Several western states had already granted women's suffrage. The domino effect had begun.
    4. In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was passed granting women the right to vote nationwide.
    5. A Women's Bureau emerged after the war with the goal of protecting women's newfound rights in the workplace. However, most women left the jobs and returned to the homes after the war.
      1. Congress also essentially endorsed the traditional role of women as homemakers by passing the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act (1921). The law gave instruction on maternal and infant health care.
  9. Forging a War Economy
    1. Mobilization to a wartime economy would be fueled by emotion and patriotism rather than the rule of laws.
    2. Since he'd successfully organized a voluntary food drive for Belgium, Herbert Hoover was chosen to head up the Food Administration.
      1. Hoover relied on voluntary efforts, not mandates of law.
      2. Slogans were very successful in drumming up support and food. Examples were "meatless Tuesdays" and "wheatless Wednesdays."
      3. Most Americans planted "victory gardens" in their backyards to grow their own vegetables.
      4. No grains were to be wasted on making alcohol. This also helped propel the prohibition movement. In 1919, one year after the war ended, the Eighteenth Amendment was passed prohibiting alcoholic drinks.
    3. The increased need for food was because the U.S. had to feed citizens at home, package food to ship to soldiers, and feed the allies in Europe.
      1. Hoover's program and people's efforts were very successful. Food production increased by 25% and food exports to Europe tripled.
      2. His program was mimicked by others.
        1. The Fuel Administration encourage folks with "heatless Mondays", "lightless nights," and "gasless Sundays." "Daylight saving time" was also started to conserve fuel since there was one less dark hour to light up.
        2. The Treasury Dept. sought money for the effort through Liberty Loan and Victory Loan drives. People were also encouraged to buy "war bonds."
          1. The government collected $21 billion, 2/3 of America's war effort. The other 1/3 of the cost was paid via increased taxes.
    4. Although voluntary efforts were the preference, the government did exert its power at times.
      1. The government took over the railroads in 1917 when they got log-jammed.
      2. And, they seized many ships for the war.
  10. Making Plowboys into Doughboys
    1. Americans had envisioned a somewhat secondary role in the war effort. By 1917, however, it became clear that the European Allies were out of men, money, and everything else. America would have to go "all in" to the war.
    2. To gain the needed soldiers, a draft was started by the Selective Service Act (a draft hadn't been used since the Civil War).
      1. All men, age 18 to 45, were required to register. A man couldn't purchase his exemption either, as in the Civil War.
      2. Despite some fussing, the draft was relatively smooth and successful. The army swelled to 4,000,000 men.
      3. Troops were supposed to get six months training, but usually they were just shuffled off to war.
    3. Women served in the military for the first time.
    4. Blacks also served, still in segregated units. Racial attitudes of the time still held that black soldiers shouldn't be trained for combat, but rather should serve in support roles.
  11. Fighting in France—Belatedly
    1. In Russia, the communist Bolsheviks had taken over in late 1917. By early 1918, Russia had pulled out of the war. With the Eastern Front now dormant, the result was that German soldiers could now relocate over to the Western Front.
    2. Despite the Allies urging, America was late getting "over there." Partly that was due to the huge tasks of logistics, of organizing, and partly it was due to America's desire to train the troops and keep them under American officers.
    3. Americans began spilling over to Europe and first served as Allied replacements in the quieter sections. Others served in Belgium, Italy, and even Russia to prevent Russia from falling to Germany. Some troops went to Siberia to hold back Japan's interests there.
      1. The Bolsheviks disliked these interventions by capitalists trying to undermine their communist revolution.
  12. America Helps Hammer the “Hun”
    1. The Allies knew Germany would make a big push in the Spring of 1918—and they did.
    2. French commander Marshal Foch's motto was, "To make war is to attack." But, really, France was just hanging on until America arrived.
    3. U.S. soldiers arrived en masse in the Spring of 1918. America's main roles in the war were (1) in stopping the German assault on Paris, (2) providing a much-needed boost to morale, and (3) providing supplies.
      1. American soldiers helped stop Germany at Château-Thierry, only 40 miles from Paris.
      2. Americans helped at the Second Battle of the Marne which started the German withdrawal.
      3. Americans helped stop Germany at the southern flank at St. Mihiel.
      4. American Gen. John J. Pershing didn't want to just help in the war. He wanted Americans to fight on their own.
        1. U.S. Marines proved themselves at Belleau Wood. Due to there fiere fighting. There they were given the nickname "Teufel Hunden" by the Germans—"Devil Dogs."
        2. Pershing engaged in the Meuse-Argonne offensive, the largest military endeavor in American history to that time. The numbers were huge, and with the machine gun in use, so were casualties.
        3. Sgt. Alvin C. York became a hero when he killed 20 Germans and captured 132 others, by himself.
    4. By this time, Germany's back was broken and was about to give up. To speed the psychological process, the Allies were distributing propaganda leaflets encouraging Germany to surrender.
  13. The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany
    1. Wilson achieved his goal of kicking the Kaiser out of power. Many Germans were sick of war and the Kaiser fled to Holland.
    2. Germany quit fighting at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918 (Nov. 11, 1918). This was an armistice only (a cease-fire). An official surrender would have to come later amongst the politicians.
      1. This day became known as "Armistice Day" and then later, "Veterans' Day."
    3. Even more than losses on the battlefield, what really stopped the Germans was the possibility of seemingly endless American troops and supplies.
  14. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus
    1. Both at home and across the world, Woodrow Wilson's popularity was flying high at the end of the war. Still, in the mid-term elections of 1918, Republicans gained a slim majority in Congress.
    2. Wilson decided to personally travel to Europe peace talks. Republicans were not happy about this—to them it seemed like he was showing off.
      1. Worse still for Wilson was that he didn't invite a single Republican along on the trip. Henry Cabot Lodge was chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations committee, but Wilson and he despised one another.
      2. Leaving out Republicans alienated them even more and would prove to be a costly mistake.
  15. An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris
    1. The "Big Four" met at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to settle terms of peace. The Big Four were Vittorio Orlando (Italy), Georges Clemenceau (France), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Woodrow Wilson (U.S.).
    2. Conflicting ambitions ruled the conference. Britain and France wanted to punish Germany, Italy wanted money or land, the U.S. wanted to heal wounds through Wilson’s League of Nations.
    3. Wilson’s big dream was the League of Nations to "end all wars." He'd "sell the ranch" to get the League. So he bargained with Britain and France.
      1. Britain and France agreed to go along with the League, Wilson reluctantly agreed to go along with punishment.
      2. The War Guilt Clause was included doing two things: (1) it formally placed blame on Germany, a proud and embarrassed people, and (2) it charged Germany for the costs of war, $33 billion.
  16. Hammering Out the Treaty
    1. Meanwhile, back in the U.S., opposition to the Treaty of Versailles was growing. A 2/3 vote by the U.S. Senate is needed to approve a president's treaty. A group, led by William Borah and Hiram Johnson, desired isolation and/or it would be unwise to turn American decision-making over to a group of foreign nations (the League of Nations).
    2. Europe noticed the American opposition—this put them in a better bargaining position. They set out to use their new power.
      1. Clemenceau pressed for the Rhineland and Saar regions (in between France and Germany). This went against Wilson's idea of "self-determination." Wilson agreed to:
        1. Let France occupy the region for 15 years, then let the people vote: France or Germany? (they voted Germany).
        2. The "Security Treaty" saying the U.S. and England would come to France's aid if they ever needed help.
      2. Italy wanted the strategic seaport of Fiume. Again, this interfered with self-determination. Talks broke down and Italy turned against Wilson.
      3. Japan wanted China's Shantung peninsula and German islands in the Pacific. Yet again, this was not self-determination. Wilson eventually agreed to let Japan keep the islands and the peninsula on the promise that the Shantung would go back to China later on.
  17. The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War
    1. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans had hoped Wilson's Fourteen Points would be built into the treaty, but due to necessary bargaining, few made it. The Germans felt betrayed. This would be a main crying point by Adolf Hitler in the near future.
    2. Wilson had been forced to bargain—no bargaining would've meant no treaty. Now, he was a fallen hero. Liberals felt he'd "sold out" and imperialists felt he was too soft.
  18. The Domestic Parade of Prejudice
    1. Upon his return to the U.S., Wilson entered a whirlwind of opposition on many sides.
      1. Isolationists didn't want to get in "entangling alliances," as Washington and Jeffeson had warned against.
      2. "Hun-haters" thought the treaty was too soft; liberals thought it was too tough.
      3. "Hyphenated Americans" felt the treaty too harsh on their home country. Irish-Americans thought it gave Britain too much world power.
  19. Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919)
    1. Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge did not want the Treaty of Versailles approved in the Senate. He felt he could not defeat it outright, but intended to change it to a favorable form.
    2. To stall, he held meetings and read the 264 page document aloud in the Senate. The slow-down began to confuse public opinion on the Treaty.
    3. While bogged down in the Senate, Wilson decided to take his case on the road—to appeal to the people themselves. It would be a physically grueling summer tour.
      1. Early on, Wilson's tour went somewhat poorly. Midwestern tour stops had lots of German-Americans who weren't enthusiastic.
      2. Also, "irreconcilable" senators (Borah and Johnson) followed Wilson's tour and made stops at the places he'd just spoken.
      3. The western mountains and Pacific Coast welcomed Wilson warmly. After a speech in Pueblo, CO, Wilson collapsed due to exhaustion. Days later, a stroke paralyzed half of his body. He laid in the White House for months, essentially inactive as president.
  20. Defeat Through Deadlock
    1. Henry Cabot Lodge drew up fourteen "reservations" to the Treaty of Versailles. His goal was to protect the Monroe Doctrine, the Constitution, and retain America's right to rule herself, rather than an international committee.
      1. Of special concern was Article X of the Treaty. It required the U.S. to help a League nation that is attacked. Lodge and the Congress wanted to retain that right themselves. Lodge tacked on amendments to make those changes.
    2. By voting time, with the amendments in place, the roles had been switched—Lodge was now for the treaty and Wilson was now against it.
      1. Wilson personally despised Lodge and would not accept Lodge's perversions of the Treaty of Versailles. Though weak, he convinced Democrats to vote against Lodge's amended version of the treaty. The treaty failed to get Senate approval, 55 yes to 39 no (it needed a 2/3 vote to pass).
      2. Surprised at the defeat, the treaty was brought up for a second vote. It failed a second time, with a 49 yes to 35 no vote. The U.S. never did accept the Treaty of Versailles or, thus, the League of Nations.
      3. The treaty was not ratified due to many reasons. A major one was Wilson's refusal to compromise. Wilson was a man of high ideals—he would not compromise his ideals in the reality of politics.
  21. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920
    1. Twice voted down and still unratified, Wilson planned to take his case straight to the people in a "solemn referendum." This was simply unrealistic in the dirty world of politics.
    2. By 1920, the Republicans had reorganized. Teddy Roosevelt's death in 1919 helped draw the Republicans back together. They drew up a party platform to appeal to both those for and those against the League of Nations. Their candidate would court both sides.
      1. Warren G. Harding was chosen as the Republican candidate and Calvin Coolidge as V.P. candidate. Harding was chosen largely because he was folksy and looked like a president. He ran saying America wanted to take a break from Wilsonian high-mindedness and just "return to normalcy," a non-word, but he was probably right.
      2. The Democrats chose Ohio governor James M. Cox (pro-League of Nations) and for V.P., a young Franklin D. Roosevelt.
    3. Harding won the election in a big way (16 million to only 9).
      1. Notably, Socialist party candidate Eugene V. Debs got almost 1 million votes—a substantial number. This raised the alarm that socialism/communism was growing in the U.S.
  22. The Betrayal of Great Expectations
    1. The ultimate irony of WWI was that it was billed the "war to end all wars," and yet it did much to start the biggest war ever, World War II.
    2. At end of WWI, the door was open for the U.S. to become the world's leader, but instead, America retreated into isolationism. American isolationism helped lead to WWII in several ways:
      1. Without a allies to help in time of need, France went ahead and built up a massive military.
      2. Punishment of Germany led to considerable suffering. This opened the door for Adolf Hitler to gain support with wild ideas. Isolationism would also allow Hitler Germany to re-arm themselves largely without interruption.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 31 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties

Chapter 31 American Life in the “Roaring Twenties” 1919-1929

I. Seeing Red

  1. Americans were paranoid after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, which spawned a tiny communist party in America.
  2. The Big red scare of 1919-1920 resulted in a nationwide crusade against left-wingers.
  3. Various states joined the pack in the outcry against the radicals
    • Legislatures passed criminals syndicalism laws – made unlawful there mere advocacy of violence.
  4. The conservative Businessmen used the red scare to their advantage to break the union’s backs.
  5. Lots of feelings of anti-redism and anti-foreignism

II. Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK

  1. A new Ku Klux Klan, Spawned by the post war reaction mushroomed in the early 1920’s.
    • It was an anti-foreign, anti-catholic, anti-black, Anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist anti-communist, anti-internationalist, anti-evolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery and anti-birth control.
    • It was also pro-Anglo-Saxon, pro- “native” American and pro-protestant.
    • In short they were a force against diversity and modernity
  2. The Klan spread with astonishing rapidity
    • Especially in the Midwest where protestant fundamentalism thrived.
  3. This reign of hooded horror collapsed suddenly in the late 1920’s.

III. Stemming the Foreign Flood

  1. Isolationist America of the 1920a had little use for the immigrants flooding in.
  2. Congress temporarily stopped the influx with the Emergency quotea act 1921. New comers from Europe were restricted to 3% or the people of their nationality who had been living in the US in 1910.
  3. That legislation was replaced by the immigration act of 1925, quotas were cut to two percent of what they were in 1890.
  4. Southern Europeans denounced this as unfair, the “nativist” belief was that the northern Europeans were of better blood.
  5. A discriminatory section of the act slammed the door on Japanese immigrants.
  6. Canadians and Latin American were exempt from the quota system because of their proximity.
  7. The immigration act of 1924 marked the end of an era- a period of virtually unrestricted immigration.

IV. The Prohibition “Experiment”

  1. The Eighteenth Amendment- Prohibition and the Volstead Act made the world “safe for hypocrisy ”
  2. Legal abolition of alcohol was especially popular in the South west because they were eager to keep stimulants out of black hands and it kept drunken vices away/
  3. It got strong opposition in the larger eastern cities because many foreign born people were used to drinking a lot.
  4. Prohibitionists were naïve
    • They overlooked the weak government control over private lives and many people disregarded the law.
  5. Prohibition might have started off on a better foot if there had been a larger army of enforcement officials.
    • People bribed officers and smuggled drinks or even tried making their own alcohol which sometimes resulted in death.
  6. Yet the “noble experiment” was not entirely a failure.
    • Bank saving increased, and absenteeism in industry decreased.
    • On the whole probably less alcohol was consumed than in the days before prohibition.

V. The Golden Age of Gangsterism

  1. Prohibition spawned shocking crimes, violent wars broke out in the big cities between rivals gangs- often in immigrant neighborhoods- trying to get the best market to sell the illegal booze.
    • Competitors were killed, arrests were few and convictions were even fewer.
  2. Chicago was the most spectacular example of lawlessness.
    • In 1925 “Scarface” Al Capone began six years of warfare that made him rich.
    • He was branded “public enemy number one” but couldn’t be convicted of his massacres and eventually imprisoned for income-tax evasion.
  3. Gangsters quickly moved to other profitable and illicit activities: Prostitution, gambling and narcotics.
    • Honest merchants had to pay “protection money”.
    • Organized crime had come to be one of the nation’s biggest businesses.

VI. Monkey Business in Tennessee

  1. Education was growing in the 1920 more and more states were requiring young people to remain in school until 16, 18 or graduation.
  2. Professor John Dewey formed the foundation of progressive education.
  3. Science advanced wondrously.
    • Public-health programs wiped out hookworm. Better nutrition and health care helped increase the life expectancy from 50 to 59.
  4. However born science and progressive education in the 1920’s were disliked by fundamentalists who said that the teaching of Darwinism destroyed faith in God and the bible.

VII. The Mass-Consumption Economy

  1. Prosperity put much of the “roar” into the twenties
    • The economy sprinted forwards for nearly 7 years
    • Rapid- expansion of capital investments was favored
    • Ingenious machines were powered relatively cheaply- increasing labor of productivity.
  2. Great new industries sprouted
    • The car became the carriage of the common man.
  3. New aim of commerce came into play: advertising: seduction and persuasion were ways to convince Americans that they wanted to buy more.
  4. Sports became big business in the consumer economy- sports heroes were well known and families bought many tickets.
  5. Buying on credit was a new idea too. “Posses today and pay tomorrow”.

VIII. Putting America on Rubber Tires

  1. A new industrial revolution came about in the 1920’s out of all the inventions of the era, the automobile was the most important
    • It used new amazing industrial system based on assembly-line methods and mass production techniques.
  2. Best known from the new crop of industrial wizards was Henry Ford- he went through some hard times getting his models to work but fully applied the technique of the moving assembly line- this method was called Fordism.
  3. His methods were so economical that he was selling his Ford Roadster for $260.

IX. The Advent of the Gasoline Age

  1. The impact of the self-propelled carnage helped the industry develop and create more jobs.
  2. The petroleum business experienced an explosive development.
    • Railroads were hit hard by the competition of passenger cars, trucks and buses.
  3. Speedy marketing of perishable food stuffs was accelerated.
  4. The era of mud had ended as the nation made haste to construct hard-surfaced roadways.
  5. Cars were agents of social change- at first a luxury, they rapidly became a necessity.
    • By the late 1920s Americans owned more automobiles than bathtubs. “I can’t go to town in a bathtub”.
  6. Sprawling suburbs spread out even further from the urban core as America became a nation of commuters.
  7. The demon machine, on the other hand exacted a death toll. The one millionth American had died in a motorcar accident by 1951.
    • Yet no sane American would plead for return of the old horse and buggy with its fly-breeding manure
    • The car brought more convenience pleasure into peoples’ lives more than any other invention.

X. Humans Develop Wings

  1. Gasoline engines also provided the power needed for airplanes
    • On December 17, 1903 – Orville Wright managed to stay airborne for 12 seconds and 120 feet.
  2. As aviation got off the ground, the world slowly shrank.
    • Private companies began to operate passenger lines and airmail.
  3. Charles A. Lindbergh travelled from New York to Paris in 1927.
    • He did much to dramatize and popularize flying.
  4. A giant new industry was given birth to.
    • The floundering railroad received another setback though the loss of passengers and mail.
  5. A lethal new method was given to the gods of war.

XI. The Radio Revolution

  1. Communication developed quickly
    • Wireless telegraphy- 1890’s, then voice carrying radios. Transatlantic wireless phonographs, radiotelephones and television
  2. The radio was drawing families and neighbors back home
  3. Educationally and culturally the radio made significant contribution
    • Sports were further stimulated, politicians had to adjust their speaking techniques to the new medium and finally the music of famous artists and symphony orchestras was beamed into countless homes.

XII. Hollywood’s Filmland Fantasies

  1. The real birth of the movie came in 1903 when the first story sequence.
  2. A fascinating industry was this launched. Hollywood, in southern California soon became the movie capital of the world for it had maximum sunshine and other advantages.
  3. The motion picture really arrived during WWiI when it was used as an engine of anti-German propaganda.
  4. A new era began in 1927- “talkie”
    • Success, the age of the “silents” was ushered out and color films started to be produced.
    • Movie stars got higher salaries than the president.

XIII. The Dynamic Decade

  1. There were new changes in lifestyles and values.
  2. Many taboos flew out the window: once modest maidens took up flapper dresses and shocked elders with one piece bathing suits.
  3. Jazz and new music came about.
  4. New racial pride blossomed in the black communities.

XIV. Cultural Liberator

  1. In the decade after the war a new generation of writers and artists burst onto the scene from different ethnic and religious backgrounds.
  2. War had jolted many young writers out of their complacency about traditional values and literary standards. They probed for new codes of morals and understanding.
  3. The “lost generation” was formed by expatriates in postwar Europe.
  4. In an outpouring of creative expression- the Harlem renaissance- artists exulted in their black cultures and argued for a “new negro” a dull citizen and a white’s social equal.

XV. Wall Street’s Big Bull Market

  1. Signals abounded that the economic joyride might end in a crash.
    • As the 1920’s lurched forward, everyone seemed to be buying stocks.
    • Little was done by Washington to curb money-mad speculators.
    • Lots of taxes were abolished and the rich had to pay less taxes.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 31 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties20.94 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 32 - The Politics of Boom and Bust

  1. The Republican “Old Guard” Returns
    1. Pres. Harding looked the part as president—tall, handsome, silver-haired and was friendly and popular. But, he was of average intelligence and he was gullible.
    2. The saying was that George Washington couldn't tell a lie and Harding couldn't tell a liar.
    3. Harding sought to collect the "best minds" to be in his administration.
      1. Charles Evans Hughes became secretary of state. He was very able in that role.
      2. Andrew Mellon became secretary of the treasury and managed the budget extremely well.
      3. Due to his food-saving successes in WWI, Herbert Hoover became secretary of commerce.
    4. Despite the highlights above, there were also huge duds in the Harding administration.
      1. Albert B.Fall was a schemer and anti-conservationist, yet was appointed secretary of the interior to manage natural resources.
      2. Harry M. Daugherty was a small-town lawyer, was crooked, yet was appointed attorney general.
  2. GOP Reaction at the Throttle
    1. Harding was a good man at heart, but he lacked the vigor of a strong leader. In Harding, the less-than-honest had the perfect front for their schemes.
      1. The "Old Guard", McKinley-style industrialists sought to further laissez-faire; in other words, to let business run wild and free.
      2. Harding appointed 4 Supreme Court justices. Three were standard traditionalists. The other was former president William Taft as chief justice. He judged a bit more liberal.
    2. The conservative court halted progressive laws.
      1. A federal child-labor law was stopped.
      2. In the case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital the court reversed its own reasoning that had been set in Muller v. Oregon. The Muller case had said women need special protection in the work place. The Adkins decision erased the idea of women's protection at work and wiped out a minimum wage law for women.
    3. The Anti-trust laws which had been applied during the Progressive years were set aside. The Harding-era trend was clear for businesses: it's a go for expansion and free from fear that the government might interfere.
      1. An example would be the I.C.C. (the Interstate Commerce Commission, set up to regulate the railroads). It was made up of men sympathetic to the railroad managers.
  3. Aftermath of the War
    1. With the war over, the government stepped back and away from business intervention. Two examples were that the War Industries Board was gone and control of the railroads went back to private enterprise in the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act.
    2. The federal government got out of shipping by passing the Merchant Marine Act (1920). It authorized the Shipping Board to sell some 1,500 WWI-era ships to private shippers. This meant a smaller navy and less hassles.
    3. In the era of laissez-faire and pro-business policies, the labor movement struggled badly.
      1. A bloody strike was broken in 1919, crippling the labor movement.
      2. In 1922, the Railway Labor Board cut wages by 12%. This started a two month strike. Atty. Gen. Daugherty laid down a stinging injunction and crushed the strike. This was a near-death blow to labor unions and union enrollment dropped by 30%.
    4. Veterans began organizing. Teddy Roosevelt started the American Legion in Paris in 1919.
      1. Vets got together socially, but also for other reasons, mainly seeking money. The vets sought wages lost while away and/or veterans benefits.
      2. Their pressure got Congress to pass a "bonus" bill, Harding vetoed it. Congress passed another, the Adjusted Compensation Act, Pres. Calvin Coolidge vetoed it, but Congress overrode the veto.
  4. America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens
    1. Because the Senate had not approved of the Treaty of Versailles, America was still, technically, at war. Thus, Congress passed a joint resolution officially ending the war in July of 1921.
    2. Officially, the U.S. did not participate with the League of Nations. "Unofficial observers" were at the meetings to keep a suspicious eye on things. The lack of real participation though from the U.S. helped to doom the League.
    3. In the Middle East, Harding recognized the need for oil. He secured the rights, along with England, for drilling there.
    4. Disarmament was the trend of the time. A cautious eye was on Britain and Japan who were starting a ship-building race.
    5. A "Disarmament" Conference was held in 1921-22. All major powers were invited, except Bolshevik Russia. Sec. of State Charles Evans Hughes suggested a ratio of ships at 5:5:3 (U.S. to Britain to Japan). Several treaties were made:
      1. The Five-Power Treaty set up the 5:5:3 ratio and gave Japan a bonus to save face.
      2. The Four-Power Treaty required Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to keep the status quo in the Pacific.
      3. The Nine-Power Treaty kept open the Open Door policy with China (free trade for all).
      4. At the meetings end, the Harding crowd boasted of disarmament. But, there were technicalities: (1) there was no limit on small ships and (2) the U.S. agreed to the Four-Power Treaty, but was not bound by it (it had no muscle).
    6. In keeping with Woodrow Wilson's "war to end all war" ambition, there was an international trend to end warfare as a means of solving disputes. Later, in 1928 under Pres. Coolidge, Sec. of State Frank B. Kellogg won the Nobel Peace Prize. He signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war. 62 nations signed this treaty—a beautiful idea, yet incredibly naive.
  5. Hiking the Tariff Higher
    1. In the pro-business mood of the time period, businesses sought to up the tariff to protect themselves from cheaper European goods. They got their wish in the Fordney-McCumber Tariff which increased tariff rates from 27 to 38.5%.
    2. Presidents Harding and Coolidge were given the authority to fluctuate the tariff all the way up to 50%. And, being pro-business men at heart, they leaned toward the higher rather than lower tariffs.
    3. There was a snag in this high-tariff system: Europe owed money to the U.S. for WWI, in order to pay it back, they needed to export, but the U.S. tariff crippled those exports. Thus, the WWI money was not getting paid back.
  6. The Stench of Scandal This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Pres. Harding was an honest man, but many in his administration were not. Harding either didn't, couldn't, or didn't want to see this fact.
    2. Col. Charles R. Forbes skimmed money as chief of the Veterans Bureau. He and his crowd pilfered about $200 million while building veterans hospitals. He spent a whopping two years in jail.
    3. The worst was the Teapot Dome scandal involving oil.
      1. Sec. of Interior Albert B. Fall was to manage natural resources. When oil was discovered near the "Teapot Dome" in Wyoming, Fall sneakily had the land placed under his power.
      2. Fall then accepted bribes for oil drilling rights from Edward Doheny and Harry Sinclair for about $100,000 and $300,000 respectively.
      3. Word leaked out in 1923 and it drug through the courts for six years. Doheny and Sinclair got off the hook, Fall served one year in jail.
    4. These high-priced scandals and skimpy sentences jolted people's trust in the court system.
    5. There were more scandals. Atty. Gen. "Harry Daugherty's name kept coming up for possibly selling pardons and liquor permits (this during Prohibition).
    6. Pres. Harding died at this time, August 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis. The scandals and their stress may well have added to the illness.
  7. “Silent Cal” Coolidge
    1. At Harding's death, V.P. Calvin Coolidge became president. He was serious, calm, shy, moral, boring, and unlike most politicians, didn't speak much.
      1. It was ironic that in the Twenties, the “Age of Ballyhoo,” the U.S. had a very traditional, old-timey president.
    2. Coolidge was even more pro-business than Harding had been. He once said, "the man who builds a factory builds a temple" and "the man who works there, worships there."
  8. Frustrated Farmers
    1. During WWI, farmers had enjoyed a boom. There much much food needed, they provided it, and earned good money in doing so.
    2. After the war, new technologies like the tractor made farm work much easier and increased production. But, increased supply with the same demand yields decreased prices. Whereas many enjoyed an economic boom during the decade, farmers fell onto tough times during the 20's.
    3. Farmers turned to Congress.
      1. The Capper-Volstead Act was passed exempting farmer cooperatives from antitrust laws.
      2. The McNary-Haugen Bill tried to keep the price of agricultural goods high. This was to be done by the government buying up excess surpluses then selling them to other nations. Coolidge, the thrifty conservative, vetoed this bill twice.
  9. A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924
    1. 1924 was a presidential election year. Calvin Coolidge was to be reelected for the Republicans as a conservative.
    2. John W. Davis was nominated by the Democrats after much debate. In the changing times, Democrats had a hard time defining themselves and their positions at their convention in New York City.
      1. They did define their position on race when a Democrat party vote failed to condemn the K.K.K.
    3. The Progressive party refused to die and nominated Sen. Robert La Follette. He was endorsed by the American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) labor union and by the Socialists and would receive a sizable 5 million votes.
    4. Still, times were good, thus Coolidge was reelected easily.
  10. Foreign-Policy Flounderings
    1. With regards to foreign policy, isolationism was the rule. The U.S. would have nothing to do with the League of Nations new "World Court."
    2. The U.S. pulled troops out of the Dominican Republic (1925), keep them in Haiti ('til 1934), and settled a situation with Mexico over disputed oil rights (1926).
      1. The trend in Latin America was clear by this time: Latinos didn't like big Yankee America pushing them around.
    3. The issue of Europe's debt to America was intricate; and besides, Europe was unable to pay up anyway.
  11. Unraveling the Debt Knot
    1. America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts to the U.S. They couldn't. So, they placed a huge price-tag onto Germany who certainly could not pay. Germany printed paper money en masse, thus creating inflation and making the money completely worthless.
      1. Inflation was crippling in Germany: a loaf of bread was 480 million marks, it got so bad that it was immeasurable.
    2. Coolidge, conservative and thrifty, would not just erase the debt. The situation for paying off debt was hopeless.
    3. Charles Dawes came up with the Dawes Plan for payments. America would loan money to Germany. Germany would make payments to Britain and France. Then, they would repay their loans to America.
      1. The plan was simply a circle of money from-and-back-to America. Nothing would really be gained in the U.S., but at least on paper, the debts would be repaid.
    4. The U.S. never did get repaid for the loans. The only thing America got was resent from Britain and France who thought the U.S. was a greedy bully.
  12. The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928
    1. Calvin Coolidge decided to not run for reelection in 1928. Sec. of Commerce Herbert Hoover became the nominee for Republicans and ran on the prosperity the 20's enjoyed.
      1. Hoover spoke of “Rugged Individualism” which was his view that America was made great by strong, self-sufficient individuals, like the pioneers of old days trekking across the prairies, relying on no one else for help. This was the kind of folk America still needed, he said.
    2. The Democrats nominated NY Gov. Alfred E. Smith. Smith had the people's touch, but he was Catholic (which turned off many) and he was a drinker (still the days of prohibition).
    3. Radio was a factor in the election. Hoover sounded better on the new media than Smith's New York accent.
      1. On the air Hoover spoke of rugged individualism. But, he also lived it. He'd paid his dues, done jobs well, and earned his way up the ladder. He was dignified, restrained, but somewhat aloof and very mediocre with personal skills.
    4. The campaign was full of mudslinging on both sides. The "Solid South" normally would go Democratic, but couldn't swallow Smith—an Irish Catholic, drinker, and city-slicker. It split its vote.
    5. Hoover won big, 444 to 87 electoral votes.
  13. President Hoover’s First Moves
    1. At first, Hoover enjoyed the economic prosperity of the day.
    2. Hoover's philosophy of helping one's self prompted his to get the Agricultural Marketing Act passed. It set up a Federal Farm Board which was to lend money to farmers.
      1. The board started the Grain Stabilization Corp. and Cotton Stabilization Corp. in 1930. They were to buy up surpluses of those crops to keep prices high.
    3. Isolationism was carried in the economics as well as politics. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff was hiked up to almost 60%. To other nations, this was like an economic act of war.
      1. This increase had negative effects: (1) it went against a trend toward lower tariffs, (2) it would slow trade and thus deepen the depression when it hit, and (3) it helped move the U.S. to full-fledged isolationism and thus help allow Hitler to rise to power.
  14. The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties
    1. In 1929, Hoover was growing drunk on the prosperity and thought it would be never-ending. The end came soon.
    2. The stock market had been shooting higher and higher all decade. Some saw that a house-of-cards built that high could not stand. All it took was a little something to trigger the fall.
      1. On "Black Tuesday," October 29, 1929, the bottom dropped out of the stock market on some bad economic news from Britain. The sell-off had begun and prices plummeted: stockholders had lost $40 billion in value by the end of 1929.
    3. The stock crash was the trigger and the circle-of-bad-news had begun.
      1. Businesses began to go out of business (since people couldn't or wouldn't buy now).
      2. Unemployment shot up.
      3. Over 5,000, banks went bankrupt as folks withdrew their money in fear of their bank going bankrupt (a self-fulfilling prophecy).
      4. The only things growing were soup kitchens and homeless shelters.
  15. Hooked on the Horn of Plenty
    1. Though the stock crash was the trigger, the causes of the Great Depression were deeper. At their roots, it was same as nearly all recessions and depressions: over-speculation (in stock) and over-production (in farms and factories). American production and consumerism had over-reached the consumers ability to buy things using real money.
      1. Purchasing is always good for business, purchasing on credit is too, until the debt gets called in and the consumer can't pay up.
    2. The Great Depression was an international one. Europe, who was still struggling from WWI, suffered again. The effect was for each nation to draw inward to protect themselves, further into isolationism.
    3. There were natural disasters to add to the man-made ones. A drought sizzled the Mississippi Valley in 1930 and ruined many farmers. The Dust Bowl was coming soon.
    4. Out of work and perhaps deeply in debt, Americans were hurting. Despite "rugged individualism," Americans looked to the president.
      1. "Rugged individualism" took and cynically ironic turn when folks took care of themselves in homemade slums and were called "ragged individualists." These shanty-towns would soon be named "Hoovervilles."
  16. Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists
    1. Like all presidents in economic bad times, Hoover took the blame. This was probably unfair.
      1. He didn't help himself though—his "rugged individualist" nature made him slow to take any government action.
      2. Hoover-critics pointed out that he'd fed millions in Belgium during WWI, but no one in the U.S.
      3. A true conservative would even question whether the government's "help" was beneficial or actually hindered any growth. Changing away from laissez-faire might slow the economy even more.
    2. Hoover's analysis was simple: this was a natural part of the "business cycle." The business cycle being the cyclical ups and downs of an economy, like a roller coaster.
      1. His solution was also simple: just wait it out. This is not what the people wanted to hear.
    3. Eventually, Hoover did go against his nature and get the government to take some action.
  17. Hoover Battles the Great Depression
    1. Pres. Hoover got the government involved in the Great Depression by recommending Congress dole out $2.25 billion. The theory was to jump start the economy through government spending.
      1. The massive Boulder Dam was begun in 1930, completed in 1936, and renamed to Hoover Dam. The resulting Lake Mead served to generate electricity, irrigation, flood control, and recreation. It still does.
      2. Hoover, however, didn't like all dams. He vetoed the Muscle Shoals Bill to dam the Tennessee River. This would be done later by Franklin Roosevelt under the Tennessee Valley Authority (the TVA).
    2. Hoover's most far-reaching effort wasn't construction in nature, but financial. He got the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (the RFC) passed. It would lend money to finance the massive government projects of FDR's "New Deal."
      1. The real beneficiaries of the RFC were the government agencies lending the money. They were essentially banks profiting on the interest of loans. This also was a point of criticism toward Hoover.
    3. When the economy is good, labor unions struggle (like the 1920's), when the economy is bad, labor unions tend to gain steam (like the Depression).
      1. Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act which outlawed antiunion contracts (AKA "yellow dog" contracts) which forced workers to sign promises to not join a union. It also said the federal courts could not hinder strikes, boycotts, or peaceful protesting by unions.
    4. Despite his slogan of "rugged individualism," belief in the business cycle and laissez-faire economics, and something of a reputation for not caring about people, Hoover did get the government involved in fighting the Great Depression. It just happened later rather than sooner.
  18. Routing the Bonus Army in Washington
    1. Many WWI veterans were still clamoring for "bonuses" for saving the world for democracy. The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (the BEF) was drummed up. It consisted of 20,000 people who marched to Washington, set up camp (literally), and demanded their bonuses.
      1. The situation got out of hand. Riots emerged in the unsanitary encampment.
      2. Pres. Hoover criticized the BEF as being made up of riffraff and reds (communists). Hoover ordered the BEF evicted.
    2. The eviction was carried out by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and the Army., and it was ugly.
      1. MacArthur used bayonets, tear gas, and fire to roust the BEF out. The "Battle of Anacostia Flats" was not a pretty picture in American History.
      2. The whole sad affair also hurt Hoover's image even more.
  19. Japanese Militarists Attack China
    1. Meanwhile, across the Pacific, problems were budding. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria (northern China).
      1. This involved the U.S. a bit since Open Door policy was shut in Manchuria.
    2. Those who believed in the idealistic League of Nations and the Kellogg-Briand Pact which outlawed war on paper, were shocked. This was simply a stronger nation in Japan taking over a weaker one in China.
      1. Steps were suggested the League use boycotts and blockades to put the economic stranglehold on Japan.
      2. But, the U.S. was not a member of the League of Nations.
      3. Sec. of State Henry Stimson issued words as actions. The "Stimson doctrine" said the U.S. would not recognize any territories acquired by force. These were the right words, but in the end, only words.
    3. The words may have even backfired. Japan was insulted and bombed Shanghai on the coast of China in 1932.
      1. Some Americans engaged in informal boycotts. But, this was just piecemeal and unorganized. Since the Depression was foremost on their minds, most Americans didn't care to do much else toward Japan.
    4. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 taught a lesson: aggressive nations could take over weaker nations, the free nations would complain, but they would take no action. The first step to WWII had been taken.
  20. Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy
    1. U.S. relations with Latin America had been hurting since around 1900. Hoover wanted to change that.
      1. Hoover went on a good-will tour of Latin America in attempt to extend the hand of friendship.
    2. In the Depression, Americans had less money to engage in Taft-like "dollar diplomacy" (AKA "economic imperialism") with Latin America.
    3. New policies saw American troops were pulled out of Haiti and Nicaragua.
    4. These policies laid the groundwork for FDR's "Good Neighbor" policy.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 33 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

  1. FDR: A Politician in a Wheelchair
    1. 1932 was likely the worst year of the Great Depression and it was an election year. Hoover was a goner.
    2. Hoover ran for reelection saying what he was doing was helping the situation.
    3. The Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt, better known as FDR.
      1. FDR had been as a young man tall, handsome, and athletic. He got polio in 1921, however, and was since confined to a wheelchair. This may have helped temper and humble his personality—FDR had the people's touch.
      2. He was articulate with his words and conveyed a sense of caring.
    4. His wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, was also active in politics. Essentially, they came as a buy-one-get-two team.
      1. She would by far become the most involved First Lady up to that time, maybe of all time.
  2. Presidential Hopefuls of 1932
    1. During the campaign, the Democrats appealed to the common man and exuded confidence. They took the theme song of "Happy Days are Here Again" and one of his buzzwords was "confidence." FDR had a mile-wide smile.
    2. Hoover was sour-faced and used slogans like "The Worst is Past" and "It Might Have Been Worse." Folks just looked around and saw through those words. Hoover was a goner.
  3. Hoover's Humiliation in 1932
    1. FDR won the election in a landslide, 472 to 59 in the electoral vote.
    2. A unique voting trend ended and started in this election: black voters switched from the Republican party to the Democratic party.
      1. This was a big change. The Republicans had been the Party of Abe Lincoln, anti-slavery, and Reconstruction whereas the Democrats had been the pro-slavery, anti-black party. In 1932, blacks were tired of being the "last hired, first fired" and saw the Democrats as the party to help in that department.
    3. Hoover was something of sore loser. During the four month lame duck period (when the president-elect waits for the leaving president to depart), Hoover tried to wrangle FDR into some unflattering politics. FDR stayed away.
    4. The switch of 1932-1933 was the rock bottom. Unemployment was at 25%, the highest in America's history and bankruptcies were an epidemic.
      1. Cynical opponents of FDR said he purposely allowed things to get worse just so he could emerge that much more as the savior.
  4. FDR and the Three R’s: Relief, Recovery, and Reform
    1. In his inaugural address, FDR famously said, "…the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." He was referring to people's fears of spending until things got better and that their money was not safe in banks.
      1. In essence, FDR was saying, "If we don't panic, we'll be okay. Confidence!"
      2. To help cut the panic in banks, FDR quickly issued a "bank holiday" which closed banks for one week. It was simply a "time out," to stop the bleeding, sit and relax before moving forward.
    2. FDR started the "Three R's": relief, recovery, and reform. Relief was for the right-now (food, shelter), recovery was for a year or so to get out of the Depression, reform was to ensure it wouldn't happen again.
      1. Congress was controlled by far by the Democrats. Anything FDR wanted passed, was passed.
      2. FDR's first "Hundred Days" saw a shipload of bills passed into law. The laws are often called the "Alphabet Soup" because they're a dizziness collection of acronyms, like the TVA, CCC, WPA, PWA, and on and on. The New Deal, FDR's plan for fighting the Great Depression, was under way.
  5. Roosevelt Manages the Money
    1. In only eight hours, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act which set up the bank holiday.
    2. Roosevelt saw the power of radio. Most families had one by then and FDR used a series of "Fireside Chats" to talk to America on the radio. He went over what the problems were and what was being done about them. These talks were very popular.
    3. The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act set up the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). It insured people's money in the bank up to $5,000. There was no need to fear losing one's money in the banks anymore.
    4. In fear of paper assets, people were hoarding gold. FDR took the dollar off the gold standard, ordered people to relinquish gold in exchange for paper money.
      1. FDR wanted to create inflation (a rise in prices). This would make it easier for debtors to pay off their debts (since the money had less value and was thus easier to get). Those who'd given the loans were not happy to get back not-so-valuable money.
      2. To create inflation, FDR ordered the Treasury to buy up gold at increasingly higher prices. $35 per once became the norm for 40 years. This meant more paper money in circulation, which is less valuable than gold, and did cause inflation.
      3. Critics said FDR was creating "baloney" money. FDR did backtrack and, in 1934, put the U.S. back on the gold standard partially (when trading with other nations).
  6. Creating Jobs for the Jobless
    1. FDR was willing to use government money to help those in need. One of his main weapons was to "prime the pump", or use federal money on programs in hopes that it would jump start the economy to run on its own.
    2. Likely the most popular New Deal program was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).
      1. In the CCC, young men were hired to work in the national forests. They lived in camps like boy scouts and did things like clearing land, blazing trails, planting trees, draining swamps, etc.
      2. The CCC provided some experience, some adventure, and a wage to send home to the folks—things healthy young men couldn't turn down.
    3. The Federal Relief Administration (FERA) sought relief in the form of the dole (government hand-outs). Harry L. Hopkins was placed in charge of the administration and $3 billion was given to the states for doling out.
      1. He proudly said they'd spend, tax, and get themselves reelected. Others saw this scheme as simply taking one person's money in taxes and giving it to another person to buy his vote.
    4. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) offered low interest loans to farmers.
    5. The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced people's home loans at lower interest rates.
    6. Unemployment was a lingering problem. In hopes of fighting it, FDR started the Civil Works Administration (CWA). It was to provide temporary jobs to see folks through a short period (winter).
      1. Finding jobs was hard to do and many were just made-up jobs, called "boondoggling." Critics saw the frequent result of a boondoggle job - just leaning-on-a-shovel and while collecting taxpayer money.
      2. Notably, the Great Migration was wrapping up at about this time. It's the massive movement by blacks from the rural South to the cities up North. It roughly went on between 1910 and 1930.
  7. A Day for Every Demagogue This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. There were many voices on the subject of the Great Depression. Catholic priest Father Charles Coughlin was one of the most persistent. He gave a regular radio address discussing "Social Justice."
      1. He was first pro-FDR, then very much anti-New Deal. He eventually went overboard and was silenced by higher-up clergy.
    2. One of the more flamboyant critics was Sen. Huey Long of Louisiana. He ranted about a "Share the Wealth" plan and promised "every man a king."
      1. He spoke of giving $5,000 per family to the poor, likely taking it from those who had it. The mathematics of the scheme were silly.
      2. Long got passionate responses. Many down-and-out folks loved him. Many despised him and feared he might become some type of dictator. One person assassinated him, in 1935.
    3. Dr. Francis Townsend also came up with a wild idea. He proposed to dole out $200/month to 5 million senior citizens. They would have to spend it, thus helping pump-prime the economy. Like Huey Long's idea, this was a mathematically ludicrous plan.
    4. Congress started the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in part to quiet these troublemakers. $11 billion was spent building public facilities like bridges, public buildings, and roads.
      1. The WPA's goals were to help curb unemployment (9 million people were put to work) and help improve the nation's infrastructure (roads, bridges, etc.).
      2. Many students were set up with part-time jobs. Work was also drummed up for artists and writers, although it was often boondoggling: John Steinbeck, future Nobel literature prize winner, counted dogs in Salinas county California.
      3. There was some other waste, like controlling crickets and building a monkey pen.
  8. New Visibility for Women
    1. After having the right to vote for over 10 years now, women began taking a more active role in things. Leading the way was Eleanor Roosevelt but there were other ladies too.
    2. Frances Perkins was the first female cabinet member as Sec. of Labor.
    3. Mary McLeod Bethune was in charge of the Office of Minority Affairs. She was the highest ranking black in FDR's administration. She later held found a college in Daytona, FL.
    4. Ruth Benedict, an anthropologist, studied cultures as personalities in Patterns of Cultures.
      1. One of her understudies was Margaret Mead. She wrote the landmark anthropology book Coming of Age in Samoa about adolescence in that culture.
    5. Novelist Pearl S. Buck wrote the timeless The Good Earth about a peasant farm family in China. She won the Nobel prize for literature in 1938.
  9. Helping Industry and Labor
    1. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the most complex of the New Deal programs. It's goal was to help industry, labor, and the unemployed.
      1. To try and achieve those goals, it set codes of "fair competition." This meant working hours would be spread out to more people. Maximum work hours were set up; minimum wages were set up.
      2. Labor unions were given the right to organize and collectively bargain. Antiunion yellow-dog contracts were forbidden; child-labor was curbed.
    2. Businesses could agree to go along with the NRA's principles. If they did, they displayed the blue NRA eagle and slogan, "We do our part."
      1. There was enthusiasm for the NRA. Philadelphia named their new pro football team the "Eagles." Still, FDR knew the NRA was a gimmick in essence, and temporary, saying, "We can't ballyhoo our way to prosperity."
    3. The NRA soon fell to unpopularity. Businesses, at heart, hate running themselves in any way other than what's best for them (not with artificial restrictions). Henry Ford called the eagle "that damn Roosevelt buzzard."
      1. The final blow came in the 1935 Schechtner case when the Supreme Court declared the NRA unconstitutional.
    4. In the same law as the NRA, Congress had set up the Public Works Administration (PWA). Like the PWA, it sought to build public works and infrastructure.
      1. Headed by Sec. of the Interior Harold Ickes, it started 34,000 projects. Noteworthy was the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River. It was the biggest human-built structure since the Great Wall of China.
    5. Early on, FDR and the Democrats passed legislation legalizing beer and wine with alcohol not over 3.2%.
      1. The Twenty-first Amendment (1933) repealed the Eighteenth, thus ending the prohibition of alcohol.
  10. Paying Farmers Not to Farm
    1. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) tried to help farmers by creating "artificial scarcity." It paid farmers to not farm, thus reducing the supply.
      1. The AAA's start was shaky. Cotton farmers plowed under already planted crops. Pigs were slaughtered and some of the meat turned to fertilizer. The law seemed cruel and wasteful.
      2. Farm incomes did rise, but farmer unemployment rose too.
      3. The Supreme Court ended the AAA when it declared the AAA unconstitutional in 1936.
    2. Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act. It paid farmers to plant crops that preserved and reinvigorated the soil, like soybeans. The Supreme Court went along with this plan.
    3. A Second Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed in 1938. Farmers were encouraged to plant less acreage in exchange for payments. Again, it was simply payment to not farm.
  11. Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards
    1. A long drought hit the lower Plains in 1933. The winds kicked up and started the Dust Bowl. The fertile topsoil of many farms simply blew away, mostly in parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas.
      1. The causes were drought and wind, but also the "dry-farming" technique where farmers repeatedly plowed the top few inches of soil. It created a powdery layer that simply blew away.
      2. With the farms not unable to grow crops, many people headed west to California in search of farm-jobs. This inspired John Steinbeck's classic novel The Grapes of Wrath about the "Okies" long,tough trip looking for work.
    2. Congress tried to aid debtors with the Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act (1934). It held off mortgage foreclosures for 5 years. However, the Supreme Court struck it down the next year.
    3. The Resettlement Administration (1935) tried to resettle farmers onto better soil.
    4. The CCC boys planted 200 million trees trying to grow windbreaks.
    5. The government's relationship with the Indians was changing again.
      1. John Collier headed the Bureau of Indian Affairs and wanted to change the policies of the old Dawes Act (1887). It had tried to end tribes and the old ways of the Indians—to force Indians to become "white."
      2. Collier's new plan was the Indian Reorganization Act (1934), called the "Indian New Deal", did the opposite of Dawes—it encouraged Indians to keep their traditional ways.
      3. To many Indians, this was a slap in the face too. This "back-to-the-blanket movement" implied Indians were to be like museum artifacts, frozen in the stone age, hunting buffalo and weaving baskets. Almost 200 tribes accepted the Reorganization Act, 77 did not.
  12. Battling Bankers and Big Business
    1. Prior to the stock crash, some businesses had fudged on their financial reports. Investors invested, and lost, partly due to the phony numbers. Congress tried to fix this with the Federal Securities Act (AKA the "Truth in Securities Act"). It required companies to report honest financial numbers.
      1. The Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) was set up as the stock watchdog.
    2. The multi-billion dollar financial empire headed by Chicagoan Samuel Insull crashed in 1932. He held the tip of the pyramid, but headed up the entire rest of the pyramid—when he came down, everything did. Congress passed the Public Utility Holding Company (1935) in hopes of avoiding to such schemes.
  13. The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River
    1. The electricity industry attracted New Dealers. They felt electricity companies of gouging consumers with high rates. They also wanted to expand electricity to rural areas.
    2. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was set up in 1933 to build a series of dams along the Tennessee River.
      1. This would be a "double-barreled" plan: provide jobs, help with housing via the jobs, provide electricity.
      2. The TVA's area would help improve the lives of some 2.5 million people.
  14. Housing and Social Security
    1. The Federal Housing Authority (FHA) was set up to offer low interest home loans. It was a "double-barreled" program: it got people in homes and put people to work building them.
      1. It was a popular program and outlasted FDR and the New Deal.
    2. The program got a shot-in-the-arm in 1937 with the U.S. Housing Authority (USHA). It lent money to states or localities for construction projects
      1. These laws helped stop the growth of slums.
    3. The Social Security Act (1935) was perhaps the most far-ranging law.
      1. It set up a payment plan for old age, the handicapped, delinquent children, and other dependents.
      2. The payments were funded by taxes placed on workers and employers, then given to the groups above.
      3. Republicans opposed the act saying it was little more than a government-knows-best program with socialist-leaning policies. Worse, taxing one person's work and giving the money to another person seemed to discourage effort and encourage a feeling of entitlement to having someone else pay.
  15. A New Deal for Labor
    1. An epidemic of strikes occurred in 1934. Some were violent. Congress sought to replace the killed NRA and passed the Wagner Act (AKA the National Labor Relations Act) (1935). It guaranteed the right of unions to organize and to collectively bargain with management.
    2. Unskilled workers began to organize. They were usually left out because, being unskilled, they were easily replaced in a strike.
      1. John L. Lewis, head of the United Mine Workers, organized the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) which admitted the unskilled.
      2. The CIO started within the AF of L, but later split out on its own (the AF of L didn't want to weaken itself with the unskilled). The CIO scored a victory in a dispute with General Motors in a "sit-down" strike.
      3. The CIO won again vs. the U.S. Steel Company. Smaller steel companies fought back and bloody strikes ensued, like the Memorial Day massacre in Chicago killing or wounding over 60.
    3. The Fair Labor Standards Act (AKA Wages and Hours Bill) set a minimum wage, maximum working hours, and forbade children under 16 from working.
    4. Unsurprisingly, unions loved FDR. Membership in labor unions began to shoot upward.
  16. Landon Challenges “the Champ”
    1. In 1936, the Republicans nominated Alfred M. Landon, governor of Kansas, as candidate for president.
      1. Landon criticized FDR's massive spending. But, he was hurt with a weak radio voice, a poor campaigner, and the fact that he supported many of the programs that he criticized FDR for spending on.
      2. Some Democrats joined Republicans to form the American Liberty League. It didn't like the "socialist" direction the New Deal was taking America.
    2. But, with FDR's wide popularity, the election was almost a moot point. FDR won 523 to 8 in the electoral vote.
      1. FDR won because he never forgot the "forgotten man."
  17. Nine Old Men on the Bench
    1. FDR was sworn in for his second term on January 29, 1937 (instead of March 4). The Twentieth Amendment had cut the "lame duck" period by six weeks.
    2. The Democrats still controlled Congress and were essentially "yes-men" to FDR, but the Supreme Court was a thorn in FDR's side.
      1. In 1937, FDR proposed increasing the Supreme Court to perhaps 15 justices. This would greatly increase FDR's power (because he'd make the appointments).
    3. Congress was shocked at this little disguised attempt at power-grabbing. Congress didn't want the power see-saw to tip too far toward FDR, and for once, FDR did not get his way. Congress voted no. This was perhaps FDR's first mistake and his first loss.
  18. The Court Changes Course
    1. FDR was widely accused of trying to turn dictator.
    2. Although the "court-packing scheme" was voted down, the Court did begin to sway FDR's way. Formerly conservative Justice Owen j. Roberts started to vote liberal.
      1. For examples, by a 5-to-4 vote, the court upheld minimum wages for women. The court upheld the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act.
    3. So, though not expanding the court's numbers, FDR did get the Supreme Court to go his way. The only bad news for FDR was the suspicion that the court-packing scheme started. Very few New Deal-like bills were passed afterward.
  19. Twilight of the New Deal
    1. Despite the New Deals plethora of spending and programs, the depression did not go away during Roosevelt's first term.
      1. Unemployment went from 25% in 1932 to 15% in 1937, lower, but still very high.
    2. The economy took a second downturn in 1937. The "Roosevelt Recession" was caused the government's policies.
      1. Social Security was cutting into people's take-home pay, and thus, their spending power.
      2. FDR seemed to admit too much spending was risky and cut back on the spending.
    3. Then, FDR changed his mind and went back to heavy spending.
      1. British economist John Maynard Keynes ideas were coming en vogue. Keynesian economics says that it's okay, even good, for governments to engage in "deficit spending" (spending more money than they take in).
    4. Congress went along with more spending and FDR went back to work.
      1. The Reorganization Act gave FDR some authority for administrative reforms, including the new Executive Office in the White House.
    5. The Hatch Act (1939) banned federal officials from political campaigning and soliciting, except for the highest officers. The goal was to clean up campaigning and make sure federal employees weren't turned into just political campaigners.
  20. New Deal or Raw Deal?
    1. New Deal critics saw a ton of spending, a lot of waste, and little accomplished.
    2. FDR was criticized for moving away from American laissez-faire capitalism and moving toward Russian communism/socialism/Marxism.
      1. The debt had been $19 billion in 1932; in 1939, the debt was $40 billion.
      2. The U.S. seemed to be attempting to achieve prosperity without working for it. Fears were that Americans were getting a bad case of the "gimmies" and the U.S. was becoming a "handout state." When times go tough in the 1800's Americans went west, in the 1900's Americans sought handouts.
    3. The New Deal may have helped, but it did not get the U.S. out of the depression. It would take WWII to end the Great Depression.
      1. The war solved unemployment. Massive spending during the war jacked the debt up even higher, to $258 billion.
  21. FDR’s Balance Sheet
    1. FDR's supporters said the New Deal had avoided the Depression from being even worse than it was.
    2. FDR was hated by capitalists due to his taxation policies, but was also dislike by socialists. The New Deal may have actually cut down on socialism by avoiding a more radical turn to the left or right.
      1. In a very tough time, FDR provided considerable change with no revolution. Other nations (Italy, Germany) were taking very radical changes.
    3. Like Thomas Jefferson, though wealthy and of the elite class, FDR always spoke on behalf of the "forgotten man."
    4. Maybe his greatest achievement was yet to come—his leadership during WWII.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 34 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

  1. The London Conference
    1. With the goal of coming up with an international fix to the Great Depression, the London Conference was set up in 1933.
    2. FDR initially planned to send Sec. of State Cordell Hull. Later he changed his mind and reprimanded Europe for trying to stabilize currencies.
    3. Without America's participation, the London Conference got nothing accomplished (like the League of Nations).
      1. More importantly, America's non-participation in the conference solidified U.S. isolationist policies. In war and in the economy, the U.S. would go at it alone.
  2. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians
    1. The Philippines had been a headache ever since the U.S. took over the islands. With times hard, Americans were eager to let the Filipinos go.
      1. American sugar growers also wanted to cut free from Filipino sugar.
      2. Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) that said the Philippines would become independent after 12 years (in 1946).
    2. FDR formally recognized the Soviet Union in 1933.
      1. His move was not popular with many Americans who didn't like acknowledging the communist nation. His motive was hopes of trade with the huge nation and perhaps check the growing power of Germany and Japan.
  3. Becoming a Good Neighbor
    1. In his inaugural address, FDR affirmed America's ambition to be a "Good Neighbor" with Latin America.
    2. At the Pan-American Conference, FDR announced that the U.S. would no longer use military strength in Latin America. He singled out Teddy Roosevelt's "Big Stick Policy" as particularly bad.
      1. The next year, 1934, the last of the U.S. Marines left Haiti. America lessened her influence in Cuba and Panama as well.
    3. Mexico, however, seized American oil properties. This was a test to see if the Good Neighbor policy was the "Push-over Policy."
      1. Oil companies wanted armed intervention. FDR held back and came to a settlement in 1941 (though U.S. oil companies did suffer losses).
    4. All told, the Good Neighbor policy was very successful in improving America's image to Latin America.
  4. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement
    1. Sec. of State Cordell Hull believed in low tariffs. He felt low tariffs mean higher trade. He and FDR felt trade was a two-way street. Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act which set up low tariff policies.
      1. The act cut down the most offensive parts of the Hawley-Smoot tariff law merely amending them. In some instances, tariff rates were cut in half (provided the other nation did the same).
    2. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act started to reverse the high-tariff trend and started a low-tariff trend that would dominate the post-WWII period.
  5. Storm-Cellar Isolationism
    1. Post WWI chaos and the Great Depression helped spawn totalitarian regimes (dictatorships with total power), notably Joseph Stalin in the USSR, Benito Mussolini in Italy, and Adolf Hitler in Germany.
      1. In a totalitarian nation, the individual and his or her rights are nothing; the only thing that matters is the state.
      2. Hitler was the most dangerous. He was a fantastic speaker who told the "big lie" often enough that people started believing it. The big lie was that German problems were caused by the Jews and that he could lead Germany back to greatness which ran in their blood.
    2. Germany and Italy linked up when Hitler and Mussolini agreed on the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936).
    3. Japan was becoming a military dictatorship, turning super isolationist, and seeking to create a mighty Japanese empire for their god/emperor. This was a deadly mix.
      1. Like a rebel teen determined to go bad, they ignored the Washington Naval Treaty and rearmed their nation. They walked out of the London Conference and quit the League of Nations.
      2. In 1940, Japan joined Germany and Italy with the Tripartite Pact.
    4. Under Mussolini, more show than substance, Italy attacked and beat Ethiopia in 1935. Fascist nations love prepping for war, fighting, then championing their victories, even if it means beating up on a very poor nation like Ethiopia (they'd fought with spears).
      1. The League of Nations did nothing, not even cutting oil to Italy, and the League died as a nice idea that was powerless.
    5. America simply stayed isolationist. The events were an ocean away, or more, the U.S. had her own problems, and America didn't want to get drawn into Europe's problems like with WWI.
      1. Trying to avoid getting sucked further into foreign problems, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act which forbade countries that owed money to the U.S. from getting any more loans.
  6. Congress Legislates Neutrality
    1. The Nye Committee was set up (1934) to study the idea that munitions producers only helped start wars and thus earn profits. This was one of the ideas as to the causes of WWI.
    2. Determined to not get into a war, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935, 36, and 37. They said that when the president declared a foreign war existed, certain restrictions would start.
      1. The restrictions were: (1) Americans could not sail on a belligerent (nation-at-war) ship, sell/haul munitions, or make loans to belligerents.
    3. These were clearly to avoid the same mistakes that had occurred at the outset of WWI. WWII, however, would have different circumstances. The U.S. declared absolute neutrality, no matter how hideous one side would be.
  7. America Dooms Loyalist Spain
    1. The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) was a mini-WWII. It saw a fascist government led by Gen. Francisco Franco fight a republican democratic government.
      1. Naturally, the U.S. wanted the republican government to win. But, isolationism ruling, the U.S. offered no help. It was their war. America did start an oil embargo.
      2. Italy and Germany did help Franco. Knowing he'd soon put them to use, Hitler used the Spanish Civil War as a testing ground for his tanks and planes. Franco and the fascists won and this helped embolden the dictators, especially Hitler.
    2. Though neutral, America didn't build up her military for defense. America actually let the navy get weaker.
      1. Congress passed a law to build up the navy in 1938, very late in the game and only one year before WWII broke open.
  8. Appeasing Japan and Germany This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Japan invaded China in 1937. FDR did not name the action a war, however, so the Neutrality Acts were not invoked and both China and Japan could still buy American war-stuffs.
    2. In 1937, FDR gave his “Quarantine Speech." In it he asked for America to quarantine the aggressors (Italy and Japan) and to morally side against them.
      1. This was a step away from isolationism. When isolationists complained, FDR backed off a bit in his words.
    3. Japan went at it again when they bombed and sank the American gunboat the Panay. Two were killed, 30 wounded—possible grounds for war.
      1. Japan apologized, paid an indemnity, and the situation cooled.
      2. Americans in China, however, were jailed and beaten as the Japanese took out anti-American frustrations.
      3. The "Panay Incident" further supported American isolationism.
    4. Back in Europe, Hitler was taking increasingly bold steps.
      1. He broke the Treaty of Versailles by (1) making military service mandatory and (2) marching troops into the Rhineland region by France. Britain and France watched, but did nothing.
      2. Drunk on Hitler's book Mein Kampf about a German "master race", Nazi Germany began persecuting the Jews.
        1. Persecution started out with restrictions on Jews, then corralling into "ghettos", then relocation into labor camps, then to death camps to carry out the "final solution."
        2. All told, about 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, about 11 million people total.
      3. Hitler kept up his march by taking his birth nation of Austria in 1938.
      4. Next he declared he wanted the Sudetenland, a section of Czechoslovakia inhabited mostly by Germans.
        1. At each step, Hitler said this would be his last. Naively, Britain and France were eager to appease (give in) to Hitler.
        2. At the Munich Conference (Sept. 1938) British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain fell victim to Hitler's lies. Chamberlain agreed to let Hitler have the Sudetenland.
        3. Chamberlain returned and gave his infamous claim that he’d achieved “peace in our time.” True, but it proved to be a very short time.
        4. Hitler broke his promise and took over all of Czechoslovakia in March of 1939.
  9. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality
    1. The world was stunned on Aug. 23, 1939 when Russia and Germany signed the Russo-German Nonaggression Pact. In it, Stalin and Hitler promised to not fight one another. (Believing Hitler was becoming foolish and Russia got suckered here—Hitler would later break this pact.)
      1. Without having to fear a two-front war like in WWI, the nonaggression pact opened the door for Germany attack Poland.
      2. Still, little was done to halt Hitler. Britain and France did finally draw one last line-in-the-sand, saying that if Poland was taken, war would start.
    2. Hitler attacked Poland anyway on September 1, 1939, and overran the nation in only two weeks. Britain and France did declare war and WWII had begun.
    3. America rooted for Britain and France, but was committed to neutrality.
      1. The Neutrality Acts were invoked which cut supplies to belligerents. Wanting to help Britain and France, FDR and Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 which said the U.S. would sell war materials on a "cash-and-carry" basis.
        1. Cash-and-carry meant no credit and no U.S. ships hauled the stuff.
        2. Though technically open to Germany too, the British and French navies could keep the Germans away.
        3. The U.S. improved her moral standing with the law, but also made some bucks.
  10. The Fall of France
    1. When Poland was fully under German power, there was a pause in the war as Hitler moved troops and supplies to the west for an attack on France.
      1. The only action was when the USSR attacked Finland. The U.S. gave Finland $30 million for nonmilitary supplies; Finland lost to Russia.
    2. The so-called "phony war" ended when Hitler suddenly (April 1940) attacked and conquered Denmark and Norway, then the Netherlands and Belgium.
      1. The Germans used blitzkrieg ("lightning warfare") and hit with planes, tanks and ground troops very fast.
    3. The attack on France came very quickly and surrender came quickly, by late June of 1940.
      1. Mussolini attacked France while she was down to get some of the booty.
      2. The only good news was a miraculous evacuation at Dunkirk. Pinned against the English Channel, a waters suddenly settled to an unusual calm and small boats were able to cross the channel and evacuate the troops.
    4. Americans how realized Britain was now the only major European country left standing between the U.S. and Nazi Germany.
      1. FDR called for America to build up the military. Congress appropriated $37 billion, a huge number.
      2. A conscription law was passed—America's first peacetime draft. It would train 1.2 million troops yearly and 800,000 reserves.
    5. There was concern that Germany may take the orphaned Dutch, Danish, and French colonies in Latin America. At the Havana Conference, it was agreed that the Europe-stay-away policy of the Monroe Doctrine would be shared by 21 American countries.
  11. Refugees from the Holocaust
    1. Adolf Hitler stirred up the old feelings of anti-Semitism (hatred of Jews).
      1. Old violence against Jews began to reemerge in the early 1900's Germany.
      2. The most infamous was Kristallnacht or "night of broken glass."
        1. Joseph Goebbels, master of Nazi propaganda, stirred up the German people into action.
        2. Mobs raided and destroyed Jewish homes and businesses. At least 91 Jews were killed.
    2. Many Jews tried to escape.
      1. Due to immigration restrictions, only a few Jews were allowed into the U.S. Perhaps most notable was Albert Einstein, the brilliant physicist and mathematician.
      2. The vast majority of Jews were not admitted into the U.S.
        1. In one sad case, 937 Jewish passengers boarded the St. Louis and sailed to Havana, Cuba. They were not welcome.
        2. They went to Miami and FDR seemed to open his arms, but Sec. of State Cordell Hull convinced him to not allow the immigrants.
        3. In the end, they returned to various European nations and ultimately felt the wrath of Nazi Germany during WWII.
    3. As reports of a Jewish holocaust began to trickle in, FDR started the War Refugee Board. It saved thousands of Hungarians from the Auschwitz death camp.
    4. By the end of WWII, 6 million Jews had been killed in the Holocaust.
  12. Bolstering Britain
    1. Britain was next on Hitler's list. To attack Britain, Hitler first needed air superiority. He began bombing, but the British Royal Air Force fought back and halted Germany in the world's first all-air war, the Battle of Britain.
    2. In America, two voices spoke to FDR on whether the U.S. should get involved:
      1. Isolationists set up the America First Committee. Charles Lindbergh was a member.
      2. Interventionists set up the Committee to Defend the Allies.
    3. Both sides campaigned their positions; FDR chose a middle route at this time.
      1. In the Destroyer Deal (1940), America transferred 50 old destroyers from WWI days to Britain. In return, the U.S. got eight defensive bases in the Americas, from Newfoundland down to South America.
      2. The pattern (Quarantine speech, Neutrality Acts, cash-and-carry, Destroyer Deal) showed the U.S. was clearly taking steps from isolation toward intervention.
  13. Shattering the Two-Term Tradition (1940)
    1. 1940 was also an election year. Wendell L. Willkie came out of nowhere to capture the Republican nomination. Franklin Roosevelt set aside the two-term tradition, and was nominated for a third term.
      1. Willkie criticized some of the New Deal mishandlings, but the New Deal was not the big issue anymore, the war was. On foreign affairs, there wasn't much difference between the candidates. Willkie's main point of attack was the two-term tradition which was around since George Washington.
      2. FDR's camp came back with, "Better a third term a third-rater" and Lincoln's old adage to not change horses midstream was still strong. FDR also promised to not send "boys" to "any foreign war" (which haunted him).
    2. FDR won big again, 449 to 82.
  14. A Landmark Lend-Lease Law
    1. Britain needed money. FDR wanted to help, but also didn't want another WWI-like debt mess. FDR's solution would be to simply loan weapons and ships to the British. They can use them, them return them.
      1. Senator Taft countered lending tanks would be like lending chewing gum—you don't want it back afterward.
    2. The Lend-Lease Bill passed and the U.S. would become the "arsenal of democracy." By 1945, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and material to the Allies.
    3. Lend-Lease marked an almost official abandonment of isolation. Everyone realized this, from Mainstreet America to Adolf Hitler. Germany had avoided American ships 'til this point. On May 21, 1941, a German sub destroyed an American ship, the Robin Moor.
  15. Charting a New World
    1. In June of 1941, Hitler broke his pact with Russia and invaded the USSR. Neither trusted the other, so Hitler moved to double-cross Stalin first. This was great news for the democracies. Now those two could beat up on one another.
    2. The thinking was that the Germans would quickly defeat the Russians.
      1. FDR sent $1 billion to Russia to help defend Moscow. Germany made quick and early gains, but the red army slowed the Nazis until the winter set in. The Germans literally froze at the gates of Moscow.
    3. The Atlantic Conference (Aug 1941) saw Winston Churchill of England meet with FDR in Newfoundland.
    4. The Atlantic Charter was formed at the meeting and was later okayed by the Soviet Union. Oddly with the U.S. not even in the war, the Charter set up goals for after the war was won. The main points of the Charter were reflective of Wilson's Fourteen Points of WWI…
      1. There would be no territorial or government changes without the people's vote (self-determination).
      2. Disarmament would be sought.
      3. A new peace-keeping organization, like the League of Nations, would be set up.
    5. Isolationists criticized the Atlantic Conference and Charter. They simply failed to see that the U.S. was no neutral anymore.
  16. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash
    1. Sending war materials to Britain would be risky with German sub "wolfpacks" prowling around. FDR concluded that a convoy system would be used—merchant ships would be escorted by U.S. warships to Iceland. Then the British would take over the escorting.
    2. Incidents happened, including German attacks on the American destroyer Greer. FDR declared a shoot-on-sight policy.
      1. The American Kearny saw 11 men killed and was damaged.
      2. The destroyer Reuben James was torpedoed and sunk off of Iceland, killing over 100 Americans.
      3. In November of 1941, Congress stopped pretending and pulled the plug on the outdated Neutrality Act of 1939. Merchant ships could arm and enter combat zones.
  17. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor
    1. Meanwhile, Japan was marching toward their vision of an empire of the rising sun. They were still beating the Chinese.
    2. In protest of Japan's actions in China, the U.S. put an embargo on Japan. The main blow was cutting off oil, which Japan needed for its sprawling empire. Japan's solution was to attack.
    3. American code-breakers knew the Japanese were up to some no-good. The best thinking was that Japan would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.
      1. Japan certainly wouldn't try to hit Hawaii, maybe a sneak sabotage attack, but nothing foolish like an all-out attack.
    4. An all-out attack on Hawaii is what came. The attack on Pearl Harbor was one of the most surprising in history.
      1. The attack came in the morning of December 7, 1941 (FDR's "date which will live in infamy"). Japanese bombers caught the Americans sleepy.
      2. Several ships were sunk or damaged including the U.S.S. Arizona. 3,000 Americans were killed or wounded.
      3. The only good news was that the American aircraft carriers were out at sea. If they'd been destroyed, the American naval situation would've been hopeless.
    5. On December 8, the United States declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. and the U.S. declared war right back. War was now official.
  18. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent
    1. Pearl Harbor galvanized the will of America. On December 8, 1941, there was no disagreement on isolationism.
    2. America had been riding a teeter-totter for several years: wanting to stop Germany and Japan, but wanting to do it from a convenient distance. Those days were over.

Chapter 35 - America in World War II

  1. The Allies Trade Space for Time
    1. Pearl Harbor jarred many Americans' minds out of isolationism and into revenge-on-Japan mode. This was especially true on the west coast where there was only water between the U.S. and the Japanese fleet.
    2. FDR held back the reins against Japan, however, and vowed to "get Germany first." Many folks were upset at putting Japan second on the list, but Germany was the more pressing problem.
    3. The plan was to absolutely not let Britain fall to Germany and meanwhile send just enough effort to hold Japan at bay for the time being.
      1. The problem was preparedness. To execute this plan, the U.S. needed time to gear up for war.
      2. The task was monumental: to change industry for a total war, organize a massive military, ship everything in two directions across the world, and feed the Allies.
  2. The Shock of War
    1. National unity was strong after the Pearl Harbor attack.
    2. There were no ethnic witch-hunts, with the glaring exception of Japanese-Americans.
      1. Mostly living on the west coast, Japanese-Americans were rounded up and sent to internment camps.
      2. The official reasoning was to protect them from rogues on the streets who may want to take out their Pearl Harbor frustrations on them.
      3. The ulterior motive was that there was distrust. Some believed the Japanese-Americans were more loyal to Japan than the U.S. and were really spies. This was untrue.
      4. Though jailed without due process of law, the Supreme Court upheld the internment camps in the Korematsu v. U.S. case.
        1. Notably, in 1988, the government apologized and offered reparations of $20,000 to each camp survivor.
    3. Many New Deal programs were ended as the war began. Now, all jobs would be war jobs.
    4. Unlike WWI, WWII was not made out to be an idealistic crusade. It was just the dirty work of defeating the bad guys.
  3. Building the War Machine
    1. The Great Depression ended when huge orders for the war effort came in. More than $100 billion was ordered in 1942.
    2. Henry J. Kaiser was nicknamed "Sir Launchalot" because his crews could build an entire ship in only 14 days.
    3. The War Production Board took control of industry. It halted production of non-essential items like passenger cars.
      1. Rubber was a much-needed item because Japan had overtaken the rubber tree fields of British Malaya. Gasoline was rationed to help save tires.
    4. Agricultural production was incredible. Though many farm boys went to war, new equipment and fertilizers yielded record harvests.
    5. Prices rose, however. The Office of Price Administration regulated prices.
      1. Critical items were rationed to keep consumption down, like meat and butter.
      2. The War Labor Board set ceilings on wages (lower wages means lower prices).
    6. Though they hated the wage regulations, labor unions promised to not strike during the war. Some did anyway, like the United Mine Workers led by John L. Lewis.
      1. Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943) giving the federal government the authority to seize and run industries crippled by strikes. The government took over the coal mines and railroads, briefly.
      2. All-in-all, strikes were minimal during the war.
  4. Manpower and Womanpower
    1. There were some 15 million men and 216,000 women in the military during WWII.
      1. The most famous women were the WAACS (in the Army), the WAVES (Navy), and the SPARS (Coast Guard).
    2. Since most able-bodied men were off at war, industry needed workers.
      1. The bracero program brought workers from Mexico to harvest crops. The program was successful and stayed on about 20 years after the war.
      2. Women stepped up and took the war jobs. For many women, this was the first "real job" outside of the home. Almost certainly, this was the first job for women in industry—women built planes, artillery shells, tanks, everything.
        1. The symbol for women-workers was "Rosie the Riveter" with her sleeves rolled up and rivet gun in hand.
        2. Without question, the war opened things up for women in the workplace. Women "proved themselves" and gained respect.
        3. But, after the war most women (about 2/3) left the workplace. A post-war baby boom resulted when the boys got home from war. Most women returned to their other "job" of being homemakers and mothers.
  5. Wartime Migrations
    1. As during the Depression, the war forced people to move around the country.
    2. FDR had long been determined to help the economically-hurting South. He funneled money southward in defense contracts. This would plant the seeds of the "Sunbelt's" boom after the war.
    3. African-Americans moved out of the South in large numbers, usually heading Northern cities, but also to the West.
      1. Black leader A. Philip Randolph prepared a "Negro March on Washington" to clamor for more blacks in defense jobs and military. FDR responded by banning discrimination in defense industries.
      2. FDR also set up the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to serve as a watchdog over the discrimination ban.
      3. Blacks served in segregated units in the military.
        1. Aside from the segregation, there was discrimination such as separate blood banks for each race, and often the roles of blacks were more menial such as cooks, truck drivers, etc.
        2. Generally, however, the war and the efforts of Blacks encouraged African-Americans to strive for equality. The slogan was the "Double V"—victory overseas vs. dictators and victory at home vs. racism.
      4. Black organizations increased in membership. The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) neared the half-million mark and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality) was founded.
      5. The mechanical cotton picker was invented. This freed blacks from the age-old cotton picking job—another reason many moved.
    4. Native Americans also fought in the war in large numbers.
      1. Famously, Navajo and Comanche Indians were "code talkers." They traded messages using their traditional language. Their "codes" were never broken.
    5. All the moving around mixed people who weren't accustomed to it, and there were some clashes. For example, some white sailors attacked some Mexican and Mexican-Americans in L.A. in 1943. Also, 25 blacks and 9 whites were killed in a Detroit race riot.
  6. Holding the Home Front This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. The United States entered WWII still in the Depression. The U.S. came out of WWII very prosperous (the only nation to do so).
      1. GNP (Gross National Product) had doubled. Corporate profits doubled too.
      2. Disposable income (money left to spend) also doubled. Inflation would suit and rise as well.
    2. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the production for WWII that ended the Great Depression.
      1. The war's cost was assessed at $330 billion (ten times WWI).
      2. To help pay for the war, four times more people were required to pay income taxes. Most of the payments, however, were on credit. This meant the national debt shot up from $49 to $259 billion.
  7. The Rising Sun in the Pacific
    1. Japan began to take action on its dream of a new empire—the land of the rising sun. The Japanese took island after island, including: Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and much of coastal China.
    2. The Philippines had been embarrassing for the U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur had to sneak away. The general made a pledge, however, to return.
      1. After the U.S. lost in the Philippines, the Japanese made the captured soldiers hike the infamous "Bataan Death March"—85 miles where, if you stumbled, you died.
      2. The U.S. finally gave up and surrendered Corregidor, an island/fort in Manila Harbor.
  8. Japan’s High Tide at Midway
    1. The first big U.S.-Japan naval battle was the Battle of Coral Sea. It was the world’s first naval battle where the ships never saw one another (they fought with aircraft via carriers). Both sides had heavy losses.
    2. Intercepted messages hinted at an attack on Midway Island. American Adm. Chester Nimitz correctly sent the U.S. fleet and the Battle of Midway (June 1942) followed. Instead of being surprised, the U.S. gave the surprise.
      1. Adm. Raymond Spruance was the the admiral on the water. Midway was a rout for the U.S. as four Japanese aircraft carriers were sunk.
      2. Midway proved to be the turning point in the Pacific war, the place where Japanese expansion was halted.
    3. Japan did capture the islands of Kiska and Attu in the Aleutian chain of Alaska. The islands are home to a few hundred native Aleuts, snow, and rocks, but the mere idea the Japanese taking American soil hit hard. The northwestern states feared an invasion.
      1. The "Alcan" Highway was built from Alaska, through Canada, to the continental states to help protect Alaska.
  9. American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo
    1. Japan's expansion halted, America then began "island-hopping" toward Japan. The plan was to not attack the stronghold, take the weaker islands and build airbases on them. The stronger islands would be taken by bombing and strangling of resources.
    2. There would be two main thrusts: in the south led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur and in the central Pacific led by Adm. Chester Nimitz.
      1. Island-hopping began in the south Pacific with victories at Guadalcanal (Aug. 1942). This southern strike reached New Guinea in August of 1944. MacArthur was working his way back to the Philippines.
      2. Northward, Tarawa and Makin in the Gilbert Islands were captured. Next, the Marshall Island chain was won.
        1. The "Marianas Turkey Shoot" was an American highlight where American "Hellcat" fighters had their way in the air shooting down 250 enemy planes. The Marianas Islands also were close enough so that B-29 bombers could strike Japan and return (if the winds were favorable).
        2. This would later be the take-off point for the atomic bomb planes.
    3. Though island-hopping made steady progress, it was slow, hard-fought, and bloody.
      1. American sailors shelled the beachheads with artillery, U.S. Marines stormed ashore (while the navy shelled over their heads), and American bombers attacked the Japanese. Heroism and self-sacrifice were common.
      2. One example was when Lt. Robert J. Albert piloted a B-24 “Liberator” on 36 missions. His final run was a record 18 hour and 25 minute strike. His tour of duty was complete, but his crew's was not. He volunteered to pilot the flight so that his men would not fly behind a rookie pilot.
  10. The Allied Halting of Hitler
    1. As with the Pacific, progress in Europe has slow at first. History has shown the American war machine slow to get going, but awesome when it is going.
    2. German u-boats were proving to be very effective. The German "enigma code" was broken thanks to spies' actions and lives sacrificed to get an enigma machine to decode messages. These messages helped locate German u-boat wolfpacks.
    3. The Battle of the Atlantic, the war for control of the ocean, went on until 1943 when the Allies gained control.
      1. The win over the seas was a close one. It was learned after the war that the amazing German engineers were nearing completion of a sub that could stay submerged indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots.
    4. 1942 was the turning point year in Europe (like Midway in '42 in the Pacific).
      1. The British bombed the Germans in Cologne, France. American B-17's bombed Germany itself.
      2. German Gen. Erwin Rommel (nicknamed the "Desert Fox" because he was clever with maneuvers) was having great success in North Africa. He was almost to the Suez Canal in Egypt—taking the canal would link the Mediterranean Sea (Italy and Germany) with the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Japan).
        1. However, Brit. Gen. Bernard Montgomery, at the Battle of El Alamein (Oct. 1942) stopped the Germans. From there, Germany would be pushed back.
      3. The Russians also stopped the Germans at Stalingrad (Sep. 1942). A month later, Russia began pushing back and recaptured 2/3 of their lost land in one year.
  11. A Second Front from North Africa to Rome
    1. Some 20 million Russians would die by the end of the war so the Soviet Union wanted the allies to start a second front against Germany and ease Russia's burden.
      1. Britain and the U.S. wanted this, but had different views. America wanted to ram straight at the Nazis through France.
      2. Britain wanted to lure the war away from England. Winston Churchill suggested they hit Germany's "soft underbelly", meaning up from North Africa and through Italy.
    2. The soft underbelly approach was decided upon.
      1. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower led an attack on North Africa (Nov. 1942). The Allies pushed the Germans out of Africa by May 1943.
    3. The Roosevelt and Churchill met at the Casablanca Conference to flesh out plans (Jan. 1943). They agreed to seek the "unconditional surrender" of Germany.
    4. The soft underbelly attack continued.
      1. The Allies leapfrogged to Sicily. Mussolini was overthrown (and later murdered) at about the same time and Italy surrendered (Sept. 1943). German soldiers were still in Italy, however, and they were determined to keep fighting.
      2. The Allies then moved to the lower portion of the Italian boot, then started edging northward. By this time, it was clear that the soft underbelly really wasn't very soft.
        1. The German were dug in at Monte Cassino. After taking a beachhead at Anzio, the Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944.
        2. The Allied thrust essentially bogged down and stalled at this point, roughly half way up the Italian peninsula. The D-Day invasion would make the Italian assault a mere diversion.
    5. The soft underbelly attack had mixed results. The good: it drew some of Hitler's men and supplies and it did defeat Italy. The bad: it delayed the D-Day invasion and gave Russia extra time to draw farther into Eastern Europe.
  12. D-Day: June 6, 1944
    1. Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met at the Tehran Conference (Nov.-Dec. 1943) to formulate goals and coordinate attacks.
    2. The groundwork was laid for a massive assault across the English channel (eventual D-Day invasion).
      1. Gen. Eisenhower was placed in charge of the assault.
      2. The attack would take place on the beaches of Normandy on the French coast. The Germans had guessed the sure-to-come attack would be at Calais because that's the narrowest point of the channel. The Allies offered fakes and bluffs there to confuse the enemy.
    3. The D-Day Invasion began on June 6, 1944. It was the largest amphibious assault in history.
      1. The Allies had to cross the channel, wade ashore, cross the wide beach, scale 100 foot bluffs, and overtake German bunkers—while being shot at by machine guns and artillery. The Allies did it.
      2. After gaining a toehold at Normandy, the Allies began spreading out. Gen. George S. Patton led U.S. troops across the French countryside.
      3. Paris was liberated in August of 1944—a major morale boost for the Allies.
  13. FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944
    1. Despite the ongoing war in 1944, an election year came again. The Republican party nominated Thomas E. Dewey. He was known as a liberal and attacker of corruption.
    2. The Democrats nominated FDR for a fourth term. There was no other viable choice for the party.
      1. The real question was who'd be the vice-presidential candidate. The nomination was made for Harry S Truman who was largely without enemies.
  14. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey
    1. Dewey campaigned hard against Roosevelt. He attacked "twelve long years" and emphasized it was "time for a change."
    2. FDR didn't campaign much until election day neared.
      1. Roosevelt got a lot of financial help from the CIO's new political action committee (PAC). The PAC was set up to avoid a ban on using union money for politics.
    3. FDR won the election in a big way, again. The electoral vote was 432 to 99. The main reason that he won was that the war was moving along well at this point.
  15. The Last Days of Hitler
    1. The Nazi army was on the retreat at this point. Hitler made one last big push at the Ardenne Forest. The Americans were surprised and pushed back; the result was a bulge in the battle line.
      1. The Americans held on at Bastogne. Germany asked for a surrender but Gen. A.C. McCauliffe answered, "Nuts."
      2. Reinforcements came and the U.S. won the Battle of the Bulge. From there, steady progress was made toward Berlin. Russia was simultaneously converging on Berlin.
    2. Along the way, the Allies discovered the horrors of the Holocaust.
      1. There had been rumors of such goings-on, but it was believed they were either untrue or exaggerated. They were not—the Holocaust was worse than imagined.
      2. The death camps, still stinking, made the horrors clear. Eisenhower forced German civilians to march through the camps after the war to see what they're government had done.
    3. The Russians reached Germany first. Hitler killed himself in a bunker (Apr. 1945), along with his mistress-turned-wife Eva Braun.
    4. Only two weeks prior, while vacationing at Warm Springs, GA, Franklin Roosevelt suddenly died. Truman became president.
    5. The German officials surrendered on May 7; May 8, 1945 was named V-E Day (Victory in Europe). The celebration began.
  16. Japan Dies Hard
    1. The war with Japan was still on.
      1. American subs were devastating Japanese merchant ships—1,042 were destroyed.
      2. American bombers were devastating Japanese cities. In a two-day fire-bomb raid on Tokyo in March of 1945, the destruction was: 250,000 buildings, 1/4 of the city, and 83,000 lives. This was about the equivalent of the atomic bombs that were to come.
    2. Gen. MacArthur was determined to return to the Philippines where he'd been booted.
      1. After retaking New Guinea, MacArthur made his Filipino return in October, 1944.
      2. Hard naval fighting followed at Leyte Gulf. The U.S. won, although Adm. William Halsey was suckered into a feint. Leyte Gulf was the last huge battle in the Pacific—Japan's navy was all but destroyed at this point.
      3. MacArthur then took Luzon and finally captured the capital city of Manila (Mar. 1945).
    3. The same month, the small island of Iwo Jima was captured by America in some of the toughest fighting yet. It was strategically located halfway between the Marianas Islands and Japan. Thus, it provided an important airstrip.
      1. The famous flag-raising photo was snapped atop Mt. Suribachi while the fighting still raged.
    4. Okinawa was the next target. It was the last island before the Japanese mainlands. Okinawa was taken (June 1945) after 50,000 American casualties.
      1. In a last-ditch effort, Japan unleashed the full fury of their "kamikaze" suicide pilots. Likening themselves to the samurai warriors of old the kamikazes felt they were dying for their god-emperor.
  17. The Atomic Bombs
    1. Rookie Pres. Harry Truman met with Stalin and British officials at the Potsdam Conference (July 1945). The final statement to Japan was: surrender or be destroyed.
    2. Meanwhile, the U.S. had been working on a super-secret project all along: to build the atomic bomb.
      1. Early on, many German scientists had fled Nazi Germany, notably Albert Einstein. In 1940, with FDR's blessing, these scientists started working on the bomb.
      2. FDR had gotten Congress to approve the money in fear that Germany may well develop the bomb first. The Manhattan Project secretly developed and built the world's first atomic bomb. It was tested in Alamogordo, NM (July 1945) and was ready for use.
    3. Still belligerent, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan (Aug. 6, 1945). 70,000 died instantly, 180,000 total casualties.
    4. On Aug. 8, Russia entered the war against Japan and attacked Manchuria.
    5. On Aug. 9, a second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. 80,000 were killed or missing. That's was it.
    6. Japan surrendered on Aug. 19, 1945. The Japanese emperor was aloud to stay on the throne as a symbolic gesture.
      1. The official and ceremonial surrender came a few weeks later aboard the U.S.S. Missouri. Gen. MacArthur accepted the surrender from Emperor Hirohito.
  18. The Allies Triumphant
    1. One million casualties was the American cost of WWII. But, despite the sacrifices, America came out of the war tougher and stronger-than-ever, whereas other nations came out of the war beaten down.
      1. The casualty number was incredibly large, but actually small as compared to other nations. The numbers were kept down in part due to new drugs, particularly penicillin.
      2. The American homeland was almost entirely untouched (again, unlike other nations were in rubble).
    2. Though slow-starting, America had run the war well. It was a huge undertaking, but had been undertaken in a systematic and effective manner.
      1. The U.S. had been blessed with great leaders during the war, civilian and military.
      2. Another major factor contributing to victory was America's incredible resources and industry.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 36 - The Cold War Begins

  1. Postwar Economic Anxieties
    1. Many feared a return to the Great Depression or at least a post-war recession.
      1. When the war time price controls ended, inflation did increase significantly.
    2. Labor unions had made steady gains during the Depression and the war. With the economy now strong, the pendulum now swung back against unions.
      1. Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It banned "closed shops" (closed to anyone not joining the union). It also made unions liable for certain damages and that union leaders take a non-communist oath. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, Taft-Hartley weakened labor unions.
      2. Unions tried to move into the South and the West, in the CIO's "Operation Dixie." This was unsuccessful.
        1. Two factors caused the failure: (1) Workers in the South and West were generally not factory workers but were scattered around and thus not easily unionized, and (2) these areas had a longtime value on individual freedom and hard work, and thus a disdain for labor unions which focused on group action to yield more pay with lower hours.
    3. The government took steps to ward off any slow-down in the economy.
      1. War factories and government facilities were sold to businesses at rock bottom prices.
      2. The Employment Act (1946) got the government to "promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power."
      3. The Council of Economic Advisors were to give the president solid data to make solid decisions.
    4. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944) was better known at the GI Bill of Rights. It sent 8 million former soldiers to vocational schools and colleges.
  2. The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970
    1. The economy held its ground through the late 40's. By 1950, the economy began to skyrocket. America pushed toward, and reached, a new age of prosperity.
      1. By 1960, America's national income nearly doubled, then nearly doubled again by 1970. By 1973, Americans made up 6% of the world's population and held 40% of the money.
    2. The middle class was the big winner during these years. The class doubled in size and they expanded their ambitions: two cars in the garage, and a pool out back, and whatever else can be thrown in.
    3. Women benefited from the good times as well. Many women found jobs in new offices and shops. Women were 25% of the workforce at war's end, about 50% five years later.
      1. The traditional roles of women at home was still glorified in popular media. A clash was being set up between women at work and women at home.
  3. The Roots of Postwar Prosperity
    1. The postwar economic boom had several causes and propellants…
      1. The war's massive production jump-started the entire economy.
      2. Post-war military projects kept the "military-industrial complex" in business.
        1. There were tons of jobs in military-related areas, such as aerospace, plastics, electronics, and "R and D" (research and development).
      3. Energy was cheap and plentiful. High car sales reflected the cheap gas. A strong infrastructure of power lines, gas lines helped feed homes and businesses.
      4. Worker production increased. More Americans went to and stayed in school. Increased education meant increased standard of living.
    2. Farms changed and turned toward big-businesses and away from family farms. Machinery costs fueled this change. Former farmers left for other jobs. Still, with new equipment and better hybrids and fertilizers, food production increased.
  4. The Smiling Sunbelt
    1. Many babies arrived in the baby boom and many families had moved around the country. Unable to just ask her mother what-to-do question, many new moms turned to Dr. Benjamin Spock's how-to The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. It was a huge seller.
    2. The Sunbelt, from California to Florida, began a boom of its own.
      1. There was a shift-of-power from the old Northeast and Midwest to the new South and West—from the Frostbelt and Rustbelt to the Sunbelt.
        1. Symbolizing this shift, California became the most populous state in the 50's, passing New York.
      2. Immigration helped increase the Sunbelt's population.
      3. Many of the government's new military facilities were built in the Sunbelt. Good-paying jobs came with them.
      4. A political battle was shaping up. By 1990, the Sunbelt received $125 billion more federal money than the northern areas. And, with their populations increased, more Congressional and presidential votes had moved down to the Sunbelt states.
  5. The Rush to the Suburbs
    1. After the war, whites abandoned the inner-cities and moved out to the grass and trees of the suburbs.
      1. Cheap home loans offered by the FHA and the Veteran's Administration made buying a home more sensible than renting an apartment in town.
      2. 25% of Americans lived in the suburbs by 1960.
    2. The best example of a post-war suburb was Levittown on Long Island.
      1. The Levitt brothers perfected the "cookie cutter" house. They were identical but also very affordable.
      2. Despite their monotony, many in the 50's actually preferred the standardization, conformity, and comfort-factor the houses gave. It was like the McDonald's theory (which also started and boomed at the time)—no matter which McDonald's you go in, you always get the same burger.
    3. This so-called "white flight" left blacks in the inner-cities, and left the cities poor.
      1. Symbolic of this movement would be the growth of shopping centers and Wal-Marts and the the "closed" signs on downtown shops.
      2. Blacks often had a hard time getting loans, even from government agencies, due to the "risk" involved. Thus, whites were able to move to the suburbs, blacks were not.
  6. The Postwar Baby Boom This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. When the soldiers returned from war, the baby boom began. The birthrate peaked in 1957. It then slowed and started a "birth dearth."
    2. The baby boom generation has had a huge impact on America.
      1. While they grew up, entire industries rode their wave. For example in clothing, Levi's jeans went from work pants to standard teenage wear; burger joints boomed; music changed (rock 'n' roll).
      2. Prior, children and adolescents were expected to dress and act like small adults. By the 50's, youth dressed and acted their own way and did their own thing.
    3. The baby boom, and later birth dearth, created a swell and then a narrowing, in the population of generations. Simply put, the baby boomers far outnumber other generations.
      1. By 2020, when most baby boomers are retired, it is projected that the Social Security system will go broke.
  7. Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri
    1. Harry S Truman was at the helm just after WWII. He had a big smile, was a sharp dresser, and a small but very spunky fellow. He was the first president in many years without a college education.
      1. Truman was called "The Man from Independence" (Missouri). His cabinet was made of the "Missouri gang", and like Harding of the 20's, Truman was prone to stick by his boys when they got caught in some wrong-doings.
      2. Truman gained confidence as he went along. He also earned the nickname of "Give 'em Hell Harry." He also a bit prone to making hot-headed or rash decisions, or sticking with a bad decision out of stubbornness.
    2. Despite little drawbacks, Truman was decisive, "real", responsible, had moxie. He loved the sayings "The buck stops here," and "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen."
  8. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?
    1. The Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) had met at the Yalta Conference in Feb. 1945 (there last meeting). That meeting shaped the Cold War to come. It was highlighted by distrust between the U.S./Britain and the Soviet Union.
      1. FDR and Churchill did not trust Russia's ambitions for the post-war, ditto Russia the other way.
    2. Promises were made…
      1. Russia promised to enter the war against Japan. In return, Russia would get land—1/2 of Sakhalin Island, Japan's Kurile Islands, railroads in Manchuria, and Port Arthur on the Pacific.
        1. This promise was kept. However, by the time Russia entered, the U.S. had all but won. It appeared Russia entered to just look good and accept the spoils of victory.
      2. Russia pledged free elections for Poland and a representative government; also elections in Bulgaria and Romania. These promises were flatly broken. The Soviets set up puppet communist governments.
    3. FDR was roundly criticized for doing poorly at the Yalta Conference.
      1. Promises had been accepted from Stalin only to be broken.
      2. China fell to the communists a few years later (1948) and FDR got some of the blame for selling out Chiang Kai-Shek and China to communist Russia.
    4. Defenders of FDR say he did what he could in the circumstances. If he'd not bargained with Stalin over Japan, the Soviets may have even taken more of China.
  9. The United States and the Soviet Union
    1. The post-war world had two superpowers: the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Distrust was high.
    2. The Soviet Union felt put-out by the Americans because: (1) the U.S. had waited until 1933 to officially recognize the U.S.S.R., (2) the Allies had been slow to start a second front, (3) America withdrew the lend-lease program to Russia in 1945, and (4) America rejected Russia's request for a $6 billion reconstruction loan, but gave one for Germany for $3.75 billion.
      1. Russia perceived all of these things as insults.
    3. Russia had been attacked from the west twice within about 25 years, so, Stalin wanted a protective buffer from Western Europe. To create that protection, Russia set up puppet communist governments in Eastern Europe. These "satellite nations" would serve as a buffer zone to the Soviet Union.
    4. Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. had now been thrown into the international spotlight. They'd both been isolationist, but now had to drive international policies. Both had a history of "missionary" diplomacy—of trying to press their ways onto others.
    5. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. had opposing economic-political systems (capitalism and democracy vs. communism) and they didn't trust the other side. The "Cold War" had begun. Their actions and policies would dominate international affairs for the next 40 years.
  10. Shaping the Postwar World
    1. The Atlantic Charter had called for a new League of Nations. That was realized.
    2. A meeting was held at Bretton Woods, NH (1944). There, the Allies set up the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to propell world trade and regulate currency exchange rates. It also started the World Bank to give loans to needy nations (ravaged by war or just poor).
    3. Days after FDR died, a charter was drawn up for the United Nations in April 1945 in San Francisco. 50 nations participated. It's headquarters would be in New York City.
    4. The U.N. was like the League in concept, the U.N.'s structure was different. It had three main categories…
      1. The General Assembly—the main meeting place where each nation got 2 votes.
      2. The Security Council dealing with conflict and war. It had 11 member nations, 5 were permanent with total veto power (U.S., Britain, France, U.S.S.R. and China). The Security Council would prove to be the most influential and active in world affairs.
      3. Other relief-based agencies, such as UNESCO (U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Org.), the FAO (Food and Agricultural Org.) and WHO (World Health Org.).
    5. Unlike the old League of Nations, the senate was favorable to the U.N. It was accepted by a vote of 89 to 2.
    6. The U.N. helped keep the peace in Iran, Kashmir, and other hotspots. It also helped set up Israel as a homeland for the Jews.
    7. The pressing issue was atomic weaponry. America was the only nation with an atomic bomb at the time—though Russia was getting very close.
      1. U.S. delegate to the United Nations Bernard Baruch called for a U.N. agency to totally regulate atomic weapons. Russia was distrustful of American ambitions.
      2. The Soviets proposed a total ban on atomic weapons. Neither proposal was accepted and thus regulation of atomic weapons did not happen. The nations were to go at it on their own.
  11. The Problem of Germany
    1. Nazi leaders were tried at the Nuremberg Trials just after the war for crimes against humanity. Everyone's rationale was that they'd just been following their orders. Twelve hanged, seven were given long sentences. Hermann Goering killed himself with cyanide.
    2. There was disagreement with what to do about Germany. The U.S. wanted Germany to rebuild as that's good for Europe's economy. Russia wanted reparations.
      1. To avoid Germany rearming, the country was divided into four zones. The U.S., France, Britain, and Russia would oversee one zone. The idea was to reunite Germany, but Russia balked at the idea. Germany was going to remain split.
      2. West Germany would be a democracy, East Germany was a puppet communist nation.
    3. Berlin was located in East Germany (Russia's section) and it was also split into four zones. The end result was a free West Berlin located inside Russian-controlled East Germany, like an island.
      1. Russia suddenly cut off the railway to West Berlin (1948) in attempt to strangle West Berlin into giving itself over to the East.
      2. America's response was the Berlin Airlift where the U.S. simply flew in needed supplies to West Berlin. The operation was on a massive scale, and it worked. The Soviet Union ended their blockade the next year.
  12. The Cold War Congeals
    1. Wanting oil fields, Stalin failed to fulfill a treaty to remove troops in Iran, but rather he helped some rebels. Pres. Truman was not happy. By this time, deep distrust was the rule, and both sides hardened toward the other.
    2. The American position toward Russia became formal with the George F. Kennan's "containment doctrine." It simply said the U.S.S.R. was expansionist by nature and but it could be held in check by firm American containment.
      1. Pres. Truman made the containment policy official by announcing the Truman Doctrine (1947). In the doctrine he asked Congress for $400 million to aid Greece and Turkey who were feeling communist pressures.
      2. Though focused on Greece and Turkey at the time, the Truman Doctrine was greatly broadened—the U.S. was to stop communism anywhere it seemed to be trying to expand. This policy would dominate U.S. foreign policy for the next four decades.
    3. Western Europe's economy was struggling badly. To help, Truman and Sec. of State George C. Marshall started the Marshall Plan, a massive project to lend financial help to rebuild Europe.
      1. The plan helped in the formation of the European Community (EC).
      2. Some $12.5 billion was spent over four years, a huge sum. Congress thought the number too high (they'd already given $2 billion to U.N. agencies), but a Russia-sponsored revolution in Czechoslovakia changed their minds.
      3. The Marshall Plan worked. Western Europe's economies rebounded, and communist groups in those nations lost influence.
    4. Pres. Truman formally recognized Israel on May 14, 1948, the day it was started. He wanted to help the Jews after the Holocaust, but also hurt the Soviet influence there.
      1. Arab nations were not pleased. America's decision to support Israel, along with oil in the region, would long affect U.S.-Arab relations.
  13. America Begins to Rearm
    1. The military reorganized in 1947 with the National Security Act.
      1. The old War Department was replaced with the Department of Defense; the Sec. of War replaced with the Sec. of Defense. Civilian secretaries would also head the army, navy, and air force. The military heads of each branch were to meet in the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
    2. The National Security Council (NSC) was formed by the National Security Act. The council was to advise the president on security matters. The act also formed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to gather foreign intelligence.
    3. America fired up the propaganda machine. Congress okayed the Voice of America (1948) radio broadcast to be transmitted into Eastern Europe.
    4. The military draft was brought back. Young men 19 to 25 might be drafted by the Selective Service System.
    5. The old allies organized in 1948. The U.S. joined up with Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg united to start the North Atlantic Treaty Org. (NATO). It was an alliance where attacking one meant attacking them all. The U.S. joined despite an unwritten national policy and tradition of avoiding "entangling alliances."
      1. NATO would later grow. Greece and Turkey joined up in 1952, West Germany in 1955. NATO had 15 nations by then.
      2. Not to be outdone by the West, the Soviets set up the Warsaw Pact made up of the U.S.S.R. and the Eastern European nations.
  14. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia
    1. Japan also had to be managed after the war. Gen. Douglas MacArthur essentially ran as a dictator to draw up a new Japanese constitution based on the U.S. Constitution (1946).
      1. Japan was a success story. It quickly and successfully embraced democracy and also recovered economically to become one of the world's richest and most productive nations.
    2. China, however, was having problems.
      1. Mao Zedong led communist forces in a civil war against Chiang Kai-Shek's (AKA Jiang Jieshi) Nationalist government.
      2. Mao and the communists won in 1949. Chiang Kai-Shek and the Nationalists had to retreat offshore to the island of Formosa (Taiwan).
    3. With a huge nation like China going communist, this was a bad loss for the U.S. in the Cold War.
      1. Truman was criticized for not doing enough to stop the loss. Likely, he couldn't have stopped it anyway.
    4. The nuclear arms race began in Sept. 1949 when the U.S.S.R. announced it'd successfully detonated an atomic bomb, ending America's "nuclear monopoly."
      1. In 1952, the U.S. detonated a hydrogen bomb. The "H-bomb" (which relies on nuclear fusion of hydrogen) was a 1,000 times more powerful than an "A-bomb" (which relies on fission of a heavy element like uranium).
      2. It was so powerful that both Albert Einstein and J. Robert Oppenheimer spoke out. Einstein had written a letter to FDR to initiate the A-bomb's construction and Oppenheimer had been in charge of the Manhattan Project which built the bomb. They both advised to not build the H-bomb.
      3. Not only was the arms race on, but the H-bomb had greatly raised the stakes.
  15. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists
    1. The question then became, "Are any communists here in America?"
      1. The attorney general named 90 possibly-communist organizations. They were not allowed to defend themselves.
      2. The Loyalty Review Board was started to investigate the loyalties of some 3 million federal employees. About 3,000 either resigned or were fired. Many states made "loyalty" a priority. Teachers, especially, were often made to take "loyalty oaths."
      3. The obvious problems were the rights to free speech, press, and thought being hampered. Still, at this time, those rights were muffled.
    2. 11 communists were tried in New York in 1949 under the Smith Act. It was a peacetime anti-sedition act (the first since 1798). They were convicted, imprisoned, and their case upheld by the Supreme Court in Dennis v. U.S. (1951).
    3. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) set out to investigate "subversion".
      1. Richard Nixon made a name for himself as a red hunter by pursuing Alger Hiss. He was convicted of perjury and served five years.
    4. Sen. Joseph McCarthy wanted to show himself a red hunter too. He threw around wild accusations with little or no basis to them.
    5. Some people started to think the red hunting business was going too far—turning from concern to hysteria.
      1. Pres. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill. It was to allow the president to arrest and hold suspicious persons during an "internal security emergency." Congress passed the bill over Truman's veto.
      2. Since the U.S.S.R. had built the atomic bomb quicker than was expected, many Americans suspected spies within the U.S. had sold nuclear secrets.
        1. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were suspected of leaking U.S. secrets to Russia. They were convicted for espionage and executed. The whole nasty business of trial and execution, and their two newly orphaned children, began to sober up Americans against red hunting.
  16. Democratic Divisions in 1948
    1. The Republican had won control of the House in 1946 and were feeling confident in '48. They nominated Thomas Dewey as candidate for president.
    2. The Democrats wanted Gen. Eisenhower, but he refused the nomination. So, Pres. Truman was up for reelection. This split the party.
      1. Southern Democrats (called "Dixiecrats") nominated Gov. Strom Thurmond of SC for the States' Rights Party.
    3. A new Progressive Party offered former V.P. Henry Wallace.
    4. It was really a Dewey vs. Truman race. Dewey seemed to have the momentum, but the Democratic vote had been split three ways.
      1. The Chicago Daily Tribune jumped the gun and infamously printed the headline "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN."
      2. Truman actually won 303 to 189 in the electoral (Thurmond also got 39). The Democrats also retook Congress.
      3. Pres. Truman had gotten support from regular folks, especially farmers, workers, and blacks.
    5. Reinvigorated, he started a program named "Point Four." It was to give money and technical help to underdeveloped nations. It was a humanitarian effort, but it was also to prevent them from going communist.
    6. He outlined a new domestic program called the "Fair Deal." It was a mini-New Deal. The Fair Deal was to improve housing; increase employment, minimum wage, farm price supports; start a new TVA, and extend Social Security.
      1. Many of these programs were shot down in Congress.
      2. Its major successes were in upping the minimum wage, passing the Housing Act (1949) to provide public housing, and extending old-age benefits in a new Social Securities Act (1950).
  17. The Korean Volcano Erupts
    1. As Germany had been split, so too had Korea. North Korea had a communist government thanks to Russia, South Korea was democratic thanks to the U.S. North and South Korea were split at the 38th parallel.
    2. Things were okay until June 25, 1950 when the North suddenly invaded the South. The South was overrun except for the southernmost city of Pusan.
      1. America's Truman Doctrine policy of containment was being challenged. It was time to put-up or shut-up.
    3. Pres. Truman took action and used Korea as an opportunity to build up the U.S. military.
      1. The National Security Council had recommended in 1950 document called NSC-68 that America's defense spending be quadrupled. Truman put NSC-68 into action.
        1. NSC-68 was symbolic in that (1) it showed the fear of communism and (2) it showed the seemingly limitless production possibilities of the U.S. to even order such a massive build-up.
    4. Truman also used the U.N. With Russia and their veto temporarily out, the U.N. named North Korea the aggressor. The U.N. called for action to restore peace—this was the go-ahead to military action.
      1. Within the week, Truman sent Gen. MacArthur's troops to South Korea in a "police action." The U.N. named MacArthur commander of the entire operation, but he took orders from Washington.
  18. The Military Seesaw in Korea
    1. There were three phases of the war…
      1. First, was the North's invasion of the South in 1950.
      2. Secondly, MacArthur's troops set up at Pusan then did a bold "end-around" and hit behind enemy lines at Inchon. Surprised, the North Koreans were quickly driven northward. They went nearly all the way to the Yalu River, the China border. MacArthur thought the war nearly over. Crossing the 38th parallel into the North raised the stakes.
      3. Third, some 200,000 Chinese "volunteers" helped push back southward to the original line at the 38th parallel.
        1. MacArthur called for a blockade and bombing of China. Washington didn't want to take the war that big. MacArthur pressed the issue and went public with it.
        2. Pres. Truman fired MacArthur. Truman was criticized for removing the popular general, but he felt he had no choice. The American military is ultimately run by civilians, not the military.
        3. The war bogged down there for two more years, and that's where it ended in 1953.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 37 - The Eisenhower Era

  1. Affluence and Its Anxieties
    1. The post-WWII economy was a booming economy. 25% of all homes in 1960 were less than a decade old. 83% of the new homes were in the suburbs.
    2. The field of electronics hit a milestone with the invention of the transistor. Computers and electronics could now become small (the first computers, "UNIVAC" and "ENIAC", were room-size).
      1. This gave rise to high-tech companies like IBM. The "information age" was beginning.
    3. In the Cold War atmosphere led Pres. Eisenhower to build up the Strategic Air Command. Aerospace industries thrived, like the Boeing Company which built the first passenger jet airliner, the 707.
    4. A social milestone was hit in 1956 when "white-collar" workers outnumbered "blue-collar" workers. That is to say there were more tie-wearing professionals than workers who get their hands dirty.
      1. This was bad news for labor unions. Unions membership numbers peaked in 1954.
      2. This was good news for women who found jobs as clerks and in offices.
        1. In the media, the traditional roles of women at home were championed. For example, TV shows like "Leave it to Beaver" and "Ozzie and Harriet" featured stay-at-home moms. This so-called "cult of domesticity" would soon be challenged.
        2. Betty Friedan started the modern feminist movement with her book The Feminine Mystique (1963). A former homemaker herself, Friedan wasn't satisfied with just being a suburban mother and felt women were selling themselves short—they could get jobs of their own and do so much more. Many women liked what they read.
        3. Friedan's book showed a split in the views of the roles of women: should women focus exclusively on their families or should they pursue careers as men did? The idea was that staying at home may sell the woman short, a career woman may sell the family short.
  2. Consumer Culture in the Fifties
    1. Similar to the 1920's, the 50's were an era of consumerism.
    2. Diner's Club cards made their appearance, McDonald's started, Disneyland was built, TV's came to nearly all homes.
      1. Reflecting TV sales, $10 billion was spent on TV ads and movie attendance went down.
      2. "Televangelists" went to airwaves to save souls, like Billy Graham (Baptist), Oral Roberts (Pentecostal Holiness), and Fulton J. Sheen (Catholic).
    3. Following Americans to the west, sports shifted westward. The Dodgers moved from Brooklyn to L.A., the New York Giants to San Francisco.
    4. Sex appeal was used to sell.
      1. Elvis "the Pelvis" Presley's dance moves were dubbed inappropriate by the older generation. On his second appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show" he was only filmed from the waist up.
      2. Marilyn Monroe was featured on the cover of the new magazine Playboy and was called the "Sex Goddess for the Nuclear Age."
    5. Though mostly good news in good times, there was criticism.
      1. Writers criticized the new era's conformity, such as in The Lonely Crowd by David Riesman, The Organization Man by William H. Whyte, Jr., and in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit by Sloan Wilson.
      2. John Kenneth Galbraith, a Harvard economist, wrote The Affluent Society. The book saw a problem between a generally rich and affluent society despite public problems such as polluted air and garbage.
  3. The Advent of Eisenhower
    1. For the 1952 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson the down-home Illinois governor. The Republicans opted against Robert A. Taft, an isolationist, and went with war here Dwight D. Eisenhower. Richard Nixon was Eisenhower's running mate for V.P.
    2. Eisenhower was the clear favorite. He was a war hero, grandfatherly, had a big smile, and the "I like Ike" slogan and song was catchy. He attacked Stevenson as soft on communism.
      1. Ike's campaign hit a snap when Nixon was accused of having used a secret "slush fund" as a senator. Nixon went on TV and gave the "Checkers speech". He spoke of his dog Checkers and how his little girl loved the dog and said he wasn't a crook. People forgave him and he stayed on the ticket.
        1. Aside from pushing emotional buttons, the importance of the Checkers speech showed the new power and influence of TV.
        2. Seeing the power of TV, Ike did some question-and-answer spots for the campaign.
    3. Ike won big, 442 to 89 in the electoral.
      1. He'd promised to personally go to Korea and settle the issue.
        1. Ike did fly to Korea, but failed at ending the conflict.
        2. Seven months later, after Ike threatened nuclear bombs, an armistice was signed. The Korean War's was evaluated…
          1. 54,000 Americans had died (and maybe a million Chinese and Koreans). Tens of billions of dollars had been spent. Korea was still split at the 38th parallel, the same as the beginning of the war.
          2. On the plus side, America's mission had been to uphold the Truman Doctrine and contain communism, and that mission was accomplished.
      2. As president, Ike handled the military well. He seemed above petty political splits. On the down side, looking back, he could've used his popularity to propel the infant civil rights movement (he largely ignored it).
  4. The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Sen. Joseph McCarthy claimed that Sec. of State Dean Acheson had knowingly hired 205 communists. Despite lacking evidence, the red-hunt was on.
      1. McCarthy's claims got wilder and out of hand. He accused Gen. George Marshall as being in some kind of communist conspiracy.
    2. Ike didn't like McCarthy and didn't want to get into the dirty business. Ike did allow purges to go on at the State Dept. Many Asian specialists were removed—when the Vietnam War started, their absence hurt.
    3. McCarthy met his downfall when he threw charges at the U.S. Army. Hearings were held on TV where the nation saw him as reckless, a bully, and making the whole thing up on the fly. He was later condemned by the Senate and died three years later of alcoholism.
  5. Desegregating American Society
    1. Down South, Jim Crow laws still segregated the races. Though able to vote on paper, only about 20% of southern blacks were actually registered to vote (only 5% in the Deep South states).
    2. On top of the Jim Crow laws, Southern whites used an array of social norms to keep blacks second class.
      1. There was intimidation, threats of job loss, beatings and lynchings. These crimes often were unpunished.
    3. The rest of the world saw this American embarrassment. Swede Gunnar Myrdal wrote An American Dilemma. In his book, he pointed out the hypocrisy of "The American Creed" (liberty, equality, etc.) when placed against the reality of racism in America.
      1. This was a continuation of WWII's "Double-V" argument—how could the U.S. fight Hitler's racism yet let it carry on at home?
    4. The Civil Rights movement did get its beginnings after the war.
      1. There's a saying that "Baseball is life." Baseball certainly mirrors much of America's life and history and the race issue is prime example. In 1947, Jackie Robinson, became the first black to play in the Major Leagues. This symbolic move was the one of the first steps in the Civil Rights movement.
      2. Pres. Harry S Truman integrated the military in 1948, a major step.
      3. The NAACP instigated and won race-based cases.
        1. In Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Supreme Court ruled that black professional schools were not equal to white. This was referring to the Plessy v. Ferguson case (1896) saying "separate but equal" facilities were okay.
      4. In 1955, Rosa Parks refused the custom of giving up her bus seat to white riders. Her arrest sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The boycott was led by Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., succeeded in changing the custom, and was thrust onto the national stage.
        1. By boycotting, King showed his tactic of "peaceful resistance" (AKA "nonviolent protest" or "civil disobedience"). This tactic was used by Henry David Thoreau protesting the Mexican War and by Mohandas Gandhi in India.
  6. Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution
    1. When black soldiers were lynched in 1946, Pres. Truman made the move to integrate the military (1948). But, that's as far as it went. Eisenhower and Congress did little to propel the civil rights.
    2. The only branch of government civil rights activists had to work with was the judicial branch.
    3. The "Warren court", headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren engaged in judicial activism to make changes.
      1. The case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KS (1954) was the bombshell. Building on the Sweatt v. Painter case, Brown v. Board said segregated public schools were unconstitutional and should be integrated with "all deliberate speed."
      2. The Brown case essentially overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson "separate but equal" case.
      3. "Deliberate speed" was slow in the South as local school districts simply didn't want to integrate.
        1. After ten years, only 2% of schools in the Deep South were integrated.
        2. Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred roughly around 1970.
    4. Other civil rights events occurred.
      1. Though reluctant to act on civil rights, Eisenhower was forced to at Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The AR governor had activated the National Guard to not admit black students into the school. Challenged, Ike called in federal troops to admit the students.
      2. Also in 1957, a Civil Rights Act was passed, the first since Reconstruction. Ike said it was the "mildest" one possible.
      3. Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) ) to organize black churches.
      4. In Greensboro, NC, the "sit-in" movement began. Black students protested segregated lunch counters by sitting at white-only counters. They wouldn't get served, but their sitting down shut down the counters until the policy was changed.
        1. With success in Greensboro, the movement spread and became wade-ins, lie-ins, and pray-ins.
        2. Black students formed the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to organize efforts.
  7. Eisenhower Republicanism at Home
    1. Ike had promised "dynamic conservatism"—be liberal with people, be conservative with money. Ike was a middle-of-the-road politician who didn't strike too far one way or the other.
    2. Eisenhower wanted to balance the federal budget and safeguard from "creeping socialism."
      1. He cut military spending, supported transferring control of offshore oil drilling to the states, and tried to cut back on the TVA by encouraging private power companies instead of government ones.
      2. When the Salk polio vaccine was given freely, Ike's secretary of health, education, and welfare said it was socialism coming in through the back door.
      3. Under Sec. of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson, the government bought up grain at the clip of $2 million per day in hopes of keeping prices up. Farmers struggled none-the-less.
      4. The Mexican government was concerned that illegal Mexican immigration into the U.S. would undermine the bracero program of legal immigrants. Ike started "Operation Wetback" to round up and return illegal Mexican immigrants.
      5. Ike again reversed the governments policy toward American Indians. FDR's "Indian New Deal" would go back to policies similar to the old Dawes Severalty Act—end tribes and assimilate into mainstream American culture. This move was unpopular and ended in 1961.
      6. Ike did keep much of the New Deal.
        1. Social Security, unemployment benefits stayed on.
        2. Ike even one-upped FDR with his Interstate Highway Act. It built 42,000 interstate miles. These highways did much to change the economic and social structure of America. They helped businesses and families move from downtowns to suburbs, from Main Street to Wal-Mart.
  8. A New Look in Foreign Policy
    1. Sec. of State John Foster Dulles wanted to go beyond the policy of containment. He wanted to "rollback" communism, to liberate countries that had been taken over.
      1. He proposed cutting back on military spending, but focusing on building nuclear weapon-carrying bombers in a "Strategic Air Command."
      2. The new policy also spoke of "massive retaliation", the threat that any nuclear action would result in a massive response.
      3. This stepping up of policy centered on "deterrence" (convincing an enemy to not act) and it greatly increased the stakes of the Cold War.
    2. Ike wanted to ease the tension a bit with Stalin's successor Nikita Khrushchev, but Ike was blocked.
      1. Also, the Russians ruthlessly put down a revolution in Hungary.
  9. The Vietnam Nightmare
    1. Southeast Asia, for years, had been under French colonial rule. The Asians wanted France out.
      1. Vietnamese leader Ho Chi Minh had tried to appeal to Woodrow Wilson for self-determination, way back in 1919. He felt FDR may be sympathetic to Vietnam's cause. However, Ho Chi Minh started going more and more communist, and the U.S. started backing away.
    2. America simply wanted to let France handle the growing communism (though the U.S. paid for 80% of France's fighting).
      1. At Dienbienphu (1954), France was surrounded, lost, and France simply decided to leave Southeast Asia. This created a void where communism could grow. This battle marks the real beginning of America's interest in Vietnam.
    3. A multinational conference at Geneva split Vietnam in half at the 17th parallel. North Vietnam wound up communist, a non-communist government in South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
    4. Like NATO, Sec. Dulles created SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization). It was more symbolic than anything, though.
  10. Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East
    1. Russia formed the Warsaw Pact (1956) to balance NATO.
    2. But, the "spirit of Geneva" (the peace conference) encouraged an ease in tensions. When Ike asked for arms reductions, Khrushchev was receptive. Also, Khrushchev publicly denounced the atrocities of Stalin (Stalin had killed some 20 million of his own people).
    3. A wake-up call happened in 1956 when Hungary was protesting against the communists. The Soviets rolled in the tanks and crushed the rebellion. The U.S. gave no aid and it was clear the Cold War would continue.
    4. Communism, colonialism, and oil combined in events in the Middle East as well.
      1. The U.S. worried Russia would invade the Middle East for its oil. The CIA pulled off a coup in Iran and placed a young shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi in charge as essentially a dictator.
        1. This operation was successful for the time, but would come back to haunt the U.S. in the 1970's.
      2. In Egypt, nationalist Gamal Abdel Nassar wanted to build a dam on the Nile. America and Britain offered some help, then Nassar flirted with communism. Sec. Dulles removed the U.S. offer and Nassar took over the Suez Canal. This threatened the oil supply to the West.
        1. Britain and France attacked Egypt (Oct. 1956) without America's knowledge. Ike would not supply oil to Britain and France and they had to withdraw. The U.N. sent in peacekeeping forces.
        2. This was to end to America's "oil weapon." In 1940, the U.S. produced 2/3 of the world's oil. By 1948, the U.S. was a net importer of oil.
      3. Ike and Congress declared the Eisenhower Doctrine in 1957. It promised U.S. help to the Middle East if threatened by communism.
        1. In the Middle East, communism wasn't the real threat to the U.S., nationalism and the power of oil was. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran linked with Venezuela to form OPEC (Org. of Petroleum Exporting Countries). OPEC would become a major headache for America.
  11. Round Two for “Ike”
    1. The election of 1956 was a repeat of '52: Eisenhower vs. Adlai Stevenson. The Democrats attacked Ike's health and said he was a part-time president—doing more golfing than governing.
    2. Times were good and Ike was popular, he won big again, 457 to 73.
      1. However, both houses of Congress did go to the Democrats.
    3. Ike lost two of his top men. Sec. of State Dulles died of cancer in '59. Ike's assistant Sherman Adams had to step down due to bribery charges. There would be less golfing for the president.
    4. The labor unions had been getting ugly with things like gangsterism, fraud, bullying.
      1. The AFL-CIO (combined at this point) had to boot out the Teamsters because of their leader James Hoffa's rough tactics. He was convicted of jury-tampering, served a while, then disappeared (likely mobsters he'd angered finally got him).
      2. Ike got the Landrum-Griffin Act passed (1959) to watch labor unions' bookkeeping and other sleazy monkey-business.
    5. On Oct. 4, 1957, Americans were stunned to read that the Russians had placed the first satellite in orbit, the 184 pound Sputnik I. The space race was on. A month later, Sputnik II put a 1100 pound satellite in space, and a dog.
      1. Four months later, the U.S. sent up Explorer I with America's first satellite (a tiny 2.5 pounds).
      2. Americans had comfortably assumed the U.S. led in all matters scientific; apparently, not true. Worse, the logic went: if the Soviets can put a dog in space, then they can deliver a nuclear weapon to the U.S. using ICBMs (intercontinental ballistic missiles).
      3. Rocket fever started.
        1. Ike set up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and channeled money.
        2. By 1960, several U.S. satellites were up and ICBMs were tested.
        3. Schools also changed. After Sputnik, emphasis was taken from the humanities (art, drama, dance, etc.) and placed on the sciences and math. The National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) provided millions of dollars in college loans to teach science and languages.
  12. The Continuing Cold War
    1. Testing nuclear weapons was dirty business—radioactive fallout is not healthy. Both the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. said they'd stop "dirty tests." In a world of distrust, policing this wasn't possible, however.
    2. Tension was high in 1958. Lebanon was threatened by Egypt and communism. They asked for U.S. help under the Eisenhower Doctrine. Ike sent several thousand U.S. troops and the situation was resolved without any loss of life.
    3. In 1959, Nikita Khrushchev wanted to look good for propaganda purposes. He invited Ike to Russia. Khrushchev spoke to the U.N. General Assembly and offered complete Soviet disarmament (this was hollow talk).
      1. Khrushchev met Eisenhower at Camp David. Things sounded good at the Russian leader spoke of evacuating Berlin.
      2. This "spirit of Camp David" didn't last long. The next year, there was to be a summit in Paris. Berlin was to be the main topic.
        1. The night before the summit, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down. The plane had indeed been spying on Russia in their airspace (a no-no). The "U-2 Incident" was an embarrassment to the U.S and to Ike. The summit fell apart.
  13. Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism
    1. The Latin American nations were upset that the U.S. gave billions to Europe (the Marshall Plan) and millions to them.
      1. Latin America also disliked continued American interventionism, such as a CIA coup in Guatemala (1954) and support to nearly any dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.
    2. In Cuba 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista whom America supported. Castro began to nationalize Cuban lands, many were owned by Americans. Castro's plan was to take from large landowners then distribute the land to the people. His tactics, however, were bloody and merciless.
      1. Castro's communistic actions pleased and endeared him to the Soviet Union.
      2. Almost 1 million Cubans fled to America, mostly to Miami and Tampa (still headquarters for American cigars).
      3. In protest, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 and started a strict economic embargo.
      4. There was talk of invoking the Monroe Doctrine to keep Russia out. Khrushchev said the doctrine was dead and threatened nuclear missiles if Cuba was attacked.
  14. Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency
    1. The 1960 election was a memorable one. The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon (V.P. candidate Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.) and the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy (V.P. candidate Lyndon B. Johnson).
    2. Kennedy was Catholic, supposedly a drawback in an election. But, his faith might've gained as many votes as it lost.
    3. The 1960 TV debates were important. Kennedy was young, handsome, articulate, and spoke into the camera (to the viewers). Nixon came off as sweaty, shifty, and unshaven. As V.P. for 8 years, Nixon was likely the front-runner. But, the TV debates helped draw the race to dead even and again showed the power of TV.
    4. Kennedy won the very close election, 303 to 219 in the electoral. The popular vote differed by only 118,000 votes out of 68 million cast.
  15. An Old General Fades Away
    1. All-in-all, Eisenhower's eight years were respectable for their dignity, decency, sincerity, good-will, and moderation.
    2. The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limited a president to two terms. The thinking, then, was that Ike's power would diminish his last couple of years since everyone knew he was on his way out. Instead, Ike was very active in his last couple of years as president.
      1. The St. Lawrence seaway was finished in 1959. The cities of the Great Lakes were now seaports to the ocean.
      2. Two states were added: Alaska and Hawaii in 1959.
    3. The biggest failure of Eisenhower was that he didn't embrace the infant civil rights movement. Being a moderate, Ike would not shake things up with civil rights changes.
    4. Still, Ike did more good than bad: he incorporated Democratic New Deal ideas, was restrained at using the military, he ended one war and avoided others, and presided over one of America's most prosperous decades.
  16. A Cultural Renaissance
    1. Artists experimented with abstract expressionism. Jackson Pollock literally flung paint onto canvas to create modern art and Claes Oldenburg turned everyday objects, like a telephone, into giant-sized sculptures/art. Later, Andy Warhol created colorful “pop art” with paintings such as a tomato soup can.
    2. Architecture continued to break new ground.
      1. Glass-and-steel skyscrapers were thrown skyward. Example: U.N. Building in NYC.
      2. Frank Lloyd Wright was an understudy of Louis Sullivan (of earlier Chicago skyscraper fame). Wright stunned people with his use of concrete, glass, and steel and his unconventional theory that “form follows function.”
    3. Marvelous literature came at this time. Ernest Hemingway wrote The Old Man and the Sea (1952) and won the Nobel Prize for literature. He killed himself in 1961. John Steinbeck won the Prize too. He wrote East of Eden (1952) and Travels with Charley.
    4. Whereas WWI had spawned tremendous literature, WWII didn't so much. There were some WWII novels…
      1. The earlier WWII novels used cutting realism, as WWI had done. Norman Mailer wrote The Naked and the Dead. James Jones wrote From Here to Eternity about Pearl Harbor.
      2. Later WWII novels turned away from realism and used fantasy. Joseph Heller wrote a quirky Catch-22. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. wrote Slaughterhouse Five in a crazy style that jumped all over the place.
    5. Literature looked at social issues.
      1. John Updike criticized conformist affluence in Rabbit, Run. The similar theme was pursued in John Cheever's The Wapshot Chronicle.
    6. Poets boomed too. They were usually very critical of American life as being showy and hollow. Older poets were still active, such as Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, and William Carlos Williams.
      1. New poets emerged to overshadow the old. Theodore Roethke wrote about the beauty of the land, Robert Lowells tried to apply Puritan sense to modern problems in poems like For the Union Dead. Sylvia Plath wrote the poem Ariel and the novel The Bell Jar about her mental ills. She died by suicide. Poets Anne Sexton and John Berryman committed suicide as well.
    7. Playwrights wrote masterpieces. Tennessee Williams wrote about screwed-up southerners A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.
      1. Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman. It criticized the conformity culture of the 50's. The Crucible dealt with the Salem witch trials, but clearly was criticism of modern McCarthyism.
      2. More criticism of middle-class life came with Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? African-American life was shown in Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun.
    8. There was much literature written by African-Americans.
      1. Richard Wright wrote Native Son about a black Chicago killer. Ralph Ellison wrote Invisible Man arguing that a black man can't be seen as a real man.
      2. James Baldwin wrote The Fire Next Time and LeRoi Jones wrote plays like Dutchman.
    9. Southern literature had its greats. William Faulkner often wrote in the newly popular stream-of-consciousness style. His novels were hard to understand and psychologically charged. An example would be The Sound and the Fury.
      1. Flannery O'Connor wrote about her native Georgia. William Styron wrote about his native Virginia's ugly past in a novel The Confessions of Nat Turner about the slave 1831 rebellion.
    10. Jewish authors produced great books too. J.D. Salinger wrote The Catcher in the Rye about a sassy prep school boy.
      1. Bernard Malamud wrote about Jewish families (his most famous book was The Natural, a baseball book). Saul Bellow wrote of Jewish life in Chicago in books like The Adventures of Augie March. He won the Nobel prize in 1977.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 38 - The Stormy Sixties

  1. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit
    1. Kennedy was the youngest president ever elected (though Teddy Roosevelt had taken over at a younger age). JFK personified the glamor and optimism of a younger, robust, vibrant America. Inaugural addresses seldom are memorable, Kennedy's was memorable with the line, "…ask not, what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country."
      1. JFK also put together a young cabinet, "the best and the brightest", including his brother Robert Kennedy, 35 years old, as Attorney General.
        1. "Bobby" Kennedy focused the FBI's efforts on "internal security", not-so-much on organized crime, and none on civil rights.
        2. Longtime FBI head J. Edgar Hoover did not like the reforms.
      2. Robert McNamara left a business background to become head of the Defense Department.
    2. JFK had high expectations. He'd spoken of a "New Frontier", hinting that America was on the brink of something newly great. He was optimistic and idealistic.
      1. Kennedy started the Peace Corps where mostly young, idealistic Americans would go to third world nations to help out and teach. Usually the fields were health, agriculture, languages and math.
    3. Kennedy was wealthy, Harvard-educated, witty. He and his cabinet went to the White House very confident.
  2. The New Frontier at Home
    1. The New Frontier, his domestic social program, was threatened by both Democrat and Republican conservatives. Some of Kennedy's steps were put made…
      1. The House Rules Committee was expanded—this might help avoid conservative hang-ups.
      2. A noninflationary wage agreement was settled, contingent on companies keeping prices down. When steel companies did not, Kennedy called in their leaders into the White House, reprimanded them, and they backed down.
      3. Supporters of free enterprise and laissez-faire capitalism were not happy about these actions. They did support JFK when he said he would not increase spending but would cut taxes to stimulate the economy.
    2. Kennedy initiated the quest to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. The goal was almost unthinkable when he said it, but in July, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the moon.
  3. Rumblings in Europe
    1. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev met in 1961. Khrushchev bullied and young president. JFK was shaken, but stood his ground.
    2. East Berliners were flooding into West Berlin—this was an unacceptable embarrassment to the U.S.S.R. So, the Soviet Union began to build the Berlin Wall that same year to keep folks in.
      1. The Berlin Wall would become the most obvious symbol of the Cold War split and what Winston Churchill had called the "Iron Curtain" between the east and west.
    3. Western Europe had made a great turn-around, thanks in large part to the Marshall Plan's help.
      1. To further help Western Europe, Kennedy got the Trade Expansion Act passed. It was to lower tariffs by up to 50% and thus help the new Common Market in trade. Lowering the tariffs did increase trade substantially.
    4. France, however, was not as receptive to the U.S. Pres. Charles de Gaulle was making a name for himself by sticking up to and sticking out his chest at the Americans. For example, he'd vetoed Britain's request to join the Common Market in fear of a "special relationship" with America. He also pursued nuclear weapons for France, fearing America would not come through in a crisis.
      1. Amazingly, de Gaulle seemed to have forgotten that less than 20 years earlier, Hitler and the Nazis had controlled the streets of Paris until America pushed them out.
  4. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Response”
    1. When the French left Southeast Asia in 1954, Laos was left without a government and a civil war started.
      1. The Americans feared a communist government would emerge—Ike had put money into the country and Kennedy looked for a diplomatic way out. The Geneva Conference (1962) set up a peace, though it stood on shaky legs.
    2. Sec. of Defense Robert McNamara moved America's policy away from "massive retaliation" to "flexible response." He didn't want a small nation with relatively small problems to give America two options: backing down or nuclear holocaust. Rather, he wanted to deal with situations with a variety of options.
      1. The logic was good, the reality came to haunt the U.S.—America could now get in just a little bit, maybe a bit more, but then once in, how to get out without looking bad? This would be the story of Vietnam.
      2. To match the situation with the force necessary, Kennedy upped spending on the Special Forces (Green Berets).
  5. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire
    1. Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel. The South was led by Ngo Din Diem and back by the U.S. The shaky government wasn't a democracy in the American sense, but it wasn't communist. The North was led by Ho Chi Minh and was communist. They threatened to overrun the South.
    2. To defend from the North, Kennedy sent "military advisers" (U.S. troops) to South Vietnam. They were supposedly there to instruct on how to fight, but not fight themselves. Kennedy, "in the final analysis", said it was "their war."
      1. By the time of his death, JFK had sent about 15,000 "advisers." It was now becoming difficult to just leave without looking bad.
  6. Cuban Confrontations
    1. Kennedy improved relations with Latin America with the Alliance for Progress (called the "Marshall Plan for Latin America"). His goal was to curb the threat of rising communism by narrowing the rich-poor gap.
      1. Progress, however, was minimal. Some American "gimmies" weren't going to suddenly solve huge problems.
    2. JFK got a major embarrassment with the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961).
      1. The CIA secretly trained Cuban exiles with the goal of invading Cuba, rallying all the people, and overthrowing Castro. Castro's troops met and halted the attack at the Bay of Pigs. Kennedy would not help the attackers, there was no ground-swelling of support from within Cuba, and the attack was crushed.
      2. Added to secret American attempts to get Castro assassinated, the Bay of Pigs pushed Castro even more toward communism.
      3. JFK took full responsibility for the attack, and in doing so, his popularity actually went up.
    3. Cuba was again on the world stage with the Cuban Missile Crisis that took place in October of 1961.
      1. Aerial photos showed that the U.S.S.R. was putting nuclear missiles in Cuba. For America, Russian nukes 90 miles from Florida could not stand.
      2. Kennedy listened to options. At his brother Bobby's suggestion, JFK chose to impose a naval blockade since it was middle-ground between an invasion and an embargo. It put the ball back into Khrushchev's court.
        1. Khrushchev promised to run the blockade and continue assembling the missile sites.
      3. For 13 days, the world was as close to nuclear war as it'd ever been. Thankfully, Khrushchev backed down and the Soviet ships turned back.
      4. In return for removing the missile sites, Kennedy agreed to remove missiles from Turkey (these were outdated anyway). A "hot line" was installed between Washington and Moscow to avoid lacking communication in a crisis.
    4. Kennedy also encouraged Americans to stop thinking of the Russians as monsters, but rather as people just like them. This was the beginnings of "détente" or relaxed tensions.
  7. The Struggle for Civil Rights This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Kennedy had campaigned toward and received black support. He was slow to grab onto the civil rights movement, however. Still, things were happening fast in the movement…
    2. Freedom Riders, generally young white northerners, rode buses through the South to draw attention to segregation. Some Southerners turned violent against the buses—this drew more attention to the Freedom Riders.
    3. Kennedy slowly stepped into the civil rights movement.
      1. He was concerned that if he linked with Martin Luther King, Jr., it might be revealed that King had friends who had communist connections. Robert Kennedy had J. Edgar Hoover investigate and keep a file on MLK to that end, even tap MLK's phone line.
      2. John Kennedy did help SNCC get started with funds. They started the Voter Education Project to register southern black voters.
    4. Despite Brown v. Board 6+ years prior, integration was slow.
      1. At the Univ. of Mississippi, James Meredith was blocked from enrolling by white students. Kennedy sent in federal marshals and troops so Meredith could go to class.
      2. Martin Luther King, Jr. organized a peaceful protest of segregation in Birmingham, AL in early 1963.
        1. The protesters were attacked by police dogs, electric cattle prods, and high pressure water hoses.
        2. America watched these vicious scenes on TV. These types of instances helped to slowly start changing public opinion in favor of the protesters.
      3. Kennedy went on TV in June of 1963 and called the race situation a "moral issue" for America. He publicly aligned himself with the civil rights movement and called for new civil rights legislation.
    5. In August, 1963, MLK led 200,000 demonstrators in the famous "March on Washington." There he gave his "I Have a Dream" speech, then met with Kennedy for talks.
    6. Violence kept on, however. Medgar Evers, a black civil rights worker, was shot and killed the very night Kennedy came on TV. In September, a bomb exploded in a black church killing four black girls.
  8. The Killing of Kennedy
    1. In November of 1963 JFK made a campaign trip down South (his weakest area). Kennedy was shot and killed in Dallas on Nov. 22, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald.
      1. Oswald was shot and killed on TV a couple of days later by Jack Ruby.
    2. Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president on Air Force One heading back to Washington.
    3. America was stunned. Her young, charismatic and idealistic president was gone.
      1. Sadly, his reputation would later be hurt when his womanizing and connections to organized crime came to light.
  9. The LBJ Brand on the Presidency
    1. Lyndon Baines Johnson was a former senator and held FDR as his hero. LBJ was a master at getting Congress to go his way by giving the "Johnson treatment"—getting up-in-the-face and jabbing a finger-in-the-chest.
      1. LBJ was a true cuss from Texas. He was vain, super egotistical, and crude.
    2. LBJ went liberal as president. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act that JFK had called for and LBJ signed it.
      1. The law banned discrimination in public facilities and sought to end segregation.
      2. It also set up the Equal Employment Opportunity Comm. (EEOC) to serve as watchdog for fair hiring practices.
    3. Johnson spoke of his vision which he called the "Great Society". It was a continuation of New Deal types of programs. The idealistic thinking was that America was so prosperous, there was no reason to accept anything less than prosperity for all. He launched a "War on Poverty."
      1. He got support when Michael Harrington wrote The Other America (1962) which said that despite the affluence, 20% of Americans lived in poverty (40% of blacks).
  10. Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964
    1. In the 1964 presidential election, Johnson sought to win on his own for the Democrats as a New Dealish liberal. The Republicans chose Sen. Barry Goldwater, a conservative.
    2. Goldwater criticized income taxes, Social Security, the TVA, civil rights laws, nuclear test bans, and the Great Society.
    3. LBJ countered as being a more poised statesman.
      1. In August 1964, there was the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. There, two U.S. warships had been attacked by the North Vietnamese. In response, the Tonkin Gulf Resolution was passed by Congress essentially giving the president a blank check for return action.
      2. Barry Goldwater talked a tough game versus the communists. He hinted that he might even use nuclear weapons if needed. LBJ seized this in an attack ad on TV. It showed a little girl picking daisies, then exploding in a nuclear mushroom cloud. The message: elect Goldwater and Ka-Boom!
    4. LBJ won the election 486 to 52.
  11. The Great Society Congress
    1. Democrats also won large victories in the Congress. This opened the door for the Great Society programs.
    2. The War on Poverty was stepped up. The Office of Economic Opportunity had its budget doubled to $2 billion. Another billion was to be spent on Appalachia, a region of America that had been little touched by modern prosperity.
    3. At LBJ's pushing two new cabinet offices were created: the Dept. of Transportation (DOT) and the Dept. of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). America's first black cabinet member, Robert C. Weaver, was named to head HUD.
    4. Johnson's Great Society sought to improve the Big Four areas:
      1. Education - Money was given to students and not schools to thus get around the separation of church and state issue. Project Head Start was preschool for kids who otherwise couldn't afford it.
      2. Medical care - Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor were passed in 1965. These programs would become staple rights in America's minds; they'd also become a major cause of national debt.
      3. Immigration reform - The Immigration and Nationality Act got rid of the old quota system around since 1921. The law doubled the number of immigrants allowed in (to 290,000), allowed family members in, and for the first time limited the number of Western Hemisphere immigrants (to 120,000). Immigration was changing from Europe to Latin American and Asia.
      4. Voting rights - LBJ wanted to get more blacks voting (see the section below).
  12. Battling for Black Rights
    1. Voting among blacks in the south was rare (only 5% in Mississippi) as whites used tricks to prevent black votes.
      1. The Voting Rights Act (1965) sought to end the racial discrimination that accompanied voting. It banned literacy tests and it sent registrars to the polls to watch out for dirty dealings.
      2. The Twenty-fourth Amendment forbade poll taxes where you had to pay to vote.
    2. The Civil Rights Movement marched on.
      1. In the "Freedom Summer" (1964), blacks and whites joined hands and sang "We Shall Overcome" to protest racism.
      2. In June of that year, three civil rights workers were found beaten to death in Mississippi (one black, two white). 21 whites were arrested, including the sheriff. The white jury did not convict anyone.
      3. Martin Luther King, Jr. set up a voter registration drive in Selma, Alabama. The plan was to march from Selma to the capital of Montgomery.
        1. State police used tear gas, whips. Two people died in the chaos.
        2. Lyndon Johnson joined the Civil Rights Movement by calling for an end to "bigotry and injustice." This is when the Voting Rights Act gained steam and passed.
  13. Black Power
    1. Martin Luther King's approach was nonviolent. By 1965, he was making progress, though it was slow. To many young blacks, it was too slow—they wanted to take matters into their own hands.
    2. A riot broke out in the Watts area of Los Angeles. The ghetto burned for a week, 34 people died.
    3. New black leaders dismissed nonviolent protest. Some made fun of MLK calling him "de Lawd."
      1. Malcolm Little changed his named to Malcolm X. He'd been influenced by black militants in the Nation of Islam. The Nation of Islam had been founded by Elijah Poole (who changed his name to Elijah Muhammad).
        1. Malcolm X was a fantastic speaker. But ironically, he was likely as racist against whites as he criticized whites as being racist against blacks.
        2. Malcolm X later turned away from Elijah Muhammad, toward mainstream Islam. He was shot and killed in 1965 by Nation of Islam gunmen.
      2. The Black Panthers roamed the streets of Oakland armed with powerful weapons "for protection."
      3. Stokely Carmichael (from Trinidad) led the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC had begun with the peaceful sit-ins of the 50's. Now, it'd taken a rather "non-Nonviolent" stance.
        1. Carmichael spoke of Black Power, a catch-all phrase calling for blacks to carry out their political and economic power.
        2. Many blacks interpreted "Black Power" as a separatist movement. There was a movement to emphasize uniqueness such as "Afro" hair, clothes, names for children, and African studies in colleges.
    4. More riots broke out in black ghettos, such as in Detroit (which left 43 dead) and Newark, NJ (25 dead).
    5. To whites, these actions were troubling—it seemed chaos was becoming the rule. Northern whites were shocked when riots came to their hometown. They'd figured the "negro problem" was a southern problem.
    6. Unfortunately, the voice of nonviolence ended when Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated in April of 1968.
      1. Riots followed and over 40 died. But, things changed as voter registration skyrocketed and within four years, about half of black children were in integrated schools.
  14. Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres
    1. When a revolt broke out in the Dominican Republic, Johnson saw it as communism trying to crop up. He sent 25,000 troops to quell the revolt. He was criticized for making a knee-jerk reaction.
    2. In Vietnam, things were stepping up in a big way.
      1. Johnson ordered "Operation Rolling Thunder"—full-out bombing on North Vietnam.
      2. LBJ used the Tonkin Gulf Resolution to follow a policy of "escalation." In 1965, he sent some 400,000 soldiers to Vietnam. This is usually marked as the starting-point for the Vietnam War.
      3. America's was "all in" in Vietnam at this point, win or lose. It was costing up to $30 billion per year too.
  15. Vietnam Vexations
    1. The war in Vietnam was dragging on in an ugly manner, and the U.S. was criticized internationally. Charles de Gaulle of France (who always looked for an instance to poke at America) ordered NATO out of France.
    2. In the Six-Day War (June 1967), Israel shocked and beat U.S.S.R.-supported Egypt. Israel gained land in the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the Jordan River (including Jerusalem).
      1. These lands brought 100,000 Palestinians under Israeli control. This situation still breeds problems.
    3. Back in the U.S., protests against the Vietnam War increased. Students held "teach-ins", burnt draft cards and fled to Canada to avoid being drafted.
      1. America was being split into "doves" against the war and "hawks" who supported the war.
    4. There was opposition in the government too, led by Sen. William Fulbright, head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held televised hearings where people spoke against the war.
    5. The CIA investigated people at home, a no-no. In Cointelpro, the FBI investigated "dove" leaders at home. This seemed more like a totalitarian state, but LBJ had it done anyway.
    6. By 1968, the war had become the longest and most unpopular in U.S. history. LBJ said the war's end was near, but it was not.
  16. Vietnam Topples Johnson
    1. January 1968 was the break point of the war. At that time, North Vietnam launched a massive "Tet Offensive" against southern cities. The U.S. stopped the attack, but it showed the enemy was not all-but-done and that there were years of fighting left.
      1. The war was taking a toll on Johnson too, emotionally and physically.
    2. American brass asked for more troops, but Johnson would not send them.
    3. The war also split the Democratic party (1968 was another election year).
      1. Eugene McCarthy was the voice of the doves. He was supported by peace-loving college students. He scored a high 42% of the New Hampshire primary vote.
      2. Days later, Robert Kennedy entered the race, also as a dove. He brought the Kennedy name and charisma.
      3. A bigger shock came when LBJ announced that (a) he was freezing troop levels in Vietnam and (b) he would not run for reelection. The Democratic party was wide open.
  17. The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968
    1. LBJ out of the race, V.P. Hubert H. Humphrey seemed the next logical choice. It was now McCarthy, Kennedy, and Humphrey for the Democrats.
      1. Just as it seemed Robert Kennedy would become the Democratic nominee, he was shot and killed. Humphrey would be nominated.
    2. Richard Nixon would run as the Republican. He was a "hawk" and spoke of getting law-and-order in the cities at home.
    3. Another candidate, George C. Wallace, ran for the American Independent party. He ran almost exclusively on a pro-segregation ticket saying "Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!"
    4. Nixon would win the election, 301 to Humphrey's 191. Wallace got 46 southern electoral votes.
  18. The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson
    1. Lyndon Johnson and his Great Society was drug down by Vietnam.
    2. He was in a position where no matter what he did in Vietnam, either the hawks or doves would not be happy.
    3. He went home to his Texas ranch and died in 1973.
  19. The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s
    1. The 1960's were a boom of cultural changes and challenges. Young people propelled the cultural changes—the slogan was, "Trust no one over 30."
    2. The roots of the counterculture went back to the "beatniks" of the 1950's. Poet Allen Ginsburg and writer Jack Kerouac's book On the Road were the prelude for the hippie generation.
      1. Movies hinted at a frustrated youth too, like The Wild One with Marlon Brando and Rebel Without a Cause with James Dean.
    3. One of the first big protests took place at Univ. of California at Berkeley in 1964 called the "Free Speech Movement." This protest was rather clean-cut, later ones would be "far out" with psychedelic drugs, "acid rock", and the call to "tune in and drop out" of school.
    4. A "sexual revolution" took place in the 1960's.
      1. The birth-control pill reduced pregnancies and made sex seem more casual. Feminists like the pill for freeing women from being pregnant all the time.
      2. Homosexuals called for acceptance. When some gay men in New York were attacked, the movement had some fuel. Later, in the 1980's AIDS popped up, mostly within the male homosexual community. This set back the gay movement.
    5. The group Students for a Democratic Society had stood against poverty and war. By this time, they'd started a secret group called the "Weathermen" which was essentially an underground terrorist group. They started riots in the name of fighting poverty and war.
    6. A drug culture emerged. Smoking "grass" turned into dropping LSD. The dirty underworld of drug dealers and drug addicts emerged.
    7. The older and more traditional generations were appalled at these goings-on. They'd grown up through the Great Depression and WWII, were thankful for what they had, and understood sacrifice.
      1. To traditionalists, the counterculture generation was little more than spoiled baby boomers. They had too much time in college to study mush-mush ideas and too much money in their pockets to fool around with.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 39 - The Stalemated Seventies

Chapter 39 The Stalemated Seventies

I. Sources of Stagnation

  1. Sudden slump in productivity was attributed to the increasing presence in the work force of women and teenagers who had fewer skills than adult males and were less likely to take full time, long-term jobs-some blamed it on new machinery but no one knows for sure.
  2. During Nixon’s presidency, Americans experienced the first serious inflation since the immediate post World War II years.

II. Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War

  1. He could be brittle and testy in the face of opposition yet his broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs was valuable.
  2. Vietnamization policy was announced-it would withdraw the 540,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam
  3. Nixon Doctrine thus evolved.
    • i. Proclaimed that the U.S. would honor its existing defense commitments that in the future, Asians and others would have to fight their own wars without the support of large bodies of American ground troops
    • ii. Nixon sought to end the war without further spilling of American blood
    • iii. War had become grotesquely unpopular, even among troops in the field

III. Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

  1. On April 29, 1970 Nixon ordered American forces to join with the South Vietnamese in cleaning out enemy sanctuaries in officially neutral Cambodia
    • i. This caused protests, Nixon withdrew the troops after only two months
    • ii. But still deepened the bitterness between the right wing and left wing groups
  2. The Senate repealed the Gulf of Tonkin blank check
    • i. To pacify America’s youth they shortened the dilatability period and lowered the voting age to eighteen.

IV. Nixon’s Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow

  1. Nixon hoped to enlist the aid of the Soviet Union and China in pressuring North Vietnam into peace.
    • i. Nixon visited communist China in February 1972 ii. Then he went to Moscow in May and ushered an era of détente or relaxed tension with the two communist powers
  2. The U.S. band the USSR started to slow the armistice and agreed to a series of arms-reduction negotiations i. Nixon’s diplomacy ceased the Cold War but was still anti-communist

V. A New Team on the Supreme Bench

  1. Several court rulings sought to prevent abusive police tactics but appealed to conservatives to coddle criminals and subvert law and order
    • i. Conservatives also objected to the court’s views on religion
    • ii. Public schools could not require prayer or bible reading
  2. From 1954 on, the court came under relentless criticism
    • i. President Nixon sought appointees who would strictly interpret the constitution, cease “meddling” in social and political questions and not coddle radicals or criminals

VI. Nixon on the Home Front

  1. Surprisingly, Nixon presided over expansion of welfare programs like food stamps and medicade
    • i. He also implemented the Philadelphia Plan requiring goals and time-tables for hiring blacks
    • ii. Protected groups against discrimination
  2. The actions of Nixon and the court opened employment and educational opportunities for minorities and women
    • i. Cities protested these actions as “reverse discrimination”
  3. Environmental Protection Agency created in 1970
    • i. First Earth Day April 22, 1970
    • ii. Clean Air Act of 1970 and Endangered Species Act of 1973 passed. The EPA stood on the front line of the battle for ecological sanity
  4. Warned about inflation, Nixon imposed a 90-day wage and price freeze, took the nation off the gold standard and devalued the dollar

VII. The Nixon Landslide of 1972

  1. The Democratic candidate was George McGovern
  2. Nixon won the election in a landslide
    • i. Shaky peace with Vietnam at the time

VIII. The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the Wars Power Act

  1. In July America was shocked to learn that the U.S. Air Force had secretly induced some 3,500 bombing raids against North Vietnam
    • i. While they were going on, American officials, including the president had sworn that Cambodian neutrality was being respected
  2. Congressional opposition to the expansion of presidential war-making powers led to the war powers act
    • i. Required the president to report to congress within 48 hours after committing troops to a foreign conflict.
    • ii. Had to end within 60 days unless extended
  3. “New Isolationism” began – mood of ration and resistant

IX. The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis

  1. In act 1973 Syrians and Egyptians unleashed surprise attack on Israel. American ordered nearly $2 billion in war material to help Israeli’s.
    • i. America’s backing up Israel enacted a heavy penalty
    • ii. The oil-rich Arab states cut their oil production which triggered a recession
  2. The 5 months of Arab “blackmail” embargo in 1974 signaled the end of the era of cheap and abundant energy
  3. America was oil-addicted by 1974
    • i. Huge new oil bills disrupted the trade balance and added inflation

X. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President

  1. Nixon’s electoral triumph was eventually undone by the Watergate scandal
    • i. June 17, 1972, 5 men arrested after trying to implant electronic bugs in the Democratic party’s headquarters
    • ii. Turned out to be one of Nixon’s administration’s “dirty tricks”
  2. Nixon denied any prior knowledge of the break-in but John Bean III revealed a secret taping of Nixon’s oval office conversations
    • i. The “smoking gun” tape revealed the president giving orders, six days after the Watergate break-in that convicted him of having known
    • ii. The Judiciary committee drew up articles of impeachment
  3. Nixon choked back his tears and announced his resignation on television on August 8, 1974

XI. The First Unelected President

  1. Gerald Rudolph Ford was the 1st man to be made president by congress’ vote i. Ford granted a complete pardon to Nixon
  2. Ford at first sought to enhance the détente that Nixon had made
    • i. But the USSR didn’t send trade terms their way

XII. Defeat in Vietnam

  1. The North Vietnamese eventually beat the South and the American soldiers had to be evacuated via helicopter
  2. Technically Americans had not lost the war; their client nation did but technicalities aside, America had lost more than the war
    • i. It lost money, force is the eyes of others, confidence, and self-esteem

XIII. Feminist Victories and Defeats

  1. American feminists showed vitality and momentum and provoked the rethinking of gender roles i. In 1972 congress passed an amendment prohibiting sex discrimination in any federally assisted educational program
  2. Equal Rights Amendment non congressional approval in 1972 but it wasn’t ratified by enough states
    • i. Antifeminists blamed women’s movements for rising divorce rates and believed that the ERA would threaten basic family structures

XIV. The Seventies in Black and White

  1. Race remained an explosive issue in the 1970’s
    • i. The topic of desegregating schools was worked on and it was ruled that it shouldn’t require students to move across school district lines
  2. Native Americans gained power through using the courts

XV. The Bicentennial Campaign

  1. America’s 200 year birthday fell during an election year 1976. President republican Gerald Ford vs. democrat James Earl “Jimmy” Carter Jr.
    • i. Carter won, especially important were the votes of the African Americans, 97% of whom cast their ballots for Carter
  2. Carter enjoyed success at first, but the happiness didn’t last long; he was an inexperienced outsider

XVI. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy

  1. Carter displayed concern for “human rights”
    • i. He invited president Anwar Sadat of Egypt and prime minister Menachem Begin of Israel to sign a peace accord
    • ii. Resumed diplomatic relations with China
    • iii. Gave the Panama Canal back to Panama

XVII. Economic and Energy Woes

  1. Adding to Carter’s troubles was the failing economy
    • i. Inflation was over 13%
  2. The “oil-shocks” of the 1970s taught Americans that they could never seriously consider a policy of economic isolation.
    • i. Some 27% of gross national product depended on national trade by the end of the century
    • ii. Interest rates rose crazily
  3. Iran’s shah that was friendly to America was overturned and the new one denounced the U.S. as the “Great Satan”
    • i. Iranian oil stopped flowing steadily
  4. In July 1979 Carter retreated to Camp David and called in over a hundred leaders to give him their views on the situation
    • i. Gave the nation his malaise speech chiding his citizens for being too concerned with material goods

XVIII. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio

  1. Carter met with soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to sign the SALTII agreements – limiting levels of lethal strategic weapons and their arsenals
  2. On November 4, 1979 anti American Muslims took a U.S. embassy hostage
    • i. Soviets took Persian Gulf’s side
    • ii. Carter but on an embargo and boycotted Moscow’s Olympic games
  3. Carter at first tried to apply economic sanctions against the Iranian hostage crisis to no avail
    • i. Carter at last ordered a daring rescue mission
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 39 - The Stalemated Seventies16.85 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 40 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

Chapter 40 The Resurgence of Conservatism 1980-1992

I. The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980

  1. Reagan denounced the activist government, he championed the “common man” against big government. *He condemned federal intervention in local affairs.
  2. He drew on the ideas of neoconservatives *Supported free-market capitalism and took tough, anti-soviet positions in foreign policy.
  3. He was an actor-turned-politician and enjoyed enormous popularity *He attacked the incumbent’s fumbling performance in foreign policy
  4. On election day the Republicans won for the first time in 26 years.

II. The Reagan Revolution

  1. He found common cause with great Britain on his crusade for a smaller government, less bureaucracy and freer markets. *Conservative margaret Thatcher became Britain’s first female Prime Minister.
  2. Reagan pursued his smaller-government policies with zeal and effectiveness and the US was a receptive audience.

III. The Battle of the Budget

  1. Reagan proposed a new Federal budget and congress approved both it and a tax reform to lower taxes. “Supply-side economics” at first didn't seem to help. unemployment reached nearly 11% and the period of 1981-1982 was called the “Reagan Recession”
  2. Economy recovery finally got underway in 1983 However the poor got poorer, the very rich go much richer.

IV. Reagan Renews the Cold War

  1. Reagan believed in negotiating with the soviets but only from a position of overwhelming strength. His new strategy -a strategic defense initiative known as Star Wars called for battlestations in space that could fire laser beams to vaporize other missiles.
  2. Relations with the Soviets nosed dived *Soviets shot down a Korean plane also containing Americans and they boycotted the Olympic Games in Los Angeles.

V. Troubles Abroad

  1. Israel strained bonds of friendships with the United States by invading Lebanon. T *he US had to step in to help, but a suicide bomber blew up an explosives truck and killed over 200 marines.
  2. Central America was also unruly. *Reagan accused the Sandinistas of ruining their country into a base for soviet and cuban military penetration. *Reagan sent military “advisers” to prop up the pro-american government of El Salvador.

VI. Round Two for Reagan

  1. Reagan got a little opposition when running for his second term. *His opponent was democrat Walter Mondale.
  2. Foreign-policy issues dominated the news in his second term. *New Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced two policies- Glasnost “openness ”and Perestroika “reconstructing”. *Both required that the USSR shrink the size of its enormous military and redirect it to the economy, which necessitated an end to the cold war.
  3. After three Summit meetings the two leaders signed the intermediate- Range Nuclear Forces Treaty banning all these missiles from Europe which ended the cold war.
  4. Reagan’s administration provided strong backing for the oust of the Dictator Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines.goal
  5. Also ordered an air raid against Libya in retaliation for alleged sponsorship of terrorist attacks.

VII. The Iran- Contra Imbroglio

  1. Unknown to the American public, American diplomats secretly arranged arms sales to Iran and the money earned from that went to help the contras in Nicaragua. *News of the secret dealing broke in November 1968 and ignited controversy.
  2. The Iran-contra affair cast a dark shadow over the Reagan record on foreign policy.

VIII. Reagan’s Economic Legacy

  1. Reagan had taken office vowing to invigorate the American economy but the combination of tax reduction and increases in military spending added $2 Trillion to the national debt. *The deficits represented an economic failure but ultimately reached his political goal: the containment of welfare because the government couldn't afford any more social spending. *The consequences of “Reaganomics” would be durable.

IX. The Religious Right

  1. Religion pervaded American Politics in the 1980’s *A group of conservative Christians were known as the Religious Right and they were a reflection or answer to the Sixties radicalism.
  2. What had in the past been personal matters became political. *Protests in the 80’s blocked entrances to abortion clinics.

X. Conservatives in the Courts

  1. The courts became Reagan’s principal instrument, by the time he had left office he had appointed a near-majority of the Judges including the first woman judge in 1981.
  2. Reagan reputed affirmation action and abortion.
  3. The issue of abortion reached the court in 1989 *The court ruled that so states could restrict access to abortion as long as it did not place an “undue” burden on the woman, minors had to notify parents but wives didn't have to notify their spouses.

XI. Referendum on Reaganism in 1988.

  1. republicans lost control of the senate in the 1986 elections and the democrats hoped for a time to rise up.
  2. Black monday, October 19, 1987- The stock market plunged the largest one day decline to that point.
  3. Democrats nominated michael Dukakis for the 1988 elections and republicans nominated Reagan’s vice president, George H.W. Bush. *Bush Won.

XII. George H.W. Bush and the End of the Cold War

  1. George H.W, Bush was born with a silver ladle in his mouth. *He left the business world to serve in public service and promised to work for a “kinder, gentler America.”
  2. Pro Democratic movements were seen in China and in Eastern Europe. *The two Germanys were reunited in 1990. *The USSR was dissolving and that brought an end to the Cold War era.
  3. The disintegration of the Soviet union brought up questions like who would honor the agreements with the US and who would take command of the nuclear arsenal.
  4. Ethnic warfare flared in countries now that waves of nationalistic fervor and long-suppressed ethnics and racial hatreds were taken out.
  5. The end of the Cold War was a mixed blessing for the U.S. *Huge economic sectors that provided military preparedness were shut down causing unemployment to soar.
  6. Elsewhere in the world democracy marched forwards.

XIII. The Persian Gulf Crisis

  1. Sadly the end of the Cold War did not mean the end of all wars.
  2. In the summer of 1990 Saddam Hussein overran Kuwait to take their oil and pay some war debt. *He eventually also wanted control over the entire Persian Gulf region and to totally extinguish Israel. *Ironically, America had supplied them with the weapons beforehand.
  3. The U.N. deliver ed an ultimatum to SaddamHussein for him to Leave Kuwait by January 15, 1991 or UN forces would use “all necessary means” to expel his troops.
  4. The United States and its UN allies unleashed an air attack on Iraq for 37 days. *Iraq made a military response and on feb 23 the land war dubbed operation Desert Storm began. *Feb 27 Hussein accepted a cease-fire.

XIV. Bush on the Home Front

  1. Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities act in 1990. *A landmark law prohibiting discrimination against the 43 million US citizens with physical or mental disabilities.
  2. The President also signed a water projects bill that put the interests of the environment ahead of agriculture.
  3. In 1991 Bush nominated for supreme court the conservative African American Clarence Thomas.
  4. A “gender-gap” opened between the two political parties, as pro-choice women grew increasingly cool towards the strong anti-abortion stance of the republicans.
  5. The economy had been sputtering since the beginning of his administration. *The federal budget deficit grew. *To try to stop it Bush agreed to new taxes.
AttachmentSize
File Chapter 40 - The Resurgence of Conservatism10.35 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 41 - America Confronts the Post-Cold War Era

  1. Bill Clinton: the First Baby-Boomer President
    1. In the 1992 presidential election, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton for president along with Al Gore for V.P. They were the first baby boomer presidential candidates.
      1. Clinton carried some baggage—accusations of womanizing, sampling marijuana as a youth, avoiding the draft for Vietnam).
      2. The Democrats moved away from their extreme-liberal positions more "toward the center." They advocated economic growth, a strong defense, and anti-crime measures.
    2. George H. W. Bush sought reelection. J. Danforth Quayle was nominated as V.P. candidate.
      1. The Republicans championed ending the Cold War, success in the Persian Gulf, and focused on "family values" and claimed that "character matters", thus Clinton and his baggage should not be elected.
    3. Ross Perot rose as a significant third party candidate. A tech-company billionaire who spent his own money campaigning, he ran on one main issue: the U.S. must get the debt under control.
    4. Bill Clinton won the election, 374 to 168, because of two reasons…
      1. The poor economy was the #1 issue—bad news for Bush, good for Clinton. Clinton had a slogan to remind his staff, "It's the economy, stupid."
      2. Ross Perot took votes away from George H.W. Bush. Perot received 19% of the popular vote. Most Perot supporters would've voted Republican if he'd not been in the election.
    5. Both houses of Congress also went to the Democrats.
    6. Minorities also did well in 1992. Carol Moseley-Braun was the first woman ever elected to the Senate. There were minorities and women in the president's cabinet, including the first female attorney general, Janet Reno.
      1. Clinton would also appoint Ruth Bader Ginsburg to the Supreme Court giving it a second female justice.
  2. A False Start for Reform
    1. Clinton quickly pressed to allow homosexuals in the military. He had to draw back a bit and settle with the compromise of a "don't ask, don't tell" policy. Homosexuals were still banned if they said they were gay, but no one would ask. Thus, a homosexual could enter the military without having to lie.
    2. One of Clinton's main ambitions was to reform America's health-care system. The task was huge.
      1. He appointed his wife, Hillary Clinton, to head the committee of health-care reform. This was obviously a very different role for a First Lady.
      2. Meeting after meeting after meeting was held. To match a complicated problem, the plan that was developed was incredibly confusing and complicated itself. It was not going to make it through Congress and didn't.
    3. Good news came with the budget. Clinton got a deficit-reduction bill passed in 1993. By 1996, the economy was doing very well. The annual budget deficit would actually become a budget surplus and the national debt would actually go down.
    4. Guns came under fire.
      1. The "Brady Bill" was passed to place restrictions on buying a gun. It was named after James Brady who'd been shot during the Reagan assassination attempt.
      2. An $30 billion anti-crime bill was also passed to ban certain assault weapons.
    5. There were terrorist activities.
      1. A religious cult called the "Branch Davidians" gathered weapons and holed themselves up in a Waco, TX compound. After a standoff with the ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms), the feds moved in, set the compound on fire. Everyone inside, including women and children, either were killed by their leaders, committed suicide, or died from the fire.
      2. A "homegrown" anti-government terrorist blew up a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995. 168 people died.
      3. Later, in 1998, the anti-gun movement gained steam when two students killed twelve others in Littleton, CO.
        1. Those against restricting guns used two arguments: (1) the Second Amendment simply states the "right to bear arms" and, (2) that simply banning guns doesn't mean they disappear—criminals would still get them if they wanted. The slogan was, "If guns were outlawed, only outlaws would get guns."
      4. Foreign terrorists struck too. These were the work of the radical Islamic terrorist sect Al-Qaeda.
        1. In 1993, terrorists drove a truck bomb underneath the World Trade Center and detonated it. The parking garage was gutted, but the buildings stood (until 9/11/2001 when Al Qaeda struck again).
        2. In 1998, Al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden sent truck bombs to the U.S. embassies in in Tanzania and Kenya. Hundreds were killed.
        3. Al-Qaeda struck again in 2000 when a suicide boat exploded against the U.S.S. Cole killed 17 American sailors.
        4. Unfortunately, little action was taken to halt this trend of terrorism.
  3. The Politics of Distrust
    1. In the 1994 mid-term elections, the Republicans pushed back, led by Newt Gingrinch.
      1. Gingrinch developed the "Contract with America"—a deal with America to reduce the deficit and cut welfare-state programs.
      2. The programs was very successful. The Republicans took over both houses of Congress. Gingrinch became the Speaker of the House.
    2. Now, with a Republican Congress, Clinton would have to play politics for sure. Things see-sawed back-and-forth.
      1. The Republicans scored victories.
        1. They passed a law restricting "unfunded mandates" where the federal government mandates the states to do something, but provides no money to do it.
        2. They also passed the Welfare Reform Bill which rolled back welfare handouts and forced able-bodied people to get off taxpayer money and go to work.
      2. The Democrats and Clinton scored victories.
        1. The very fact Clinton signed those bills hurt Republicans. He (1) stole their thunder, and (2) he moved even more "to the center" and perhaps made himself even more electable. Liberals on the left were mad, but "the center" has more voters.
        2. Gingrich began to rub many Americans the wrong way as if he were going too far. Things like his suggestion of sending children of families on welfare to orphanages didn't sit well. Also, when a budget was not agreed upon, the federal government shut down for several days. Again, it looked bad and the Republican Congress got the blame.
    3. The 1996 presidential election was almost a moot point. Clinton ran for reelection. Bob Dole ran for the Republicans.
      1. Dole was from the WWII generation and his campaign was uninspiring. To the younger baby boom generation, electing Dole would seem to be moving backward. More importantly, the economy was doing great.
      2. Clinton was reelected easily, 379 to 159. He was the first Democrat reelected since FDR.
  4. Clinton Again This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Again, Clinton governed "to the middle."
      1. He embraced the Welfare Reform Bill, which he'd initially signed with reluctance.
      2. He addressed affirmative action with a "mend it, don't end it" approach.
        1. By this time, the courts and America's mood was beginning to turn away from affirmative action. Clinton spoke out against this movement, but didn't pursue action (again, a middle ground move).
    2. Clinton was largely a popular president—always the result of a strong economy. There were some money disputes…
      1. Clinton supported the hot-topic of NAFTA (North American Free-Trade Agreement). It cut tariffs and trade barriers to set up a free trade zone between Canada, the U.S., and Mexico.
      2. Clinton supported the beginning of the WTO (World Trade Organization) to lower tariffs and trade barriers internationally.
      3. Campaign finance reform came to the fore. Many people disliked how political donors could give tons of money to a candidate. The thinking was, "I'll give you money for the campaign, and when you're in office, remember me." Both parties talked about campaign finance reform, but with big money so critical in elections, neither did anything.
  5. Problems Abroad
    1. With the Cold War over, there was a question of where and how to apply U.S. foreign policy. Clinton dotted around the globe.
    2. President Clinton deployed troops to Somalia to help restore order from chaos. Dozens of U.S. troops died. Clinton pulled the troops out without having set or accomplished a clear goal.
      1. Notably, the U.S. did not intervene in Rwanda. There, some 500,000 people were killed in ethnic fighting.
    3. In Haiti president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was ousted in a military coup in 1994. Clinton sent 20,000 U.S. troops to put Aristide back into power. (He was booted again in 2004).
    4. As a campaigner, Clinton talked tough on China's poor human rights record. As president, he realized the importance of China as a trade partner. He softened his talk and with Congress, made China a full trade partner of the U.S.
    5. Yugoslavia's many ethnic groups began fighting themselves. Clinton and NATO sent a peace-keeping force in attempt to restore order.
      1. Things there were ugly, with Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic started "ethnic cleansing." It was a miniature Holocaust.
      2. Clinton ordered an air raid in response. People scattered, but Milosevic did accept a cease-fire. (He was later arrested and tried at the International Criminal Court).
    6. Clinton also negotiated another Middle East peace treaty. This time, the leaders were Israel's Yitzhak Rabin and the controversial Palestinian Liberation Org. (PLO) head Yasir Arafat.
      1. This treaty would prove brief—two years later Rabin would be assassinated.
    7. Nearing the end of his second term, Clinton seemed eager to leave a lasting legacy to his presidency.
      1. He and his Sec. of State Madeleine Albright, worked unsuccessfully to broker another Middle East peace agreement.
      2. Clinton also tried to work peace in Ireland, the Koreas, India, and Pakistan. He wasn't successful.
  6. Scandal and Impeachment
    1. Rumors and scandal seemed to follow Clinton, earning him the nickname "Slick Willy."
      1. Womanizing rumors had followed Clinton since the campaign days.
      2. He and wife Hillary were accused of shady business in their home state of Arkansas with investments in the Whitewater Land Corporation. A special federal prosecutor investigated the Whitewater deal, but nothing ever came out of it.
      3. Eyebrows rose and conspiracy theories went wild when Vincent Foster, Jr. committed suicide. He was in charge of managing Clinton's legal and financial affairs. It seems apparent that his suicide was due to personal reasons.
    2. All scandals became secondary to the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal in the White House.
      1. Lewinsky was an intern. She and Clinton had a sexual affair.
      2. Then, while under oath for a different woman's sexual harassment lawsuit, Clinton lied about the Lewinski affair.
        1. Clinton was asked if he'd had "sexual relations", and whatever went on between he and "that woman" did not meet his definition of sex. Clinton felt he didn't lie.
        2. The DNA in the stain on Lewinsky's infamous blue dress said otherwise.
      3. For "obstruction of justice" and perjury, the House voted to impeach Clinton—the second president to be impeached after Andrew Johnson in the 1960s.
      4. However, the Senate did not get the 2/3 vote necessary to kick Clinton from office.
  7. Clinton’s Legacy and the 2000 Election
    1. Clinton wanted a lasting legacy to his presidency, one that did not involve the words "scandal" or "impeach."
      1. Clinton preserved lands, set up a "patients' bill of rights", and hired more teachers and police officers.
    2. Clinton did make some good marks.
      1. He truly did "govern to the middle"—this angered the far Left and Right, but appealed to most Americans.
      2. The economy was strong and the budget was at surplus levels. Unemployment was a bare minimum, poverty rates went down, median income reached new highs.
        1. History may in fact make the budget surplus Clinton's non-scandal legacy.
      3. Clinton left on something of a sour note.
        1. With a few days left, he negotiated a deal on the Lewinsky scandal. He got immunity from any future legal action in the case in return for paying a fine and suspension of his law license for 5 years.
        2. Also, at the last moment, he gave pardons to political donors and backers which got them out of jail.
    3. The Bush-Gore Presidential Battle
      1. The 2000 presidential election was predicted to be a close one.
      2. Vice President Albert Gore was nominated by the Democrats. Gore had a Clinton paradox—the good was that he could lay claim to the prosperity of the Clinton years, the bad was that aligning too close with Clinton also aligned with his scandals.
      3. The Republicans chose Texas governor George W. Bush, (nicknamed "W" or Texas-style, "Dubya"). Bush spoke of being a "compassionate conservative." He chose Dick Cheney as his running-mate. Cheney had been a major player in Bush's father's presidency during the Persian Gulf War.
        1. A third party, the "Green Party" nominated Ralph Nader. The party consisted mostly of environmentalists and extreme liberals.
      4. With the government collecting a more money than it spent (a budget surplus), the question became, "What should be done with the extra money?"
        1. Bush believed the money belonged to the taxpayers. Thus, he wanted to make a large tax cut to return the money "to the people."
        2. Gore wanted to make a smaller tax cut then use the rest to pay down the debt, invest in Social Security, and perhaps expand Medicare.
        3. Notably, this was age-old class warfare. Bush's plan would've helped the people who paid the taxes—generally the higher wage earners. However, some 45% of American do not pay income taxes. That group votes dominantly Democratic. Therefore, Gore's plan focused more on spending the tax money on social services.
      5. Nader, was little more than a side-show.
    4. The presidential election of 2000 was essentially a tie, and turned very controversial. Only the Hayes-Tilden standoff of 1876 was comparable.
      1. The election boiled down a few states. Florida was the critical swing state because it had the nation's fourth most electoral votes. Florida was essentially a tie, but very slightly favored Bush. There were even more twists to the election…
        1. Jeb Bush was governor of Florida, and the president's brother—perfect fuel for conspiracy theories.
        2. A recount was made. Bush was still ahead, by a margin of around 500 votes out of 6 million.
        3. The questions narrowed to Broward and Palm Beach counties. There was a large Jewish population there so it was figured it would go heavily Democratic (Gore's running-mate was Joseph Lieberman, himself Jewish).
          1. In Palm Beach County, the infamous "butterfly ballot" had supposedly tricked seniors who wanted to vote for Gore into voting for Bush. Another excruciating recount was undertaken there.
      2. The process dragged on for about a month and America still didn't know who the next president would be.
        1. The recounted votes were finally made official and Bush won the election 271 to 266 in the electoral.
      3. There were ironies in the election…
        1. The American electoral system showed its quirkiness. Gore actually got more popular votes (50,999,897 to Bush’s 50,456,002), but he lost the critical electoral vote (266 to Bush’s 271).
        2. Similar to how a third party candidate (Ross Perot) had helped the Democrats by hurting the first Bush an election in 1992, a third party candidate came back to bite the Democrats in 2000. Nader's Green Party got only 2.7% of the vote, however without him in the race, they would've almost certainly voted Democratic and Gore would've won.
      4. Election maps from the 2000 election showed how Americans broke down in terms of voters.
        1. Democrats drew from the cities, the west and east coasts, heavily Latino areas, and from African-Americans (viewing a blue-red Democrat-Republican map, the old "Cotton Belt" from the Mississippi River to Virginia is clearly seen as a blue arc).
        2. Republicans drew from rural areas, mostly the South and the West.
  8. Bush Begins
    1. Like his father, Bush was an odd mix of good ol' boy from Texas and Ivy League. Bush took office talking up his Texas upbringing (true) and talking down his family’s privileged life "Back East" (also true).
    2. Bush stepped into the culture wars, almost always siding conservative. Conservatives and Christians cheered, liberals were irate.
      1. Bush removed support from international groups that were pro-abortion.
      2. He supported federally funded faith-based welfare programs.
      3. He opposed stem-cell research, which had great medical possibilities, on the grounds that the embryo in reality was a small person and doing tests on it was nothing other than abortion.
      4. He frustrated environmentalists by questioning the legitimacy of global warming, shunning the Kyoto agreement that was to limit greenhouse emissions, and speaking of new oil exploration in Alaska. Businesses were happy by these positions.
      5. Bush went ahead with his promised tax cut amounting to $1.3 trillion. By 2004, the cut combined with the economy yielding a $400 billion deficit.
  9. Terrorism Comes to America
    1. On September 11, 2001, America’s centuries-old enjoyment of being on “our side of the pond” ended when militant Islamic radicals attacked America. The radicals hijacked passenger planes and used the planes, and hostages, as guided missiles.
      1. Two planes slammed into the World Trade Center towers in New York City. The towers caught fire, then came down.
      2. A third plane slammed into the Pentagon.
      3. A fourth plane was thought to be aiming for the White House or Capitol building, but heroic passengers took back the plane before it crashed in a Pennsylvania field.
    2. President Bush's legacy would essentially be made for him—how he responded to the 9/11 attacks. Bush proved a strong leader in the period after the attacks.
      1. The whole plan was the work of Al-Qaeda, headed by Osama bin Laden.
      2. In true Texas-style, Bush called for Bin Laden’s head. Afghanistan refused to hand him over so Bush ordered the military to go on the offensive and hunt him down. The hunt proved to be difficult in rugged Afghanistan and Bin Laden proved elusive.
      3. With the jitters high, the American economy took a turn for the worse, and a few Americans died after receiving anthrax-laden letters. Coupled with fear of another attack, anxiety loomed.
    3. Terrorism launched a “new kind of war” or a “war on terror” that required tactics beyond the conventional battlefield. Congress responded in turn.
      1. The Patriot Act gave the government extended surveillance rights. Critics charged this was a Big Brother-like infringement of rights, a reversal of the freedoms that Americans were fighting for.
      2. The Department of Homeland Security was established as the newest cabinet department with the goal of securing America.
  10. Bush Takes the Offensive Against Iraq
    1. Saddam Hussein had been a long time menace to long list of people. With Bush, Saddam's time had run out. Bush stated he’d not tolerate Hussein’s defiance of the U.N.’s weapons inspectors.
      1. Also, Bush lumped Iraq and Saddam into an "axis of evil" that he believed helped and harbored terrorists. To Bush, attacking Saddam was just one part of the "war on terror."
    2. The center of the problem was information and lack of action.
      1. Intelligence at the time suggested that Hussein had and was actively making weapons of mass destruction (“WMDs”).
      2. When the U.N. tried to validate or disprove the WMD threat, Hussein continually thumbed his nose at the weapon’s inspectors.
    3. WMD intelligence in hand, Bush decided it was time for action.
      1. Bush sought the U.N.'s approval for taking military action, but some nations, notably France, Russia, and Germany with their Security Council veto, had cold feet.
      2. So, Bush decided to go it alone. Heavy majorities of Congress in October of 2002 approved armed force against Iraq.
      3. The U.N. tried one last time to inspect, Hussein blocked the inspectors again. The U.N. and inspectors asked for more time still. The U.N. appeared to lack any muscle—they'd made a rule, but could not enforce it.
    4. For Bush, time was up and it was time for action. In March of 2003, the U.S. launched an attack and Baghdad fell within a month. Saddam went on the run, then was found nine months later, literally hiding in a hole in the ground.
      1. He would later be turned over to Iraq. The Iraqi court tried Saddam, convicted him of murder, and hanged him.
    5. Taking Iraq, though not easy, was swift and successful, but securing and rebuilding Iraq would prove tougher.
  11. Owning Iraq
    1. Most Iraqi people welcomed the Americans, but certainly not all.
      1. Factions broke out. Iraqi insurgents attacked American G.I.’s and casualties mounted to nearly 1,200 by 2004.
      2. Although removing Saddam had been successful, it was feared that if the U.S. just came home and left a political void, whatever emerged to fill the void may be worse than Saddam. Americans soon began to wonder, “How long will we be there?”
    2. The new goals were to (1) establish security in Iraq, eventually by Iraqi troops, and (2) create and turn over control to a new democratically elected Iraqi government.
      1. Training Iraqi security troops proved pitifully slow.
      2. A new government was created and limited power handed over on June 28, 2004.
      3. Meanwhile, American casualties and deaths added up due to localized fighting and roadside bombs.
    3. Iraq became a divisive issue in America. Conservatives generally supported the war and post-war efforts. Liberals charged that Bush was on some ego-tripping battle charge to hunt down phantom weapons of mass destruction.
    4. A Country in Conflict
      1. Other issues divided America:
        1. Democrats continually grumbled about the “stolen” 2000 election.
        2. Civil libertarians fumed over the Patriot Act.
        3. Pacifists said the WMD reasoning was made up from the get-go to start a war in Iraq they felt unjust.
        4. Big businesses, like Enron and WorldCom, monkeyed around with their accounting and supposedly fattened the rich and gleaned the poor. They went bankrupt and wiped out many people's retirement funds.
        5. Social warfare continued over abortion and homosexuality.
        6. Affirmative action still boiled, and the Supreme Court came up with mathematical formulae for minority admittance to undergrads. The Court also stated that in 25 years racial preferences would likely be unnecessary.
  12. Reelecting George W. Bush
    1. Republicans put Bush up for reelection in 2004.
    2. The Democrats selected Sen. John Kerry of Massachusetts.
    3. Despite the usual litany of issues (education, health care, etc.) the key issue of the 2004 election was national security.
      1. At the heart of the security issue, was the question of the war in Iraq.
      2. Bush said the U.S. was making progress and should thus “stay the course” in Iraq.
      3. Kerry took an anti-war position. However, Kerry’s position on war and his image was somewhat confounding:
        1. Kerry had been a Vietnam war hero, but then became a Vietnam war protester. This trend continued in 2004…
        2. Kerry voted for military action in Iraq, but then voted against a bill for military spending for the war and said he was against the war.
        3. Kerry gained much support by criticizing Bush’s management (or mismanagement) of the Iraq situation.
          1. Kerry charged that Bush had no plan for Iraq after the initial take-over.
          2. However, Kerry focused only on Bush’s failure and failed to effectively present voters with his own alternative course of action.
    4. Most pollsters predicted Kerry to win. But, Bush won with a surprisingly strong showing of 286 electoral votes to Kerry’s 252.
  13. Bush’s Second Term
    1. Bush said winning a second time gave him “political capital”.
    2. He scored wins by appointing conservative Supreme Justices John Roberts and Samuel Alito.
    3. But he over-estimated his capital with losses…
      1. Proposals to reform Social Security were rejected by the AARP (retired folks).
      2. His proposal for a Constitutional ban of same-sex “marriage” was not passed.
      3. His proposal for immigration reform failed as well.
  14. Midterm Elections of 2006
    1. Bush and Republicans fell into disfavor by 2006. Democrats bounced back with election wins.
      1. Nancy Pelosi was named Speaker of the House (1st female ever).
      2. The war in Iraq was likely the biggest factor in the election. At the war’s start, intelligence revealed that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). By 2006, WMDs had not yet been found. Many concluded that the cause of the Iraq war was a farce.
      3. Bush put a “surge” into action into 2007 and stabilized the situation in Iraq.
    2. Barack Obama emerged on the national political scene largely with a criticism of the Iraq war.
  15. The Presidential Election of 2008
    1. Hillary Clinton seemed poised to be the Democratic nominee for president but the upstart Barack Obama won instead.
    2. Republicans nominated John McCain, an independent-minded “Republican”, who picked conservative Sarah Palin as running-mate.
    3. Likely more than anything else, the economy was the number one factor in 2008. The economy tanked—bad news for Republicans, good news for Democrats.
      1. Bush began a huge government takeover of the housing mortgage companies, the nation’s largest insurance company, and bailed out the big banks and corporations.
      2. Democrats/Obama successfully convinced voters that McCain meant another economic meltdown. Thus, the deal was sealed and Obama won.
  16. Obama in the White House
    1. Upon election, Obama toned down his campaign rhetoric of “Hope” and “Change” and tried to scale back expectations.
    2. Obama had a Democratic Congress (both House of Reps and Senate) that were willing and onboard with him. Laws were passed.
      1. The American Relief and Recovery Act, usually known as the “Stimulus Package”, was passed. In keeping with the Democrats’ playbook, this was in the same vein as FDR’s deficit spending New Deal programs.
      2. General Motors and Chrysler were bailed out by the government.
    3. The promised quick recovery did not happen and the “Great Recession” lingered for years. Unemployment was stuck at over 9%.
    4. Health-care reform had been a long-time goal of Democrats (Bill and Hillary Clinton had tried and failed in the 1990s). The so-called Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act passed in 2010, better known as “Obamacare”.
    5. The Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act also passed. Its goal was to regulate the financial world and avoid a similar meltdown as occurred in 2008.
  17. A Sea of Troubles
    1. Obama had problems.
      1. The economy did not improve as promised.
      2. The federal deficit (and thus the debt) increased dramatically with Obama’s rampant government spending.
      3. Many Americans were wary of “big government” trying to control their lives.
    2. Obama named two new Supreme Court justices, both female—Sonia Sotomayor (1st Hispanic justice) and Elena Kagan.
    3. In response to Obama, the “Tea Party” emerged—named after the patriots of the Boston Tea Party days. The Tea Party claimed Obama’s ideas were nothing short of socialist and unconstitutional.
      1. By the 2010 elections for Congress, things looked bad for Obama. The recession kept on going and his ratings slid down with it.
      2. America pushed back against Obama. Democrats lost big and Republicans gained control of the House of Representatives.
    4. Before the Republicans took over though to slow the spending spree, Obama rammed through another “Stimulus Package” of $858 billion.
  18. Wars, Oil Spills, and Political Backlash
    1. The U.S. wound down presence in Iraq.
      1. President Bush had effectively concluded fighting in Iraq and a fledging Iraqi government had been set up, but many U.S. troops were still there.
      2. Obama wanted to get America out of Iraq. He promised that U.S. troops would be out by 2011. That was essentially met (some troops stayed to protect U.S. bases).
    2. Afghanistan proved to be a sticky situation.
      1. Obama never liked the Iraq war, but bought into Afghanistan. There, the Taliban ruled as Muslim radical traditionalists. Al Qaeda (those who pulled off the 9/11 attacks) were also thought to work in Afghanistan.
      2. Obama said the U.S. would begin pulling out in 2011, but before that he’d use a play from George W. Bush’s playbook and do a troop surge in Afghanistan.
      3. U.S. intelligence revealed the location of Osama Bin Laden (mastermind of 9/11). U.S. Navy Seal team 6 went into Bin Laden’s compound in Afghanistan, killed him, and retrieved his body.
    3. An environmental catastrophe occurred under Obama’s watch when an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico exploded. Oil spewed into the Gulf for four months. It was the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 42 - The American People Face a New Century

  1. Economic Revolutions
    1. In the modern era, heavy industry waned and the information age kicked into high gear.
      1. Companies like Microsoft Corp. and the internet brought about the communications revolution.
      2. Entrepreneurs led the way to making the Internet a 21st century mall, library, and shopping center.
      3. New high-tech jobs were created and other jobs were erased.
    2. White-collar jobs in financial services and high tech engineering were being outsourced to other countries like Ireland and India where wages were lower.
    3. Many discovered that the new high tech economy was also prone to boom or bust, just like the old economy.
      1. In the Spring of 2000, the stock market began its biggest slide since WWII in the "dotcom bust." By 2003, the market had lost $6 trillion in value.
        1. Many Americans' pension plans shrank to 1/3 their previous level.
        2. This showed that Americans were still susceptible to risk, mistakes, scandal, and the ups-and-downs of the business cycle.
    4. Scientific research propelled the economy.
      1. Researchers unlocked the secrets of molecular genetics (1950s).
        1. They developed new strains of high yielding, pest/weather resistant crops.
        2. They sought to cure hereditary diseases.
        3. The movement started to fix genetic mutations.
      2. The "Human Genome Project" established the DNA sequence of the 30 thousand human genes, helping create radical new medical therapies.
        1. Breakthroughs in cloning animals raised questions about the morality of cloning humans.
        2. "Stem cell research", where zygotes or fertilized human eggs, offered possible cures for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
          1. The Bush administration, and many religious groups, believed that this research was killing people in the form of a human fetus.
          2. Bush said a fetus is still a human life, despite its small size, and experimenting and destroying it is therefore wrong. For this reason, he limited government funding for stem cell research.
  2. Affluence and Inequality
    1. U.S. standard of living was still very high compared to most other nations. The median household income in 2002 was $42,400,
    2. The rich still got richer while the poor got poorer.
      1. The richest 20% in 2001 raked in nearly half the nation’s income while the poorest 20% got a mere 4%.
      2. The widening inequality could be measured in different ways as well…
        1. In 2004, over 40 million people had no medical insurance.
        2. 34 million (12% of population) lived at or below the poverty level.
      3. Causes of the widening income gap…
        1. The tax and fiscal policies of the Reagan and both Bush presidencies tended to help the business class.
        2. Intensifying global economic competition lowered wages.
        3. There was a shrinkage of high-paying manufacturing jobs for semiskilled/unskilled workers.
        4. Those who pursued higher education reaped even greater rewards.
        5. Part time and temporary work became more common and there was an increase of low-skilled immigrants.
  3. The Feminist Revolution
    1. Women were greatly affected by the large changes of the late 1900s.
    2. Women steadily increased their presence in the work place.
      1. By 1990s, nearly half of all workers were women. Most surprising was the upsurge of employment in mothers.
        1. By the 1990s, a majority of women with kids as young as one were working.
      2. Many universities opened their doors to women (1960s) such as Yale, Princeton, and even West Point, The Citadel, and Virginia Military Institute (VMI).
      3. Despite gains, many feminists remained frustrated. Women still got lower wages and were concentrated in few low-prestige, low-paying occupations.
        1. For example, in 2002, on 29% of women were lawyers or judges and 25% physicians.
        2. This was likely due to women interrupting their careers to bear and raise kids or taking a less-demanding job to also fulfill the roles of mother.
        3. Discrimination and a focus on kids also helped account for the “gender-gap” in elections.
          1. Women still voted for Democrats more than men.
          2. Women were more willing to favor government support for health and child care, education, and job equality, as well as more vigilant in protecting abortion rights.
    3. Mens’ lives changed in the 2000s as well.
      1. Some employers gave maternity leave as well as paternity leave in recognition of shared obligations of the two-worker household.
      2. More men shared the traditional female responsibilities such as cooking, laundry, and child care.
    4. In 1993, congress passed the Family Leave Bill, mandating job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off from work for family reasons.
  4. New Families and Old
    1. The nuclear family (Mom, Dad, and children) suffered heavy blows in modern America. By the 1990s, half of all marriages ended in divorce.
      1. Seven times more children were affected by divorce as compared to the beginning of the decade.
    2. Traditional families weren’t just falling apart at an alarming rate, but they were also increasingly slow to form in the first place.
      1. The proportion of adults living alone tripled in the 4 decades after 1950s. In the 1990s, 1/3 of women age 25 - 29 had never married.
      2. Every fourth child in the U.S. was growing up in a household that lacked two parents.
      3. Single parenthood was the #1 cause of poverty.
      4. Child-rearing, the age-old goal of a family, was being pawned off to day-care centers, school, or TV (the electronic babysitter).
    3. Families now assumed a variety of different forms.
      1. Kids in households raised by a single parent, stepparent, or grandparent, and even kids with homosexual parents, encountered a degree of acceptance that would have been unimaginable a century earlier.
      2. Homosexual "marriage" and teenage pregnancy was on a decline after the mid-1900s.
    4. Families weren’t evaporating, but were changing into very different forms.
  5. The Aging of America This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com
    1. Old age was expected, since Americans were living longer than ever before. For someone born in 1900, the life expectancy was about 50 years. People born the year 2000 could anticipate living to an average 77 years.
    2. The longer lives were largely due to miraculous medical advances.
      1. One American in eight was over 65 years of age in 2000.
    3. This aging of population raised a slew of economic, social, and political questions.
      1. Seniors formed a potent electoral bloc that aggressively lobbied for government favors and achieved real gains for senior citizens.
      2. The share of GNP spent on health care for people over 65 more than doubled in the 30 years after Medicare started.
      3. However, the more money sent to health care meant less money elsewhere or an increased debt. The old are getting helped, but the young are being paying for it.
      4. These triumphs for senior citizens brought fiscal strains, especially with Social Security.
        1. At the beginning of the creation of Social Security, a small majority depended on it. But modern times, it has increased. And, now current workers’ Social Security contributions actually funds Social Security.
        2. Due to the baby boom generation, the ratio of active workers-to-retirees is at a low-to-high level. And, health care costs have skyrocketed in recent years.
        3. The "unfunded liability" (the shortage between what the government promised to pay to the elderly and the taxes it expected to take in) was about $7 trillion.
        4. Due to possible political repercussions, politicians are very reluctant to talk about changing Social Security. There are possible solutions are:
          1. To delay Social Security payments and persuade older Americans to work longer.
          2. To invest the current Social Security surplus in stocks and bonds to meet future obligations. This could also backfire, however, if the market drops.
          3. A portion of the Social Security money could be privatized if younger people wanted to invest some of their payroll taxes into individual retirement accounts.
  6. The New Immigration
    1. Since 1980, newcomers continued to flow into modern America, at the rate of nearly 1 million per year.
      1. Contradicting history, Europe provided few immigrants. The largest portion came from Asia and Latin America. These immigrants came for many of the same reasons all immigrants:
        1. They left countries where the population was increasing rapidly and…
        2. Where agricultural/industrial revolutions were shaking up old ways of life.
        3. Mostly, like always, they came in search of jobs and economic opportunities—a better life for their families.
      2. Some came with skills and even professional degrees and found their way into middle-class jobs. However, most came with fewer skills/less education. They sought work as janitors, nannies, farm laborers, lawn cutters, etc.
    2. The southwest felt immigration the most, since Mexican migrants naturally arrived in that section of the U.S.
      1. By the turn of the century, Latinos made up nearly 1/3 of the population in California, Arizona, and Texas, and nearly 40% in New Mexico.
      2. Latinos succeeded in making the Southwest a bi-cultural region by holding onto to their culture and language. Most immigrants had assimilated into "American" culture. Plus, it did help to have their "mothering country” right next door, not an ocean away.
    3. Some “old-stock” Americans feared modern America’s capacity to absorb all these immigrants.
      1. The Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) attempted to choke off illegal entry by penalizing employers of the illegal immigrants and by granting amnesty to many of those already here.
      2. Anti-immigrant sentiment was strong in California in the wake of economic recession in the early 1990s.
        1. California voters approved a ballot initiative that attempted to deny benefits, including free public education, to illegal immigrants (it was later struck down by courts).
        2. State then passed another law in 1998 which put an end to bilingual teaching in state schools.
    4. By 2002, the U.S. population was made up of 11.5% of foreign-born people. The historical high-point had been 15% in 1910.
    5. There were good sides to the immigration in that (1) immigrants took jobs that Americans didn’t want and (2) the infusion of young immigrants and their offspring helped counter-balance the overwhelming rate of an aging population.
  7. Beyond the Melting Pot
    1. Due to increasing immigration and high birthrate, Latinos were becoming an increasingly important minority
      1. By 2003, the US was home to about 39 million Latinos. (26 million Chicanos, Mexican American, 3 million Puerto Ricans, 1 million Cubans).
      2. Latinos flexed their political powers.
        1. Hispanic mayors were elected in Miami, Denver, and San Antonio.
        2. After many years of struggle, the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC0, headed by Cesar Chavez, succeeded in making working conditions better for Chicano “stoop laborers” who followed the planting cycle of the American West.
      3. Latinos were well organized and became the nation’s largest ethnic minority.
    2. Asian Americans also made great strides.
      1. By the 1980s, they were America’s fastest-growing minority and their numbers reached about 12 million by 2003.
      2. Citizens of Asian ancestry were now counted among the most prosperous Americans. In 2003, the average Asian household was 25% better off than that of the average white household.
    3. American Indians, numbered some 2.4 million in the 2000 census.
      1. Unemployment and alcoholism had blighted reservation life. Half had left their reservations to live in cities.
      2. Many tribes took advantage of their special legal status of independence by opening up casinos on reservations to the public.
      3. However, discrimination and poverty proved hard to break.
  8. Cities and Suburbs
    1. Cities grew less safe, crime was the great scourge of urban life.
      1. The rate of violent crimes raised to its peak in the drug infested 1980s, but then it leveled out in the 90s. Violent crime dropped notably after about 1995.
      2. Still, murder, robbery and rape remained common in cities and rural areas and drove many more people to the suburbs.
    2. In the mid-1990s, a swift and massive transition took place from cities to suburbs, making jobs “suburbanized.”
      1. The nation’s brief “urban age” lasted for only a little less than 7 decades.
      2. Some affluent suburban neighborhoods stayed secluded, by staying locked in “gated communities.”
      3. By the first decade of the 21st century, big suburban rings and beltways emerged around cities like New York, Chicago, Houston, and Washington D.C.
        1. The cities as a whole were becoming more racially and ethnically diverse, however local neighborhoods were often homogeneous.
      4. Suburbs grew fastest in the West and Southwest, in areas such as L.A., San Diego, Las Vegas, and Phoenix.
        1. Builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting up across the landscapes.
        2. A huge shift of US population was underway from East to West, from North to South.
        3. The Great Plains were hurt from the movement. The entire Plains held fewer people than the Los Angeles basin.
      5. However, some cities started to show signs of renewal in downtown areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and San Francisco.
  9. Minority America
    1. Racial and ethic tensions also exacerbated the problems of American cities. This was specifically evident in L.A. (a magnet for minorities).
      1. There, in 1992, a mostly white jury exonerated white cops who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect.
        1. The minority neighborhoods of L.A. erupted in a riot of anger. There was looting, arson, killings. Many blacks addressed their anger toward Asian shopkeepers who armed themselves in protection.
        2. The L.A. riots vividly testified to black skepticism about the U.S. system of justice.
      2. Three years later, in L.A., a televised showing of O.J. Simpson’s murder trial fed white disillusionment with the court system and with race relations.
        1. After months of testimony, the evidence (including Simpson's DNA) seemed overwhelmingly that O.J. Simpson was guilty. But, he was acquitted due to the fact some white officers had been shown to harbor racist sentiments.
        2. In a a later civil trial, another jury unanimously found Simpson liable for the “wrongful deaths” of his former wife and another victim.
      3. The Simpson verdicts revealed the huge gap between white and black America.
    2. Blacks still felt that they were mistreated, as in 2000 election when they claimed that they weren’t allowed to vote in Florida.
    3. In 2002, 52% of blacks and only 21% of whites lived in inner cities.
      1. The most desperate black ghettos were especially problematic. Blacks who'd benefited from the 60s Civil Rights Movement left to the suburbs along with whites. This left the poorest of the poor in the old city ghettos.
        1. Without a middle class to help the community, the cities became plagued by unemployment, crime, and drug addiction.
      2. Single women headed about 43% of black families in 2002, 3 times more than whites.
        1. Many single, black mothers depended on Welfare to feed their children.
        2. Social scientists made it clear that education excels if the child has warm, home environment. It seemed clear that many fatherless, impoverished black kids seemed plagued by educational handicaps which were difficult to overcome.
    4. Some segments of black communities did prosper after the Civil Rights Movement, although they still had a long way to go to reach equality.
      1. By 2002, 33% of black families had a $50,000 income, putting them at middle class level.
      2. Blacks also gained power in politics.
        1. The number of black officials elected had risen to the 9,000 mark. This included more than 3 dozen members of Congress and mayors of some big cities.
        2. Voter tallies showed that black more blacks were going to the polls.
        3. By the early 21st century, blacks had dramatically advanced into higher education. In 2002, 17% of blacks over 25 had a bachelor’s degree.
          1. To keep the numbers up and growing, the courts still preserved affirmative action in the university admissions.
  10. E Pluribus Plures
    1. Ideas of race, ethnicity, and culture were changing in the late 1900s.
    2. Sounding like early 20th century “cultural pluralists” such as Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne, many advanced the idea of “multiculturalism.” This stressed the need to preserve, rather than squash racial minorities, old ways, and ethnic traits.
      1. The old idea of a “melting pot” gave way to a “salad bowl."
    3. The nation’s classrooms became the heated area for debate.
      1. Multiculturalists attacked traditional the curriculum as being too white and advocated a greater focus on achievements of blacks, Latinos, Asians, Indians.
      2. In defense, critics said that studies on ethnic differences would destroy American values.
      3. The Census Bureau furthered the debate when, in 2000, it allowed respondents to identify themselves with more than one of the six categories: black, white, Latino, American Indian, Asian, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.
  11. The Postmodern Mind
    1. Despite the TV, American read more in the early 21st century, listened to more music, and were better educated than ever.
      1. Colleges awarded some 2.5 million degrees in 2004. One quarter of the 25-34 age group was a college grad. This fact helped the economy.
    2. What Americans read said much about Americans themselves.
      1. Some authors wrote of the American western experience.
        1. Larry McMurtry wrote about the end of the cattle drive era in Lonesome Dove (1985).
        2. Raymond Carver wrote powerful stories about the working class in the Pacific Northwest.
        3. Annie Dillard, Ivan Doig, and Jim Harrison recreated the frontier, also in the Pacific Northwest.
        4. David Guterson wrote a moving tale of interracial anxiety and love in the WWII era in Pacific Northwest in Snow Falling on Cedars (1994).
        5. Wallace Stagner produced many remarkable works like Angle of Repose (1971) and Crossing to Safety (1987).
        6. Norman MacLean wrote two unforgettable events about his childhood in Montana, A River Runs Through It (1976) and Young Men and Fire (1992).
      2. There were African-American authors.
        1. August Wilson retold the history of the blacks in 20th century emphasizing on the psychological cost of the northward migration.
        2. George Wolf explored sobering questions of black identity in Jelly’s Last Jam about the life story of jazz musician “Jelly Roll” Morton.
        3. Alice Walker gave fictional voice to the experiences of black women in her hugely popular The Color Purple.
        4. Toni Morrison wrote a haunting story of a mother's love in Beloved.
        5. Edward P. Jones inventively rendered the life of a slave-owning black family in The Known World.
          1. Morrison, Walker, and Jones won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction. Morrison also won the Nobel Prize for literature.
      3. American Indians wrote or were written about.
        1. N. Scott Momaday won a Pulitzer Prize for his portrayal of Indian life in House Made of Dawn.
        2. James Welch wrote movingly about his Blackfoot ancestors in Fools Crow.
      4. Asian-American authors flourished as well.
        1. Among them was playwright David Hwang, novelist Amy Tan, and essayist Maxine Hong Kingston.
        2. Gish Jen in Mona in the Promise Land guided her readers into the poignant comedy of suburban family relationships that was common for 2nd-generation Asian-Americans.
      5. Jhumpa Lahiris’ Interpreter of Maladies, explored the relationship struggles between immigrant Indian parents and their American-born kids.
      6. There were Latino writers.
        1. Sandra Cisneros drew from her own life as a Mexican-American kid to write on Latino life in working-class Chicago in The House on Mango Street.
  12. The New Media
    1. The internet was first created by the government as a tool to fight the Cold War. In the 1990's, the internet came to average households, then spread like crazy…
      1. In 1997, 18% of households had the internet, in 2007, 70% did.
    2. The internet's rapid growth led to a dot-com boom, and subsequent bust. The dot-com boom peaked around the year 2000.
      1. Many dot-coms failed, but those that stayed became the giants of the 'net: Amazon in retail, Google in searching, and E*trade in finance.
    3. There were other internet niches…
      1. Younger Americans flocked to social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook.
      2. YouTube became the standard for posting and watching online videos.
    4. Traditionally, a person learned of the news either through the morning paper (yesterday's news) or the 6:00 o'clock nightly news (the day's news). This changed with the internet.
      1. Now, anyone with a computer and a connection could write about on weblogs or "blogs." Facts and research were optional.
      2. This instantaneous news and information source had been challenged by 24 hour cable news channels, but the internet now involved the average person too. The big losers were the newspapers whose subscriptions dropped sharply and increasingly turned to their own websites.
  13. The American Prospect
    1. American spirit rolled on in the 21st century, as it always had, but problems continued.
    2. There were equality issues.
      1. Women still felt they were short of first class citizenship.
      2. U.S. society also wanted to find ways to adapt back to the traditional family. But this was difficult if not impossible with the new realities of women working outside the home.
      3. Full equality still seemed to be only a dream for some races.
    3. There were economic issues.
      1. Powerful foreign competitors threatened the U.S. economic status.
      2. The alarmingly unequal distribution of wealth and income threatened to turn America into a society of haves and have-nots.
    4. There were environmental issues.
      1. Coal-fired electrical energy plants produced acid rain and helped greenhouse effect.
      2. Unsolved problem of radioactive waste disposal halted the construction of nuclear power plants.
      3. The planet was being drained of oil and oil spills showed the danger behind oil exploration and transportation.
        1. The public began to look toward alternative fuel sources, such as solar power and wind mills, natural gas, electric “hybrid” cars, an affordable hydrogen fuel cell.
      4. Energy conservation and alternatives remained crucial, but elusive.
    5. All-the-while, more doors were opening for the Americans, such as…
      1. Opportunities in outer space and inner-city streets.
        1. The artist’s easel and the musician’s concert hall.
        2. At the inventor’s bench and the scientist’s laboratory.
    6. And finally, America is dynamic, always growing, evolving, and hopefully improving.
      1. American democracy is ever-changing.
        1. As Woodrow Wilson once wrote, "Democratic institutions are never done; they are like living tissue, always a-making. It is a strenuous thing, this of living life of a free people."
      2. Americans are always striving to be better.
        1. As Teddy Roosevelt once put it, "Far better it is to dare mighty things, to win glorious triumphs, even though checkered by failure, than to rank with those poor spirits who neither enjoy much nor suffer much, because they live in the gray twilight that knows not victory nor defeat."
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 14th Edition Textbook Notes

Here you will find AP US History notes for the American Pageant, 14th edition textbook. These American Pageant notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1248 pages
  • Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing; 14 edition (December 25, 2008)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 0547166540
  • ISBN-13: 978-0547166544

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings, 33,000 B.C.-A.D. 1769.

 I. The Shaping of North America

  1. Recorded history began 6,000 years ago. It was 500 years ago that Europeans set foot on the Americas to begin colonization
  2. The theory of Pangaea exists suggesting that the continents were once nestled together into one mega-continent. They then spread out as drifting islands.
  3. Geologic forces of continental plates created the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.
  4. The Great Ice Age thrust down over North America & scoured the present day American Midwest.

II. Peopling the Americas

  1. The Land Bridge theory.
    • As the Great Ice Age diminished, so did the glaciers over North America.
    • The theory holds that a Land Bridge emerged linking Asia & North America across what is now known as the Bering Sea. People were said to have walked across the "bridge" before the sea level rose and sealed it off; thus populating the Americas.
    • The Land Bridge is said to have occurred an estimated 35,000 years ago.
  2. Many peoples
    • Those groups that traversed the bridge spread across North, Central, and South America.
    • Countless tribes emerged with an estimated 2,000 languages. Notably:
      • Incas: Peru, with elaborate network of roads and bridges linking their empire.
      • Mayas: Yucatan Peninsula, with their step pyramids.
      • Aztecs: Mexico, with step pyramids and huge sacrifices of conquered peoples.

III. The Earliest Americans

  1. Development of corn or maize around 5,000 B.C. in Mexico was revolutionary in that:
    • Then, people didn't have to be hunter-gatherers, they could settle down and be farmers.
    • This fact gave rise to towns and then cities.
    • Corn arrived in the present day U.S. around 1,200 B.C.
  2. Pueblo Indians
    • The Pueblos were the 1st American corn growers.
    • They lived in adobe houses (dried mud) and pueblos ("villages" in Spanish). Pueblos are villages of cubicle shaped adobe houses, stacked one on top the other and often beneath cliffs.
    • They had elaborate irrigation systems to draw water away from rivers to grown corn.
  3. Mound Builders
    • These people built huge ceremonial and burial mounds and were located in the Ohio Valley.
    • Cahokia, near East St. Louis today, held 40,000 people.
  4. Eastern Indians
    • Eastern Indians grew corn, beans, and squash in three sister farming:
      • Corn grew in a stalk providing a trellis for beans, beans grew up the stalk, squash's broad leaves kept the sun off the ground and thus kept the moisture in the soil.
      • This group likely had the best (most diverse) diet of all North American Indians and is typified by the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw(South) and Iroquois (North).
  5. Iroquois Confederation
    • Hiawatha was the legendary leader of the group.
    • The Iroquois Confederation was a group of 5 tribes in New York state.
    • They were matrilineal as authority and possessions passed down through the female line.
    • Each tribe kept their independence, but met occasionally to discuss matters of common interest, like war/defense.
    • This was not the norm. Usually, Indians were scattered and separated (and thus weak).
  6. Native Americans had a very different view of things as compared to Europeans.
    • Native Americans felt no man owned the land, the tribe did. (Europeans liked private property)
    • Indians felt nature was mixed with many spirits. (Europeans were Christian and monotheistic)
    • Indians felt nature was sacred. (Europeans felt nature and land was given to man by God in Genesis to be subdued and put to use).
    • Indians had little or no concept or interest in money. (Europeans loved money or gold)

IV. Indirect Discoverers of the New World

  1. The 1st Europeans to come to America were the Norse (Vikings from Norway).
    • Around 1000 AD, the Vikings landed, led by Erik the Red and Leif Erikson.
    • They landed in Newfoundland or Vinland (because of all the vines).
    • However, these men left America and left no written record and therefore didn't get the credit.
    • The only record is found in Viking sagas or songs.
  2. The Christian Crusaders of Middle Ages fought in Palestine to regain the Holy Land from Muslims. This mixing of East and West created a sweet-tooth where Europeans wanted the spices of the exotic East.

V. Europeans Enter Africa

  1. Marco Polo traveled to China and stirred up a storm of European interest.
  2. Mixed with desire for spices, an East to West (Asia to Europe) trade flourished but had to be overland, at least in part. This initiated new exploration down around Africa in hopes of an easier (all water) route.
  3. Portugal literally started a sailing school to find better ways to get to the Spice Islands, eventually rounding Africa's southern Cape of Good Hope.
  4. New developments:
    • caravel: a ship with triangular sail that could better tack (zig-zag) ahead into the wind and thus return to Europe from Africa coast.
    • compass: to determine direction.
    • astrolabe: a sextant gizmo that could tell a ship's latitude.
  5. Slave trade begins
    • The 1st slave trade was across the Sahara Desert.
    • Later, it was along the West African coast. Slave traders purposely busted up tribes and families in order to squelch any possible uprising.
    • Slaves wound up on sugar plantations the Portuguese had set up on the tropical islands off Africa's coast.
    • Spain watched Portugal's success with exploration and slaving and wanted a piece of the pie.

VI. Columbus Comes upon a New World

  1. Christopher Columbus convinced Isabella and Ferdinand to fund his expedition.
  2. His goal was to reach the East (East Indies) by sailing west, thus bypassing the around-Africa route that Portugal monopolized.
  3. He misjudged the size of the Earth though, thinking it 1/3 the size of what it was.
  4. So, after 30 days or so at sea, when he struck land, he assumed he'd made it to the East Indies and therefore mistook the people as "Indians."
  5. This spawned the following system:
    • Europe would provide the market, capital, technology.
    • Africa would provide the labor.
    • The New World would provide the raw materials (gold, soil, lumber).

VII. When Worlds Collide

  1. Of huge importance was the biological flip-flop of Old and New Worlds. Simply put, we traded life such as plants, foods, animals, germs.
  2. Columbian Exchange:
    • From the New World (America) to the Old
      • corn, potatoes, tobacco, beans, peppers, manioc, pumpkin, squash, tomato, wild rice, etc.
      • also, syphilis
    • From the Old World to the New
      • cows, pigs, horses, wheat, sugar cane, apples, cabbage, citrus, carrots, Kentucky bluegrass, etc.
      • devastating diseases (smallpox, yellow fever, malaria), as Indians had no immunities.
        • The Indians had no immunities in their systems built up over generations.
        • An estimated 90% of all pre-Columbus Indians died, mostly due to disease.

VIII. The Spanish Conquistadores

  1. Treaty Line of Tordesillas 1494: Portugal and Spain feuded over who got what land. The Pope drew this line as he was respected by both.
    • The line ran North-South, and chopped off the Brazilian coast of South America
    • Portugal got everything east of the line (Brazil and land around/under Africa)
    • Spain got everything west of the line (which turned out to be much more, though they didn't know it at the time)
  2. Conquistadores = "conquerors"
    • Vasco Balboa: "discovered" the Pacific Ocean across isthmus of Panama
    • Ferdinand Magellan: circumnavigates the globe (1st to do so)
    • Ponce de Leon: touches and names Florida looking for legendary Fountain of Youth
    • Hernando de Soto: enters Florida, travels up into present day Southeastern U.S., dies and is "buried" in Mississippi River
    • Francisco Pizarro: conquers Incan Empire of Peru and begins shipping tons of gold/silver back to Spain. This huge influx of precious metals made European prices skyrocket (inflation).
    • Francisco Coronado: ventured into current Southwest U.S. looking for legendary El Dorado, city of gold. He found the Pueblo Indians.
  3. Encomienda system established
    • Indians were "commended" or given to Spanish landlords
    • The idea of the encomienda was that Indians would work and be converted to Christianity, but it was basically just slavery on a sugar plantation guised as missionary work.

IX. The Conquest of Mexico

  1. Hernando Cortez conquered the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan.
  2. Cortez went from Cuba to present day Vera Cruz, then marched over mountains to the Aztec capital.
  3. Montezuma, Aztec king, thought Cortez might be the god Quetzalcoatl who was due to re-appear the very year. Montezuma welcomed Cortez into Tenochtitlan.
  4. The Spanish lust for gold led Montezuma to attack on the noche triste, sad night. Cortez and men fought their way out, but it was smallpox that eventually beat the Indians.
  5. The Spanish then destroyed Tenochtitlan, building the Spanish capital (Mexico City) exactly on top of the Aztec city.
  6. A new race of people emerged, mestizos, a mix of Spanish and Indian blood.

X. The Spread of Spanish America

  1. Spanish society quickly spread through Peru and Mexico
  2. A threat came from neighbors:
    • English: John Cabot (an Italian who sailed for England) touched the coast of the current day U.S.
    • France: Giovanni de Verrazano also touched on the North American seaboard.
    • France: Jacques Cartier went into mouth of St. Lawrence River (Canada).
  3. To oppose this, Spain set up forts (presidios) all over the California coast. Also cities, like St. Augustine in Florida.
  4. Don Juan de Onate followed Coronado's old path into present day New Mexico. He conquered the Indians ruthlessly, maiming them by cutting off one foot of survivors just so they'd remember.
  5. Despite mission efforts, the Pueblo Indians revolted in Pope's Rebellion.
  6. Robert de LaSalle sailed down the Mississippi River for France claiming the whole region for their King Louis and naming the area "Louisiana" after his king. This started a slew of place-names for that area, from LaSalle, Illinois to "Louisville" and then on down to New Orleans (the American counter of Joan of Arc's famous victory at Orleans).
  7. Black Legend: The Black Legend was the notion that Spaniards only brought bad things (murder, disease, slavery); though true, they also brought good things such as law systems, architecture, Christianity, language, civilization, so that the Black Legend is partly, but not entirely, accurate.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America, 1500-1733

 I. England’s Imperial Stirrings

  1. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the Spanish had much control in Central and South America.
  2. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown.
  3. In the 1500s, Britain failed to effectively colonize due to internal conflicts.
    • King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation.
    • After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified.
    • In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in revolting against England, but the English crushed the uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an attitude of sneering contempt for natives.

II. Elizabeth Energizes England

  1. After Francis Drake pirated Spanish ships for gold then circumnavigated the globe, Elizabeth I knighted him on his ship. Obviously, this reward angered the Spanish who sought revenge.
  2. Meanwhile, English attempts at colonization in the New World failed embarrassingly. Notable of these failures was Sir Walter Raleigh and theRoanoke Island Colony, better known as “The Lost Colony.”
  3. Seeking to get their revenge, Spain attacked Britain but lost in the Spanish Armada’s defeat of 1588. This opened the door for Britain to cross the Atlantic. They swarmed to America and took over the lead in colonization and power.
    • Victory also fueled England to new heights due to…
      • Strong government/popular monarch, more religious unity, a sense of nationalism
      • Golden age of literature (Shakespeare)
      • Beginning of British dominance at sea (which lasts until U.S. tops them, around 1900)
    • Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.

III. England on the Eve of the Empire

  1. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming.
  2. New policy of enclosure (fencing in land) for farming. This meant there was less or no land for the poor.
  3. The woolen districts fell upon hard times economically. This meant the workers lost jobs.
  4. Tradition of primogeniture = 1st born son inherits ALL father’s land. Therefore, younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America.
  5. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected (investors put money into the company with hopes for a good return), being a forerunner of today’s corporations.

IV. England Plants the **Jamestown Seedling**

  1. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World.
    • Such joint-stock companies usually did not exist long, as stockholders invested hopes to form the company, turn a profit, and then quickly sell for profit a few years later.
  2. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain.
  3. On May 24, 1607, about 100 English settlers disembarked from their ship and founded Jamestown.
    • Forty colonists had perished during the voyage.
    • Problems emerged including (a) the swampy site of Jamestown meant poor drinking water and mosquitoes causing malaria and yellow fever. (b) men wasted time looking for gold rather than doing useful tasks (digging wells, building shelter, planting crops), (c) there were zero women on the initial ship.
    • It didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the Bahamas in 1609 either.
  4. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control and whipped the colonists into shape.
    • At one point, he was kidnapped by local Indians and forced into a mock execution by the chief Powhatan and had been “saved” byPowhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas.
    • The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted peaceful relations with the colonists.
    • John Smith’s main contribution was that he gave order and discipline, highlighted by his “no work, no food” policy.
  5. Colonists had to eat cats, dogs, rats, even other people. One fellow wrote of eating “powdered wife.”
  6. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr arrived to alleviate the suffering.
  7. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8,000 would-be settlers, only 1,200 had survived.

V. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

  1. At first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists potential allies and tried to be friendly with them, but as time passed and colonists raided Indian food supplies, relations deteriorated and eventually, war occurred.
  2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe. Rolfe & Pocahontas nurtured a favorable flavor of sweet tobacco.
  3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a series of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe, dead.
  4. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in 1646, and effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands.
  5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians were useless, and were therefore banished.

VI. Virginia: Child of Tobacco

  1. Jamestown’s gold is found and it is tobacco.
    • Rolfe’s sweet tobacco was sought as a cash crop by Europe. Jamestown had found its gold.
    • Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted the soil and ruined the land.
  2. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when in 1619, settlers created the House of Burgesses, a committee to work out local issues. This set America on a self-rule pathway.
  3. The first African Americans to arrive in America also came in 1619. It’s unclear if they were slaves or indentured servants.

VII. Maryland: Catholic Haven

  1. Religious Diversity
    • Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to be formed.
    • It was founded to be a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge, a safe haven.
    • Lord Baltimore gave huge estates to his Catholic relatives, but the poorer people who settled there where mostly Protestant, creating friction.
  2. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco.
  3. It had a lot of indentured servants.
    • Only in the later years of the 1600s (in Maryland and Virginia) did Black slavery begin to become popular.
  4. Maryland’s statute, the Act of Toleration, guaranteed religious toleration to all Christians, but decreed the death penalty to Jews and atheists and others who didn’t believe in the divinity of Jesus Christ.

VIII. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

  1. As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also settling into the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened the door).
  2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655.
  3. They grew lots of sugar on brutal plantations there.
  4. Thousands of African slaves were needed to operate sugar plantations. At first, Indians were intended to be used, but disease killed an estimated 90% of all Native Americans. So, Africans were brought in.
  5. To control so many slaves, “codes” were set up that defined the legal status of slaves and the rights of the masters. They were typically strict and exacted severe punishments for offenders.

IX. Colonizing the Carolinas

  1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver Cromwell had ruled for ten very strict years before tired Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne in “The Restoration.” (After all the turmoil Civil War, they just went back to a king.)
  2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization.
  3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally created in 1670.
  4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with the West Indies, due to the port of Charleston.
  5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados and brought in the strict “Slave Codes” for ruling slaves.
  6. Interestingly, Indians as slaves in Carolina was protested, but to no avail. Slaves were sent to the West Indies to work, as well as New England.
  7. Rice emerged as the principle crop in Carolina.
    • African slaves were hired to work on rice plantations, due to (a) their resistance to malaria and just as importantly, (b) their familiarity with rice.
  8. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina proved to be too strong to be wiped out.

X. The Emergence of North Carolina

  1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people who owned no land, usually down from Virginia.
  2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistance to authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors.
  3. Two “flavors” of Carolinians developed: (a) aristocratic and wealthier down south around Charleston and rice & indigo plantations, and (b) strong-willed and independent-minded up north on small tobacco farms
  4. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially separated.
  5. In 1711, when Tuscarora Indians attacked North Carolina, the Carolinians responded by crushing the opposition, selling hundreds to slavery and leaving the rest to wander north, eventually becoming the Sixth Nation of the Iroquois.

XI. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony

  1. Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida (Spanish, Indians, runaway slaves) and the enemy French in Louisiana.
  2. It was founded last, in 1733, by a high-minded group of philanthropists, mainly James Oglethorpe.
  3. Named after King George II, it was also meant to be a second chance site for wretched souls in debt.

iv. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks.
* He saved “the Charity Colony” by his energetic leadership and by using his own fortune to help with the colony.

  1. All Christians, except Catholics, enjoyed religious toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert the Indians.
    • John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to England and founded Methodism.
  2. Georgia grew very slowly.

XII. The Plantation Colonies

  1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies.
  2. The growth of cities was often stunted by forests.
  3. The establishment of schools and churches was difficult due to people being spread out.
  4. In the South, the crops were tobacco and rice, and some indigo in the tidewater region of SC.
  5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration.
  6. Confrontations with Native Americans were often.

XIII. Makers of America: The Iroquois

  1. In what is now New York State, the Iroquois League (AKA the Iroquois Confederation) was once a great power.
  2. They were made up of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas.
  3. They vied with neighboring Indians and later French, English, and Dutch for supremacy.
  4. The longhouse was the building block of Iroquois society.
    • Only 25 feet wide, but over 200 feet long, longhouses were typically occupied by a few blood-related families (on the mother’s side).
  5. The Mohawks were middlemen with European traders.
  6. The Senecas were fur suppliers.
  7. The Five Nations of the Iroquois’ rivals, the neighboring Hurons, Eries, and Petuns, were vanquished.
  8. Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, the Iroquois allied with the British and French (whichever was more beneficial).
  9. When the American Revolution broke out, the question of with whom to side was split. Most sided with the British, but not all.
  10. Afterwards, the Iroquois were forced to reservations, which proved to be unbearable to these proud people.
  11. An Iroquois named Handsome Lake arose to warn his tribe’s people to mend their ways.
  12. His teachings live today in the form of the longhouse religion.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies, 1619-1700

 I. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

  1. 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. Luther had several explosive ideas including…
    • The Bible alone was the source of God’s word (not the Bible and the church or pope).
    • People are saved simply by faith in Christ alone (not by faith and good works).
    • His actions ignited the Protestant Reformation.
  2. John Calvin preached Calvinism which stressed “predestination” (those going to Heaven or hell has already been determined by God).
    • Basic doctrines were stated in the 1536 document entitled Institutes of the Christian Religion.
    • Stated that all humans were weak and wicked.
    • Only the predestined could go to heaven, no matter what.
    • Calvinists were expected to seek “conversions,” signs that they were one of the predestined, and afterwards, lead “sanctified lives.”
    • Calvinists are famous for working hard, dusk to dawn, to “prove” their worthiness.
    • The impact of Calvinism has been vividly stamped on the psyche of Americans, and been called the “Protestant Work Ethic”
  3. In England, King Henry VIII was breaking his ties with the Holy Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s.
  4. Some people, called Puritans, were influenced to totally reform (“purify”) the Church of England.
  5. The Puritans
    • Believed that only “visible saints” should be admitted to church membership.
    • Separatists vowed to break away from the Church of England (AKA, the Anglican Church) because the “saints” would have to sit with the “damned.” These folks became the Pilgrims.
    • King James I, father of the beheaded Charles I, harassed the Separatists out of England because he thought that if people could defy him as their spiritual leader, they might defy him as their political ruler.

II. The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

  1. The Pilgrims or Separatists, came from Holland, where they had fled to after they had left England.
    • They were concerned that their children were getting too “Dutchified.”
    • They wanted a place where they were free to worship their own religion and could live and die as good Pilgrims.
  2. After negotiating with the Virginia Company, the Separatists left Holland and sailed for 65 days at sea on the Mayflower until they arrived off the rocky coast of New England in 1620, a trip in which only one person died and one person was born.
    • Less than half of the pilgrims on the Mayflower were actually Separatists.
    • Contrary to myth, the Pilgrims undertook a few surveys before deciding to settle at Plymouth, an area far from Virginia.
    • The Pilgrims became squatters, people without legal right to land and without specific authority to establish government.
  3. Captain Myles Standish (AKA, “Captain Shrimp”) proved to be a great Indian fighter and negotiator.
  4. Before leaving the ship, the Pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, a set of rules by which to obey.
    • Though it wasn’t a constitution, it did set the standard for later constitutions. It also set the first step toward self-rule in the Northern colonies.
  5. In the winter of 1620-21, only 44 of the 102 survived.
  6. 1621 brought bountiful harvests, though, and the first Thanksgiving was celebrated that year.
  7. William Bradford, chosen governor of Plymouth 30 times in the annual elections, was a great leader, and helped Plymouth to survive and trade fur, fish, and lumber.
  8. In 1691, Plymouth finally merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

III. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

  1. In 1629, some non-Separatist Puritans got a royal charter from England to settle in the New World. Secretly, they took the charter with them and later used it as a type of constitution.
  2. It was a well-equipped group of 11 ships that carried about 1,000 people to Massachusetts.
  3. John Winthrop was elected governor or deputy governor for 19 years, helping Massachusetts prosper in fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding.

IV. Building the Bay Colony

  1. Soon after the establishment of the colony, the franchise (right to vote) was extended to all “freemen,” adult males who belonged to the Puritan congregations (later called the Congregational Church), making people who could enjoy the franchise about two fifths of the male population.
    • Un-churched men and women weren’t allowed into matters of government.
  2. The provincial government was not a democracy.
    • Governor Winthrop feared and distrusted the common people, calling democracy the “meanest and worst” of all forms of government.
  3. Religious leaders wielded powerful influence over the admission to church membership.
  4. John Cotton, a prominent clergy member, was educated at Cambridge and had immigrated to Massachusetts to avoid persecution for his criticism of the Church of England.
  5. However, congregations could hire and fire their ministers at will.
  6. Still, there were laws to limit Earthly pleasures, such as a fine of twenty shillings for couples caught kissing in public.
  7. The Puritan concept of Hell was very serious, frightening, and very real.
    • Michael Wigglesworth’s “Day of Doom,” written in 1662, sold one copy for every twenty people.

V. Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth

  1. Tensions arose in Massachusetts.
  2. Quakers were fined, flogged, and/or banished.
  3. Anne Hutchinson was a very intelligent, strong-willed, talkative woman who claimed that a holy life was no sure sign of salvation and that the truly saved need not bother to obey the law of either God or man. A notion known as “antinomianism”.
    • Brought to trial in 1638, Anne boasted that her beliefs were directly from God.
    • She was banished from the colony and eventually made her way to Rhode Island.
    • She died in New York after an attack by Indians.
  4. Roger Williams was a radical idealist hounded his fellow clergymen to make a clean and complete break with the Church of England.
    • He went on to deny that civil government could and should govern religious behavior.
    • He was banished in 1635, and led the way for the Rhode Island colony.

VI. The Rhode Island “Sewer”

  1. People who went to Rhode Island weren’t necessarily similar; they were just unwanted everywhere else.
  2. They were against special privilege.
  3. “Little Rhody” was later known as “the traditional home of the otherwise minded.”
  4. It finally secured a charter in 1644.

VII. New England Spreads Out

  1. In 1635, Hartford, Connecticut was founded.
  2. Reverend Thomas Hooker led an energetic group of Puritans west into Connecticut.
  3. In 1639, settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted in open meeting a trailblazing document called the Fundamental Orders.
    • It was basically a modern constitution.
  4. In 1638, New Haven was founded and eventually merged into Connecticut.
  5. In 1623, Maine was absorbed by Massachusetts and remained so for nearly a century and a half.
  6. In 1641, the granite-ribbed New Hampshire was absorbed into Massachusetts.
    • In 1679, the king separated the two and made New Hampshire a royal colony.

VIII. Puritans Versus Indians

  1. Before the Puritans had arrived in 1620, an epidemic had swept through the Indians, killing over three quarters of them.
  2. At first, Indians tried to befriend the Whites.
    • Squanto, a Wampanoag, helped keep relative peace.
  3. In 1637, though, after mounting tensions exploded, English settlers and the powerful Pequot tribe fought in the Pequot War, in which the English set fire to a Pequot village on Connecticut’s Mystic River, annihilating the Indians and bringing about forty years of tentative peace.
    • In an attempt to save face, the Puritans did try to convert some of the Indians, though with less zeal than that of the Spanish and French.
  4. In 1675, Metacom (called King Philip by the English) united neighboring Indians in a last-ditched attack that failed.
    • The King Philip’s War slowed the colonial western march, but Metacom was beheaded and quartered and his head was stuck on a sharp pike for all to see, his wife and son sold to slavery.

IX. Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence

  1. In 1643, four colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation.
    • It was almost all Puritan.
    • It was weak, but still a notable milestone toward American unity.
  2. The colonies were basically allowed to be semiautonomous commonwealths.
  3. After Charles II was restored to the British throne, he hoped to control his colonies more firmly, but was shocked to find how much his orders were ignored by Massachusetts.
    • As punishment, a sea-to-sea charter was given to rival Connecticut (1662), and a charter was given to Rhode Island (1663).
    • Finally, in 1684, Massachusetts’ charter was revoked.

X. Andros Promotes the First American Revolution

  1. In 1686, the Dominion of New England was created to bolster the colonial defense against Indians and tying the colonies closer to Britain by enforcing the hated Navigation Acts.
    • The acts forbade American trade with countries other than Britain.
    • As a result, smuggling became common.
    • Head of the Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros.
      • Establishing headquarters in Boston, he openly showed his association with the locally hated Church of England.
      • His soldiers were vile-mouthed and despised by Americans.
  2. Andros responded to opposition by curbing town meetings, restricting the courts and the press, and revoking all land titles.
  3. He taxed the people without their consent.
  4. At the same time, the people of England staged the Glorious Revolution, instating William and Mary to the crown.
    • Resultant, the Dominion of New England collapsed.
    • Massachusetts got a new charter in 1691, but this charter allowed all landowners to vote, as opposed to the previous law of voting belonging only to the church members.

XI. Old Netherlanders at New Netherland

  1. In the 17th Century, the Netherlands revolted against Spain, and with the help of Britain, gained their independence.
  2. The Dutch East India Company was established, with an army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships (including 40 men-of-war).
  3. The Dutch West India Company often raided rather than traded.
  4. In 1609, Henry Hudson ventured into Delaware and New York Bay and claimed the area for the Netherlands.
  5. It was the Dutch West India Company that bought Manhattan Island for some worthless trinkets (22,000 acres of the most valuable land in the world today).
  6. New Amsterdam was a company town, run by and for the Dutch company and in the interests of stockholders.
  7. The Dutch gave patroonships (large areas of land) to promoters who agreed to settle at least 50 people on them.
  8. New Amsterdam attracted people of all types and races.
    • One French Jesuit missionary counted 18 different languages being spoken on the street.

XII. Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors

  1. Indian’s attacked the Dutch for their cruelties.
  2. New England was hostile against Dutch growth.
  3. The Swedes trespassed Dutch reserves from 1638 to 1655 by planting the anemic colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River.
  4. Things got so bad that the Dutch erected a wall in New Amsterdam, for which Wall Street is named today.
  5. In 1655, the Dutch sent one-legged Peter Stuyvesant to besiege the main Swedish fort, and he won, ending Swedish colonial rule and leaving only Swedish log cabins and place names as evidence that the Swedes were ever in Delaware.

XIII. Dutch Residues in New York

  1. In 1664, Charles II granted the area of modern-day New York to his brother, the Duke of York, and that year, British troops landed and defeated the Dutch, kicking them out, without much violence.
  2. New Amsterdam was renamed New York.
  3. The Dutch Legacy
    • The people of New York retained their autocratic spirit.
    • Dutch names of cities remained, like Harlem, Brooklyn, and Hell Gate.
    • Even their architecture left its mark on buildings.
    • The Dutch also gave us Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, sleighing, skating, and golf.

XIV. Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania

  1. The Quakers (characteristics)
    • They “quaked” under deep religious emotion.
    • They were offensive to religious and civil rule.
    • They addressed everyone with simple “thee”s and “thou”s and didn’t swear oaths because Jesus had said “Swear not at all,” this last part creating a problem, since you had to swear a test oath to prove that you weren’t Roman Catholic.
    • Though stubborn and unreasonable, they were simple, devoted, democratic people against war and violence.
  2. William Penn, a well-born Englishman, embraced the Quaker faith.
  3. In 1681, he managed to secure an immense grant of fertile land from the king.
    • It was called Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn, who, being the modest person that he was, had insisted that it be called Sylvania.
    • It was the best advertised of all the colonies.

XV. Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors

  1. Thousands of squatters already lived in Pennsylvania.
  2. Philadelphia was more carefully planned than most cities, with beautiful, wide streets.
  3. Penn bought land from the Indians, like Chief Tammany, later patron saint of New York’s political Tammany Hall.
    1. His treatment of the Indians was so gentle that Quakers could walk through Indian territory unarmed without fear of being hurt.
    2. However, as more and more non-Quakers came to Pennsylvania, they mistreated the Indians more and more.
  4. Freedom of worship was available to everyone except for Jews and Catholics (only because of pressure from London), and the death penalty was only for murder and treason.
  5. No restrictions were placed on immigration, and naturalization was made easy.
  6. The Quakers also developed a dislike toward slavery.
  7. Pennsylvania attracted a great variety of people from all races, class, and religion.
    1. By 1700, only Virginia was more populous and richer.
  8. Penn, unfortunately, was not well-liked because of his friendliness towards James II, the deposed Catholic king, and he was jailed at times, and also suffered a paralytic stroke, dying full of sorrows.
  9. New Jersey and Delaware prospered as well.

XVI. The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies

  1. New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania
    • All had fertile soil and broad expanse of land.
    • All except for Delaware exported lots of grain.
    • The Susquehanna River tapped the fur trade of the interior, and the rivers were gentle, with little cascading waterfalls.
    • The middle colonies were the middle way between New England and the southern plantation states.
      • Landholdings were generally intermediate in size.
    • The middle colonies were more ethnically mixed than other colonies.
    • A considerable amount of economic and social democracy prevailed.
    • Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, entered Philadelphia as a seventeen-year-old in 1720 with a loaf of bread under each arm and immediately found a congenial home in the urbane, open atmosphere of the city.
    • Americans began to realize that not only were they surviving, but that they were also thriving.

XVII. Makers of America: The English

  1. In the 1600s, England was undergoing a massive population boom.
  2. About 75% of English immigrants were indentured servants.
  3. Most of them were young men from the “middling classes.”
  4. Some had fled during the cloth trade slump in the early 1600s while others had been forced off their land due to enclosure.
  5. Some 40% of indentured servants died before their seven years were over.
  6. Late in the 17th century, as the supply of indentured servants slowly ran out, the southerners resolved to employ black slaves.
  7. From 1629 to 1642, 11,000 Puritans swarmed to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
  8. In contrast to the indentured servants, Puritans migrated in family groups, not alone.
  9. Puritans brought the way of life from England with them to America.
    • i.e. Marblehead, Mass. had mostly fishermen because most of the immigrants had been fisherman in England.
    • i.e. Rowley, Mass. brought from Yorkshire, England their distinctive way of life.
    • In Ipswich, Massachusetts, settled by East Anglican Puritans, the rulers had long terms and ruled with an iron hand.
    • However, in Newbury, people rarely won reelection.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century, 1607-1692

I. The Unhealthy Chesapeake

  1. Life in the American wilderness was harsh.
  2. Diseases like malaria, dysentery, and typhoid killed many.
  3. Few people lived to 40 or 50 years.
  4. In the early days of colonies, women were so scarce that men fought over all of them. The Chesapeake region had fewer women and a 6:1 male to female ratio is a good guide.
  5. Few people knew any grandparents.
  6. A third of all brides in one Maryland county were already pregnant before the wedding (scandalous).
  7. Virginia, with 59,000 people, became the most populous colony.

II. The Tobacco Economy

  1. The Chesapeake was very good for tobacco cultivation.
  2. Chesapeake Bay exported 1.5 million pounds of tobacco yearly in the 1630s, and by 1700, that number had risen to 40 million pounds a year.
    • More availability led to falling prices, and farmers still grew more.
    • The headright system encouraged growth of the Chesapeake. Under this system, if an aristocrat sponsored an indentured servant’s passage to America, the aristocrat earned the right to purchase 50 acres land, undoubtedly at a cheap price. This meant land was being gobbled by the rich, and running out for the poor.
    • Early on, most of the laborers were indentured servants.
      • Life for them was hard, but there was hope at the end of seven years for freedom.
      • Conditions were brutal, and in the later years, owners unwilling to free their servants extended their contracts by years for small mistakes.

III. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion

  1. By the late 1600s, there were lots of free, poor, landless, single men frustrated by the lack of money, land, work, and women.
  2. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a few thousand of these men in a rebellion against the hostile conditions.
    • These people wanted land and were resentful of Virginia governor William Berkeley’s friendly policies toward the Indians.
    • Bacon’s men murderously attacked Indian settlements after Berkeley refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on the frontier.
  3. Then, in the middle of his rebellion, Bacon suddenly died of disease, and Berkeley went on to crush the uprising.
  • Still, Bacon’s legacy lived on, giving frustrated poor folks ideas to rebel, and so a bit of paranoia went on for some time afterwards.

IV. Colonial Slavery

  1. In the 300 years following Columbus’ discovery of America, only about 400,000 of a total of 10 million African slaves were brought over to the United States.
  2. By 1680, though, many landowners were afraid of possibly mutinous white servants, by the mid 1680s, for the first time, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies’ new arrivals.
  3. After 1700, more and more slaves were imported, and in 1750, blacks accounted for nearly half of the Virginian population.
    • Most of the slaves were from West Africa, from places like Senegal and Angola.
  4. Some of the earliest black slaves gained their freedom and some became slaveholders themselves.
  5. Eventually, to clear up issues on slave ownership, the slave codes made it so that slaves and their children would remain slaves to their masters for life (chattels), unless they were voluntarily freed.
    • Some laws made teaching slaves to read a crime, and not even conversion to Christianity might qualify a slave for freedom.

V. Africans in America

  1. Slave life in the Deep South was very tough, as rice growing was much harder than tobacco growing.
    • Many blacks in America evolved their own languages, blending their native tongues with English.
    • Blacks also contributed to music with instruments like the banjo and bongo drum.
  2. A few of the slaves became skilled artisans (i.e. carpenters, bricklayers and tanners), but most were relegated to sweaty work like clearing swamps and grubbing out trees.
  3. Revolts did occur.
    • In 1712, a slave revolt in New York City cost the lives of a dozen whites and 21 Blacks were executed.
    • In 1739, South Carolina blacks along the Stono River revolted and tried to march to Spanish Florida, but failed.

VI. Southern Society

  1. A social gap appeared and began to widen.
    • In Virginia, a clutch of extended clans (i.e. the Fitzhughs, the Lees, and the Washingtons) owned tracts and tracts of real estate and just about dominated the House of Burgesses.
      • They came to be known as the First Families of Virginia (FFV).
  2. In Virginia, there was often a problem with drunkenness.
  3. The largest social group was the farmers.
  4. Few cities sprouted in the South, so schools and churches were slow to develop.

VII. The New England Family

  1. In New England, there was clean water and cool temperatures, so disease was not as predominant as in the South.
  2. The first New England Puritans had an average life expectancy of 70 years.
  3. In contrast to the Chesapeake, the New Englanders tended to migrate as a family, instead of individually.
    • Women usually married in their early twenties and gave birth every two years until menopause.
    • A typical woman could expect to have ten babies and raise about eight of them.
  • Death in childbirth was not uncommon.
  1. In the South, women usually had more power, since the Southern men typically died young and women could inherit the money, but in New England, the opposite was true.
    • In New England, men didn’t have absolute power over their wives (as evidenced by the punishments of unruly husbands), but they did have much power over women.
  2. New England law was very severe and strict.
    • For example, adulterous women had to wear the letter “A” on their bosoms if they were caught (as with The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne).

VIII. Life in the New England Towns

  1. Life in New England was organized.
    • New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities.
    • A town usually had a meetinghouse surrounded by houses and a village green.
    • Towns of more than 50 families had to provide primary education.
    • Towns of more than 100 had to provide secondary education.
  2. In 1636, Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train men to become ministers.
    • (Note: in 1693, Virginia established their first college, William and Mary.)
  3. Puritans ran their own churches, and democracy in Congregational church government led logically to democracy in political government.

IX. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials

  1. As Puritans began to worry about their children and whether or not they would be as loyal and faithful, and new type of sermon came about called “jeremiads.”
    • In jeremiads, earnest preachers scolded parishioners for their waning piety in hope to improve faith.
  2. Paradoxically, troubled ministers announced a new formula for church membership in 1662, calling it the “Half-Way Covenant.”
    • In the Half-Way Covenant, all people could come and participate in the church, even if they fell short of the “visible-saint” status and were somehow only half converted (with the exception of a few extremely hated groups).
  3. In the early 1690s, a group of Salem girls claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women.
    • What followed was a hysterical witch-hunt that led to the executions of 20 people (19 of which were hanged, 1 pressed to death) and two dogs.
    • Back in Europe, larger scale witch-hunts were already occurring.
    • Witchcraft hysteria eventually ended in 1693.

X. The New England Way of Life

  1. Due to the hard New England soil (or lack thereof), New Englanders became great traders.
  2. New England was also less ethnically mixed than its neighbors.
  3. The climate of New England encouraged diversified agriculture and industry.
    • Black slavery was attempted, but didn’t work. It was unnecessary since New England was made of small farms rather than plantations as down South.
  4. Rivers were short and rapid.
  5. The Europeans in New England chastised the Indians for “wasting” the land, and felt a need to clear as much land for use as possible.
  6. Fishing became a very popular industry. It is said New England was built on “God and cod.”

XI. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways

  1. Early farmers usually rose at dawn and went to bed at dusk.
  2. Few events were done during the night unless they were “worth the candle.”
  3. Life was humble but comfortable, at least in accordance to the surroundings.
  4. The people who emigrated from Europe to America were most usually lower middle class citizens looking to have a better future in the New World.
  5. Because of the general sameness of class in America, laws against extravagances were sometimes passed, but as time passed, America grew.

XII. Makers of America: From African to African-American

  1. Africans’ arrival into the New World brought new languages, music, and cuisines to America.
    • Africans worked in the rice fields of South Carolina due to (a) their knowledge of the crop and (b) their resistance to disease (as compared to Indians).
  2. The first slaves were men; some eventually gained freedom.
  3. By 1740, large groups of African slaves lived together on plantations, where female slaves were expected to perform backbreaking labor and spin, weave, and sew.
  4. Most slaves became Christians, though many adopted elements from their native religions.
    • Many African dances led to modern dances (i.e. the Charleston).
    • Christian songs could also be code for the announcement of the arrival of a guide to freedom.
    • Jazz is the most famous example of slave music entering mainstream culture.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution, 1700-1775

I. Conquest by the Cradle

  1. By 1775, Great Britain ruled 32 colonies in North America.
    • Only 13 of them revolted (the ones in what’s today the U.S.).
    • Canada and Jamaica were wealthier than the “original 13.”
    • All of them were growing by leaps and bounds.
  2. By 1775, the population numbered 2.5 million people.
  3. The average age was 16 years old (due mainly to having several children).
  4. Most of the population (95%) was densely cooped up east of the Alleghenies, though by 1775, some had slowly trickled into Tennessee and Kentucky.
  5. About 90% of the people lived in rural areas and were therefore farmers.

II. A Mingling of the Races

  1. Colonial America, though mostly English, had other races as well.
  2. Germans accounted for about 6% of the population, or about 150,000 people by 1775.
    • Most were Protestant (primarily Lutheran) and were called the “Pennsylvania Dutch” (a corruption of Deutsch which means German).
  3. The Scots-Irish were about 7% of the population, with 175,000 people.
    • Over many decades, they had been transplanted to Northern Ireland, but they had not found a home there (the already existing Irish Catholics resented the intruders).
    • Many of the Scots-Irish reached America and became squatters, quarreling with both Indians and white landowners.
    • They seemed to try to move as far from Britain as possible, trickling down to Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas.
    • In 1764, the Scots-Irish led the armed march of the Paxton Boys. The Paxtons led a march on Philadelphia to protest the Quaker’ peaceful treatment of the Indians. They later started the North Carolina Regulator movement in the hills and mountains of the colony, aimed against domination by eastern powers in the colony.
    • They were known to be very hot-headed and independent minded.
    • Many eventually became American revolutionists.
  4. About 5% of the multicolored population consisted of other European groups, like French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scots-Highlanders.
  5. Americans were of all races and mixed bloods, so it was no wonder that other races from other countries had a hard time classifying them.

III. The Structure of the Colonial Society

  1. In contrast to contemporary Europe, America was a land of opportunity.
    • Anyone who was willing to work hard could possibly go from rags to riches, and poverty was scorned.
    • Class differences did emerge, as a small group of aristocrats (made up of the rich farmers, merchants, officials, clergymen) had much of the power.
  2. Also, armed conflicts in the 1690s and 1700s enriched a number of merchants in the New England and middle colonies.
  3. War also created many widows and orphans who eventually had to turn to charity.
  4. In the South, a firm social pyramid emerged containing…
    • The immensely rich plantation owners (“planters”) had many slaves (though these were few).
    • “Yeoman” farmers, or small farmers. They owned their land and, maybe, a few slaves.
    • Landless whites who owned no land and either worked for a landowner or rented land to farm.
    • Indentured servants of America were the paupers and the criminals sent to the New World. Some of them were actually unfortunate victims of Britain’s unfair laws and did become respectable citizens. This group was dwindling though by the 1700s, thanks to Bacon’s Rebellion and the move away from indentured servant labor and toward slavery.
    • Black slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder with no rights or hopes up moving up or even gaining freedom. Slavery became a divisive issue because some colonies didn’t want slaves while others needed them, and therefore vetoed any bill banning the importation of slaves.

IV. Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists

  1. The most honored profession in the colonial times was the clergy (priests), which in 1775, had less power than before during the height of the “Bible Commonwealth,” but still wielded a great amount of authority.
  2. Physicians were not highly esteemed and many of them were bad as medical practices were archaic.
    • Bleeding was often a favorite, and deadly, solution to illnesses.
    • Plagues were a nightmare.
      • Smallpox (afflicting 1 of 5 persons, including George Washington) was rampant, though a crude form of inoculation for it was introduced in 1721.
      • Some of the clergy and doctors didn’t like the inoculation though, preferring not to tamper with the will of God.
  3. At first, lawyers weren’t liked, being regarded as noisy scumbags.
    • Criminals often represented themselves in court.
    • By 1750, lawyers were recognized as useful, and many defended high-profile cases, were great orators and played important roles in the history of America.

V. Workaday America

  1. Agriculture was the leading industry (by a huge margin), since farmers could seem to grow anything.
    • In Maryland and Virginia, tobacco was the staple crop, and by 1759, New York was exporting 80,000 barrels of flour a year.
  2. Fishing could be rewarding, though not as much as farming, and it was pursued in all the American colonies especially in New England.
  3. Trading was also a popular and prevalent industry, as commerce occurred all around the colonies.
    • The “triangular trade” was common: a ship, for example, would leave (1) New England with rum and go to the (2) Gold Coast of Africa and trade it for African slaves. Then, it would go to the (3) West Indies and exchange the slaves for molasses (for rum), which it’d sell to New England once it returned there.
  4. Manufacturing was not as important, though many small enterprises existed.
  5. Strong-backed laborers and skilled craftspeople were scarce and highly prized.
  6. Perhaps the single most important manufacturing activity was lumbering.
    • Britain sometimes marked the tallest trees for its navy’s masts, and colonists resented that, even though there were countless other good trees in the area and the marked tree was going toward a common defense (it was the principle of Britain-first that was detested).
  7. In 1733, Parliament passed the Molasses Act, which, if successful, would have struck a crippling blow to American international trade by hindering its trade with the French West Indies.
    • The result was disagreement, and colonists got around the act through smuggling.

VI. Horsepower and Sailpower

  1. Roads in 1700s America were very poor, and they only connected the large cites.
    • It took a young Benjamin Franklin 9 days to get from Boston to Philadelphia.
  2. Roads were so bad that they were dangerous.
    • People who would venture these roads would often sign wills and pray with family members before embarking.
    • As a result, towns seemed to cluster around slow, navigable water sources, like gentle rivers, or by the ocean.
  3. Taverns and bars sprang up to serve weary travelers and were great places of gossip and news.
  4. An inter-colonial mail system was set up in the mid-1700s, but mailmen often passed time by reading private letters, since there was nothing else to do.

VII. Dominant Denominations

  1. Two “established churches” (tax-supported) by 1775 were the Anglican and the Congregational.
  2. A great majority of people didn’t worship in churches.
  3. The Church of England (the Anglican Church) was official in Georgia, both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and a part of New York.
    • Anglican sermons were shorter, its descriptions of hell were less frightening, and amusements were less scorned.
    • For Anglicans, not having a resident bishop proved to be a problem for unordained young ministers.
    • So, William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train young clergy members.
  4. The Congregational church had grown from the Puritan church, and it was established in all the New England colonies except for Rhode Island.
    • There was worry by the late 1600s that people weren’t devout enough.

VIII. The Great Awakening

  1. Due to less religious fervor than before, and worry that so many people would not be saved, the stage was set for a revival, which occurred, and became the First Great Awakening.
  2. Jonathan Edwards was a preacher with fiery preaching methods, emotionally moving many listeners to tears while talking of the eternal damnation that nonbelievers would face after death.
    • He began preaching in 1734, and his methods sparked debate among his peers.
    • Most famous sermon was “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” describing a man dangling a spider over a blazing fire, able to drop the spider in at any time – just as God could do to man.
    • His famous metaphor: “The road to hell is paved with the skulls of unbaptized children.”
  3. George Whitefield was even better than Edwards when he started four years later.
    • An orator of rare gifts, he even made Jonathan Edwards weep and persuaded always skeptical Ben Franklin to empty his pockets into the collection plate.
    • Imitators copied his emotional shaking sermons and his heaping of blame on sinners.
  4. These new preachers were met with skepticism by the “old lights,” or the orthodox clergymen.
  5. However, the Great Awakening led to the founding of “new light” centers like Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
  6. The Great Awakening was the first religious experience shared by all Americans as a group.

IX. Schools and Colleges

  1. Education was most important in New England, where it was used to train young future clergymen.
    • In other parts of America, farm labor used up most of the time that would have been spent in school. However, there were fairly adequate primary and secondary schools in areas other than New England. The only problem was that only well-to-do children could afford to attend.
  2. In a gloomy and grim atmosphere, colonial schools put most of the emphasis on religion and on the classical languages, as well as doctrine and orthodoxy.
    • Discipline was quite severe, such as a child being cut by a limb from a birch tree.
  3. Also, at least in New England, college education was regarded more important than the ABC’s.
  4. Eventually, some change was made with emphasis of curriculum change from dead languages to live ones, and Ben Franklin helped by launching the school that would become the University of Pennsylvania.

X. A Provincial Culture

  1. Though there was little time for recreation (due to farm work, fear of Indians, etc…), the little free time that was there was used on religion, not art.
  2. Painters were frowned upon as pursuing a worthless pastime.
    • John Trumbull of Connecticut was discouraged, as a youth, by his father.
    • Charles Willson Peale, best know for his portraits of George Washington, also ran a museum, stuffed birds, and practiced dentistry in addition to his art.
    • Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley had to go to England to complete their ambitious careers.
  3. Architecture was largely imported from the Old World and modified to meet American needs.
    • The log cabin was borrowed from Sweden.
    • The classical, red-bricked Georgian style of architecture was introduced about 1720.
  4. Colonial literature was also generally undistinguished.
    • However, a slave girl, Phillis Wheatley, who had never been formally educated, did go to Britain and publish a book of verse and subsequently wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope.
    • Ben Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack was very influential, containing many common sayings and phrases, and was more widely read in America and Europe than anything but for the Bible.
      • Ben Franklin’s experiments with science, and his sheer power of observation, also helped advance science.

XI. Pioneer Presses

  1. Few libraries were found in early America, and few Americans were rich enough to buy books.
  2. On the eve of the revolution, many hand-operated presses cranked out leaflets, pamphlets, and journals signed with pseudonyms.
  3. In one famous case, John Peter Zenger, a New York newspaper printer, was taken to court and charged with seditious libel (writing in a malicious manner against someone).
    • The judge urged the jury to consider that the mere fact of publishing was a crime, no matter whether the content was derogatory or not.
    • Zenger won after his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, excellently defended his case.
    • The importance—freedom of the press scored a huge early victory in this case.

XII. The Great Game of Politics

  1. By 1775, eight of the colonies had royal governors who were appointed by the king.
  2. Three had governors chosen by proprietors.
  3. Practically every colony utilized a two-house legislative body.
    • The upper house was appointed by royal officials or proprietors.
    • The lower house was elected by the people.
  4. Self-taxation with representation came to be a cherished privilege that Americans came to value above most other rights.
  5. Most governors did a good job, but some were just plain corrupt.
    • I.e., Lord Cornbury, first cousin of Queen Anne, was made governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702, but proved to be a drunkard, a spendthrift, a grafter, and embezzler, a religious bigot, a cross-dresser, and a vain fool.
  6. The right to vote was not available to just anyone, just white male landowners only.
    • However, the ease of acquiring land to hard workers made voting a privilege easily attainable to many people in this group.

XIII. Colonial Folkways

  1. Americans had many hardships, as many basic amenities that we have today were not available.
    • Churches weren’t heated at all.
    • Running water or plumbing in houses was nonexistent.
    • Garbage disposal was primitive at best.
  2. Yet, amusement was permitted, and people often worked/partied during house-raisings, barn-raisings, apple-parings, quilting bees, husking bees, and other merrymaking.
  3. In the South, card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunting were fun.
  4. Lotteries were universally approved, even by the clergy because they helped raise money for churches and colleges.
  5. Stage plays were popular in the South, but not really in the North.
  6. Holidays were celebrated everywhere in the colonies (New England didn’t like Christmas, though).
  7. America in 1775 was like a quilt, each part different and individual in its own way, but all coming together to form one single, unified piece.

XIV. Makers of America: The Scots-Irish

  1. Life for the Scots was miserable in England, as many were extremely poor, and Britain still taxed them, squeezing the last cent out of them.
  2. Migrating to Ulster, in Ireland, the Scots still felt unwelcome, and eventually came to America.
  3. They constantly tried to further themselves away from Britain.
    • Most went to Pennsylvania, where tolerance was high.
  4. The Scots-Irish were many of America’s pioneers, clearing the trails for others to follow.
  5. Otherwise independent, religion was the only thing that bonded these people (Presbyterian).
  6. Their hatred of England made them great allies and supporters of the United States during the Revolutionary War.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America, 1608-1763

 I. France Finds a Foothold in Canada

  1. Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the race for colonies.
    • It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife.
    • In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots.
  2. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies.
    • In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River.
  3. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the “Father of New France.”
    • He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeat the Iroquois.
    • The Iroquois, however, did hamper French efforts into the Ohio Valley later.
  4. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate to North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave.

II. New France Fans Out

  1. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver.
  2. Beaver hunters were known as the coureurs de bois (runners of the woods) and littered the land with place names, including Baton Rouge (red stick), Terre Haute (high land), Des Moines (some monks) and Grand Teton (big breasts).
  3. The French voyageurs also recruited Indians to hunt for beaver as well, but Indians were decimated by the white man’s diseases, and the beaver population was heavily extinguished.
  4. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians.
  5. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701.
  6. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de LaSalle, to halt Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico.
    • Three years later, he tried to fulfill his dreams by returning, but instead landed in Spanish Texas and was murdered by his mutinous men in 1687.
  7. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the garden of France’s North American empire.

III. The Clash of Empires

  1. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War
    • The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies.
      • Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on.
    • The French-inspired Indians ravaged Schenectady, New York, and Deerfield, Mass.
    • The British did try to capture Quebec and Montreal, failed, but did temporarily have Port Royal.
    • The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America.
  2. The War of Jenkins’s Ear
    • An English Captain named Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish commander, who had essentially sneered at him to go home crying.
    • This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia.
    • This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George’s War in America.
    • France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cape Breton Island (Fort Louisbourg).
    • However, peace terms of this war gave strategically located Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France, outraging the colonists, who feared the fort.

IV. George Washington Inaugurates War with France

  1. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French.
    • It was lush, fertile, and very good land.
  2. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen.
    • Encountering some Frenchmen in the forest about 40 miles from Fort Duquesne, the troops opened fire, killing the French leader.
    • Later, the French returned and surrounded Washington’s hastily constructed Fort Necessity, fought “Indian style” (hiding and guerilla fighting), and after a 10-hour siege, made him surrender.
    • He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war.

V. Global War and Colonial Disunity

  1. The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three.
  2. The French and Indian War (AKA Seven Years’ War) began with Washington’s battle with the French.
  3. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia.
  4. In Germany (Prussia), Fredrick the Great won his title of “Great” by repelling French, Austrian, and Russian armies, even though he was badly outnumbered.
  5. Many Americans sought for the American colonies to unite, for strength lay in numbers.
  6. In 1754, 7 of the 13 colonies met for an inter-colonial congress held in Albany, New York, known simply as the Albany Congress.
    • A month before the congress, Ben Franklin had published his famous “Join or Die” cartoon featuring a snake in pieces, symbolizing the colonies.
    • Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan failed because the states were reluctant to give up their sovereignty or power. Still, it was a first step toward unity.

VI. Braddock’s Blundering and Its Aftermath

  1. In the beginning, the British sent haughty 60 year-old Gen. Edward Braddock to lead a bunch of inexperienced soldiers with slow, heavy artillery.
  2. In a battle with the French, the British were ambushed routed by French using “Indian-tactics.”
    • In this battle, Washington reportedly had two horses shot from under him and four bullets go through his coat, but never through him.
  3. Afterwards, the frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina felt the Indian wrath, as scalping occurred everywhere.
  4. As the British tried to attack a bunch of strategic wilderness posts, defeat after defeat piled up.

VII. Pitt’s Palms of Victory

  1. In this hour of British trouble, William Pitt, the “Great Commoner,” took the lead.
  2. In 1757, he became a foremost leader in the London government and later earned the title of “Organizer of Victory”
  3. Changes Pitt made…
    • He soft-pedaled assaults on the French West Indies, assaults which sapped British strength, and concentrated on Quebec-Montreal (since they controlled the supply routes to New France).
    • He replaced old, cautious officers with younger, daring officers
  4. In 1758, Louisbourg fell. This root of a fort began to wither the New France vine since supplies dwindled.
  5. 32 year-old James Wolfe, dashing and attentive to detail, commanded an army that boldly scaled the cliff walls of a part protecting Quebec, met French troops near the Plains of Abraham, and in a battle in which he and French commander Marquis de Montcalm both died, the French were defeated and the city of Quebec surrendered.
    • The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on American soil.
  6. In the Peace Treaty at Paris in 1763…
    • France was totally kicked out of North America. This meant the British got Canada and the land all the way to the Mississippi River.
    • The French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations.
  7. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war.
  8. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America.

VIII. Restless Colonists

  1. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident.
    • However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered.
  2. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors.”
    • I.e., the British refused to recognize any American officers above the rank of captain.
    • However, the hardworking Americans believed that they were equals with the Redcoats, and trouble began to brew.
  3. Brits were concerned about American secret trade with enemy traders during the war; in fact, in the last year of the war, the British forbade the export of all supplies from New England to the middle colonies.
  4. Also, many American colonials refused to help fight the French until Pitt offered to reimburse them.
  5. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot in common (language, tradition, ideals) and barriers of disunity began to melt.

IX. War’s Fateful Aftermath

  1. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain.
  2. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs too.
  3. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great Britain in control now.
  4. In 1763, Ottawa Chief Pontiac led a few French-allied tribes in a brief but bloody campaign through the Ohio Valley, but the whites quickly and cruelly retaliated after being caught off guard.
    • One commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed.
    • The violence convinced whites to station troops along the frontier.
  5. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians.
    • Actually, this document was meant to work out the Indian problem by drawing the “out-of-bounds” line. But, colonists saw it as another form of oppression from a far away country. Americans asked, “Didn’t we just fight a war to win that land?”
    • In 1765, an estimated one thousand wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in defiance of the Proclamation.
  6. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for the Revolutionary War.

X. Makers of America: The French

  1. Louis XIV envisioned a French empire in North America, but defeats in 1713 and 1763 snuffed that out.
  2. The first French to leave Canada were the Acadians.
    • The British who had won that area had demanded that all residents either swear allegiance to Britain or leave.
    • In 1755, they were forcefully expelled from the region.
  3. The Acadians fled far south to the French colony of Louisiana, where they settled among sleepy bayous, planted sugar cane and sweet potatoes, and practiced Roman Catholicism.
    • They also spoke a French dialect that came to be called Cajun.
    • Cajuns married the Spanish, French, and Germans.
    • They were largely isolated in large families until the 1930s, when a bridge-building spree engineered by Governor Huey Long, broke the isolation of these bayou communities.
  4. In 1763, a second group of French settlers in Quebec began to leave, heading toward New England because poor harvests led to lack of food in Quebec because…
    • The people hoped to return to Canada someday.
    • They notably preserved their Roman Catholicism and their language.
    • Yet today, almost all Cajuns and New England French-Canadians speak English.
  5. Today, Quebec is the only sign of French existence that once ruled.
    • French culture is strong there in the form of road signs, classrooms, courts, and markets, eloquently testifying to the continued vitality of French culture in North America.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution, 1763-1775

 I. The Deep Roots of Revolution

  1. In a broad sense, the American Revolution began when the first colonists set foot on America.
  2. The war may have lasted for eight years, but a sense of independence had already begun to develop because London was over 3,000 miles away.
    • Sailing across the Atlantic in a ship often took 6 to 8 weeks.
    • Survivors felt physically and spiritually separated from Europe.
    • Colonists in America, without influence from superiors, felt that they were fundamentally different from England, and more independent.
    • Many began to think of themselves as Americans, and that they were on the cutting edge of the British empire.

II. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances

  1. Of the 13 original colonies, only Georgia was formally planted by the British government. The rest were started by companies, religious groups, land speculators, etc…
  2. The British embraced a theory that justified their control of the colonies called mercantilism:
    • A country’s economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury.
    • To amass gold and silver, a country had to export more than it imported (it had to obtain a favorable balance of trade).
    • Countries with colonies were at an advantage, because the colonies could supply the mother country with raw materials, wealth, supplies, a market for selling manufactured goods etc…
    • For America, that meant giving Britain all the ships, ships’ stores, sailors, and trade that they needed and wanted.
    • Also, they had to grow tobacco and sugar for England that Brits would otherwise have to buy from other countries.
  3. England’s policy of mercantilism severely handcuffed American trade.
    • The Navigation Laws were the most infamous of the laws to enforce mercantilism.
      • The first of these was enacted in 1650, and was aimed at rival Dutch shippers who were elbowing their way into the American shipping.
      • The Navigation Laws restricted commerce from the colonies to England (and back) to only English ships, and none other.
      • Other laws stated that European goods consigned to America had to land first in England, where custom duties could be collected.
      • Also, some products, “enumerated goods,” could only be shipped to England.
    • Settlers were even restricted in what they could manufacture at home; they couldn’t make woolen cloth and beaver hats to export (though, they could make them for themselves).
    • Americans had no currency, but they were constantly buying things from Britain, so that gold and silver was constantly draining out of America, forcing some to even trade and barter. Eventually, the colonists were forced to print paper money, which depreciated.
    • Colonial laws could be voided by the Privy Council, though this privilege was used sparingly (469 times out of 8,563 laws). Still, colonists were infuriated by its use.

III. The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism

  1. Merits of mercantilism:
    1. The Navigation Laws were hated, but until 1763, they were not really enforced much, resulting in widespread smuggling. This lack of enforcement is called “salutary neglect.”
      • In fact, John Hancock amassed a fortune through smuggling.
    2. Tobacco planters, though they couldn’t ship it to anywhere except Britain, still had a monopoly within the British market.
    3. Americans had unusual opportunities for self-government.
    4. Americans also had the mightiest army in the world in Britain, and didn’t have to pay for it.
      • After independence, the U.S. had to pay for a tiny army and navy.
    5. Basically, the Americans had it made: even repressive laws weren’t enforced much, and the average American benefited much more than the average Englishman.
      • The mistakes that occurred didn’t occur out of malice, at least until the revolution.
      • Also, France and Spain embraced mercantilism, and enforced it heavily.
  2. Menace of mercantilism:
    1. After Britain began to enforce mercantilism in 1763, the fuse for the American Revolution was lit.
    2. Disadvantages of mercantilism included:
      • Americans couldn’t buy, sell, ship, or manufacture under their most favorable conditions.
      • The South, which produced crops that weren’t grown in England, was preferred over the North.
        • Virginia, which grew just tobacco, was at the mercy of the British buyers, who often paid very poorly and were responsible for putting many planters into debt.
      • Many colonists felt that Britain was just milking her colonies for all they were worth.
      • Theodore Roosevelt later said, “Revolution broke out because England failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one.”

IV. The Stamp Tax Uproar

  1. After the Seven Years’ War (French & Indian War), Britain had huge debt, and though it fairly had no intention of making the Americans pay off all of it for Britain, it did feel that Americans should pay off one-third of the cost, since Redcoats had been used for the protection of the Americans.
  2. Prime Minister George Grenville, an honest and able financier but not noted for tact, ordered that the Navigation Laws be enforced, arousing resentment of settlers.
    • He also secured the Sugar Act of 1764, which increased duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies; after numerous protests from spoiled Americans, the duties were reduced.
  3. The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.
  4. In 1765, he also imposed a stamp tax to raise money for the new military force.
    • The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax.
    • Stamps were required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items as well as on certain types of commercial and legal documents.
    • Both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act provided for offenders to be tried in the admiralty courts, where defenders were guilty until proven innocent.
    • Grenville felt that these taxes were fair, as he was simply asking the colonists to pay their share of the deal; plus, Englishmen paid a much heavier stamp tax.
  5. Americans felt that they were unfairly taxed for an unnecessary army (hadn’t the French army and Pontiac’s warriors been defeated?), and they lashed out violently, especially against the stamp tax.
    • Americans formed the battle cry, “No taxation without representation!”
    • Americans were angered, mostly, to the principle of the matter at hand.
    • Americans denied the right of Parliament to tax Americans, since no Americans were seated in Parliament.
  6. Grenville replied that these statements were absurd, and pushed the idea of “virtual representation,” in which every Parliament member represented all British subjects (so Americans were represented).
  7. Americans rejected “virtual representation” as hogwash.

V. Forced Repeal the Stamp Act

  1. In 1765, representatives from 9 of the 13 colonies met in New York City to discuss the Stamp Tax.
    • The Stamp Act Congress was largely ignored in Britain, but was a step toward inter-colonial unity (similar to the Albany Congress of French & Indian War days).
  2. Some colonists agreed to boycott supplies, instead, making their own and refusing to buy British goods.
  3. Sons and Daughters of Liberty took the law into their own hands, tarring and feathering violators among people who had agreed to boycott the goods.
    • They also stormed the houses of important officials and took their money.
    • Stunned, demands appeared in Parliament for repeal of the stamp tax, though many wanted to know why 7.5 million Brits had to pay heavy taxes to protect the colonies, but 2 million colonials refused to pay only one-third of the cost of their own defense.
    • In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but passed the Declaratory Act, proclaiming that Parliament had the right “to bind” the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”

VI. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston “Massacre”

  1. Charles “Champaign Charley” Townshend (a man who could deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk) persuaded Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts in 1767.
    • They put light taxes on lead, paper, paint, and tea, which were later repealed, except tea.
  2. In 1767, New York’s legislature was suspended for failure to comply with the Quartering Act.
  3. Tea became smuggled, though, and to enforce the law, Brits had to send troops to America.
  4. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a crowd of about 60 townspeople in Boston were harassing some ten Redcoats.
    • One fellow got hit in the head, another got hit by a club.
    • Without orders but heavily provoked, the troops opened fire, wounding or killing eleven “innocent” citizens, including Crispus Attucks, a black former-slave and the “leader” of the mob in the Boston Massacre. Attucks became a symbol of freedom (from slave, to freeman, to martyr who stood up to Britain for liberty).
    • Only two Redcoats were prosecuted.

VII. The Seditious Committees of Correspondence

  1. King George III was 32 years old, a good person, but a poor ruler who surrounded himself with sycophants like Lord North.
  2. The Townshend Taxes didn’t really do much, so they were repealed, except for the tea tax.
  3. The colonies, in order to spread propaganda and keep the rebellious moods, set up Committees of Correspondence which was a network of letter-writers and forerunner of the Continental Congress; the first committee was started by Samuel Adams. They were key to keeping the revolution spirit rolling.

VIII. Tea Brewing in Boston

  1. In 1773, the powerful British East India Company, overburdened with 17 million pounds of unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy.
  2. The British decided to sell it to the Americans, who were suspicious and felt that it was a shabby attempt to trick the Americans with the bait of cheaper tea and paying tax.
  3. On December 16, 1773, some Whites, led by patriot Samuel Adams, disguised themselves as Indians, opened 342 chests and dumped the tea into the ocean in this “Boston Tea Party.”
    • People in Annapolis did the same and burnt the ships to water level.
    • Reaction was varied, from approval to outrage to disapproval.
    • Edmund Burke declared, “To tax and to please, no more than to love and be wise, is not given to men.”

IX. Parliament Passes the “Intolerable Acts”

  1. In 1774, by huge majorities, Parliament passed a series of “Repressive Acts” to punish the colonies, namely Massachusetts. These were called the Intolerable Acts by Americans.
    • The Boston Port Act closed the harbor in Boston.
    • Self-government was limited by forbidding town hall meetings without approval.
    • The charter to Massachusetts was revoked.
  2. The Quebec Act
    • A good law in bad company, it guaranteed Catholicism to the French-Canadians, permitted them to retain their old customs, and extended the old boundaries of Quebec all the way to the Ohio River.
    • Americans saw their territory threatened and aroused anti-Catholics were shocked at the enlargement that would make a Catholic area as large as the original 13 colonies. Plus, Americans were banned from this region through the Proclamation Line of 1763.

X. Bloodshed

  1. The First Continental Congress
    • In Philadelphia, from September 5th to October 26th, 1774, the First Continental Congress met to discuss problems.
    • While not wanting independence yet, it did come up with a list of grievances, which were ignored in Parliament.
    • 12 of the 13 colonies met, only Georgia didn’t have a representative there.
    • Also, they came up with a Declaration of Rights.
  2. They agreed to meet again in 1775 (the next year) if nothing happened.
  3. The “Shot Heard ‘Round the World”
    • In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize supplies and to capture Sam Adams and John Hancock.
    • Minutemen, after having eight of their own killed at Lexington, fought back at Concord, pushing the Redcoats back, shooting them from behind rocks and trees, Indian style.

XI. Imperial Strength and Weaknesses

  1. With war broken open, Britain had the heavy advantage: (1) 7.5 million people to America’s 2 million, (2) superior naval power, (3) great wealth.
  2. Some 30,000 Hessians (German mercenaries) were also hired by George III, in addition to a professional army of about 50,000 men, plus about 50,000 American loyalists and many Native Americans.
  3. However, Britain still had Ireland (which required troops) and France was just waiting to stab Britain in the back; plus, there was no William Pitt.
    • Many Brits had no desire to kill their American cousins, as shown by William Pitt’s withdrawal of his son from the army.
    • English Whigs at first supported America, as opposed to Lord North’s Tory Whigs, and they felt that if George III won, then his rule of England might become tyrannical.
    • Britain’s generals were second-rate, and its men were brutally treated.
    • Provisions were often scarce, plus Britain was fighting a war some 3,000 miles away from home.
    • America was also expansive, and there was no single capital to capture and therefore cripple the country.

XII. American Pluses and Minuses

  1. Advantages
    1. Americans had great leaders like George Washington (giant general), and Ben Franklin (smooth diplomat).
    2. They also had French aid (indirect and secretly), as the French provided the Americans with guns, supplies, gunpowder, etc…
    3. Marquis de Lafayette, at age 19, was made a major general in the colonial army and was a great asset.
    4. The colonials were fighting in a defensive manner, and they were self-sustaining.
    5. They were better marksmen. A competent American rifleman could hit a man’s head at 200 yards.
    6. The Americans enjoyed the moral advantage in fighting for a just cause, and the historical odds weren’t unfavorable either.
  2. Disadvantages
    1. Americans were terribly lacking in unity, though.
    2. Jealousy was prevalent, as colonies resented the Continental Congress’ attempt at exercising power. Sectional jealousy boiled up over the appointment of military leaders; some New Englanders almost preferred British officers to Americans from other colonies.
    3. Americans had little money. Inflation also hit families of soldiers hard, and made many people poor.
    4. Americans had nothing of a navy.

XIII. A Thin Line of Heroes

  1. The American army was desperately in need of clothing, wool, wagons to ship food, and other supplies.
  2. Many soldiers had also only received rudimentary training.
  3. German Baron von Steuben, who spoke no English, whipped the soldiers into shape.
  4. African Americans also fought and died in service, though in the beginning, many colonies barred them from service.
    • By war’s end, more than 5,000 blacks had enlisted in the American armed forces.
    • African-Americans also served on the British side.
    • In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation declaring freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British Army.
    • By war’s end, at least 1,400 Blacks were evacuated to Nova Scotia, Jamaica, and England.
  5. Many people also sold items to the British, because they paid in gold.
  6. Many people just didn’t care about the revolution, and therefore, raising a large number of troops was difficult, if not impossible.
  7. Only because a select few threw themselves into the cause with passion, did the Americans win.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire, 1775-1783

 I. Congress Drafts George Washington

  1. After the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775, about 20,000 Minutemen swarmed around Boston, where they outnumbered the British.
  2. The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, with no real intention of independence, but merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances.
    • It sent another list of grievances to Parliament.
    • It also adopted measures to raise money for an army and a navy.
    • It also selected George Washington to command the army.
      • Washington had never risen above the rank of colonel, and his largest command had only been of 1,200 men, but he was a tall figure who looked like a leader, and thus, was a morale boost to troops.
      • He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice, and though he insisted on working without pay, he did keep a careful expense account amounting to more than $100,000.

II. Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings

  1. In the first year, the war was one of consistency, as the colonists maintained their loyalty while still shooting at the king’s men.
  2. In May 1775, a tiny American force called the Green Mountain Boys, led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, surprised and captured the British garrisons at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
    • The importance of this raid lay in the fact that they captured much-needed cannons and gunpowder.
  3. In June 1775, the colonials seized Bunker Hill (prior known as Breed’s Hill).
    • Instead of flanking them, the Redcoats launched a frontal attack, and the heavily entrenched colonial sharpshooters mowed them down until meager gunpowder supplies ran out and they were forced to retreat.
  4. After Bunker Hill, George III slammed the door for all hope of reconciliation and declared the colonies to be in open rebellion, a treasonous affair.
  5. The king also hired many German mercenaries, called Hessians, who, because they were lured by booty and not duty, had large numbers desert and remained in America to become respectful citizens.

III. The Abortive Conquest of Canada

  1. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine.
  2. The colonists decided that invading Canada would add a 14th colony and deprive Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies in revolt.
    • Also, the French-Canadians would support the Americans because they supposedly were bitter about Britain’s taking over of their land.
    • Gen. Richard Montgomery captured Montreal.
    • At Quebec, he was joined by the bedraggled army of Gen. Benedict Arnold.
    • On the last day of 1775, in the assault of Quebec, Montgomery was killed and Arnold was wounded in one leg, and the whole campaign collapsed as the men retreated up the St. Lawrence River, reversing the way Montgomery had come.
    • Besides, the French-Canadians, who had welcomed the Quebec Act, didn’t really like the anti-Catholic invaders.
  3. In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk, Virginia, but in March, they were finally forced to evacuate Boston.
  4. In the South, the rebels won a victory against some 1,500 Loyalists at Moore’s Creek Bridge, in North Carolina, and against an invading British fleet at Charleston Harbor.

IV. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

  1. In 1776, Thomas Paine published the pamphlet Common Sense, which urged colonials to stop this war of inconsistency, stop pretending loyalty, and just fight.
  2. Nowhere in the universe did a smaller body control a larger one, so Paine argued, saying it was unnatural for tiny Britain to control gigantic America.
  3. He called King George III “the Royal Brute of Great Britain.”

V. Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”

  1. Paine argued his idea that there should be a “republic” where representative senators, governors, and judges should have their power from the consent of the people.
  2. He laced his ideas with Biblical imagery, familiar to common folk.
  3. His ideas about rejecting monarchy and empire and embrace an independent republic fell on receptive ears in America, though it should be noted that these ideas already existed.
    • The New Englanders already practiced this type of government in their town meetings.
  4. Some patriots, though, favored a republic ruled by a “natural aristocracy.”

VI. Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence

  1. Members of the Philadelphia 2nd Continental Congress, instructed by their colonies, gradually moved toward a clean break with Britain.
  2. On June 7, 1776, fiery Richard Henry Lee urged for complete independence, an idea that was finally adopted on July 2, 1776.
  3. To write such a statement, Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, already renown as a great writer, to concoct a Declaration of Independence.
    • He did so eloquently, coming up with a list of grievances against King George III and persuasively explaining why the colonies had the right to revolt.
    • His “explanation” of independence also upheld the “natural rights” of humankind (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness).
  4. When Congress approved it on July 2nd, John Adams proclaimed that date to be celebrated from then on with fireworks, but because of editing and final approval, it was not completely approved until July 4th, 1776.

VII. Patriots and Loyalists

  1. The War of Independence was a war within a war, as not all colonials were united.
    • There were Patriots, who supported rebellion and were called “Whigs.”
    • There were Loyalists, who supported the king and who often went to battle against fellow Americans. The Loyalists were also called “Tories.”
    • There were Moderates in the middle and those who didn’t care either way. These people were constantly being asked to join one side or another.
  2. During the war, the British proved that they could only control Tory areas, because when Redcoats packed up and left other areas, the rebels would regain control.
  3. Typical Loyalist (Tory)
    • Loyalists were generally conservatives, but the war divided families. For example, Benjamin Franklin was against his illegitimate son, William, the last royal governor of New Jersey.
    • Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican Church was strongest (the South).
    • Loyalists were less numerous in New England, where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished. Loyalists were more numerous in the aristocratic areas such as Charleston, SC.
  4. Typical Patriot
    • The Patriots were generally the younger generation, like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry.
    • The Patriot militias constantly harassed small British detachments.
    • Patriots typically didn’t belong to the Anglican Church (Church of England) but were Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, or Methodist.
  5. There were also those known as “profiteers” who sold to the highest bidder, selling to the British and ignoring starving, freezing soldiers (i.e. George Washington at Valley Forge).

VIII. The Loyalist Exodus

  1. After the Declaration of Independence, Loyalists and Patriots were more sharply divided, and Patriots often confiscated Loyalist property to resell it (an easy way to raise money).
  2. Some 50,000 Loyalists served the British in one way or another (fighting, spying, etc…), and it was an oddity that the Brits didn’t make more use of them during the war.

IX. General Washington at Bay

  1. After the evacuation of Boston, the British focused on New York as a base for operations.
    • An awe-inspiring fleet appeared off the coast in July 1776, consisting of some 500 ships and 35,000 men—the largest armed force seen in America ever until the Civil War.
    • Washington could only muster 18,000 ill-trained men to fight, and they were routed at the Battle of Long Island.
      • Washington escaped to Manhattan Island, crossed the Hudson River to New Jersey, reaching the Delaware River with taunting, fox-hunt calling Brits on his heels.
    • He crossed the Delaware River at Trenton on a cold December 26, 1776, and surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off their Christmas Day celebration (drinking).
    • He then left his campfires burning as a ruse, slipped away, and inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton, showing his military genius at its best.
    • It was odd that Gen. William Howe, the British general, didn’t crush Washington when he was at the Delaware, but he well remembered Bunker Hill, and was cautious.

X. Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion

  1. London officials adopted a complicated scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River valley in 1777, which, if successful, would sever New England from the rest of the colonies. The plan was such that…
    • General Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada.
    • General Howe’s troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany.
    • A third and much smaller British force commanded by Col. Barry St. Ledger would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley.
  2. However, Benedict Arnold, after failure at Quebec, retreated slowly along the St. Lawrence back to Lake Champlain, where the British would have to win control (of the lake) before proceeding.
    • The Brits stopped to build a huge force, while Arnold assembled a tattered flotilla from whatever boats he could find.
    • His “navy” was destroyed, but he had gained valuable time, because winter set in and the British settled in Canada, thus, they would have to begin anew the next spring.
      • Had Arnold not contributed his daring and skill, the Brits most likely would have recaptured Ticonderoga and Burgoyne could have started from there and succeeded in his venture.
  3. Burgoyne began his mission with 7,000 troops and a heavy baggage train consisting of a great number of the officers’ wives.
    • Meanwhile, sneaky rebels, sensing the kill, were gathering along his flanks.
  4. General Howe, at a time when he should be starting up the Hudson, deliberately embarked for an attack on Philadelphia.
    • He wanted to force an encounter with Washington and leave the path wide open for Burgoyne’s thrust. He thought he had enough time to help Burgoyne if needed.
    • Washington transferred his troops to Philadelphia, but was defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown.
    • Then, the fun-loving Howe settled down in Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne “to the dogs.”
    • Ben Franklin, in Paris, joked that Howe hadn’t captured Philadelphia, but that “Philadelphia had captured Howe.”
  5. Washington finally retired for the winter at Valley Forge, where his troops froze in the cold, but a recently arrived Prussian drillmaster, Baron von Steuben, whipped the cold troops into shape.
  6. Burgoyne’s doomed troops were bogged down, and the rebels swarmed in with a series of sharp engagements, pushing St. Legers force back at Oriskany while Burgoyne, unable to advance or retreat, surrendered his entire force at the Battle of Saratoga, on October 17, 1777.
    • This was perhaps one of the most decisive battles in British and American history.
    • The importance of Saratoga lay in the fact that afterwards, France sensed America might actually win and came out to officially help America.

XI. Revolution in Diplomacy?

  1. France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and secretly supplied the Americans throughout much of the war.
  2. The Continental Congress sent delegates to France. The delegates were guided by a “Model Treaty” which sought no political or military connections, but only commercial ones.
    • Ben Franklin played the diplomacy game by wearing simple gray clothes and a coonskin cap to supposedly exemplify a raw new America
  3. After the humiliation at Saratoga, the British offered the Americans a measure that gave them home rule—everything they wanted except independence.
  4. After Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to enter the war against Britain.
    • Louis XVI’s ministers argued that this was the perfect time to act, because if Britain regained control, she might then try to capture the French West Indies for compensation for the war.
    • Now was the time to strike, rather than risk a stronger Britain with its reunited colonies.
  5. France, in 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of independence.
    • The Americans accepted the agreement with caution, since France was pro-Catholic, but since the Americans needed help, they’d take it.

XII. The Colonial War Becomes a Wider War

  1. In 1779, Spain and Holland entered the war against Britain.
  2. In 1780, Catherine the Great of Russia took the lead in organizing the Armed Neutrality (she later called it the Armed Nullity) that lined up all of Europe’s neutrals in passive hostility against England.
  3. America, though it kept the war going until 1778, didn’t win until France, Spain, and Holland joined in and Britain couldn’t handle them all.
  4. Britain, with the French now in the seas, decided to finally evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their forces in New York, and even though Washington attacked them at Monmouth on a blisteringly hot day in which scores of men died of sunstroke, the British escaped to New York.

XIII. Blow and Counterblow

  1. French reinforcements, commanded by Comte de Rochambeau, arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in 1780, but flares sometimes erupted between the Americans and the French.
  2. In 1780, feeling unappreciated and lured by British gold, Gen. Benedict Arnold turned traitor by plotting with the British to sell out West Point.
    • When the plot was discovered, he fled with the British.
    • “Whom can we trust now?” cried George Washington in anguish.
  3. The British devised a plan to roll up the colonies from the South.
    • Georgia was ruthlessly overrun in 1778-1779.
    • Charleston, South Carolina, fell in 1780.
    • In the Carolinas, Patriots bitterly fought their Loyalist neighbors.
    • However, in 1781, American riflemen wiped out a British detachment at King’s Mountain, and then defeated a smaller force at Cowpens.
    • At the Carolina campaign of 1781, Quaker-reared tactician Gen. Nathanael Greene distinguished himself with his strategy of delay.
      • By slowly retreating and losing battles but winning campaigns, he helped clear the British out of most of Georgia and South Carolina.

XIV. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

  1. 1777 was known as the “bloody year” on the frontier, as Indians went on a scalping spree.
  2. Most of the Indians supported Britain and believed that if they won, it would stop American expansion into the West, and save Indian land.
  3. Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, recently converted to Anglicanism, and his men ravaged the backcountry of Pennsylvania and New York until checked by the Americans in 1779.
  4. In 1784, the pro-British Iroquois (the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras had sided with the Americans, the other four with the British) signed the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the first treaty between the U.S. and an Indian nation.
    • Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of their land.
  5. Even in wartime, pioneers moved west, showing their gratitude to the French with such town names as Louisville while remembering the revolution with Lexington, Kentucky.
  6. George Rogers Clark, an audacious frontiersman, floated down the Ohio River with about 175 men in 1778-1779 and captured forts Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vicennes in quick succession.
  7. The tiny American navy never really hurt the British warships, but it did destroy British merchant shipping and carried the war into the waters around the British Isles.
  8. Swift privateers preyed on enemy shipping, capturing many ships and forcing them to sail in convoys.

XV. Yorktown and the Final Curtain

  1. Before the last decisive victory, inflation continued to soar, and the government was virtually bankrupt. It announced that it could only repay many of its debts at a rate of 2.5 cents on the dollar.
  2. However, Cornwallis was blundering into a trap.
    • Retreating to Chesapeake Bay and assuming that British control of the seas would give him much needed backup, Cornwallis instead was trapped by Washington’s army, which had come 300 miles from NY, Rochambeau’s French army, and the navy of French Admiral de Grasse.
  3. After hearing the news of Cornwallis’ defeat, Lord North cried, “Oh God! It’s all over!”
  4. Stubborn King George wanted to continue the war, since he still had 54,000 troops in North America and 32,000 in the U.S., and fighting did continue for about a year after Yorktown, especially in the South, but America had won.

XVI. Peace at Paris

  1. Many Brits were weary of the war, since they had suffered heavily in India and the West Indies, the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean which had fallen, and the Rock of Gibraltar was tottering.
  2. Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay met in Paris for a peace deal.
    • Jay suspected that France would try to keep the U.S. cooped up east of the Alleghenies and keep America weak.
    • Instead, Jay, thinking that France would betray American ambition to satisfy those of Spain, secretly made separate overtures to London (against instructions from Congress) and came to terms quickly with the British, who were eager to entice one of their enemies from the alliance.
  3. The Treaty of Paris of 1783
    • Britain formally recognized U.S. independence and granted generous boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi River to the west, the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the South.
    • The Yankees also retained a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.
    • Americans couldn’t persecute Loyalists, though, and Congress could only recommend legislature that would return or pay for confiscated Loyalist land.

XVII. A New Nation Legitimized

  1. Britain ceded so much land because it was trying to entice America from its French alliance.
    • Remember, George Rogers Clark had only conquered a small part of that western land.
  2. Also, during the time, the American-friendly Whigs were in control of the Parliament, which was not to be the case in later years.
  3. France approved the treaty, though with cautious eyes.
  4. In truth, America came out the big winner, and seldom, if ever, have any people been so favored.

XVIII. Makers of America: The Loyalists

  1. Loyalists were conservative, well-educated, and thought that a complete break with Britain would invite anarchy. They felt that America couldn’t win against the most powerful nation in the world.
  2. Many Britons had settled in America after the Seven Years’ War, and they had reason to support their home country.
  3. Thousands of African-Americans joined the British ranks for hope of freedom from bondage.
    • Many Black Loyalists won their freedom from Britain.
    • Others suffered betrayal, such as when Cornwallis abandoned over 4,000 former slaves in Virginia and when many Black Loyalists boarded ships expecting to embark for freedom but instead found themselves sold back into slavery.
    • Some Black exiles settled in Britain, but weren’t really easily accepted.
  4. Most Loyalists remained in America, where they faced special burdens and struggled to re-establish themselves in a society that viewed them as traitors.
  5. Hugh Gaine, though, succeeded in building back his name.
    • He reopened his business and even won contracts from the new government.
    • He also published the new national army regulations authored by Baron von Steuben.
    • When New York ratified the Constitution in 1788, Gaine rode the float at the head of the city’s celebration parade.
    • He had, like many other former Loyalists, become an American.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution, 1776-1790

 I. The Pursuit of Equality

  1. The American Revolution was more of an accelerated evolution than a revolution.
  2. However, the exodus of some 80,000 Loyalists left a great lack of conservatives.
    • This weakening of the aristocratic “upper crust” let Patriot elites emerge.
  3. The fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains.
    • The Congregational church continued to be legally established (tax supported) by some New England states, but the Anglican Church was humbled and reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church.
  4. Slavery was a large, problematic issue, as the Continental Congress of 1774 had called for the abolition of slavery, and in 1775, the Philadelphia Quakers founded the world’s first antislavery society.
    • This new spirit that “all men are created equal” even inspired a few slave owners to free their slaves.
  5. Another issue was women. They still were unequal to men, even though some had served (disguised as men) in the Revolutionary War.
    • There were some achievements for women such as New Jersey’s 1776 constitution which allowed women to vote (for a time).
    • Mothers devoted to their families were developed as an idea of “republican motherhood” and elevated women to higher statuses as keepers of the nation’s conscience. Women raised the children and thereby held the future of the republic in their hands.

II. Constitution Making in the States

  1. The Continental Congress of 1776 called upon colonies to draft new constitutions (thus began the formation of the Articles of the Confederation).
    • Massachusetts contributed one innovation when it called a special convention to draft its constitution and made it so that the constitution could only be changed through another specially called constitutional convention.
    • Many states had written documents that represented a fundamental law.
    • Many had a bill of rights and also required annual election of legislators.
    • All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial branches since they distrusted power due to Britain’s abuse of it.
    • In most states, the legislative branch was given sweeping powers, though some people, like Thomas Jefferson, warned that “173 despots [in legislature] would surely be as oppressive as one.”
  2. Many state capitals followed the migration of the people and moved westward, as in New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia.

III. Economic Crosscurrents

  1. After the Revolution, Loyalist land was seized, but people didn’t chop heads off (as later in France).
  2. Goods formerly imported from England were cut off, forcing Americans to make their own.
  3. Still, America remained agriculturalist by a large degree. Industrialization would come much later.
  4. Prior to war, Americans had great trade with Britain, and now they didn’t. But they could now trade with foreign countries, and with any nation they wanted to, a privilege they didn’t have before.
  5. Yankee shippers like the Empress of China (1784) boldly ventured into far off places.
  6. However, inflation was rampant, and taxes were hated. The rich had become poor, and the newly rich were viewed with suspicion. Disrespect of private property became shocking.

IV. A Shaky Start Toward Union

  1. While the U.S. had to create a new government, the people were far from united.
  2. In 1786, after the war, Britain flooded America with cheap goods, greatly hurting American industries.
  3. However, the states all did share similar constitutions, had a rich political inheritance form Britain, and America was blessed with men like Washington, Madison, Jefferson, Hamilton, and John Adams, great political leaders of high order.

V. Creating a Confederation

  1. The new states chose a confederation as their first government—a loose union of states where a federal and state level exist, yet the state level retains the most sovereignty to “do their own thing.”
    • For example, during the war, states had created their own individual currencies and tax barriers.
  2. The Articles of the Confederation was finished in 1777, but it was finally completely ratified by the last state, Maryland, on March 1, 1781.
  3. A major dispute was that states like New York and Virginia had huge tracts of land west of the Appalachians that they could sell off to pay off their debts while other states could not do so.
    • As a compromise, these lands were ceded to the federal government, which pledged to dispense them for the common good of the union (states would be made).
    • The Northwest Ordinance later confirmed this.

VI. The Articles of the Confederation: America’s First Constitution

  1. The main thing to know regarding the Articles is that they set up a very weak government. This was not by accident, but by plan. The reason a weak government was desired was simply to avoid a strong national government that would take away unalienable rights or abuse their power (i.e. England).
  2. The Articles had no executive branch (hence, no single leader), a weak Congress in which each state had only one vote, it required 2/3 majority on any subject of importance, and a fully unanimous vote for amendments.
  3. Also, Congress was pitifully weak, and could not regulate commerce and could not enforce tax collection.
    • States printed their own, worthless paper money.
    • States competed with one another for foreign trade. The federal government was helpless.
  4. Congress could only call up soldiers from the states, which weren’t going to help each other.
    • Example: in 1783, a group of Pennsylvanian soldiers harassed the government in Philadelphia, demanding back pay. When it pleaded for help from the state, and didn’t receive any, it had to shamefully move to Princeton College in New Jersey.
  5. However, the government was a model of what a loose confederation should be, and was a significant stepping-stone towards the establishment of the U.S. Constitution.
  6. Still, many thought the states wielded an alarmingly great of power.

VII. Landmarks in Land Laws

  1. The Land Ordinance of 1785 answered the question, “How will the new lands in the Ohio Valley be divided up?” It provided the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds be used to pay off the national debt.
    • This vast area would be surveyed before settlement and then divided into townships (six miles square), which would then be divided into 36 square sections (1 mile square) with one set aside for public schools (section #16).
  2. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 answered the question, “How will new states be made once people move out there?” It made admission into the union a two stage affair:
    • There would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government.
    • When a territory had 60,000 inhabitants, they wrote a state constitution and sent it to Congress for approval. If approved, it’s a new state.
    • It worked very well to solve a problem that had plagued many other nations.

VIII. The World’s Ugly Duckling

  1. However, Britain still refused to repeal the Navigation Laws, and closed down its trading to the U.S. (proved useless to U.S. smuggling). It also sought to annex Vermont to Britain with help from the Allen brothers and Britain continued to hold a chain of military posts on U.S. soil.
    • One excuse used was that the soldiers had to make sure the U.S. honor its treaty and pay back debts to Loyalists.
  2. In 1784, Spain closed the Mississippi River to American commerce.
  3. It also claimed a large area near the Gulf of Mexico that was ceded to the U.S. by Britain.
    • At Natchez, on disputed soil, it also held a strategic fort.
  4. Both Spain and England, while encouraging Indian tribes to be restless, prevented the U.S. from controlling half of it territory.
  5. Even France demanded payment of U.S. debts to France.
  6. The pirates of the North African states, including the arrogant Dey of Algiers, ravaged U.S. ships in the area and enslaved Yankee sailors. Worse, America was just too weak to stop them.

IX. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy

  1. States were refusing to pay taxes, and national debt was mounting as foreign credibility was slipping.
  2. Boundary disputes erupted into small battles while states taxed goods from other states.
  3. Shays’ Rebellion, which flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786.
    • Shays’ was disgruntled over getting farmland mortgages. Notably, the inability to get land is the same motivation for rebellion as Bacon’s Rebellion back in 1676 in Virginia. And, the desire for land was also the motivator of the Paxton Boys in Pennsylvania in 1764.
    • Daniel Shays was convicted, but later pardoned.
    • The importance of Shays’ Rebellion‡ The fear of such violence lived on and paranoia motivated folks to desire a stronger federal government.
  4. People were beginning to doubt republicanism and this Articles of the Confederation.
  5. However, many supporters believed that the Articles merely needed to be strengthened.
  6. Things began to look brighter, though, as prosperity was beginning to emerge. Congress was beginning to control commerce, and overseas shipping was regaining its place in the world.

X. A Convention of “Demigods”

  1. An Annapolis, Maryland convention was called to address the Articles’ inability to regulate commerce, but only five states were represented. They decided to meet again.
  2. On May 25, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island wasn’t there) met in Philadelphia to “revise the Articles only.”
    • Among them were people like Hamilton, Franklin, and Madison.
    • However, people like Jefferson, John and Sam Adams, Thomas Paine, Hancock, and Patrick Henry were not there. Notably the Patriots like Sam Adams were seen as too radical.

XI. Patriots in Philadelphia

  1. The 55 delegates were all well-off and mostly young, and they hoped to preserve the union, protect the American democracy from abroad and preserve it at home, and to curb the unrestrained democracy rampant in various states (like rebellions, etc…).

XII. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises

  1. The delegates quickly decided to totally scrap the Articles and create a new Constitution.
    • Virginia’s large state plan called for Congressional representation based on state population, while New Jersey’s small state plan called for equal representation from all states (in terms of numbers, each state got the same number of representatives, two.)
    • Afterwards, the “Great Compromise” was worked out so that Congress would have two houses, the House of Representatives, where representation was based on population, and the Senate, where each state got two representatives
    • All tax bills would start in the House.
  2. Also, there would be a strong, independent executive branch with a president who would be military commander-in-chief and who could veto legislation.
  3. Another compromise was the election of the president through the Electoral College, rather than by the people directly. The people were viewed as too ignorant to vote.
  4. Also, slaves would count as 3/5 of a person in census counts for representation.
    • Also, the Constitution enabled a state to shut off slave importation if it wanted, after 1807.

XIII. Safeguards for Conservatism

  1. The delegates at the Convention all believed in a system with checks and balances, and the more conservative people deliberately erected safeguards against excesses of mobs. Such as…
    • Federal chief justices were appointed for life, thus creating stability conservatives liked.
    • The electoral college created a buffer between the people and the presidency.
    • Senators were elected by state legislators, not by the people.
    • So, the people voted for 1/2 of 1/3 of the government (only for representatives in the House).
  2. However, the people still had power, and government was based on the people.
  3. By the end of the Convention, on Sept. 17, 1787, only 42 of the original 55 were still there to sign the Constitution.

XIV. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists

  1. Knowing that state legislatures would certainly veto the new Constitution, the Founding Fathers sent copies of it out to state conventions, where it could be debated and voted upon.
    • The people could judge it themselves.
  2. The American people were shocked, because they had expected a patched up Articles of the Confederation and had received a whole new Constitution (the Convention had been very well concealed and kept secret).
  3. The Federalists, who favored the proposed stronger government, were against the anti-federalists, who were opposed to the Constitution.
    • The Federalists were more respectable and generally embraced the cultured and propertied groups, and many were former Loyalists. These folks lived nearer the coast in the older areas.
  4. Anti-federalists truthfully cried that it was drawn up by aristocratic elements and was therefore anti-democratic.
    • The Anti-federalists were mostly the poor farmers, the illiterate, and states’ rights devotees. It was basically the poorer classes who lived westward toward the frontier.
    • They decried the dropping of annual elections of congressional representatives and the erecting of what would become Washington D.C., and the creation of a standing army.

XV. The Great Debate in the States

  1. Elections were run to elect people into the state conventions.
  2. Four small states quickly ratified the Constitution, and Pennsylvania was the first large state to act.
  3. In Massachusetts, a hard fought race between the supporters and detractors (including Samuel Adams, the “Engineer of Revolution” who now resisted change), and Massachusetts finally ratified it after a promise of a bill of rights to be added later.
    • Had this state not ratified, it would have brought the whole thing down.
  4. Three more states ratified, and on June 21, 1788, the Constitution was officially adopted after nine states (all but Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island) had ratified it.

XVI. The Four Laggard States

  1. Virginia, knowing that it could not be an independent state (the Constitution was about to be ratified by the 9th state, New Hampshire, anyway), finally ratified it by a vote of 89 to 79.
  2. New York was swayed by The Federalist Papers, written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, and finally yielded after realizing that it couldn’t prosper apart from the union.
  3. North Carolina and Rhode Island finally ratified it after intense pressure from the government.

XVII. A Conservative Triumph

  1. The minority had triumphed again, and the transition had been peaceful.
  2. Only about 1/4 of the adult white males in the country (mainly those with land) had voted for the ratifying delegates.
  3. Conservationism was victorious, as the safeguards had been erected against mob-rule excesses.
  4. Revolutionaries against Britain had been upended by revolutionaries against the Articles.
    • It was a type of counterrevolution.
  5. Federalists believed that every branch of government effectively represented the people, unlike Anti-federalists who believed that only the legislative branch did so.
  6. In the U.S., conservatives and radicals alike have championed the heritage of democratic revolution.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State, 1789-1800

 I. Growing Pains

  1. In 1789, the new U.S. Constitution was launched, and the population was doubling every 20 years.
    • America’s population was still 90% rural, with 5% living west of the Appalachians.
    • Vermont became the 14th state in 1791, and Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio (states where trans-Appalachian overflow was concentrated) became states soon after.
    • Visitors looked down upon the crude, rough pioneers, and these western people were restive and dubiously loyal at best.
  2. In the twelve years after American independence, laws had been broken and a constitution had been completely scrapped and replaced with a new one, a government that left much to be desired.
  3. America was also heavily in debt, and paper money was worthless, but meanwhile, restless monarchs watched to see if the U.S. could succeed in setting up a republic while facing such overwhelming odds.

II. Washington for President

  1. At 6’2”, 175 pounds, with broad and sloping shoulders, a strongly pointed chin and pockmarks from smallpox, George Washington was an imposing figure, which helped in his getting unanimously elected as president by the Electoral College in 1789.
  2. His long journey from Mt. Vernon to New York (capital at the time) was a triumphant procession filled with cheering crowds and roaring festivities, and he took his oath of office on April 30, 1789, on a balcony overlooking Wall Street.
  3. Washington established a diverse cabinet (which was not necessary Constitutional).
    • Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
    • Secretary of the Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
    • Secretary of War: Henry Knox

III. The Bill of Rights

  1. Many states had ratified the Constitution on the condition that there would be a Bill of Rights, and many Anti-Federalists had criticized the Constitution for its lack of a Bill.
  2. The necessary number of states adopted the Bill of Rights in 1791.
  3. Bill of Rights
    • Amendment I: Freedom of religion, speech or press, assembly, and petition.
    • Amendment II: Right to bear arms (for militia).
    • Amendment III: Soldiers can’t be housed in civilian homes during peacetime.
    • Amendment IV: No unreasonable searches; all searches require warrants.
    • Amendment V: Right to refuse to speak during a civil trial; No Double Jeopardy.
    • Amendment VI: Right to a speedy and public trial.
    • Amendment VII: Right to trial by jury when the sum exceeds $20.
    • Amendment VIII: No excessive bails and/or fines.
    • Amendment IX: Other rights not enumerated are also in effect. (“People’s Rights” Amendment)
    • Amendment X: Unlisted powers belong to the state. (“States’ Rights” Amendment)
  4. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created effective federal courts.
  5. John Jay became the first Chief Justice of the United States

IV. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

  1. Born in the British West Indies, Alexander Hamilton’s loyalty to the U.S. was often questioned, even though he claimed he loved his adopted country more than his native country.
  2. He urged the federal government to pay its debts of $54 million and try to pay them off at face value (“Funding at Par”), plus interest, as well as assume the debts of the states of $21.5 million (this was known as "assumption").
    • Massachusetts had a huge debt, but Virginia didn’t, so there needed to be some haggling. This was because Virginia felt it unfair that all debts were to be assumed by the entire nation. Essentially, its rival states would be at the same level as Virginia, even though they had obtained larger debts.
    • The bargain‡ Virginia would have the District of Columbia built on its land (therefore gaining prestige) in return for letting the government assume all the states’ debts.
  3. The “Funding at Par” would gain the support of the rich to the federal government, not to the states.

V. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes

  1. With the national debt at a huge $75 million, Alexander Hamilton was strangely unworried.
  2. He used the debt as an asset: the more people the government owed money to, the more people would care about what would happen to the U.S. as a whole nation.
  3. To pay off some of the debt, Hamilton first proposed custom duties, and the first one, imposing a low tariff of about 8% of the value of dutiable imports, was passed in 1789.
    • Hamilton also wanted to protect America’s infant industries, though the U.S. was still dominated by agricultural programs. Little was done regarding this.
  4. In 1791, Hamilton secured an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey (at 7 cents per gallon).

VI. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

  1. Hamilton proposed a national treasury, to be a private institution modeled after the Bank of England, to have the federal government as a major stockholder, to circulate cash to stimulate businesses, to store excess money, and to print money that was worth something. This was opposed by Jefferson as being unconstitutional (as well as a tool for the rich to better themselves).
  2. Hamilton’s Views:
    • What was not forbidden in the Constitution was permitted.
    • A bank was “necessary and proper” (from Constitution).
    • He evolved the Elastic Clause, AKA the “necessary and proper” clause, which would greatly expand federal power. This is a “loose interpretation” of the Constitution.
  3. Jefferson’s Views:
    • What was not permitted was forbidden.
    • A bank should be a state-controlled item (since the 10th Amendment says powers not delegated in the Constitution are left to the states).
    • The Constitution should be interpreted literally and through a “strict interpretation.”
  4. End result: Hamilton won the dispute, and Washington reluctantly signed the bank measure into law. The Bank of the United States was created by Congress in 1791, and was chartered for 20 years.
    • It was located in Philadelphia and was to have a capital of $10 million.
    • Stock was thrown open to public sale, and surprisingly, a milling crowd oversubscribed in two hours.

VII. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania

  1. In 1794, in western Pennsylvania, the Whiskey Rebellion flared up when fed-up farmers revolted against Hamilton’s excise tax.
    • Around those parts, liquor and alcohol was often used as money.
    • They said they’d been unfairly singled out to be taxed.
    • They cried “taxation without representation” since many were from Tennessee and Kentucky which were not yet states and had no one in Congress.
  2. Washington cautiously sent an army of about 13,000 troops from various states to the revolt, but the soldiers found nothing upon arrival; the rebels had scattered.
  3. Washington’s new presidency now commanded new respect, but anti-federalists criticized the government’s use of a sledgehammer to crush a gnat.
  4. The lesson of the Whiskey Rebellion‡ this government, unlike the Articles, was strong!

VIII. The Emergence of Political Parties

  1. Hamilton’s policies (national bank, suppression of Whiskey Rebellion, excise tax) seemed to encroach on states’ rights.
  2. As resentment grew, what was once a personal rivalry between Hamilton and Jefferson gradually evolved into two political parties.
  3. The Founding Fathers had not envisioned various political parties (Whigs and Federalists and Tories, etc… had existed, but they had been groups, not parties).
  4. Since 1825, the two-party system has helped strengthen the U.S. government, helping balance power and ensuring there was always a second choice to the ruling party.

IX. The Impact of the French Revolution

  1. Near the end of Washington’s first term, in 1793, two parties had evolved: the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and the Hamiltonian Federalists.
  2. However, the French Revolution greatly affected America.
  3. At first, people were overjoyed, since the first stages of the revolution were not unlike America’s dethroning of Britain. Only a few ultraconservative Federalists were upset at this “mobocracy” and revolt.
  4. When the French declared war on Austria, then threw back the Austrian armies and then proclaimed itself a republic, Americans sang “The Marseillaise” and other French revolutionary songs, and renamed various streets and places.
  5. After the revolution turned radical and bloody, the Federalists rapidly changed opinions and looked nervously at the Jeffersonians, who felt that no revolution could be carried out without a little bloodshed.
  6. Still, neither group completely approved of the French Revolution and its antics.
  7. America was sucked into the revolution when France declared war on Great Britain and the battle for North American land began…again.

X. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation

  1. With war came the call by the JDR’s (Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans) to enter on the side of France, the recent friend of the U.S., against Britain, the recent enemy.
  2. Hamilton leaned toward siding with the Brits, as doing so would be economically advantageous.
  3. Washington knew that war could mean disaster and disintegration, since the nation in 1793 was militarily and economically weak and politically disunited.
  4. In 1793, he issued the Neutrality Proclamation, proclaiming the U.S.’s official neutrality and warning Americans to stay out of the issue and be impartial.
  5. JDR’s were furious, and this controversial statement irked both sides, France and England.
  6. Soon afterwards, Citizen Edmond Genêt, landed at Charleston, South Carolina, as representative to the U.S.
    • On his trip to Philadelphia, he had been cheered rousingly by Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans, who supported France, and he came to wrongly believe that Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation didn’t truly reflect the feelings of Americans.
    • Also, he equipped privateers to plunder British ships and to invade Spanish Florida and British Canada.
    • He even went as far as to threaten to appeal over the head of Washington to the sovereign voters. Afterwards, he was basically kicked out of the U.S.
  7. Actually, America’s neutrality helped France, since only in that way could France get needed American foodstuffs to the Caribbean islands.
  8. Although France was mad that the U.S. didn’t help them, officially, the U.S. didn’t have to honor its alliance from the Treaty of 1778 because France didn’t call on it to do so.

XI. Embroilments with Britain

  1. Britain still had many posts in the frontier, and supplied the Indians with weapons.
  2. The Treaty of Greenville, in 1795, had the Indians cede their vast tract in the Ohio country to the Americans after General “Mad Anthony” Waynecrushed them at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794. It was here that the Americans learned of, and were infuriated by, British guns being supplied to the Indians.
  3. Ignoring America’s neutrality, British commanders of the Royal Navy seized about 300 American merchant ships and impressed (kidnapped) scores of seamen into their army.
  4. Many JDR’s cried out for war with Britain, or at least an embargo, but Washington refused, knowing that such drastic action would destroy the Hamilton financial system.

XII. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell

  1. In a last-ditch attempt to avert war, Washington sent John Jay to England to work something out.
  2. However, his negotiations were sabotaged by England-loving Hamilton, who secretly gave the Brits the details of America’s bargaining strategy.
  3. The results of the Jay Treaty with England weren’t pretty:
    • Britain would repay the lost money from recent merchant ship seizures called “impressment”, but it said nothing about future seizures or supplying Indians with arms.
    • America would have to pay off its pre-Revolutionary War debts to Britain.
  4. Result‡ the JDR’s from the South were furious, as the southern farmers would have to pay while the northern merchants would be paid. Jay’s effigy was burnt in the streets. However, war was avoided.
  5. At this time, the Pinckney Treaty of 1795 with Spain gave Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and the large disputed territory north of Florida. Oddly, it was the pro-British Jay Treaty that prompted Spain to be so lenient in the Pinckney Treaty (since Spain didn’t want America buddying up to their enemy, England).
  6. After his second term, Washington stepped down, creating a strong two-term precedent that wasn’t broken until FDR was president.
    • His Farewell Address warned (1) against political parties and (2) against building permanent alliances with foreign nations.
    • Washington had set the U.S. on its feet and had made it sturdy.

XIII. John Adams Becomes President

  1. Hamilton was the logical choice to become the next president, but his financial plan had made him very unpopular.
  2. John Adams, the ablest statesmen of his day, won, 71 to 68, against Thomas Jefferson, who became vice president.
  3. Adams had a hated rival and opponent in Hamilton, who plotted with Adams’ cabinet against the president, and a political rival in his vice president.
  4. He also had a volatile situation with France that could explode into war.

XIV. Unofficial Fighting with France

  1. France was furious about the Jay’s Treaty, calling it a flagrant violation of the 1778 Franco-American treaty, and so began seizing defenseless American merchant ships.
  2. In the XYZ Affair, John Adams sent three envoys (including John Marshall) to France, where they were approached by three agents, “X,” “Y,” and “Z,” who demanded a load of 32 million florins and a $250,000 bribe just for talking to Talleyrand.
    • Even though bribes were routine in diplomacy, such a large sum for simply talking weren’t worth it, and there was no guarantee of an agreement.
    • The envoys returned to America, cheered by angry Americans as having done the right thing for America.
  3. Irate Americans called for war with France, but Adams, knowing just as Washington did that war could spell disaster, remained neutral.
  4. Thus, an undeclared war mostly confined to the seas raged for two and a half years, where American ships captured over 80 armed French ships.

XV. Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

  1. Talleyrand, knowing that war with the U.S. would add another enemy to France, declared that if another envoy was sent to France, that it would be received with respect.
  2. In 1800, the three American envoys were met by Napoleon, who was eager to work with the U.S.
  3. The treaty in 1800, signed in Paris, ended the 1778 alliance in return for the Americans paying the claims of its shippers’ as alimony.
  4. In keeping the U.S. at peace, John Adams plunged his popularity and lost his chance at a possible second term, but he did the right thing, keeping the U.S. neutral while it was still weak.

XVI. The Federalist Witch Hunt

  1. The Federalists scorned the poor people, who in turn were welcomed by the JDR’s.
  2. With the Alien Laws, Federalists therefore raised the residence requirements for aliens who wanted to become citizens from five to fourteen years, a law that violated the traditional American policy of open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation.
    • Another law let the president deport dangerous aliens during peacetime and jail them during times of war.
  3. The Sedition Act provided that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely defamed its officials, including the president, would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment; it was aimed at newspaper editors and the JDR’s.
    • While obviously unconstitutional, this act was passed by the Federalist majority in Congress and upheld in the court because of the majority of Federalists there too.
    • It was conveniently written to expire in 1801 to prevent the use of it against themselves.
    • Matthew Lyon was one of those imprisoned when he was sentenced to four months in jail for writing ill things about President John Adams.
  4. Furthermore, in the elections of 1798-99, the Federalists won the most sweeping victory of their history.

XVII. The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

  1. Resentful Jeffersonians would not take these laws lying down, and Jefferson feared that the Federalists, having wiped out freedom of speech and of the press, might wipe out more.
  2. He wrote a series of legislation that became the Kentucky Resolution in 1798-99, and friend James Madison wrote another series of legislation (less extreme) called the Virginia Resolution.
    • They stressed the “compact theory” of government which meant that the 13 states, in creating the federal government, had entered into a contract regarding its jurisdiction, and the individual states were the final judges of the laws passed in Congress. In other words, the states had made the federal government, the federal government makes laws, but since the states made the federal government, the states reserve the right to nullify those federal laws. This compact theory is heard at this point, then again in 1832 regarding the national tariff, then again in the 1850s over slavery. Civil War erupts afterwards. Notably, this theory goes by several names, all synonymous: the “compact theory,” “states’ rights theory,” or “nullification.”
    • This legislation set out to kill the Sedition and Alien Laws.
  3. Only those two states adopted the laws.
  4. Federalists, though, argued that the people, not the states, had made the contract, and it was up to the Supreme Court to nullify legislation, a procedure that it adopted in 1803.
  5. While neither Madison nor Jefferson wanted secession, they did want an end to Federalist abuses.

XVIII. Federalists Versus Democratic-Republicans

  1. The Federalists
    • Most Federalists were the old Federalists from before the Constitution.
    • They wanted a strong government ruled by the educated aristocrats, the “best people.”
    • Most were the merchants, manufacturers, and shippers along the Atlantic seaboard.
    • They were mostly pro-British and recognized that foreign trade was key in the U.S.
  2. The Democratic-Republicans
    • Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson, a poor speaker but a great leader, and an appealer to the common people. They desired rule by informed classes and a weaker central government that would preserve the sovereignty of the states. They were mostly pro-French.
    • Jefferson was rich and even owned slaves, but he sympathized with the common people.
    • They emphasized that national debt had to be paid off.
    • They were mostly agrarians (farmers), and insisted on no privileges for the upper class.
      • They saw farming was ennobling: it kept people away from wickedness of the cities, in the sun, and close to God.
    • He advocated rule of the people, but not all the people, just those who weren’t ignorant.
    • Slavery could help avoid a class of landless voters by providing the necessary labor.
    • He championed free speech, but he was foully abused by editorial pens.
  3. Thus, as 1800 rolled around, the disunity of America was making its existence very much felt.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic, 1800-1812

The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Republic

 I. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers

  1. In the election of 1800, the Federalists had a host of enemies stemming from the Alien and Sedition Acts.
  2. The Federalists had been most damaged by John Adams’ not declaring war against France.
    • They had raised a bunch of taxes and built a good navy, and then had not gotten any reason to justify such spending, making them seem fraudulent as they had also swelled the public debt.
      • John Adams became known as “the Father of the American Navy.”
    • Federalists also launched attacks on Jefferson, saying that he had robbed a widow and her children of a trust fund, fathered numerous children with his slaves (which turned out to be true), called him an atheist (he was a Deist), and used other inflammatory remarks.

II. The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”

  1. Thomas Jefferson won the election of 1800 by a majority of 73 electoral votes to 65, and even though Adams got more popular votes, Jefferson got New York. But, even though Jefferson triumphed, in a technicality he and Aaron Burr tied for presidency.
    • The vote, according to the Constitution, would now go to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives.
    • Hateful of Jefferson, many wanted to vote for Burr, and the vote was deadlocked for months until Alexander Hamilton and John Adamspersuaded a few House members to change their votes, knowing that if the House voted for Burr, the public outcry would doom the Federalist Party.
    • Finally, a few changed their minds, and Jefferson was elected to the presidency.
  2. The “Revolution of 1800” was that (1) there was a peaceful transfer of power; Federalists stepped down from office after Jefferson won and did so peacefully, though not necessarily happily and (2) the Republicans were more of the “people’s party” compared to the Federalists.

III. Responsibility Breeds Moderation

  1. On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated president in the new capital of Washington D.C.
    • In his address, he declared that all Americans were Federalists, all were Republicans, implying that Americans were a mixture. He also pledged “honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none.”
    • Jefferson was simple and frugal, and did not seat in regard to rank during his dinners He also was unconventional, wearing sloppy attire, and he started the precedent of sending messages to Congress to be read by a clerk.
    • There were two Thomas Jeffersons: the scholarly private citizen who philosophized in his study, and the harassed public official who discovered that bookish theories worked out differently in practical politics.
    • Jefferson also dismissed few Federalist officials and those who wanted the seats complained.
    • Jefferson had to rely on his casual charm because his party was so disunited still.

IV. Jeffersonian Restraint

  1. Jefferson pardoned those who were serving time under the Sedition Act, and in 1802, he enacted a new naturalization law that returned the years needed for an immigrant to become a citizen from 14 to 5.
  2. He also kicked away the excise tax, but otherwise left the Hamiltonian system intact.
  3. The new secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, reduced the national debt substantially while balancing the budget.
  4. By shrewdly absorbing the major Federalist programs, Jefferson showed that a change of regime need not be disastrous for the exiting group.

V. The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary

  1. The Judiciary Act, passed by the Federalists in their last days of Congressional domination in 1801, packed newly created judgeships with Federalist-backing men, so as to prolong their legacy.
  2. Chief Justice John Marshall, a cousin of Jefferson, had served at Valley Forge during the war, and he had been impressed with the drawbacks of no central authority, and thus, he became a lifelong Federalist, committed to strengthening the power of the federal government.
    • Marbury v. Madison (1803): William Marbury had been one of the “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams in his last hours as president. He had been named justice of peace for D.C., but when Secretary of State James Madison decided to shelve the position, Marbury sued for its delivery. Marshall dismissed the case, but he said that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus suggesting that the Supreme Court could determine the constitutionality of laws (AKA, “judicial review”).
  3. In 1804, Jefferson tried to impeach the tart-tongued Supreme Court justice, Samuel Chase, but when the vote got to the Senate, not enough votes were mustered, and to this day, no attempt to alter the Supreme Court has ever been tried through impeachment.

VI. Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior

  1. Jefferson had a natural fear of a large, strong, standing military since such a military could be turned on the people. So, he reduced the militia to 2500 men, and navies were reduced a bit to peacetime footing.
  2. However, the pirates of the North African Barbary States were still looting U.S. ships, and in 1801, the pasha of Tripoli indirectly declared war when he cut down the flagstaff of the American consulate.
    • Non-interventionalist Jefferson had a problem of whether to fight or not, and he reluctantly sent the infant navy to the shores of Tripoli, where fighting continued for four years until Jefferson succeeded in extorting a treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805 for $60,000.
    • Stephen Decatur’s exploits in the war with the ship Intrepid made him a hero.
    • The small, mobile gunboats used in the Tripolitan War fascinated Jefferson, and he spent money to build about 200 of them (these boats might be zippy and fast, but they did little against large battleships). The years eventually showed building small ships to be a poor decision.

VII. The Louisiana Godsend

  1. In 1800, Napoleon secretly induced the king of Spain to cede the Louisiana territory to France.
  2. Then, in 1802, the Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit guaranteed by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795. Such deposit privileges were vital to the frontier farmers who floated their goods down the Mississippi River to its mouth to await oceangoing vessels.
    • These farmers talked of marching to New Orleans to violently get back what they deserved, an action that would have plunged the U.S. into war with Spain and France.
  3. In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join regular minister Robert R. Livingston to buy New Orleans and as much land to the east of the river for a total of $10 million, tops.
  4. Instead, Napoleon offered to sell New Orleans and the land west of it, Louisiana, for a bargain of $15 million, thereby abandoning his dream of a French North American empire.
    • This abandonment was due to the rebellion in Haiti, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, which had been unsuccessful, but had killed many French troops due to yellow fever. The decision to sell Louisiana was also because Napoleon needed cash to renew his war with Britain.
  5. The Louisiana Purchase was finalized on April 30, 1803.
  6. Jefferson had a dilemma, since the Constitution said nothing about purchasing foreign land, but on the other hand, this deal was simply too good to pass up!
    • After considering an amendment, Jefferson finally decided to go through with the deal anyway, even though nothing in the Constitution talked about land purchases. Jefferson had been a strict interpreter of the Constitution, but he was now using a loose interpretation.
    • Federalists, normally loose interpreters, took a strict interpretation and opposed the purchase. Federalist didn’t want the new lands because they correctly foresaw new lands meant new settlers and new states, which meant more farmers and more Republicans.
    • Thus, both parties made a full 180° turnaround from their previous philosophical beliefs about the Constitution simply because of the practical matters at hand.
  7. The Senate quickly approved the purchase with Jefferson’s urging, and the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States. This was the biggest bargain in history averaging 3 cents per acre.

VIII. Louisiana in the Long View

  1. The purchase created a precedent of acquisition of foreign territory through purchase.
  2. In the spring of 1804, Jefferson sent William Clark and Meriwether Lewis to explore this new territory. Along with a Shoshoni woman namedSacajawea, the two spent 21/2 years exploring the land, marveling at the expanses of buffalo, elk, deer, antelope, and the landscape and went all the way to Oregon and the Pacific before returning.
    • Other explorers, like Zebulon Pike trekked to the headwaters of the Mississippi River in 1805-06 and ventured to the southern portion of Louisiana, Spanish land in the southwest, and sighted Pike’s Peak.

IX. The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

  1. The Federalists now sank lower than ever, and tried to scheme with Aaron Burr to make New England and New York secede from the union; in the process Aaron Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.
  2. In 1806, Burr was arrested for treason, but the necessary two witnesses were nowhere to be found.
  3. The Louisiana Purchase was also nurturing a deep sense of loyalty among the West to the federal government, and a new spirit of nationalism surged through it.

X. A Precarious Neutrality

  1. In 1804, Jefferson won with a margin of 162 electoral votes to 14 for his opponent, but this happiness was nonexistent because in 1803, Napoleon had deliberately provoked Britain into renewing its war with France.
    • As a result, American trade sank as England and France, unable to hurt each other (England owned the sea thanks to the Battle of Trafalgarwhile France owned the land thanks to the Battle of Austerlitz), resorted to indirect blows.
    • In 1806, London issued the Orders in Council, which closed ports under French continental control to foreign shipping, including American, unless they stopped at a British port first.
    • Likewise, Napoleon ordered the seizure of all ships, including American, which entered British ports.
    • Impressment (illegal seizure of men and forcing them to serve on ships) of American seamen also infuriated the U.S.; some 6,000 Americans were impressed from 1808-11.
    • In 1807, a royal frigate the Leopard confronted the U.S. frigate, the Chesapeake, about 10 miles off the coast of Virginia, and the British captain ordered the seizure of four alleged deserters. When the American commander refused, the U.S. ship received three devastating broadsides that killed 3 Americans and wounded 18. In an incident in which England was clearly wrong, Jefferson still clung to peace.

XI. The Hated Embargo

  1. In order to try to stop the British and French seizure of American ships, Jefferson resorted to an embargo. His belief was that the only way to stay out of the war was to shut down shipping.
    • Jefferson thought Britain and France relied on American goods (it was really the opposite, Americans relied on Europe’s goods).
    • Also, the U.S. still had a weak navy and a weaker army.
  2. The Embargo Act of late 1807 forbade the export of all goods from the United States to any foreign nation, regardless of whether they were transported in American or foreign ships.
    • The net result was deserted docks, rotting ships in the harbors, and Jefferson's embargo hurt the same New England merchants that it was trying to protect.
    • The commerce of New England was harmed more than that of France and Britain.
    • Farmers of the South and West were alarmed by the mounting piles of unexportable cotton, grain, and tobacco.
    • Illegal trade mushroomed in 1808, where people resorted to smuggling again.
  3. Finally, coming to their senses and feeling the public’s anger, Congress repealed the act on March 1, 1809, three days before Jefferson’s retirement and replaced it with the Non-Intercourse Act, which reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except France and England.
    • However, this act had the same effect as the Embargo because America’s #1 and #2 trade partners were Britain and France.
    • Thus, economic coercion continued from 1809 to 1812, when war struck.
  4. The embargo failed for two main reasons: (1) Jefferson underestimated the bulldog British and their dependence on American goods and (2) he didn’t continue the embargo long enough or tightly enough to achieve success.
    • Even Jefferson himself admitted that the embargo was three times more costly than war, and he could have built a strong navy with a fraction of the money lost.
  5. During the time of the embargo, the Federalist Party regained some of its lost power.
  6. However, during this embargo, resourceful Americans also opened and reopened factories, and thus, the embargo helped to promote industrialism—another irony since it was Jefferson who was committed to an agrarian, while it was his arch-rival Alexander Hamilton who was committed to industry.
  7. Also, the embargo did affect Britain, and had it been continued, it might have succeeded.
    • In fact, two days before Congress declared war in June 1812, London ordered the Orders in Council to be suspended. Had America known this fact, war would have likely not been declared.

XII. Madison’s Gamble

  1. After Jefferson, James Madison took the oath of presidency on March 4, 1809, short, bald, and not a great speaker.
  2. In 1810, Congress adopted a bargaining measure called Macon’s Bill No. 2, which while permitting American trade with all the world, also promised American restoration of trade to France and/or England if either dropped their commercial restrictions.
    • Napoleon had his opportunity: in August of 1810, he announced that French commercial restrictions had been lifted, and Madison, desperate for recognition of the law, declared France available for American trade.
    • Of course, Napoleon lied, and never really lifted restrictions, but meanwhile, America had been duped into entering European affairs against Great Britain.

XIII. Tecumseh and the Prophet

  1. In 1811, new young politicians swept away the older “submission men,” and they appointed Henry Clay of Kentucky, then 34 years old, to Speaker of the House.
  2. The western politicians also cried out against the Indian threat on the frontier. These young, aggressive Congressmen were known as “War Hawks.”
  3. Indians had watched with increasing apprehension as more and more whites settled in Kentucky, a traditionally sacred area where settlement and extensive hunting was not allowed except in times of scarcity.
    • Thus, two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the Prophet, decided that the time to act was now, and gathered followers, urging them to give up textile clothing for traditional buckskin garments, arguing eloquently for the Indian’s to not acknowledge the White man’s “ownership” of land, and urging that no Indian should cede control of land to whites unless all Indians agreed.
    • On November 7, 1811, American general William Henry Harrison advanced upon Tecumseh’s headquarters at Tippecanoe, killed the Prophet, and burned the camp to the ground.
    • Tecumseh was killed by Harrison at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, and the Indian confederacy dream perished.
    • In the South, Andrew Jackson crushed the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on March 27, 1814, effectively breaking the Indian rebellion and leaving the entire area east of the Mississippi open for safe settlement.
  4. The War Hawks cried that the only way to get rid of the Indians was to wipe out their base, Canada, since the British had helped the Indians.
    • War was declared in 1812, with a House vote of 79 to 49 and a very close Senate vote of 19 to 13, showing America’s disunity.

XIV. Mr. Madison’s War

  1. Why did America go to war with Britain and not France? Because England’s impressments of American sailors stood out, France was allied more with the Republicans, and Canada was a very tempting prize that seemed easy to get, a “frontiersman’s frolic.”
  2. New England, which was still making lots of money, damned the war for a free sea, and Federalists opposed the war because (1) they were more inclined toward Britain anyway and (2) if Canada was conquered, it would add more agrarian land and increase Republican supporters.
  3. In brief, America’s reasons for entering the War of 1812 were…
    • “Freedom of the seas” – The U.S. wanted the right to sail and trade without fear.
    • Possibility of land – The U.S. might gain Canada or Florida.
    • Indian issues – Americans were still upset about British guns being giving to Indians.
  4. The nation became sectionalized. Generally, the North was against war, the West and the South was for the war.
    • Thus, a disunited America had to fight both Old England and New England in the War of 1812, since Britain was the enemy while New England tried everything that they could do to frustrate American ambitions in the war.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism, 1812-1824

The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

 I. On to Canada Over Land and Lakes

  1. Due to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst fought wars.
  2. There was not a burning national anger, like there was after the Chesapeake outrage; the regular army was very bad and scattered and had old, senile generals, and the offensive strategy against Canada was especially poorly conceived.
  3. Had the Americans captured Montreal, everything west would have wilted like a tree after its trunk has been severed, but the Americans instead focused a three-pronged attack that set out from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain, all of which were beaten back.
  4. In contrast, the British and Canadians displayed enthusiasm early on in the war and captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, which commanded the upper Great Lakes area (the battle was led by British General Isaac Brock).
  5. After more land invasions were hurled back in 1813, the Americans, led by Oliver Hazard Perry, built a fleet of green-timbered ships manned by inexperienced men, but still managed to capture a British fleet. His victory, coupled with General William Henry Harrison’s defeat of the British during the Battle of the Thames, helped bring more enthusiasm and increased morale for the war.
  6. In 1814, 10,000 British troops prepared for a crushing blow to the Americans along the Lake Champlain route, but on September 11, 1814, Capt. Thomas MacDonough challenged the British and snatched victory from the fangs of defeat and forced the British to retreat.

II. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

  1. In August 1814, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area, dispersed 6,000 panicked Americans at Bladensburg, and proceeded to enter Washington D.C. and burn most of the buildings there.
  2. At Baltimore, another British fleet arrived but was beaten back by the privateer defenders of Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star Spangled Banner.”
  3. Another British army menaced the entire Mississippi Valley and threatened New Orleans, and Andrew Jackson, fresh off his slaughter of the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, led a hodgepodge force of 7,000 sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, entrenching them and helping them defeat 8,000 overconfident British that had launched a frontal attack in the Battle of New Orleans.
  4. The news of this British defeat reached Washington early in February 1815, and two weeks later came news of peace from Britain.
  5. Ignorant citizens simply assumed that the British, having been beaten by Jackson, finally wanted peace, lest they get beaten again by the “awesome” Americans.
  6. During the war, the American navy had oddly done much better than the army, since the sailors were angry over British impressment of U.S. sailors.
  7. However, Britain responded with a naval blockade, raiding ships and ruining American economic life such as fishing.

III. The Treaty of Ghent

  1. At first, the confident British made sweeping demands for a neutralized Indian buffer state in the Great Lakes region, control of the Great Lakes, and a substantial part of conquered Maine, but the Americans, led by John Quincy Adams, refused. As American victories piled up, though, the British reconsidered.
  2. The Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, was an armistice, acknowledging a draw in the war and ignoring any other demands of either side. Each side simply stopped fighting. The main issue of the war, impressment, was left unmentioned.

IV. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

  1. As the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island secretly met in Hartford from December 15, 1814 to January 5, 1815, to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs.
    • While a few talked about secession, most wanted financial assistance form Washington to compensate for lost trade, and an amendment requiring a 2/3 majority for all declarations of embargos, except during invasion.
  2. Three special envoys from Mass. went to D.C., where they were greeted with the news from New Orleans; their mission failed, and they sank away in disgrace and into obscurity.
    • The Hartford Convention proved to be the death of the Federalist Party, as their last presidential nomination was trounced by James Monroe in 1816.

V. The Second War for American Independence

  1. The War of 1812 was a small war involving some 6,000 Americans killed or wounded, and when Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 with 500,000 men, Madison tried to invade Canada with about 5,000 men.
  2. Yet, the Americans proved that they could stand up for what they felt was right, and naval officers like Perry and MacDonough gained new respect; American diplomats were treated with more respect than before.
  3. The Federalist Party died out forever, and new war heroes, like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, emerged.
  4. Manufacturing also prospered during the British blockade, since there was nothing else to do.
  5. Incidents like the burning of Washington added fuel to the bitter conflict with Britain, and led to hatred of the nation years after the war, though few would have guessed that the War of 1812 would be the last war America fought against Britain.
  6. Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent, since not even an Indian buffer state had been achieved, and the Indians, left by the British, were forced to make treaties where they could.
  7. In 1817, though, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes, the Rush-Bagot Treaty between the U.S. and Britain provided the world’s longest unfortified boundary (5,527 mi.).
  8. After Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo, Europe sank into an exhaustion of peace, and America looked west to further expand.

VI. Nascent Nationalism

  1. After the war, American nationalism really took off, and authors like Washington Irving (Rumpelstiltskin, The Knickerbocker Tales such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow) and James Fenimore Cooper (The Leatherstocking Tales which included The Last of the Mohicans) gained international recognition.
  2. The North American Review debuted in 1815, and American painters painted landscapes of America on their canvases, while history books were now being written by Americans for Americans.
  3. Washington D.C. rose from the ashes to be better than ever, and the navy and army strengthened themselves.
  4. Stephen Decatur, naval hero of the War of 1812 and the Barbary Coast expeditions, was famous for his American toast after his return from the Mediterranean: “Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!”

VII. “The American System”

  1. After the war, British competitors dumped their goods onto America at cheap prices, so America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the first in U.S. history designed for protection, which put a 20-25% tariff on dutiable imports.
  2. It was not high enough, but it was a great start, and in 1824, Henry Clay established a program called the American System.
    • The system began with a strong banking system.
    • It advocated a protective tariff behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish.
    • It also included a network of roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley, to be funded for by the tariffs, and through which would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to the North and East.
    • Lack of effective transportation had been one of the problems of the War of 1812, especially in the West, and in 1817, Congress sought to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it, saying it was unconstitutional, thus making the states look for their own money to build the badly needed roads.

VIII. The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

  1. James Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent 183 to 34, and ushered in a short period of one-party rule.
  2. He straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of Nationalism.
  3. Early in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he received heartwarming welcomes.
  4. A Boston newspaper even went as far as to declare that an “Era of Good Feelings” had began.
  5. However, seeds of sectional troubles were planted. Notably, the South did not like the tariff saying it only benefited the North and made the South pay higher prices. And, the South disliked the internal improvements linking the North and West—the South didn’t see any benefits in paying taxes for roads and canals in other states.

IX. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

  1. The Panic of 1819 was a paralyzing economic panic (the first since Washington’s times) that engulfed the U.S., bringing deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded debtors’ prisons.
    • A major cause of the panic had been over-speculation in land prices, where the Bank of the United States fell heavily into debt.
    • Oddly, this started an almost predictable chain of panics or recessions. An economic panic occurred every 20 years during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893).
  2. The West was especially hard hit, and the Bank of the U.S. was soon viewed upon as the cause.
  3. There was also attention against the debtors, where, in a few overplayed cases, mothers owing a few dollars were torn away from their infants by the creditors.

X. Growing Pains of the West

  1. Between 1791 and 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13.
  2. This explosive expansion of the west was due in part to the cheap land, the elimination of the Indian menace, the “Ohio Fever,” and the need for land by the tobacco farmers, who exhausted their lands.
  3. The Cumberland Road, begun in 1811 and ran ultimately from western Maryland to Illinois. And, the first steamboat on western waters appeared in 1811.
  4. The West, still not populous and politically weak, was forced to ally itself with other sections, and demanded cheap acreage.
  5. The Land Act of 1820 gave the West its wish by authorizing a buyer to purchase 80 acres of land at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash; the West demanded and slowly got cheap transportation as well.

XI. Slavery and the Sectional Balance

  1. Sectional tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to become a slave state.
  2. Although it met all the requirements of becoming a state, the House of Representatives stymied the plans for its statehood when it proposed theTallmadge Amendment, which provided that no more slaves be brought into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri (this was shot down in the Senate).
  3. Angry Southerners saw this as a threat figuring that if the Northerners could wipe out slavery in Missouri, they might try to do so in all of the rest of the slave states.
  4. Plus, the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.

XII. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

  1. Finally, the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri Compromise.
    • Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance (it went from 11 free states and 11 slave states to 12 and 12).
    • All new states north of the 36°30’ line would be free, new states southward would be slave.
  2. Both the North and South gained something, and though neither was totally happy, the compromise worked for many years.
    • Monroe should have been doomed after the 1819 panic and the Missouri problem, but he was so popular, and the Federalist Party so weak, that he won in 1820 by all but one vote (unanimity was reserved for Washington).

XIII. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

  1. Chief Justice John Marshall helped to bolster the power of the government at the expense of the states.
  2. McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): This case involved Maryland’s trying to destroy the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes. Marshall invoked the Hamiltonian principle of implied powers and denied Maryland’s right to tax the bank, and also gave the doctrine of “loose construction,” using the elastic clause of the Constitution as its basis. He implied that the Constitution was to last for many ages, and thereby was constructed loosely, flexibly, to be bent as times changed.
  3. Cohens vs. Virginia (1821): The Cohens had been found guilty by Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, had appealed to the Supreme Court, and had lost, but Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government. The federal government won, the states lost.
  4. Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824): When New York tried to grant a monopoly of waterborne commerce, Marshall struck it down by saying that only Congress can control interstate commerce, not the states themselves; it was another blow to states’ rights.

XIV. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

  1. Fletcher vs. Peck (1810): After Georgia fraudulently granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River country (Mississippi) to privateers, the legislature repealed it after public outcry, but Marshall ruled that it was a contract, and that states couldn’t impair a contract. It was one of
  2. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819): Dartmouth had been granted a charter by King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it. Dartmouth appealed, using alumni Daniel Webster to work as lawyer, and Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand. It was a contract, and the Constitution protected those and overruled state rulings.
  3. Marshall’s rulings gave the Supreme Court its powers and greatly strengthened the federal government, giving it power to overrule state governments sometimes.

XV. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida

  1. The Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the 49th parallel and provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of rights and claims by neither Britain nor America.
  2. When revolutions broke out in South and Central America, Spanish troops in Florida were withdrawn to put down the rebellions, and Indian attacks ravaged American land while the Indians would then retreat back to Spanish territory.
  3. Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs without ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized St. Marks and Pensacola.
  4. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson; all wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain.
  5. The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and shadowy claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas. The U.S. paid $5 million to Spain for Florida.

XVI. The Menace of Monarchy in America

  1. Monarchs in Europe now were determined to protect the world against democracy, and crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans.
  2. Also, Russia’s claims to North American territory were intruding and making Americans nervous that Russia might claim territory that was “rightfully American.”
  3. Then, in August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning, approached the American minister in London proposing that the U.S. and Britain combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European despots to keep their hands off of Latin American politics.

XVII. Monroe and His Doctrine

  1. Sly and careful John Q. Adams sensed a joker in the proposal, correctly assumed that the European powers weren’t going to invade America anytime soon, and knew that a self-denouncing alliance with Britain would morally tie the hands of the U.S.
  2. He knew that the British boats would need to protect South America to protect their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a defiant, nationalistic blast at all Europe.
  3. Late in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating non-colonization and nonintervention.
  4. Dedicated primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no colonization in the Americas could happen anymore and also, European nations could not intervene in Latin American affairs.
  5. In return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against Turkey.

XVIII. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

  1. The monarchs of Europe were angered, but couldn’t do anything about it, since the British navy would be there to stop them, further frustrating them.
  2. Monroe’s declaration made little splash in Latin America, since those who knew of the message also recognized that it was the British navy and not America that was protecting them, and that the U.S. was doing this only to protect its own hide.
  3. Not until 1845 did President Polk revive it.
  4. In the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian tsar fixed the southern boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40’ and it stayed at that.
  5. The Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense Doctrine, since Monroe was concerned about the safety of his own country, not Latin America.
  6. The doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement.
  7. It was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a voice of patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.
  8. Many Americans falsely concluded that the Republic was in fact insulated from European dangers simply because it wanted to be and because, in a nationalistic outburst, Monroe had publicly warned the Old World powers to stay away.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 13- The Rise of a Mass Democracy, 1824-1840

 I. The “Corrupt Bargain” of 1824

  1. After the Era of Good Feelings, politics was transformed. The big winner of this transformation was the common man. Specifically, the common white man as universal white manhood suffrage (all white men could vote) became the norm.
  2. In the election of 1824, there were four towering candidates: Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and John Q. Adams of Massachusetts.
    • All four called themselves Republicans.
    • Three were a “favorite son” of their respective region but Clay thought of himself as a national figure (he was Speaker of the House and author of the “American System”).
  3. In the results, Jackson got the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, but he failed to get the majority in the Electoral College. Adams came in second in both, while Crawford was fourth in the popular vote but third in the electoral votes. Clay was 4th in the electoral vote.
  4. By the 12th Amendment, the top three electoral vote getters would be voted upon in the House of Reps. and the majority (over 50%) would be elected president.
  5. Clay was eliminated, but he was the Speaker of the House, and since Crawford had recently suffered a paralytic stroke and Clay hated Jackson, he threw his support behind John Q. Adams, helping him become president.
    • When Clay was appointed Secretary of the State, the traditional stepping-stone to the presidency, Jacksonians cried foul play and corruption. Jackson said he, the people’s choice, had been swindled out of the presidency by career politicians in Washington D.C.
    • John Randolph publicly assailed the alliance between Adams and Clay.
  6. Evidence against any possible deal has never been found in this “Corrupt Bargain,” but both men flawed their reputations.

II. A Yankee Misfit in the White House

  1. John Quincy Adams was a man of puritanical honor, and he had achieved high office by commanding respect rather than by boasting great popularity. Like his father, however, he was able but somewhat wooden and lacked the “people’s touch” (which Jackson notably had).
  2. During his administration, he only removed 12 public servants from the federal payroll, thus refusing to kick out efficient officeholders in favor of his own, possibly less efficient, supporters.
  3. In his first annual message, Adams urged Congress on the construction of roads and canals, proposed a national university, and advocated support for an astronomical observatory.
    • Public reaction was mixed: roads were good, but observatories weren’t important, and Southerners knew that if the government did anything, it would have to continue collecting tariffs.
  4. With land, Adams tried to curb over-speculation of land, much to Westerners’ anger even though he was doing it for their own good, and with the Cherokee Indians, he tried to deal fairly with them although the state of Georgia successfully resisted federal attempts to help the Cherokees.

III. Going “Whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828”

  1. Jacksonians argued, “Should the people rule?” and said that the Adams-Clay bargaining four years before had cheated the people out of the rightful victor.
    • They successfully turned public opinion against an honest and honorable president.
  2. However, Adams’ supporters also hit below the belt, even though Adams himself wouldn’t stoop to that level.
    • They called Jackson’s mother a prostitute, called him an adulterer (he had married his wife Rachel thinking that her divorce had been granted, only to discover two years later that it hadn’t been), and after he got elected, Rachel died. Jackson blamed Adams’ men who had slandered Andrew Jackson for Rachel Jackson’s death—he never forgave them.
  3. John Q. Adams had purchased, with his own money and for his own use, a billiard table and a set of chessmen, but the Jacksonians had seized this, criticizing Adams’ incessant spending.

IV. “Old Hickory” as President

  1. When he became president, Andrew Jackson had already battled dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis, and lead poisoning from two bullets lodged somewhere in his body.
  2. He personified the new West: rough, a jack-of-all-trades, a genuine folk hero.
  3. Born in the backwoods of the Carolinas (we’re not even sure if it was North or South Carolina, and both states still claim to be his home), Jackson had been early orphaned, was interested in cockfighting as a kid, and wasn’t really good with reading and writing, sometimes misspelling the same word twice in one letter.
  4. He went to Tennessee, where he became a judge and a congressman, and his passions were so profound that he could choke up on the floor.
  5. A man with a violent temper, he got into many duels, fights, stabbings, etc…
  6. He was a Western aristocrat, having owned many slaves, and lived in a fine mansion, the Hermitage, and he shared many of the prejudices of the masses.
  7. He was called “Old Hickory” by his troops because of his toughness.
  8. He was anti-federalist, believing that the federal government was for the privileged only, although he maintained the sacredness of the Union and the federal power over the states. Still, he welcomed the western democracy.
  9. Jackson commanded fear and respect from his subordinates, and ignored the Supreme Court on several occasions; he also used the veto 12 times (compared to a combined 10 times by his predecessors) and on his inauguration, he let commoners come into the White House.
    • They wrecked the china and caused chaos until they heard that there was spiked punch on the White House front lawn; thus was the “inaugural bowl.”
    • Conservatives condemned Jackson as “King Mob” and berated him greatly.

V. The Spoils System

  1. The spoils system rewarded supporters with good positions in office.
  2. Jackson believed that experience counted, but that loyalty and young blood and sharp eyes counted more, and thus, he went to work on overhauling positions and erasing the old.
  3. Not since the election of 1800 had a new party been voted into the presidency, and even then, many positions had stayed and not changed.
  4. Though he wanted to “wipe the slate clean,” only 1/5 of the men were sent home, and clean sweeps would come later, but there were always people hounding Jackson for positions, and those who were discharged often went mad, killed themselves, or had a tough time with it.
  5. The spoils system denied many able people a chance to contribute.
  6. Samuel Swartwout was awarded the lucrative post of collector of the customs of the port of New York, and nearly nine years later, he fled for England, leaving his accounts more than a million dollars short, and thus becoming the first person to steal a million dollars from the government.
  7. The spoils system was built up by gifts from expectant party members, and the system secured such a tenacious hold that it took more than 50 years before its grip was even loosened.

VI. The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations”

  1. In 1824, Congress had increased the general tariff from 23% to 37%, but wool manufactures still wanted higher tariffs.
  2. In the Tariff of 1828, the Jacksonians (who disliked tariffs) schemed to drive up duties to as high as 45% while imposing heavy tariffs on raw materials like wool, so that even New England, where the tariff was needed, would vote the bill down and give Adams another political black eye.
    • However, the New Englanders backfired the plan and passed the law (amended).
    • Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun reversed their positions from 1816, with Webster supporting the tariff and Calhoun being against it.
    • The Southerners immediately branded it as the “Tariff of Abominations.”
  3. In the South at this time, Denmark Vesey, a free Black, led an ominous slave rebellion in Charleston. This raised fears by Southern whites and led to a tightening of control over slaves.
    • The South mostly complained because it was now the least expanding of the sections.
    • Cotton prices were falling and land was growing scarce.
  4. Southerners sold their cotton and other products without tariffs, while the products that they bought were heavily taxed. The South said all tariffs did for them was hike up prices.
  5. Tariffs led the U.S. to buy less British products and vice versa, but it did help the Northeast prosper so that it could buy more of the South’s products.
  6. John C. Calhoun secretly wrote “The South Carolina Exposition” in 1828, boldly denouncing the recent tariff and calling for nullification of the tariff by all states.
  7. However, South Carolina was alone in this nullification threat, since Andrew Jackson had been elected two weeks earlier, and was expected to sympathize with the South against the tariff.

VII. “Nullies” in South Carolina

  1. South Carolinians, still scornful toward the Tariff of 1828, attempted to garner the necessary two-thirds majority to nullify it in the S.C. legislature, but determined Unionists blocked them.
  2. In response to the anger at the “Tariff of Abominations,” Congress passed the Tariff of 1832, which did away with the worst parts of the Tariff of 1828, such as lowering the tariff down to 35%, a reduction of 10%, but many southerners still hated it.
  3. In the elections of 1832, the "Nullies" came out with a two-thirds majority over the Unionists, met in the state legislature, and declared the Tariff of 1832 to be void within S.C. boundaries.
    • They also threatened with secession against the Union, causing a huge problem.
    • President Jackson issued a ringing proclamation against S.C., to which governor Hayne issued a counter-proclamation, and civil war loomed dangerously.
    • To compromise and prevent Jackson from crushing S.C. and becoming more popular, the president’s rival, Henry Clay, proposed a compromise bill that would gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by about 10% over a period of eight years, so that by 1842 the rates would be down to 20% to 25%.
  4. The Tariff of 1833 narrowly squeezed through Congress.
  5. However, to save face, Congress also passed the Force Bill (AKA the “Bloody Bill”) that authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect tariffs.
  6. No other states had supported South Carolina’s stance of possible secession, though Georgia and Virginia toyed with the idea.
  7. Finally, S.C. repealed the nullification ordinance.

VIII. The Trail of Tears

  1. By 1830, the U.S. population stood at 13 million, and as states emerged, the Indians were stranded.
  2. Federal policy officially was to acquire land from the Indians through formal treaties, but too many times, they were tricked.
  3. Many people respected the Indians, though, and tried to Christianize them.
    • i.e. the Society for Propagating the Gospel Among Indians (est. 1787).
  4. Some Indians violently resisted, but the Cherokees were among the few that tried to adopt the Americans ways, adopting a system of settled agriculture, devising an alphabet, legislating legal code in 1808, and adopting a written constitution in 1827.
  5. The Cherokees, the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and the Seminoles were known as the “Five Civilized Tribes.”
  6. However, in 1828, Congress declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal, and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian lands and affairs, and even though the Cherokees appealed to and won in the Supreme Court, Jackson refused to recognize the decision.
  7. Jackson, though, still harbored some sentiment of Indians, and proposed that they be bodily transferred west of the Mississippi, where they could preserve the culture, and in 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, in which Indians were moved to Oklahoma.
    • Thousands of Indians died on the “Trail of Tears” after being uprooted from their sacred lands that had been theirs for centuries.
    • Also, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1836 to deal with Indians.
  8. In 1832, in Illinois and Wisconsin, the Sauk and Fox tribes revolted but were crushed.
  9. From 1835 to 1842, the Seminoles waged guerrilla warfare against the U.S., but were broken after their leader, Osceola, was seized; some fled deeper into the Everglades of Florida; others moved to Oklahoma.

IX. The Bank War

  1. Andrew Jackson, like most westerners, distrusted big banks, especially the "B.U.S."—Bank of the United States.
    • To Jackson and westerners, the B.U.S. was simply a tool of the rich to get richer.
    • The BUS minted metal, coin money (“hard money”), but not paper money. Farmers out west wanted paper money which caused inflation, and enabled them to more easily pay off their debts.
    • Jackson and westerners saw the BUS and eastern banks as being in a conspiracy to keep the common man down economically. This conspiracy was carried out through hard money and debt.
  2. The B.U.S., led by Nicholas Biddle, was harsh on the volatile western “wildcat” banks that churned out unstable money and too-lenient credit for land (which the westerners loved). The B.U.S. seemed pretty autocratic and out of touch with America during its "New Democracy" era, and it was corrupt.
  3. Nicholas Biddle cleverly lent U.S. funds to friends, and often used the money of the B.U.S. to bribe people, like the press.
  4. However, the bank was financially sound, reduced bank failures, issued sound notes, promoted economic expansion by making abundant credit, and was a safe depository for the funds of the Washington government.
  5. It was highly important and useful, though sometimes not necessarily pure and wholesome.
  6. In 1832, Henry Clay, in a strategy to bring Jackson’s popularity down so that he could defeat him for presidency, rammed a bill for the re-chartering of the BUS—four years early.
  7. He felt that if Jackson signed it, he’d alienate his followers in the West and South, and if he vetoed it, he’d lose the supports of the “best people” of the East.
  8. He failed to realize that the West held more power now, not the East.
  9. The re-charter bill passed through Congress easily, but Jackson demolished it in a scorching veto that condemned the BUS as unconstitutional (despite political foe John Marshall’s ruling that it was okay), and anti-American.
  10. The veto amplified the power of the president by ignoring the Supreme Court and aligned the West against the East.

X. “Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832

  1. Jackson’s supporters again raised the hickory pole while Clay’s men detracted Jackson’s dueling, gambling, cockfighting, and fast living.
  2. However, a new third party, the Anti-Masonic Party, made its entrance for the first time.
    • Opposed to the fearsome secrecy of the Masonic order, it was energized by the mysterious murder of someone who threatened to expose the Freemason’s secrets.
    • While sharing Jacksonian ideals, they were against Jackson, a Mason.
    • Also, they were supported by churches hoping to pass religious reform.
  3. Also for the first time, national conventions were held to nominate candidates.
  4. Clay had the money and the “support” of the press, but the poor people voted too, and Jackson won handily, handing Clay his third loss in three tries.

XI. Burying Biddle’s Bank

  1. Hoping to kill the BUS, Jackson now began to withdraw federal funds from the bank, so as to drain it of its wealth; in reaction, Biddle began to call for unnecessary loans, personally causing a mini panic.
  2. Jackson won, and in 1836, the BUS breathed its last breath, but because it had been the only source of sure credit in the United States, hard times fell upon the West once the BUS died, since the wildcat banks were very unreliable.

XII. The Birth of the Whigs

  1. Under Jackson, the modern two-party system of politics came to be.
  2. Opponents of Jackson despised his iron-fisted nature and called him “King Andrew.” This wide group coalesced into the Whig party, united only by dislike of Jackson.
  3. Generally, the Whigs:
    • Disliked Jackson
    • Supported Henry Clay’s American System and internal improvements.
  4. Once formed, American would have at least two major political parties thenceforth.

XIII. The Election of 1836

  1. “King Andrew” was too old to run again, but offered Martin van Buren to follow in his coattails.
  2. The Whigs suffered from disorganization. They tried to offer a "favorite son" candidate from each section of the country—their hopes were that no one would win a majority of electoral votes, the election would thus be thrown to the House of Representatives, and they could win there. Their scheme failed, and van Buren won.

XIV. Big Woes for the “Little Magician”

  1. Van Buren was the first president to have been born in America, but he lacked the support of many Democrats and Jackson’s popularity.
  2. A rebellion in Canada in 1837 threatened to plunge America into war, and Van Buren also inherited the depression caused by Jackson’s BUS killing.

XV. Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasury

  1. The Panic of 1837 was caused by the “wildcat banks” loans, the over-speculation, the “Bank War,” and the Specie Circular stating that debts must be paid in specie (gold or silver), which no one had.
  2. Failures of wheat crops caused by the Hessian fly also worsened the situation, and the failure of two large British Banks in 1836 had already started the panic going.
  3. Hundreds of banks fell, including some of Jackson’s “pet banks,” banks that had received the money that Jackson had withdrawn from the BUS to kill it.
  4. The Whigs proposed expansion of bank credit, higher tariffs, and subsidies for internal improvements, but Van Buren spurned such ideas.
  5. Instead, he proposed the “Divorce Bill” (separating the bank from the government and storing money in some of the vaults of the larger American cities, thus keeping the money safe but also unavailable) that advocated the independent treasury, and in 1840, it was passed.
    • The next year, the victorious Whigs repealed it, but in 1846, it was brought back; it finally merged with the Federal Reserve System in the next century.

XVI. Gone to Texas

  1. Americans continued to covet Texas, and in 1823, after Mexico had gained independence from Spain, Stephen Austin had made an agreement with the Mexican government to bring about 300 families into a huge tract of granted land to settle.
  2. The stipulations were: (1) they must become Mexican citizens, (2) they must become Catholic, and (3) no slavery allowed. These stipulations were largely ignored by the new settlers.

XVII. The Lone Star Rebellion

  1. The Texans (among them Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie) resented the “foreign” government, but they were led by Sam Houston, a man whose wife had left him.
  2. In 1830, Mexico freed its slaves and prohibited them in Texas, much to the anger of citizens.
  3. In 1833, Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to clear up differences and was jailed for 8 months.
  4. In 1835, dictator Santa Anna started to raise an army to suppress the Texans; the next year, they declared their independence.
  5. After armed conflict and slaughters at the Alamo and at Goliad, Texan war cries rallied citizens, volunteers, and soldiers, and the turning point came after Sam Houston led his army for 37 days eastward, then turned on the Mexicans, taking advantage of their siesta hour, wiping them out, and capturing Santa Anna.
  6. The treaty he was forced to sign was later negated by him on grounds that the treaty was extorted under duress.
  7. Texas was supported in their war by the United States, but Jackson was hesitant to formally recognize Texas as an independent nation until he had secured Martin Van Buren as his successor, but after he succeeded, Jackson did indeed recognize Texas on his last day before he left office, in 1837.
  8. Many Texans wanted to become part of the Union, but the slavery issue blocked this.
  9. The end was an unsettled predicament in which Texans feared the return of Santa Anna.

XVIII. Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840

  1. In 1840, William Harrison was nominated due to his being issueless and enemyless, with John Tyler as his running mate.
  2. He had only been popular from Tippecanoe (1811) and the Battle of the Thames (1813).
  3. A stupid Democratic editor also helped Harrison’s cause when he called the candidate a poor old farmer with hard cider and inadvertently made him look like many poor Westerners.
  4. With slogans of “Tippecanoe and Tyler too,” the Whigs advocated this “poor man’s president” idea and replied, to such questions of the bank, internal improvements, and the tariff, with answers of “log cabin,” “hard cider,” and “Harrison is a poor man.”
  5. The popular election was close, but Harrison blew Van Buren away in the Electoral College.
  6. Basically, the election was a protest against the hard times of the era.

XIX. Politics for the People

  1. When the Federalists had dominated, democracy was not respected, but by the 1820s, it was widely appealing.
    • Politicians now had to bend to appease and appeal to the masses, and the popular ones were the ones who claimed to be born in log cabins and had humble backgrounds.
    • Those who were aristocratic (too clean, too well-dressed, too grammatical, to highly intellectual) were scorned.
  2. Western Indian fighters and/or militia commanders, like Andrew Jackson, Davy Crocket, and William Henry Harrison, were quite popular.
  3. Jacksonian Democracy said that whatever governing that was to be done should be done directly by the people.
  4. This time was called the "New Democracy", and was based on universal white manhood suffrage.
    • In 1791, Vermont became the first state admitted to the union to allow all white males to vote in the elections.
  5. While the old bigwigs who used to have power sneered at the “coonskin congressmen” and the “bipeds of the forest,” the new democrats argued that if they messed up, they messed up together and were not victims of aristocratic domination.

XX. The Two-Party System

  1. The Democrats had so successfully absorbed the Federalist ideas before, that a true two party system had never emerged—until now.
  2. The Democrats
    • Glorified the liberty of the individual.
    • Clung to states’ rights and federal restraint in social and economic affairs.
    • Mostly more humble, poorer folk.
    • Generally from the South and West.
  3. The Whigs
    • Trumpeted the natural harmony of society and the value of community.
    • Berated leaders whose appeals and self-interest fostered conflict among individuals.
    • Favored a renewed national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements, public schools, and moral reforms.
    • Mostly more aristocratic and wealthier.
    • Generally from the East.
  4. Things in Common
    • Based on the people, with “catchall” phrases for popularity.
    • Both also commanded loyalties from all kinds of people.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy, 1790-1860

 I. The Westward Movement

  1. The U.S. marched quickly toward the West which proved to be very hard with disease and loneliness.
  2. Frontier people were individualistic, superstitious and ill-informed of current matters.

II. Shaping the Western Landscape

  1. The westward movement molded the environment.
    • Tobacco overuse had exhausted the land forcing settlers to move on, but “Kentucky bluegrass” thrived.
    • Settlers trapped beavers, sea otters, and bison for fur to ship back East.
  2. The spirit of nationalism led to an appreciation of the American wilderness.
    • Artist George Catlin pushed for national parks and later achieved it with Yellowstone in 1872.

III. The March of the Millions

  1. In the mid-1800s, the population continued to double every 25 years.
    • By 1860, the original 13 states now had become 33 states; the American population was 4th in the world (behind Russia, France, Austria).
    • Urban growth continued explosively.
      • In 1790, only New York & Philadelphia had more than 20,000 people, but by 1860, 43 cities had.
      • With growth came poor sanitation ‡ later, sewage systems and piped-in water came about.
  2. A high birthrate had accounted for population growth, but near 1850s, millions of Irish and German came.
    • They came due to a surplus population in Europe, but not all came to the U.S.
    • The appeal of the U.S. was for land, freedom from church, no aristocracy, 3 meat meals a day.
    • Also, transoceanic steamships were used meaning travel time dropped to 12 days and it was safer.

IV. The Emerald Isle Moves West

  1. The Irish potato famine in the mid-1840s led to the death of 2 million and saw many flee to the U.S.
    • “Black Forties”—they mainly came to cities like Boston and especially New York (biggest Irish city).
    • They were illiterate, discriminated against by older Americans, and received lowest-paying jobs (railroad-building).
    • They were hated by Protestants because they’re Catholic.
    • Americans hated the Irish (such as “NINA”—No Irish Need Apply); the Irish hated competition with blacks for the low-paying jobs.
    • The Ancient Order of Hibernians was established to aid the Irish.
    • Gradual property ownership came about, and their children earned education.
    • The Irish were attracted to politics, and often filled police departments as officers.
    • The politicians tried to appeal to the Irish by yelling at London (“Twisting the Lion’s Tail”).

V. The German Forty-Eighters

  1. 1 million Germans poured in between 1830s-1860s because of crop failures and revolution/war of 1848.
    • Liberals such as Carl Schurz contributed to the elevation of the U.S. political scene.
    • They had more money than the Irish, so they bought land in West, especially in Wisconsin.
    • Their votes were crucial, so they were wooed by U.S. politicians, yet they lacked potency because they were rather spread out.
      • The Germans contributed to the U.S. culture (i.e. the Christmas tree) and isolationism.
    • They urged public education (started kindergarten) and freedom (they were enemies of slavery).
    • They faced resent from old Americans because the Germans grouped themselves together, were aloof, clung to their old ways and kept speaking the German language and religion, and brought beer to the U.S.

VI. Flare-ups of Antiforeignism

  1. “nativists” – older Americans who were prejudiced against newcomers in jobs, politics, and religion
  2. Catholicism became a major faith due to the immigration of the 1840s and 50s; they also set out to build Catholic schools
  3. nativists feared that Catholicism challenged Protestantism (Popish idols) so they formed the “Order of Star-Spangled Banner” AKA, “The Know-Nothings.”
    • they met in secrecy - “I Know-Nothing” was their response to any inquiries
    • fought for restrictions on immigration, naturalization & deportation of alien paupers
    • wrote fiction books about corruption of churches
    • there was mass violence, i.e. Philadelphia in 1844, which burnt churches, schools, and saw people killed
    • it made America a pluralistic society with diversity
    • as time passed, immigrants were less disliked since they were crucial to economic expansion & more jobs were becoming available (although they were low-paying)

VII. Creeping Mechanization

  1. The industrial revolution spread to U.S. The U.S. was destined to become an industrial giant because…
    • land was cheap, money for investment plentiful, raw materials were plentiful
    • Britain lacked consumers for factory-scale manufacturing whereas America had the growing numbers
    • But, Britain’s long-established factory system was in competition with the infant U.S. industries
    • the Brits kept textile industry secrets as a monopoly (forbade travel of craftsmen & export of machines)
  2. Still, the U.S. remained very rural and was mostly a farming nation

VIII. Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine

  1. Samuel Slater – “Father of the Factory System”
    • learned of textile machinery when working in British factory‡ he escaped to U.S., was aided by Moses Brown and built 1st cotton thread spinner in the U.S. located in Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1791)
  2. Eli Whitney built a cotton gin (which was 50 times more effective than separating cotton seed by hand)
    • cotton economics were now profitable and saved the South with “King Cotton”
    • the South flourished and expanded the cotton kingdom westward
    • the Northern factories manufactured textiles (cloth), especially in New England due to its poor soil, dense labor, access to sea, and fast rivers for water power)

IX. Marvels in Manufacturing

  1. The Embargo Act of the War of 1812 encouraged home manufacturing
  2. after the peace treaty at Ghent, the British poured in a surplus of cheap goods, forcing the close of many American factories who could not compete with long-established British companies
  3. Congress then passed Tariff of 1816 to protect U.S. economy
  4. Eli Whitney introduced machine-made inter-changeable parts (on muskets) - 1850
    • this was the base of the assembly line which flourished in the North, while the cotton gin flourished South
  5. Elias Howe & Issac Singer (1846) made the sewing machine (the foundation of clothing industry)
  6. The decade of 1860 had 28,000 patents while 1800 only had 306
  7. The principle of limited liability in a corporation (can’t lose more than invested) stimulated the economy
  8. Laws of “free incorporation” came about saying there was no need to apply for a charter from a legislature to start a corporation
  9. Samuel Morse’s telegraph connected the business world when he asked, “What hath God wrought?”

X. Workers and “Wage Slaves”

  1. The factory system led to impersonal relations
  2. The benefit went to factory owner; hours were long, wages low, conditions unsafe and unhealthy, no unions existed to address these issues
  3. child labor was heavy; 50% of the industrial labor force were children
  4. adult working condition improved in the 1820s & 30s with the mass vote given to workers
    • 10 hour day, higher wages, tolerable conditions, public education, a ban of imprisonment for debt
    • in the 1840s, President Van Buren established 10 hour day for federal employees
    • many went on strike, but lost because employers simply imported more workers (the much-hated immigrants)
  5. labor unions formed in the 1830s, but were hit by Panic of 1837
    • case of Commonwealth v. Hunt in Massachusetts Supreme Court (1842) legalized unions for peaceful and honorable protest
    • however, the effectiveness of unions was small (due mostly to their threat of a strike was always undermined by the management’s ability to simply call in “scabs”, plentiful immigrants eager to work)

XI. Women and the Economy

  1. women toiled in factories under poor conditions
  2. in Lowell, Massachusetts, a model textile mill employed young, single women under a watchful eye.
  3. opportunities were rare and women mainly worked in nursing, domestic service, teaching (encouraged by Catharine Beecher)
  4. women usually worked before marriage, after marriage they became housewives and mothers
  5. arranged marriages died down; marriages due to love tied family closer
  6. families grew smaller (average of 6); the fertility rate dropped sharply; this “domestic feminism” was a crude form of birth control
  7. child-centered families emerged with less children and discipline
  8. the home changed from a place of labor, to a place of refuge and rest from labor at the mill
  9. women were in charge of family: small, affectionate, child-centered families. This was a small arena for talented women

XII. Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields

  1. the trans-Allegheny region (Ohio-Indiana-Illinois) became the nation’s breadbasket
    • they planted corn and raised hogs (Cincinnati was known as “the porkopolis” of the west”
  2. inventions that boomed agriculture
    • John Deere – invented the steel plow that cut through hard soil and could be pulled by horses
    • Cyrus McCormick – invented the mechanical mower-reaper to harvest grain
  3. this led to large-scale production and growth of cash crops
  4. The North produced more food than the South (who grew cotton); products flowed from the North to the South via sea and rivers, not East to West which need transportation revolution in roads and canals

XIII. Highways and Steamboats

  1. improvements in transportation were needed for raw material transport
  2. Lancaster Turnpike – a hard road from Philadelphia to Lancaster, PA which brought economic expansion westward
  3. The federal government constructed the Cumberland Road AKA The National Road (Maryland - Illinois) with state and federal money
  4. Robert Fulton invented the first steamboat, the Clermont in 1807; steamboats were common by the 1830s
    • this caused an increase of U.S. trade because there was no concern for weather and water current
    • this contributed to the development of Southern and Western economies

XIV. “Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York

  1. Gov. DeWitt Clinton’s Big Ditch was the Erie Canal between Lake Erie and the Hudson River
    • it shortened the expense and time of transportation (to one twentieth what it was before); cities grew along the canal and the price of food was reduced
    • farmers were unable to compete in the rocky soils of the East, so they went to the West

XV. The Iron Horse

  1. The 1st railroad in U.S. was introduced in 1828; by 1860, 30,000 miles of railroad tracks had been laid in the U.S. (3/4 of those tracks were up North)
  2. The railroads were 1st opposed because financiers were afraid of losing money from Erie Canal traffic; railroads also caused fires to houses from their embers.
  3. Early trains were poorly constructed (with bad brakes) and the gauge of tracks varied

XVIII. Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders

  1. foreign exports
    • South — cotton account for 50% of exports
    • North — after the repeal of the British Corn Law of 1846, wheat became an important commodity in trade with England
  2. Americans imported more than they exported (causing substantial debt to foreign creditors)
  3. In 1858, Cyrus Field laid a telegraph cable between the U.S. & Europe (but died in 3 weeks); a better one was laid in 1866. This provided instant communication with Europe—a monumental step forward.
  4. American vessels had been idle due to embargoes and panics; the U.S. Navy made little progress
    • the golden age of the American merchant marine came in 1840s and 50s – Donald Mckay built the clipper ships which dominated the seas for a brief time (they were very fast, sleek, and long)
      • tea trade with the British grew and carried many to California
    • America’s brief dominance at sea with the clipper ships was crushed by British iron steamers, “Tea kettles” that were more reliable and could haul heavier loads, though slower.
  5. speedy communication popped up from Missouri to California, in the Pony Express (going 2,000 miles in 10 days). The Pony Express was short-lived though, lasting but 2 years, and was replaced by the telegraph wire.

XIX. The Transport Web Binds the Union

  1. the steamboat allowed reverse transport of South to West and served to bind them together
  2. more canals led to more trade with East from the West (the South was left out with canals)
  3. New York became the queen port of the country, replacing New Orleans, thanks to the Erie Canal
  4. Principle of divided labor emerged with each region specializing in its own economic activity
    • South — cotton to New England; West — grain & livestock for the East & Europe; East — machines, textiles for South and West
  5. The South thought the Mississippi River linked them to upper valley states; they would overlook man-made links when they began to consider secession
  6. Transformed the home, it was once the center of economics, but now served as a refuge from work.

XXI. The Market Revolution

  1. Just as the political landscape of America changed, the economic scene did too. Essentially, business began to grow up.
  2. The era of the self-supported farm was changing to a more modern, specialty driven economy.
  3. These times widened the gap between the rich and poor.
  4. Cities saw the greatest extremes
    • unskilled workers were “drifters” from town to town looking for jobs (1/2 of industrial population)
    • social mobility existed, although rags-to-riches stories were rare
    • the standard of living did rise, however, as wages did rise (this helped diffuse any potential class conflict)

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture, 1790-1860

 I. Reviving Religion

  1. Church attendance was regular in 1850 (3/4 of population attended)
  2. Many relied on Deism (reason rather revelation); Deism rejected original sin of man, denied Christ’s divinity but believed in a supreme being that created universe with an order, similar to a clockmaker.
  3. Unitarian faith begins (New England)
    • believed God existed in only 1 person, not in the orthodox trinity; stressed goodness of human nature
    • believed in free will and salvation through good works; pictured God as a loving father
    • appealed to intellectuals with rationalism and optimism
  4. These perversions of Christianity ignited Christians to “take back their faith” and oppose these new beliefs
  5. Liberalism in religion started in 1800 spawned the 2nd Great Awakening a tidal wave of spiritual fervor that resulted in prison reform, church reform, temperance movement (no alcohol), women’s rights movement, abolition of slavery in 1830s
    • it spread to the masses through huge “camp meetings”
    • the East went to the West to Christianize Indians
    • Methodists and Baptists stressed personal conversion, democracy in church affairs, emotionalism
    • Peter Cartwright – was best known of the “circuit riders” or traveling preachers
    • Charles Grandison Finney – the greatest revival preacher who led massive revivals in Rochester, NY

II. Denominational Diversity

  1. The revival furthered fragmentation of religious faiths
    • New York, with its Puritans, preached “hellfire” and was known as the “Burned-Over District.”
    • Millerites (Adventists) – predicted Christ to return to earth on Oct 22, 1844. When this prophesy failed to materialize, the movement lost credibility.
    • The Awakening widened lines between classes the region (like 1st Great Awakening)
    • conservatives were made up of: propertied Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Unitarians
    • the less-learned of the South the West (frontier areas) were usually Methodists or Baptists
  2. Religion further split with the issue of slavery (i.e. the Methodists and Presbyterians split)

III. A Desert Zion in Utah

  1. Joseph Smith (1830) claimed to have found golden tablets in NY with the Book of Mormon inscribed on them. He came up with the Mormon faith, officially called the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
    • antagonism toward Mormons emerged due to their polygamy, drilling militia, and voting as a unit
    • Smith was killed, but was succeeded by Brigham Young, who led followers to Utah
    • they grew quickly by birth and immigration from Europe
    • they had a federal governor and marched to Utah when Young became governor
    • the issue of polygamy prevented Utah’s entrance to U.S. until 1896

IV. Free School for a Free People

  1. The idea of tax-supported, compulsory (mandatory), primary schools was opposed as a hand-out to paupers
    • Gradually, support rose because uneducated “brats” might grow up to be rabbles with voting rights
    • Free public education, triumphed in 1828 along with the voting power in the Jackson election
    • there were largely ill-taught and ill-trained teachers, however
    • Horace Mann fought for better schools and is the “Father of Public Education”
    • school was too expensive for many community; blacks were mostly left out from education
  2. Important educators - Noah Webster (dictionary and Blueback Speller); William H. McGuffey — McGuffey’s Readers)

V. Higher Goals for Higher Learning

  1. The 2nd Great Awakening led to the building of small schools in the South the West (mainly for pride)
    • the curriculum focused mainly on Latin, Greek, Math, moral philosophy
  2. The 1st state-supported university was founded in the Tar Heel state, the Univ. of North Carolina, in 1795; Jefferson started the University of Virginia shortly afterwards (UVA was to be independent of religion or politics)
  3. women were thought to be corrupted if too educated and were therefore excluded
  4. Emma Willard — established Troy Female Seminary (1821) and Mount Holyoke Seminary (1837) was established by Mary Lyon
  5. Libraries, public lectures, and magazines flourished

VI. An Age of Reform

  1. reformers opposed tobacco, alcohol, profanity, and many other vices, and came out for women’s rights
  2. women were very important in motivating these reform movements
  3. reformers were often optimists who sought a perfect society
    • some were naïve and ignored the problems of factories
    • they fought for no imprisonment for debt (the poor were sometimes locked in jail for less than $1 debt); this was gradually abolished
    • reformers wanted criminal codes softened and reformatories created
    • the mentally insane were treated badly. Dorothea Dix fought for reform of the mentally insane in her classic petition of 1843
    • there was agitation for peace (i.e. the American Peace Society) - William Ladd had some impact until Civil War and Crimean war

VII. Demon Rum—The “Old Deluder”

  1. drunkenness was widespread
  2. The American Temperance Society was formed at Boston (1826) – the “Cold Water Army” (children), signed pledges, made pamphlets, and an anti-alcohol novel emerged called 10 nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There
  3. Attack on the demon drink adopted 2 major lines attack…
    • stressed temperance (individual will to resist)
    • legislature-removed temptation - Neal S. Dow becomes the “Father of Prohibition”
    • sponsored Maine Law of 1851 which prohibited making and sale of liquor (followed by others)

VIII. Women in Revolt

  1. Women stayed home, without voting rights. Still, in the 19th century, American women were generally better off than in Europe.
  2. many women avoided marriage altogether becoming “spinsters”
  3. gender differences increased sharply with different economic roles
    • women were perceived as weak physically and emotionally, but fine for teaching
    • men were perceived as strong, but crude and barbaric, if not guided by the purity of women
  4. home was the center of the female’s world (even for reformer Catharine Beecher) but many felt that was not enough
  5. they joined the movement to abolish of slavery
  6. the women’s movement was led by Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony (Suzy Bs), Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell (1st female medical graduate), Margaret Fuller, the Grimke sisters (anti-slavery advocates), and Amelia Bloomer (semi-short skirts)
    • The Seneca Falls Women’s Rights Convention (1848) – held in NY, it was a major landmark in women’s rights
    • Declaration of Sentiments – was written in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence saying that “all Men and Women are created equal”
    • demanded ballot for women
    • launched modern women’s rights movement
  7. the women’s rights movement was temporarily eclipsed by slavery when the Civil War heated up, but served as a foundation for later days

IX. Wilderness Utopias

  1. Robert Owen founded New Harmony, IN (1825) though it failed in confusion
  2. Brook Farm – Massachusetts experiment (1841) where 20 intellectuals committed to Transcendentalism (it lasted until ‘46)
  3. Oneida Community — practiced free love, birth control, eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring; it survived ironically as a capitalistic venture, selling baskets and then cutlery.
  4. Shakers – a communistic community (led by Mother Ann Lee); they couldn’t marry so they became extinct

X. The Dawn of Scientific Achievement

  1. Early Americans were interested in practical science rather than pure science (i.e., Jefferson and his newly designed plow).
    • Nathaniel Bowditch – studied practical navigation and oceanography
    • Matthew Maury - ocean winds, currents
  2. Writers were concerned with basic science.
  3. The most influential U.S. scientists…
    • Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) - pioneer in chemistry geologist (taught in Yale)
    • Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) - served at Harvard, insisted on original research
    • Asa Gray (1810-1888) Harvard, was the Columbus of botany
    • John Audubon (1785-1851) painted birds with exact detail
  4. Medicine in the U.S. was primitive (i.e., bleeding used for cure; smallpox, yellow fever though it killed many).
  5. Life expectancy was unsurprisingly low.
  6. Self-prescribed patent medicines were common, they were usually were mostly alcohol and often as harmful as helpful.
  7. The local surgeon was usually the local barber or butcher.

XI. Artistic Achievements

  1. U.S. had traditionally imitated European styles of art (aristocratic subjects, dark portraits, stormy landscapes)
  2. 1820-50 was a Greek revival, as they’d won independence from Turks; Gothic forms also gained popularity
  3. Thomas Jefferson was the most able architect of his generation (Monticello and University of Virginia)
  4. Artists were viewed as a wasters of time; they suffered from Puritan prejudice of art as sinful pride
  5. Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) - painted Washington and competed with English artists

Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827) painted 60 portraits of Washington
John Trumbull (1756-1843) - captured the Revolutionary War in paint in dramatic fashion

  1. During the nationalism upsurge after War of 1812, U.S. painters portrayed human landscapes and Romanticism
    • “darky” tunes became popular
    • Stephen Foster wrote Old Folks at Home (AKA Suwannee River, his most famous) and My Old Kentucky Home.

XII. The Blossoming of a National Literature

  1. Literature was imported or plagiarized from England
  2. Americans poured literature into practical outlets (i.e. The Federalist Papers, Common Sense (Paine), Ben Franklin’s Autobiography, Poor Richard’s Almanack)
  3. literature was reborn after the War of Independence and especially after War of 1812
  4. The Knickerbocker group in NY wrote the first truly American literature
    • Washington Irving (1783-1859) - 1st U.S. internationally recognized writings, The Sketch Book
    • James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) - 1st US novelist, The Leatherstocking Tales (which included The Last of the Mohicans which was popular in Europe)
    • William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878) – Thanatopsis, the 1st high quality poetry in U.S.

XIII. Trumpeters of Transcendentalism

  1. Literature dawned in the 2nd quarter of 19th century with the transcendentalist movement (circa 1830)
    • transcendentalism clashed with John Locke (who argued knowledge came from reason); for transcendentalists, truth came not by observation alone, from with inner light
    • it stressed individualism, self-reliance, and non-conformity
    • Ralph Waldo Emerson was popular since the ideal of the essay reflected the spirit of the U.S.
    • he lectured the Phi Beta Kappa Address “The American Scholar”
    • he urged U.S. writers throw off European tradition
    • influential as practical philosopher (stressed self-government, self-reliance, depending on self)
    • most famous for his work, Self Reliance
    • Henry David Thoreau
    • He condemned slavery and wrote Walden: Or life in the Woods
    • He also wrote On the Duty of Civil Disobedience, which was idealistic in thought, and a forerunner of Gandhi and then Martin Luther King Jr., saying it is not wrong to disobey a wrong law
    • Walt Whitman wrote Leaves of Grass (poetry) and was “Poet Laureate of Democracy”

XIV. Glowing Literary Lights (not associated with transcendentalism)

  1. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow - wrote poems popular in Europe such as Evangeline
  2. John Greenleaf Whittier - poems that cried against injustice, intolerance, inhumanity
  3. James Russell Lowell - political satirist who wrote Biglow Papers
  4. Oliver Wendell Holmes - The Last Leaf
  5. Women writers
    • Louisa May Alcott - with transcendentalism wrote Little Women
    • Emily Dickinson – wrote of the theme of nature in poems
  6. Southern literary figure – William Gillmore Simms - “the cooper of the south”; wrote many books of life in frontier South during the Revolutionary War

XV. Literary Individualists and Dissenters

  1. Edgar Allan Poe - wrote “The Raven” and many short stories
    • invented modern detective novel and “psychological thriller”
    • he was fascinated by the supernatural and reflected a morbid sensibility (more prized by Europe)
  2. reflections of Calvinist obsession with original sin and struggle between good & evil
    • Nathaniel Hawthorne - The Scarlet Letter (psychological effect of sin)
    • Herman Melville - Moby Dick, and allegory between good and evil told of a whaling captain

XVI. Portrayers of the Past

  1. George Bancroft – founded the naval academy; published U.S. history book and was known as the “Father of American History”
  2. William H. Prescott - published on the conquest of Mexico, Peru
  3. Francis Parkman - published on the struggle between France and England in colonial North America
  4. Historians were all from New England because they had the most books. Therefore, there became an anti-South bias.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy, 1793-1860

I. “Cotton Is King!”

  1. Before the 1793 invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, slavery was a dying business, since the South was burdened with depressed prices, unmarketable goods, and over-cropped lands.
    • After the gin was invented, growing cotton became wildly profitable and easier, and more slaves were needed.
  2. The North also transported the cotton to England and the rest of Europe, so they were in part responsible for the slave trade as well.
  3. The South produced more than half the world’s supply of cotton, and held an advantage over countries like England, an industrial giant, which needed cotton to make cloth, etc…
  4. The South believed that since England was so dependent on them that, if civil war was to ever break out, England would support the South that it so heavily depended on.

II. The Planter “Aristocracy”

  1. In 1850, only 1733 families owned more than 100 slaves each, and they were the wealthy aristocracy of the South, with big houses and huge plantations.
  2. The Southern aristocrats widened the gap between the rich and the poor and hampered public-funded education by sending their children to private schools.
    • Also, a favorite author among them was Sir Walter Scott, author of Ivanhoe, who helped them idealize a feudal society with them as the kings and queens and the slaves as their subjects.
  3. The plantation system shaped the lives of southern women.
    • Mistresses of the house commanded a sizable household of mostly female slaves who cooked, sewed, cared for the children, and washed things.
    • Mistresses could be kind or cruel, but all of them did at one point or another abuse their slaves to some degree; there was no “perfect mistress.”

III. Slaves of the Slave System

  1. Cotton production spoiled the earth, and even though profits were quick and high, the land was ruined, and cotton producers were always in need of new land.
  2. The economic structure of the South became increasingly monopolistic because as land ran out, smaller farmers sold their land to the large estate owners.
  3. Also, the temptation to over-speculate in land and in slaves caused many planters to plunge deep into debt.
    • Slaves were valuable, but they were also a gamble, since they might run away or be killed by disease.
  4. The dominance of King Cotton likewise led to a one-crop economy whose price level was at the mercy of world conditions.
  5. Southerners resented the Northerners who got rich at their expense while they were dependent on the North for clothing, food, and manufactured goods.
  6. The South repelled immigrants from Europe, who went to the North, making it richer.

IV. The White Majority

  1. Beneath the aristocracy were the whites that owned one or two, or a small family of slaves; they worked hard on the land with their slaves and the only difference between them and their northern neighbors was that there were slaves living with them.
  2. Beneath these people were the slaveless whites (a full 3/4 of the white population) that raised corn and hogs, sneered at the rich cotton “snobocracy” and lived simply and poorly.
    • Some of the poorest were known as “poor white trash,” “hillbillies” and “clay-eaters” and were described as listless, shiftless, and misshapen.
    • It is now known that these people weren’t lazy, just sick, suffering from malnutrition and parasites like hookworm (which they got eating/chewing clay for minerals)
  3. Even the slaveless whites defended the slavery system because they all hoped to own a slave or two some day, and they could take perverse pleasure in knowing that, no matter how bad they were, they always “outranked” Blacks.
  4. Mountain whites, those who lived isolated in the wilderness under Spartan frontier conditions, hated white aristocrats and Blacks, and they were key in crippling the Southern secessionists during the Civil War.

V. Free Blacks: Slaves Without Masters

  1. By 1860, free Blacks in the South numbered about 250,000.
  2. In the upper South, these Blacks were descended from those freed by the idealism of the Revolutionary War (“all men were created equal”).
  3. In the deep South, they were usually mulattoes (Black mother, White father who was usually a master) freed when their masters died.
  4. Many owned property; a few owned slaves themselves.
  5. Free Blacks were prohibited from working in certain occupations and forbidden from testifying against whites in court; and as examples of what slaves could be, Whites resented them.
  6. In the North, free Blacks were also unpopular, as several states denied their entrance, most denied them the right to vote and most barred them from public schools.
  7. Northern Blacks were especially hated by the Irish, with whom they competed for jobs.
  8. Anti-black feeling was stronger in the North, where people liked the race but not the individual, than in the South, were people liked the individual (with whom they’d often grown up), but not the race.

VI. Plantation Slavery

  1. Although slave importation was banned in 1808, smuggling of them continued due to their high demand and despite death sentences to smugglers
  2. However, the slave increase (4 million by 1860) was mostly due to their natural reproduction.
  3. Slaves were an investment, and thus were treated better and more kindly and were spared the most dangerous jobs, like putting a roof on a house, draining a swamp, or blasting caves.
    • Usually, Irishmen were used to do that sort of work.
  4. Slavery also created majorities or near-majorities in the Deep South, and the states of South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana accounted for half of all slaves in the South.
  5. Breeding slaves was not encouraged, but thousands of slaves were “sold down the river” to toil as field-gang workers, and women who gave birth to many children were prized.
    • Some were promised freedom after ten children born.
  6. Slave auctions were brutal, with slaves being inspected like animals and families often mercilessly separated; Harriet Beecher Stowe seized the emotional power of this scene in her Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

VII. Life Under the Lash

  1. Slave life varied from place to place, but for slaves everywhere, life meant hard work, no civil or political rights, and whipping if orders weren’t followed.
  2. Laws that tried to protect slaves were difficult to enforce.
  3. Lash beatings weren’t that common, since a master could lower the value of his slave if he whipped him too much.
  4. Forced separation of spouses, parents and children seem to have been more common in the upper South, among smaller plantations.
  5. Still, most slaves were raised in stable two-parent households and continuity of family identity across generations was evidenced in the widespread practice of naming children for grandparents or adopting the surname of a forebear’s master.
  6. In contrast to the White planters, Africans avoided marriage of first cousins.
  7. Africans also mixed the Christian religion with their own native religion, and often, they sang Christian hymns as signals and codes for news of possible freedom; many of them sang songs that emphasize bondage. (“Let my people go.”)

VIII. The Burdens of Bondage

  1. Slaves had no dignity, were illiterate, and had no chance of achieving the “American dream.”
  2. They also devised countless ways to make trouble without getting punished too badly.
    • They worked as slowly as they could without getting lashed.
    • They stole food and sabotaged expensive equipment.
    • Occasionally, they poisoned their masters’ food.
  3. Rebellions, such as the 1800 insurrection by a slave named Gabriel in Richmond, Virginia, and the 1822 Charleston rebellion led by Denmark Vesey, and the 1831 revolt semiliterate preacher Nat Turner, were never successful. However, they did scare the jeepers out of whites, which led to tightened rules.
  4. Whites became paranoid of Black revolts, and they had to degrade themselves, along with their victims, as noted by distinguished Black leaderBooker T. Washington.

IX. Early Abolitionism

  1. In 1817, the American Colonization Society was founded for the purpose of transporting Blacks back to Africa, and in 1822, the Republic of Liberiawas founded for Blacks to live.
    • Most Blacks had no wish to be transplanted into a strange civilization after having been partially Americanized.
    • By 1860, virtually all slaves were not Africans, but native-born African-Americans.
  2. In the 1830s, abolitionism really took off, with the Second Great Awakening and other things providing support.
  3. Theodore Dwight Weld was among those who were inflamed against slavery.
  4. Inspired by Charles Grandison Finney, Weld preached against slavery and even wrote a pamphlet, American Slavery As It Is.

X. Radical Abolitionism

  1. On January 1st, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison published the first edition of The Liberator triggering a 30-year war of words and in a sense firing one of the first shots of the Civil War.
  2. Other dedicated abolitionists rallied around Garrison, such as Wendell Phillips, a Boston patrician known as “abolition’s golden trumpet” who refused to eat cane sugar or wore cotton cloth, since both were made by slaves.
  3. David Walker, a Black abolitionist, wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World in 1829 and advocated a bloody end to white supremacy.
  4. Sojourner Truth, a freed Black woman who fought for black emancipation and women’s rights, and Martin Delaney, one of the few people who seriously reconsidered Black relocation to Africa, also fought for Black rights.
  5. The greatest Black abolitionist was an escaped black, Frederick Douglass, who was a great speaker and fought for the Black cause despite being beaten and harassed.
    • His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, depicted his remarkable struggle and his origins, as well as his life.
    • While Garrison seemed more concerned with his own righteousness, Douglass increasingly looked to politics to solve the slavery problem.
    • He and others backed the Liberty Party in 1840, the Free Soil Party in 1848, and the Republican Party in the 1850s.
  6. In the end, many abolitionists supported war as the price for emancipation.

XI. The South Lashes Back

  1. In the South, abolitionist efforts increasingly came under attack and fire.
  2. Southerners began to organize a campaign talking about slavery’s positive good, conveniently forgetting about how their previous doubts about “peculiar institution’s” (slavery’s) morality.
  3. Southern slave supporters pointed out how masters taught their slaves religion, made them civilized, treated them well, and gave them “happy” lives.
  4. They also noted the lot of northern free Blacks, now were persecuted and harassed, as opposed to southern Black slaves, who were treated well, given meals, and cared for in old age.
  5. In 1836, Southern House members passed a “gag resolution” requiring all antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate, arousing the ire of northerners like John Quincy Adams.
  6. Southerners also resented the flood of propaganda in the form of pamphlets, drawings, etc…

XII. The Abolitionist Impact in the North

  1. For a long time, abolitionists like the extreme Garrisonians were unpopular, since many had been raised to believe the values of the slavery compromises in the Constitution.
    • Also, his secessionist talks contrasted against Webster’s cries for union.
  2. The South owed the North $300 million by the late 1850s, and northern factories depended on southern cotton to make goods.
  3. Many abolitionists’ speeches provoked violence and mob outbursts in the North, such as the 1834 trashing of Lewis Tappan’s New York House.
  4. In 1835, Garrison miraculously escaped a mob that dragged him around the streets of Boston.
  5. Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy of Alton, Illinois, who impugned the chastity of Catholic women, had his printing press destroyed four times and was killed by a mob in 1837; he became an abolitionist martyr.
  6. Yet by the 1850s, abolitionist outcries had been an impact on northern minds and were beginning to sway more and more toward their side.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy, 1841-1848

 I. The Accession of “Tyler Too”

  1. The Whig leaders, namely Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, had planned to control newly elected President William H. Harrison, but their plans hit a snag when he contracted pneumonia and died—only four weeks after he came to the White House.
  2. The new president was John Tyler, a Virginian gentleman who was a lone wolf.
    • He did not agree with the Whig party, since the Whigs were pro-bank and pro-protective tariff, and pro-internal improvements, but hailing from the South, he was not. Tyler was really more of a Democrat.

II. John Tyler: A President Without a Party

  1. After their victory, the Whigs unveiled their platform for America:
    • Financial reform would come in the form of a law ending the independent treasury system; Tyler agreeably signed it.
    • A new bill for a new Bank of the U.S. was on the table, but Clay didn’t try hard enough to conciliate with Tyler and get it passed, and it was vetoed.
  2. Whig extremists now started to call Tyler “his accidency.”
    • His entire cabinet resigned, except for Webster.
  3. Also, Tyler vetoed a proposed Whig tariff.
  4. The Whigs redrafted and revised the tariff, taking out the dollar-distribution scheme and pushing down the rates to about the moderately protective level of 1832 (32%), and Tyler, realizing that a tariff was needed, reluctantly signed it.

III. A War of Words with England

  1. At this time, anti-British sentiment was high because the pro-British Federalists had died out, there had been two wars with Britain, and the British travelers in America scoffed at the “uncivilized” Americans.
  2. American and British magazines ripped each other’s countries, but fortunately, this war was only of words and not of blood.
  3. In the 1800s, America with its expensive canals and railroads was a borrowing nation while Britain was the one that lent money, but when the Panic of 1837 broke out, the Englishmen who lost money assailed their rash American borrowers.
  4. In 1837, a small rebellion in Canada broke out, and Americans furnished arms and supplies.
  5. Also in 1837, an American steamer, the Caroline, was attacked in N. and set afire by a British force.
  6. Tensions were high afterwards, but later calmed; then in 1841, British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to some 130 revolting slaves who had captured the ship Creole.

IV. Manipulating the Maine Maps

  1. Maine had claimed territory on its northern and eastern border that was also claimed by England, and there were actually small skirmishes in the area (the “Aroostook War” of feuding lumberjacks).
  2. Luckily, in 1842 Britain sent Lord Ashburton to negotiate with Daniel Webster, and after talks, the two agreed to what is now called the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, which gave Britain their desired Halifax-Quebec route for a road while America got a bit more land north of Maine.
  3. The U.S. also got, as a readjustment of the U.S.—Canadian border, the unknowingly priceless Mesabi Range of iron ore up in Minnesota. It later provided the iron for steel in the boom of industry.

V. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

  1. Ever since it had declared independence in 1836, Texas had built up reinforcements because it had no idea if or when Mexico would attack again to reclaim her “province in revolt.” So, Texas made treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium. These alliances worried the U.S. because…
  2. If Texas "buddied up" to Europe, Britain especially, it’d cause big problems for America, such as…
    • The Monroe Doctrine (where Europe was told to "stay away") would be undermined if England had a buddy over here in Texas.
    • The dominant Southern cotton economy would also be undercut by Texas cotton shipping to England.
  3. The U.S. was at a stand-still over what to do with Texas.
    • The North decried the Southern "slavocracy" (a supposed Southern conspiracy to always gain more slave land).
    • America could not just boldly annex Texas without a war with Mexico.
    • Overseas, Britain wanted an independent Texas to check American expansionism.
    • Yet, Texas would be good boost for American cotton production and provide tons more land. What to do?!

VI. The Belated Texas Nuptials

  1. James K. Polk and his expansionist ideas won the election of 1844. His election was seen as a "mandate for manifest destiny," so the following year, Texas was formally invited to become the 28th state of the Union.
  2. Mexico complained that Americans had despoiled it of Texas, which was partly true, but as it turned out, Mexico would not have been able to reconquer their lost province anyway.

VII. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

  1. Oregon was a great place, stretching from the northern tip of California to the 54° 40’ line.
  2. Once claimed by Russia, Spain, England, and the U.S., now, only the latter two claimed it; England had good reasons for its claims north of theColumbia River, since it was populated by British and by the Hudson’s Bay Company.
  3. However, Americans had strong claims south of the Columbia River (named after his ship by Robert Gray when he discovered the river), since they populated it much more. Plus, the Americans occupied and had explored the interior of the land, thanks to Lewis and Clark.
  4. The Oregon Trail, an over 2000-mile trail across America, was a common route to Oregon during the early 1840s.

VIII. A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny

  1. In 1844, the two candidates for presidency were Henry Clay, the popular Whig who had been defeated twice before, and a dark-horse candidate,James K. Polk, who had been picked because the Democrats couldn’t agree on anyone else.
  2. Polk, having been Speaker of the House for four years and governor of Tennessee for two terms. He was no stranger to politics, was called “Young Hickory” (in fact, Polk was born in Pineville, N.C., only some 15 miles from Jackson’s birthplace) and Polk was even sponsored by former president Andrew Jackson.
  3. He and the Democrats advocated “Manifest Destiny”, a concept that stated that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent and get as much land as possible.
  4. On the issue of Texas, Clay tried to say two things at once, and thus, it cost him, since he lost the election (170 to 105 in the Electoral; 1,338,464 to 1,300,097 in the popular) by 5000 votes in New York.

IX. Polk the Purposeful

  1. Polk laid out a 4-point mission for himself and the nation (then achieved all 4 points in 4 years)
    • Lower the tariff
    • Restore the independent treasury (put U.S. money into non-government banks)
    • Clear up the Oregon border issue
    • Get California
  2. One of Polk’s acts was to lower the tariff, and his secretary of the treasury, Robert J. Walker, did so, lowering the tariff from 32% to 25% despite complaints by the industrialists.
    • Despite warnings of doom, the new tariff was followed by good times.
  3. He also restored the independent treasury in 1846 and wanted to acquire California and settle the Oregon dispute.
  4. Under Polk, the Oregon border issue was settled.
    • While the Democrats had promoted acquiring all of Oregon during their campaign, after the annexation of Texas, the Southern Democrats didn’t much care anymore.
    • England and the U.S. had been bargaining for Oregon land to answer, "Where is the border of Oregon?"
      • England first answered 42o latitude; then said the Columbia River
      • The U.S. first answered 54o40' latitude; then said 49o latititude
      • Things were tense for a while, but England realized there were more Americans in Oregon than Brits—their leverage was small.
    • So, the British proposed a treaty that would separate British and American claims at the 49th parallel (excluding Vancouver), a proposal that Polk threw to the Senate, and which accepted.
    • The U.S. got the better of the deal since
      • the British second-choice was rejected but the Americans' second-choice was accepted and
      • as with the Maine treaty, the U.S. got a bit more land than England did
    • Those angry with the deal cried, “Why all of Texas but not all of Oregon?” The cold, hard answer was that because Mexico was weak and that England was strong.

X. Misunderstandings with Mexico

  1. Polk wanted California, but this was difficult due to strained U.S.-Mexican relations.
    • After the annexation of Texas, Mexico had recalled its foreign minister, and before, it had been forced to default on its payments of $3 million to the U.S.
    • Also, when Texas claimed its southern boundary to be the Rio Grande and not the Nueces River like Mexico said, Polk felt that he had to defend Texas and did so.
  2. The U.S. then sent John Slidell to Mexico City as an envoy instructed to buy California for $25 million, however, once he arrived, the Mexican government, pressured by its angry people, refused to see him, thus “snubbing” him.

XI. American Blood on American (?) Soil

  1. A frustrated Polk now forced a showdown, and on Jan. 13, 1846, he ordered 4000 men under Zachary Taylor to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican troops.
  2. As events would have it, on April 25, 1846, news of Mexican troops crossing the Rio Grande and killing of wounding 16 Americans came to Washington, and Polk pushed for a declaration of war
    • A group of politicians, though, wanted to know where exactly was the spot of the fighting before committing to war; among them wasAbraham “Spotty” Lincoln because of his “Spot Resolution.”
    • Pushed by Polk, Congress declared war, and so began the Mexican-American War.

XII. The Mastering of Mexico

  1. Polk hoped that once American had beaten Mexico enough, he could get California and end the war, and the recently dethroned Santa Anna told the U.S. that if he could return to Mexico, he would take over the government, end the war, and give California to the U.S. He lied.
  2. In the Southwest, U.S. operations led by Stephen W. Kearny (led 1700 troops from Leavenworth to Santa Fe) and John C. Fremont (leader of theBear Flag Revolt in California) were successful.
  3. “Old Rough and Ready” Zachary Taylor, a general, he fought into Mexico, reaching Buena Vista, and repelled 20,000 Mexicans with only 5000 men, instantly becoming a hero.
  4. General Winfield Scott led American troops into Mexico City.

XIII. Fighting Mexico for Peace

  1. Polk sent Nicholas Trist to negotiate an armistice with Mexico at a cost of $10,000 (Santa Anna took the bribe and then used it for his defenses).
  2. Afterwards, Trist was recalled, but he refused to leave.
  3. He negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, which…
    • Gave to America all Mexican territory from Texas to California that was north of the Rio Grande. This land was called the Mexican Cession since Mexico ceded it to the U.S.
    • U.S. only had to pay $15 million to Mexico for it.
    • $3.5 million in debts from Mexico to the U.S. were absolved as well.
    • In essence, the U.S. had forced Mexico to "sell" the Mexican Cession lands.
  4. In America, there were people clamoring an end to the war (the Whigs) and those who wanted all of Mexico (but the leaders of the South like John C. Calhoun realized the political nightmare that would cause and decided not to be so greedy), so Polk speedily passed the bill to the Senate, which approved it, 38 to 14.
  5. Polk had originally planned to pay $25 million just for California, but he only paid $18,250,000; some people say that American paid even that much because it felt guilty for having bullied Mexico into a war it couldn’t win.

XIV. Profit and Loss in Mexico

  1. In the war, America only had 13,000 dead soldiers, most taken by disease, and the war was a great practice for the Civil War, giving men likeRobert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant invaluable battle experience.
  2. Outside countries now respected America more, since it had made no major blunders during the war and had proven its fighting prowess.
  3. However, it also paved the way to the Civil War by attaining more land that could be disputed over slavery.
  4. David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced his Wilmot Proviso (a provision or amendment), which stated that slavery should never exist in any of the Mexican Cession territories that would be taken from Mexico; the amendment was passed twice by the House but it never got passed the Senate (where southern states equaled northern).
    • Although it failed, the importance of the Wilmot Proviso lay in the fact that it opened old wounds—those of slavery.
    • In other words, it opened a "can of worms" by raising the question, "Will we have slavery in the Mexican Cession lands?"
    • It's this question that starts the Civil War in 1861, only 13 years later.
  5. Bitter Mexicans, resentful of the land that was taken from them, land that halved their country’s size while doubling America’s. They took small satisfaction when the same land caused disputes that led to the Civil War, a fate called "Santa Anna’s Revenge".

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle, 1848-1854

 I. The Popular Sovereignty Panacea

  1. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War, but it started a whole new debate about the extension of slavery, with Northerners rallying around the Wilmot Proviso (which proposed that the Mexican Cession lands be free soil); however, the Southerners shot it down.
  2. Before, the two national parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, had had strong support from all over the nation; now, that was in jeopardy.
  3. In 1848, Polk, due to tremendous overworking and chronic diarrhea, did not seek a second term, and the Democrats nominated Gen. Lewis Cass, a veteran of the War of 1812, a senator and diplomat of wide experience and considerable ability, and the originator of popular sovereignty, the idea that issues should be decided upon by the people (specifically, it applied to slavery, stating that the people in the territories should decide to legalize it or not).
    • It was good (and liked by politicians) because it was a compromise between the extremes of the North and the South, and it stuck with the idea of self-determination, but it could spread slavery.

II. Political Triumphs for General Taylor

  1. The Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista in the Mexican War, a man with no political experience, but popular man, and they avoided all picky issues in his campaign.
  2. Disgusted antislavery Northerners organized the Free Soil Party, a party committed against the extension of slavery in the territories and one that also advocated federal aid for internal improvements and urged free government homesteads for settlers.
    • This party appealed to people angry over the half-acquisition of Oregon, people who didn’t like Blacks in the new territory, as well as “conscience Whigs” who condemned slavery on moral grounds.
    • The Free-Soilers nominated Martin Van Buren.
  3. Neither major party talked about the slavery issue, but Taylor won narrowly.

III. “Californy Gold”

  1. In 1848, gold was discovered in California, and thousands flooded into the state, thus blowing the lid off of the slavery issue.
  2. Most people didn’t “strike it rich,” but there were many lawless men and women.
  3. As a result, California (privately encouraged by the president) drafted a constitution and then applied for free statehood, thus bypassing the usual territorial stage and avoiding becoming a slave state.

IV. Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad

  1. In 1850, the South was very well off, with a Southerner as president (Taylor), a majority in the cabinet and on the Supreme Court, and equality in the Senate meaning that its 15 states could block any proposed amendment that would outlaw slavery. Still, the South was worried.
  2. The balance of 15 free states and 15 slave states was in danger with the admission of free California (which would indeed destroy the equilibrium forever) and other states might follow California as free states.
  3. The South was also agitated about Texas’ claims on disputed territory and the prospect of no slavery in Washington D.C., thus putting a piece of non-slavery land right in the middle of slave-holding Virginia and Maryland.
  4. Finally the Underground Railroad, a secret organization that took runaway states north to Canada, was taking more and more slaves from the South.
  5. Harriet Tubman freed more than 300 slaves during 19 trips to the South.
  6. The South was also demanded a stricter fugitive slave law.

V. Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

  1. In 1850, the South was confronted with catastrophe, with California demanding admission as a free state.
    • Thus, the three giants met together for the last time to engineer a compromise.
  2. Henry Clay, AKA “The Great Compromiser,” now 73 years old, urged concession from both the North and the South (the North for a fugitive slave law, the South for others) and was seconded by Stephen Douglas, the “Little Giant” and fine senator.
  3. Southern spokesman John C. Calhoun, dying of tuberculosis, pleaded for states’ rights, for slavery to be left alone, for the return of runaway slaves, the restoration of the rights of the South as a minority, and the return for political balance.
  4. Northerner Daniel Webster proclaimed that the new land could not hold slaves anyway, since it couldn’t cultivate cotton, etc… and his Seventh of March speech helped move the North into compromise.
  5. As a result of the popular speech, though, Webster was also proclaimed a traitor to the North, since he had called for ignoring the slavery subject.

VI. Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill

  1. A new group of politicians, the “Young Guard,” seemed more interested in purifying the Union rather than patching it up.
  2. William H. Seward, a young senator from New York, was flatly against concession and hated slavery, but he didn’t seem to realize that the Union was built on compromise, and he said that Christian legislators must adhere to a “higher law” and not allow slavery to exist; this might have cost him the 1860 presidential election.
  3. President Taylor also appeared to have fallen under the influence of the “higher law,” vetoing every compromise sent to him by Congress.

VII. Breaking the Congressional Logjam

  1. Then, in 1850, Zachary Taylor suddenly died of an acute intestinal disorder, and portly Millard Fillmore took over the reigns.
  2. Impressed by arguments of conciliation, he signed a series of agreements that came to be known as the Compromise of 1850.
  3. Clay, Webster, and Douglas orated on behalf of the compromise for the North, but the South hated it; fortunately, they finally accepted it after much debate.

VIII. Balancing the Compromise Scales

  1. What the North got… (the North got the better deal in the Compromise of 1850)
    1. California was admitted as a free state, permanently tipping the balance.
    2. Texas lost its disputed territory to New Mexico and (now) Oklahoma.
    3. The District of Columbia could not have slave trade, but slavery was still legal. This was symbolic only. It was symbolic in that the nation’s capital “took a stance” against the trade. However, it was impractical because the trade only was illegal, not slavery and because a person could easily buy a slave in next-door Virginia.
  2. What the South got…
    1. Popular sovereignty in the Mexican Cession lands. This was good for the South because prior to this, there was to be no new slave lands (the 36o30’ Missouri Compromise line had drawn that). On paper, this opened a lot of land to slavery, possibly. This was bad for the South because those lands were too dry to raise cotton anyway and therefore would never see slaves.
    2. Texas was paid $10 million for the land lost to New Mexico.
    3. A new, tougher Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was drastic, and it stated that (1) fleeing slaves couldn’t testify on their own behalf, (2) the federal commissioner who handled the case got $5 if the slave was free and $10 if not, and (3) people who were ordered to help catch slaves had to do so, even if they didn’t want to.
      • Angry Northerners pledged not to follow the new law, and the Underground Railroad stepped up its timetable.
      • It turns out that the new Fugitive Slave Law was a blunder on behalf of the South, since it inflamed both sides, but a civil war didn’t occur, and this was better for the North, since with each moment, it was growing ahead of the South in population and wealth—in crops, factories, foundries, ships, and railroads.

IX. Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

  1. In 1852, the Democrats, unable to agree, finally nominated dark horse Franklin Pierce, a man who was unknown and enemyless.
  2. The Whigs nominated “Old Fuss and Feathers,” Winfield Scott, the old veteran of the War of 1812 and the Mexican-American War.
  3. Both parties boasted about the Compromise of 1850, though the Democrats did more.
  4. The Whigs were hopelessly split, and thus, Pierce won in a landslide; the death of the Whigs ended the national political arguments and gave rise to sectional political alignments.

X. Expansionist Stirrings South of the Border

  1. Pierce tried to be another Polk, and he impressed followers by reciting his inaugural address from memory, but his cabinet was filled with Southerners like Jefferson Davis and he was prepared to be a Southerners’ tool.
  2. In July of 1856, a brazen American adventurer, William Walker, grabbed control in Nicaragua and proclaimed himself president, then legalized slavery, but a coalition of Latin American states overthrew him. This threw some fuel on the “Slavocracy” theory (a conspiracy theory where the South was always seeking new slave land).
  3. America also eyed Cuba with envy.
    • Although America wanted Cuba, Spain wouldn’t sell it to the U.S. at any price.
    • So after two attempts to take Cuba failed, and after Spain captured the American steamer Black Warrior on a technicality, three U.S. foreign ministers met in Ostend, Belgium and drew up the Ostend Manifesto which stated that the U.S. was to offer $120 million to Spain for Cuba, and if it refused and Spain’s ownership of Cuba continued to endanger the U.S., then America would be justified in seizing the island (sell it or it’ll be taken).
  4. Northerners were outraged once this “secret” document was leaked, and the South could not get Cuba (and obtain another slave state). Pierce was embarrassed and more fuel thrown on the Slavocracy theory.

XI. The Allure of Asia

  1. Over on the Pacific, America was ready to open to Asia.
    • Caleb Cushing was sent to China on a goodwill mission.
  2. The Chinese were welcoming since they wanted to counter the British.
  3. U.S.—China trade began to flourish.
  4. Missionaries also sought to save souls; they largely kindled resent however.
  5. Relations opened up Japan when Commodore Matthew C. Perry steamed into the harbor of Tokyo in 1854 and asked/coerced/forced them to open up their nation.
    • Perry’s Treaty of Kanagawa formerly opened Japan.
    • This broke Japan’s centuries-old traditional of isolation, and started them down a road of modernization and then imperialism and militarism.

XII. Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase

  1. Though the U.S. owned California and Oregon, getting out there was very difficult, since the sea routes were too long and the wagon route overland was dangerous, so the only real feasible solution lay in a transcontinental railroad.
  2. The Southerners wanted a route through the South, but the best one would go through Mexico, so Secretary of War Jefferson Davis arranged to have James Gadsden appointed minister to Mexico.
    • Two reasons this was the best route: (1) the land was organized meaning any Indian attacks could be repelled by the U.S. Army and (2) geography—the plan was to skirt south of the Rocky Mtns
    • Finding Santa Anna in power again, he bought the Gadsden Purchase for $10 million, and despite clamor about the “rip-off,” Congress passed the sale.
  3. A northern railroad would be less effective since it would cross over mountains and cross through Indian territory.
  4. The South now appeared to have control of the location of the transcontinental railroad, but the North said that if the organization of territories was the problem, then Nebraska should be organized.

XIII. Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

  1. To do this, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which would let slavery in Kansas and Nebraska be decided upon by popular sovereignty (a concession to the South in return for giving up the railroad).
  2. The problem was that the Missouri Compromise had banned any slavery north of the 36∞30’ line, so the act would have to repeal it.
  3. Southerners had never thought of Kansas as a possible slave state, and thus backed the bill, but Northerners rallied against it.
  4. Nevertheless, Douglas rammed the bill through Congress, and it was passed, repealing the Missouri Compromise.

XIV. Congress Legislates a Civil War

  1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act directly wrecked the Missouri Compromise of 1820 (by opening slavery up above the 36o30’ line) and indirectly wrecked the Compromise of 1850 (when everyone thought the issue was settled and done).
  2. Northerners no longer enforced the Fugitive Slave Law at all, and Southerners were still angry.
  3. The Democratic Party was hopelessly split into two, and after 1856, it would not have a president elected for 28 years.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion, 1854-1861

 I. Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries

  1. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a popular book that awakened the passions of the North toward the evils of slavery.
    • In one line, it’s about the splitting up of a slave family and the cruel mistreatment of likeable Uncle Tom by a cruel slave master.
    • The book sold millions of copies, and overseas, British people were charmed by it.
    • The South cried foul, saying Stowe’s portrayal of slavery was wrong and unfair.
    • The book helped Britain stay out of the Civil War because its people, who had read the book and had now denounced slavery because they sympathized with Uncle Tom, wouldn’t allow intervention on behalf of the South.
  2. Another book, The Impending Crisis of the South, written by Hinton R. Helper , a non-aristocratic white North Carolinian, tried to prove, by an array of statistics, that the non-slave-holding Southern whites were really the ones most hurt by slavery.
    • Published in the North, this book and Uncle Tom’s Cabin were both banned in the South, but widely read in the North. They drove the North—South wedge deeper.

II. The North-South Contest for Kansas

  1. Northerners began to pour into Kansas, and Southerners were outraged, since they had supported the Compromise of 1850 under the impression that Kansas would become a slave state.
  2. Thus, on election day in 1855, hordes of Southerners “border ruffians” from Missouri flooded the polls and elected Kansas to be a slave state; free-soilers were unable to stomach this and set up their own government in Topeka.
    • Thus, confused Kansans had to chose between two governments: one illegal (free government in Topeka) and the other fraudulent (slavery government in Shawnee).
  3. In 1856, a group of pro-slavery raiders shot up and burnt part of Lawrence, thus starting violence.

III. Kansas in Convulsion

  1. John Brown, a crazy man (literally), led a band of followers to Pottawatomie Creek in May of 1856 and hacked to death five presumable pro-slaveryites.
    • This brutal violence surprised even the most ardent abolitionists and brought swift retaliation from pro-slaveryites. “Bleeding Kansas” was earning its name.
  2. By 1857, Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood, and those for slavery devised the Lecompton Constitution, which provided that the people were only allowed to vote for the constitution “with slavery” or “without slavery.”
    • However, even if the constitution was passed “without slavery,” those slaveholders already in the state would still be protected. So, slaves would be in Kansas, despite the vote.
    • Angry free-soilers boycotted the polls and Kansas approved the constitution with slavery.
  3. In Washington, James Buchanan had succeeded Franklin Pierce, but like the former president, Buchanan was more towards the South, and firmly supported the Lecompton Constitution.
  4. Senator Stephen Douglas, refusing to have this fraudulent vote by saying this wasn’t true popular sovereignty, threw away his Southern support and called for a fair re-vote.
  5. Thus, the Democratic Party was hopelessly divided, ending the last remaining national party for years to come (the Whigs were dead and the Republicans were a sectional party).

IV. “Bully” Brooks and His Bludgeon

  1. “Bleeding Kansas” was an issue that spilled into Congress: Senator Charles Sumner was a vocal anti-slaveryite, and his blistering speeches condemned all slavery supporters.
  2. Congressman Preston S. Brooks decided that since Sumner was not a gentleman he couldn’t challenge him to a duel, so Brooks beat Sumner with a cane until it broke; nearby, Senators did nothing but watched, and Brooks was cheered on by the South.
  3. However, the incident touched off fireworks, as Sumner’s “The Crime Against Kansas” speech was reprinted by the thousands, and it put Brooks and the South in the wrong.

V. “Old Buck” versus “The Pathfinder”

  1. In 1856, the Democrats chose James Buchanan, someone untainted by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and a person with lots of political experience, to be their nomination for presidency against Republican John C. Fremont, a fighter in the Mexican-American War.
  2. Another party, the American Party, also called the “Know-Nothing Party” because of its secrecy, was organized by “nativists,” old-stock Protestants against immigrants, who nominated Millard Fillmore.
    • These people were anti-Catholic and anti-foreign and also included old Whigs.
      • The campaign was full of mudslinging, which included allegations of scandal and conspiracy.
      • Fremont was hurt by the rumor that he was a Roman Catholic.

VI. The Electoral Fruits of 1856

  1. Buchanan won because there were doubts about Fremont’s honesty, capacity, and sound judgment.
  2. Perhaps it was better that Buchanan won, since Fremont was not as strong as Lincoln, and in 1856, many people were still apathetic about slavery, and the South could have seceded more easily.

VII. The Dred Scott Bombshell

  1. On March 6, 1857, the Dred Scott decision was handed down by the Supreme Court.
    • Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him north into free states where he lived for many years. After his master’s death, he sued for his freedom from his new master, claiming that he had been in free territory and was therefore free. The Missouri Supreme Court agreed, freeing him, but his new master appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which overruled the decision.
  2. Outcomes or decisions of the case…
    • Chief Justice Roger Taney said that no slave could be a citizen of the U.S. in his justification.
    • The Court said a legislature/Congress cannot outlaw slavery, as that would go against the 5th Amendment saying a person’s property cannot be taken without due process of law. This was the bombshell statement.
    • The Court then concluded the Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional all along (because it’d banned slavery north of the 36° 30’ line and doing so was against the second point listed above).
  3. The case inflamed millions of abolitionists against slavery and even those who didn’t care much about it.
  4. Northerners complained; Southerners were ecstatic about the decision but inflamed by northern defiance, and more tension built.
  5. The North—South scoreboard now favored the South undeniably. The South had (1) the Supreme Court, (2) the president, and (3) the Constitution on its side. The North had only Congress (which was now banned from outlawing slavery).
    • Reasons the Constitution favored the South…
      1. the Supreme Court just said so with the Dred Scott decision and it is the Supreme Court that interprets the Constitution
      2. the 5th Amendment said Congress could not take away property, in this case, slaves
      3. it could be argued that slavery is in the Constitution by way of the Three-Fifths Compromise
      4. it could be argued slavery is not in the Constitution since the word “slavery” is not present, but using this argument, the 10th Amendment said anything not in the Constitution is left up to the states, and the Southern states would vote for slavery.

VIII. The Financial Crash of 1857

  1. Psychologically, the Panic of 1857 was the worst of the 19th century, though it really wasn’t as bad as the Panic of 1837. It’s causes were
    • California gold causing inflation,
    • over-growth of grain,
    • over-speculation, as always, this time in land and railroads.
  2. The North was especially hard hit, but the South rode it out with flying colors, seemingly proving that cotton was indeed king and raising Southern egos.
  3. Also, in 1860, Congress passed a Homestead Act that would provide 160 acres of land at a cheap price for those who were less-fortunate, but it was vetoed by Buchanan.
    • This plan, though, was opposed by the northeast, which had long been unfriendly to extension of land and had feared that it would drain its population even more, and the south, which knew that it would provide an easy way for more free-soilers to fill the territories.
  4. The panic also brought calls for a higher tariff rate, which had been lowered to about 20% only months before.

IX. An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges

  1. In 1858, Senator Stephen Douglas’ term was about to expire, and against him was Republican Abraham Lincoln.
    • Abe was an ugly fellow who had risen up the political ladder slowly but was a good lawyer, had a down-home common sense about him, and a pretty decent debater.

X. The Great Debate: Lincoln Versus Douglas

  1. Lincoln rashly challenged Douglas, the nation’s most devastating debater, to a series of seven debates, which the Senator accepted, and despite expectations of failure, Lincoln held his own.
  2. The most famous debate came at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln essentially asked, “Mr. Douglas, if the people of a territory voted slavery down, despite the Supreme Court saying that they could not do so (point #2 of the Dred Scott decision), which side would you support, the people or the Supreme Court?”
    • “Mr. Popular Sovereignty,” Douglas replied with his “Freeport Doctrine,” which said that no matter how the Supreme Court ruled, slavery would stay down if the people voted it down; since power was held by the people.
  3. Douglas won the Illinois race for senate, but more people voted for Abe, so he won the moral victory.
    • Plus, Douglas “won the battle but lost the war” because his answer in the Freeport Doctrine caused the South to dislike him even more.
      • The South had loved Douglas prior to this due to his popular sovereignty position, but then came the Kansas pro-slavery vote which he’d shot down.
      • Then the Freeport Doctrine came down where he turned his back on the Supreme Court’s pro-South decision).
    • This Freeport statement ruined the 1860 election for presidency for him, which was what he really wanted all along.

XI. John Brown: Murderer or Martyr?

  1. John Brown now had a plan to invade the South, seize its arms, call upon the slaves to rise up and revolt, and take over the South and free it of slaves. But, in his raid of Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, the slaves didn’t revolt, and he was captured by the U.S. Marines under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee and convicted of treason, sentenced to death, and hanged.
  2. Brown, though insane, was not stupid, and he portrayed himself as a martyr against slavery, and when he was hanged, he instantly became a martyr for abolitionists; northerners rallied around his memory. Abolitionists were infuriated by his execution (as they’d conveniently forgotten his violent past).
  3. The South was happy and saw justice. They also felt his actions were typical of the radical North.

XII. The Disruption of the Democrats

  1. After failing to nominate a candidate in Charleston, South Carolina, the Democrats split into Northern and Southern factions, and at Baltimore, the Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas for president while the Southern Democrats chose John C. Breckinridge.
  2. Meanwhile, the “Know-Nothings” chose John Bell of Tennessee and called themselves the Constitutional Union party. They tried to mend fences and offered as their platform, simply, the Constitution.

XIII. A Rail-Splitter Splits the Union

  1. The Republicans, sensing victory against their split opponents, nominated Abraham Lincoln, not William “Higher Law” Seward.
  2. Their platform had an appeal to every important non-southern group: for free-soilers it proposed the non-expansion of slavery; for northern manufacturers, a protective tariff; for the immigrants, no abridgement of rights; for the West, internal improvements at federal expense; and for the farmers, free homesteads.
  3. Southerners threatened that Lincoln’s election would result in Southern secession.
  4. Lincoln wasn’t an outright abolitionist, since as late as February 1865, he had still favored cash compensation for free slaves.
  5. Abe Lincoln won the election despite not even being on the ballot in the South.

XIV. The Electoral Upheaval of 1860

  1. Lincoln won with only 40% of the popular vote, and had the Democratic Party been more organized and energetic, they might have won.
  2. It was a very sectional race: the North went to Lincoln, the South to Breckinridge, the “middle-ground” to the middle-of-the-road candidate in Bell, and popular-sovereignty-land went to Douglas.
  3. The Republicans did not control the House or the Senate, and the South still had a five-to-four majority in the Supreme Court, but the South still decided to secede.

XV. The Secessionist Exodus

  1. South Carolina had threatened to secede if Lincoln was elected president, and now it went good on its word, seceding in December of 1860.
    • Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas (the Deep South) followed in the next six weeks, before Abe was inaugurated.
    • The seven secession states met in Montgomery, Alabama in February of 1861 and created the Confederate States of America, and they chose Jefferson Davis as president.
  2. President Buchanan did nothing to force the confederacy back into the Union, partly because the Union troops were needed in the West and because the North was still apathetic toward secession; he simply left the issue for Lincoln to handle when he got sworn in.

XVI. The Collapse of Compromise

  1. In a last-minute attempt at compromise (again), James Henry Crittenden of Kentucky proposed the Crittenden Compromise, which would ban slavery north of the 36°30’ line extended to the Pacific and would leave the issue in territories south of the line up to the people; also, existing slavery south of the line would be protected.
  2. Lincoln opposed the compromise, which might have worked, because his party had preached against the extension of slavery, and he had to stick to principle.
  3. It also seems that Buchanan couldn’t have saved the Union no matter what he would have done.

XVII. Farewell to Union

  1. The seceding states did so because they feared that their rights as a slaveholding minority were being threatened, and were alarmed at the growing power of the Republicans, plus, they believed that they would be unopposed despite what the Northerners claimed.
  2. The South also hoped to develop its own banking and shipping, and to prosper.
  3. Besides, in 1776, the 13 colonies had seceded from Britain and had won; now the South could do the same thing.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South, 1861-1865

 I. The Menace of Secession

  1. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president, having slipped into Washington D.C. to thwart assassins, and in his inaugural address, he stated that there would be no conflict unless the South provoked it.
  2. He marked restoration of the union as his top goal, and offered doubts about it splitting.
    • He stated that geographically, the United States could not be split (which was true).
    • A split U.S. brought up questions about the sharing of the national debt and the allocation of federal territories.
    • A split U.S. also pleased the European countries, since the U.S. was the only major display of democracy in the Western Hemisphere, and with a split U.S., the Monroe Doctrine could be undermined as well if the new C.S.A. allowed Europe to gain a foothold with it.

II. South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

  1. Most of the forts in the South had relinquished their power to the Confederacy, but Fort Sumter was among the two that didn’t. And since its supplies were running out against a besieging South Carolinian army, Lincoln had a problem of how to deal with the situation.
    • Lincoln wisely chose to send supplies to the fort, and he told the South Carolinian governor that the ship to the fort only held provisions, not reinforcements.
    • However, to the South, provisions were reinforcements, and on April 12, 1861, cannons were fired onto the fort; after 34 hours of non-lethal firing, the fort surrendered.
  2. Northerners were inflamed by the South’s actions, and Lincoln now called on 75,000 volunteers; so many came that they had to be turned away.
  3. On April 19 and 27, Lincoln also called a naval blockade on the South that was leaky at first but soon clamped down tight.
  4. The Deep South (which had already seceded), felt that Lincoln was now waging an aggressive war, and was joined by four more Southern states: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.
    • The capital of the Confederacy was moved from Montgomery, AL to Richmond, VA.

III. Brother’s Blood and Border Blood

  1. The remaining Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland) were crucial for both sides, as they would have almost doubled the manufacturing capacity of the South and increased its supply of horses and mules by half.
    • They’re called “border states” because…
      1. they are on the North-South border and…
      2. they are slave-states. They have not seceded, but at any moment, they just might.
  2. Thus, to retain them, Lincoln used moral persuasion…and methods of dubious legality:
    • In Maryland, he declared martial law in order to retain a state that would isolate Washington D.C. within Confederate territory if it went to the South
    • He also sent troops to western Virginia and Missouri to secure those areas.
  3. At the beginning, in order to hold the remaining Border States, Lincoln repeatedly said that the war was to save the Union, not free the slaves, since a war for the slaves’ freedom would have lost the Border States.
  4. Most of the "Five Civilized Tribes" (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) sided with the South, although parts of the Cherokee and most of the Plains Indians were pro-North.
  5. The war was one of brother vs. brother, with the mountain men of what’s now West Virginia sending some 50,000 men to the Union. The nation’s split was very visible here, as Virginia literally split.

IV. The Balance of Forces

  1. The South, at the beginning of the war, did have many advantages:
    • It only had to fight to a draw to win, since all it had to do was keep the North from invading and taking over all of its territory.
    • It had the most talented officers, including Robert E. Lee and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, and most of the Southerners had been trained in a military-style upbringing and education since they were children, as opposed to the tame Northerners. Many top Southern young men attended military schools like West Point, The Citadel, or VMI.
  2. However, the South was handicapped by a shortage of factories and manufacturing plants, but during the war, those developed in the South.
  3. Still, as the war dragged on, the South found itself with a shortage of shoes, uniforms, blankets, clothing, and food, which didn’t reach soldiers due to supply problems.
  4. However, the North had a huge economy, many more men available to fight, and it controlled the sea, though its officers weren’t as well-trained as some in the South.
  5. As the war dragged on, Northern strengths beat Southern advantages.

V. Dethroning King Cotton

  1. The South was depending on foreign intervention to win the war, but didn’t get it.
  2. While the European countries wanted the Union to be split (which would strengthen their nation, relatively speaking), their people were pro-North and anti-slavery, and sensing that this was could eliminate slavery once and for all, they would not allow any intervention by their nations on behalf of the South. The reason for the pro-North, anti-slavery stance by the people, was the effect of Uncle Tom’s Cabin—being lowly wage earners, the common people felt Uncle Tom’s pain.
  3. Still, the Southern ideas was that the war would produce a shortage of cotton, which would draw England and others into the war, right? Wrong.
    • In the pre-war years, cotton production had been immense, and thus, England and France had huge surpluses of cotton.
    • As the North won Southern territory, it sent cotton and food over to Europe.
    • India and Egypt upped their cotton production to offset the hike in the price of cotton.
  4. So, King Wheat and King Corn (of the North) beat King Cotton of the South, since Europe needed the food much more than it needed the cotton.

VI. The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

  1. The South still hoped for foreign intervention, and it almost got it on a few occasions.
  2. Late in 1861, a Union warship stopped the British mail steamer the Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe.
    • Britain was outraged at the upstart Americans and threatened war, but luckily, Lincoln released the prisoners and tensions cooled. “One war at a time,” he said.
    • British-built sea vessels that went to the Confederacy were also a problem.
      • In 1862, the C.S.S. Alabama escaped to the Portuguese Azores, took on weapons and crew from Britain, but never sailed into a Confederate base, thus using a loophole to help the South.
  3. Charles Francis Adams persuaded Britain not to build any more ships for the Confederacy, since they might someday be used against England.

VII. Foreign Flare-Ups

  1. Britain also had two Laird rams, Confederate warships that could destroy wooden Union ships and wreak havoc on the North, but after the threat of war by the U.S., Britain backed down and used those ships for its Royal Navy.
  2. Near Canada, Confederate agents plotted (and sometimes succeeded) to burn down American cities, and as a result, there were several mini-armies (raised mostly by British-hating Irish-Americans) sent to Canada.
  3. Napoleon III of France also installed a puppet government in Mexico City, putting in the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, but after the war, the U.S. threatened violence, and Napoleon left Maximilian to doom at the hands of a Mexican firing squad.

VIII. President Davis Versus President Lincoln

  1. The problem with the South was that it gave states the ability to secede in the future, and getting Southern states to send troops to help other states was always difficult to do. By definition in a confederacy, national power was weak.
  2. Jefferson Davis was never really popular and he overworked himself.
  3. Lincoln, though with his problems, had the benefit of leading an established government and grew patient and relaxed as the war dragged on.

IX. Limitations on Wartime Liberties

  1. Abe Lincoln did make some tyrannical acts during his term as president, such as illegally proclaiming a blockade, proclaiming acts without Congressional consent, and sending in troops to the Border States, but he justified his actions by saying that such acts weren’t permanent, and that he had to do those things in order to preserve the Union.
  2. Such actions included the advancement of $2 million to three private citizens for war purposes, the suspension of habeas corpus so that anti-Unionists could be arrested without a formal charge, and the intimidation of voters in the Border States.
  3. The Confederate states’ refusal to sacrifice some states’ rights led to the handicapping of the South, and perhaps to its ultimate downfall.

X. Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

  1. At first, there were numerous volunteers, but after the initial enthusiasm slacked off, Congress passed its first conscription law ever (the draft), one that angered the poor because rich men could hire a substitute instead of entering the war just by paying $300 to Congress.
    • As a result, many riots broke out, such as one in New York City.
  2. Volunteers manned more than 90% of the Union army, and as volunteers became scarce, money was offered to them in return for service; still, there were many deserters.
  3. The South had to resort to a draft nearly a year before the North, and it also had its privileges for the rich—those who owned or oversaw 20 slaves or more were exempt from the draft.

XI. The Economic Stresses of War

  1. The North passed the Morrill Tariff Act, increasing tariff rates by about 5 to 10%, but war soon drove those rates even higher.
  2. The Washington Treasury also issued greenback paper money totaling nearly $450 million, but this money was very unstable and sank to as low as 39 cents per gold dollar.
  3. The federal Treasury also netted $2.6 billion in the sale of bonds.
  4. The National Banking System was a landmark of the war, created to establish a standard bank-note currency, and banks that joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money.
    • The National Banking Act was the first step toward a unified national banking network since 1836, when the Bank of the United States was killed by Andrew Jackson.
  5. In the South, runaway inflation plagued the Confederates, and overall, in the South inflation went up to 9000%, as opposed to “just” 80% in the North.

XII. The North’s Economic Boom

  1. The North actually emerged from the Civil War more prosperous than before, since new factories had been formed and a millionaire class was born for the first time in history.
  2. However, many Union suppliers used shoddy equipment in their supplies, such as using cardboard as the soles of shoes.
  3. Sizes for clothing were invented, and the reaper helped feed millions.
  4. In 1859, a discovery of petroleum oil sent people to Pennsylvania.
  5. Women gained new advances in the war, taking the jobs left behind by men going off to battle, and other women posed as men and became soldiers with their husbands.
    • Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix helped transform nursing from a lowly service to a respected profession, and in the South, Sally Tompkinsran a Richmond infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers and was awarded the rank of Captain by Jefferson Davis.

XIII. A Crushed Cotton Kingdom

  1. The South was ruined by the war, as transportation collapsed and supplies of everything became scarce, and by the end of the war, the South claimed only 12% of the national wealth as opposed to 30% before the war, and it’s per capita income was now 2/5 that of Northerners, as opposed to 2/3 of Northerners before the war.
  2. Still, though many Southerners were resourceful and spirited, the South just couldn’t win.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War, 1861-1865

 I. Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”

  1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness.
  2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit. They expected one big battle and a quick victory for the war.
    • The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as spectators gathered in picnics to watch.
    • However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray.
  3. The Battle of Bull Run showed the North that this would not be a short, easy war and swelled the South’s already too-large ego.

II. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

  1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops, but also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance.
  2. At Lincoln’s urging, he finally decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond (the South’s capital), called the Peninsula Campaign, taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to Richmond.
    • At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after “Jeb”Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days’ Battle—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862.
    • The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation.
  3. With the quick-strike plan a failure, the Union strategy now turned to total war. Summed up, the plan was to blockade, divide, and conquer. The plan included…
    • Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade.
    • Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations.
    • Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River.
    • Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas.
    • Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia.
    • Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission.
    • This was essentially General Winfield Scott’s “Anaconda Plan.”

III. The War at Sea

  1. The Union blockade started with many leaks at first, but it clamped down later.
  2. Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since Britain herself often used blockades in her wars.
  3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union navy also seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate destination” (to the South) as their reasons; the British relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they did in World War I).
  4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from the North.
    • The lessons of the Monitor vs. the Merrimack were that boats needed to be steam-powered and armored, henceforth.

IV. The Pivotal Point: Antietam

  1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.
  2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win, hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South.
    • At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan.
  3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans (as wrapping paper for cigars) and were able to stop the Southerners at Antietam Creek on September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of the Civil War.
    • Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day, since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded.
    • Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which didn’t actually free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January 1, 1863. Lincoln said the slaves would be free in the seceded states (but NOT the border states as doing so might anger them into seceding too).
      • Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to free the slaves a well.
      • This gave the war a moral purpose (end slavery) to go with its political purpose (restore the union).

V. A Proclamation Without Emancipation

  1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yet-conquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered territories were not liberated since doing so might make them go to the South; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he could.
  2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted.
  3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of its purposes: to undermine the labor of the South.
  4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to incite a slave insurrection.

VI. Blacks Battle Bondage

  1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union army.
  2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and in one case, at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were massacred.
    • Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!”
  3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs when Union armies conquered territories that included the plantations that they worked on.

VII. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg

  1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for his sideburns) took over the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack atFredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862.
  2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his prostitutes) was badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men mistakenly shot him at dusk, and he died.
  3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G. Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.”
    • In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge across a field that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates.
    • A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address, which added moral purpose to the war saying a new goal was to make sure those who’d been killed had not died in vain.

VIII. The War in the West

  1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a mediocre West Point graduate who drank too much whiskey and also fought under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.”
  2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then muffed-up and lost a tough battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border.
  3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans.
  4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi River. Grant redeemed himself here after blundering at Shiloh.
    • The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for foreign intervention was lost.

IX. Sherman Scorches Georgia

  1. After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing his infamous “March to the Sea” at Savannah.
    • His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging “total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields and crops, and destroying everything.

X. The Politics of War

  1. The “Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War” was created in 1861 and was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble.
  2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas, as “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace Democrats” did not.
    • Copperheads were those who were totally against the war, and denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his so-called “nigger war.”
    • The most famous of the Copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham, who harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to Ohio illegally, but was not further punished, and also inspired the story The Man without a Country.

XI. The Election of 1864

  1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan.
    • The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign was once again full of mudslinging.
    • Near election day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln smoked his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21.
      • The popular vote was closer: 2.2 million to 1.8.

XII. Grant Outlasts Lee

  1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford to lose twice as many men while Lee could not.
    • In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men.
    • At Cold Harbor, the Union sent soldiers to battle with papers pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses, and over 7,000 died in a few minutes.
    • The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but U.S. Grant stayed. Lincoln wanted somebody who’d keep the “axe to the grindstone,” and Grant was his man.
  2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burnt it, and cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over.

XIII. The Martyrdom of Lincoln

  1. On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth and died shortly after.
  2. Before his death, few people had suspected his greatness, but his sudden and dramatic death erased his shortcomings and made people remember him for his good things.
  3. The South cheered Lincoln’s death at first, but later, his death proved to be worse than if he had lived, because he would have almost certainly treated the South much better than they were actually treated during Reconstruction.

XIV. The Aftermath of the Nightmare.

  1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the cream of the American crop.
  2. However, it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its growing power and reputation; plus, slavery was also eradicated.
  3. The war paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of its destiny as the dominant republic of the Western Hemisphere—and later, the world.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction, 1865-1877

 I. The Problems of Peace

  1. After the war, there were many questions over what to do with the free Blacks, such as how to reintegrate the Southern states into the Union, what to do with Jefferson Davis, and who would be in charge of Reconstruction?
  2. The Southern way of life had been ruined, as crops and farms were destroyed, the slaves had been freed, the cities were burnt down, but still, and many Southerners remained defiant.

II. Freedmen Define Freedom

  1. At first, the freed Blacks faced a confusing situation, as many slave owners re-enslaved their slaves after Union troops left.
    • Other planters resisted emancipation through legal means, citing that emancipation wasn’t valid until local or state courts declared it.
  2. Some slaves loyally stuck to their owners while others let out their pent-up bitterness by pillaging their former masters’ land, property, and even whipping the old master.
  3. Eventually, even resisting plantation owners had to give up their slaves, and afterwards tens of thousands of Blacks took to the roads to find new work or look for lost loved ones.
  4. The church became the focus of the Black community life in the years following the war.
    • Emancipation also meant education for Blacks, but despite all the gains Blacks made, they still faced severe discrimination and would have to wait a century before truly attaining their rights.

III. The Freedman’s Bureau

  1. In order to train the unskilled and unlettered freed Blacks, the Freedman’s Bureau was set up on March 3, 1865. Union General Oliver O. Howardheaded it.
  2. The bureau taught about 200,000 Blacks how to read (its greatest success), since most former slaves wanted to narrow the literary gap between them and Whites; the bureau also read the word of God.
  3. However, it wasn’t as effective as it could have been, as evidenced by the further discrimination of Blacks, and it expired in 1872 after much criticism by racist Whites.

IV. Johnson: The Tailor President

  1. Andrew Johnson came from very poor and humble beginnings, and he served in Congress for many years (he was the only Confederate congressman not to leave Congress when the rest of the South seceded).
  2. He was feared for his reputation of having a short temper and being a great fighter, was a dogmatic champion of states’ rights and the Constitution, and he was a Tennessean who never earned the trust of the North and never regained the confidence of the South.

V. Presidential Reconstruction

  1. Since Abraham Lincoln believed that the South had never legally withdrawn from the Union, restoration was to be relatively simple. In his plan for restoring the union, the southern states could be reintegrated into the Union if and when they had only 10% of its voters pledge and taken an oath to the Union, and also acknowledge the emancipation of the slaves; it was appropriately called the Ten Percent Plan. Like the loving father who welcomed back the prodigal son, Lincoln’s plan was very forgiving to the South.
  2. The Radical Republicans felt punishment was due the South for all the years of strife. They feared that the leniency of the 10 % Plan would allow the Southerners to re-enslave the newly freed Blacks, so they rammed the Wade-Davis Bill through Congress. It required 50% of the states’ voters to take oaths of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than the 10% Plan.
  3. However, Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill by letting it expire, and the 10% Plan remained.
  4. It became clear that there were now two types of Republicans: the moderates, who shared the same views as Lincoln and the radicals, who believed the South should be harshly punished.
    • Sadly though, Lincoln was assassinated. This left the 10% Plan’s future in question.
    • When Andrew Johnson took power, the radicals thought that he would do what they wanted, but he soon proved them wrong by basically taking Lincoln’s policy and issuing his own Reconstruction proclamation: certain leading Confederates were disfranchised (right to vote removed), the Confederate debt was repudiated, and states had to ratify the 13th Amendment.

VI. The Baleful Black Codes

  1. In order to control the freed Blacks, many Southern states passed Black Codes, laws aimed at keeping the Black population in submission and workers in the fields; some were harsh, others were not as harsh.
  2. Blacks who “jumped” their labor contracts, or walked off their jobs, were subject to penalties and fines, and their wages were generally kept very low.
  3. The codes forbade Blacks from serving on a jury and some even barred Blacks from renting or leasing land, and Blacks could be punished for “idleness” by being subjected to working on a chain gang.
  4. Making a mockery out of the newly won freedom of the Blacks, the Black Codes made many abolitionists wonder if the price of the Civil War was worth it, since Blacks were hardly better after the war than before the war. They were not “slaves” on paper, but in reality, their lives were little different.

VII. Congressional Reconstruction

  1. In December, 1865, when many of the Southern states came to be reintegrated into the Union, among them were former Confederates and Democrats, and most Republicans were disgusted to see their former enemies on hand to reclaim seats in Congress.
  2. During the war, without the Democrats, the Republicans had passed legislation that had favored the North, such as the Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act, so now, many Republicans didn’t want to give up the power that they had gained in the war.
  3. Northerners now realized that the South would be stronger politically than before, since now, Blacks counted for a whole person instead of just 3/5 of one, and Republicans also feared that the Northern and Southern Democrats would join and take over Congress and the White House and institute their Black Codes over the nation, defeating all that the Civil War gained.
  4. On December 6, 1865, President Johnson declared that the South had satisfied all of the conditions needed, and that the Union was now restored.

VIII. Johnson Clashes with Congress

  1. Johnson repeatedly vetoed Republican-passed bills, such as a bill extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau, and he also vetoed the Civil Rights Bill, which conferred on blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes.
  2. As Republicans gained control of Congress, they passed the bills into laws with a 2/3 vote and thus override Johnson’s veto.
  3. In the 14th Amendment, the Republicans sought to instill the same ideas of the Civil Rights Bill: (1) all Blacks were American citizens, (2) if a state denied citizenship to Blacks, then its representatives in the Electoral College were lowered, (3) former Confederates could not hold federal or state office, and (4) the federal debt was guaranteed while the Confederate one was repudiated (erased).
  4. The radicals were disappointed that Blacks weren’t given the right to vote, but all Republicans agreed that states wouldn’t be accepted back into the Union unless they ratified the 14th Amendment.

IX. Swinging ‘Round the Circle with Johnson

  1. In 1866, Republicans would not allow Reconstruction to be carried on without the 14th Amendment, and as election time approached, Johnson wanted to lower the amount of Republicans in Congress, so he began a series of ‘Round the Circle speeches.
  2. However, as he was heckled by the audience, he hurled back insults, gave “give ‘em hell” speeches, and generally denounced the radicals, and in the process, he gave Republicans more men in Congress than they had before—the opposite of his original intention.

X. Republican Principles and Programs

  1. By then, the Republicans had a veto-proof Congress and nearly unlimited control over Reconstruction, but moderates and radicals still couldn’t agree with one another.
  2. In the Senate, the leader of the radicals was Charles Sumner, long since recovered from his caning by Preston Brooks, and in the House, the radical leader was Thaddeus Stevens, an old, sour man who was an unswerving friend of the Blacks.
  3. The radicals wanted to keep the South out of the Union as long as possible and totally change its economy and the moderates wanted a quicker Reconstruction. What happened was a compromise between the two extremes.

XI. Reconstruction by Sword

  1. The Reconstruction Act of March 2, 1867 divided the South into five military zones, temporarily disfranchised tens of thousands of former Confederates, and laid down new guidelines for the readmission of states (Johnson had announced the Union restored, but Congress had not yet formally agreed on this).
    • All states had to approve the 14th Amendment, making all Blacks citizens.
    • All states had to guarantee full suffrage of all male former slaves.
  2. The 15th Amendment, passed by Congress in 1869, gave Blacks their right to vote.
  3. In the case Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, if there were civil courts available.
  4. By 1870, all of the states had complied with the standards of Reconstruction, and in 1877, the last of the states were given their home rule back, and Reconstruction ended.
    • The end of Reconstruction was part of the Compromise of 1877—the two presidential candidates were at a stalemate and the only way to break the stalemate was with a deal. In the deal, the North got their president (Rutherford B. Hayes) and the South got the military to pull-out (abandon?) the South and the former slaves, thus ending Reconstruction.

XII. No Women Voters

  1. Women suffrage advocates were disappointed by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, since they didn’t give women suffrage.
    • After all, women had gathered petitions and had helped Blacks gain their rights.
    • Frederick Douglass believed in the women’s movement, but believed that it was now “the Negro’s hour.”
  2. As a result, women advocates like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony campaigned against the 14th and 15th Amendments—Amendments that inserted the word male into the Constitution for the first time ever.

XIII. The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

  1. Blacks began to organize politically, and their main vehicle was the Union League.
    • It became a network of political clubs that educated members in their civic duties and campaigned for Republican candidates, and later even built Black churches and schools, represented Black grievances, and recruited militias to protect Blacks.
    • Black women attended the parades and rallies of Black communities.
  2. Black men also began to hold political offices, as men like Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce served in Congress (they represented Mississippi).
  3. Southern Whites hated seeing their former slaves now ranking above them, and they also hated “scalawags,” Southerners who were accused of plundering Southern treasuries and selling out the Southerners, and “carpetbaggers,” Northerners accused of parasitically milking power and profit in a now-desolate South.
  4. One could note that Southern governments were somewhat corrupted during these times.

XIV. The Ku Klux Klan

  1. Extremely racist Whites who hated the Blacks founded the “Invisible Empire of the South,” or Ku Klux Klan, in Tennessee in 1866—an organization that scared Blacks into not voting or not seeking jobs, etc… and often resorted to violence against the Blacks in addition to terror.
  2. This radical group undermined much of what abolitionists sought to do.

XV. Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank

  1. Radical Republicans were angry with President Johnson, and they decided to try to get rid of him.
  2. In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which provided that the president had to secure the consent of the Senate before removing his appointees once they had been approved by the Senate (one reason was to keep Edwin M. Stanton, a Republican spy, in office).
  3. However, when Johnson dismissed Stanton early in 1868, the Republicans impeached him.

XVI. A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

  1. Johnson was not allowed to testify by his lawyers, who argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and Johnson was acting under the Constitution, not the law.
  2. On May 16, 1868, Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single vote, as seven Republican senators with consciences voted “not-guilty” (interestingly, those seven never secured a political office again afterwards).
  3. Die-hard radicals were infuriated by the acquittal, but many politicians feared establishing a precedence of removing the president through impeachment.

XVII. The Purchase of Alaska

  1. In 1867, Secretary of State William H. Seward bought Alaska from Russia to the United States for $7.2 million, but most of the public jeered his act as “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s Ice-box.”
  2. Only later, when oil and gold were discovered, did Alaska prove to be a huge bargain.

XVIII. The Heritage of Reconstruction

  1. Many Southerners regarded Reconstruction as worse than the war itself, as they resented the upending of their social and racial system.
  2. The Republicans, though with good intentions, failed to improve the South, and the fate of Blacks would remain poor for almost another century before the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s secured Black privileges.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age, 1869-1896

 I. The “Bloody Shirt” Elects Grant

  1. The Republicans nominated Civil War General Ulysses S. Grant, who was a great soldier but had no political experience.
    • The Democrats could only denounce military Reconstruction and couldn’t agree on anything else, and thus, were disorganized.
    • The Republicans got Grant elected (barely) by “waving the bloody shirt,” or reliving his war victories, and used his popularity to elect him, though his popular vote was only slightly ahead of rival Horatio Seymour. Seymour was the Democratic candidate who didn’t accept a redemption-of-greenbacks-for-maximum-value platform, and thus doomed his party.
  2. However, due to the close nature of the election, Republicans could not take future victories for granted.

II. The Era of Good Stealings

  1. Despite the Civil War, the population still mushroomed, partially due to immigration, but during this time, politics became very corrupt.
    • Railroad promoters cheated gullible customers.
    • Stock-market investors were a cancer in the public eye.
    • Too many judges and legislators put their power up for hire.
  2. Two notorious millionaires were Jim Fisk and Jay Gould.
    • In 1869, the pair concocted a plot to corner the gold market that would only work if the treasury stopped selling gold, so they worked on President Grant directly and through his brother-in-law, but their plan failed when the treasury sold gold.
  3. The infamous Tweed Ring (AKA, “Tammany Hall") of NYC, headed by “Boss” Tweed, employed bribery, graft, and fake elections to cheat the city of as much as $200 million.
    • Tweed was finally caught when The New York Times secured evidence of his misdeeds, and later died in jail.
    • Samuel J. Tilden gained fame by leading the prosecution of Tweed, and he would later use this fame to become the Democratic nominee in the presidential election of 1876.
    • Thomas Nast, political cartoonist, constantly drew against Tammany’s corruption.

III. A Carnival of Corruption

  1. Grant, an easy-going fellow, apparently failed to see the corruption going on, even though many of his friends wanted offices and his cabinet was totally corrupt (except for Secretary of State Hamilton Fish), and his in-laws, the Dent family, were especially terrible.
  2. The Credit Mobilier, a railroad construction company that paid itself huge sums of money for small railroad construction, tarred Grant.
    • A New York newspaper finally busted it, and two members of Congress were formally censured (the company had given some of its stock to the congressmen) and the Vice President himself was shown to have accepted 20 shares of stock.
  3. In 1875, the public learned that the Whiskey Ring had robbed the Treasury of millions of dollars, and when Grant’s own private secretary was shown to be one of the criminals, Grant retracted his earlier statement of “Let no guilty man escape.”
    • Later, in 1876, Secretary of War William Belknap was shown to have pocketed some $24,000 by selling junk to Indians.

IV. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872

  1. By 1872, a power wave of disgust at Grant’s administration was building, despite the worst of the scandals not having been revealed yet, and reformers organized the Liberal Republican Party and nominated the dogmatic Horace Greeley.
    • The Democratic Party also supported Greeley, even though he had blasted them repeatedly in his newspaper (the New York Tribune), but he pleased them because he called for a clasping of hands between the North and South and an end to Reconstruction.
  2. The campaign was filled with more mudslinging (as usual), as Greeley was called an atheist, a communist, a vegetarian, and a signer of Jefferson Davis’s bail bond (that part was true) while Grant was called an ignoramus, a drunkard, and a swindler.
    • Still, Grant crushed Greeley in the electoral vote and in the popular vote was well.
  3. In 1872, the Republican Congress passed a general amnesty act that removed political disabilities from all but some 500 former Confederate leaders.

V. Depression, Deflation, and Inflation

  1. In 1873, a paralyzing panic broke out, the Panic of 1873, caused by too many railroads and factories being formed than existing markets could bear and the over-loaning by banks to those projects. Essentially, the causes of the panic were the same old ones that’d caused recessions every 20 years that century: (1) over-speculation and (2) too-easy credit.
    • It first started with the failure of the New York banking firm Jay Cooke & Company, which was headed by the rich Jay Cooke, a financier of the Civil War.
    • Before, the greenbacks that had been issued in the Civil War were being recalled, but now, during the panic, the “cheap-money” supporters wanted greenbacks to be printed en mass again, to create inflation.
    • However, supporters of “hard-money” (actual gold and silver) persuaded Grant to veto a bill that would print more paper money, and theResumption Act of 1875 pledged the government to further withdraw greenbacks and made all further redemption of paper money in gold at face value, starting in 1879.
  2. Debtors now cried that silver was under-valued (another call for inflation), but Grant refused to coin more silver dollars, which had been stopped in 1873, and besides, new silver discoveries in the later 1870s shot the price of silver way down.
    • Grant’s name remained fused to sound money, though not sound government.
    • As greenbacks regained their value, few greenback holders bothered to exchange their more convenient bills for gold when Redemption Day came in 1879.
  3. In 1878, the Bland-Allison Act instructed the Treasury to buy and coin between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month.
    • The minimum was actually coined and its effect was minimal on creating “cheap money.”
  4. The Republican hard-money policy, unfortunately for it, led to the election of a Democratic House of Representatives in 1874 and spawned theGreenback Labor Party in 1878.

VI. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

  1. “The Gilded Age,” was a term coined by Mark Twain hinting that times looked good, yet if one scratched a bit below the surface, there were problems. Times were filled with corruption and presidential election squeakers, and even though Democrats and Republicans had similar ideas on economic issues, there were fundamental differences.
    • Republicans traced their lineage to Puritanism.
    • Democrats were more like Lutherans and Roman Catholics.
    • Democrats had strong support in the South.
    • Republicans had strong votes in the North and the West, and from the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.), an organization made up of former Union veterans.
  2. In the 1870s and the 1880s, Republican infighting was led by rivals Roscoe Conkling (Stalwarts) and James G. Blaine (Half-Breeds), who bickered and deadlocked their party.

VII. The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876

  1. Grant almost ran for a third term before the House derailed that proposal, so the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, dubbed the “Great Unknown” because no one knew much about him, while the Democrats ran Samuel Tilden.
    • The election was very close, with Tilden getting 184 votes out of a needed 185 in the Electoral College, but votes in four states, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and part of Oregon, were unsure and disputed.
    • The disputed states had sent in two sets of returns, one Democrat, one Republican.

VIII. The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction

  1. The Electoral Count Act, passed in 1877, set up an electoral commission that consisted of 15 men selected from the Senate, the House, and the Supreme Court, which would count the votes (the 15th man was to be an independent, David Davis, but at the last moment, he resigned).
  2. In February of 1877, the Senate and the House met to settle the dispute, and eventually, Hayes became president as a part of the rest of theCompromise of 1877. True to a compromise, both sides won a bit:
    • For the North—Hayes would become president if he agreed to remove troops from the remaining two Southern states where Union troops remained (Louisiana and South Carolina), and also, a bill would subsidize the Texas and Pacific rail line.
    • For the South—military rule and Reconstruction ended when the military pulled out of the South.
    • The Compromise of 1877 abandoned the Blacks in the South by withdrawing troops, and their last attempt at protection of Black rights was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which was mostly declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the 1883 Civil Rights cases.

IX. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South

  1. As Reconstruction ended and the military returned northward, whites once again asserted their power.
    • Literacy requirements for voting began, voter registration laws emerged, and poll taxes began. These were all targeted at black voters.
    • Most blacks became sharecroppers (providing nothing but labor) or tenant farmers (if they could provide their own tools).
  2. In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson that “separate but equal” facilities were constitutional.
    • Thus “Jim Crow” segregation was legalized.

X. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

  1. In 1877, the presidents of the nation’s four largest railroads decided to cut wages by 10%. Workers struck back, stopping work, and when President Hayes sent troops to stop this, violence erupted, and more than 100 people died in the several weeks of chaos.
  2. The failure of the railroad strike showed the weakness of the labor movement, but this was partly caused by friction between races, especially between the Irish and the Chinese.
  3. In San Francisco, Irish-born Denis Kearney incited his followers to terrorize the Chinese.
  4. In 1879, Congress passed a bill severely restricting the influx of Chinese immigrants (most of whom were males who had come to California to work on the railroads), but Hayes vetoed the bill on grounds that it violated an existing treaty with China.
    • After Hayes left office, the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed in 1882, was passed, barring any Chinese from entering the United States—the first law limiting immigration.

XI. Garfield and Arthur

  1. James A. Garfield
    • In 1880, the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, a man from Ohio who had risen to the rank of major general in the Civil War, and as his running mate, a notorious Stalwart (supporter of Roscoe Conkling) was chosen: Chester A. Arthur of New York.
    • The Democrats chose Winfield S. Hancock, a Civil War general who appealed to the South due to his fair treatment of it during Reconstruction and a veteran who had been wounded at Gettysburg, and thus appealed to veterans.
    • The campaign once again avoided touchy issues, and Garfield squeaked by in the popular vote (the electoral count was wider: 214 to 155).
      • Garfield was a good person, but he hated to hurt people’s feelings and say “no.”
    • Garfield named James G. Blaine to the position of Secretary of the State, and he made other anti-Stalwart acts, but on September 19, 1881, Garfield died after having been shot in the head by a crazy but disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau, who, after being captured, used an early version of the “insanity defense” to avoid conviction (he was hanged anyway).
  2. Chester Arthur
    • Chester Arthur didn’t seem to be a good fit for the presidency, but he surprised many by giving the cold shoulder to Stalwarts, his chief supporters, and by calling for reform, a call heeded by the Republican party as it began to show newly found enthusiasm for reform.
    • The Pendleton Act of 1883, the so-called Magna Charta of civil-service reform (awarding of government jobs based on ability, not just because a buddy awarded the job), prohibited financial assessments on jobholders, including lowly scrubwomen, and established a merit system of making appointments to office on the basis of aptitude rather than “pull.”
      • It also set up a Civil Service Commission, charged with administering open competitive service, and offices not “classified” by the president remained the fought-over footballs of politics.
      • Luckily, Arthur cooperated, and by 1884, he had classified nearly 10% of all federal offices, or nearly 14,000 of them.
    • The Pendleton Act partially divided politics from patronage, but it drove politicians into “marriages of convenience” with business leaders.

XII. The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

  1. James G. Blaine became the Republican candidate, but some Republican reformers, unable to stomach this, switched to the Democratic Party and were called Mugwumps.
  2. The Democrats chose Grover Cleveland as their candidate but received a shock when it was revealed that he might have been the father of an illegitimate child.
    • The campaign of 1884 was filled with perhaps the lowest mudslinging in history.
    • The contest depended on how New York chose, but unfortunately, one foolish Republican insulted the race, faith, and patriotism of New York’s heavy Irish population, and as a result, New York voted for Cleveland; that was the difference.

XIII. “Old Grover” Takes Over

  1. Portly Grover Cleveland was the first Democratic president since James Buchanan, and as a supporter of laissez-faire capitalism, he delighted business owners and bankers.
  2. Cleveland named two former Confederates to his cabinet, and at first tried to adhere to the merit system (but eventually gave in to his party and fired almost 2/3 of the 120,000 federal employees), but he had his problems.
    • Military pensions plagued Cleveland; these bills were given to Civil War veterans to help them, but they were used fraudulently to give money to all sorts of people.
    • However, Cleveland showed that he was ready to take on the corrupt distributors of military pensions when he vetoed a bill that would add several hundred thousand new people on the pension list.

XIV. Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff

  1. By 1881, the Treasury had a surplus of $145 million, most of it having come from the high tariff, and there was a lot of clamoring for lowering the tariff, though big industrialists opposed it.
  2. Cleveland wasn’t really interested in the subject at first, but as he researched it, he became inclined towards lowering the tariff, so in late 1887, Cleveland openly tossed the appeal for lower tariffs into the lap of Congress.
    • Democrats were upset at the obstinacy of their chief while Republicans gloated at his apparently reckless act.

XV. The Billion Dollar Congress

  1. The new Speaker of the House, Thomas B. Reed, was a large, tall man, a tremendous debater, and very critical and quick man.
    • To solve the problem of reaching a quorum in Congress, Reed counted the Democrats who were present yet didn’t answer to the roll call, and after three days of such chaos, he finally prevailed, opening the 51st, or “Billion Dollar” Congress—one that legislated many expensive projects.

XVI. The Drumbeat of Discontent

  1. The Populist Party emerged in 1892 from disgruntled farmers.
    • Their main call was for inflation via free coinage of silver.
    • They called for a litany of items including: a graduated income tax, government regulation of railroads and telegraphs/telephones, direct elections of U.S. senators, a one term limit, initiative and referendum, a shorter workday, and immigration restriction.

XVII. Cleveland and Depression

  1. Grover Cleveland won, but no sooner than he had stepped into the presidency did the Depression of 1893 break out. It was the first such panic in the new urban and industrial age, and it caused much outrage and hardships. This completed the almost predictable, every-20-year cycle of panics during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893).
  2. About 8,000 American business houses collapsed in six months, and dozens of railroad lines went into the hands of receivers.
    • This time, Cleveland had a deficit and a problem, for the Treasury had to issue gold for the notes that it had paid in the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, and according to law, those notes had to be reissued, thus causing a steady drain on gold in the Treasury—the level alarmingly dropped below $100 million at one point.
  3. Meanwhile, Grover Cleveland had developed a malignant growth under the roof of his mouth, and it had to be secretly removed in a surgery that took place aboard his private yacht; had he died, Adlai E. Stevenson, a “soft money” (paper money) man, would have caused massive chaos with inflation.
  4. Also, 33 year-old William Jennings Bryan was advocating “free silver,” and gaining support for his beliefs, but an angry Cleveland used his executive power to break the filibuster in the Senate—thus alienating the silver-supporting Democrats.

XVIII. Cleveland Breeds a Backlash

  1. Cleveland was embarrassed at having to resort to J.P. Morgan to bale out the depression.
  2. He was also embarrassed by the Wilson-Gorman Tariff. He’d promised to lower the tariff, but so many tack-ons had been added, the result was nill.
    • Further, the Supreme Court struck down an income tax. It looked like all politicians were tools of the wealthy.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age, 1865-1900

 I. The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse

  1. After the Civil War, railroad production grew enormously, from 35,000 mi. of track laid in 1865 to a whopping 192,556 mi. of track laid in 1900.
    • Congress gave land to railroad companies totally 155,504,994 acres.
    • For railroad routes, companies were allowed alternate mile-square sections in checkerboard fashion, but until companies determined which part of the land was the best to use for railroad building, all of the land was withheld from all other users.
      • Grover Cleveland stopped this in 1887.
  2. Railroads gave land their value; towns where railroads ran became sprawling cities while those skipped by railroads sank into ghost towns, so, obviously, towns wanted railroads in them.

II. Spanning the Continent with Rails

  1. Deadlock over where to build a transcontinental railroad was broken after the South seceded, and in 1862, Congress commissioned the Union Pacific Railroad to begin westward from Omaha, Nebraska, to gold-rich California.
    • The company received huge sums of money and land to build its tracks, but corruption also plagued it, as the insiders of the Credit Mobilierreaped $23 million in profits.
    • Many Irishmen, who might lay as much as 10 miles a day, laid the tracks.
    • When Indians attacked while trying to save their land, the Irish dropped their picks and seized their rifles, and scores of workers and Indians died during construction.
  2. Over in California, the Central Pacific Railroad was in charge of extending the railroad eastward, and it was backed by the Big Four: includingLeland Stanford, the ex-governor of California who had useful political connections, and Collis P. Huntington, an adept lobbyist.
    • The Central Pacific used Chinese workers, and received the same incentives as the Union Pacific, but it had to drill through the hard rock of the Sierra Nevada.
  3. In 1869, the transcontinental rail line was completed at Promontory Point near Ogden, Utah; in all, the Union Pacific built 1,086 mi. of track, compared to 689 mi. by the Central Pacific.

III. Binding the Country with Railroad Ties

  1. Before 1900, four other transcontinental railroads were built:
    • The Northern Pacific Railroad stretched from Lake Superior to the Puget Sound and was finished in 1883.
    • The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe stretched through the Southwest deserts and was completed the following year, in 1884.
    • The Southern Pacific (completed in 1884) went from New Orleans to San Francisco.
    • The Great Northern ran from Duluth to Seattle and was the creation of James J. Hill, probably the greatest railroad builder of all.
  2. However, many pioneers over-invested on land, and the banks that supported them often failed and went bankrupt when the land wasn’t worth as much as initially thought.

IV. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

  1. Older eastern railroads, like the New York Central, headed by Cornelius Vanderbilt, often financed the successful western railroads.
  2. Advancements in railroads included the steel rail, which was stronger and more enduring than the iron rail, the Westinghouse air brake which increased safety, the Pullman Palace Cars which were luxurious passenger cars, and telegraphs, double-racking, and block signals.
    • Nevertheless, train accidents were common, as well as death.

V. Revolution by Railways

  1. Railroads stitched the nation together, generated a huge market and lots of jobs, helped the rapid industrialization of America, and stimulated mining and agriculture in the West by bringing people and supplies to and from the areas where such work occurred.
  2. Railroads helped people settle in the previously harsh Great Plains.
  3. Due to railroads, the creation of four national time zones occurred on November 18, 1883, instead of each city having its own time zone (that was confusing to railroad operators).
  4. Railroads were also the makers of millionaires and the millionaire class.

VI. Wrongdoing in Railroading

  1. Railroads were not without corruption, as shown by the Credit Mobilier scandal.
  2. Jay Gould made millions embezzling stocks from the Erie, Kansas Pacific, the Union Pacific, and the Texas and Pacific railroad companies.
  3. One method of cheap moneymaking was called “stock watering,” in which railroad companies grossly over-inflated the worth of their stock and sold them at huge profits.
  4. Railroad owners abused the public, bribed judges and legislatures, employed arm-twisting lobbyists, elected their own to political office, gave rebates (which helped the wealthy but not the poor), and used free passes to gain favor in the press.
  5. As time passed, though, railroad giants entered into defensive alliances to show profits, and began the first of what would be called trusts, although at that time they were called “pools.” A pool (AKA, a “cartel”) is a group of supposed competitors who agree to work together, usually to set prices.

VII. Government Bridles the Iron Horse

  1. People were aware of such injustice, but were slow to combat it.
  2. The Grange was formed by farmers to combat such corruption, and many state efforts to stop the railroad monopoly occurred, but they were stopped when the Supreme Court issued its ruling in the Wabash case, in which it ruled that states could not regulate interstate commerce, such as trains.
  3. The Interstate Commerce Act, passed in 1887, banned rebates and pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly (so as not to cheat customers), and also forbade unfair discrimination against shippers and banned charging more for a short haul than for a long one.
    • It also set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to enforce this.
  4. The act was not a victory against corporate wealth, as people like Richard Olney, a shrewd corporate lawyer, noted that they could use the act to their advantage, but it did represent the first attempt by Congress to regulate businesses for society’s interest.

VIII. Miracles of Mechanization

  1. In 1860, the U.S. was the 4th largest manufacturer in the world, but by 1894, it was #1, why?
    • Now-abundant liquid capital.
    • Fully exploited natural resources (like coal, oil, and iron, the iron came from the Minnesota-Lake Superior region which yielded the rich iron deposits of the Mesabi Range).
    • Massive immigration made labor cheap.
    • American ingenuity played a vital role, as such inventions like mass production (from Eli Whitney) were being refined and perfected.
      • Popular inventions included the cash register, the stock ticker, the typewriter, the refrigerator car, the electric dynamo, and the electric railway, which displaced animal-drawn cars.
  2. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and a new age was launched.
  3. Thomas Edison, the “Wizard of Menlo Park,” was the most versatile inventor, who, while best known for his electric light bulb, also cranked out scores of other inventions.

IX. The Trust Titan Emerges

  1. Industry giants used various ways to eliminate competition and maximize profits.
    • Andrew Carnegie used a method called “vertical integration,” which meant that he bought out and controlled all aspects of an industry (in his case, he mined the iron, transported it, refined it, and turned it into steel, controlling all parts of the process).
    • John D. Rockefeller, master of “horizontal integration,” simply allied with or bought out competitors to monopolize a given market.
      • He used this method to form Standard Oil and control the oil industry by forcing weaker competitors to go bankrupt.
  2. These men became known for their trusts, giant, monopolistic corporations.
    • J.P. Morgan also placed his own men on the boards of directors of other rival competitors to gain influence there and reduce competition, a process called “interlocking directorates.”

X. The Supremacy of Steel

  1. In Lincoln’s day, steel was very scarce and expensive, but by 1900, Americans produced as much steel as England and Germany combined.
  2. This was due to an invention that made steel-making cheaper and much more effective: the Bessemer process, which was named after an English inventor even though an American, William Kelly, had discovered it first:
    • Cold air blown on red-hot iron burned carbon deposits and purified it.
    • America was one of the few nations that had a lot of coal for fuel, iron for smelting, and other essential ingredients for steel making, and thus, quickly became #1.

XI. Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel

  1. Andrew Carnegie started off as a poor boy in a bad job, but by working hard, assuming responsibility, and charming influential people, he worked his way up to wealth.
  2. He started in the Pittsburgh area, but he was not a man who liked trusts; still, by 1900, he was producing 1/4 of the nation’s Bessemer steel, and getting $25 million a year.
  3. J. Pierpont Morgan, having already made a fortune in the banking industry and in Wall Street, was ready to step into the steel tubing industry, but Carnegie threatened to ruin him, so after some tense negotiation, Morgan bought Carnegie’s entire business at $400 million (this was before income tax). But Carnegie, fearing ridicule for possessing so much money, spent the rest of his life donating $350 million of it to charity, pensions, and libraries.
    • Meanwhile, Morgan took Carnegie’s holdings, added others, and launched the United States Steel Corporation in 1901, a company that became the world’s first billion-dollar corporation (it was capitalized at $1.4 billion).

XII. Rockefeller Grows an American Beauty Rose

  1. In 1859, a man named Drake first used oil to get money, and by the 1870s, kerosene, a type of oil, was used to light lamps all over the nation.
  2. However, by 1885, 250,000 of Edison’s electric light bulbs were in use, and the electric industry soon rendered kerosene obsolete, just as kerosene had made whale oil obsolete.
  3. Oil, however, was just beginning with the gasoline-burning internal combustion engine.
  4. John D. Rockefeller, ruthless and merciless, organized the Standard Oil Company of Ohio in 1882 (five years earlier, he had already controlled 95% of all the oil refineries in the country).
  5. Rockefeller crushed weaker competitors—part of the natural process according to him—but his company did produce superior oil at a cheaper price.
  6. Other trusts, which also generally made better products at cheaper prices, emerged, such as the meat industry of Gustavus F. Swift and Philip Armour.

XIII. The Gospel of Wealth

  1. Many of the newly rich had worked from poverty to wealth, and thus felt that some people in the world were destined to become rich and then help society with their money. This was the “Gospel of Wealth.”
  2. “Social Darwinism” applied Charles Darwin’s survival-of-the-fittest theories to business. It said the reason a Carnegie was at the top of the steel industry was that he was most fit to run such a business.
  3. The Reverend Russell Conwell of Philadelphia became rich by delivering his lecture, “Acres of Diamonds” thousands of times, and in it he preached that poor people made themselves poor and rich people made themselves rich; everything was because of one’s actions only.
  4. Corporate lawyers used the 14th Amendment to defend trusts, the judges agreed, saying that corporations were legal people and thus entitled to their property, and plutocracy ruled.

XIV. Government Tackles the Trust Evil

  1. In 1890, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was signed into law; it forbade combinations (trusts, pools, interlocking directorates, holding companies) in restraint of trade, without any distinction between “good” and “bad” trusts.
    • It proved ineffective, however, because it couldn’t be enforced.
    • Not until 1914 was it properly enforced and those prosecuted for violating the law were actually punished.

XV. The South in the Age of Industry

  1. The South remained agrarian despite all the industrial advances, though James Buchanan Duke developed a huge cigarette industry in the form of the American Tobacco Company and made many donations to what is now Duke University.
  2. Men like Henry W. Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper urged the South to industrialize.
  3. However, many northern companies set rates to keep the South from gaining any competitive edge whatsoever, with examples including the rich deposits of iron and coal near Birmingham, Alabama, and the textile mills of the South.
    • However, cheap labor led to the creation of many jobs, and despite poor wages, many white Southerners saw employment as a blessing.

XVI. The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America

  1. As the Industrial Revolution spread in America, the standard of living rose, immigrants swarmed to the U.S., and early Jeffersonian ideals about the dominance of agriculture fell.
  2. Women, who had swarmed to factories and had been encouraged by recent inventions, found new opportunities, and the “Gibson Girl,” created byCharles Dana Gibson, became the romantic ideal of the age.
    • The Gibson Girl was young, athletic, attractive, and outdoorsy (not the stay-at-home mom type).
    • However, many women never achieved this, and instead toiled in hard work because they had to do so in order to earn money.
  3. A nation of farmers was becoming a nation of wage earners, but the fear of unemployment was never far, and the illness of a breadwinner (the main wage owner) in a family was disastrous.
  4. Strong pressures in foreign trade developed as the tireless industrial machine threatened to flood the domestic market.

XVII. In Unions There Is Strength

  1. With the inflow of immigrants providing a labor force that would work for low wages and in poor environments, the workers who wanted to improve their conditions found that they could not, since their bosses could easily hire the unemployed to take their places.
  2. Corporations had many weapons against strikers, such as hiring strikebreakers or asking the courts to order strikers to stop striking, and if they continued, to bring in troops. Other methods included hiring “scabs” or replacements or “lockouts” to starve strikers into submission, and often, workers had to sign “ironclad oaths” or “yellow dog contracts” which banned them from joining unions.
    • Workers could be “blacklisted,” or put on a list and denied privileges elsewhere.
  3. The middle-class, annoyed by the recurrent strikes, grew deaf to the workers’ outcry.
  4. The view was that people like Carnegie and Rockefeller had battled and worked hard to get to the top, and workers could do the same if they “really” wanted to improve their situations.

XVIII. Labor Limps Along

  1. The Civil War put a premium on labor, which helped labor unions grow.
  2. The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, represented a giant boot stride by workers and attracted an impressive total of 600,000 members, but it only lasted six years.
    • However, it excluded Chinese and didn’t really try to get Blacks and women to join.
    • It worked for the arbitration of industrial disputes and the eight-hour workday, and won the latter for government workers, but the depression of 1873 knocked it out.
  3. A new organization, the Knights of Labor, was begun in 1869 and continued secretly until 1881. This organization was similar to the National Labor Union.
    • It only barred liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers, and stockbrokers, and they campaigned for economic and social reform.
    • Led by Terence V. Powderly, the Knights won a number of strikes for the eight-hour day, and when they staged a successful strike against Jay Gould’s Wabash Railroad in 1885, membership mushroomed to 3/4 of a million workers.

XIX. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

  1. However, the Knights became involved in a number of May Day strikes of which half failed.
  2. In Chicago, home to about 80,000 Knights and a few hundred anarchists that advocated a violent overthrow of the American government, tensions had been building, and on May 4, 1886, Chicago police were advancing on a meeting that had been called to protest brutalities by authorities when a dynamite bomb was thrown, killing or injuring several dozen people.
    • Eight anarchists were rounded up yet no one could prove that they had any association with the bombing, but since they had preached incendiary doctrines, the jury sentenced five of them to death on account of conspiracy and gave the other three stiff prison terms.
    • In 1892, John P. Altgeld, a German-born Democrat was elected governor of Illinois and pardoned the three survivors after studying the case extensively.
    • He received violent verbal abuse for that and was defeated during re-election.
  3. This so-called Haymarket Square Bombing forever associated the Knights of Labor with anarchists and lowered their popularity and effectiveness; membership declined, and those that remained fused with other labor unions.

XX. The AF of L to the Fore

  1. In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
    • It consisted of an association of self-governing national unions, each of which kept its independence, with the AF of L unifying overall strategy.
  2. Gompers demanded a fairer share for labor.
    • He simply wanted “more,” and sought better wages, hours, and working conditions.
  3. The AF of L established itself on solid but narrow foundations, since it tried to speak for all workers but fell far short of that.
    • Composed of skilled laborers, it was willing to let unskilled laborers fend for themselves. Critics called it “the labor trust.”
  4. From 1881 to 1900, there were over 23,000 strikes involving 6,610,000 workers with a total loss to both employers and employees of about $450 million.
    • Perhaps the greatest weakness of labor unions was that they only embraced a small minority—3%—of all workers.
  5. However, by 1900, the public was starting to concede the rights of workers and beginning to give them some or most of what they wanted.
    • In 1894, Labor Day was made a legal holiday.
  6. A few owners were beginning to realize that losing money to fight labor strikes was useless, though most owners still dogmatically fought labor unions.
  7. If the age of big business had dawned, the age of big labor was still some distance over the horizon.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City, 1865-1900

 I. The Urban Frontier

  1. From 1870 to 1900, the American population doubled, and the population in the cities tripled.
  2. Cities grew up and out, with such famed architects as Louis Sullivan working on and perfecting skyscrapers (first appearing in Chicago in 1885).
    • The city grew from a small compact one that people could walk through to get around to a huge metropolis that required commuting by electric trolleys.
    • Electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones made city life more alluring.
  3. Department stores like Macy’s (in New York) and Marshall Field’s (in Chicago) provided urban working-class jobs and also attracted urban middle-class shoppers.
    • Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie told of a woman’s escapades in the big city and made cities dazzling and attractive.
    • However, the move to city produced lots of trash, because while farmers always reused everything or fed “trash” to animals, city dwellers, with their mail-order stores like Sears and Montgomery Ward, which made things cheap and easy to buy, could simply throw away the things that they didn’t like anymore.
  4. In cities, criminals flourished, and impure water, uncollected garbage, unwashed bodies, and droppings made cities smelly and unsanitary.
    • Worst of all were the slums, which were crammed with people.
    • The so-called “dumbbell tenements” (which gave a bit of fresh air down their airshaft) were the worst since they were dark, cramped, and had little sanitation or ventilation.
  5. To escape, the wealthy of the city-dwellers fled to suburbs.

II. The New Immigration

  1. Until the 1880s, most of the immigrants had come from the British Isles and western Europe (Germany and Scandinavia) and were quite literate and accustomed to some type of representative government. This was called the “Old Immigration.” But by the 1880s and 1890s, this shifted to the Baltic and Slavic people of southeastern Europe, who were basically the opposite, “New Immigration.”
    • While the southeastern Europeans accounted for only 19% of immigrants to the U.S. in 1880, by the early 1900s, they were over 60%!

III. Southern Europe Uprooted

  1. Many Europeans came to America because there was no room in Europe, nor was there much employment, since industrialization had eliminated many jobs.
    • America was also often praised to Europeans, as people boasted of eating everyday and having freedom and much opportunity.
    • Profit-seeking Americans also perhaps exaggerated the benefits of America to Europeans, so that they could get cheap labor and more money.
  2. However, it should be noted that many immigrants to America stayed for a short period of time and then returned to Europe, and even those that remained (including persecuted Jews, who propagated in New York) tried very hard to retain their own culture and customs.
    • However, the children of the immigrants sometimes rejected this Old World culture and plunged completely into American life.

IV. Reactions to the New Immigration

  1. The federal government did little to help immigrants assimilate into American society, so immigrants were often controlled by powerful “bosses” (such as New York’s Boss Tweed) who provided jobs and shelter in return for political support at the polls.
  2. Gradually, though, the nation’s conscience awoke to the plight of the slums, and people like Walter Rauschenbusch and Washington Gladden began preaching the “Social Gospel,” insisting that churches tackle the burning social issues of the day.
  3. Among the people who were deeply dedicated to uplifting the urban masses was Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in 1889 to teach children and adults the skills and knowledge that they would need to survive and succeed in America.
    • She eventually won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, but her pacifism was looked down upon by groups such as the Daughters of the American Revolution, who revoked her membership.
    • Other such settlement houses like Hull House included Lillian Wald’s Henry Street Settlement in New York, which opened its doors in 1893.
    • Settlement houses became centers for women’s activism and reform, as females such as Florence Kelley fought for protection of women workers and against child labor.
    • The new cities also gave women opportunities to earn money and support themselves better (mostly single women, since being both a working mother and wife was frowned upon).

V. Narrowing the Welcome Mat

  1. The “nativism” and anti-foreignism of the 1840s and 1850s came back in the 1880s, as the Germans and western Europeans looked down upon the new Slavs and Baltics, fearing that a mixing of blood would ruin the fairer Anglo-Saxon races and create inferior offspring.
    • The “native” Americans blamed immigrants for the degradation of the urban government. These new bigots had forgotten how they had been scorned when they had arrived in America a few decades before.
    • Trade unionists hated them for their willingness to work for super-low wages and for bringing in dangerous doctrines like socialism and communism into the U.S.
  2. Anti-foreign organizations like the American Protective Association (APA) arose to go against new immigrants, and labor leaders were quick to try to stop new immigration, since immigrants were frequently used as strikebreakers.
  3. Finally, in 1882, Congress passed the first restrictive law against immigration, which banned paupers, criminals, and convicts from coming here.
  4. In 1885, another law was passed banning the importation of foreign workers under usually substandard contracts.
  5. Literacy tests for immigrants were proposed, but were resisted until they were finally passed in 1917, but the 1882 immigration law also barred the Chinese from coming (the Chinese Exclusion Act).
  6. Ironically in this anti-immigratnt climate, the Statue of Liberty arrived from France—a gift from the French to America in 1886.

VI. Churches Confront the Urban Challenge

  1. Since churches had mostly failed to take any stands and rally against the urban poverty, plight, and suffering, many people began to question the ambition of the churches, and began to worry that Satan was winning the battle of good and evil.
    • The emphasis on material gains worried many.
  2. A new generation of urban revivalists stepped in, including people like Dwight Lyman Moody, a man who proclaimed the gospel of kindness and forgiveness and adapted the old-time religion to the facts of city life.
    • The Moody Bible Institute was founded in Chicago in 1889 and continued working well after his 1899 death.
  3. Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were also gaining many followers with the new immigration.
    • Cardinal Gibbons was popular with Roman Catholics and Protestants, as he preached American unity.
    • By 1890, Americans could choose from 150 religions, including the new Salvation Army, which tried to help the poor and unfortunate.
  4. The Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science), founded by Mary Baker Eddy, preached a perversion of Christianity that she claimed healed sickness.
  5. YMCA’s and YWCAs (Young Men's/Women's Christian Association) also sprouted.

VII. Darwin Disrupts the Churches

  1. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species, which set forth the new doctrine of evolution and attracted the ire and fury of fundamentalists.
    • “Modernists” took a step from the fundamentalists and refused to believe that the Bible was completely accurate and factual. They contended that the Bible was merely a collection of moral stories or guidelines, but not sacred scripture inspired by God.
  2. Colonel Robert G. Ingersoll was one who denounced creationism, as he had been widely persuaded by the theory of evolution. Others blended creationism and evolution to invent their own interpretations.

VIII. The Lust for Learning

  1. A new trend began in the creation of more public schools and the provision of free textbooks funded by taxpayers.
    • By 1900, there were 6,000 high schools in America; kindergartens also multiplied.
  2. Catholic schools also grew in popularity and in number.
  3. To partially help adults who couldn’t go to school, the Chautauqua movement, a successor to the lyceums, was launched in 1874. It included public lectures to many people by famous writers and extensive at-home studies.
  4. Americans began to develop a faith in formal education as a solution to poverty.

IX. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

  1. The South, war-torn and poor, lagged far behind in education, especially for Blacks, so Booker T. Washington, an ex-slave came to help. He started by heading a black normal (teacher) and industrial school in Tuskegee, Alabama, and teaching the students useful skills and trades.
    • However, he avoided the issue of social equality; he believed in Blacks helping themselves first before gaining more rights.
  2. One of Washington’s students was George Washington Carver, who later discovered hundreds of new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, and soybeans.
  3. However, W.E.B. Du Bois, the first Black to get a Ph.D. from Harvard University, demanded complete equality for Blacks and action now. He also founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.
    • Many of DuBois’s differences with Washington reflected the contrasting life experiences of southern and northern Blacks.

X. The Hallowed Halls of Ivy

  1. Colleges and universities sprouted after the Civil War, and colleges for women, such as Vassar, were gaining ground.
    • Also, colleges for both genders grew, especially in the Midwest, and Black colleges also were established, such as Howard University in Washington D.C., Atlanta University, and Hampton Institute in Virginia.
  2. The Morrill Act of 1862 had provided a generous grant of the public lands to the states for support of education and was extended by the Hatch Act of 1887, which provided federal funds for the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection with the land-grant colleges.
  3. Private donations also went toward the establishment of colleges, including Cornell, Leland Stanford Junior, and the University of Chicago, which was funded by John D. Rockefeller.
  4. Johns Hopkins University maintained the nation’s first high-grade graduate school.

XI. The March of the Mind

  1. The elective system of college was gaining popularity, and it took off especially after Dr. Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard.
  2. Medical schools and science were prospering after the Civil War.
    • Discoveries by Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister (antiseptics) improved medical science and health.
    • The brilliant but sickly William James helped establish the discipline of behavioral psychology, with his books Principles of Psychology (1890),The Will to Believe (1897), and Varieties of Religious Experience (1902).
      • His greatest work was Pragmatism (1907), which preached what he believed in: pragmatism (everything has a useful purpose).

XII. The Appeal of the Press

  1. Libraries such as the Library of Congress also opened across America, bringing literature into people’s homes.
  2. With the invention of the Linotype in 1885, the press more than kept pace with demand, but competition sparked a new brand of journalism called “yellow journalism,” in which newspapers reported on wild and fantastic stories that often were false or quite exaggerated: sex, scandal, and other human-interest stories.
  3. Two new journalistic tycoons emerged: Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (San Francisco Examiner, et al.).

d. Luckily, the strengthening of the Associated Press, which had been established in the 1840s, helped to offset some of the questionable journalism.

XIII. Apostles of Reform

  1. Magazines like Harpers, the Atlantic Monthly, and Scribners Monthly partially satisfied the public appetite for good reading, but perhaps the most influential of all was the Nation, launched in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, a merciless critic. These were all liberal, reform-minded publications.
  2. Another enduring journalist-author was Henry George, who wrote Progress and Poverty, which undertook to solve the association of poverty with progress.
    • It was he who came up with the idea of the graduated income tax—the more you make, the greater percent you pay in taxes.
  3. Edward Bellamy published Looking Backward in 1888, in which he criticized the social injustices of the day and pictured a utopian government that had nationalized big business serving the public good.

XIV. Postwar Writing

  1. After the war, Americans devoured “dime-novels” which depicted the wild West and other romantic and adventurous settings.
    • The king of dime novelists was Harland F. Halsey, who made 650 of these novels.
    • General Lewis Wallace wrote Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, which combated the ideas and beliefs of Darwinism and reaffirmed the traditional Christian faith.
  2. Horatio Alger was even more popular, since his rags-to-riches books told that virtue, honesty, and industry were rewarded by success, wealth, and honor. His most notable book was titled Ragged Dick about a poor boy who makes good.
  3. Walt Whitman was one of the old writers who still remained active, publishing revisions of his hardy perennial: Leaves of Grass.
  4. Emily Dickinson was a famed hermit of a poet whose poems were published after her death.
  5. Other lesser poets included Sidney Lanier, who was oppressed by poverty and ill health.

XV. Literary Landmarks

  1. Other famous writers:
    • Kate Chopin, wrote about adultery, suicide, and women’s ambitions in The Awakening.
    • Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) wrote many books, including The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Roughing Itabout the wild West, The Gilded Age (hence the term given to the era of corruption after the Civil War) and 'The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County'.
    • Bret Harte wrote California gold rush stories.
    • William Dean Howells became editor in chief of the Atlantic Monthly and wrote about ordinary people and sometimes-controversial social themes.
    • Stephen Crane wrote about the seamy underside of life in urban, industrial America (prostitutes, etc.) in such books like Maggie: Girl of the Street.
      • He also wrote The Red Badge of Courage, a tale about a Civil War soldier.
    • Henry James wrote Daisy Miller and Portrait of a Lady, often making women his central characters in his novels and exploring their personalities.
    • Jack London wrote about the wild unexplored regions of wilderness in The Call of the Wild, White Fang, and The Iron Heel.
    • Frank Norris’s The Octopus exposed the corruption of the railroads.
    • Paul Laurence Dunbar and Charles W. Chesnutt, two black writers, used black dialect and folklore in their poems and stories, respectively.

XVI. The New Morality

  1. Victoria Woodhull proclaimed free love, and together with her sister, Tennessee Claflin, wrote Woodhull and Claflin’s Weekly, which shocked readers with exposés of affairs, etc.
  2. Anthony Comstock waged a lifelong war on the “immoral.”
  3. The “new morality” reflected sexual freedom in the increase of birth control, divorces, and frank discussion of sexual topics.

XVII. Families and Women in the City

  1. Urban life was stressful on families, who were often separated, and everyone had to work—even children as young as ten years old.
    • While on farms, more children meant more people to harvest and help, in the cities, more children meant more mouths to feed and a greater chance of poverty.
  2. In 1898, Charlotte Perkins Gilman published Women and Economics, a classic of feminist literature, in which she called for women to abandon their dependent status and contribute to the larger life of the community through productive involvement in the economy.
    • She also advocated day-care centers and centralized nurseries and kitchens.
  3. Feminists also rallied toward suffrage, forming the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1890, an organization led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton (who’d organized the first women’s rights convention in 1848 at Seneca Falls, NY) and Susan B. Anthony.
  4. By 1900, a new generation of women activists were present, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, who stressed the desirability of giving women the vote if they were to continue to discharge their traditional duties as homemakers in the increasingly public world of the city.
    • The Wyoming Territory was the first to offer women unrestricted suffrage in 1869.
    • The General Federation of Women’s Clubs also encouraged women’s suffrage.
  5. Ida B. Wells rallied toward better treatment for Blacks as well and formed the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

XVIII. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

  1. Concern over the popularity (and dangers) of alcohol was also present, marked by the formation of the National Prohibition Party in 1869.
    • Other organizations like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union also rallied against alcohol, calling for a national prohibition of the beverage.
      • Leaders included Frances E. Willard and Carrie A. Nation who literally wielded a hatchet and hacked up bars.
    • The Anti-Saloon League was also formed in 1893.
  2. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was formed in 1866 to discourage the mistreatment of livestock, and the American Red Cross, formed by Clara Barton, a Civil War nurse, was formed in 1881.

XIX. Artistic Triumphs

  1. Art was largely suppressed during the first half of the 1800s and failed to really take flight in America, forcing such men as James Whistler and John Singer Sargent to go to Europe to study art.
  2. Mary Cassatt painted sensitive portraits of women and children, while George Inness became America’s leading landscapist.
  3. Thomas Eakins was a great realist painter, while Winslow Homer was perhaps the most famous and the greatest of all. He painted scenes of typical New England life (schools and such).
  4. Great sculptors included Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who made the Robert Gould Shaw memorial, located in Boston, in 1897.
  5. Music reached new heights with the erection of opera houses and the emergence of jazz.
  6. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which allowed the reproduction of sounds that could be heard by listeners.
  7. Henry H. Richardson was another fine architect whose “Richardsonian” architecture was famed around the country.
    • The Columbian Exposition in 1893, in Chicago, displayed many architectural triumphs.

XX. The Business of Amusement

  1. In entertainment, Phineas T. Barnum (who quipped, “There’s a sucker born every minute,” and “People love to be humbugged.”) and James A. Bailey teamed up in 1881 to stage the “Greatest Show on Earth” (now the Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus).
  2. “Wild West” shows, like those of “Buffalo Bill” Cody (and the markswoman Annie Oakley who shot holes through tossed silver dollars) were ever-popular, and baseball and football became popular as well.
  3. Baseball emerged as America’s national pastime.
  4. Wrestling gained popularity and respectability.
  5. In 1891, James Naismith invented basketball.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution, 1865-1896

 I. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains

  1. After the Civil War, the Great West was still relatively untamed, wild, full of Indians, bison, and wildlife, and sparsely populated by a few Mormonsand Mexicans.
  2. As the White settlers began to populate the Great West, the Indians, caught in the middle, increasingly turned against each other, were infected with White man’s diseases, and stuck battling to hunt the few remaining bison that were still ranging around.
    • The Sioux, displaced by Chippewas from the their ancestral lands at the headwaters of the Mississippi in the late 1700s, expanded at the expense of the Crows, Kiowas, and Pawnees, and justified their actions by reasoning that White men had done the same thing to them.
      • The Indians had become great riders, hunters, and fighters ever since the Spanish had introduced the horse to them.
  3. The federal government tried to pacify the Indians by signing treaties at Fort Laramie in 1851 and Fort Atkinson in 1853 with the chiefs of the tribes. However, the U.S. failed to understand that such “tribes” and “chiefs” didn’t necessarily represent groups of people in Indian culture, and that in most cases, Native Americans didn’t recognize authorities outside of their families.
  4. In the 1860s, the U.S. government intensified its efforts by herding Indians into still smaller and smaller reservations (like the Dakota Territory).
    • Indians were often promised that they wouldn’t be bothered further after moving out of their ancestral lands, and often, Indian agents were corrupt and pawned off shoddy food and products to their own fellow Indians.
    • White men often disregarded treaties, though, and frequently swindled the Indians.
  5. In frustration, many Native American tribes fought back. A slew of Indian vs. White skirmishes emerged between roughly 1864 to 1890 in the so-called “Indian Wars.”
    • After the Civil War, the U.S. Army’s new mission became—go clear Indians out of the West for White settlers to move in.
    • Many times though, the Indians were better equipped than the federal troops sent to quell their revolts because arrows could be fired more rapidly than a muzzle-loaded rifle. Invention of the Colt .45 revolver (six-shooter) and Winchester repeating rifle changed this.
    • Generals Sherman, Sheridan, and Custer (at Little Bighorn) all battled Indians.

II. Receding Native Population

  1. Violence reigned supreme in Indian-White relations.
    • In 1864, at Sand Creek, Colorado, Colonel J.M. Chivington’s militia massacred some four hundred Indians in cold blood—Indians who had thought they had been promised immunity and Indians who were peaceful and harmless.
    • In 1866, a Sioux war party ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman’s command of 81 soldiers and civilians who were constructing the Bozeman Trail to the Montana goldfields, leaving no survivors.
      • This massacre was one of the few Indian victories, as another treaty at Fort Laramie was signed two years later.
  2. Colonel Custer found gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota (sacred Sioux land), and hordes of gold-seekers invaded the Sioux reservation in search of gold, causing Sitting Bull and the Sioux to go on the warpath, completely decimating Custer’s Seventh Calvary at Little Big Horn in the process.
    • The reinforcements that arrived later brutally hunted down the Indians who had attacked, including their leader, Sitting Bull (he escaped).
  3. The Nez Percé Indians also revolted when gold seekers made the government shrink their reservation by 90%, and after a tortuous battle, Chief Joseph finally surrendered his band after a long trek across the Continental Divide toward Canada. He buried his hatchet and gave his famous speech saying, “From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever.”
  4. The most difficult to subdue were the Apache tribes of Arizona and New Mexico, led by Geronimo, but even they finally surrendered after being pushed to Mexico, and afterwards, they became successful farmers.
  5. The Indians were subdued due to (1) the railroad, which cut through the heart of the West, (2) the White man’s diseases, (3) the extermination of the buffalo, (4) wars, and (5) the loss of their land to White settlement.

III. Bellowing Herds of Bison

  1. In the early days, tens of millions of bison dotted the American prairie, and by the end of the Civil War, there were still 15 million buffalo grazing, but it was the eruption of the railroad that really started the buffalo massacre.
    • Many people killed buffalo for their meat, their skins, or their tongues, but many people either killed the bison for sport or killed them, took only one small part of their bodies (like the tongue) and just left the rest of the carcass to rot.
  2. By 1885, fewer than 1,000 buffalo were left, and the species was in danger of extinction. Those left were mostly in Yellowstone National Park.

IV. The End of the Trail

  1. Sympathy for the Indians finally materialized in the 1880s, helped in part by Helen Hunt Jackson’s book A Century of Dishonor and her novelRamona.
    • Humanitarians wanted to kindly help Indians “walk the White man’s road” while the hard-liners stuck to their “kill ‘em all” beliefs, and no one cared much for the traditional Indian heritage and culture.
  2. Often, zealous White missionaries would force Indians to convert, and in 1884, they helped urge the government to outlaw the sacred Sun Dance, called the Ghost Dance by Whites. It was a festival that Whites thought was the war-drum beating.
    • At the Battle of Wounded Knee, the “Ghost Dance” was brutally stamped out by U.S. troops, who killed women and children as well. This battle marks the end of the Indian Wars as by then the Indians were all either on reservations or dead.
  3. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 dissolved the legal entities of all tribes, but if the Indians behaved the way Whites wanted them to behave (become farmers on reservations), they could receive full U.S. citizenship in 25 years (full citizenship to all Indians was granted in 1924). Ironically, an immigrant from a foreign nation could become a citizen much, much faster than a native-born Native American.
    • Reservation land not allotted to Indians under the act was sold to railroads.
    • In 1879, the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania was founded to teach Native American children how to behave like Whites, completely erasing their culture.
    • The Dawes Act struck forcefully at the Indians, and by 1900 they had lost half the land than they had held 20 years before. This plan would outline U.S. policy toward Indians until the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act which helped the Indian population rebound and grow.

V. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker

  1. Gold was discovered in California in the late 1840s, and in 1858, the same happened at Pike’s Peak in Colorado. “Fifty-Niners” flocked out there, but within a month or two, the gold had run out.
  2. The Comstock Lode in Nevada was discovered in 1859, and a fantastic amount of gold and silver worth more than $340 million was mined.
  3. Smaller “lucky strikes” also drew money-lovers to Montana, Idaho, and other western states. Anarchy in these outposts seemed to rule, but in the end, what was left were usually ghost towns.
  4. After the surface gold was found, ore-breaking machinery was brought in to break the gold-bearing quartz (which was very expensive to do).
  5. Women found new rights in these Western lands however, gaining suffrage in Wyoming (1869) (the first place for women to vote), Utah (1870), Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896).
  6. Mining also added to the folklore and American literature (Bret Harte & Mark Twain).

VI. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive

  1. As cities back east boomed in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the demand for food and meat increased sharply.
  2. The problem of marketing meat profitably to the public market and cities was solved by the new transcontinental railroads. Cattle could now be shipped to the stockyards under “beef barons” like the Swifts and Armours.
    • The meat-packaging industry thus sprang up.
  3. The “Long Drive” emerged to become a spectacular feeder of the slaughterhouses, as Texas cowboys herded cattle across desolate land to railroad terminals in Kansas.
    • Dodge City, Abilene, Ogallala, and Cheyenne became favorite stopovers.
      • At Dodge City Wyatt Earp and in Abilene, Marshal James B. Hickok maintained order.
  4. The railroads made the cattle herding business prosper, but it also destroyed it, for the railroads also brought sheepherders and homesteaders who built barbed-wire, invented by Samuel Glidden, fences that erased the open-range days of the long cattle drives.
    • Also, blizzards in the winter of 1886-87 left dazed cattle starving and freezing.
  5. Breeders learned to fence their ranches and to organize (i.e. the Wyoming Stock-Growers’ Association).
    • The legends of the cowboys were made here at this time, but lived on in American lore.

VII. The Farmers’ Frontier

  1. The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed folks to get as much as 160 acres of land in return for living on it for five years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee of about $30.00. Or, it allowed folks to get land after only six month’s residence for $1.25 an acre.
    • Before, the U.S. government had sold land for revenue, but now, it was giving it away.
    • This act led half a million families to buy land and settle out West, but it often turned out to be a cruel hoax because in the dry Great Plains, 160 acres was rarely enough for a family to earn a living and survive. And often, families were forced to give up their homesteads before the five years were up, since droughts, bad land, and lack of necessities forced them out.
    • However, fraud was spawned by the Homestead Act, since almost ten times as much land ended up in the hands of land-grabbing promoters than in the hands of real farmers. Sometimes these cheats would not even live on the land, but say that they’d erected a “twelve by fourteen” dwelling—which later turned out to be twelve by fourteen inches!
  2. Taming Western Deserts
    • Railroads such as the Northern Pacific helped develop the agricultural West, a place where, after the tough, horse-trodden lands had been plowed and watered, proved to be surprisingly fertile.
    • Due to higher wheat prices resulting from crop failures around the world, more people rashly pushed further westward, past the 100th meridian (which is also the magic 20-inch per year rainfall line), where it was difficult to grow crops.
      • Here, as warned by geologist John Wesley Powell, so little rain fell that successful farming could only be attained by massive irrigation.
      • To counteract the lack of water (and a six year drought in the 1880s), farmers developed the technique of “dry farming,” or using shallow cultivation methods to plant and farm, but over time, this method created a finely pulverized surface soil that contributed to the notorious “Dust Bowl” several decades later.
    • A Russian species of wheat—tough and resistant to drought—was brought in and grew all over the Great Plains, while other plants were chosen in favor of corn.
    • Huge federally financed irrigation projects soon caused the “Great American Desert” to bloom, and dams that tamed the Missouri and Columbia Rivers helped water the land.

VIII. The Far West Comes of Age

  1. The Great West experienced a population surge, as many people moved onto the frontier.
  2. New states like Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming were admitted into the Union.
    • Not until 1896 was Utah allowed into the Union, and by the 20th century, only Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona remained as territories.
    • In Oklahoma, the U.S. government made available land that had formerly belonged to the Native Americans, and thousands of “Sooners” jumped the boundary line and illegally went into Oklahoma, often forcing U.S. troops to evict them.
    • On April 22, 1889, Oklahoma was legally opened, and 18 years later, in 1907, Oklahoma became the “Sooner State.”
  3. In 1890, for the first time, the U.S. census announced that a frontier was no longer discernible.
  4. The “closing” of the frontier inspired the Turner Thesis, which stated that America needed a frontier.
  5. At first, the public didn’t seem to notice that there was no longer a frontier, but later, they began to realize that the land was not infinite, and concern led to the first national park being opened, Yellowstone, founded in 1872, followed by Yosemite and Sequoia (1890).

IX. The Fading Frontier

  1. The frontier was a state of mind and a symbol of opportunity.
  2. The “safety valve theory” stated that the frontier was like a safety valve for folks who, when it became too crowded in their area, could simply pack up and leave, moving West.
    • Actually, few city-dwellers left the cities for the West, since they didn’t know how to farm; the West increasingly became less and less a land of opportunity for farms, but still was good for hard laborers and ranchers.
    • Still, free acreage did lure a host of immigrant farmers to the West—farmers that probably wouldn’t have come to the West had the land not been cheap—and the lure of the West may have led to city employers raising wages to keep workers in the cities.
  3. It seems that the cities, not the West, were the safety valves, as busted farmers and fortune seekers made Chicago and San Francisco into large cities.
  4. Of hundreds of years, Americans had expanded west, and it was in the trans-Mississippi west that the Indians made their last stand, where Anglo culture collided with Hispanic culture, and where America faced Asia.
  5. The life that we live today is one that those pioneers dreamed of, and the life that they lived is one of which we can only dream.

X. The Farm Becomes a Factory

  1. Farmers were now increasingly producing single “cash” crops, since they could then concentrate their efforts, make profits, and buy manufactured goods from mail order companies, such as the Aaron Montgomery Ward catalogue (first sent in 1872) or from Sears.
  2. Large-scale farmers tried banking, railroading, and manufacturing, but new inventions in farming, such as a steam engine that could pull a plow, seeder, or harrow, the new twine binder, and the combined reaper-thresher sped up harvesting and lowered the number of people needed to farm.
    • Farmers, though, were inclined to blame banks and railroads for their losses rather than their own shortcomings.
  3. The mechanization of agriculture led to enormous farms, such as those in the Minnesota-North Dakota area and the Central Valley of California.
    • Henry George described the state as a country of plantations and estates.
    • California vegetables and fruits, raised by ill-paid Mexican workers, made handsome profits when sold to the East.

XI. Deflation Dooms the Debtor

  1. In the 1880s, when world markets rebounded, produced more crops, and forced prices down, the farmers in America were the ones that found ruin.
  2. Paying back debts was especially difficult in this deflation-filled time during which there was simply not enough money to go around for everyone. Less money in circulation was called “contraction.”
  3. Farmers operated year after year on losses and lived off their fat as best they could, but thousands of homesteads fell to mortgages and foreclosures, and farm tenancy rather than farm ownership was increasing.
  4. The fall of the farmers in the late 1800s was similar to the fall of the South and its “King Cotton” during the Civil War: depending solely on one crop was good in good times but disastrous during less prosperous times.

XII. Unhappy Farmers

  1. In the late 1880s and early 1890s, droughts, grasshopper plagues, and searing heat waves made the toiling farmers miserable and poor.
  2. City, state, and federal governments added to this by gouging the farmers, ripping them off by making them pay painful taxes when they could least afford to do so.
  3. The railroads (by fixing freight prices), the middlemen (by taking huge cuts in profits), and the various harvester, barbed wire, and fertilizer trusts all harassed farmers.
  4. In 1890, one half of the U.S. population still consisted of farmers, but they were hopelessly disorganized.

XIII. The Farmers Take Their Stand

  1. In the Greenback movement after the Civil War, agrarian unrest had flared forth as well.
  2. In 1867, the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, better known as The Grange, was founded by Oliver H. Kelley to improve the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities.
    • Eventually, it spread to claim over 800,000 members in 1875, and the Grange changed its goals to include the improvement of the collective plight of the farmer.
    • The Grangers found most success in the upper Mississippi Valley, and eventually, they managed to get Congress to pass a set of regulations known as the Granger Laws, but afterwards, their influence faded.
  3. The Greenback Labor Party also attracted farmers, and in 1878, the Greenback Laborites polled over a million votes and elected 14 members of Congress.
    • In 1880, the Greenbackers ran General James B. Weaver, a Civil War general, but he only polled 3% of the popular vote.

XIV. Prelude to Populism

  1. The Farmers’ Alliance, founded in the late 1870s, was another coalition of farmers seeking to overthrow the chains from the banks and railroads that bound them.
    • However, its programs only aimed at those who owned their own land, thereby ignoring the tenant farmers, and it purposely excluded Blacks.
    • The Alliance members agreed on the (1) nationalization of railroads, (2) the abolition of national banks, (3) a graduated income tax, and (4) a new federal sub-treasury for farmers.
  2. Populists were led by Ignatius Donnelly from Minnesota and Mary Elizabeth Lease, both of whom spoke eloquently and attacked those that hurt farmers (banks, railroads, etc.).
  3. The Alliance was still not to be brushed aside, and in the coming decade, they would combine into a new People’s Party (AKA, the Populist Party) to launch a new attack on the northeastern citadels of power.

XV. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike

  1. The Panic of 1893 fueled the passion of the Populists. Many disgruntled unemployed fled to D.C. calling for change.
    • Most famous of these people was “General” Jacob Coxey. “Coxey’s Army” marched on Washington with scores of followers and many newspaper reporters. They called for:
      • relieving unemployment by an inflationary government public works program.
      • an issuance of $500 million in legal tender notes.
    • The march fizzled out when they were arrested for walking on the grass.
  2. The Pullman Strike in Chicago, led by Eugene Debs, was more dramatic.
    • Debs helped organize the workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company.
    • The company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about 1/3.
    • Workers struck, sometimes violently.
    • U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney called in federal troops to break up the strike. His rationale: the strike was interfering with the transit of U.S. mail.
    • Debs went to prison for 6 months and turned into the leading Socialist in America.

XVI. Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan

  1. McKinley
    • The leading Republican candidate in 1896 was William McKinley, a respectable and friendly former Civil War major who had served many years in Congress representing his native Ohio.
    • McKinley was the making of another Ohioan, Marcus Alonzo Hanna, who financially and politically supported the candidate through his political years.
    • McKinley was a conservative in business, preferring to leaves things alone, and his platform was for the gold standard, even though he personally was not.
      • His platform also called for a gold-silver bimetallism—provided that all the other nations in the world did the same, which was not bound to happen.
  2. Bryan
    • The Democrats were in disarray and unable to come up with a candidate, until William Jennings Bryan, the “Boy Orator of the Platte,” came to their rescue.
    • At the 1896 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Bryan delivered a movingly passionate speech in favor of free silver. In this “Cross of Gold Speech” he created a sensation and won the nomination for the Democratic ticket the next day.
      • The Democratic ticket called for unlimited coinage of silver with the ratio of 16 silver ounces worth as much as one ounce of gold.
      • Democrats who would not stand for this left the party.
    • Some Democrats charged that they’d stolen the Populist ideas, and during the Election of 1896, it was essentially the “Demo-Pop” party.

XVII. Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders

  1. McKinley won decisively, getting 271 electoral votes, mostly from the populous East and upper Midwest, as opposed to Bryan’s 176, mostly from the South and the West.
  2. This election was perhaps the most important since the elections involving Abraham Lincoln, for it was the first to seemingly pit the privileged against the underprivileged, and it resulted in a victory for big business and big cities.
  3. Thus, the Election of 1896 could be called the “gold vs. silver” election. And, put to the vote, it was clear then that Americans were going with gold.
  4. Also in the election, the Middle Class preserved their comfortable way of life while the Republicans seized control of the White House of 16 more years.

XVIII. Republican Standpattism Enthroned

  1. When McKinley took office in 1897, he was calm and conservative, working well with his party and avoiding major confrontations.
  2. The Dingley Tariff Bill was passed to replace the Wilson-Gorman law and raise more revenue, raising the tariff level to whopping 46.5 percent.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 27 - Empire and Expansion, 1890-1909

 I. America Turns Outward

  1. From the end of the Civil War to the 1880s, the United States was very isolationist, but in the 1890s, due to rising exports, manufacturing capability, power, and wealth, it began to expand onto the world stage, using overseas markets to sell its goods.
    • The “yellow press” or “yellow journalism” of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst also influenced overseas expansion, as did missionaries inspired by Reverend Josiah Strong’s Our Country: It’s Possible Future and Its Present Crisis. Strong spoke for civilizing and Christianizing savages.
    • People were interpreting Darwin’s theory of survival-of-the-fittest to mean that the United States was the fittest and needed to take over other nations to improve them.
      • Such events already were happening, as Europeans had carved up Africa and China by this time.
      • In America, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s 1890 book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, argued that every successful world power once held a great navy. This book helped start a naval race among the great powers and moved the U.S. to naval supremacy. It motivated the U.S. to look to expanding overseas.
  2. James G. Blaine pushed his “Big Sister” policy, which sought better relations with Latin America, and in 1889, he presided over the first Pan-American Conference, held in Washington D.C.
  3. However, in other diplomatic affairs, America and Germany almost went to war over the Samoan Islands (over whom could build a naval base there), while Italy and America almost fought due to the lynching of 11 Italians in New Orleans, and the U.S. and Chile almost went to war after the deaths of two American sailors at Valparaiso in 1892.
    • The new aggressive mood was also shown by the U.S.—Canadian argument over seal hunting near the Pribilof Islands off the coast of Alaska.
  4. An incident with Venezuela and Britain wound up strengthening the Monroe Doctrine.
    • British Guiana and Venezuela had been disputing their border for many years, but when gold was discovered, the situation worsened.
    • Thus, the U.S., under President Grover Cleveland, sent a note written by Secretary of State Richard Olney to Britain informing them that the British actions were trespassing the Monroe Doctrine and that the U.S. controlled things in the Americas.
    • The British replied by stating that the affair was none of the U.S's business.
    • Cleveland angrily replied by appropriating a committee to devise a new boundary and if Great Britain would not accept it, then the U.S. implied it would fight for it.
    • Britain didn’t want to fight because of the damage to its merchant trade that could result, the Dutch Boers of South Africa were about to go to war and Germany’s Kaiser Wilhem was beginning to challenge Britain's power.
    • Seeing the benefits of an alliance with the "Yankees," Great Britain began a period of "patting the eagle's head," instead of America "twisting the lion's tale." This was referred to as the Great Rapprochement or reconciliation.

II. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear

  1. From the 1820s, when the first U.S. missionaries came, the United States had always liked the Hawaiian Islands.
  2. Treaties signed in 1875 and 1887 guaranteed commercial trade and U.S. rights to priceless Pearl Harbor, while Hawaiian sugar was very profitable. But in 1890, the McKinley Tariff raised the prices on this sugar, raising its price.
  3. Americans felt that the best way to offset this was to annex Hawaii—a move opposed by its Queen Liliuokalani—but in 1893, desperate Americans in Hawaii revolted.
    • They succeeded, and Hawaii seemed ready for annexation, but Grover Cleveland became president again, investigated the coup, found it to be wrong, and delayed the annexation of Hawaii until he basically left office.
    • Cleveland was bombarded for stopping “Manifest Destiny,” but his actions proved to be honorable for him and America.

III. Cubans Rise in Revolt

  1. In 1895, Cuba revolted against Spain, citing years of misrule, and the Cubans torched their sugar cane fields in hopes that such destruction would either make Spain leave or America interfere (the American tariff of 1894 had raised prices on it anyway).
  2. Sure enough, America supported Cuba, and the situation worsened when Spanish General Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler came to Cuba to crush the revolt and ended up putting many civilians into concentration camps that were terrible and killed many.
  3. The American public clamored for action, especially when spurred on by the yellow press, but Cleveland would do nothing.
    • The Mystery of the Maine Explosion
    • The yellow presses competed against each other to come up with more sensational stories, and Hearst even sent artist Frederick Remington to draw pictures of often-fictional atrocities.
      • For example, he drew Spanish officials brutally stripping and searching an American woman, when in reality, Spanish women, not men, did such acts.
      • Then, suddenly, on February 9, 1898, a letter written by Spanish minister to Washington Dupuy de Lôme that ridiculed President McKinley was published by Hearst.
    • On February 15th of that year, the U.S. battleship U.S.S. Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 260 officers and men.
      • Despite an unknown cause, America was war-mad and therefore Spain received the blame.
      • Hearst called down to Cuba, “You supply the pictures, I’ll supply the story.”
      • Actually, what really happened was that an accidental explosion had basically blown up the ship—a similar conclusion to what Spanish investigators suggested—but America ignored them.
      • The American public wanted war, but McKinley privately didn’t like war or the violence, since he had been a Civil War major. In addition,Mark Hanna and Wall Street didn’t want war because it would upset business.
  4. However, on April 11, 1898, the president sent his war message to Congress anyway, since: (1) war with Spain seemed inevitable, (2) America had to defend democracy, and (3) opposing a war could split the Republican party and America.
  5. Congress also adopted the Teller Amendment, which proclaimed that when the U.S. had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give the Cubans their freedom and not conquer it.

IV. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila

  1. On paper, at least, the Spanish had the advantage over the U.S., since it had more troops and a supposedly better army, as well as younger (and seemingly more daring) generals.
  2. Navy Secretary John D. Long and his assistant secretary, Theodore Roosevelt had modernized the U.S. navy, making it sleek and sharp.
    • On February 25, 1898, Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey, commanding the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong, and told him to take over the Philippines.
    • Dewey did so brilliantly, completely taking over the islands from the Spanish.
  3. Dewey had naval control, but he could not storm the islands and its fortresses, so he had to wait for reinforcements, but meanwhile, other nations were moving their ships into Manila Harbor to protect their men.
    • The German navy defied American blockade regulations, and Dewey threatened the navy commander with war, but luckily, this episode blew over, due in part to the British assistance of America.
  4. Finally, on August 13, 1898, American troops arrived and captured Manila, collaborating with Filipino insurgents, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, to overthrow the Spanish rulers.
  5. On July 7, 1898, the U.S. annexed Hawaii (so that it could use the islands to support Dewey, supposedly), and Hawaii received full territorial status in 1900.

V. The Confused Invasion of Cuba

  • The Spanish sent warships to Cuba, panicking Americans on the Eastern seaboard, and the fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, found refuge in Santiago harbor, Cuba.
    1. Then, it was promptly blockaded by a better American force.
  • American ground troops, led by fat General William R. Shafter, were ill-prepared for combat in the tropical environment (i.e. they had woolen long underwear).
  • The “Rough Riders,” a regiment of volunteers led by Theodore Roosevelt and Colonel Leonard Wood, rushed to Cuba and battled at El Caney stormed up San Juan Hill.
  • Admiral Cervera was finally ordered to fight the American fleet, and his fleet was destroyed.
  • On land, the American army, commanded by General Nelson A. Miles, met little resistance as they took over Puerto Rico.
  • Soon afterwards, on August 12, 1898, Spain signed an armistice.
  • Notably, if the Spaniards had held out for a few more months, they might have won, for the American army was plagued with dysentery, typhoid, and yellow fever.
    1. Finally, TR wrote a “round-robin” letter demanded that the U.S. government take the troops out before they all died.

VI. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire

  • In negotiations in Paris, America got Guam and Puerto Rico and freed Cuba, but the Philippines were a tough problem, since America couldn’t honorably give it back to Spain after decades of misrule, but the U.S. couldn’t just take it like an imperialistic nation.
  • Finally, McKinley decided to keep the Philippines, even though they had been taken one day after the end of the war, but he did so because of popular public opinion and because it meshed well with business interests.
    1. The U.S. paid $20 million for the islands.
  • Upon the U.S. taking of the Philippines, uproar broke out, since until now, the United States had mostly acquired territory from the American continent, and even with Alaska, Hawaii, and the other scattered islands, there weren’t many people living there.
  • The Anti-Imperialist League sprang into being, firmly opposed to this new imperialism of America, and its members included Mark Twain, William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.
    1. Even the Filipinos wanted freedom, and denying that to them was un-American.
  • However, expansionists cried that the Philippines could become another Hong Kong.
    1. British writer Rudyard Kipling wrote about “The White Man’s Burden,” urging America to keep the Philippines and “civilize them.”
  • In the Senate, the treaty was almost not passed, but finally, William Jennings Bryan argued for its passage, saying that the sooner the treaty was passed, the sooner the U.S. could get rid of the Philippines. The treaty passed by only one vote.

VII. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

  • The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government, and in 1917, Congress granted Puerto Ricans full American citizenship.
    1. U.S. help also transformed Puerto Rico and worked wonders in sanitation, transportation, beauty, and education.
  • In the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court barely ruled that the Constitution did not have full authority on how to deal with the islands (Cuba and Puerto Rico), essentially letting Congress do whatever it wanted with them. Basically, the cases said the island residents do not necessarily share the same rights as Americans.
  • America could not improve Cuba that much however, other than getting rid of yellow fever with the help of General Leonard Wood and Dr. Walter Reed.
    1. In 1902, the U.S. did indeed walk away from Cuba, but it also encouraged Cuba to write and pass the Platt Amendment, which became their constitution.
    2. This amendment said that (1) the U.S. could intervene and restore order in case of anarchy, (2) that the U.S. could trade freely with Cuba, and (3) that the U.S. could get two bays for naval bases, notably Guantanamo Bay.

VIII. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres

  • The Spanish-American War lasted only 113 days and affirmed America’s presence as a world power.
  • However, America’s actions after the war made its German rival jealous and its Latin American neighbors suspicious.
  • Finally, one of the happiest results of the war was the narrowing of the bloody chasm between the U.S. North and South, which had been formed in the Civil War.
    1. General Joseph Wheeler was given a command in Cuba.

IX. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines

  • The Filipinos had assumed that they would receive freedom after the Spanish-American War, but when they didn’t they revolted against the U.S.
    1. The insurrection began on February 4, 1899, and was led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who took his troops into guerrilla warfare after open combat proved to be useless.
    2. Stories of atrocities abounded, but finally, the rebellion was broken in 1901 when U.S. soldiers invaded Aguinaldo’s headquarters and captured him.
  • President McKinley formed a Philippine Commission in 1899 to deal with the Filipinos, and in its second year, the organization was headed by amiable William Howard Taft, who developed a strong attachment for the Filipinos, calling them his “little brown brothers.”
  • The Americans tried to assimilate the Filipinos, but the islanders resisted; they finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.

X. Hinging the Open Door in China

  • Following its defeat by Japan in 1894-1895, China had been carved into “spheres of influence” by the European powers.
  • Americans were alarmed, as churches worried about their missionary strongholds while businesses feared that they would not be able to export their products to China.
  • Finally, Secretary of State John Hay dispatched his famous Open Door note, which urged the European nations to keep fair competition open to all nations willing and wanting to participate. This became the “Open Door Policy.”
    1. All the powers already holding spots of China were squeamish, and only Italy, which had no sphere of influence of its own, accepted unconditionally.
    2. Russia didn’t accept it at all, but the others did, on certain conditions, and thus, China was “saved” from being carved up.
  • In 1900, a super-patriotic group known as the “Boxers” started the Boxer Rebellion where they revolted and took over the capital of China, Beijing, taking all foreigners hostage, including diplomats.
  • After a multi-national force broke the rebellion, the powers made China pay $333 million for damages, of which the U.S. eventually received $18 million.
  • Fearing that the European powers would carve China up for good, now, John Hay officially asked that China not be carved.

XI. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?

  • Just like four years before, it was McKinley sitting on his front porch and Bryan actively and personally campaigning, but Theodore Roosevelt’s active campaigning took a lot of the momentum away from Bryan’s.
  • Bryan’s supporters concentrated on imperialism—a bad move, considering that Americans were tired of the subject, while McKinley’s supporters claimed that “Bryanism,” not imperialism, was the problem, and that if Bryan became president, he would shake up the prosperity that was in America at the time; McKinley won easily.

XII. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick

  • Six months later, a deranged murderer shot and killed William McKinley, making Theodore Roosevelt the youngest president ever at age 42.
    1. TR promised to carry out McKinley’s policies.
  • Theodore Roosevelt was a barrel-chested man with a short temper, large glasses, and a stubborn mentality that always thought he was right.
    1. Born into a rich family and graduated from Harvard, he was highly energetic and spirited, and his motto was “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” or basically, “Let your actions do the talking.”
  • Roosevelt rapidly developed into a master politician, and a maverick uncontrollable by party machines, and he believed that a president should lead, which would explain the precedents that he would set during his term, becoming the “first modern president.”

XIII. Building the Panama Canal

  • TR had traveled to Europe and knew more about foreign affairs than most of his predecessors, and one foreign affair that he knew needed to be dealt with was the creation of a canal through the Central American isthmus.
    1. During the Spanish-American War, the battleship U.S.S. Oregon had been forced to steam all the way around the tip of South America to join the fleet in Cuba.
    2. Such a waterway would also make defense of the recent island acquisitions easier (i.e. Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaii).
  • However, the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain had forbade the construction by either country of a canal in the Americas without the other’s consent and help, but that statement was nullified in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.
  • A Nicaraguan route was one possible place for a canal, but it was opposed by the old French Canal Company that was eager to build in Panama and salvage something from their costly failure there.
    1. Their leader was Philippe Bunau-Varilla.
    2. The U.S. finally chose Panama after Mount Pelée erupted and killed 30,000 people.
  • The U.S. negotiated a deal that would buy a 6-mile-wide strip of land in Panama for $10 million and a $250,000 annual payment, but this treaty was retracted by the Colombian government, which owned Panama.
    1. TR was furious, since he wanted construction of the canal to begin before the 1904 campaign.
  • At this point, TR and the U.S. decided enough was enough and it was time for action.
    • On November 3, 1903, another revolution in Panama began with the killing of a Chinese civilian and a donkey, and when Colombia tried to stop it, the U.S., citing an 1846 treaty with Colombia, wouldn’t let the Colombian fleet through.
    • Panama was thus recognized by the U.S., and fifteen days later, Bunau-Varilla, the Panamanian minister despite his French nationality, signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty that gave a widened (6x10 mi.) Panamanian zone to the U.S. for $15 million.
    • TR didn’t actively plot to tear Panama away from Colombia, but it seemed like it to the public, and to Latin America, and his actions in this incident saw him suffer a political black eye.
  • In 1904, construction began on the Panama Canal, but at first, problems with landslides and sanitation occurred.
    1. Colonel George Washington Goethals finally organized the workers while Colonel William C. Gorgas exterminated yellow fever.
    2. When TR visited Panama in 1906, he was the first U.S. president to leave America for foreign soil.
    3. The canal was finally finished and opened in 1914, at a cost of $400 million.

XIV. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine

  • Latin American nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were having a hard time paying their debts to their European debtors, so Britain and Germany decided to send a bit of force to South America to make the Latinos pay.
  • TR feared that if European powers interfered in the Americas to collect debts, they might then stay in Latin America, a blatant violation of the Monroe Doctrine, so he issued his Roosevelt Corollary, which stated that in future cases of debt problems, the U.S. would take over and handle any intervention in Latin America on behalf of Europe, thus keeping Europe away and the Monroe Doctrine intact.
    1. It said in effect, no one could bully Latin America except the U.S.
    2. However, this corollary didn’t bear too well with Latin America, whose countries once again felt that Uncle Sam was being overbearing.
      • When U.S. Marines landed in Cuba to bring back order to the island in 1906, this seemed like an extension of the “Bad Neighbor” policy.

XV. Roosevelt on the World Stage

  • In 1904, Japan attacked Russia, since Russia had been in Manchuria, and proceeded to administer a series of humiliating victories until the Japanese began to run short on men.
    1. Therefore, they approached Theodore Roosevelt to facilitate a peace treaty.
    2. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905, both sides met, and though both were stubborn (Japan wanted all of the strategic island of Sakhalin while the Russians disagreed), in the end, TR negotiated a deal in which Japan got half of Sakhalin but no indemnity for its losses.
    3. For this, and his mediation of North African disputes in 1906 through an international conference at Algeciras, Spain, TR received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.
  • However, due to the Russo-Japanese incident, America lost two allies in Russia and Japan, neither of which felt that it had received its fair share of winnings.

XVI. Japanese Laborers in California

  • After the war, many Japanese immigrants poured into California, and fears of a “yellow peril” arose again.
  • The showdown came in 1906 after the San Francisco earthquake when the city decreed that, due to lack of space, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean children should attend a special school.
    1. Instantly, this became an international issue, but TR settled it eventually.
    2. San Francisco would not displace students while Japan would keep its laborers in Japan.
  • To impress the Japanese, Roosevelt sent his entire battleship fleet, “The Great White Fleet,” around the world for a tour, and it received tremendous salutes in Latin America, New Zealand, Hawaii, Australia, and Japan, helping relieve tensions.
  • The Root-Takahira Agreement pledged the U.S. and Japan to respect each other’s territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Door Policy in China.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 28 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt, 1901-1912

 I. Progressive Roots

  1. In the beginning of the 1900s, America had 76 million people, mostly in good condition. Then before the first decade of the 20th century, the U.S. would be influenced by a “Progressive movement" that fought against monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.
    • The purpose of the Progressives was to use the government as an agency of human welfare.
  2. The Progressives had their roots in the Greenback Labor Party of the 1870s and 1880s and the Populist Party of the 1890s.
  3. In 1894, Henry Demarest Lloyd exposed the corruption of the monopoly of the Standard Oil Company with his book Wealth Against Commonwealth, while Thorstein Veblen criticized the new rich (those who made money from the trusts) in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).
  4. Other exposers of the corruption of trusts, or “muckrakers,” as Theodore Roosevelt called them, were Jacob A. Riis, writer of How the Other Half Lives, a book about the New York slums and its inhabitants, and novelist Theodore Dreiser, who wrote The Financier and The Titan to attack profiteers.
  5. Socialists and feminists gained strength, and with people like Jane Addams and Lillian Wald, women entered the Progressive fight.

II. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers

  1. Beginning about 1902, a group of aggressive ten and fifteen-cent popular magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Collier’s, and Everybody’s, began flinging the dirt about the trusts.
  2. Despite criticism, reformer-writers ranged far and wide to lay bare the muck on the back of American society.
    • In 1902, Lincoln Steffens launched a series of articles in McClure’s entitled The Shame of the Cities, in which he unmasked the corrupt alliance between big business and the government.
    • Ida M. Tarbell launched a devastating exposé against Standard Oil and its ruthlessness.
    • These writers exposed the “money trusts,” the railroad barons, and the corrupt amassing of American fortunes, this last part done by Thomas W. Lawson.
    • David G. Phillips charged that 75 of the 90 U.S. Senators did not represent the people, but actually the railroads and trusts.
    • Ray Stannard Baker’s Following the Color Line was about the illiteracy of Blacks.
    • John Spargo’s The Bitter Cry of the Children exposed child labor.
    • Dr. Harvey W. Wiley exposed the frauds that sold potent patent medicines by experimenting on himself.
  3. The muckrakers sincerely believed that cures for the ills of American democracy, was more democracy.

III. Political Progressivism

  1. Progressives were mostly middle-class citizens who felt squeezed by both the big trusts above and the restless immigrant hordes working for cheap labor that came from below.
  2. The Progressives favored the “initiative” so that voters could directly propose legislation, the “referendum” so that the people could vote on laws that affected them, and the “recall” to remove bad officials from office.
  3. Progressives also desired to expose graft, using a secret ballot (Australian ballot) to counteract the effects of party bosses, and have direct election of U.S. senators to curb corruption.
    • Finally, in 1913, the 17th Amendment provided for direct election of senators.
  4. Females also campaigned for woman’s suffrage, but that did not come…yet.

IV. Progressivism in the Cities and States

  1. Progressive cities like Galveston, TX either used, for the first time, expert-staffed commissions to manage urban affairs or the city-manager system, which was designed to take politics out of municipal administration.
  2. Urban reformers tackled “slumlords,” juvenile delinquency, and wide-open prostitution.
  3. In Wisconsin, Gov. Robert M. La Follette wrestled control from the trusts and returned power to the people, becoming a Progressive leader in the process.
    • Other states also took to regulate railroads and trusts, such as Oregon and California, which was led by Gov. Hiram W. Johnson.
    • Gov. Charles Evans Hughes, of New York, gained fame by investigating the malpractices of gas and insurance companies.

V. Progressive Women

  1. Women were an indispensable catalyst in the progressive army. They couldn’t vote or hold political office, but were active none-the-less. Women focused their changes on family-oriented ills such as child labor.
  2. Progressives also made major improvements in the fight against child labor, especially after a 1911 fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in NYC which killed 146 workers, mostly young women.
    • The landmark case of Muller vs. Oregon (1908) found attorney Louis D. Brandeis persuading the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws that protected women workers.
    • On the other hand, the case of Lochner v. New York invalidated a New York law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers.
    • Yet, in 1917, the Court upheld a similar law for factory workers.
  3. Alcohol also came under the attack of Progressives, as prohibitionist organizations like the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded by Frances E. Willard, and the Anti-Saloon League were formed.
    • Finally, in 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the sale and drinking of alcohol.

VI. TR’s Square Deal for Labor

  1. The Progressivism spirit touched President Roosevelt, and his “Square Deal” embraced the three Cs: control of the corporations, consumer protection, and the conservation of the United States’ natural resources.
  2. In 1902, a strike broke out in the anthracite coalmines of Pennsylvania, and some 140,000 workers demanded a 20% pay increase and the reduction of the workday to nine hours.
    • Finally, after the owners refused to negotiate and the lack of coal was getting to the freezing schools, hospitals, and factories during that winter, TR threatened to seize the mines and operate them with federal troops if he had to in order to keep it open and the coal coming to the people.
    • As a result, the workers got a 10% pay increase and a 9-hour workday, but their union was not officially recognized as a bargaining agent.
  3. In 1903, the Department of Commerce and Labor was formed, a part of which was the Bureau of Corporations, which was allowed to probe businesses engaged in interstate commerce; it was highly useful in “trust-busting.”

VII. TR Corrals the Corporations

  1. The 1887-formed Interstate Commerce Commission had proven to be inadequate, so in 1903, Congress passed the Elkins Act, which fined railroads that gave rebates and the shippers that accepted them.
  2. The Hepburn Act restricted the free passes of railroads.
  3. TR decided that there were “good trusts” and “bad trusts,” and set out to control the “bad trusts,” such as the Northern Securities Company, which was organized by J.P. Morgan and James J. Hill.
    • In 1904, the Supreme Court upheld TR’s antitrust suit and ordered Northern Securities to dissolve, a decision that angered Wall Street but helped TR’s image.
  4. TR did crack down on over 40 trusts, and he helped dissolve the beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvester trusts, but in reality, he wasn’t as large of a trustbuster as he has been portrayed.
    • He had no wish to take down the “good trusts,” but the trusts that did fall under TR’s big stick fell symbolically, so that other trusts would reform themselves.
  5. TR’s successor, William Howard Taft, crushed more trusts than TR, and in one incident, when Taft tried to crack down on U.S. Steel, a company that had personally been allowed by TR to absorb the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, the reaction from TR was hot!

VIII. Caring for the Consumer

  1. In 1906, significant improvements in the meat industry were passed, such as the Meat Inspection Act, which decreed that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection from corral to can.
    • Upton Sinclair’s novel //The Jungle** enlightened the American public to the horrors of the meatpacking industry, thus helping to force changes.
  2. The Pure Food and Drug Act tried to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals.
    • Another reason for new acts was to make sure European markets could trust American beef and other meat.

IX. Earth Control

  1. Americans were vainly wasting their natural resources, and the first conservation act, the Desert Land Act of 1877, provided little help.
    • More successful was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which authorized the president to set aside land to be protected as national parks.
      • Under this statute, some 46 million acres of forest were set aside as preserves.
  2. Roosevelt, a sportsman in addition to all the other things he was, realized the values of conservation, and persuaded by other conservationists likeGifford Pinchot, head of the federal Division of Forestry, he helped initiate massive conservation projects.
    • The Newlands Act of 1902 initiated irrigation projects for the western states while the giant Roosevelt Dam, built on Arizona's Salt River, was dedicated in 1911
  3. By 1900, only a quarter of the nation’s natural timberlands remained, so he set aside 125 million acres, establishing perhaps his most enduring achievement as president.
  4. Concern about the disappearance of the national frontier led to the success of such books like Jack London’s Call of the Wild and the establishment of the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club, a member of which was naturalist John Muir.
  5. In 1913, San Francisco received permission to build a dam in Hetchy Hetch Valley, a part of Yosemite National Park, causing much controversy.
    • Roosevelt’s conservation deal meant working with the big logging companies, not the small, independent ones.

X. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907

  1. TR had widespread popularity (such as the “Teddy” bear), but conservatives branded him as a dangerous rattlesnake, unpredictable in his Progressive moves.
  2. However, in 1904, TR announced that he would not seek the presidency in 1908, since he would have, in effect, served two terms by then. Thus he “defanged” his power.
  3. In 1907, a short but sharp panic on Wall Street placed TR at the center of its blame, with conservatives criticizing him, but he lashed back, and eventually the panic died down.
  4. In 1908, Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, which authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral.
    • This would lead to the momentous Federal Reserve Act of 1913

XI. The Rough Rider Thunders Out

  1. In the 1908 campaign, TR chose William Howard Taft as his “successor,” hoping that the corpulent man would continue his policies, and Taft easily defeated William Jennings Bryan; a surprise came from Socialist Eugene V. Debs, who garnered 420,793 votes.
  2. TR left the presidency to go on a lion hunt, then returned with much energy.
    • He had established many precedents and had helped ensure that the new trusts would fit into capitalism and have healthy adult lives while helping the American people.
    • TR protected against socialism, was a great conservationist, expanded the powers of the presidency, shaped the progressive movement, launched the Square Deal—a precursor to the New Deal that would come later, and opened American eyes to the fact that America shared the world with other nations so that it couldn’t be isolationist.

XII. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole

  1. William Taft was a mild progressive, quite jovial, quite fat, and passive.
    • He was also sensitive to criticism and not as liberal as Roosevelt.

XIII. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat

  1. Taft urged Americans to invest abroad, in a policy called “Dollar Diplomacy,” which called for Wall Street bankers to sluice their surplus dollars into foreign areas of strategic concern to the U.S., especially in the Far East and in the regions critical to the security of the Panama Canal. This investment, in effect, gave the U.S. economic control over these areas.
  2. In 1909, perceiving a threat to the monopolistic Russian and Japanese control of the Manchurian Railway, Taft had Secretary of State Philander C. Knox propose that a group of American and foreign bankers buy the railroads and turn them over to China.
  3. Taft also pumped U.S. dollars into Honduras and Haiti, whose economies were stagnant, while in Cuba, the same Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua, American forces were brought in to restore order after unrest.

XIV. Taft the Trustbuster

  1. In his four years of office, Taft brought 90 suits against trusts.
  2. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company.
  3. After Taft tried to break apart U.S. Steel despite TR’s prior approval of the trust, Taft increasingly became TR’s antagonist.

XV. Taft Splits the Republican Party

  1. Two main issues split the Republican party: (1) the tariff and (2) conservation of lands.
    • To lower the tariff and fulfill a campaign promise, Taft and the House passed a moderately reductive bill, but the Senate, led by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, tacked on lots of upward revisions, and thus, when the Payne-Aldrich Bill passed, it betrayed Taft’s promise, incurred the wrath of his party (drawn mostly from the Midwest), and outraged many people.
      • Old Republicans were high-tariff; new/Progressive Republicans were low tariff.
      • Taft even foolishly called it “the best bill that the Republican party ever passed.”
    • While Taft did establish the Bureau of Mines to control mineral resources, his participation in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel of 1910 hurt him. In the quarrel, Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development and was criticized by Forestry chief Gifford Pinchot, who was then fired by Taft.
      • Old Republicans favored using the lands for business; new/Progressive Republicans favored conservation of lands.
  2. In the spring of 1910, the Republican party was split between the Progressives and the Old Guard that Taft supported, so that the Democrats emerged with a landslide in the House.
    • Socialist Victor L. Berger was elected from Milwaukee.

XVI. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture

  1. In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed, with LaFollette as its leader, but in February 1912, TR began dropping hints that he wouldn’t mind being nominated by the Republicans, his reason being that he had meant no third consecutive term, not a third term overall.
  2. Rejected by the Taft supporters of the Republicans, TR became a candidate on the Progressive party ticket, shoving LaFollette aside.
  3. In the Election of 1912, it would be Theodore Roosevelt (Progressive Republican) versus William H. Taft (Old Guard Republican) versus the Democratic candidate, whomever that was to be.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 29 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad, 1912-1916

 I. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912

  1. With the Republican party split wide open, the Democrats sensed that they could win the presidency for the first time in 16 years.
    • One possible candidate was Dr. Woodrow Wilson, a once-mild conservative but now militant progressive who had been the president of Princeton University, governor of New Jersey (where he didn’t permit himself to be controlled by the bosses), and had attacked trusts and passed liberal measures.
    • In 1912, in Baltimore, the Democrats nominated Wilson on the 46th ballot, after William Jennings Bryan swung his support over to Wilson’s side.
    • The Democratic ticket would run under a platform called “New Freedom,” which would include many progressive reforms.
  2. At the Progressive convention, Jane Addams put Theodore Roosevelt’s name on the nomination, and as TR spoke, he ignited an almost-religious spirit in the crowd.
    • TR got the Progressive nomination, and entering the campaign, TR said that he felt “as strong as a bull moose,” making that animal the unofficial Progressive symbol.
  3. Republican William Howard Taft** and TR tore into each other, as the former friends now ripped every aspect of each other’s platforms and personalities.
  4. Meanwhile, TR’s “New Nationalism” and Wilson’s “New Freedom” became the key issues.
    • Roosevelt’s New Nationalism was inspired by Herbert Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1910), and it stated that the government should control the bad trusts, leaving the good trusts alone and free to operate.
      • TR also campaigned for female suffrage and a broad program of social welfare, such as minimum-wage laws and “socialistic” social insurance.
    • Wilson’s New Freedom favored small enterprise, desired to break up all trusts—not just the bad ones—and basically shunned social-welfare proposals.
  5. The campaign was stopped when Roosevelt was shot in the chest in Milwaukee, but he delivered his speech anyway, was rushed to the hospital, and recovered in two weeks.

II. Woodrow Wilson: A Minority President

  • With the Republicans split, Woodrow Wilson easily won with 435 Electoral votes, while TR had 88 and Taft only had 8. But, the Democrats did not receive the majority of the popular vote (only 41%)!
  • Socialist Eugene V. Debs racked up over 900,000 popular votes, while the combined popular totals of TR and Taft exceeded Wilson. Essentially, TR’s participation had cost the Republicans the election.
  • William Taft would later become the only U.S. president to be appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, when he was nominated in 1921.

III. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics

  • Woodrow Wilson was a sympathizer with the South, a fine orator, a sincere and morally appealing politician, and a very intelligent man.
    1. He was also cold personality-wise, austere, intolerant of stupidity, and very idealistic.
  • When convinced he was right, Wilson would break before he would bend, unlike TR.

IV. Wilson Tackles the Tariff

  • Wilson stepped into the presidency already knowing that he was going to tackle the “triple wall of privilege”: the tariff, the banks, and the trusts.
  • To tackle the tariff, Wilson successfully helped in the passing of the Underwood Tariff of 1913, which substantially reduced import fees and enacted a graduated income tax (under the approval of the recent 16th Amendment).

V. Wilson Battles the Bankers

  • The nation’s financial structure, as created under the Civil War National Banking Act had proven to be glaringly ineffective, as shown by the Panic of 1907, so Wilson had Congress authorize an investigation to fix this.
    1. The investigation, headed by Senator Aldrich, in effect recommended a third Bank of the United States.
    2. Democrats heeded the findings of a House committee chaired by Congressman Arsene Pujo, which traced the tentacles of the “money monster” into the hidden vaults of American banking and business.
    3. Louis D Brandeis’s Other People’s Money and How the Bankers Use It (1914) furthermore showed the problems of American finances at the time.
  • In June 1913, Woodrow Wilson appeared before a special joint session of Congress and pleaded for a sweeping reform of the banking system.
    1. The result was the epochal 1913 Federal Reserve Act, which created the new Federal Reserve Board, which oversaw a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank, and had the power to issue paper money (“Federal Reserve Notes”).

VI. The President Tames the Trusts

  • In 1914, Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act, which empowered a president-appointed position to investigate the activities of trusts and stop unfair trade practices such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, & bribery.
  • The 1914 Clayton Anti-Trust Act lengthened the Sherman Anti-Trust Act’s list of practices that were objectionable, exempted labor unions from being called trusts (as they had been called by the Supreme Court under the Sherman Act), and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing by labor union members.

VII. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide

  • After tackling the triple wall of privilege and leading progressive victory after victory, Wilson proceeded with further reforms, such as the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916, which made credit available to farmers at low rates of interest, and the Warehouse Act of 1916, which permitted loans on the security of staple crops—both Populist ideas.
  • The La Follette Seamen’s Act of 1915 required good treatment of America’s sailors, but it sent merchant freight rates soaring as a result of the cost to maintain sailor health.
  • The Workingmen’s Compensation Act of 1916 granted assistance of federal civil-service employees during periods of instability but was invalidated by the Supreme Court.
  • The 1916 Adamson Act established an eight-hour workday with overtime pay.
  • Wilson even nominated Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—making him the first Jew ever in that position—but stopped short of helping out Blacks in their civil rights fight.
  • Wilson appeased the business by appointing a few conservatives to the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Trade Commission, but he used most of his energies for progressive support.

VIII. New Directions in Foreign Policy

  • Wilson, unlike his two previous predecessors, didn’t pursue an aggressive foreign policy, as he stopped “dollar diplomacy,” persuaded Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act of 1912 (which let American shippers not pay tolls for using the canal), and even led to American bankers’ pulling out of a six-nation, Taft-engineered loan to China.
  • Wilson signed the Jones Act in 1916, which granted full territorial status to the Philippines and promised independence as soon as a stable government could be established.
    1. The Filipinos finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.
  • When California banned Japanese ownership of land, Wilson sent Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan to plead with legislators, and tensions cooled.
  • When disorder broke out in Haiti in 1915, Wilson sent American Marines, and in 1916, he sent Marines to quell violence in the Dominican Republic.
  • In 1917, Wilson bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark.

IX. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico

  • Mexico had been exploited for decades by U.S. investors in oil, railroads, and mines, but the Mexican people were tremendously poor, and in 1913, they revolted, and installed full-blooded Indian Gen. Victoriano Huerta to the presidency.
    1. This led to a massive immigration of Mexicans to America, mostly to the Southwest.
  • The rebels were very violent and threatened Americans living in Mexico, but Woodrow Wilson would not intervene to protect American lives.
    1. Neither would he recognize Huerta’s regime, even though other countries did.
    2. On the other hand, he let American munitions flow to Huerta’s rivals, Venustiano Carranza and Francisco “Pancho” Villa.
  • After a small party of American sailors were arrested in Tampico, Mexico, in 1914, Wilson threatened to use force, and even ordered the navy to take over Vera Cruz, drawing protest from Huerta and Carranza.
    1. Finally, the ABC powers—Argentina, Brazil, and Chile—mediated the situation, and Huerta fell from power and was succeeded by Carranza, who resented Wilson’s acts.
  • Meanwhile, “Pancho” Villa, combination bandit/freedom fighter, murdered 16 Americans in January of 1916 in Mexico and then killed 19 more a month later in New Mexico.
    1. Wilson sent Gen. John J. Pershing to capture Villa, and he penetrated deep into Mexico, clashed with Carranza’s and Villa’s different forces, but didn’t take Villa.

X. Thunder Across the Sea

  • In 1914, a Serbian nationalist killed the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne (Archduke Franz Ferdinand). The domino-effect began where Austria declared war on Serbia, which was supported by Russia, who declared war on Austria-Hungary and Germany, which declared war on Russia and France, then invaded neutral Belgium, and pulled Britain into the war and igniting World War I.
  • Americans were thankful that the Atlantic Ocean separated the warring Europeans from the U.S.

XI. A Precarious Neutrality

  • Wilson, whose wife had recently died, issued a neutrality proclamation and was promptly wooed by both the Allies and the German and Austro-Hungarian powers.
  • The Germans and Austro-Hungarians counted on their relatives in America for support, but the U.S. was mostly anti-German from the outset, asKaiser Wilhem II made for a perfect autocrat to hate.
  • German and Austro-Hungarian agents in America further tarnished the Central Powers’ image when they resorted to violence in American factories and ports, and when one such agent left his briefcase in a New York elevator, the contents of which were found to contain plans for sabotage.

XII. America Earns Blood Money

  • Just as WWI began, America was in a business recession. American trade was fiercely protested by the Central Powers, that were technically free to trade with the U.S., but were prohibited from doing so by the British navy which controlled the sea lanes. The Allies and Wall Street’s financing of the war by J.P. Morgan et al, pulled the U.S. out of the recession.
  • So, Germany announced its use of submarine warfare around the British Isles, warning the U.S. that it would try not to attack neutral ships, but that mistakes would probably occur.
    1. Wilson thus warned that Germany would be held to “strict accountability” for any attacks on American ships.
    2. German subs, or U-boats, sank many ships, including the Lusitania, a British passenger liner that was carrying arms and munitions as well.
      • The attack killed 1,198 lives, including 128 Americans.
      • Notably the Germans had issued fliers prior to the Lusitania setting sail that warned Americans the ship might be torpedoed.
  • America clamored for war in punishment for the outrage, but Wilson kept the U.S. out of it by use of a series of strong notes to the German warlords.
    1. Even this was too much for William Jennings Bryan, who resigned rather than go to war.
    2. After the Germans sank the Arabic in August 1915, killing two Americans and numerous other passengers, Germany finally agreed not to sink unarmed ships without warning.
  • After Germany seemed to break that pledge by sinking the Sussex, it issued the “Sussex pledge,” which agreed not to sink passenger ships or merchant vessels without warning, so long as the U.S. could get the British to stop their blockade.
    1. Wilson couldn’t do this, so his victory was a precarious one.

XIII. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916

  • In 1916, Republicans chose Charles Evans Hughes, who made different pledges and said different things depending on where he was, leading to his being nicknamed “Charles Evasive Hughes.”
  • The Democratic ticket, with Wilson at its head again, went under the slogan “He kept us out of war,” and warned that electing Hughes would be leading America into World War I.
    1. Ironically, Wilson would lead America into war in 1917.
    2. Actually, even Wilson knew of the dangers of such a slogan, as American neutrality was rapidly sinking, and war was appearing to be inevitable.
  • Wilson barely beat Hughes, with a vote of 277 to 254, with the final result dependent on results from California, and even though Wilson didn’t specifically promise to keep America out of war, enough people felt that he did to vote for him.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 30 - The War to End War, 1917-1918

 I. War by Act of Germany

  1. On January 22, 1917, Woodrow Wilson made one final, attempt to avert war, delivering a moving address that correctly declared only a “peace without victory” (beating Germany without embarrassing them) would be lasting.
    • Germany responded by shocking the world, announcing that it would break the Sussex pledge and return to unrestricted submarine warfare, which meant that its U-boats would now be firing on armed and unarmed ships in the war zone.
  2. Wilson asked Congress for the authority to arm merchant ships, but a band of Midwestern senators tried to block this measure.
  3. Then, the Zimmerman note was intercepted and published on March 1, 1917.
    • Written by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman, it secretly proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico. It proposed that if Mexico fought against the U.S. and the Central Powers won, Mexico could recover Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona from the U.S.
  4. The Germans also began to make good on their threats, sinking numerous ships. Meanwhile, in Russia, a revolution toppled the tsarist regime.
  5. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war, which it did four days later; Wilson had lost his gamble at staying out of the war.

II. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

  1. Many people still didn’t want to enter into war, for America had prided itself in isolationism for decades, and now, Wilson was entangling America in a distant war.
    • Six senators and 50 representatives, including the first Congresswoman, Jeanette Ranking, voted against war.
  2. To gain enthusiasm for the war, Wilson came up with the idea of America entering the war to “make the world safe for democracy.”
    • This idealistic motto worked brilliantly, but with the new American zeal came the loss of Wilson’s earlier motto, “peace without victory.”

III. Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points

  1. On January 8, 1917, Wilson delivered his Fourteen Points Address to Congress.
  2. The Fourteen Points were a set of idealistic goals for peace. The main points were…
    • No more secret treaties.
    • Freedom of the seas was to be maintained.
    • A removal of economic barriers among nations.
    • Reduction of armament burdens.
    • Adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of natives and colonizers.
    • “Self-determination,” or independence for oppressed minority groups who’d choose their government
    • A League of Nations, an international organization that would keep the peace and settle world disputes.

IV. Creel Manipulates Minds

  1. The Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel, was created to “sell” the war to those people who were against it or to just gain support for it.
    • The Creel organization sent out an army of 75,000 men to deliver speeches in favor of the war, showered millions of pamphlets containing the most potent “Wilsonisms” upon the world, splashed posters and billboards that had emotional appeals, and showed anti-German movies like The Kaiser and The Beast of Berlin.
  2. There were also patriotic songs, but Creel did err in that he oversold some of the ideals, and result would be disastrous disillusionment.

V. Enforcing Loyalty and Stiffing Dissent

  1. Germans in America were surprisingly loyal to the U.S., but nevertheless, many Germans were blamed for espionage activities, and a few were tarred, feathered, and beaten.
  2. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 showed American fears and paranoia about Germans and others perceived as a threat.
    • Antiwar Socialists and the members of the radical union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) were often prosecuted, including SocialistEugene V. Debs and IWW leader William D. Haywood, who were arrested, convicted, and sent to prison.
    • Fortunately, after the war, there were presidential pardons (from Warren G. Harding), but a few people still sat in jail into the 1930s.

VI. The Nation’s Factories Go to War

  1. America was very unprepared for war, though Wilson had created the Council of National Defense to study problems with mobilization and had launched a shipbuilding program.
    • America’s army was only the 15th largest in the world.
  2. In trying to mobilize for war, no one knew how much America could produce, and traditional laissez-faire economics (where the government stays out of the economy) still provided resistance to government control of the economy.
    • In March 1918, Wilson named Bernard Baruch to head the War Industries Board, but this group never had much power and was disbanded soon after the armistice.

VII. Workers in Wartime

  1. Congress imposed a rule that made any unemployed man available to enter the war and also discouraged strikes.
  2. The National War Labor Board, headed by former president William H. Taft, settled any possible labor difficulties that might hamper the war efforts.
  3. Fortunately, Samuel Gompers’ of the American Federation of Labor (AF of L), which represented skilled laborers, loyally supported the war, and by war’s end, its membership more than doubled to over 3 million.
  4. Yet, there were still labor problems, as price inflation threatened to eclipse wage gains, and over 6,000 strikes broke out during the war, the greatest occurring in 1919, when 250,000 steelworkers walked off the job.
    • In that strike, the steel owners brought in 30,000 African-Americans to break the strike, and in the end, the strike collapsed, hurting the labor cause for more than a decade.
    • During the war, Blacks immigrated to the North to find more jobs. But the appearance of Blacks in formerly all-White towns sparked violence, such as in Chicago and St. Louis.

VIII. Suffering Until Suffrage

  1. Women also found more opportunities in the workplace, since the men were gone to war.
  2. The war the split women’s suffrage movement. Many progressive women suffragists were also pacifists and therefore against the war. Most women supported the war and concluded they must help in the war if they want to help shape the peace (get the vote).
    • Their help gained support for women’s suffrage, which was finally achieved with the 19th Amendment, passed in 1920.
  3. Although a Women’s Bureau did appear after the war to protect female workers, most women gave up their jobs at war’s end, and Congress even affirmed its support of women in their traditional roles in the home with the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921, which federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.

IX. Forging a War Economy

  1. Mobilization relied more on passion and emotion than laws.
  2. Herbert Hoover was chosen to head the Food Administration, since he had organized a hugely successful voluntary food drive for the people of Belgium.
    • He spurned ration cards in favor of voluntary “Meatless Tuesdays” and “Wheatless Wednesdays,” suing posters, billboards, and other media to whip up a patriotic spirit which encouraged people to voluntarily sacrifice some of their own goods for the war.
    • After all, America had to feed itself and its European allies.
  3. Hoover’s voluntary approach worked beautifully, as citizens grew gardens on street corners to help the farmers, people observed “heatless Mondays,” “lightless nights,” and “gasless Sundays” in accordance with the Fuel Administration, and the farmers increased food production by one-fourth.
  4. The wave of self-sacrifice also sped up the drive against alcohol, culminating with the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the sale, distribution, or consumption of alcohol.
  5. Money was raised through the sale of war bonds, four great Liberty Loan drives, and increased taxes.
  6. Still, the government sometimes flexed its power, such as when it took over the railroads in 1917.

X. Making Plowboys into Doughboys

  1. European Allies finally confessed to the U.S. that not only were they running out of money to pay for their loans from America, but also that they were running out of men, and that America would have to raise and train an army to send over to Europe, or the Allies would collapse.
  2. This could only be solved with a draft, which Wilson opposed but finally supported as a disagreeable but temporary necessity.
    • The draft bill ran into heated opposition in Congress but was grudgingly passed.
    • Unlike earlier wars, there was no way for one to buy one’s way out of being drafted.
  3. Luckily, patriotic men and women lined up on draft day, disproving ominous predictions of bloodshed by the opposition of the draft.
    • Within a few months, the army had grown to 4 million men and women.
    • African-Americans were allowed in the army, but they were usually assigned to non-combat duty; also, training was so rushed that many troops didn’t know how to even use their rifles, much less bayonets, but they were sent to Europe anyway.

XI. Fighting in France—Belatedly

  1. After the Bolsheviks seized control of Russia, they withdrew the nation from the war, freeing up thousands of German troops to fight on the Western Front.
  2. German predictions of American tardiness proved to be rather accurate, as America took one year before it sent a force to Europe and also had transportation problems.
  3. Nevertheless, American doughboys slowly poured into Europe, and U.S. troops helped in an Allied invasion of Russia at Archangel to prevent munitions from falling into German hands.
    • 10,000 troops were sent to Siberia as part of an Allied expedition whose purpose was to prevent munitions from falling into the hands of Japan, rescue some 45,000 trapped Czechoslovak troops, and prevent Bolshevik forces from snatching military supplies.
    • Bolsheviks resented this interference, which it felt was America’s way of suppressing its infant communist revolution.

XII. America Helps Hammer the “Hun”

  1. In the spring of 1918, one commander, the French Marshal Foch, for the first time, led the Allies and just before the Germans were about to invade Paris and knock out France, American reinforcements arrived and pushed the Germans back.
  2. In the Second Battle of the Marne, the Allies pushed Germany back some more, marking a German withdrawal that was never again effectively reversed.
  3. The Americans, demanding their own army instead of just supporting the British and French, finally got General John J. Pershing to lead a front.
  4. The Meuse-Argonne offensive cut German railroad lines and took 120,000 casualties.
    • Sgt. Alvin C. York became a hero when he single-handedly killed 20 Germans and captured 132 more; ironically, he had been in an antiwar sect beforehand.
  5. Finally, the Germans were exhausted and ready to surrender, for they were being deserted, the British blockade was starving them, and the Allied blows just kept coming.
    • It was a good thing, too, because American victories were using up resources too fast.
    • Also, pamphlets containing seductive Wilsonian promises rained down on Germany, in part persuading them to give up.

XIII. The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany

  1. At 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the Germans laid down their arms in armistice after overthrowing their Kaiser in hopes that they could get a peace based on the Fourteen Points.
    • This “Armistice Day” later became “Veterans’ Day.”
  2. It was the prospect of endless American troops, rather than the American military performance, that had demoralized the Germans.

XIV. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus

  1. At the end of the war, Wilson was at the height of his popularity, but when he appealed for voters to give a Democratic victory in 1918, American voters instead gave Republicans a narrow majority, and Wilson went to Paris as the only leader of the Allies not commanding a majority at home.
  2. When Wilson decided to go to Europe personally to oversee peace proceedings, Republicans were outraged, thinking that this was all just for flamboyant show.
    • When he didn’t include a single Republican, not even Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, a very intelligent man who used to be the “scholar in politics” until Wilson came along and was therefore jealous and spiteful of Wilson, the Republicans got even more angry.

XV. An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris

  1. At the Paris Conference in 1919, the Big Four—Italy, led by Vittorio Orlando, France, led by Georges Clemenceau, Britain, led by David Lloyd George, and the U.S., led by Wilson—basically dictated the terms of the treaty.
  2. Conflicting ambitions ruled the conference. Britain and France wanted to punish Germany, Italy wanted money, the U.S. wanted to heal wounds through Wilson’s League of Nations
    • Wilson’s baby was the League and so he bargained with Britain and France.
    • Britain and France agreed to go along with the League, Wilson reluctantly agreed to go along with punishment.
      • The War Guilt Clause was passed doing two things, (1) it formally placed blame on Germany, a proud and embarrassed people, and (2) it charged Germany for the costs of war, $33 billion.

XVI. Hammering Out the Treaty

  1. However, at home in America, the Republicans proclaimed that they would not pass the treaty, since to them, it would be unwise to turn American decision over to a group of foreign nations (the League of Nations). Opponents of the Versailles Treaty reasoned that America should stay out of such an international group and decide her decisions on her own.
    • Led by Henry Cabot Lodge, William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, these senators were bitterly opposed to the League.
    • Upon seeing Wilson’s lack of support, the other European nations had stronger bargaining chips, as France demanded the Rhineland and Saar Valley (but didn’t receive it; instead, the League of Nations got the Saar Basin for 15 years and then let it vote to determine its fate) and Italy demanded Fiume, a valuable seaport inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs.
  2. The Italians went home after Wilson tried to appeal to the Italian people while France received a promise that the U.S. and Great Britain would aid France in case of another German invasion.
  3. Japan also wanted the valuable Shantung peninsula and the German islands in the Pacific, and Wilson opposed, but when the Japanese threatened to walk out, Wilson compromised again and let Japan keep Germany’s economic holdings in Shantung, outraging the Chinese.

XVII. The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

  1. The Treaty of Versailles was forced upon Germany under the threat that if it didn’t sign the treaty, war would resume, and when the Germans saw all that Wilson had compromised to get his League of Nations, they cried betrayal, because the treaty did not contain much of the Fourteen Points like the Germans had hoped it would.
  2. Wilson was not happy with the treaty, sensing that it was inadequate, and his popularity was down, but he did make a difference in that his going to Paris prevented the treaty from being purely imperialistic.

XVIII. The Domestic Parade of Prejudice

  1. Returning to America, Wilson was met with fierce opposition, as Hun-haters felt that the treaty wasn’t harsh enough while the Irish denounced the League
  2. The “hyphenated” Americans all felt that the treaty had not been fair to their home country.

XIX. Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919)

  1. When Wilson returned to America, at the time, Senator Lodge had no hope to defeat the treaty, so he delayed, reading the entire 264-page treaty aloud in the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held hearings for people discontent with the treaty to voice their feelings, and basically stalled, bogging the treaty down.
  2. Wilson decided to take a tour to gain support for the treaty, but trailing him like bloodhounds were Senators Borah and Johnson, two of the “irreconcilables,” who verbally attacked him.
  3. However, in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions, reception was much warmer, and the high point came at Pueblo, Colorado, where he pleaded that the League was the only hope for peace in the future.
    • That night, he collapsed form physical and nervous exhaustion, and several days later, a stroke paralyzed half of his body.

XX. Defeat Through Deadlock

  1. Lodge now came up with fourteen “reservations” to the Treaty of Versailles, which sought to safeguard American sovereignty.
    • Congress was especially concerned with Article X, which morally bound the U.S. to aid any member of the League of Nations that was victimized by aggression, for Congress wanted to preserve its war-declaring power.
  2. Wilson hated Lodge, and though he was willing to accept similar Democratic reservations and changes, he would not do so from Lodge, and thus, he ordered his Democratic supporters to vote against the treaty with the Lodge reservations attached.
    • On November 19, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated by a vote of 55 to 39.
  3. About four-fifths of the senators actually didn’t mind the treaty, but unless the Senate approved the pact with the Lodge reservations tacked on, it would fail completely.
    • Brought up for a vote again, on March 19, 1920, the treaty failed again, due in part to Wilson telling Democrats to vote against the treaty…again.
    • Wilson’s feud with Lodge, U.S. isolationism, tradition, and disillusionment all contributed to the failure of the treaty, but Wilson must share the blame as well, since he stubbornly went for “all or nothing,” and received nothing.

XXI. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920

  1. Wilson had proposed to take the treaty to the people with a national referendum, but that would have been impossible.
  2. In 1920, the Republican Party was back together, thanks in part to Teddy Roosevelt’s death in 1919, and it devised a clever platform that would appeal to pro-League and anti-League factions of the party, and they chose Warren G. Harding as their candidate in the “smoke-filled room,” withCalvin Coolidge as the vice presidential candidate.
  3. The Democrats chose James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt as VP, and they also supported a League of Nations, but not necessarily the League of Nations.
  4. Warren G. Harding was swept into power

XXII. The Betrayal of Great Expectations

  1. U.S. isolationism doomed the Treaty of Versailles and indirectly led to World War II, because France, without an ally, built up a large military force, and Germany, suspicious and fearful, began to illegally do the same.
  2. The suffering of Germany and the disorder of the time was used by Adolf Hitler to seize power in Germany, build up popularity, and drag Europe into war.
  3. It was the U.S.’s responsibility to take charge as the most powerful nation in the world after World War I, but it retreated into isolationism, and let the rest of the world do whatever it wanted in the hopes that the U.S. would not be dragged into another war, but ironically, it was such actions that eventually led the U.S. into WWII.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 31 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties," 1919-1929

 I. Seeing Red

  1. After World War I, America turned inward, away from the world, and started a policy of “isolationism.” Americans denounced “radical” foreign ideas and “un-American” lifestyles.
  2. The “Red Scare” of 1919-20 resulted in Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer (the “Fighting Quaker”) using a series of raids to round up and arrest about 6,000 suspected Communists.
  3. In December of 1919, 249 alleged alien radicals were deported on the Buford.
  4. The Red Scare severely cut back free speech for a period, since the hysteria caused many people to want to eliminate any Communists and their ideas.
    • Some states made it illegal to merely advocate the violent overthrow of government for social change.
    • In 1921, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were convicted of murdering a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard. The two accused were Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers, and the courts may have been prejudiced against them.
  5. In this time period, anti-foreignism (or “nativism”) was high.
  6. Liberals and radicals rallied around the two men, but they were executed.

II. Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK

  1. The new Ku Klux Klan was anti-foreign, anti-Catholic, anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-revolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, and anti-birth control.
  2. More simply, it was pro-White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) and anti-everything else.
  3. At its peak in the 1920s, it claimed 5 million members, mostly from the South, but it also featured a reign of hooded horror.
    • The KKK employed the same tactics of fear, lynchings, and intimidation.
    • It was stopped not by the exposure of its horrible racism, but by its money fraud.

III. Stemming the Foreign Flood

  1. In 1920-21, some 800,000 European “New Immigrants” (mostly from the southeastern Europe regions) came to the U.S. and Congress passed theEmergency Quota Act of 1921, in which newcomers from Europe were restricted at any year to a quota, which was set at 3% of the people of their nationality who lived in the U.S. in 1910.

*This policy still really favored the Slavs and the southeastern Europeans in comparison to other groups. So, a new policy was sought…
* A replacement law was found in the Immigration Act of 1924, which cut the quota down to 2% and the origins base was shifted to that of 1890, when few southeastern Europeans lived in America.
* This change clearly had racial undertones beneath it (New Immigrants out, Old Immigrants in).
* This act also slammed the door against Japanese immigrants.
* By 1931, for the first time in history, more people left America than came here.

  1. The immigrant tide was now cut off, but those that were in America struggled to adapt.
    • Labor unions in particular had difficulty in organizing because of the differences in race, culture, and nationality.

IV. The Prohibition “Experiment”

  1. The 18th Amendment (and later, the Volstead Act) prohibited the sale of alcohol, but this law never was effectively enforced because so many people violated it.
  2. Actually, most people thought that Prohibitio was here to stay, and this was especially popular in the Midwest and the South.
  3. Prohibition was particularly supported by women and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, but it also posed problems from countries that produced alcohol and tried to ship it to the U.S. (illegally, of course).
  4. In actuality, bank savings did increase, and absenteeism in industry did go down.

V. The Golden Age of Gangsterism

  1. Prohibition led to the rise of gangs that competed to distribute liquor.
  2. In the gang wars of Chicago in the 1920s, about 500 people were murdered, but captured criminals were rare, and convictions even rarer, since gangsters often provided false alibis for each other.
    • The most infamous of these gangsters was “Scarface” Al Capone, and his St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. Capone was finally caught for tax evasion.
    • Gangs moved into other activities as well: prostitution, gambling, and narcotics, and by 1930, their annual profit was a whopping $12 – 18 billion.
    • In 1932, gangsters kidnapped the baby son of Charles Lindbergh, shocking the nation, and this event led Congress to the so-called Lindbergh Law, which allowed the death penalty to certain cases of interstate abduction.

VI. Monkey Business in Tennessee

  1. Education made strides behind the progressive ideas of John Dewey, a professor at Columbia University who set forth principles of “learning by doing” and believed that “education for life” should be the primary goal of school.
    • Now, schools were no longer prisons.
    • States also were increasingly placing minimum ages for teens to stay in school.
  2. A massive health care program launched by the Rockefeller Foundation practically eliminated hookworm in the South.
  3. Evolutionists were also clashing against creationists, and the prime example of this was the Scopes “Monkey Trial,” where John T. Scopes, a high school teacher of Dayton, Tennessee, was charged with teaching evolution.
    • William Jennings Bryan was among those who were against him, but the one-time “boy orator” was made to sound foolish and childish by expert attorney Clarence Darrow, and five days after the end of the trial, Bryan died.
    • The trial proved to be inconclusive but illustrated the rift between the new and old.
  4. Increasing numbers of Christians were starting to reconcile their differences between religion and the findings of modern science, as evidenced in the new Churches of Christ (est. 1906).

VII. The Mass-Consumption Economy

  1. Prosperity took off in the “Roaring 20s,” despite the recession of 1920-21, and it was helped by the tax policies of Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon, which favored the rapid expansion of capital investment.
  2. Henry Ford perfected the assembly-line production to where his famous Rouge River Plant was producing a finished automobile every ten seconds.
  3. The automobile now provided more freedom, more luxury, and more privacy.
  4. A new medium arose as well: advertising, which used persuasion, ploy, seduction, and sex appeal to sell merchandise.
    • In 1925, Bruce Barton’s bestseller The Man Nobody Knows claimed that Jesus Christ was the perfect salesman and that all advertisers should study his techniques.
  5. Folks followed new (and dangerous) buying techniques…they bought (1) on the installment plan and (2) on credit. Both ways were capable of plunging an unexpecting consumer into debt.
  6. Sports were buoyed by people like home-run hero Babe Ruth and boxers Jack Dempsey and Georges Carpentier.

VIII. Putting America on Rubber Tires

  1. Americans adapted, rather than invented, the gasoline engine.
  2. People like Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds (famous for Oldsmobile) developed the infant auto industry.
  3. Early cars stalled and weren’t too reliable, but eventually, cars like the Ford Model T became cheap and easy to own.
    • In 1929, when the bull market collapsed, 26 million motor vehicles were registered in the United States, or 1 car per 4.9 Americans.

IX. The Advent of the Gasoline Age

  1. The automobile spurred 6 million people to new jobs and took over the railroad as king of transportation.
    • New roads were constructed, the gasoline industry boomed, and America’s standard of living rose greatly.
    • Cars were luxuries at first, but they rapidly became necessities.
    • The less-attractive states lost population at an alarming rate.
    • However, accidents killed lots of people, and by 1951, 1,000,000 people had died by the car—more than the total of Americans lost to all its previous wars combined.
    • Cars brought adventure, excitement, and pleasure.

X. Humans Develop Wings

  1. On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first airplane for 12 seconds over a distance of 120 feet at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
  2. Aviation slowly got off the ground, and they were used a bit in World War I, but afterwards, it really took off when they became used for mail and other functions.
    • The first transcontinental airmail route was established form New York to San Francisco in 1920.
    • At first, there were many accidents and crashes, but later, safety improved.
  3. Charles Lindbergh became the first person to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean when he did it in his Spirit of St. Louis, going from New York to Paris.

XI. The Radio Revolution

  1. In the 1890s, Guglielmo Marconi had already invented wireless telegraphy and his invention was used for long distance communication in the Great War.
  2. Then, in November of 1920, the first voice-carrying radio station began broadcasting when KDKA (in Pittsburgh) told of presidential candidateWarren G. Harding’s landslide victory.
  3. While the automobile lured Americans away from home, the radio lured them back, as millions tuned in to hear favorites like Amos ‘n’ Andy and listen to the Eveready Hour.
  4. Sports were further stimulated while politicians had to adjust their speaking techniques to support the new medium, and music could finally be heard electronically.

XII. Hollywood’s Filmland Fantasies

  1. Thomas Edison was one of those who invented the movie, but in 1903, the real birth of the movie came with The Great Train Robbery.
    • A first full-length feature was D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation, which stunned viewers visually, but seemed to glorify the KKK in the Reconstruction era.
    • The first “talkie” or movie with sound was The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson.
    • Hollywood, California, quickly became a hot spot for movie production, due to its favorable climate and landscape.
  2. The first movies featured nudity and female vampires called “vamps” until shocked public forced codes of censorship to be placed on them.
  3. Propaganda movies of World War I boosted the popularity of movies.
  4. Critics, though, did bemoan the vulgarization of popular tastes wrought by radio and movies.
    • These new mediums led to the loss of old family and oral traditions. Radio shows and movies seemed to lessen interaction and heighten passivity.

XIII. The Dynamic Decade

  1. For the first time, more Americans lived in urban areas, not the rural countryside.
  2. The birth-control movement was led by fiery Margaret Sanger, and the National Women’s Party began in 1923 to campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
  3. The Fundamentalists of old-time religion even lost ground to the new Modernists, who liked to think that God was a “good guy” and the universe was a nice place, as opposed to the traditional view that man was a born sinner and in need of forgiveness through Christ.
  4. A brash new group shocked many conservative older folk (who labeled the new style as full of erotic suggestions and inappropriate). The “flaming youth” who lived this modern life were called “flappers.”
    • They danced new dances like the risqué “Charleston” and dressed more provocatively.
    • Sigmund Freud said that sexual repression was responsible for most of society’s ills, and that pleasure and health demanded sexual gratification and liberation.
    • Jazz was the music of flappers, and Blacks like W.C. Handy, “Jelly Roll” Morton, and Joseph King Oliver gave birth to its bee-bopping sounds.
    • Black pride spawned such leaders as Langston Hughes of the Harlem Renaissance and famous for The Weary Blues, which appeared in 1926, and Marcus Garvey (founder of the United Negro Improvement Association and inspiration for the Nation of Islam).

XIV. Cultural Liberation

  1. By the dawn of the 1920s, many of the old writers (Henry James, Henry Adams, and William Dean Howells) had died, and those that survived, like Edith Wharton and Willa Cather were popular.
  2. Many of the new writers, though, hailed from different backgrounds (not Protestant New Englanders).
    • H.L. Mencken, the “Bad Boy of Baltimore,” found fault in much of America.
      • He wrote the monthly American Mercury.
    • F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote This Side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby, both of which captured the society of the “Jazz Age,” including odd mix of glamour and the cruelty.
    • Theodore Dreiser wrote as a Realist (not Romantic) in An American Tragedy about the murder of a pregnant working girl by her socially-conscious lover.
    • Ernest Hemingway wrote The Sun Also Rises, and A Farewell to Arms, and became a voice for the “Lost Generation”—the young folks who’d been ruined by the disillusionment of WWI.
    • Sherwood Anderson wrote Winesburg, Ohio describing small-town life in America.
    • Sinclair Lewis disparaged small-town America in his Main Street and Babbitt.
    • William Faulkner’s Soldier’s Pay, The Sound and the Fury, and As I Lay Dying all were famous and stunning with his use of the new, choppy “stream of consciousness” technique.
  3. Poetry also was innovative, and Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot were two great poets.
  4. Eugene O’Neill’s plays like Strange Interlude laid bare human emotions.
  5. Other famous writers included Claude McKay and Zora Neale Hurston.
  6. Architecture also made its marks with the designs of Frank Lloyd Wright, Wright was an understudy of **Louis Sullivan **(of Chicago skyscraper fame) and amazed people with his use of concrete, glass, and steel and his unconventional theory that “form follows function.”
    • Champion of skyscrapers, the Empire State Building debuted in 1931.

XV. Wall Street’s Big Bull Market

  1. There was much over-speculation in the 1920s, especially on Florida home properties (until a hurricane took care of that), and even during times of prosperity, many, many banks failed each year.
    • The whole system was built on fragile credit.
    • The stock market’s stellar rise made headline news (and enticed investors to drop their savings into the market’s volatility).
  2. Secretary of the Treasury Mellon reduced the amount of taxes that rich people had to pay, thus conceivably thrusting the burden onto the middle class.
    • He reduced the national debt, though, but has since been accused of indirectly encouraging the Bull Market.
  3. Whatever the case, the prosperities of the 1920s was setting up the crash that would lead to the poverty and suffering of the 1930s.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 32 - The Politics of Boom and Bust, 1920-1932

 I. The Republican “Old Guard” Returns

  1. Newly elected President Warren G. Harding was tall, handsome, and popular, but he had a mediocre mind and he did not like to hurt people’s feelings.
    • Nor could he detect the corruption within his adminstration.
  2. His cabinet did have some good officials, though, such as Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, who was masterful, imperious, incisive, and brilliant, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon.
  3. However, people like Senator Albert B. Fall of New Mexico, a scheming anti-conservationist, became secretary of the interior, and Harry M. Daugherty took over the reigns as attorney general.
    • These two became the worst of the scandalous cabinet members.

II. GOP Reaction at the Throttle

  1. A good man but a weak one, Harding was the perfect front for old-fashioned politicians to set up for the nation a McKinley-style old order.
    • It hoped to further laissez-faire capitalism, and one of the examples of this was the Supreme Court, where Harding appointed four of the nine justices, including William H. Taft, former president of the United States.
  2. In the early 1920s, the Supreme Court killed a federal child-labor law.
    • In the case of Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, the court reversed its ruling in the Muller v. Oregon case by invalidating a minimum wage law for women.
  3. Under Harding, corporations could expand again, and anti-trust laws were not as enforced or downright ignored.
  4. Men sympathetic to railroads headed the Interstate Commerce Commission.

III. The Aftermath of the War

  1. Wartime government controls disappeared (i.e. the dismantling of the War Industries Board) and Washington returned control of railroads to private hands by the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920.
  2. The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the Shipping Board, which controlled about 1,500 vessels, to get rid of a lot of ships at bargain prices, thus reducing the size of the navy.
    • Labor lost much of its power, as a strike was ruthlessly broken in 1919, and the Railway Labor Board ordered a wage cut of 12% in 1922.
    • Labor membership shrank by 30% from 1920 to 1930.
  3. In 1921, the Veterans’ Bureau was created to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehabilitation for the disabled.
    • Many veterans wanted the monetary compensation promised to them for their services in the war.
    • The Adjusted Compensation Act gave every former soldier a paid-up insurance policy due in twenty years. It was passed by Congress twice (the second time to override president Calvin Coolidge’s veto).

IV. America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens

  1. Since America had never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, it was still technically at war with Germany, so in July of 1921, it passed a simple joint resolution ending the war.
  2. The U.S. did not cooperate much with the League of Nations, but eventually, “unofficial observers” did participate in conferences. The lack of real participation though from the U.S. proved to doom the League.
  3. In the Middle East, Secretary Hughes secured for American oil companies the right to share in the exploitation of the oil riches there.
  4. Disarmament was another problem for Harding and he had to watch the actions of Japan and Britain for any possible hostile activities.
  5. America also went on a “ship-scrapping” bonanza.
    • The Washington “Disarmament” Conference of 1921-22 resulted in a plan that kept a 5:5:3 ratio of ships that could be held by the U.S., Britain, and Japan (in that order). This surprised many delegates at the conference (notably, the Soviet Union, which was not recognized by the U.S., was not invited and did not attend).
    • The Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922 embodied Hughes’s ideas on ship ratios, but only after Japanese received compensation.
    • A Four-Power Treaty, which bound Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to preserve the status quo in the Pacific, replaced the 20-year-oldAnglo-Japanese Alliance.
    • The Nine-Power Treaty of 1922 kept the open door open in China.
    • However, despite all this apparent action, there were no limits placed on small ships, and Congress only approved the Four-Power Treaty on the condition that the U.S. was not bound, thus effectively rendering that treaty useless.
  6. Frank B. Kellogg, Calvin Coolidge’s Secretary of State, won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris), which said that all nations that signed would no longer use war as offensive means.

V. Hiking the Tariff Higher

  1. Businessmen did not want Europe flooding American markets with cheap goods after the war, so Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law, which raised the tariff from 27% to 35%.
    • Presidents Harding and Coolidge, granted with authority to reduce or increase duties, and always sympathetic towards big industry, were much more prone to increasing tariffs than decreasing them.
  2. However, this presented a problem: Europe needed to sell goods to the U.S. in order to get the money to pay back its debts, and when it could not sell, it could not repay.

VI. The Stench of Scandal

  1. However, scandal rocked the Harding administration in 1923 when Charles R. Forbes was caught with his hand in the money bag and resigned as the head of the Veterans’ Bureau.
    • He and his accomplices looted the government for over $200 million.
  2. The Teapot Dome Scandal was the most shocking of all.
    • Albert B. Fall leased land in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California, to oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny, but not until Fall had received a “loan” (actually a bribe) of $100,000 from Doheny and about three times that amount from Sinclair.
  3. There were reports as to the underhanded doings of Attorney General Harry Daugherty, in which he was accused of the illegal sale of pardons and liquor permits.
  4. President Harding, however, died in San Francisco on August 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis, and he didn’t have to live through much of the uproar of the scandal.

VII. “Silent Cal” Coolidge

  1. New president Calvin Coolidge was serious, calm, and never spoke more than he needed to.
  2. A very morally clean person, he was not touched by the Harding scandals, and he proved to be a bright figure in the Republican Party.
    • It was ironic that in the Twenties, the “Age of Ballyhoo” or the “Jazz Age,” the U.S. had a very traditional, old-timey, and some would say boring president.

VIII. Frustrated Farmers

  1. World War I had given the farmers prosperity, as they’d produced much food for the soldiers.
    • New technology in farming, such as the gasoline-engine tractor, had increased farm production dramatically.
    • However, after the war, these products weren’t needed, and the farmers fell into poverty.
  2. Farmers looked for relief, and the Capper-Volstead Act, which exempted farmers’ marketing cooperatives from antitrust prosecution, and the McNary-Haugen Bill, which sought to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad, helped a little.
    • However, Coolidge vetoed the second bill, twice.

IX. A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924

  1. Coolidge was chosen by the Republicans again in 1924, while Democrats nominated John W. Davis after 102 ballots in Madison Square Garden.
    • The Democrats also voted by one vote NOT to condemn the Ku Klux Klan.
  2. Senator Robert La Follette led the Progressive Party as the third party candidate.
    • He gained the endorsement of the American Federation of Labor and the shrinking Socialist Party, and he actually received 5 million votes.
    • However, Calvin Coolidge easily won the election.

X. Foreign-Policy Flounderings

  1. Isolationism continued to reign in the Coolidge era, as the Senate did not allow America to adhere to the World Court, the judicial wing of the League of Nations.
  2. In the Caribbean and Latin America, U.S. troops were withdrawn from the Dominican Republic in 1924, but remained in Haiti from 1914 to 1934.
    • Coolidge took out troops from Nicaragua in 1925, and then sent them back the next year, and in 1926, he defused a situation with Mexico where the Mexicans were claiming sovereignty over oil resources.
    • However, Latin Americans began to resent the American dominance of them.
  3. The European debt to America also proved tricky.

XI. Unraveling the Debt Knot

  1. Because America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts, those two nations placed huge reparation payments on Germany, which then, to pay them, printed out loads of paper money that caused inflation to soar.
    • At one point in October of 1923, a loaf of bread cost 480 million German marks.
  2. Finally, in 1924, Charles Dawes engineered the Dawes Plan, which rescheduled German reparations payments and gave the way for further American private loans to Germany.
    • Essentially, the payments were a huge circle from the U.S. to Germany to Britain/France and back to the U.S. All told, the Americans never really gained any money or got repaid in genuine.
    • Also, the U.S. gained bitter enemies in France and Britain who were angry over America’s apparent greed and careless nature for others.

XII. The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928

  1. In 1928, Calvin Coolidge said, “I do not choose to run,” and his logical successor immediately became economics genius Herbert Hoover. Hoover spoke of “Rugged Individualism” which was his view that America was made great by strong, self-sufficient individuals, like the pioneers of old days trekking across the prairies, relying on no one else for help. This was the kind of folk America still needed, he said.
    • Hoover was opposed by New York governor Alfred E. Smith, a man who was blanketed by scandal (he drank during a Prohibitionist era and was hindered politically by being a Roman Catholic).
  2. Radio turned out to be an important factor in the campaign, and Hoover’s personality sparkled on this new medium (compared to Smith, who sounded stupid and boyish).
  3. Hoover had never been elected to public office before, but he had made his way up from poverty to prosperity, and believed that other people could do so as well.
  4. There was, once again, below-the-belt hitting on both sides, as the campaign took an ugly turn, but Hoover triumphed in a landslide, with 444 electoral votes to Smith’s 87.

XIII. President Hoover’s First Moves

  1. Hoover’s Agricultural Marketing Act, passed in June of 1929, was designed to help the farmers help themselves, and it set up a Federal Farm Board to help the farmers.
    • In 1930, the Farm Board created the Grain Stabilization Corporation and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation to bolster sagging prices by buying surpluses.
  2. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 raised the tariff to an unbelievable 60%!
    • Foreigners hated this tariff that reversed a promising worldwide trend toward reasonable tariffs and widened the yawning trade gaps.

XIV. The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties

  1. Hoover confidently predicted an end to poverty very soon, but on October 29, 1929, a devastating stock market crash caused by over-speculation and overly high stock prices built only upon non-existent credit struck the nation.
    • Losses, even blue-chip securities, were unbelievable as by the end of 1929, stockholders had lost over $40 million in paper values (more than the cost of World War I)!
    • By the end of 1930, 4 million Americans were jobless, and two years later, that number shot up to 12 million.
    • Over 5,000 banks collapsed in the first three years of the Great Depression.
    • Lines formed at soup kitchens and at homeless shelters.

XV. Hooked on the Horn of Plenty

  1. The Great Depression might have been caused by an overabundance of farm products and factory products. The nation’s capacity to produce goods had clearly outrun its capacity to consume or pay for them.
  2. Also, an over-expansion of credit created unsound faith in money, which is never good for business.
  3. Britain and France’s situations, which had never fully recovered from World War I, worsened.
  4. In 1930, a terrible drought scorched the Mississippi Valley and thousands of farms were sold to pay for debts.
  5. By 1930, the depression was a national crisis, and hard-working workers had nowhere to work, thus, people turned bitter and also turned on Hoover.

*Villages of shanties and ragged shacks were called Hoovervilles and were inhabited by the people who had lost their jobs. They popped up everywhere.

XVI. Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists

  1. Hoover unfairly received the brunt of the blame for the Great Depression, but he also did not pass measures that could have made the depression less severe than it could have been.
    • Critics noted that he could feed millions in Belgium (after World War I) but not millions at home in America.
  2. He did not believe in government tampering with the economic machine and thus moving away from laissez faire, and he felt that depressions like this were simply parts of the natural economic process, known as the business cycle.
    • However, by the end of his term, he had started to take steps for the government to help the people.

XVII. Hoover Battles the Great Depression

  1. Finally, Hoover voted to withdraw $2.25 billion to start projects to alleviate the suffering of the depression.
    • The Hoover Dam of the Colorado River was one such project.
  2. The Muscle Shoals Bill, which was designed to dam the Tennessee River and was ultimately embraced by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), was vetoed by Hoover.
  3. Early in 1932, Congress, responding to Hoover’s appeal, established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which became a government lending bank. This was a large step for Hoover away from laissez faire policies and toward policies the Democrats (FDR) would later employ.
    • However, giant corporations were the ones that benefited most from this, and the RFC was another one of the targets of Hoover’s critics.
  4. In 1932, Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injection Act, which outlawed anti-union contracts and forbade the federal courts to issue injunctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing (this was good for unions).
  5. Remember, that in past depressions, the American public was often forced to “sweat it out,” not wait for government help. The trend was changing at this point, forced to do so by the Depression.

XVIII. Routing the Bonus Army in Washington

  1. Many veterans, whom had not been paid their compensation for WWI, marched to Washington, D.C. to demand their entire bonus.
    • The “Bonus Expeditionary Force” erected unsanitary camps and shacks in vacant lots, creating health hazards and annoyance.
    • Riots followed after troops came in to intervene (after Congress tried to pass a bonus bill but failed), and many people died.
    • Hoover falsely charged that the force was led by riffraff and reds (communists), and the American opinion turned even more against him.

XIX. Japanese Militarists Attack China

  1. In September 1931, Japan, alleging provocation, invaded Manchuria and shut the Open Door.
  2. Peaceful peoples were stunned, as this was a flagrant violation of the League of Nations covenant, and a meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, was arranged.
  3. An American actually attended, but instead of driving Japan out of China, the meeting drove Japan out of the League, thus weakening it further.
  4. Secretary of State Henry Stimson did indicate that the U.S. probably would not interfere with a League of Nations embargo on Japan, but he was later restrained from taking action.
    • Since the U.S. took no effective action, the Japanese bombed Shanghai in 1932, and even then, outraged Americans didn’t do much to change the Japanese minds.
    • The U.S.’s lackluster actions support the notion that America’s isolationist policy was well entrenched.

XX. Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy

  1. Hoover was deeply interested in relations south of the border, and during his term, U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean improved greatly.
    • Since the U.S. had less money to spend, it was unable to dominate Latin America as much, and later, Franklin D. Roosevelt would build upon these policies.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 33 - The Great Depression and the New Deal, 1933-1939

 I. FDR: A Politician in a Wheelchair

  1. In 1932, voters still had not seen any economic improvement, and they wanted a new president.
  2. President Herbert Hoover was nominated again without much vigor and true enthusiasm, and he campaigned saying that his policies prevented the Great Depression from being worse than it was.
  3. The Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a tall, handsome man who was the fifth cousin of famous Theodore Roosevelt and had followed in his footsteps.
    • FDR was suave and conciliatory while TR was pugnacious and confrontational.
    • FDR had been stricken with polio in 1921, and during this time, his wife, Eleanor, became his political partner.
    • Franklin also lost a friend in 1932 when he and Al Smith both sought the Democratic nomination.
  4. Eleanor was to become the most active First Lady ever.

II. Presidential Hopefuls of 1932

  1. In the campaign, Roosevelt seized the opportunity to prove that he was not an invalid, and his campaign also featured an attack on Hoover’s spending (ironically, he would spend even more during his term).
  2. The Democrats found expression in the airy tune “Happy Days Are Here Again,” and clearly, the Democrats had the advantage in this race.

III. Hoover's Humiliation in 1932

  1. Hoover had been swept into the presidential office in 1928, but in 1932, he was swept out with equal force, as he was defeated 472 to 59.
  2. Noteworthy was the transition of the Black vote from the Republican to the Democratic Party.
  3. During the lame-duck period, Hoover tried to initiate some of Roosevelt’s plans, but was met by stubbornness and resistance.
  4. Hooverites would later accuse FDR of letting the depression worsen so that he could emerge as an even more shining savior.

IV. FDR and the Three R’s: Relief, Recovery, and Reform

  1. On Inauguration Day, FDR asserted, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
  2. He called for a nationwide bank holiday to eliminate paranoid bank withdrawals, and then he commenced with his Three R’s.
  3. The Democratic-controlled Congress was willing to do as FDR said, and the first Hundred Days of FDR’s administration were filled with more legislative activity than ever before.
    • Many of the New Deal reforms had been adopted by European nations a decade before.

V. Roosevelt Manages the Money

  1. The Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933 was passed first. FDR declared a one week “bank holiday” just so everyone would calm down and stop running on the banks.
  2. Then, Roosevelt settled down for the first of his thirty famous “Fireside Chats” with America.
  3. The “Hundred Days Congress” passed the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act, that provided the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) which insured individual deposits up to $5000, thereby eliminating the epidemic of bank failure and restoring faith to banks.
  4. FDR then took the nation off of the gold standard and achieved controlled inflation by ordering Congress to buy gold at increasingly higher prices.
    • In February 1934, he announced that the U.S. would pay foreign gold at a rate of one ounce of gold per every $35 due.

VI. Roosevelt Manages the Money

  1. The Emergency Banking Relief Act gave FDR the authority to manage banks.
  2. FDR then went on the radio and reassured people it was safer to put money in the bank than hidden in their houses.
    • The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act was passed.
    • This provided for the FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corp.) to insure the money in the bank.
  3. FDR wanted to stop people from hoarding gold.
    • He urged people to turn in gold for paper money and took the U.S. off the gold standard.
    • He wanted inflation, to make debt payment easier, and urged the Treasury to buy gold with paper money.

VII. A Day for Every Demagogue

  1. Roosevelt had no qualms about using federal money to assist the unemployed, so he created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which provided employment in fresh-air government camps for about 3 million uniformed young men.
    • They reforested areas, fought fires, drained swamps, controlled floods, etc.
    • However, critics accused FDR of militarizing the youths and acting as dictator.
  2. The Federal Emergency Relief Act looked for immediate relief rather than long-term alleviation, and its Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was headed by the zealous Harry L. Hopkins.
  3. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) made available many millions of dollars to help farmers meet their mortgages.
  4. The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced mortgages on non-farm homes and bolted down the loyalties of middle class, Democratic homeowners.
  5. The Civil Works Administration (CWA) was established late in 1933, and it was designed to provide purely temporary jobs during the winter emergency.
    • Many of its tasks were rather frivolous (called “boondoggling”) and were designed for the sole purpose of making jobs.
  6. The New Deal had its commentators.
    • One FDR spokesperson was Father Charles Coughlin, a Catholic priest in Michigan who at first was with FDR then disliked the New Deal and voiced his opinions on radio.
    • Senator Huey P. Long of Louisiana was popular for his “Share the Wealth” program. Proposing “every man a king,” each family was to receive $5000, allegedly from the rich. The math of the plan was ludicrous.
      • His chief lieutenant was former clergyman Gerald L. K. Smith.
      • He was later shot by a deranged medical doctor in 1935.
    • Dr. Francis E. Townsend of California attracted the trusting support of perhaps 5 million “senior citizens” with his fantastic plan of each senior receiving $200 month, provided that all of it would be spent within the month. Also, this was a mathematically silly plan.
  7. Congress also authorized the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935, which put $11 million on thousands of public buildings, bridges, and hard-surfaced roads and gave 9 million people jobs in its eight years of existence.
    • It also found part-time jobs for needy high school and college students and for actors, musicians, and writers.
    • Writer John Steinbeck counted dogs (boondoggled) in his California home of Salinas county.

VIII. New Visibility for Women

  1. Ballots newly in hand, women struck up new roles.
  2. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was the most visible, but other ladies shone as well: Sec. of Labor Frances Perkins was the first female cabinet member and Mary McLeod Bethune headed the Office of Minority Affairs in the NYA, the “Black Cabinet”, and founded a Florida college.
  3. Anthropologist Ruth Benedict helped develop the “culture and personality movement” and her student Margaret Mead reached even greater heights with Coming of Age in Samoa.
  4. Pearl S. Buck wrote a beautiful and timeless novel, The Good Earth, about a simple Chinese farmer which earned her the Nobel Prize for literature in 1938.

IX. Helping Industry and Labor

  1. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), by far the most complicated of the programs, was designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed.
    • There were maximum hours of labor, minimum wages, and more rights for labor union members, including the right to choose their own representatives in bargaining.
  2. The Philadelphia Eagles were named after this act, which received much support and patriotism, but eventually, it was shot down by the Supreme Court.
    • Besides too much was expected of labor, industry, and the public.
    • The Public Works Administration (PWA) also intended both for industrial recovery and for unemployment relief.
      • Headed by Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, it aimed at long-range recovery by spending over $4 billion on some 34,000 projects that included public buildings, highways, and parkways (i.e. the Grand Coulee Dam of the Columbia River).
  3. One of the Hundred Days Congress’s earliest acts was to legalize light wine and beer with an alcoholic content of 3.2% or less and also levied a $5 tax on every barrel manufactured.
    • Prohibition was officially repealed with the 21st Amendment.

X. Paying Farmers Not to Farm

  1. To help the farmers, which had been suffering ever since the end of World War I, Congress established the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, which paid farmers to reduce their crop acreage and would eliminate price-depressing surpluses.
    • However, it got off to a rocky start when it killed lots of pigs for no good reason, and paying farmers not to farm actually increased unemployment.
    • The Supreme Court killed it in 1936.
  2. The New Deal Congress also passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, which paid farmers to plant soil-conserving plants like soybeans or to let their land lie fallow.
  3. The Second Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 was a more comprehensive substitute that continued conservation payments but was accepted by the Supreme Court.

XI. Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards

  1. After the drought of 1933, furious winds whipped up dust into the air, turning parts of Missouri, Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma into theDust Bowl and forcing many farmers to migrate west to California and inspired Steinbeck’s classic The Grapes of Wrath.
    • The dust was very hazardous to the health and to living, creating further misery.
  2. The Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act, passed in 1934, made possible a suspension of mortgage foreclosure for five years, but it was voided in 1935 by the Supreme Court.
  3. In 1935, FDR set up the Resettlement Administration, charged with the task of removing near-farmless farmers to better land.
  4. Commissioner of Indian Affairs was headed by John Collier who sought to reverse the forced-assimilation policies in place since the Dawes Act of 1887.
    • He promoted the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (the Indian “New Deal”), which encouraged tribes to preserve their culture and traditions.
    • Not all Indians liked it though, saying if they followed this “back-to-the-blanket” plan, they’d just become museum exhibits. 77 tribes refused to organize under its provisions (200 did).

XII. Battling Bankers and Big Business

  1. The Federal Securities Act (“Truth in Securities Act”) required promoters to transmit to the investor sworn information regarding the soundness of their stocks and bonds.
  2. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was designed as a stock watchdog administrative agency, and stock markets henceforth were to operate more as trading marts than as casinos.
  3. In 1932, Chicagoan Samuel Insull’s multi-billion dollar financial empire had crashed, and such cases as his resulted in the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935.

XIII. The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River

  1. The sprawling electric-power industry attracted the fire of New Deal reformers.
    • New Dealers accused it of gouging the public with excessive rates.
  2. Thus, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933) sought to discover exactly how much money it took to produce electricity and then keep rates reasonable.
    • It constructed dams on the Tennessee River and helped the 2.5 million extremely poor citizens of the area improve their lives and their conditions.
    • Hydroelectric power of Tennessee would give rise to that of the West.

XIV. Housing Reform and Social Security

  1. To speed recovery and better homes, FDR set up the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) in 1934 to stimulate the building industry through small loans to householders.
    • It was one of the “alphabetical” agencies to outlast the age of Roosevelt.
  2. Congress bolstered the program in 1937 by authorizing the U.S. Housing Authority (USHA), designed to lend money to states or communities for low-cost construction.
    • This was the first time in American history that slum areas stopped growing.
  3. The Social Security Act of 1935 was the greatest victory for New Dealers, since it created pension and insurance for the old-aged, the blind, the physically handicapped, delinquent children, and other dependents by taxing employees and employers.
    • Republicans attacked this bitterly, as such government-knows-best programs and policies that were communist leaning and penalized the rich for their success. They also opposed the pioneer spirit of “rugged individualism.”

XV. A New Deal for Labor

  1. A rash of walkouts occurred in the summer of 1934, and after the NRA was axed, the Wagner Act (AKA, National Labor Relations Act) of 1935 took its place. The Wagner Act guaranteed the right of unions to organize and to collectively bargain with management.
    • Under the encouragement of a highly sympathetic National Labor Relations Board, unskilled laborers began to organize themselves into effective unions, one of which was John L. Lewis, the boss of the United Mine Workers who also succeeded in forming the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the ranks of the AF of L in 1935.
    • The CIO later left the AF of L and won a victory against General Motors.
  2. The CIO also won a victory against the United States Steel Company, but smaller steel companies struck back, resulting in such incidences as the Memorial Day Massacre of 1937 at the plant of the Republic Steel Company of South Chicago in which police fired upon workers, leaving scores killed or injured.
  3. In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act (AKA the “Wages and Hours Bill”) was passed, setting up minimum wage and maximum hours standards and forbidding children under the age of sixteen from working.
  4. Roosevelt enjoyed immense support from the labor unions.
  5. In 1938, the CIO broke completely with the AF of L and renamed itself the Congress of Industrial Organizations (the new CIO).

XVI. Landon Challenges “the Champ”

  1. The Republicans nominated Kansas Governor Alfred M. Landon to run against FDR.
    • Landon was weak on the radio and weaker in personal campaigning, and while he criticized FDR’s spending, he also favored enough of FDR’s New Deal to be ridiculed by the Democrats as an unsure idiot.
  2. In 1934, the American Liberty League had been formed by conservative Democrats and wealthy Republicans to fight “socialistic” New Deal schemes.
  3. Roosevelt won in a huge landslide, getting 523 electoral votes to Landon’s 8.
  4. FDR won primarily because he appealed to the “forgotten man,” whom he never forgot.

XVII. Nine Old Men on the Bench

  1. The 20th Amendment had cut the lame-duck period down to six weeks, so FDR began his second term on January 20, 1937, instead of on March 4.
  2. He controlled Congress, but the Supreme Court kept blocking his programs, so he proposed a shocking plan that would add a member to the Supreme Court for every existing member over the age of 70, for a maximum possible total of 15 total members.
    • For once, Congress voted against him because it did not want to lose its power.
    • Roosevelt was ripped for trying to become a dictator.

XVIII. The Court Changes Course

  1. FDR’s “court-packing scheme” failed, but he did get some of the justices to start to vote his way, including Owen J. Roberts, formerly regarded as a conservative.
  2. So, FDR did achieve his purpose of getting the Supreme Court to vote his way.
  3. However, his failure of the court-packing scheme also showed how Americans still did not wish to tamper with the sacred justice system.

XIX. Twilight of the New Deal

  1. During Roosevelt’s first term, the depression did not disappear, and unemployment, down from 25% in 1932, was still at 15%.
    • In 1937, the economy took another brief downturn when the “Roosevelt Recession,” caused by government policies.
    • Finally, FDR embraced the policies of British economist John Maynard Keynes.
      • In 1937, FDR announced a bold program to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending.
      • In 1939, Congress relented to FDR’s pressure and passed the Reorganization Act, which gave him limited powers for administrative reforms, including the key new Executive Office in the White House.
      • The Hatch Act of 1939 barred federal administrative officials, except the highest policy-making officers, from active political campaigning and soliciting.

XX. New Deal or Raw Deal?

  1. Foes of the New Deal condemned its waste, citing that nothing had been accomplished.
  2. Critics were shocked by the “try anything” attitude of FDR, who had increased the federal debt from $19.487 million in 1932 to $40.440 million in 1939.
  3. It took World War II, though, to really lower unemployment. But, the war also created a heavier debt than before.

XXI. FDR’s Balance Sheet

  1. New Dealers claimed that the New Deal had alleviated the worst of the Great Depression.
  2. FDR also deflected popular resent against business and may have saved the American system of free enterprise, yet business tycoons hated him.
  3. He provided bold reform without revolution.
  4. Later, he would guide the nation through a titanic war in which the democracy of the world would be at stake.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 34 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War, 1933-1941

 I. The London Conference

  1. The 1933 London Conference composed 66 nations that came together to hopefully develop a worldwide solution to the Great Depression.
    • President Franklin D. Roosevelt at first agreed to send Secretary of State Cordell Hull, but then withdrew from that agreement and scolded the other nations for trying to stabilize currencies.
    • As a result, the conference adjourned accomplishing nothing, and furthermore strengthening American isolationism.

II. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

  1. With hard times, Americans were eager to do away with their liabilities in the Philippine Islands. And, American sugar producers wanted to get rid of the Filipino sugar producers due to the competition they created.
  2. In 1934, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, stating that the Philippines would receive their independence after 12 years of economic and political tutelage, in 1946.
    • Army bases were relinquished, but naval bases were kept.
  3. Americans were freeing themselves of a liability and creeping into further isolationism Meanwhile, militarists in Japan began to see that they could take over the Pacific easily without U.S. interference or resistance.
  4. In 1933, FDR finally formally recognized the Soviet Union, hoping that the U.S. could trade with the U.S.S.R., and that the Soviets would discourage German and Japanese aggression.

III. Becoming a Good Neighbor

  1. In terms of its relations with Latin America, the U.S. wanted to be a “good neighbor,” showing that it was content as a regional power, not a world one.
  2. In 1933, FDR renounced armed intervention in Latin America at the Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, and the following year, U.S. marines left Haiti.
  3. The U.S. also lifted troops from Panama, but when Mexican forces seized Yankee oil properties, FDR found himself urged to take drastic action.
    • However, he resisted and worked out a peaceful deal.
    • His “good neighbor” policy was a great success, improving the U.S. image in Latin American eyes.

IV. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement

  1. Secretary of State Hull believed that trade was a two-way street, and he had a part in Congress’s passing of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Actin 1934 which activated low-tariff policies while aiming at relief and recovery by boosting American trade.
    • This act whittled down the most objectionable schedules of the Hawley-Smoot law by amending them, lowering rates by as much as half, provided that the other country would do the same toward the United States.
  2. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act reversed the traditional high-tariff policy that had damaged America before and paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that was implemented after World War II.

V. Storm-Cellar Isolationism

  1. After World War I, many dictatorships sprang up, including Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Adolph Hitler of Germany.
    • Of the three, Hitler was the most dangerous, because he was a great orator and persuader who led the German people to believe his “big lie,” making them think that he could lead the country back to greatness and out of this time of poverty and depression.
  2. In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.
  3. Japan slowly began gaining strength, refusing to cooperate with the world and quickly arming itself by ending the Washington Naval Treaty in 1934 and walking out of the London Conference.
  4. In 1935, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, conquering it, but the League of Nations failed to take effective action against the aggressors.
  5. America continued to hide behind the shell of isolationism, believing that everything would stay good if the U.S. wasn’t drawn into any international embroilments.
    • The 1934 Johnson Debt Default Act forbade any countries that still owed the U.S. money from borrowing any more cash.
  6. In 1936, a group of Princeton University students began to agitate for a bonus to be paid to the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFWs) while the prospective front-liners were still alive.

VI. Congress Legislates Neutrality

  1. The 1934 Nye Committee was formed to investigate whether or not munitions manufacturers were pro-war, existing for the sole purpose of making more money and profits, as the press blamed such producers for dragging America into the First World War.
  2. To prevent America from being sucked into war, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts in 1935-37, acts which stated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect: no American could legally sail on a belligerent ship or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent.
    • The flaw with these acts was that they were designed to prevent America from being pulled into a war like World War I, but World War II would prove to be different.

VII. America Dooms Loyalist Spain

  1. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Spanish rebels led by the fascist General Francisco Franco rose up against the leftist-leaning republican government.
    • In order to stay out of the war, the U.S. put an embargo on both the loyalist government, which was supported by the USSR, and the rebels, which were aided by Hitler and Mussolini.
    • During the Civil War, the U.S. just stood by while Franco smothered the democratic government. America also failed to build up its fleet, since most people believed that huge fleets led to huge wars.
      • It was not until 1938 that Congress passed a billion-dollar naval construction act, but then it was too little, too late.

VIII. Appeasing Japan and Germany

  1. In 1937, Japan essentially invaded China, but FDR didn’t call this combat “a war,” thus allowing the Chinese to still get arms from the U.S., and in Chicago of that year, he merely verbally chastised the aggressors, calling for “a quarantine” of Japan (through economic embargoes, perhaps); this was his famous “Quarantine Speech.”
    • The Quarantine Speech asked for America to stay neutral but to morally side against the fascist nations.
    • However, this speech angered many isolationists, and FDR backed down a bit from any more direct actions.
  2. In December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank the American gunboat, the Panay, but then made the necessary apologies, “saving” America from entering war.
    • To vent their frustration, the Japanese resorted to humiliating white civilians in China through slappings and strippings.
    • The Panay incident further supports America’s determination to stay neutral.
  3. Meanwhile, Hitler was growing bolder and bolder after being allowed to introduce mandatory military service in Germany, take over the GermanRhineland, persecute and exterminate about six million Jews, and occupy Austria—all because the European powers were appeasing him.
    • They naively hoped that each conquest of Germany would be the last.
  4. However, Hitler didn’t stop, and at the September 1938 Munich Conference, the Allies agreed to let Hitler have the Sudentenland of neighboring Czechoslovakia, but six months later, in 1939, Hitler pulled the last straw and took over all of Czechoslovakia.
    • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned to England and gave his infamous claim that he’d achieved “peace in our time”—true, but it proved to be a short time.

IX. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality

  1. On August 23, 1939, the U.S.S.R. shocked the world by signing a nonaggression treaty with Germany.
    • Now, it seemed that Germany could engulf all of Europe, especially without having to worry about fighting a two-front war in case Russia fought back.
    • In essence, the nonaggression pact opened the door to Poland.
  2. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, and France and Britain finally declared war against Germany, but America refused to enter the war, its citizens not wanting to be “suckers” again.
    • Americans were anti-Hitler and anti-Nazi and wanted Britain and France to win, but they would not permit themselves to be dragged into fighting and bloodshed.
  3. European powers needed American supplies, but the previous Neutrality Acts forbade the sale of arms to nations in war, so a new Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European nations to buy war materials, but only on a “cash-and-carry” basis, which meant Europeans had to provide their own ships and pay for the arms in cash.
    • Since the British and French controlled the seas, the Germans couldn’t buy arms from America, as it was intended.

X. The Fall of France

  1. After the fall of Poland, Hitler positioned his forces to attack France which led to a lull in the war (so that men could move) that was pierced only by the Soviet Union’s attack and conquering of Finland, despite $30 million from the U.S. (for nonmilitary reasons).
  2. Then, in 1940, the “phony war” ended when Hitler overran Denmark and Norway, and then took over the Netherlands and Belgium.
    • Blitzing without mercy, he then struck a paralyzing blow toward France, which was forced to surrender by late June of that year.

b. The fall of France was shocking, because now, all that stood between Hitler and the world was Britain: if the English lost, Hitler would have all of Europe in which to operate, and he might take over the Americas as well.

  1. Finally, Roosevelt moved and called for the nation to massively build up its armed forces, with expenses totaling more than $37 million. He also had Congress pass the first peacetime draft in U.S. history on September 6, 1940.
    • 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves would be trained.
  2. At the Havana Conference, the U.S. warned Germany that it could not take over orphan colonies in the Americas, as such action wouldn’t be tolerated.

XI. Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940)

  1. Now, with Britain the only power fighting against Germany, FDR had to decide whether to remain totally neutral or to help Britain.
    • Hitler launched air attacks against the British in August 1940 and prepared an invasion scheduled to start a month later, but the tenacious defense of the British Royal Air Force stopped him in the aerial Battle of Britain.
  2. Those who supported helping Britain formed the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, while those for isolationism (including Charles A. Lindbergh) were in the America First Committee, and both groups campaigned and advertised for their respective positions.
  3. Britain was in dire need for destroyers, and on September 2, 1940, FDR boldly moved to transfer 50 old-model, four-funnel destroyers left over from WWI, and in return, the British promised to give the U.S. eight valuable defensive base sites stretching from Newfoundland to South America.
    • These would stay in American ownership for 99 years.
    • Obviously, this caused controversy, but FDR had begun to stop playing the silly old games of isolationism and was slowly starting to step out into the spotlight.

XII. FDR Shatters the Two-Term Tradition (1940)

  1. In 1940, it was thought that Robert A. Taft of Ohio or Thomas E. Dewey would be the Republican candidate, but a colorful and magnetic newcomer went from a nobody to a candidate in a matter of weeks. Wendell L. Willkie, became the Republican against Democratic candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt, who waited until the last moment to challenge the two-term tradition.
    • Democrats felt that FDR was the only man qualified to be president, especially in so grave of a situation as was going on.
  2. Willkie and FDR weren’t really different in the realm of foreign affairs, but Willkie hit hard with his attacks on the third term.
  3. Still, FDR won because voters felt that, should war come, FDR was the best man to lead America.

XIII. Congress Passes the Landmark Lend-Lease Law

  1. Britain was running out of money, but Roosevelt didn’t want all the hassles that came with calling back debts, so he came up with the idea of a lend-lease program in which the arms and ships, etc. that the U.S. lent to the nations that needed them would be returned when they were no longer needed.
    • Senator Taft retorted that in this case the U.S. wouldn’t want them back because it would be like lending chewing gum then taking it back after it’d been chewed.
  2. The lend-lease bill was argued over heatedly in Congress, but it passed, and by war’s end, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and equipment.
    • The Lend-Lease Act was basically the abandonment of the neutrality policy, and Hitler recognized this.
    • Before, German submarines had avoided attacking U.S. ships, but after the passage, they started to fire upon U.S. ships as well, such as the May 21, 1941 torpedoing of the Robin Moor.

XIV. Hitler’s Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

  1. On June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked Russia, because ever since the signing of the nonaggression pact, neither Stalin nor Hitler had trusted each other, and both had been plotting to double-cross each other.
    • Hitler assumed his invincible troops would crush the inferior Soviet soldiers, but the valor of the Red army, U.S. aid to the U.S.S.R. (through lend-lease), and an early and bitter winter stranded the German force at Moscow and shifted the tide against Germany.
  2. The Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941, and the result was the eight-point Atlantic Charter, which was suggestive of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Main points included…
    • There would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the natives.
    • The charter also affirmed the right for people to choose their rulers (self-determination).
    • It declared disarmament and a peace of security, as well as a new League of Nations.
  3. Critics charged that “neutral America” was interfering, ignoring that America was no longer neutral.

XV. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash

  1. To ensure that arms sent to Britain would reach there, FDR finally agreed that a convoy would have to escort them, but only as far as Iceland, as Britain would take over from there.
  2. There were clashes, as U.S. destroyers like the Greer, the Kearny, and the Reuben James were attacked by the Germans.
  3. By mid-November 1941, Congress annulled the now-useless Neutrality Act of 1939.

XVI. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor

  1. Japan was still embroiled in war with China, but when America suddenly imposed embargoes on key supplies on Japan in 1940, the imperialistic nation had now no choice but to either back off of China or attack the U.S.; they chose the latter.
  2. The Americans had broken the Japanese code and knew that they would declare war soon, but the U.S. could not attack, so based on what the Japanese supposedly planned, most Americans thought that the Japanese would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.
  3. However, the paralyzing blow struck Pearl Harbor, as on December 7, 1941, Japanese air bombers suddenly attacked the naval base located there (where almost the entire U.S. fleet was located), wiping out many ships and killing or wounding 3,000 men.
  4. The next day, the one after “a date which will live in infamy” (FDR), the U.S. declared war on Japan, and on December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.

XVII. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

  1. Up until the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, most Americans still wanted to stay out of war, but afterwards the event sparked such passion that it completely infuriated Americans into wanting to go to war.
  2. This had been long in coming, as the U.S. had wanted to stay out of war, but had still supported Britain more and more, and the U.S. had been against the Japanese aggression but had failed to take a firm stand on either side.
  3. Finally, people decided that appeasement didn’t work against “iron wolves,” and that only full war was needed to keep the world safe for democracy and against anarchy and dictatorship.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 35 - America in World War II, 1941-1945

 I. The Allies Trade Space for Time

  1. When Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, millions of infuriated Americans, especially on the west coast, instantly changed their views from isolationist to avenger.
  2. However, America, led by the wise Franklin D. Roosevelt, resisted such pressures, instead taking a “get Germany first” approach to the war, for if Germany were to defeat Britain before the Allies could beat Japan, there would be no stopping Hitler and his men.
    • Meanwhile, just enough troops would be sent to fight Japan to keep it in check.
  3. America had the hardship of preparing for war, since it had been in isolation for the preceding decades, and the test would be whether or not it could mobilize quickly enough to stop Germany and make the world safe for democracy (again).

II. The Shock of War

  1. After the attack at Pearl Harbor, national unity was strong as steel, and the few Hitler supporters in America faded away.
  2. Most of America’s ethnic groups assimilated even faster due to WWII, since in the decades before the war, few immigrants had been allowed into America.
    • Unfortunately, on the Pacific coast, 110,000 Japanese-Americans were taken from their homes and herded into internment camps where their properties and freedoms were taken away.
    • The 1944 case of Korematsu v. U.S. affirmed the constitutionality of these camps.
    • It took more than 40 years before the U.S. admitted fault and made $20,000 reparation payments to camp survivors.
  3. With the war, many New Deal programs were wiped out, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and the National Youth Administration.
  4. WWII was no idealistic crusade, as most Americans didn’t even know what the Atlantic Charter (declaration of U.S. goals going into the war such as to fight Germany first, and Japan second) was.

III. Building the War Machine

  1. Massive military orders (over $100 billion in 1942 alone) ended the Great Depression by creating demand for jobs and production.
  2. Shipbuilder Henry J. Kaiser was dubbed “Sir Launchalot” because his methods of ship assembly churned out one ship every 14 days!
  3. The War Production Board halted manufacture of nonessential items such as passenger cars, and when the Japanese seized vital rubber supplies in British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, the U.S. imposed a national speed limit and gasoline rationing to save tires.
  4. Farmers rolled out more food, but the new sudden spurt in production made prices soar—a problem that was finally solved by the regulation of prices by the Office of Price Administration.
  5. Many essential goods were rationed.
  6. Meanwhile labor unions pledged not to strike during the war, some did anyway.
    • The United Mine Workers was one such group and was led by John L. Lewis.
    • In June 1943, Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act, which let the federal government seize and operate industries threatened by or under strikes.
    • Fortunately, strikes accounted for less than 1% of total working hours of the U.S. wartime laboring force.

IV. Manpower and Womanpower

  1. The armed forces had nearly 15 million men and 216,000 women, and some of these “women in arms” included the WAACS (Army), the WAVES(Navy), and SPARS (Coast Guard).
  2. Because of the national draft that plucked men (and women) from their homes and into the military, there weren’t enough workers, so the Bracero Program brought Mexican workers to America as resident workers.
  3. With the men in the military, women took up jobs in the workplace, symbolized by “Rosie the Riveter,” and upon war’s end, many did not return to their homes as in World War I.
    • It must be noted that the female revolution into the work force was not as great as commonly exaggerated. At the end of the war, 2/3 of the women did return home; the servicemen that came home to them helped produce a baby boom that is still being felt today.

V. Wartime Migrations

  1. The war also forced many people to move to new places, and many young folks went to and saw new cities far from home.
  2. FDR used the war as an excuse to pump lots of money into the stagnant South to revitalize it, helping to start the blossoming of the “Sunbelt.”
    • Still, some 1.6 million blacks left the South for better places, and explosive tensions developed over black housing, employment, and segregation facilities.
  3. Philip Randolph, leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, threatened a “Negro March to Washington” in 1941 to get better rights and treatment.
  4. The president also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to discourage racism and oppression in the workplace, and while Blacks in the army still suffered degrading discrimination (i.e. separate blood banks), they still used the war as a rallying cry against dictators abroad and racism at home—overall gaining power and strength.
    • Membership to the NAACP passed the half-million mark, and a new organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), was founded in 1942.
  5. In 1944, the mechanical cotton picker made the need for muscle nonexistent, so blacks that used to pick cotton could now leave, since they were no longer needed.
    • They left the South and took up residence in urban areas.
  6. Native Americans also left their reservations during the war, finding work in the cities or joining the army.
    • Some 25,000 Native Americans were in the army, and the Navajo and Comanches were “code talkers,” relaying military orders in the own language—a “code” that was never broken by the Axis Powers.
  7. Such sudden “rubbing of the races” did spark riots and cause tension, such as the 1943 attack on some Mexican-American navy men in Los Angeles and the Detroit race riot (occurring in the same year) that killed 25 blacks and 9 whites.

VI. Holding the Home Front

  1. America was the only country to emerge after the war relatively unscathed, and in fact, it was much better off after the war than before.
    • The gross national product more than doubled, as did corporate profits.
    • In fact, when the war ended and price controls were lifted, inflation shot up.
  2. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the plethora of spending during WWII that lifted America from its Great Depression.
    • The wartime bill amounted to more than $330 billion—more than the combined costs of all the previous American wars together.
    • While income tax was expanded to make four times as many people pay as before, most of the payments were borrowed, making the national debt soar from $49 billion to $259 billion (the war had cost as much as $10 million per hour at one point).

VII. The Rising Sun in the Pacific

  1. The Japanese overran the lands that they descended upon, winning more land with less losses than ever before and conquering Guam, Wake, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma (in the process cutting the famed Burma Road), the Dutch East Indies, and even pushing into China.
  2. When the Japanese took over the Philippines, U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur had to sneak out of the place, but he vowed to return to liberate the islands; he went to Australia.
  3. After the fighters in the Philippines surrendered, they were forced to make the infamous 85-mile Bataan death march.
    • On May 6, 1942, the island fortress of Corregidor, in Manila Harbor, surrendered.

VIII. Japan’s High Tide at Midway

  1. The Japanese onrush was finally checked in the Coral Sea by American and Australian forces in the world’s 1st naval battle where the ships never saw one another (they fought with aircraft via carriers). And, when the Japanese tried to seize Midway Island, they were forced back by U.S. Adm. Chester W. Nimitz during fierce fighting from June 3-6, 1942.
    • Midway proved to be the turning point that stopped Japanese expansion.
    • Admiral Raymond A. Spruance also helped maneuver the fleet to win, and this victory marked the turning point in the war in the Pacific.
    • No longer would the Japanese take any more land, as the U.S. began a process called “island hopping,” where the Allies would bypass heavily fortified islands, take over neighboring islands, and starve the resistant forces to death with lack of supplies and constant bombing saturation, to push back the Japanese.
  2. Also, the Japanese had taken over some islands in the Alaskan chain, the Aleutians.

IX. American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo

  1. Americans won at Guadalcanal in August 1942 and then got New Guinea by August 1944.
  2. By island hopping, the U.S. also retook the Aleutian Islands of Attu and Kiska in August of 1943, and in November of that year, “bloody Tarawa” and Makin, members of the Gilbert Islands, fell to the Allies.
  3. American sailors shelled the beachheads with artillery, U.S. Marines stormed ashore, and American bombers attacked the Japanese, such as Lt. Robert J. Albert who piloted a B-24 “Liberator” on 36 missions including his final run before returning home. That mission was a record 18 hour and 25 minute strike that he piloted, even though his tour of duty was complete, just so his men would not fly behind a rookie pilot.
  4. In January and February of 1944, the Marshall Islands fell to the U.S.
  5. The assault on the Marianas (including Guam) began on June 19, 1944, and with superior planes such as the “Hellcat” fighter and a U.S. victory the next day in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the U.S. rolled on, taking the islands and beginning around-the-clock bombing raids over Tokyo and other parts of mainland Japan.

X. The Allied Halting of Hitler

  1. The U.S. also at first had trouble against Germany, as its U-boats proved very effective, but the breaking of the Germans’ “enigma” code helped pinpoint those subs better.
    • It wasn’t until war’s end that the true threat of the German submarines was known, as it was discovered that Hitler had been about to unleash a new U-boat that could remain underwater indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots underwater.
  2. In May 1942, the British launched a massive raid on Cologne, France, and in August, the U.S. air corps joined them.
    • The Germans, led by the “Desert Fox” Marshall Erwin Rommel, drove to Egypt, dangerously close to the Suez Canal, but late in October 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery defeated him at El Alamein, west of Cairo.
  3. On the Soviet front, the Russians launched a new, blistering counteroffensive, regaining about 2/3 of the land they had lost before a year later.

XI. A Second Front from North Africa to Rome

  1. The Soviets had begged the Allies to open up a second front against Hitler, since Soviet forces were dying by the millions (20 million by war’s end), and the Americans were eager to comply, but the British, remembering WWI, were reluctant.
    • Instead of a frontal European assault, the British devised an invasion through North Africa, so that the Allies could cut Hitler’s forces through the “soft underbelly” of the Mediterranean Sea.
  2. Thus, a secret attack was coordinated and executed by Dwight D. Eisenhower as they defeated the French troops, but upon meeting the real German soldiers, Americans were set back at Kasserine Pass.
    • This soft underbelly campaign wasn’t really successful, as the underbelly wasn’t as soft as Churchill had guessed, but important lessons were learned.
  3. At the Casablanca Conference, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met and agreed on the term of “unconditional surrender.”
  4. The Allies found bitter resistance in Italy, but Sicily finally fell in August 1943.
    • Italian dictator Mussolini was deposed, and a new government was set up.
      • Two years later, he and his mistress were lynched and killed.
    • Germany didn’t leave Italy, though, and for many months, more fighting and stalemates occurred, especially at Monte Cassino, where Germans were holed up.
  5. The Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944, and it wasn’t until May 2, 1945, that Axis troops in Italy finally surrendered.
  6. Though long and tiring, the Italian invasion did open up Europe, divert some of Hitler’s men from the Soviet front, and helping cause Italy to fall.

XII. D-Day: June 6, 1944

  1. At the Tehran Conference, the Big Three (FDR, Churchill, and Josef Stalin, leader of Russia) met and agreed that the Soviets and Allies would launch simultaneous attacks.
  2. The Allies began plans for a gigantic cross-channel invasion, and command of the whole operation was entrusted to General Eisenhower.
    • Meanwhile, MacArthur received a fake army to use as a ruse to Germany.
  3. The point of attack was French Normandy, and on June 6, 1944, D-Day began—the amphibious assault on Normandy. After heavy resistance, Allied troops, some led by Gen. George S. Patton, finally clawed their way onto land, across the landscape, and deeper into France.
    • With the help of the “French underground,” Paris was freed in August of 1944.

XIII. FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944

  1. Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, a young, liberal governor of New York, and paired him with isolationist John W. Bricker of Ohio.
  2. FDR was the Democratic lock, but because of his age, the vice presidential candidate was carefully chosen to be Harry S Truman, who won out over Henry A. Wallace—an ill-balanced and unpredictable liberal.

XIV. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey

  1. Dewey went on a rampaging campaign offensive while FDR, stuck with WWII problems, could not go out much.
    • The new Political Action Committee of the CIO contributed considerable money. It was organized to get around the law banning direct use of union funds for political purposes.
  2. In the end, Roosevelt stomped Dewey, 432 to 99, the fourth term issue wasn’t even that big of a deal, since the precedent had already been broken three years before.
  3. FDR won because the war was going well, and because people wanted to stick with him.

XV. The Last Days of Hitler

  1. On the retreat and losing, Hitler concentrated his forces and threw them in the Ardennes forest on December 16, 1944, starting the Battle of the Bulge. He nearly succeeded in his gamble, but the ten-day penetration was finally stopped by the 101st Airborne Division that had stood firm at the vital bastion of Bastogne, which was commanded by Brigadier General A.C. McAuliffe.
  2. In March 1945, the Americans reached the Rhine River of Germany, and then pushed toward the river Elbe, and from there, joining Soviet troops, they marched toward Berlin.
  3. Upon entering Germany, the Allies were horrified to find the concentration camps where millions of Jews and other “undesirables” had been slaughtered in attempted genocide.
    • Adolph Hitler, knowing that he had lost, committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945.
  4. Meanwhile, in America, FDR had died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945.
  5. May 7, 1945 was the date of the official German surrender, and the next day was officially proclaimed V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day).

XVI. Japan Dies Hard

  1. American submarines were ruining Japan’s fleet, and attacks such as the March 9-10, 1945 firebomb raid on Tokyo that killed over 83,000 people were wearing Japan out.
  2. On October 20, 1944, General MacArthur finally “returned” to the Philippines.
    • However, he didn’t retake Manila until March 1945.
  3. The last great naval battle at Leyte Gulf was lost by Japan, terminating its sea power status.
  4. In March 1945, Iwo Jima was captured; this 25-day assault left over 4,000 Americans dead.
  5. Okinawa was won after fighting from April to June of 1945, and was captured at the cost of 50,000 American lives.
    • Japanese “kamikaze” suicide pilots, for the sake of their god-emperor, unleashed the full fury of their terror at Okinawa in a last-ditch effort.

XVII. The Atomic Bombs

  1. At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies issued an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed.
  2. The first atomic bomb had been tested on July 16, 1945
  3. Under the super-secret "Manhattan Project", the U.S. had been developing atomic bombs. Near Alamogordo, New Mexico, and when Japan refused to surrender, Americans dropped A-bombs onto Hiroshima (on August 6, 1945), killing 180,000 and Nagasaki (on August 9, 1945), killing 80,000.
  4. On August 8, 1945, the Soviets declared war on Japan, just as promised, and two days later, on August 10, Japan sued for peace on one condition: that the Emperor Hirohito be allowed to remain on the Japanese throne.
    • Despite the “unconditional surrender” clause, the Allies accepted.
  5. The formal end came on September 2, 1945, on the battleship U.S.S. Missouri where Hirohito surrendered to General MacArthur.

XVIII. The Allies Triumphant

  1. America suffered 1 million casualties, but the number killed by disease and infections was very low thanks to new miracle drugs like penicillin. But otherwise the U.S. had suffered little losses (two Japanese attacks on California and Oregon that were rather harmless).
  2. This was America’s best-fought war, despite the fact that the U.S. began preparing later than usual.
  3. The success was partly thanks to the excellent U.S. generals and admirals, and the leaders.
  4. Industry also rose to the challenge, putting out a phenomenal amount of goods, proving wrong Hermann Goering, a Nazi leader who had scorned America’s lack of manufacturing skills.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 36 - The Cold War Begins, 1945-1952

 I. Postwar Economic Anxieties

  1. The Americans cheered the end of World War II in 1945, but many worried that with the war over, the U.S. would sink back into another Great Depression.
    • Upon war’s end, inflation shot up with the release of price controls while the gross national product sank, and labor strikes swept the nation.
  2. To get even with labor, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, which outlawed “closed” shops (closed to non-union members), made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required that union leaders take non-communist oaths. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, this new act was a strike against labor unions.
  3. Labor tried to organize in the South and West with “Operation Dixie,” but this proved frustrating and unsuccessful.
  4. To forestall an economic downturn, the Democratic administration sold war factories and other government installations to private businesses cheaply. Congress passed the Employment Act of 1946, which made it government policy to “promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power,” and created the Council of Economic Advisors to provide the president with data to make that policy a reality.
    • It also passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, better known as the GI Bill of Rights, which allowed all servicemen to have free college education once they returned from the war.

II. The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970

  1. Then, in the late 1940s and into the 1960s, the economy began to boom tremendously, and folks who had felt the sting of the Great Depression now wanted to bathe in the new prosperity.
    • The middle class more than doubled while people now wanted two cars in every garage; over 90% of American families owned a television.
  2. Women also reaped the benefits of the postwar economy, growing in the American work force while giving up their former roles as housewives.
  3. Even though this new affluence did not touch everyone, it did touch many.

III. The Roots of Postwar Prosperity

  1. Postwar prosperity was fueled by several factors, including the war itself that forced America to produce more than it’d ever imagined.
  2. However, much of the prosperity of the 50s and 60s rested on colossal military projects.
    • Massive appropriations for the Korean War, defense spending, industries like aerospace, plastics, and electronics, and research and development all were such projects.
    • R and D, research and development, became an entirely new industry.
  3. Cheap energy paralleled the popularity of automobiles, and spidery grids of electrical cables carried the power of oil, gas, coal, and falling water into homes and factories alike.
  4. Workers upped their productivity tremendously, as did farmers, due to new technology in fertilizers, etc. In fact, the farming population shrank while production soared.

IV. The Smiling Sunbelt

  1. With so many people on the move, families were being strained. Combined with the baby boom, this explained the success of Dr. Benjamin Spock’sThe Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care.
  2. Immigration also led to the growth of a fifteen-state region in the southern half of the U.S. known as the Sunbelt, which dramatically increased in population.
    • In fact, in the 1950s, California overtook New York as the most populous state.
  3. Immigrants came to the Sunbelt for more opportunities, such as in California’s electronics industry and the aerospace complexes of Texas and Florida.
    • Federal dollars poured into the Sunbelt (some $125 million), and political power grew there as well, as ever since 1964, every U.S. president has come from that region.
    • Sunbelters were redrawing the political map, taking the economic and political power out of the North and Northeast.

V. The Rush to the Suburbs

  1. Whites in cities fled to the suburbs, encouraged by federal agencies such as the Federal Housing Authority and the Veteran’s Administration, whose loan guarantees made it cheaper to live in the suburbs than in cramped city apartments
    • By 1960, one out of ever four Americans lived in the suburbs.
  2. Innovators like the Levitt brothers, with their monotonous but cheap housing plans, built thousands of houses in projects like Levittown, and the “White flight” left the cities full of the poor and the African-Americans.
    • Federal agencies aggravated this by often refusing to make loans to Blacks due to the “risk factor” involved with this.

VI. The Postwar Baby Boom

  1. After the war, many soldiers returned to their sweethearts and married them, then had babies, creating a “Baby Boom” that would be felt for generations.
  2. As the children grew up collectively, they put strains on respective markets, such as manufacturers of baby products in the 1940s and 50s, teenage clothing designers in the 60s, and the job market in the 70s and 80s.
  3. By around 2020, they will place enormous strains on the Social Security system.

VII. Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri

  1. Presiding after World War II was Harry S Truman, who had come to power after Franklin Roosevelt had died from a massive brain hemorrhage.
    • The first president in a long time without a college education, Truman at first approached his burdens with humility, but he gradually evolved into a confident, cocky politician.
    • His cabinet was made up of the old “Missouri gang,” which was composed of Truman’s friends from when he was a senator in Missouri.
    • Often, Truman would stick to a wrong decision just to prove his decisiveness and power of command.
  2. However, even if he was small on the small things, he was big on the big things, taking responsibility very seriously and working very hard.

VIII. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?

  1. A final conference of the Big Three had taken place at Yalta in February 1945, where Soviet leader Joseph Stalin pledged that Poland should have a representative government with free elections, as would Bulgaria and Romania. But, Stalin broke those promises.
  2. At Yalta, the Soviet Union had agreed to attack Japan three months after the fall of Germany, but by the time the Soviets entered the Pacific war, the U.S. was about to win anyway, and now, it seemed that the U.S.S.R. had entered for the sake of taking spoils.
    • The Soviet Union was also granted control of the Manchurian railroads and received special privileges to Dairen and Port Arthur.
  3. Critics of FDR charged that he’d sold China’s Chiang Kai-shek down the river, while supporters claimed that the Soviets could have taken more of China had they wished, and that the Yalta agreements had actually limited the Soviet Union.

IX. The United States and the Soviet Union

  1. With the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. as the only world superpowers after WWII, trouble seemed imminent, for the U.S. had waited until 1933, to recognize the U.S.S.R.; the U.S. and Britain had delayed to open up a second front during World War II; the U.S. and Britain had frozen the Soviets out of developing nuclear arms; and the U.S. had withdrawn its vital lend-lease program from the U.S.S.R. in 1945 and spurned Moscow’s plea for a $6 billion reconstructive loan while approving a similar $3.75 billion loan to Berlin.
  2. Stalin wanted a protective sphere around western Russian, for twice earlier in the century Russia had been attacked from that direction, and that meant taking nations like Poland under its control.
  3. Even though both the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. were recent newcomers to the world stage, they were very advanced and had been isolationist before the 20th century, now they found themselves in a political stare-down that would turn into the Cold War and last for four and a half decades.

X. Shaping the Postwar World

  1. However, the U.S. did manage to establish structures that were part of FDR’s open world.
    • At a meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, the Western Allies established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating the currency exchange rates.
  2. The United Nations opened on April 25, 1945.
    • The member nations drew up a charter similar to that of the old League of Nations, formed a Security Council to be headed by five permanent powers (China, U.S.S.R., Britain, France, and U.S.A.) that had total veto powers, and was headquartered in New York City.
    • The Senate overwhelmingly approved the U.N. by a vote of 89 to 2.
  3. The U.N. kept peace in Kashmir and other trouble spots, created the new Jewish state of Israel, formed such groups as UNESCO (U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), and WHO (World Health Organization), bringing benefits to people all over the globe.
  4. However, when U.S. delegate Bernard Baruch called in 1946 for a U.N. agency free from the great power veto that could investigate all nuclear facilities and weapons, the U.S.S.R. rejected the proposal, since it didn’t want to give up its veto power and was opposed to “capitalist spies” snooping around in the Soviet Union. The small window of regulating nuclear weapons was lost.

XI. The Problem of Germany

  1. The Nuremberg Trials of 1945-46 severely punished 22 top culprits of the Holocaust.
  2. America knew that an economically healthy Germany was indispensable to the recovery of all of Europe, but Russia, fearing another blitzkrieg, wanted huge reparations from Germany.
  3. Germany, like Austria, was divided into four occupational zones controlled by the Allied Powers minus China, but as the U.S. began proposing the idea of a united Germany, and as the Western nations prevented Stalin from getting his reparations from their parts of Germany, it became obvious that Germany would remain indefinitely divided.
    • In 1948, when the U.S.S.R. choked off all air and railway access to Berlin, located deep in East Germany, they thought that such an act would starve the Allies out, since Berlin itself was divided into four zones as well.
    • However, the Allies organized the massive Berlin Airlift to feed the people of Berlin, and in May 1949, the Soviets stopped their blockade of Berlin.

XII. The Cold War Congeals

  1. When, in 1946, Stalin used his troops to aid a rebel movement in Iran, Truman protested, and the Soviets backed down.
  2. Truman soon adopted the “containment policy,” crafted by Soviet specialist George F. Kennan, which stated that firm containment of Soviet expansion would halt Communist power.
  3. On March 12, 1947, Truman requested that the containment policy be put into action in what would come to be called the Truman Doctrine: $400 million to help Greece and Turkey from falling into communist power.
    • So basically, the doctrine said that the U.S. would aid any power fighting Communist aggression, an idea later criticized because the U.S. would often give money to dictators “fighting communism.”
  4. In Western Europe, France, Italy, and Germany were still in terrible shape, so Truman, with the help of Secretary of State George C. Marshall, implemented the Marshall Plan, a miraculous recovery effort that had Western Europe up and prosperous in no time.
    • This helped in the forming of the European Community (EC).
    • The plan sent $12.5 billion over four years to 16 cooperating nations to aid in recovery, and at first, Congress didn’t want to comply, especially when this sum was added to the $2 billion the U.S. was already giving to European relief as part of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA).
    • However, a Soviet-sponsored coup that toppled the government of Czechoslovakia finally awakened the Congressmen to their senses, and they passed the plan.
  5. Truman also recognized Israel on its birthday, May 14, 1948, despite heavy Arab opposition and despite the fact that those same Arabs controlled the oil supplies in the Middle East.

XIII. America Begins to Rearm

  1. The 1947 National Security Act created the Department of Defense, which was housed in the Pentagon and headed by a new cabinet position, the Secretary of Defense, under which served civilian secretaries of the army, navy, and air force.
  2. The National Security Act also formed the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the president on security matters and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government’s foreign fact-gathering (spying).
  3. The “Voice of America,” a radio broadcast, began beaming in 1948, while Congress resurrected the military draft (Selective Service System), which redefined many young people’s career choices and persuaded them to go to college.
  4. In 1948, the U.S. joined Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which considered an attack on one NATO member an attack on all, despite the U.S.’s policy of traditionally not involving itself in entangling alliances.
    • In response, the U.S.S.R. formed the Warsaw Pact, its own alliance system.
    • NATO’s membership grew to fourteen with the 1952 admissions of Greece and Turkey, and then to 15 when West Germany joined in 1955.

XIV. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia

  1. General Douglas MacArthur headed reconstruction in Japan and tried the top Japanese war criminals. He dictated a constitution that was adopted in 1946, and democratized Japan.
  2. However, in China, the communist forces, led by Mao Zedong, defeated the nationalist forces, led by Chiang Kai-shek, who then fled to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1949.
    • With this defeat, one-quarter of the world population (500,000,000 people) plunged under the Communist flag.
    • Critics of Truman assailed that he did not support the nationalists enough, but Chiang Kai-shek never had the support of the people to begin with.
  3. Then, in September of 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their first atomic bomb—three years before experts thought it was possible, thus eliminating the U.S. monopoly on nuclear weapons.
    • The U.S. exploded the hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the Soviets followed suit a year later; thus began the dangerous arms race of the Cold War.

XV. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists

  1. An anti-red chase was in full force in the U.S. with the formation of the Loyalty Review Board, which investigated more than 3 million federal employees.
    • The attorney general also drew up a list of 90 organizations that were potentially not loyal to the U.S., and none was given the opportunity to defend itself.
  2. In 1949, 11 communists were brought to a New York jury for violating the Smith Act of 1940, which had been the first peacetime anti-sedition law since 1798.
    • They were convicted, sent to prison, and their conviction was upheld by the 1951 case Dennis v. United States.
  3. The House of Representatives had, in 1938 established the Committee on Un-American Activities (“HUAC”) to investigate “subversion,” and in 1948, committee member Richard M. Nixon prosecuted Alger Hiss.
  4. In February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy burst upon the scene, charging that there were scores of unknown communists in the State Department.
    • He couldn’t prove it, and many American began to fear that this red chase was going too far; after all, how could there be freedom of speech if saying communist ideas got one arrested?
    • Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill, which would’ve let the president arrest and detain suspicious people during an “internal security emergency.”
  5. The Soviet success of developing nuclear bombs so easily was probably due to spies, and in 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were brought to trial, convicted, and executed of selling nuclear secrets to the Russians.
    • Their sensational trial, electrocution, and sympathy for their two children began to sober America zeal in red hunting.

XVI. Democratic Divisions in 1948

  1. Republicans won control of the House in 1946 and then nominated Thomas E. Dewey to the 1948 ticket, while Democrats were forced to choose Truman again when war-hero wight D. Eisenhower refused to be chosen.
    • Truman’s nomination split the Democratic Party, as Southern Democrats (“Dixiecrats”) nominated Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina on a State’s Rights Party ticket.
    • Former vice president Henry A. Wallace also threw his hat into the ring, getting nominated by the new Progressive Party.
  2. With the Democrats totally disorganized, Dewey seemed destined for a super-easy victory, and on election night, the Chicago Tribune even ran an early edition wrongly proclaiming “DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN,” but Truman shockingly won, getting 303 electoral votes to Dewey’s 189. And to make things better, the Democrats won control of Congress again.
    • Truman received critical support from farmers, workers, and blacks.
  3. Truman then called for a new program called “Point Four,” which called for financial support of poor, underdeveloped lands in hopes of keeping underprivileged peoples from turning communist.
  4. At home, Truman outlined a sweeping “Fair Deal” program, which called for improved housing, full employment, a higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, a new Tennessee Valley Authority, and an extension of Social Security.
    • However, the only successes came in raising the minimum wage, providing for public housing in the Housing Act of 1949, and extending old-age insurance to more beneficiaries with the Social Security Act of 1950.

XVII. The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950)

  1. When Russian and American forces withdrew from Korea, they had left the place full of weapons and with rival regimes (communist North and democratic South).
  2. Then, on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces suddenly invaded South Korean, taking the South Koreans by surprise and pushing them dangerously south toward Pusan.
    • Truman sprang to action, remembering that the League of Nations had failed from inactivity, and ordered U.S. military spending to be quadrupled, as desired by the National Security Council Memorandum Number 68, or NSC-68.
  3. Truman also used a Soviet absence from the U.N. to label North Korea as an aggressor and send U.N. troops to fight against the aggressors.
    • He also ordered General MacArthur’s Japan-based troops to Korea.

XVIII. The Military Seesaw in Korea

  1. General MacArthur landed a brilliant invasion behind enemy forces at Inchon on September 15, 1950, and drove the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel, towards China and the Yalu River.
    • An overconfident MacArthur boasted that he’d “have the boys home by Christmas,” but in November 1950, Chinese “volunteers” flooded across the border and pushed the South Koreans back to the 38th parallel.
  2. MacArthur, humiliated, wanted to blockade China and bomb Manchuria, but Truman didn’t want to enlarge the war beyond necessity, but when the angry general began to publicly criticize President Truman and spoke of using atomic weapons, Harry had no choice but to remove him from command on grounds of insubordination.
    • MacArthur returned to cheers while Truman was scorned as a “pig,” an “imbecile,” an appeaser to communist Russia and China, and a “Judas.”
    • In July 1951, truce discussions began but immediately snagged over the issue of prisoner exchange.
    • Talks dragged on for two more years as men continued to die.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 37 - The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1960

 I. Affluence and Its Anxieties

  1. The economy really sprouted during the 50s, and the invention of the transistor exploded the electronics field, especially in computers, helping such companies as International Business Machines (IBM) expand and prosper.
  2. Aerospace industries progressed, as the Boeing company made the first passenger-jet airplane (adapted from the superbombers of the Strategic Air Command), the 707.
  3. In 1956, “white-collar” workers outnumbered “blue collar” workers for the first time, meaning that the industrial era was passing on.
    • As this occurred, labor unions peaked in 1954 then started a steady decline.
    • Women appeared more and more in the workplace, despite the stereotypical role of women as housewives that was being portrayed on TV shows such as “Ozzie and Harriet” and “Leave It to Beaver.”
      • More than 40 million new jobs were created.
  4. Women’s expansion into the workplace shocked some, but really wasn’t surprising if one observed the trends in history, and now, they were both housewives and workers.
    • Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique was a best-seller and a classic of modern feminine protest literature. She’s the godmother of the feminist movement.

II. Consumer Culture in the Fifties

  1. The fifties saw the first Diner’s Club cards, the opening of McDonald’s, the debut of Disneyland, and an explosion in the number of television stations in the country.
  2. Advertisers used television to sell products while “televangelists” like Billy Graham, Oral Roberts, and Fulton J. Sheen used TV to preach the gospel and encourage religion.
  3. Sports shifted west, as the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants moved to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, in 1958.
  4. Elvis Presley, a white singer of the new “rock and roll” who made girls swoon with his fleshy face, pointing lips, and antic, sexually suggestive gyrations, that redefined popular music.
    • Elvis died from drugs in 1977, at age 42.
  5. Traditionalists were shocked by Elvis’s shockingly open sexuality, and Marilyn Monroe (in her Playboy magazine spread) continued in the redefinition of the new sensuous sexuality.
    • Critics, such as David Riesman in The Lonely Crowd, William H. Whyte, Jr. in The Organization Man, and Sloan Wilson in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, lamented this new consumerist style.
    • Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith questioned the relation between private wealth and public good in The Affluent Society.
  6. Daniel Bell found further such paradoxes, as did C. Wright Mills.

III. The Advent of Eisenhower

  1. In 1952, the Democrats chose Adlai E. Stevenson, the witty governor of Illinois, while Republicans rejected isolationist Robert A. Taft and instead chose World War II hero Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for president and anticommunist Richard M. Nixon to be his running mate.
  2. Grandfatherly Eisenhower was a war hero and liked by everyone, so he left the rough part of campaigning to Nixon, who attacked Stevenson as soft against communists, corrupt, and weak in the Korean situation.
    • Nixon then almost got caught with a secretly financed “slush fund,” but to save his political career, he delivered his famous and touching “Checkers Speech.” In it, he denied wrongdoing and spoke of his family and specifically, his daughter’s cute little cocker spaniel, Checkers. He was forgiven in the public arena and stayed on as V.P.
  3. The “Checkers speech” showed the awesome power of television, since Nixon had pleaded on national TV, and even later, “Ike,” as Eisenhower was called, agreed to go into studio and answer some brief “questions,” which were later spliced in and edited to make it look like Eisenhower had answered questions from a live audience, when in fact he hadn’t.
    • This showed the power that TV would have in the upcoming decades, allowing lone wolves to appeal directly to the American people instead of being influenced by party machines or leaders.
  4. Ike won easily (442 to 89), and true to his campaign promise, he flew to Korea to help move along peace negotiations, yet failed. But seven months later, after Ike threatened to use nuclear weapons, an armistice was finally signed (but was later violated often).
  5. In Korea, 54,000 Americans had died, and tens of billions of dollars had been wasted in the effort, but Americans took a little comfort in knowing that communism had been “contained.”
  6. Eisenhower had been an excellent commander and leader who was able to make cooperation possible between anyone, so he seemed to be a perfect leader for Americans weary of two decades of depression, war, and nuclear standoff.
    • He served that aspect of his job well, but he could have used his popularity to champion civil rights more than he actually did.

IV. The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

  1. In February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy burst upon the scene, charging that there were scores of unknown communists in the State Department.
  2. He couldn’t prove it, and many American began to fear that this red chase was going too far; after all, how could there be freedom of speech if saying communist ideas got one arrested?
  3. The success of brutal anticommunist “crusader” Joseph R. McCarthy was quite alarming, for after he had sprung onto the national scene by charging that Secretary of State Dean Acheson was knowingly employing 205 Communist Party members (a claim he never proved, not even for one person), he ruthlessly sought to prosecute and persecute suspected communists, often targeting innocent people and destroying families and lives.
    • Eisenhower privately loathed McCarthy, but the president did little to stop the anti-red, since it appeared that most Americans supported his actions. But Ike’s zeal led him to purge important Asian experts in the State Department, men who could have advised a better course of action in Vietnam.
  4. He even denounced General George Marshall, former army chief of staff during World War II.
  5. Finally, in 1954, when he attacked the army, he’d gone too far and was exposed for the liar and drunk that he was; three years later, he died unwept and unsung.

V. Desegregating American Society

  1. Blacks in the South were bound by the severe Jim Crow laws that segregated every aspect of society, from schools to restrooms to restaurants and beyond.
    • Only about 20% of the eligible blacks could vote, due to intimidation, discrimination, poll taxes, and other schemes meant to keep black suffrage down.
  2. Where the law proved sufficient to enforce such oppression, vigilante justice in the form of lynchings did the job, and the white murderers were rarely caught and convicted.
  3. In his 1944 book, An American Dilemma, Swedish scholar **Gunnar Myrdal exposed the hypocrisy of American life, noting how while “every man [was] created equal,” blacks were certainly treated worse than Whites. He pointed out how the U.S. had failed to achieve its “Double-V” goal during the war—victory overseas against dictatorships (and their racism) and victory at home against racism.
    • Even though Jackie Robinson had cracked the racial barrier by signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, the nation’s conscience still paid little attention to the suffering of blacks, thus prolonging their pain.
  4. However, with organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and their rulings such as the 1950 case ofSweatt v. Painter//, where the Supreme Court ruled that separate professional schools for blacks failed to meet the test of equality, such protesters as Rosa Parks, who in December 1955, refused to give up a bus seat in the “whites only” section, and pacifist leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr., who believed in peaceful methods of civil rights protests, blacks were making their suffering and discrimination known to the public.

VI. Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution

  1. After he heard about the 1946 lynchings of black soldiers seeking rights for which they fought overseas, Truman immediately sought to improve black rights by desegregating the armed forces, but Eisenhower failed to continue this trend by failing to support laws.
    • Only the judicial branch was left to improve black civil rights.
  2. Earl Warren, appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, shocked his conservative backers by actively assailing black injustice and ruling in favor of African-Americans.
  3. The 1954 landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, reversed the previous 1896 ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson when the Brown case said that “separate but equal” facilities were inherently unequal. Under the Brown case, schools were ordered integrated.
    • However, while the Border States usually obeyed this new ruling, states in the Deep South did everything they could to delay it and disobey it, diverting funds to private schools, signing a “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” that promised not to desegregate, and physically preventing blacks to integrate.
    • Ten years after the ruling, fewer than 2% of eligible black students sat in the same classrooms as whites.
    • Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred around 1970.

VII. Eisenhower Republicanism at Home

  1. Eisenhower came into the White House pledging a policy of “dynamic conservatism,” which stated that he would be liberal with people, but conservative with their money.
  2. Ike decreased government spending by decreasing military spending, trying to transfer control of offshore oil fields to the states, and trying to curb the TVA by setting up a private company to take its place.
    • His secretary of health, education, and welfare condemned free distribution of the Salk anti-polio vaccine as being socialist.
    • Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson tackled agriculture issues, but despite the government’s purchase of surplus grain which it stored in giant silos costing Americans $2 million a day, farmers didn’t see prosperity.
  3. Eisenhower also cracked down on illegal Mexican immigration that cut down on the success of the bracero program, by rounding up 1 million Mexicans and returning them to their native country in 1954.
    • With Indians, though, Ike proposed ending the lenient FDR-style treatment toward Indians and reverting to a Dawes Severalty Act-style policy toward Native Americans. But due to protest and resistance, this was disbanded.
  4. However, Eisenhower kept many of the New Deal programs, since some, like Social Security and unemployment insurance, simply had to stay in the public’s mind.
    • However, he did do some of the New Deal programs better, such as his backing of the Interstate Highway Act, which built 42,000 miles of interstate freeways.
  5. Still, Eisenhower only balanced the budget three times in his eight years of office, and in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in U.S. history up to that point.
    • Still, critics said that he was economically timid, blaming the president for the sharp economic downturn of 1957-58.
  6. Also, the AF of L merged with the CIO to end 20 years of bitter division in labor unions.
  7. When it came to civil rights, Eisenhower had a lukewarm record at best, and was slow to move.
    • Eisenhower refused to issue a statement acknowledging the Supreme Court’s ruling on integration, and he even privately complained about this new end to segregation, but in September 1957, when Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine black students from enrolling in Little Rock’s Central High School, Ike sent federal troops to escort the children to their classes.
      • That year, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the Reconstruction days, an act that set up a permanent Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights.
    • Meanwhile, Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which aimed to mobilize the vast power of black churches on behalf of black rights—a shrewd strategy, since churches were a huge source of leadership in the black community.
    • On February 1, 1960, four black college freshmen launched a “sit-in” movement in Greensboro, North Carolina, demanding service at a whites-only Woolworth’s lunch counter, thus sparking the sit-in movement.
    • In April 1960, southern black students formed the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, to give more focus and force to their civil rights efforts.

VIII. A New Look in Foreign Policy

  1. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles stated that the policy of containment was not enough and that the U.S. was going to push back communism and liberate the peoples under it. This became known as “rollback.” All-the-while he advocated toning down defense spending by building a fleet of superbombers called Strategic Air Command, which could drop massive nuclear bombs in any retaliation.
    • Eisenhower had a "new look" on a policy of Massive Relatiation. Massive Reltaliation was the building up of our forces in the sky to scare the enemys. We created the Strategic Air Command (SAC). This was an airfleet of superbombers equipped with city-flattening nuclear bombs. These fearsome weapons would inflict "Massive Retaliation" on the enemy, and were also a great bang for the buck.
  2. Ike tried to thaw the Cold War by appealing for peace to new Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the 1955Geneva Conference, but the Soviet leader rejected such proposals, along with one for “open skies.”
  3. However, hypocritically, when the Hungarians revolted against the U.S.S.R. and appealed to the U.S. for help, America did nothing, earning the scorn of bitter freedom fighters.

IX. The Vietnam Nightmare

  1. In Vietnam, revolutionary Ho Chi Minh had tried to encourage Woodrow Wilson to help the Vietnamese against the French and gained some support from Wilson, but as Ho became increasingly communist, the U.S. began to oppose him.
  2. In March 1954, when the French became trapped at Dienbienphu, Eisenhower’s aides wanted to bomb the Viet Minh guerilla forces, but Ike held back, fearing plunging the U.S. into another Asian war so soon after Korea. After the Vietnamese won at Dienbienphu, Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel, supposedly temporarily.
    • Ho Chi Minh was supposed to allow free elections, but soon, Vietnam became clearly split between a communist north and a pro-Western south.
    • Dienbienphu marks the start of American interest in Vietnam.
    • Secretary Dulles created the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) to emulate NATO, but this provided little help.

X. Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East

  1. In 1955, the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact to counteract NATO, but the Cold War did seem to be thawing a bit, as Eisenhower pressed for reduction of arms, and the Soviets were surprisingly cooperative, and Khrushchev publicly denounced Stalin’s brutality.
    • However, in 1956, when the Hungarians revolted against the USSR, the Soviets crushed them with brutality and massive bloodshed.
    • The U.S. did change some of its immigration laws to let 30,000 Hungarians into America as immigrants.
  2. In 1953, to protect oil supplies in the Middle East, the CIA engineered a coup in Iran that installed the youthful shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as ruler of the nation, protecting the oil for the time being, but earning the wrath of Arabs that would be repaid in the 70s.
  3. The Suez crisis was far messier: President Gamal Abdel Nasser, of Egypt, needed money to build a dam in the upper Nile and flirted openly with the Soviet side as well as the U.S. and Britain, and upon seeing this blatant communist association, Secretary of State Dulles dramatically withdrew his offer, thus forcing Nasser to nationalize the dam.
    • Late in October 1956, Britain, France, and Israel suddenly attacked Egypt, thinking that the U.S. would supply them with needed oil, as had been the case in WWII, but Eisenhower did not, and the attackers had to withdraw.
    • The Suez crisis marked the last time the U.S. could brandish its “oil weapon.”
  4. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela joined to form the cartel Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC.

XI. Round Two for “Ike”

  1. In 1956, Eisenhower again ran against Stevenson and won easily by a landslide.
  2. The GOP called itself the “party of peace” while the Democrats assaulted Ike’s health, since he had had a heart attack in 1955 and a major abdominal operation in ’56.
    • However, the Democrats did win the House and Senate.
  3. After Secretary of State Dulles died of cancer in 1959 and presidential assistant Sherman Adams was forced to leave under a cloud of scandal due to bribery charges, Eisenhower, without his two most trusted and most helpful aides, was forced to govern more and golf less.
  4. A drastic labor-reform bill in 1959 grew from recurrent strikes in critical industries.
  5. Teamster chief “Dave” Beck was sent to prison for embezzlement, and his successor, James R. Hoffa’s appointment got the Teamsters expelled out of the AF of L-CIO.
    • Hoffa was later jailed for jury tampering and then disappeared in prison, allegedly murdered by some gangsters that he had crossed.
  6. The 1959 Landrum-Griffin Act was designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and prevent bullying tactics.
    • Anti-laborites forced into the bill bans against “secondary boycotts” and certain types of picketing.
  7. A “space-race” began in 1957.
    • On October 4, 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik I into space, and a month later, they sent Sputnik II into orbit as well, thus totally demoralizing Americans, because this seemed to prove communist superiority in the sciences at least.
      • Plus, the Soviets might fire missiles at the U.S. from space.
    • Critics charged that Truman had not spent enough money on missile programs while America had used its science for other things, like television.
    • Four months after Sputnik I, the U.S. sent its own satellite (weighing only 2.5 lbs) into space, but the apparent U.S. lack of technology sent concerns over U.S. education, since American children seemed to be learning less advanced information than Soviet kids.

*The 1958 National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) gave $887 million in loads to needy college students and grants for the improvement of schools.

XII. The Continuing Cold War

  1. Humanity-minded scientists called for an end to atmospheric nuclear testing, lest future generations be deformed and mutated.
    • Beginning October 1958, Washington did halt “dirty” testing, as did the U.S.S.R., but attempts to regularize such suspensions were unsuccessful.
  2. However, in 1959, Khrushchev was invited by Ike to America for talks, and when he arrived in New York, he immediately spoke of disarmament, but gave no means of how to do it.
    • Later, at Camp David, talks did show upward signs, as the Soviet premier said that his ultimatum for the evacuation of Berlin would be extended indefinitely.
  3. However, at the Paris conference, Khrushchev came in angry that the U.S. had flown a U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory (in this "U-2 incident", the plane had been shot down and Eisenhower embarrassingly took personal responsibility), and tensions immediately tightened again.

XIII. Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism

  1. Latin American nations resented the United States’ giving billions of dollars to Europe compared to millions to Latin America, as well as the U.S.’s constant intervention (Guatemala, 1954), as well as its support of cold dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.
  2. In 1959, in Cuba, Fidel Castro overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio Batista, promptly denounced the Yankee imperialists, and began to take U.S. properties for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro confiscated more American property.
    • In 1961, America broke diplomatic relations with Cuba.
  3. Khrushchev threatened to launch missiles at the U.S. if it attacked Cuba; meanwhile, America induced the Organization of American States to condemn communism in the Americas.
    • Finally, Eisenhower proposed a “Marshall Plan” for Latin America, which gave $500 million to the area, but many Latin Americans felt that it was too little, too late.

XIV. Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency

  1. The Republicans chose Richard Nixon, gifted party leader to some, ruthless opportunist to others, in 1960 with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate; while John F. Kennedy surprisingly won for the Democrats and had Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate.
  2. Kennedy was attacked because he was a Catholic presidential candidate, but defended himself and encouraged Catholics to vote for him. As it turned out, if he lost votes from the South due to his religion, he got them back from the North due to the staunch Catholics there.
    • In four nationally televised debates, JFK held his own and looked more charismatic, perhaps helping him to win the election by a comfortable margin, becoming the youngest president elected (TR was younger after McKinley was assassinated).

XV. An Old General Fades Away

  1. Eisenhower had his critics, but he was appreciated more and more for ending one war and keeping the U.S. out of others.
  2. Even though the 1951-passed 22nd Amendment had limited him to two terms as president, Ike displayed more vigor and controlled Congress during his second term than his first.
  3. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states to join the Union.
  4. Perhaps Eisenhower’s greatest weakness was his ignorance of social problems of the time, preferring to smile them away rather than deal with them, even though he was no bigot.

XVI. The Life of the Mind in Postwar America

  1. Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea and John Steinbeck’s East of Eden and Travels with Charlie showed that prewar writers could still be successful, but new writers, who, except for Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead and James Jones’s From Here to Eternity, spurned realism, were successful as well.
  2. Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 and Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.’s Slaughterhouse-Five crackled with fantastic and psychedelic prose, satirizing the suffering of the war.
  3. Authors and books that explored problems created by the new mobility and affluence of American life: John Updike’s Rabbit, Run and Couples; John Cheever’s The Wapshot Chronicle and The Wapshot Scandal; Louis Auchincloss’s books, and Gore Vidal’s Myra Breckinridge.
  4. The poetry of Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams, Theodore Roethke, Robert Lowell (For the Union Dead), Sylvia Plath (Ariel andThe Bell-Jar), Anne Sexton, and John Berryman reflected the twisted emotions of the war, but some poets were troubled in their own minds as well, often committing suicide or living miserable lives.
  5. Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof were two plays that searched for American values, as were Arthur Miller’sDeath of a Salesman and The Crucible.
  6. Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun portrayed African-American life while Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? revealed the underside of middle class life.
  7. Books by black authors such as Richard Wright (Black Boy), Ralph Ellison (Invisible Man), and James Baldwin made best-seller’s lists; Black playwrights like LeRoi Jones made powerful plays (The Dutchman).
  8. The South had literary artists like William Faulkner (The Sound and the Fury, Light in August), Walker Percy, and Eudora Welty.
  9. Jewish authors also had famous books, such as J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 38 - The Stormy Sixties, 1960-1968

 I. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit

  1. In 1960, young, energetic John F. Kennedy was elected as president of the United States—the youngest man ever elected to that office.
  2. The 1960s would bring a sexual revolution, a civil rights revolution, the emergence of a “youth culture,” a devastating war in Vietnam, and the beginnings of a feminist revolution.
  3. JFK delivered a stirring inaugural address (“Ask not, what your country can do for you…”), and he also assembled a very young cabinet, including his brother, Robert Kennedy, as attorney general.
    • Robert Kennedy tried to recast the priorities of the FBI, but was resisted by J. Edgar Hoover.
    • Business whiz Robert S. McNamara took over the Defense Department.
  4. Early on, JFK proposed the Peace Corps, an army of idealist and mostly youthful volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped countries.
  5. A graduate of Harvard and with a young family, JFK was very vibrant and charming to everyone.

II. The New Frontier at Home

  1. Kennedy’s social program was known as the New Frontier, but conservative Democrats and Republicans threatened to kill many of its reforms.
    • JFK did expand the House Rules Committee, but his program didn’t expand quickly, as medical and education bills remained stalled in Congress.
    • JFK also had to keep a lid on inflation and maintain a good economy.
    • However, almost immediately into his term, steel management announced great price increases, igniting the fury of the president, but JFK also earned fiery attacks by big business against the New Frontier.
  2. Kennedy’s tax-cut bill chose to stimulate the economy through price-cutting.

iii. Kennedy also promoted a project to land Americans on the moon, though apathetic Americans often ridiculed this goal.

III. Rumblings in Europe

  1. JFK met Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and was threatened, but didn’t back down.
  2. In August of the 1961, the Soviets began building the Berlin Wall to separate East and West Germany.
  3. Western Europe, though, was now prospering after help from the super-successful Marshall Plan.
    • America had also encouraged a Common Market (to keep trade barriers and tariff low in Europe), which later became the European Union(EU).
    • The so-called Kennedy Round of tariff negotiations eased trade between Europe and the U.S.
  4. Unfortunately, French leader Charles de Gaulle was one who was suspicious of the U.S., and he rejected Britain’s application into the Common Market.

IV. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Response”

  1. There were many world problems at this time:
    • The African Congo got its independence from Belgium in 1960 and then erupted into violence, but the United Nations sent a peacekeeping force.
    • Laos, freed of its French overlords in 1954, was being threatened by communism, but at the Geneva Conference of 1962, peace was shakily imposed.
    • Defense Secretary McNamara pushed a strategy of “flexible response,” which developed an array of military options that could match the gravity of whatever crises came to hand.
      • One of these was the Green Berets, AKA, the “Special Forces”.

V. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

  1. The American-backed Diem government had shakily and corruptly ruled Vietnam since 1954, but it was threatened by the communist Viet Cong movement led by Ho Chi Minh.
  2. JFK slowly sent more and more U.S. troops to Vietnam to “maintain order,” but they usually fought and died, despite the fact that it was “Vietnam’s war.”

VI. Cuban Confrontations

  1. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress was dubbed the “Marshall Plan for Latin America,” and it aimed to close the rich-poor gap in Latin American and thus stem communism.
    • However, too many Latin Americans felt that it was too little, too late.
  2. Kennedy also backed a U.S.-aided invasion of Cuba by rebels, but when the Bay of Pigs Invasion occurred, on April 17, 1961, it was a disaster, as Kennedy did not bring in the air support, and the revolt failed.
    • This event pushed recently imposed Cuban leader Fidel Castro closer to the communist camp.
    • JFK took full responsibility for the attack, and his popularity actually went up.
  3. Then, in 1962, U.S. spy planes recorded missile installations in Cuba. It was later revealed that these were, in fact, nuclear missiles aimed at America.
    • The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted 13 nerve-racking days and put the U.S., the U.S.S.R., and the world at the brink of nuclear war. But in the end, Khrushchev blinked, backed off of a U.S. naval blockade, looked very weak and indecisive, and lost his power soon afterwards.
    • The Soviets agreed to remove their missiles if the U.S. vowed to never invade Cuba again; the U.S. also removed their own Russia-aimed nuclear missiles in Turkey.
    • There was also a direct phone call line (the “hot line”) installed between Washington D.C. and Moscow, in case of any crisis.
    • In June, 1963, Kennedy spoke, urging better feelings toward the Soviets and beginning the modest policy of détente, or relaxed tension in the Cold War.

VII. The Struggle for Civil Rights

  1. While Kennedy had campaigned a lot to appeal to black voters, when it came time to help them, he was hesitant and seemingly unwilling, taking much action.
  2. In the 1960s, groups of Freedom Riders chartered buses to tour through the South to try to end segregation, but white mobs often reacted violently towards them. This drew more attention to the segregation and what went on down South.
  3. Slowly but surely, Kennedy urged civil rights along, encouraging the establishment of the SNCC, a Voter Education Project to register the South’s blacks to vote.
  4. Some places desegregated painlessly, but others were volcanoes.
    • 29 year-old James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but white students didn’t let him, so Kennedy had to send some 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.
  5. In spring of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. launched a peaceful campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama, but police and authorities responded viciously, often using extremely high-pressured water hoses to hose down the sit-in protesters.
    • The entire American public watched in horror as the black protesters were treated with such contempt, since the actions were shown on national TV.
    • Later, on June 11, 1963, JFK made a speech urging immediate action towards this “moral issue” in a passionate plea.
  6. Still, more violence followed, as in September 1963, a bomb exploded in a Birmingham church, killing four black girls who had just finished their church lesson.

VIII. The Killing of Kennedy

  1. On November 22, 1963, while riding down a street in Dallas, Texas, JFK was shot and killed, allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald, who was himself shot by self-proclaimed avenger Jack Ruby, and there was much controversy and scandal and conspiracy in the assassination.
  2. Lyndon B. Johnson became the new president of the United States as only the fourth president to succeed an assassinated president.
  3. It was only after Kennedy’s death that America realized what a charismatic, energetic, and vibrant president they had lost.

IX. The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

  1. Lyndon Johnson had been a senator in the 1940s and 50s, his idol was Franklin D. Roosevelt, and he could manipulate Congress very well (through his in-your-face “Johnson treatment”); also, he was very vain and egotistical.
  2. As a president, LBJ went from conservative to liberal, helping pass a Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned all racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, including theaters, hospitals, and restaurants.
    • Also created was the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was aimed at eliminating discriminatory hiring.
  3. Johnson’s program was dubbed the “Great Society,” and it reflected its New Deal inspirations.
    • Public support for the program was aroused by Michael Harrington’s The Other America, which revealed that over 20% of American suffered in poverty.

X. Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

  1. In 1964, LBJ was opposed by Republican Arizona senator Barry Goldwater who attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security system, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and the Great Society.
  2. However, Johnson used the Tonkin Gulf Incident, in which North Vietnamese ships allegedly fired on American ships, to attack (at least partially) Vietnam, and he also got approval for the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave him a virtual blank check on what he could do in affairs in Vietnam.
  3. But on election day, Johnson won a huge landslide over Goldwater to stay president.

XI. The Great Society Congress

  1. Johnson’s win was also coupled by sweeping Democratic wins that enabled him to pass his Great Society programs.
  2. Congress doubled the appropriation on the Office of Economic Opportunity to $2 billion and granted more than $1 billion to refurbish Appalachia, which had been stagnant.
  3. Johnson also created the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), headed by Robert C. Weaver, the first black cabinet secretary in the United States’ history.
  4. LBJ also wanted aid to education, medical care for the elderly and indigent, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill.
    • Johnson gave money to students, not schools, thus avoiding the separation of church and state by not technically giving money to Christian schools.
    • In 1965, new programs called Medicare and Medicaid were installed, which gave certain rights to the elderly and the needy in terms of medicine and health maintenance.
    • The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the “national origin” quota and doubled the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. annually, up to 290,000.
    • An antipoverty program called Project Head Start improved the performance of the underprivileged in education. It was “pre-school” for the poor.

XII. Battling for Black Rights

  1. Johnson’s Voting Rights Act of 1965 attacked racial discrimination at the polls by outlawing literacy tests and sending voting registrars to the polls.
  2. The 24th Amendment eliminated poll taxes, and in the “freedom summer” of 1964, both blacks and white students joined to combat discrimination and racism.
    • However, in June of 1964, a black and two white civil rights workers were found murdered, and 21 white Mississippians were arrested for the murders, but the all-white jury refused to convict the suspects.
    • Also, an integrated “Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party” was denied its seat.
  3. Early in 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. resumed a voter-registration campaign in Selma, Alabama, but was assaulted with tear gas by state troopers.
    • LBJ’s responded by calling for America to overcome bigotry, racism, and discrimination.

XIII. Black Power

  1. 1965 began a period of violent black protests, such as the one in the Watts area of L.A., as black leaders, mocking Martin Luther King, Jr., likeMalcolm X (born Malcolm Little), who was inspired by the Nation of Islam and its founder, Elijah Muhammed. They urged action now, even if it required violence, to the tune of his battle cry, “by any means necessary.” But, Malcolm X was killed in 1965 by an assassin.
  2. The Black Panthers openly brandished weapons in Oakland, California.
  3. Trinidad-born Stokely Carmichael led the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee and urged an abandonment of peaceful demonstrations.
  4. Black power became a rallying cry by blacks seeking more rights, but just as they were getting them, more riots broke out, and nervous whites threatened with retaliation.
  5. Tragically, on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.
    • Quietly, though, thousands of blacks registered to vote and went into integrated classrooms, and they slowly built themselves into a politically powerful group.

XIV. Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

  1. Johnson sent men to put down a supposedly communist coup in the Dominican Republic and was denounced as over-anxious and too hyper.
  2. In Vietnam, though, he slowly sent more and more U.S. men to fight the war, and the South Vietnamese became spectators in their own war. Meanwhile, more and more Americans died.
  3. By 1968, he had sent more than half a million troops to Asia, and was pouring in $30 billion annually, yet the end was nowhere in sight.

XV. Vietnam Vexations

  1. America was floundering in Vietnam and was being condemned for its actions there, and French leader Charles de Gaulle also ordered NATO off French soil in 1966.
  2. In the Six-Day War, Israel stunned the world by defeating Egypt (and its Soviet backers) and gaining new territory in the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the Jordan River, including Jerusalem.
  3. Meanwhile, numerous protests in America went against the Vietnam War and the draft.
    • Opposition was headed by the influential Senate Committee of Foreign Relations, headed by Senator William Fullbright of Arkansas.
    • “Doves” (peace lovers) and “Hawks” (war supporters) clashed.
  4. Both sides (the U.S. and North Vietnam) did try to have intervals of quiet time in bombings, but they merely used those as excuses to funnel more troops into the area.
  5. Johnson also ordered the CIA to spy on domestic antiwar activists, and he encouraged the FBI to use its Counterintelligence Program (“Cointelpro”) against the peace movement.
  6. More and more, America was trapped in an awful Vietnam War, and it couldn’t get out, thus feeding more and more hatred and resentment to the American public.

XVI. Vietnam Topples Johnson

  1. Johnson was personally suffering at the American casualties, and he wept as he signed condolence letters and even prayed with Catholic monks in a nearby church—at night, secretly. And, the fact that North Vietnam had almost taken over Saigon in a blistering attack called the Tet Offensivedidn’t help either.
  2. Johnson also saw a challenge for the Democratic ticket from Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, and the nation, as well as the Democratic party, was starting to be split by Vietnam.
    • LBJ refused to sign an order for more troops to Vietnam.
  3. Then, on March 31, 1968, Johnson declared that he would stop sending in troops to Vietnam and that he would not run in 1968, shocking America.

XVII. The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968

  1. On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot fatally, and the Democratic ticket went to Hubert Humphrey, Johnson’s “heir.”
  2. The Republicans responded with Richard Nixon, paired with Spiro Agnew, and there was also a third-party candidate: George C. Wallace, former governor of Alabama, a segregationist who wanted to bomb the Vietnamese to death.
  3. Nixon won a nail-biter, and Wallace didn’t do that badly either, though worse than expected.
  4. A minority president, he owed his presidency to protests over the war, the unfair draft, crime, and rioting.

XVIII. The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson

  1. Poor Lyndon Johnson returned to his Texas ranch and died there in 1973.
  2. He had committed Americans into Vietnam with noble intentions, and he really wasn’t a bad guy, but he was stuck in a time when he was damned if he did and damned if he didn’t.

XIX. The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s

  1. In the 60s, the youth of America experimented with sex, drugs, and defiance.
  2. They protested against conventional wisdom, authority, and traditional beliefs.
  3. Poets like Allen Ginsberg and novelists like Jack Kerouac (who wrote On the Road) voiced these opinions of the Beatnik generation.
  4. Movies like "The Wild One" with Marlon Brando and "Rebel without a Cause" starring James Dean also showed this belief. Essentially, they championed the “ne’er-do-well” and the outcast.
  5. At the UC-Berkeley, in 1964, a so-called Free Speech Movement began.
    • Kids tried drugs, “did their own thing” in new institutions, and rejected patriotism.
  6. In 1948, Indiana University “sexologist” Dr. Alfred Kinsey had published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, and had followed that book five years later with a female version. His findings about the incidence of premarital sex and adultery were very controversial.
    • He also estimated that 10% of all American males were gay.
    • The Manhattan Society, founded in L.A. in 1951, pioneered gay rights.
  7. Students for a Democratic Society, once against war, later spawned an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen.
  8. The upheavals of the 1960s and the anti-establishment movement can largely be attributed to the three P’s: the youthful population bulge, the protest against racism and the Vietnam War, and the apparent permanence of prosperity, but as the 1970s rolled around, this prosperity gave way to stagnation.
  9. However, the “counterculture” of the youths of the 1960s did significantly weaken existing values, ideas, and beliefs.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 39 - The Stalemated Seventies, 1968-1980

 I. Sources of Stagnation

  1. After the flurry of economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. economy grew stagnant in the 1970s. No year during that decade had a growth rate that matched any year of the preceding two decades.
    • Part of the slowdown was caused by more women and teens in the work force who typically had less skill and made less money than males, while deteriorating machinery and U.S. regulations also limited growth.
    • A large reason for the 1970s economic woes was the upward spiral of inflation.
  2. Former President Lyndon B. Johnson’s spending on the Vietnam War and on his Great Society program also depleted the U.S. treasury, and this caused too much money in people’s hands and too little products to buy.
  3. Also, since the U.S. did not continue advancing, Americans were caught by the Japanese and the Germans in industries that the U.S. had once dominated: steel, automobiles, consumer electronics.

II. Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War

  1. Upon taking office, President Richard Nixon urged American’s to stop tearing each other apart and to cooperate.
    • He was very skilled in foreign affairs, and to cope with the Vietnam dilemma, he used a policy called “Vietnamization” in which 540,000 American troops would be pulled out of the Southeast Asian nation and the war would be turned back over to the Vietamese.
    • The South Vietnamese would slowly fight their own war, and the U.S. would only supply arms and money but not American troops; this was called the “Nixon Doctrine.”
  2. While outwardly seeming to appease, Nixon divided America into his supporters and opponents.
  3. Nixon appealed to the “Silent Majority,” Americans who supported the war, but without noise.
  4. The war was fought generally by the lesser-privileged Americans, since college students and critically skilled civilians were exempt, and there were also reports of dissension in the army.
    • Soldiers slogged through grimy mud and jungle, trusting nothing and were paranoid and bitter toward a government that “handcuffed” them and a war against a frustrating enemy.
  5. The My Lai Massacre of 1968, in which American troops brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, illustrated the frustration and led to more opposition to the war.
  6. In 1970, Nixon ordered an attack on Cambodia, Vietnam’s neighbor.

III. Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

  1. North Vietnamese had been using Cambodia as a springboard for funneling troops and arms along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and on April 29, 1970, Nixon suddenly ordered U.S. troops to invade Cambodia to stop this.
  2. Much uproar was caused, as riots occurred at Kent State University (where the National Guard opened fire and killed 4 people) and at Jackson State College.
    • Two months later, Nixon withdrew U.S. troops from Cambodia.
  3. The Cambodian incident split even wider the gap beween the “hawks” and the “doves.”
  4. The U.S. Senate repealed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, and in 1971, the 26th Amendment, lowering the voting age to eighteen, was also passed.
  5. In June 1971, The New York Times published a top-secret Pentagon study of America’s involvement of the Vietnam War—papers that had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, a former Pentagon official—these “Pentagon Papers” exposed the deceit used by the Kennedy and Johnson administrations regarding Vietnam and people spoke of a “credibility gap” between what the government said and the reality.

IV. Nixon’s Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow

  1. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union were clashing over their own interpretations of Marxism, and Nixon seized this as a chance for the U.S. to relax tensions and establish “détente.”
  2. He sent national security adviser Dr. Henry A. Kissinger to China to encourage better relations, a mission in which he succeeded, even though he used to be a big anti-Communist.
  3. Nixon then traveled to Moscow in May 1972, and the Soviets, wanting foodstuffs and alarmed over the possibility of a U.S.—China alliance against the U.S.S.R., made deals with America in which the U.S. would sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals, thus ushering in an era of détente, or relaxed tensions.
    • The ABM Treaty (anti-ballistic missile treaty) and the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) also lessened tension, but the U.S. also went ahead with its new MIRV (Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry Vehicles) missiles, which could overcome any defense by overwhelming it with a plethora of missiles; therefore, the U.S.S.R. did the same.
  4. However, Nixon’s détente policy did work, at least in part, to relax U.S.—Soviet tensions.

V. A New Team on the Supreme Bench

  1. When Earl Warren was appointed as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, he headed many controversial but important decisions:
    • Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) struck down a state law that banned the use of contraceptives, even by married couples, but creating a “right to privacy.”
    • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) said that all criminals were entitled to legal counsel, even if they were too poor to afford it.
    • Escobedo (1964) and Miranda (1966) were two cases in which the Supreme Court ruled that the accused could remain silent.
    • Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township vs. Schempp (1963) were two cases that led to the Court ruling against required prayers and having the Bible in public schools, basing the judgment on the First Amendment, which was argued separated church and state.
  2. Following its ruling against segregation in the case Brown v. Board of Education, the Court backed up its ruling with other rulings:
    • Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that the state legislatures, both upper and lower houses, would have to be reapportioned according to the human population. This was to ensure each person’s vote was weighed evenly.
  3. Trying to end this liberalism, Nixon chose Warren E. Burger to replace the retiring Earl Warren in 1969, and this succeeded—by the end of 1971, the Supreme Court had four new members that Nixon had appointed.
    • Strangely though, this “conservative” court made the controversial Roe v. Wade decision allowing abortion.

VI. Nixon on the Home Front

  1. Nixon also expanded Great Society programs by increasing appropriations for Medicare and Medicaid, as well as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which gave benefits to the indigent, aged, blind, and disabled, and he raised Social Security.
  2. Nixon’s so-called “Philadelphia Plan” of 1969 required construction-trade unions working on the federal payroll to establish “goals and timetables” for Black employees.
    • This plan changed “affirmative action” to mean preferable treatment on groups (minorities), not individuals, and the Supreme Court’s decision on Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971) supported this.
    • However, whites protested to “reverse discrimination” (hiring of minorities for fear of repercussions if too many whites were hired).
  3. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was also created to protect nature, as well as OSHA, or the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA).
  4. In 1962, Rachel Carson boosted the environmental movement with her book Silent Spring, which exposed the disastrous effects of pesticides (namely, DDT), and in 1950, Los Angeles already had an Air Pollution Control Office.
  5. The Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973 both aimed to protect and preserve the environment and animals.
  6. Worried about inflation, Nixon also imposed a 90-day wage freeze and then took the nation off the gold standard, thus ending the “Bretton Woods” system of international currency stabilization, which had functioned for more than a quarter of a century after WWII.

VII. The Nixon Landslide of 1972

  1. In 1972, the North Vietnamese attacked again, surprisingly, and Nixon ordered massive retaliatory air attacks, which ground the Vietnamese offense to a stop when neither China nor Russia stepped in to help, thanks to Nixon’s shrew diplomacy.
  2. Nixon was opposed by George McGovern in 1972, who promised to end the war within 90 days after the election and also appealed to teens and women, but his running mate, Thomas Eagleton was found to have undergone psychiatric care before, and Nixon won in a landslide.
  3. Nixon also sought to “bomb Vietnam to the peace table.”
    • Despite Kissinger’s promise of peace being near, Nixon went on a bombing rampage that eventually drove the North Vietnamese to the bargaining table to agree to a cease-fire, which occurred on January 23, 1973
      • This peace was little more than a barely-disguised American retreat.
      • In the terms of the peace, the U.S. would withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops and get back 560 prisoners of war.

VIII. The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act

  1. It was then discovered that there had been secret bombing raids of North Vietnamese forces in Cambodia that had occurred since March of 1969, despite federal assurances to the U.S. public that Cambodia’s neutrality was being respected.
    • The public now wondered what kind of a government the U.S. had if it couldn’t be trusted and the credibility gap widened.
  2. Finally, Nixon ended this bombing in June of 1973.
  3. However, soon Cambodia was taken over by the cruel Pol Pot, who tried to commit genocide by killing over 2 million people over a span of a few years.
  4. The War Powers Act of November 1973 (1) required the president to report all commitments of U.S. troops to Congress within 48 hours and and (2) setting a 60 day limit on those activities.
  5. There was also a “New Isolationism” that discouraged the use of U.S. troops in other countries, but Nixon fended off all efforts at this.

IX. The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis

  1. After the U.S. backed Israel in its war against Syria and Egypt which had been trying to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War, the Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, which strictly limited oil in the U.S. and caused a fuel crisis.
    • A speed limit of 55 MPH was imposed, and the oil pipeline in Alaska was approved in 1974 despite environmentalists’ cries, and other types of energy were pursued.
    • Since 1948, the U.S. had been importing more oil than it exported, and oil production had gone down since 1970; thus, this marked the end of the era of cheap energy.
  2. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) lifted the embargo in 1974, and then quadrupled the price of oil by decade’s end.

X. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President

  1. On June 17, 1972, five men working for the Republican Committee for the Re-election of the President (CREEP) were caught breaking into the Watergate Hotel and planting some bugs in the room.
    • What followed was a huge scandal in which many prominent administrators resigned.
    • It also provoked the improper or illegal use of the FBI and the CIA.
    • Lengthy hearings proceeded, headed by Senator Sam Erving, and John Dean III testified about all the corruption, illegal activities, and scandal that took place.
  2. Then, it was discovered that there were tapes that had recorded conversations that could solve all the mysteries in this case. But Nixon, who had explicitly denied participation in this Watergate Scandal earlier to the American people, refused to hand over the tapes to Congress.
    • Also, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign in 1973 due to tax evasion.
    • Thus, in accordance with the new 25th Amendment, Nixon submitted a name to Congress to approve as the new vice president—Gerald Ford.
    • Then came the “Saturday Night Massacre” (Oct. 20, 1973), in which Archibald Cox, special prosecutor of the case who had issued a subpoena of the tapes, was fired and the attorney general and deputy general resigned because they didn’t want to fire Cox.
  3. Nixon’s presidency was coming unraveled.
    • On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to give all of his tapes to Congress.
      • The tapes that had already been handed over showed Nixon cursing and swearing—poor behavior for our president.
    • Late in July 1974, the House approved its first article of impeachment for obstruction of the administration of justice.
    • On August 5, 1974, Nixon finally released the three tapes that held the most damaging information—the same three tapes that had been “missing.” The tapes showed Nixon had indeed ordered a cover-up of the Watergate situation.
    • On August 8 of the same year, he resigned, realizing that he would be convicted if impeached, and with resignation, at least he could still keep the privileges of a former president.
  4. Through it all, the lesson learned was that the Constitution indeed works.

XI. The First Unelected President

  1. Gerald Ford was the first unelected president ever, since his name had been submitted by Nixon as a V.P. candidate when Spiro Agnew resigned due to a bribery scandal while he was Maryland governor. All the other V.P.’s that had ascended to the presidency had at least been supported as running mates of the president that had been elected.
  2. He was also seen as a dumb jock of a president (he was a former Univ. of Michigan football player), and his popularity and respect further sank when he issued a full pardon of Nixon, thus setting off accusations of a “buddy deal.”
  3. His popularity also declined when he granted amnesty to “draft dodgers” thus allowing them to return to the U.S. from wherever they’d run to (usually Canada or Europe).
  4. In July 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki accords, which recognized Soviet boundaries, guaranteed human rights, and eased the U.S.—Soviet situation.
    • Critics charged that détente was making the U.S. lose grain and technology while gaining nothing from the Soviets.

XII. Defeat in Vietnam

  1. Disastrously for Ford, South Vietnam fell to the communist North in 1975, and American troops had to be evacuated, the last on April 29, 1975, thus ending the U.S. role in Vietnam War.
  2. America seemed to have lost the war, and it had also lost a lot of respect.

XIII. Feminist Victories and Defeats

  1. During the 1970s, the feminist movement became energized and took a decidedly aggressive tone.
  2. Title IX prohibited sex discrimination in any federally funded education program.
    • It’s largest impact was seen in the emergence of girls’ sports.
  3. The Supreme Court entered the fray in the feminist movement.
    • The Court’s decisions challenged sex discrimination in legislation and employment.
    • The super-hot Roe v. Wade case legalized abortion, arguing that ending a pregnancy was protected under a right to privacy.
  4. Even more ambitious was the ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) to the Constitution.
    • ERA sought to guarantee gender equality through words.
    • Phyllis Schlafly led other women against ERA. Schlafly said ERA advocates were, “bitter women seeking a constitutional cure for their personal problems.” She used the following arguments against the ERA amendment:
      • It would deprive a woman’s right to be a wife.
      • It would require women to serve in combat.
    • It would legalize homosexual marriage.
    • 38 state legislatures adopted the amendment, 41 were necessary, and the ERA ended.

XIV. The Seventies in Black and White

  1. Race was a burning issue, and in the 1974 Milliken v. Bradley case, the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines.
    • This reinforced the “white flight” to the suburbs that pitted the poorest whites and blacks against each other, often with explosively violent results.
  2. Affirmative action, where minorities were given preference in jobs or school admittance, was another burning issue, but some whites used this to argue “reverse discrimination.”
    • In the Bakke case of 1978, the Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 that Allan Bakke (a white applicant claiming reverse discrimination) should be admitted to U.C.—Davis med school. The decision was ambiguous saying (1) admission preference based on any race was not allowed, but conversely that (2) race could be factored into the admission policy.
  3. The Supreme Court’s only black justice, Thurgood Marshall, warned that the denial of racial preferences might sweep away the progress gained by the civil rights movement.

XV. The Bicentennial Campaign and the Carter Victory

  1. In 1976, Jimmy Carter barely squeezed by Gerald Ford (297 to 240) for president, promising to never lie to the American public. He also had Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress.
  2. He capitalized on being a “Washington outsider,” and therefore untainted by the supposed corruption of D.C. (He’d previously been governor of Georgia.)
  3. In 1978, Carter got an $18 billion tax cut for America, but the economy soon continued sinking.
  4. Despite an early spurt of popularity, Carter soon lost it.

XVI. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy

  1. Carter was a champion for human rights, and in Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) and South Africa, he championed for black rights and privileges.
  2. On September 17, 1978, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel signed peace accords at Camp David.
    • Mediated by Carter after relations had strained, this was Carter’s greatest foreign policy success.
    • Israel agreed to withdraw from territory gained in the 1967 war, while Egypt would respect Israel’s territories.
  3. In Africa, though, several Communist revolutions took place—not all successful, but disheartening and threatening still.
  4. Carter also pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000, and resumed full diplomatic relations with China in 1979.

XVII. Economic and Energy Woes

  1. Inflation had been steadily rising, and by 1979, it was at a huge 13%. Americans would learn that they could no longer hide behind their ocean moats and live happily insulated from foreign affairs.
  2. Carter diagnosed America’s problems as stemming primarily from the nation’s costly dependence on foreign oil, which was true.
  3. He called for legislation to improve energy conservation, but the gas-guzzling American people, who had already forgotten about the long gas lines of 1973, didn’t like these ideas.
  4. Energy problems escalated under Carter.
    • In, 1979, Iran’s shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, who had been installed by America in 1953 and had ruled his land as a dictator, was overthrown and succeeded by the Ayatollah Khomeini.
      • Iranian fundamentalists were very much against Western/U.S. customs, and Iran stopped exporting oil; OPEC also hiked up oil prices, thus causing another oil crisis.
    • In July 1979, Carter retreated to Camp David and met with hundreds of leaders of various things to advise and counsel him, then he came back on July 15, 1979 and chastised the American people for their obsession of material woes (“If it’s cold, turn down the thermostat and put on a sweater.”) This tough talking stunned the nation.
      • Then, a few days later, he fired four cabinet secretaries and tightened the circle around his Georgian advisors even more tightly.

XVIII. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio

  1. Carter signed the SALT II agreements with Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, but the U.S. Senate wouldn’t ratify it.
  2. Then, on November 4, 1979, a bunch of anti-American Muslim militants stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took the people inside hostage, demanding that the U.S. return the exiled shah who had arrived in the U.S. two weeks earlier for cancer treatments.
  3. Then, in December 27, 1979, the U.S.S.R. invaded Afghanistan, which later turned into their version of Vietnam.
    • However, at the moment, their action threatened precious oil supplies.
  4. Carter put an embargo on the Soviet Union and boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow.
    • He also proposed a “Rapid Deployment Force” that could respond to crises anywhere in the world in a quick manner.
  5. President Carter and America fell into an Iran hostage mess.
    • The American hostages languished in cruel captivity while night TV news reports showed Iranian mobs burning the American flag and spitting on effigies of Uncle Sam.
    • At first Carter tried economic sanctions, but that didn’t work.
    • Later, he tried a daring commando rescue mission, but that had to be aborted, and when two military aircraft collided, eight of the would-be rescuers were killed.
      • It was a humiliating failure for the U.S. and for Carter especially.
    • The stalemated hostage situation dragged on for most of Carter’s term, and was never released until January 20, 1981—the inauguration day of Ronald Reagan.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 40 - The Resurgence of Conservatism, 1980-1992

 I. The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980

  1. President Jimmy Carter’s administration seemed to be befuddled and bungling, since it could not control the rampant double-digit inflation or handle foreign affairs, and he would not remove regulatory controls from major industries such as airlines.
    • Late in 1979, Edward (Ted) Kennedy declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for 1980. But, he was hurt by his suspicious Chappaquiddick 1969 driving accident in when a young female passenger drowned and he delayed reporting the incident.
  2. As the Democrats dueled it out, the Republicans chose conservative former actor Ronald Reagan, signaling the return of conservatism, since the average American was older than during the stormy sixties and was more likely to favor the right (conservatives).
  3. New groups that spearheaded the “new right” movement included Moral Majority and other conservative Christian groups.
  4. Ronald Reagan was a man whose values had been formed before the turbulent sixties, and Reagan adopted a stance that depicted “big government” as bad, federal intervention in local affairs as condemnable, and favoritism for minorities as negative.
    • He drew on the ideas of a group called the “neoconservatives,” a group that included Norman Podhortz, editor of Commentary magazine, and Irving Kristol, editor of Public Interest, two men who championed free-market capitalism.
  5. Reagan had grown up in an impoverished family, become a B-movie actor in Hollywood in the 1940s, became president of the Screen Actors Guild, purged suspected “reds” in the McCarthy era, acted as spokesperson for General Electric, and became the Californian governor.
  6. Reagan’s photogenic personality and good looks on televised debates, as well as his attacks on President Carter’s problems, helped him win the election of 1980 by a landslide (489-49).
    • Also, Republicans regained control of the Senate.
  7. Carter’s farewell address talked of toning down the nuclear arms race, helping human rights, and protecting the environment (one of his last acts in office was to sign a bill protecting 100 million acres of Alaskan land as a wildlife preserve).

II. The Reagan Revolution

  1. Reagan’s inauguration day coincided with the release by the Iranians of their U.S. hostages, and Reagan also assembled a cabinet of the “best and brightest,” including Secretary of the Interior James Watt, a controversial man with little regard to the environment.
    • Watt tried to hobble the Environmental Protection Agency and permit oil drilling in scenic places, but finally had to resign after telling an insulting ethnic joke in public.
  2. For over two decades, the government budget had slowly and steadily risen, much to the disturbance of the tax-paying public. By the 1980s, the public was tired of the New Deal and the Great Society programs’s costs and were ready to slash bills, just as Reagan proposed.
    • His federal budget had cuts of some $35 billion, and he even wooed some Southern Democrats to abandon their own party and follow him.
    • But on March 30, 1981, the president was shot and wounded by a deranged John Hinckley. He recovered in only twelve days, showing his devotion to physical fitness despite his age (near 70) and gaining massive sympathy and support.

III. The Battle of the Budget

  1. Reagan’s budget was $695 billion with a $38 billion deficit. He planned cuts, and vast majority of budget cuts fell upon social programs, not on defense, but there were also sweeping tax cuts of 25% over three years.
    • The president appeared on national TV pleading for passage of the new tax-cut bill, and bolstered by “boll weevils,” or Democrats who defected to the Republican side, Congress passed it.
    • The bill used “supply side economics” or “Reaganomics” (policies favorable to businesses) to lower individual taxes, almost eliminate federal estate taxes, and create new tax-free savings plans for small investors.
  2. However, this theory backfired as the nation slid into its worst recession since the Great Depression, with unemployment reaching nearly 11% in 1982 and several banks failing.
    • Critics (Democrats) yapped that Reagan’s programs and tax cuts had caused this mayhem, but in reality, it had been Carter’s “tight money” policies that had led to the recession, and Reagan and his advisors sat out the storm, waiting for a recovery that seemed to come in 1983.
  3. However, during the 1980s, income gaps widened between the rich and poor for the first time in the 20th century (this was mirrored by the emergence of “yuppies”—Young Urban Professionals, very materialistic professionals). And it was massive military spending (a $100 billion annual deficit in 1982 and nearly $200 million annual deficits in the later years) that upped the American dollar. The trade deficit, also rose to a record $152 billion in 1987. These facts helped make America the world’s biggest borrowers.

IV. Reagan Renews the Cold War

  1. Reagan took a get-tough stance against the USSR, especially when they continued to invade Afghanistan, and his plan to defeat the Soviets was to wage a super-expensive arms race that would eventually force the Soviets into bankruptcy and render them powerless.
    • He began this with his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as “Star Wars,” which proposed a system of lasers that could fire from space and destroy any nuclear weapons fired by Moscow before they hit America—a system that many experts considered impossible as well as upsetting to the “balance of terror” (don’t fire for fear of retaliation) that had kept nuclear war from being unleashed all these years. SDI was never built.
  2. Late in 1981, the Soviets clamped down on Poland’s massive union called “Solidarity” and received economic sanctions from the U.S.
    • The deaths of three different aging Soviet oligarchs from 1982-85 and the breaking of all arms-control negotiations in 1983 further complicated dealings with the Soviets.

V. Troubles Abroad

  1. Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 to destroy guerilla bases, and the next year, Reagan sent U.S. forces as part of an international peace-keeping force. But, when a suicide bomber crashed a bomb-filled truck into U.S. Marine barracks on October 23, 1983 killing over 200 marines, Reagan had to withdraw the troops, though he miraculously suffered no political damage.
    • Afterwards, he became known as the “Teflon president,” the president to which nothing harmful would stick.
  2. Reagan accused Nicaraguan “Sandinistas,” a group of leftists that had taken over the Nicaraguan government, of turning the country into a forward base from which Communist forces could invade and conquer all of Latin America.
    • He also accused them of helping revolutionary forces in El Salvador, where violence had reigned since 1979, and Reagan then helped “contra” rebels in Nicaragua fight against the Sandinistas.
    • In October 1983, Reagan sent troops to Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought communists to power. The U.S. crushed the communist rebels.

VI. Round Two for Reagan

  1. Reagan was opposed by Democrat Walter Mondale and V.P. candidate Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman to appear on a major-party presidential ticket, but won handily.
  2. Foreign policy issues dominated Reagan’s second term, one that saw the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev, a personable, energetic leader who announced two new Soviet policies: glasnost, or “openness,” which aimed to introduce free speech and political liberty to the Soviet Union, andperestroika, or “restructuring,” which meant that the Soviets would move toward adopting free-market economies similar to those in the West.
  3. At a summit meeting at Geneva in 1985, Gorbachev introduced the idea of ceasing the deployment of intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF). At a second meeting at Reykjavik, Iceland, in November 1985, there was stalemate. At the third one in Washington D.C., the treaty was finally signed, banning all INF’s from Europe.
    • The final summit at Moscow saw Reagan warmly praising the Soviet chief for trying to end the Cold War.
  4. Also, Reagan supported Corazon Aquino’s ousting of Filipino dictator, Ferdinand Marcos.
  5. He also ordered a lightning raid on Libya, in 1986, in retaliation for Libya’s state-sponsored terrorist attacks, and began escorting oil tankers through the Persian Gulf during the Iran—Iraq War.

VII. The Iran-Contra Imbroglio

  1. In November 1986, it was revealed that a year before, American diplomats led by Col. Olive North had secretly arranged arms sales to Iranian diplomats in return for the release of American hostages (at least one was) and had used that money to aid Nicaraguan contra rebels.
    • This brazenly violated the congressional ban on helping Nicaraguan rebels, not to mention Reagan’s personal vow not to negotiate with terrorists.
    • An investigation concluded that even if Reagan had no knowledge of such events, as he claimed, he should have. This scandal not only cast a dark cloud over Reagan’s foreign policy success, but also brought out a picture of Reagan as a somewhat senile old man who slept through important cabinet meetings.
      • Still, Reagan remained ever popular.

VIII. Reagan’s Economic Legacy

  1. Supply-side economics claimed that cutting taxes would actually increase government revenue, but instead, during his eight years in office, Reagan accumulated a $2 trillion debt—more than all his presidential predecessors combined.
    • Much of the debt was financed by foreign bankers like the Japanese, creating fear that future Americans would have to work harder or have lower standards of living to pay off such debts for the United States.
  2. Reagan did triumph in containing the welfare state by incurring debts so large that future spending would be difficult, thus prevent any more welfare programs from being enacted successfully.
  3. Another trend of “Reaganomics” was the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. The idea of “trickle-down economics” (helping the rich who own business would see money trickle down to working classes) seemed to prove false.

IX. The Religious Right

  1. Beginning in the 1980s, energized religious conservatives began to exert their political muscle in a cultural war.
    • Rev. Jerry Falwell started the Moral Majority, consisting of evangelical Christians.
    • 2-3 million registered as Moral Majority voters in its first two years.
    • Using the power of media, they opposed sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and homosexuality.
  2. In large part, the conservative movement of the 80s was an answer to the liberal movement of the 60s. The pendulum was swinging back.
    • Conservatives viewed America as being hijacked in the 60s by a minority of radicals with political aims; the conservatives saw themselves as taking back America.

X. Conservatism in the Courts

  1. Reagan used the courts as his instrument against affirmative action and abortion, and by 1988, the year he left office, he had appointed a near-majority of all sitting federal judges.
    • Included among those were three conservative-minded judges, one of which was Sandra Day O’Connor, a brilliant Stanford Law School graduate and the first female Supreme Court justice in American history.
  2. In a 1984 case involving Memphis firefighters, the Court ruled that union rules about job seniority could outweigh affirmative-action concerns.
  3. In Ward’s Cove Packing v. Arizona and Martin v. Wilks, the Court ruled it more difficult to prove that an employer practiced discrimination in hiring and made it easier for white males to argue that they were victims of reverse-discrimination.
  4. The 1973 case of Roe v. Wade had basically legalized abortion, but the 1989 case of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services seriously compromised protection of abortion rights.
    • In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court ruled that states could restrict access to abortion as long as they didn’t place an “undue burden” on the woman.

XI. Referendum on Reaganism in 1988

  1. Democrats got back the Senate in 1986 and sought to harm Reagan with the Iran-Contra scandal and unethical behavior that tainted an oddly large number of Reagan’s cabinet.
    • They even rejected Robert Bork, Reagan’s ultraconservative choice to fill an empty space on the Supreme Court.
  2. The federal budget and the international trade deficit continued to soar while falling oil prices hurt housing values in the Southwest and damaged savings-and-loans institutions, forcing Reagan to order a $500 million rescue operation for the S&L institutions.
    • On October 19, 1987, the stock market fell 508 points, sparking fears of the end of the money culture, but this was premature.
  3. In 1988, Gary Hart tried to get the Democratic nomination but had to drop out due to a sexual misconduct charge while Jesse Jackson assembled a “rainbow coalition” in hopes of becoming president. But, the Democrats finally chose Michael Dukakis, who lost badly to Republican candidate and Reagan’s vice president George Herbert Walker Bush, 112 to 426.

XII. George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War

  1. Bush had been born into a rich family, but he was committed to public service and vowed to sculpt “a kindler, gentler America.”
  2. In 1989, it seemed that Democracy was reviving in previously Communist hot-spots.
    • In China, thousands of democratic-seeking students protested in Tiananmen Square but they were brutally crushed by Chinese tanks and armed forces.
    • In Eastern Europe, Communist regimes fell in Poland (which saw Solidarity rise again), Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania.
      • Soon afterwards, the Berlin Wall came tumbling down.
    • In 1990, Boris Yeltsin stopped a military coup that tried to dislodge Gorbachev, then took over Russia when the Soviet Union fell and disintegrated into the Commonwealth of Independent States, of which Russia was the largest member. Thus, the Cold War was over.
      • This shocked experts who had predicted that the Cold War could only end violently.
  3. Problems remained however, as the question remained of who would take over the U.S.S.R.’s nuclear stockpiles or its seat in the U.N. Security Council? Eventually, Russia did.
  4. In 1993, Bush signed the START II accord with Yeltsin, pledging both nations to reduce their long-range nuclear arsenals by two-thirds within ten years.
    • Trouble was still present when the Chechnyen minority in Russia tried to declare independence and was resisted by Russia; that incident hasn’t been resolved yet.
  5. Europe found itself quite unstable when the economically weak former communist countries re-integrated with it.
  6. America then had no rival to guard against, and it was possible that it would revert back to its isolationist policies. Also, military spending had soaked up so much money that upon the end of the Cold War, the Pentagon closed 34 military bases, canceled a $52 billion order for a navy attack plane, and forced scores of Californian defense plants to shut their doors.
  7. However, in 1990, South Africa freed Nelson Mandela, and he was elected president 4 years later.
    1. Free elections removed the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1990, and in 1992, peace came to Ecuador at last.

XIII. The Persian Gulf Crisis

  1. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait with 100,000 men, hoping to annex it as a 19th province and use its oil fields to replenish debts incurred during the Iraq—Iran War, a war which oddly saw the U.S. supporting Hussein despite his bad reputation.
  2. Saddam attacked swiftly, but the U.N. responded just as swiftly, placing economic embargoes on the aggressor and preparing for military punishment.
  3. Fighting “Operation Desert Storm”
    • Some 539,000 U.S. military force members joined 270,000 troops from 28 other countries to attack Iraq in a war, which began on January 12, 1991, when Congress declared it.
      • On January 16, the U.S. and U.N. unleashed a hellish air war against Iraq for 37 days.
      • Iraq responded by launching several ultimately ineffective “scud” missiles at Saudi Arabia and Israel, but it had far darker strategies available, such as biological and chemical weapons and strong desert fortifications with oil-filled moats that could be lit afire if the enemy got too close.
    • American General Norman Schwarzkopf took nothing for granted, strategizing to suffocate Iraqis with an onslaught of air bombing raids and then rush them with troops.
      • On February 23, “Operation Desert Storm” began with an overwhelming land attack that lasted four days, saw really little casualties, and ended with Saddam’s forces surrender.
      • American cheered the war’s rapid end and well-fought duration and was relieved that this had not turned into another Vietnam, but Saddam Hussein had failed to be dislodged from power and was left to menace the world another day.
  4. The U.S. found itself even more deeply ensnared in the region’s web of mortal hatreds.

XIV. Bush on the Home Front

  1. President Bush’s 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act was a landmark law that banned discrimination against citizens with disabilities.
  2. Bush also signed a major water projects bill in 1992 and agreed to sign a watered-down civil rights bill in 1991.
  3. In 1991, Bush proposed Clarence Thomas (a Black man) to fill in the vacant seat left by retiring Thurgood Marshall (the first Black Supreme Court justice), but this choice was opposed by the NAACP since Thomas was a conservative and by the National Organization for Women (NOW), since Thomas was supposedly pro-abortion.
    • In early October 1991, Anita Hill charged Thomas with sexual harassment, and even though Thomas was still selected to be on the Court, Hill’s case publicized sexual harassment and tightened tolerance of it (Oregon’s Senator Robert Packwood had to step down in 1995 after a case of sexual harassment).
    • A gender gap arose between women in both parties.
  4. In 1992, the economy stalled, and Bush was forced to break an explicit campaign promise (“Read my lips, no new taxes”) and add $133 billion worth of new taxes to try to curb the $250 billion annual budget.
    • When it was revealed that many House members had written bad checks from a private House “bank,” public confidence lessened even more.
  5. The 27th Amendment banned congressional pay raises from taking effect until an election had seated a new session of Congress, an idea first proposed by James Madison in 1789.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 41 - America Confronts the Post-Cold War Era, 1992-2004

 I. Bill Clinton: the First Baby-Boomer President

  1. In 1992, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton as their candidate (despite accusations of womanizing, drug use, and draft evasion) and Albert Gore, Jr.as his running mate.
  2. The Democrats tried a new approach, promoting growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies while campaigning to stimulate the economy.
  3. The Republicans dwelt on “family values” and selected Bush for another round and J. Danforth Quayle as his running mate. They claimed that “character matters” and so Clinton and his baggage should not be elected.
  4. Third party candidate Ross Perot added color to the election by getting 19,742,267 votes in the election (no electoral votes, though), but Clinton won, 370 to 168 in the Electoral College.
    • Democrats also got control of both the House and the Senate.
  5. Congress and the presidential cabinet were filled with minorities and more women, including the first female attorney general ever, Janet Reno, Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg in the Supreme Court

II. A False Start for Reform

  1. Upon entering office, Clinton called for accepting homosexuals in the armed forces, but finally had to settle for a “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy that unofficially accepted gays and lesbians.
  2. Clinton also appointed his wife, Hillary, to revamp the nation’s health and medical care system, and when it was revealed in October 1993, critics blasted it as cumbersome, confusing, and unpractical, thus suddenly making Hillary Rodham Clinton a possible liability whereas before, she had been a full, equal political partner of her husband.
  3. By 1996, Clinton had shrunk the federal deficit to its lowest level in a decade, and in 1993, he passed a gun-control law called the Brady Bill, named after presidential aide James Brady who had been wounded in President Reagan’s attempted assassination.
    • In July 1994, Clinton persuaded Congress to pass a $30 billion anticrime bill.
  4. During the decade, a radical Muslim group bombed the World Trade Center in New York, killing six. An American terrorist, Timothy McVeigh, bombed the federal building in Oklahoma in 1995, taking 169 lives. And a fiery standoff at Waco, Texas, between the government and the Branch Davidian religious cult ended in a huge fire that killed men, women, and children.
    • By this time, few Americans trusted the government, the reverse of the WWII generation.

III. The Politics of Distrust

  1. In 1994, Newt Gingrich led Republicans on a sweeping attack of Clinton’s liberal failures with a conservative “Contract with America,” and that year, Republicans won all incumbent seats as well as eight more seats in the Senate and 53 more seats in the House. Gingrich became the new Speaker of the House.
  2. However, the Republicans went too far, imposing federal laws that put new obligations on state and local governments without providing new revenues and forcing Clinton to sign a welfare-reform bill that made deep cuts in welfare grants.
    • Clinton tried to fight back, but gradually, the American public grew tired of Republican conservatism, such as Gingrich’s suggestion of sending children of welfare families to orphanages, and of its incompetence, such as the 1995 shut down of Congress due to a lack of a sufficient budget package.
  3. In 1996, Clinton ran against Republican Bob Dole and won, 379 to 159, and Ross Perot again finished a sorry third.

IV. Clinton Again

  1. Clinton became the first Democrat to be re-elected since FDR.
  2. He put conservatives on the defensive by claiming the middle ground.
    • He embraced the Welfare Reform Bill.
    • He balanced affirmative action (preferential treatment for minorities). When voters and courts began to move away from affirmative action, Clinton spoke against the direction away from affirmative action, but stopped short of any action.
  3. Mostly, Clinton enjoyed the popularity of a president during an economic good-time.
    • He supported the controversial NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) which cut tariffs and trade barriers between Mexico—U.S.—Canada.
    • Similarly, he supported the start of the WTO (World Trade Agreement) to lower trade barriers internationally.
  4. The issue of campaign finance reform rose to water level. Republicans and Clinton alike, gave the issue lip service, but did nothing.

V. Problems Abroad

  1. Clinton sent troops to Somalia (where some were killed), withdrew them, and also meddled in Northern Ireland to no good effect. But after denouncing China’s abuses of human rights and threatening to punish China before he became president, Clinton as president discovered that trade with China was too important to throw away over human rights.
  2. Clinton committed American troops to NATO to keep the peace in the former Yugoslavia, and he sent 20,000 troops to return Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti.
  3. He resolutely supported the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that made a free-trade zone surrounding Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., then helped form the World Trade Organization (WTO), the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and also provided $20 billion to Mexico in 1995 to help its faltering economy.
  4. Clinton also presided over an historic reconciliation meeting in 1993 between Israel’s Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Yasir Arafat at the White House, but two years later, Rabin was assassinated, thus ending hopes for peace in the Middle East.

VI. Scandal and Impeachment

  1. The end of the Cold War left the U.S. groping for a diplomatic formula to replace anti-Communism and revealed misconduct by the CIA and the FBI.
  2. Political reporter Joe Klein wrote Primary Colors, mirroring some of Clinton’s personal life/womanizing. Meanwhile Clinton also ran into trouble with his failed real estate investment in the Whitewater Land Corporation.
    • In 1993, Vincent Foster, Jr. apparently committed suicide, perhaps overstressed at having to (perhaps immorally) manage Clinton’s legal and financial affairs.
  3. As Clinton began his second term, the first by a Democratic president since FDR, he had Republican majorities in both houses of Congress going against him.
  4. Oddly for a president who seemed obsessed with making a place for himself in history, his place likely was made with the infamous Monica Lewinski sex scandal. In it, Clinton had oral sex in the White House Oval Office with the intern Lewinski. Then he denied, under oath, that he had done so, figuring that oral sex was not actually sex.
    • For his “little white lie,” Clinton was impeached by the House (only the 2nd president to be impeached, behind Andrew Johnson right after the Civil War).
    • However, Republicans were unable to get the necessary 2/3 super-majority vote in the Senate to kick Clinton from the White House. So, Clinton fulfilled his final years as president, but did so with a tarnished image and his place in history assured. His actions saw Americans lean toward the realization that character indeed must really matter after all.

VII. Clinton’s Legacy

  1. In his last several months as president, Clinton tried to secure a non-Monica legacy.
    • He named tracts of land as preservations.
    • He initiated a “patients’ bill of rights.”
    • He hired more teachers and police officers.
  2. On the good side, Clinton proved to be a largely moderate Democrat. The economy was strong, the budget was balanced, and he cautioned people from expected big-government from being the do-all and give-all to everyone.
  3. On the bad side, the Monica Lewinski situation created great cynicism in politics, he negotiated a deal with the Lewinski prosecutor where he’d gave immunity in exchange for a fine and law license suspension, and his last-minute executive pardons gave the appearance of rewarding political donors.

VIII. The Bush-Gore Presidential Battle

  1. The 2000 election began to shape up as a colorful one.
    • Democrats chose Vice President Albert Gore. He had to balance aligned with Clinton’s prosperity and against his scandals.
    • The Green Party (consisting mostly of liberals and environmentalists) chose consumer advocate Ralph Nader.
    • Republicans chose Texas governor George W. Bush (son of George H. W. Bush and known simply as “W” or, in Texas, as “Dub-ya”).
  2. A budget surplus beckoned the question, “What to do with the extra money?”
    • Bush said to make big cut taxes for all.
    • Gore said to make smaller tax cuts to the middle class only, then use the rest to shore up the debt, Social Security, and Medicare.
    • Nader, in reality, was little more than a side-show.

IX. The Controversial Election of 2000

  1. A close finish was expected, but not to the degree to which it actually happened.
    • The confused finish was reminiscent of the Hayes-Tilden standoff of 1876.
  2. Controversy surrounded Florida.
    • Having the nation’s 4th most electoral votes, Florida was the swing-state.
    • Florida effectively had a tie, with Bush ahead by the slightest of margins.
    • State law required a recount.
      • The recount upheld Bush’s narrow win.
      • Democrats charged there were irregularities in key counties (notably Palm Beach county that had a large Jewish populace and therefore would figure to be highly Democratic in support of Gore’s V.P. candidate Joseph Lieberman, the 1st Jewish candidate for president or V.P.).
      • At heart of the matter was the infamous “butterfly ballot” which supposedly confused the easily-confounded elderly of Palm Beach county—supposedly to Bush’s advantage.
      • As the confusion wore on and America needed a president A.S.A.P., Florida eventually validated the Bush vote. Additionally, George W.’s brother Jeb Bush was the Florida governor; and, the Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris, who officially validated the Bush-vote, had been appointed by Jeb.
        • For conspiracy theorists, it was like a field-day on Christmas morning.
      • One irony of the election was the role of Ralph Nader. He energized the liberalist liberals (and therefore those who disliked Bush the most). The irony: Green votes for Nader stole votes that would’ve gone to Gore and ostensibly gave the election to Bush.
      • Drama aside, Bush won. Gore actually got more popular votes (50,999,897 to Bush’s 50,456,002), but lost the critical electoral vote (266 to Bush’s 271).

X. Bush Begins

  1. Bush took office talking up his Texas upbringing (true) and talking down his family’s Back-East privilege (also true).
  2. Bush took on hot topics and fired up both sides of the political spectrum.
    • He withdrew U.S. support from international programs that okayed abortion.
    • He advocated faith-based social welfare programs.
    • He opposed stem-cell research, which had great medical possibilities, on the grounds that the embryo in reality was a small person and doing tests on it was nothing other than abortion.
    • He angered environmentalists with his policies.
    • He even worried conservatives by cutting taxes $1.3 trillion. The budget surpluses of the 90s turned into a $400 billion deficit by 2004.

XI. Terrorism Comes to America

  1. On September 11, 2001, America’s centuries-old enjoyment of being on “our side of the pond” ended when militant Muslim radicals attacked America. The radicals hijacked passenger planes and used the planes, and hostages, as guided missiles.
    • Two planes slammed into the World Trade Center towers in New York City. The towers caught afire, then came down.
    • A third plane slammed into the Pentagon.
    • A fourth plane was aiming for the White House, but heroic passengers took back the plane before it crashed in a Pennsylvania field.
  2. America was stunned, to say the least.
  3. President Bush’s leadership after the attacks was solemn and many began to forget the disputed election of 2000.
    • He identified the culprits as Al Qaeda, a religious militant terrorist group, led by Osama Bin Laden.
    • Bin Laden’s hatred toward America revolved around resent of America’s economic, military, and cultural power.
  4. Texas-style, Bush called for Bin Laden’s head in an unofficial start to the "War on Terror." Afghanistan refused to hand him over so Bush ordered the military to go on the offensive and hunt him down. The hunt proved to be difficult and Bin Laden proved elusive.
  5. At the same time, the American economy turned for the worse, and a few Americans died after receiving anthrax-laden letters. Coupled with fear of another attack, anxiety loomed.
  6. Terrorism launched a “new kind of war” or a “war on terror” that required tactics beyond the conventional battlefield. Congress responded in turn.
    • The Patriot Act gave the government extended surveillance rights. Critics charged this was a Big Brother-like infringement of rights—a reversal of the freedoms that Americans were fighting for.
    • The Department of Homeland Security was established as the newest cabinet department. It’s goal was to secure America.

XII. Bush Takes the Offensive Against Iraq

  1. Saddam Hussein had been a long time menace to many people. With Bush, his time had run out. Bush stated he’d not tolerate Hussein’s defiance of the U.N.’s weapons inspectors.
  2. At heart of problems: intelligence at the time suggested that Hussein had and was actively making weapons of mass destruction (“WMDs”). Hussein continually thumbed his nose at the weapon’s inspectors who tried to validate or disprove the threat.
  3. Bush decided it was time for action.
    • Bush sought the U.N.’s approval for taking military action, but some nations, notably France with its Security Council veto, had cold feet.
    • So, Bush decided to go it alone. Heavy majorities of Congress in October of 2002 approved armed force against Iraq.
    • The U.N. tried one last time to inspect, Hussein blocked the inspectors again. The U.N. and inspectors asked for more time still.
    • For Bush, time was up. He launched an attack and Baghdad fell within a month. Saddam went on the run, then was found nine months later hiding in a hole in the ground.
    • Taking Iraq, though not easy, was swift and successful; securing and rebuilding Iraq would prove tougher.

XIII. Owning Iraq

  1. Most Iraqi people welcomed the Americans, but certainly not all.
  2. Factions broke out. Iraqi insurgents attacked American G.I.’s and casualties mounted to nearly 1,200 by 2004.
  3. Americans soon began to wonder, “How long will we be there?”
  4. The new goals were to (1) establish security in Iraq, hopefully by Iraqi troops, and (2) create and turn over control to a new democratically elected Iraqi government.
    • Training Iraqi troops proved pitifully slow.
    • A new government was created and limited power handed over on June 28, 2004.
  5. Iraq became a divisive issue in America. Conservatives generally supported the war and post-war efforts. Liberals charged that Bush was on some ego-tripping battle charge to hunt down phantom weapons of mass destruction.

XIV. A Country in Conflict

  1. Other issues divided America:
    • Democrats continually grumbled about the “stolen” 2000 election.
    • Civil libertarians fumed over the Patriot Act.
    • Pacifists said the WMD reasoning was made up from the get-go to start a war.
    • Big business (like Enron and WorldCom that monkeyed with their books) supposedly fattened the rich and gleaned the poor.
    • Social warfare continued over abortion and homosexuality.
    • Affirmative action still boiled, and the Supreme Court came up with mathematical formulae for minority admittance to undergrads. The Court also stated that in 25 years racial preferences would likely be unnecessary.

XV. Reelecting George W. Bush

  1. Republicans put Bush up for reelection in 2004.
  2. Democrats selected Sen. John Kerry of Massachusetts.
  3. Despite the usual litany of issues (education, health care, etc.) the key issue of the 2004 election was national security.
    • At the heart of the security issue, was the question of the war in Iraq.
    • Bush said to “stay the course”; Kerry took an anti-war position. However, Kerry’s position and image was somewhat confounding:
      • Kerry was a Vietnam war hero, but then a Vietnam war protestor.
      • Kerry voted for military action in Iraq, but then voted against a bill for military spending for the war.
  4. Kerry gained much support by criticizing Bush’s management (or mismanagement) of the Iraq situation. Kerry charged that Bush had no plan for Iraq after the initial take-over. However, Kerry focused only on Bush’s failure and failed to effectively present voters with his own alternative course of action.
  5. In the election, and despite polls to the contrary, Bush won with a surprisingly strong showing (a popular vote of 60,639,281 to Kerry’s 57,355,978) of 286 electoral votes to Kerry’s 252.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 42 - The American People Face a New Century

 I. Economic Revolutions

  1. As heavy industry waned, the information age kicked into high gear.
    • Microsoft Corp. and the internet brought about the communications revolution.
    • Entrepreneurs led the way to making the Internet a 21st century mall, library, and shopping center.
    • Speed and efficiency of new communications tools threatened to wipe out other jobs.
  2. White-collar jobs in financial services and high tech engineering were being outsourced to other countries like Ireland and India.
    • Employees could thus help keep the company’s global circuits working 24 hrs. a day.
  3. Many discovered that the new high tech economy was also prone to boom or bust, just like the old economy.
    • In the Spring of 2000, the stock market began its biggest slide since WWII.
    • By 2003, the market had lost $6 trillion in value.
      • American’s pension plans shrank to 1/3 or more.
      • Recent retirees scrambled to get jobs and offset their pension losses which were tied to the stock market.
      • This showed that Americans were still scarcely immune to risk, error, scandal, and the ups-and-downs of the business cycle.
  4. Scientific research propelled the economy.
    • Researchers unlocked the secrets of molecular genetics (1950s).
      • They developed new strains of high yielding, pest/weather resistant crops.
      • They sought to cure hereditary diseases.
      • The movement started to fix genetic mutations.
    • The "Human Genome Project" established the DNA sequence of the 30 thousand human genes, helping create radical new medical therapies.
    • Breakthroughs in cloning animals raised questions about the legitimacy of cloning technology in human reproduction.
    • Stem cell research began, where zygotes or fertilized human eggs offered possible cures for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
      • The Bush administration, and many religious groups, believed that this research was killing people in the form of a human fetus.
      • Bush said a fetus is still a human life, despite its small size, and experimenting and destroying it is therefore wrong. For this reason, he limited government funding for stem cell research.

II. Affluence and Inequality

  1. U.S. standard of living was high compared to the rest of human kind
    • Median household income in 2002 = $42,400
  2. Americans, however, weren’t the world’s wealthiest people
  3. Rich still got richer while the poor got poorer
    • The richest 20% in 2001 raked in nearly half the nation’s income while the poorest 20% got a mere 4%
  4. The Welfare Reform Bill (1996) restricted access to social services and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find work.
    • This further weakened the financial footing of many impoverished families.
  5. Widening inequality could be measured in different ways as well
    • Chief executives roughly earned 245 times as much as the average worker
    • In 2004, over 40 million people had no medical insurance
    • 34 million (12% of population) were impoverished
  6. Causes of the widening income gap
    • The tax and fiscal policies of the Reagan and both Bush presidencies
    • Intensifying global economic competition
    • shrinkage of high-paying manufacturing jobs for semiskilled/unskilled workers
    • the decline of unions
    • the economic rewards to those of higher education
    • the growth of part time and temporary work
    • the increase of low-skilled immigrants
    • the tendency of educated, working men and woman marriages, creating households with high incomes
  7. Educational opportunities also had a way of perpetuating inequality
    • under funding of many schools in poor urban areas

III. The Feminist Revolution

  1. Women were greatly affected by the great economic changes of the late 20th Century
  2. Over 5 decades, women steadily increased their presence in the work place
  3. By 1990s, nearly half of all workers were women
  4. Most surprising was the upsurge of employment in mothers
    • by 1990s, a majority of women with kids as young as one were working
  5. Many universities opened their doors to women (1960s):
    • Yale
    • Princeton
    • West Point
    • The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute (VMI)
  6. Despite these gains, many feminists remained frustrated
    • women still got lower wages
    • were concentrated in few low-prestige, low-paying occupations
      • For example, in 2002, on 29 % of women were lawyers or judges and 25% physicians
      • This is likely due to the fact that women would often interrupt their careers to bear and raise kids and even took a less demanding job to fulfill the traditional family roles
  7. Discrimination and a focus on kids also helped account for the “gender-gap” in elections
    • Women still voted for Democrats more than men
      • They seemed to be more willing to favor governmentt support for health and child care, education, and job equality, as well as more vigilant in protecting abortion rights—thus, Democratic voters.
  8. Mens’ lives changed in the 2000s as well
    • Some employers gave maternity leave as well as paternity leave in recognition of shared obligations of the two worker household.
    • More men shared the traditional female responsibilities such as cooking, laundry, and child care
  9. In 1993, congress passed the Family Leave Bill, mandating job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off from work for family reasons

IV. New Families and Old

  1. The nuclear family (father, mother, children) suffered heavy blows in modern America
    • by the 1990s, one out of every two marriages ended in divorce
    • 7 times more children were affected by divorce compared to the beginning of the decade
    • Kids who commuting between parents was common
  2. Traditional families weren’t just falling apart at an alarming rate, but were also increasingly slow to form in the first place.
    • The proportion of adults living alone tripled in the 4 decades after 1950s
    • In 1990s, 1/3 of women age 25 - 29 had never married
    • Every fourth child in US was grew up in a household that lacked two parents
  3. The main result of this decline in marriage was the pauperization (impoverishing) of many women and children.
  4. Child raising, the primary reason of a family, was being pawned off to day-care centers, school, or TV (electronic babysitter)
  5. Viable families now assumed a variety of different forms
    • Kids in households were raised by a single parent, stepparent, or grandparent, and even kids with gay parents encountered a degree of acceptance that would have been unimaginable a century earlier.
    • Gay marriage was sustained as taboo by the large majority of Americans and teenage pregnancy was on a decline after the mid-1900s.
  6. Families weren’t evaporating, but were altering into much different forms.

V. The Aging of America

  1. Old age was expected, due to the fact that Americans were living longer than ever before
    • People born in 2000 could anticipate living to an average 70 years thanks to miraculous medical advances that lengthened and strengthened lives.
  2. Longer lives meant more a greater population
    • 1 American in 8 was over 65 years of age in 2000
  3. This aging of population raised a slew of economic, social, and political questions
    • The elderly formed a potent electoral bloc that aggressively lobbied for governmentt favors and achieved real gains for senior citizens
    • The share of GNP spent on health care for people over 65 more than doubled
    • More payments to health care conceivably hurt education, thus making social and economic problems further down the road.
  4. These triumphs for senior citizens brought fiscal strains, as on Social Security
    • At the beginning of the creation of Social Security, a small majority depended on it.
    • But by now, it has increased, and now workers’ Social Security is actually being funded to the senior citizens.
      • The ratio of active workers to retirees had dropped so low, that drastic adjustments were necessary
      • Worsened further, when medical care for seniors rose out of their price range
  5. As WWII baby boomers began to retire the Unfunded Liability (the difference between what the gov’t promised to pay to the elderly and the taxes it expected to take in) was about $7 trillion, a number that might destroy US if new reforms weren’t adopted
    • Pressures mounted:
      • to persuade older Americans to work longer
      • to invest the current Social Security surplus in equalities and bonds to meet future obligations
      • to privatize a portion of the Social Security to younger people who wanted to invest some of their pay-roll taxes into individual retirement accounts

VI. The New Immigration

  1. Newcomers continued to flow into Modern America
    • Nearly 1 million per year from 1980s up to 2000s
    • Contradicting history, Europe provided few compared to Asia/Latin America
  2. What prompted new immigration to the US?
    • New immigrants came for many of the same reasons as the old…
      • they left countries where population was increasing rapidly and…
      • where agricultural/industrial revolutions were shaking people loose of old habits of life
      • they came in search of jobs and economic opportunities
  3. Some came with skills and even professional degrees and found their way into middle-class jobs
    • However, most came with fewer skills/less education, seeking work as janitors, nannies, farm laborers, lawn cutters, or restraint workers.
  4. The southwest felt immigration the hardest, since Mexican migrants came heavily from there
    • By the turn of the century, Latinos made up nearly 1/3 of the population in California, Arizona, and Texas, and nearly 40% in New Mexico
    • Latinos succeeded in making the south west a bi-cultural region by holding onto to their culture by strength in numbers, compared to most immigrants whom had to conform. Plus, it did help to have their ‘mothering country” right next door.
  5. Some “old-stock” Americans feared about the modern America’s capacity to absorb all these immigrants.
    • The Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) attempted to choke off illegal entry by penalizing employers of the undocumented aliens and by granting amnesty of those already here.
    • Ant-immigrant sentiment flared (a lot in CA) in the wake of economic recession in the early 1990s
      • CA voters approved a ballot initiative that attempted to deny benefits, including education, to illegal immigrants (later struck down by courts)
      • State then passed another law in 1998 which put an end to bilingual teaching in state schools
  6. The fact was, that only 11.5% of foreign-born people accounted for the US population
  7. Evidence, nonetheless, still showed that US welcomed and needed immigrants
  8. The good side to it…
    • Immigrants took jobs that Americans didn’t want
    • Infusion of young immigrants and their offspring counter-balanced the overwhelming rate of an aging population

VII. Beyond the Melting Pot

  1. Thanks to their increasing immigration and high birthrate, Latinos were becoming an increasingly important minority.
    • By 2003, the US was home to about 39 million of them
      • 26 million Chicanos, Mexican American
      • 3 million Puerto Ricans
      • 1 million Cubans
  2. Flexing political powers, Latinos elected mayors of Miami, Denver, and San Antonio
  3. After many years of struggle, the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC0, headed by Cesar Chavez, succeeded in making working conditions better for Chicano “stoop laborers” who followed the planting cycle of the American West
  4. Latino influence seemed likely to grow
    • Latinos, well organized, became the nation’s largest ethnic minority
  5. Asian Americans also made great strides.
    • By the 1980s, they were America’s fastest-growing minority and their numbers reached about 12 million by 2003.
    • Citizens of Asian ancestry were now counted among the most prosperous
      • In 2003, the average Asian household was 25% better off than that of the average white household
  6. Indians, the original Americans, numbered some 2.4 million in 2000 census.
    • Half had left their reservations to live in cities.
    • Unemployment and alcoholism had blighted reservation life
    • Many tribes took advantage of their special legal status of independence by opening up casinos on reservations to the public.
    • However, discrimination and poverty proved hard to break

VIII. Cities and Suburbs

  1. Cities grew less safe, crime was the great scourge of urban life.
    • The rate of violent crimes raised to its peak in the drug infested 80s, but then leveled out in the 90s.
    • The number of violent crimes substantially dropped in many areas after 1995
    • None the less, murders, robberies and rapes remained common in cities and rural areas and the suburbs
  2. In mid-1990s, a swift and massive transition took place from cities to suburbs, making jobs “suburbanized.”
    • The nation’s brief “urban age” lasted for only a little less than 7 decades and with it, Americans noticed a new form of isolationism
    • Some affluent suburban neighborhoods stayed secluded, by staying locked in “gated communities”
    • By the first decade of the 21st century, big suburban rings around cities like NY, Chicago, Houston, and Washington DC had become more racially and ethically diverse
  3. Suburbs grew faster in the West and Southwest
    • Builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting up across the landscapes
    • Newcomers came from nearby cities and from across the nation
      • A huge shift of US population was underway from East to West
      • The Great Plains hurt from the 60% decline of all counties
  4. However, some cities showed signs of renewal
    • Commercial redevelopment gained ground in cities like…
      • New York
      • Chicago
      • Los Angeles
      • Boston
      • San Francisco

IX. Minority America

  1. Racial and ethic tensions also exacerbated the problems of American Cities
    • This was specifically evident in LA (magnet for minorities)
      • It was a 1992 case wherein a mostly white jury exonerated white cops who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect.
      • The minority neighborhoods of LA erupted in anger
        • Arson and looting laid waste on every block
        • Many people were killed
        • Many blacks vented their anger towards the police/judicial system by attacking Asian shopkeepers
        • In return, Asians set up patrols to protect themselves
        • The chaos still lingers decades later
    • LA riots vividly testified to black skepticism about the US system of justice
      • Three years later, in LA, a televised showing of OJ Simpson’s murder trial fed white disillusionment w/ the state of race relations
      • after months of testimony, it looked like OJ was guilty, but was acquitted due to the fact some white cops had been shown to harbor racist sentiments
      • In a a later civil trail, another jury unanimously found Simpson liable for the “wrongful deaths” of his former wife and another victim
      • The Simpson verdicts revealed the huge gap between white and black America (whites = guilty, blacks = 1st verdict stands)
    • Blacks still felt that they were mistreated, especially in 2000 elections when they accused that they weren’t allowed to vote in Florida.
      • Said they were still facing the Jim Crow South of racial indifference
  2. US cities have always held an astonishing variety of ethnic/racial groups, but by 20th century, minorities made up the majority, making whites flee to the suburbs
    • In 2002, 52% of blacks and only 21% of whites lived in central cities
  3. The most desperate black ghettos were especially problematic
    • Blacks who benefited form the 60s Civil Rights Movement left to the suburbs with whites leaving the poorest of the poor in the old ghettos.
    • Without a middle class to help the community, the cities became plagued by unemployment and drug addiction
  4. Single women headed about 43% of black families in 2002, 3 times more than whites
    • Many single, black mothers depended on welfare to feed their kids
  5. Social Scientists made clear that education excels if the child has warm, home environment
    • It seemed clear that many fatherless, impoverished Black kids seemed plagued by educational handicaps which were difficult to overcome
  6. Some segments of Black communities did prosper after the Civil Rights Movement (50s, 60s), although they still had a long trek ahead until they got equality
    • by 2002, 33% of black families had a $50,000 income (= middle class)
    • Blacks also improved in politics
      • Number of black officials elected had risen to the 9,000 mark
      • More than 3 dozen members of congress and mayors of some big cities
      • Voter tallies showed that black votes had risen
  7. By the early 21st century, blacks had dramatically advanced into higher education
    • In 2002, 17% of Blacks over 25 had bachelor’s degree
    • The courts still preserved affirmative action in the university admissions

X. E Pluribus Plures

  1. Controversial issues of color and culture also pervaded the realm of ideas in the late 20th
  2. Echoing early 20th Century “cultural pluralist” like Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne, many people embraced the creed of “multiculturalism”
    • This stressed the need to preserve and primate, rather than squash racial minorities
  3. In 1970s and 80s, the catchword of philosophy was ethnic pride.
    • People wanted to still keep their identity and culture (eg Latinos and Asians)
    • The old idea of a “melting pot” turned into a colorful “salad bowl”
  4. Nation’s classrooms became the heated area for debate
    • Multiculturalists attacked traditional curriculum and advocated a greater focus on achievements of blacks, Latinos, Asians, Indians
    • In defense, critics said that studies on ethnic differences would destroy American values
    • Census Bureau further advocated the debate when in 2000 it allowed respondents to identify themselves w/ more than one of the six categories:
      • black
      • white
      • Latino
      • American Indian
      • Asian
      • Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander

XI. The Life of the Mind

  1. Despite the mind-sapping chatter of the “boob tube,” Americans in the early 21st century read more, listened to more music, and were better educated than ever before
    • Colleges awarded some 2.5 million degrees in 2004
    • 1 in 4 25-34 year old age group was a 4 year college graduate
  2. This spurt of educated people raised the economy
  3. What Americans read said much about the state of US society
    • Some American authors, concerning the west
      • Larry McMurtry the small town West and recollected about the end of the cattle drive era in Lonesome Dove (1985)
      • Raymond Carver wrote powerful stories about the working class in the Pacific Northwest
      • Annie Dillard, Ivan Doig, and Jim Harrison re-created the frontier in the same region as Carver
      • David Guterson wrote a moving tale of interracial anxiety and affection in the WWII era in Pacific Northwest in Snow Falling on Cedars(1994)
      • Wallace Stagner produced many works that transcended their original themes like…
        • Angle of Repose (1971)
        • Crossing to Safety (1987)
      • Norman MacLean wrote two unforgettable events about his childhood in Montana, A River Runs Through It (1976) and Young Men and Fire (1992)
    • African American Authors
      • August Wilson retold the history of the blacks in 20th century w/ emphasis on the psychic cost of the northward migration
      • George Wolf explored sobering questions of black identity in his Jelly’s Last Jam (the life story of jazzman “Jelly Roll” Morton)
      • Alice Walker gave fictional voice to the experiences of black women in her hugely popular The Color Purple
      • Toni Morrison wrote a bewitching portrait of maternal affection in Beloved
      • Edward P. Jones inventively rendered the life of a slave-owning black family in his Pulitzer Prize-winning The Known World.
    • Indians got recognition, too
      • N. Scott Momaday won a Pulitzer Prize for his portrayal of Indian life in House Made of Dawn
      • James Welch wrote movingly about his Blackfoot ancestors in Fools Crow
    • Asian American authors flourished as well
      • Among them was playwright David Hwang, novelist Amy Tan, and essayist Maxine Hong Kingston
      • Gish Jen in Mona in the Promise Land guided her readers into the poignant comedy of suburban family relationships that wasn’t uncommon to 2nd-generation Asian Americans
      • Jhumpa Lahiris’ Interpreter of Maladies, explored the sometimes painful relationship between immigrant Indian parents and their American-born kids
    • Latino writers included…
      • Sandra Cisneros drew hoer own life as a Mexican American kid to evoke Latino life in the working-class Chicago in The House on Mango Street

XII. The American Prospect

  1. American spirit pulsed with vitality in the early 21st century, but bug problems continued
    • Women still fell short of 1st class citizenship
    • US society also wanted to find ways to adapt back to the traditional family, but w/ the new realities of women’s work outside the home
    • Full equality was till an elusive dream for some races
    • Powerful foreign competitors threatened the US economic status
    • The alarmingly unequal distribution of wealth and income threatened to turn America into a society of haves and have-nots, mocking the very ideals of democracy
  2. Environmental worries clouded the countries future
    • Coal-fired electrical energy plants produced acid rain and helped greenhouse effect
    • Unsolved problem of radioactive waste disposal stopped the making of nuclear power plants
    • The planet was being drained of oil and oil spills showed the danger behind oil exploration/transportation
  3. The public looks towards alternative fuel sources in the 21st Century:
    • Solar powers and wind mills
    • methane fuel
    • electric “hybrid” cars
    • the pursuit of an affordable hydrogen fuel cell
    • Energy conservation remained another crucial, but elusive strategy
  4. The task of cleansing the earth of abundant pollutants was one urgent mission confronting the US people
  5. Another was seeking ways to resolve ethnic and cultural conflicts once erupted around the world’s end of the Cold War
  6. All at the same time more doors were opening for the US people
    • opportunities in outer space and inner-city streets
    • artist’s easel and the musician’s concert hall
    • at the inventor’s bench and the scientist’s laboratory
    • The unending quest for social justice, individual fulfillment, international peace

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 13th Edition Textbook Notes

Here you will find AP US History notes for the American Pageant, 13th edition textbook. These American Pageant notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1034 pages
  • Publisher: Cengage Learning; 13 edition (February 15, 2005)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 0618479279
  • ISBN-13: 978-0618479276

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

I. The Shaping of North America

  1. Recorded history began 6,000 years ago. It was 500 years ago that Europeans set foot on the Americas to begin colonization
  2. The theory of Pangaea exists suggesting that the
    continents were once nestled together into one mega-continent. They
    then spread out as drifting islands.
  3. Geologic forces of continental plates created the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.
  4. The Great Ice Age thrust down over North America & scoured the present day American Midwest.

II. Peopling the Americas

  1. The Land Bridge theory.
    • As the Great Ice Age diminished, so did the glaciers over North America.
    • The theory holds that a Land Bridge emerged
      linking Asia & North America across what is now known as the Bering
      Sea. People were said to have walked across the "bridge" before the sea
      level rose and sealed it off; thus populating the Americas.
    • The Land Bridge is said to have occurred an estimated 35,000 years ago.
  2. Many peoples
    • Those groups that traversed the bridge spread across North, Central, and South America.
    • Countless tribes emerged with an estimated 2,000 languages. Notably:
      • Incas: Peru, with elaborate network of roads and bridges linking their empire.
      • Mayas: Yucatan Peninsula, with their step pyramids.
      • Aztecs: Mexico, with step pyramids and huge sacrifices of conquered peoples.

III. The Earliest Americans

  1. Development of corn or maize around 5,000 B.C. in Mexico was revolutionary in that:
    • Then, people didn't have to be hunter-gatherers, they could settle down and be farmers.
    • This fact gave rise to towns and then cities.
    • Corn arrived in the present day U.S. around 1,200 B.C.
  2. Pueblo Indians
    • The Pueblos were the 1st American corn growers.
    • They lived in adobe houses (dried mud) and pueblos ("villages" in
      Spanish). Pueblos are villages of cubicle shaped adobe houses, stacked
      one on top the other and often beneath cliffs.
    • They had elaborate irrigation systems to draw water away from rivers to grown corn.
  3. Mound Builders
    • These people built huge ceremonial and burial mounds and were located in the Ohio Valley.
    • Cahokia, near East St. Louis today, held 40,000 people.
  4. Eastern Indians
    • Eastern Indians grew corn, beans, and squash in three sister farming:
      • Corn grew in a stalk providing a trellis for beans, beans grew up
        the stalk, squash's broad leaves kept the sun off the ground and thus
        kept the moisture in the soil.
      • This group likely had the best (most diverse) diet of all North American Indians and is typified by the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw (South) and Iroquois (North).
  5. Iroquois Confederation
    • Hiawatha was the legendary leader of the group.
    • The Iroquois Confederation was a group of 5 tribes in New York state.
    • They were matrilineal as authority and possessions passed down through the female line.
    • Each tribe kept their independence, but met occasionally to discuss matters of common interest, like war/defense.
    • This was not the norm. Usually, Indians were scattered and separated (and thus weak).
  6. Native Americans had a very different view of things as compared to Europeans.
    • Native Americans felt no man owned the land, the tribe did. (Europeans liked private property)
    • Indians felt nature was mixed with many spirits. (Europeans were Christian and monotheistic)
    • Indians felt nature was sacred. (Europeans felt nature and land was
      given to man by God in Genesis to be subdued and put to use).
    • Indians had little or no concept or interest in money. (Europeans loved money or gold)

IV. Indirect Discoverers of the New World

  1. The 1st Europeans to come to America were the Norse (Vikings from Norway).
    • Around 1000 AD, the Vikings landed, led by Erik the Red and Leif Erikson.
    • They landed in Newfoundland or Vinland (because of all the vines).
    • However, these men left America and left no written record and therefore didn't get the credit.
    • The only record is found in Viking sagas or songs.
  2. The Christian Crusaders of Middle Ages fought in Palestine to
    regain the Holy Land from Muslims. This mixing of East and West created
    a sweet-tooth where Europeans wanted the spices of the exotic East.

V. Europeans Enter Africa

  1. Marco Polo traveled to China and stirred up a storm of European interest.
  2. Mixed with desire for spices, an East to West (Asia to Europe)
    trade flourished but had to be overland, at least in part. This
    initiated new exploration down around Africa in hopes of an easier (all
    water) route.
  3. Portugal literally started a sailing school to find better ways to get to the Spice Islands, eventually rounding Africa's southern Cape of Good Hope.
  4. New developments:
    • caravel: a ship with triangular sail that could better tack (zig-zag) ahead into the wind and thus return to Europe from Africa coast.
    • compass: to determine direction.
    • astrolabe: a sextant gizmo that could tell a ship's latitude.
  5. Slave trade begins
    • The 1st slave trade was across the Sahara Desert.
    • Later, it was along the West African coast. Slave traders purposely
      busted up tribes and families in order to squelch any possible uprising.
    • Slaves wound up on sugar plantations the Portuguese had set up on the tropical islands off Africa's coast.
    • Spain watched Portugal's success with exploration and slaving and wanted a piece of the pie.

VI. Columbus Comes upon a New World

  1. Christopher Columbus convinced Isabella and Ferdinand to fund his expedition.
  2. His goal was to reach the East (East Indies) by sailing west, thus bypassing the around-Africa route that Portugal monopolized.
  3. He misjudged the size of the Earth though, thinking it 1/3 the size of what it was.
  4. So, after 30 days or so at sea, when he struck land, he assumed
    he'd made it to the East Indies and therefore mistook the people as "Indians."
  5. This spawned the following system:
    • Europe would provide the market, capital, technology.
    • Africa would provide the labor.
    • The New World would provide the raw materials (gold, soil, lumber).

VII. When Worlds Collide

  1. Of huge importance was the biological flip-flop of Old and New
    Worlds. Simply put, we traded life such as plants, foods, animals,
    germs.
  2. Columbian Exchange:
    • From the New World (America) to the Old
      • corn, potatoes, tobacco, beans, peppers, manioc, pumpkin, squash, tomato, wild rice, etc.
      • also, syphilis
    • From the Old World to the New
      • cows, pigs, horses, wheat, sugar cane, apples, cabbage, citrus, carrots, Kentucky bluegrass, etc.
      • devastating diseases (smallpox, yellow fever, malaria), as Indians had no immunities.
        • The Indians had no immunities in their systems built up over generations.
        • An estimated 90% of all pre-Columbus Indians died, mostly due to disease.

VIII. The Spanish Conquistadores

  1. Treaty Line of Tordesillas 1494: Portugal and Spain feuded over who got what land. The Pope drew this line as he was respected by both.
    • The line ran North-South, and chopped off the Brazilian coast of South America
    • Portugal got everything east of the line (Brazil and land around/under Africa)
    • Spain got everything west of the line (which turned out to be much more, though they didn't know it at the time)
  2. Conquistadores = "conquerors"
    • Vasco Balboa: "discovered" the Pacific Ocean across isthmus of Panama
    • Ferdinand Magellan: circumnavigates the globe (1st to do so)
    • Ponce de Leon: touches and names Florida looking for legendary Fountain of Youth
    • Hernando Cortes: enters Florida, travels up into present day Southeastern U.S., dies and is "buried" in Mississippi River
    • Francisco Pizarro: conquers Incan Empire of Peru
      and begins shipping tons of gold/silver back to Spain. This huge influx
      of precious metals made European prices skyrocket (inflation).
    • Francisco Coronado: ventured into current Southwest U.S. looking for legendary El Dorado, city of gold. He found the Pueblo Indians.
  3. Encomienda system established
    • Indians were "commended" or given to Spanish landlords
    • The idea of the encomienda was that Indians would work and be
      converted to Christianity, but it was basically just slavery on a sugar
      plantation guised as missionary work.

IX. The Conquest of Mexico

  1. Hernando Cortez conquered the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan.
  2. Cortez went from Cuba to present day Vera Cruz, then marched over mountains to the Aztec capital.
  3. Montezuma, Aztec king, thought Cortez might be the
    god Quetzalcoatl who was due to re-appear the very year. Montezuma
    welcomed Cortez into Tenochtitlan.
  4. The Spanish lust for gold led Montezuma to attack on the noche
    triste, sad night. Cortez and men fought their way out, but it was
    smallpox that eventually beat the Indians.
  5. The Spanish then destroyed Tenochtitlan, building the Spanish capital (Mexico City) exactly on top of the Aztec city.
  6. A new race of people emerged, mestizos, a mix of Spanish and Indian blood.

X. The Spread of Spanish America

  1. Spanish society quickly spread through Peru and Mexico
  2. A threat came from neighbors:
    • English: John Cabot (an Italian who sailed for England) touched the coast of the current day U.S.
    • France: Giovanni de Verrazano also touched on the North American seaboard.
    • France: Jacques Cartier went into mouth of St. Lawrence River (Canada).
  3. To oppose this, Spain set up forts (presidios) all over the California coast. Also cities, like St. Augustine in Florida.
  4. Don Juan de Onate followed Coronado's old path
    into present day New Mexico. He conquered the Indians ruthlessly,
    maiming them by cutting off one foot of survivors just so they'd
    remember.
  5. Despite mission efforts, the Pueblo Indians revolted in Pope's Rebellion.
  6. Robert de LaSalle sailed down the Mississippi
    River for France claiming the whole region for their King Louis and
    naming the area "Louisiana" after his king. This started a slew of
    place-names for that area, from LaSalle, Illinois to "Louisville" and
    then on down to New Orleans (the American counter of Joan of Arc's
    famous victory at Orleans).
  7. Black Legend: The Black Legend was the notion that
    Spaniards only brought bad things (murder, disease, slavery); though
    true, they also brought good things such as law systems, architecture,
    Christianity, language, civilization, so that the Black Legend is
    partly, but not entirely, accurate.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

I. England’s Imperial Stirrings

  1. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the Spanish had much control in Central and South America.
  2. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown.
  3. In the 1500s, Britain failed to effectively colonize due to internal conflicts.
    • King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation.
    • After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified.
    • In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in revolting against
      England, but the English crushed the uprising with brutal atrocity, and
      developed an attitude of sneering contempt for natives.

II. Elizabeth Energizes England

  1. After Francis Drake pirated Spanish ships for gold then circumnavigated the globe, Elizabeth I knighted him on his ship. Obviously, this reward angered the Spanish who sought revenge.
  2. Meanwhile, English attempts at colonization in the New World failed embarrassingly. Notable of these failures was Sir Walter Raleigh and the Roanoke Island Colony, better known as “The Lost Colony.”
  3. Seeking to get their revenge, Spain attacked Britain but lost in the Spanish Armada’s
    defeat of 1588. This opened the door for Britain to cross the Atlantic.
    They swarmed to America and took over the lead in colonization and
    power.
    • Victory also fueled England to new heights due to…
      • Strong government/popular monarch, more religious unity, a sense of nationalism
      • Golden age of literature (Shakespeare)
      • Beginning of British dominance at sea (which lasts until U.S. tops them, around 1900)
    • Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.

III. England on the Eve of the Empire

  1. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming.
  2. New policy of enclosure (fencing in land) for farming. This meant there was less or no land for the poor.
  3. The woolen districts fell upon hard times economically. This meant the workers lost jobs.
  4. Tradition of primogeniture = 1st born son inherits
    ALL father’s land. Therefore, younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t
    inherit money) tried their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America.
  5. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected (investors put money into the company with hopes for a good return), being a forerunner of today’s corporations.

IV. England Plants the **Jamestown Seedling**

  1. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World.
    • Such joint-stock companies usually did not exist long, as
      stockholders invested hopes to form the company, turn a profit, and
      then quickly sell for profit a few years later.
  2. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain.
  3. On May 24, 1607, about 100 English settlers disembarked from their ship and founded Jamestown.
    • Forty colonists had perished during the voyage.
    • Problems emerged including (a) the swampy site of Jamestown meant
      poor drinking water and mosquitoes causing malaria and yellow fever.
      (b) men wasted time looking for gold rather than doing useful tasks
      (digging wells, building shelter, planting crops), (c) there were zero
      women on the initial ship.
    • It didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the Bahamas in 1609 either.
  4. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control and whipped the colonists into shape.
    • At one point, he was kidnapped by local Indians and forced into a mock execution by the chief Powhatan and had been “saved” by Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas.
    • The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted peaceful relations with the colonists.
    • John Smith’s main contribution was that he gave order and discipline, highlighted by his “no work, no food” policy.
  5. Colonists had to eat cats, dogs, rats, even other people. One fellow wrote of eating “powdered wife.”
  6. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr arrived to alleviate the suffering.
  7. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8,000 would-be settlers, only 1,200 had survived.

V. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

  1. At first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists potential
    allies and tried to be friendly with them, but as time passed and
    colonists raided Indian food supplies, relations deteriorated and
    eventually, war occurred.
  2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe. Rolfe & Pocahontas nurtured a favorable flavor of sweet tobacco.
  3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a series
    of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe, dead.
  4. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in 1646, and effectively banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands.
  5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians were useless, and were therefore banished.

VI. Virginia: Child of Tobacco

  1. Jamestown’s gold is found and it is tobacco.
    • Rolfe’s sweet tobacco was sought as a cash crop by Europe. Jamestown had found its gold.
    • Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted the soil and ruined the land.
  2. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when in 1619,
    settlers created the House of Burgesses, a committee to work out local
    issues. This set America on a self-rule pathway.
  3. The first African Americans to arrive in America also came in 1619. It’s unclear if they were slaves or indentured servants.

VII. Maryland: Catholic Haven

  1. Religious Diversity
    • Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to be formed.
    • It was founded to be a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge, a safe haven.
    • Lord Baltimore gave huge estates to his Catholic relatives, but the
      poorer people who settled there where mostly Protestant, creating
      friction.
  2. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco.
  3. It had a lot of indentured servants.
    • Only in the later years of the 1600s (in Maryland and Virginia) did Black slavery begin to become popular.
  4. Maryland’s statute, the Act of Toleration,
    guaranteed religious toleration to all Christians, but decreed the
    death penalty to Jews and atheists and others who didn’t believe in the
    divinity of Jesus Christ.

VIII. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

  1. As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also settling into the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened the door).
  2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655.
  3. They grew lots of sugar on brutal plantations there.
  4. Thousands of African slaves were needed to operate sugar
    plantations. At first, Indians were intended to be used, but disease
    killed an estimated 90% of all Native Americans. So, Africans were
    brought in.
  5. To control so many slaves, “codes” were set up that defined the
    legal status of slaves and the rights of the masters. They were
    typically strict and exacted severe punishments for offenders.

IX. Colonizing the Carolinas

  1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver Cromwell had
    ruled for ten very strict years before tired Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne in “The Restoration.” (After all the turmoil Civil War, they just went back to a king.)
  2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization.
  3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally created in 1670.
  4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with the West Indies, due to the port of Charleston.
  5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados and brought in the strict “Slave Codes” for ruling slaves.
  6. Interestingly, Indians as slaves in Carolina was protested, but to
    no avail. Slaves were sent to the West Indies to work, as well as New
    England.
  7. Rice emerged as the principle crop in Carolina.
    • African slaves were hired to work on rice plantations, due to (a)
      their resistance to malaria and just as importantly, (b) their
      familiarity with rice.
  8. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina proved to be too strong to be wiped out.

X. The Emergence of North Carolina

  1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people who owned no land, usually down from Virginia.
  2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistance to authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors.
  3. Two “flavors” of Carolinians developed: (a) aristocratic and
    wealthier down south around Charleston and rice & indigo
    plantations, and (b) strong-willed and independent-minded up north on
    small tobacco farms
  4. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially separated.
  5. In 1711, when Tuscarora Indians attacked North Carolina, the
    Carolinians responded by crushing the opposition, selling hundreds to
    slavery and leaving the rest to wander north, eventually becoming the
    Sixth Nation of the Iroquois.

XI. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony

  1. Georgia was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies
    and the hostile Spanish settlements in Florida (Spanish, Indians,
    runaway slaves) and the enemy French in Louisiana.
  2. It was founded last, in 1733, by a high-minded group of philanthropists, mainly James Oglethorpe.
  3. Named after King George II, it was also meant to be a second chance site for wretched souls in debt.

iv. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks.
* He saved “the Charity Colony” by his energetic leadership and by using his own fortune to help with the colony.

  1. All Christians, except Catholics, enjoyed religious toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert the Indians.
    • John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to England and founded Methodism.
  2. Georgia grew very slowly.

XII. The Plantation Colonies

  1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies.
  2. The growth of cities was often stunted by forests.
  3. The establishment of schools and churches was difficult due to people being spread out.
  4. In the South, the crops were tobacco and rice, and some indigo in the tidewater region of SC.
  5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration.
  6. Confrontations with Native Americans were often.

XIII. Makers of America: The Iroquois

  1. In what is now New York State, the Iroquois League (AKA the Iroquois Confederation) was once a great power.
  2. They were made up of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas.
  3. They vied with neighboring Indians and later French, English, and Dutch for supremacy.
  4. The longhouse was the building block of Iroquois society.
    • Only 25 feet wide, but over 200 feet long, longhouses were
      typically occupied by a few blood-related families (on the mother’s
      side).
  5. The Mohawks were middlemen with European traders.
  6. The Senecas were fur suppliers.
  7. The Five Nations of the Iroquois’ rivals, the neighboring Hurons, Eries, and Petuns, were vanquished.
  8. Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, the Iroquois allied with the British and French (whichever was more beneficial).
  9. When the American Revolution broke out, the question of with whom to side was split. Most sided with the British, but not all.
  10. Afterwards, the Iroquois were forced to reservations, which proved to be unbearable to these proud people.
  11. An Iroquois named Handsome Lake arose to warn his tribe’s people to mend their ways.
  12. His teachings live today in the form of the longhouse religion.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling in the Northern Colonies

I. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

  1. 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. Luther had several explosive ideas including…
    • The Bible alone was the source of God’s word (not the Bible and the church or pope).
    • People are saved simply by faith in Christ alone (not by faith and good works).
    • His actions ignited the Protestant Reformation.
  2. John Calvin preached Calvinism which stressed “predestination” (those going to Heaven or hell has already been determined by God).
    • Basic doctrines were stated in the 1536 document entitled Institutes of the Christian Religion.
    • Stated that all humans were weak and wicked.
    • Only the predestined could go to heaven, no matter what.
    • Calvinists were expected to seek “conversions,” signs that they
      were one of the predestined, and afterwards, lead “sanctified lives.”
    • Calvinists are famous for working hard, dusk to dawn, to “prove” their worthiness.
    • The impact of Calvinism has been vividly stamped on the psyche of Americans, and been called the “Protestant Work Ethic”
  3. In England, King Henry VIII was breaking his ties with the Holy Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s.
  4. Some people, called Puritans, were influenced to totally reform (“purify”) the Church of England.
  5. The Puritans
    • Believed that only “visible saints” should be admitted to church membership.
    • Separatists vowed to break away from the Church of England (AKA, the Anglican Church) because the “saints” would have to sit with the “damned.” These folks became the Pilgrims.
    • King James I, father of the beheaded Charles I,
      harassed the Separatists out of England because he thought that if
      people could defy him as their spiritual leader, they might defy him as
      their political ruler.

II. The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

  1. The Pilgrims or Separatists, came from Holland, where they had fled to after they had left England.
    • They were concerned that their children were getting too “Dutchified.”
    • They wanted a place where they were free to worship their own religion and could live and die as good Pilgrims.
  2. After negotiating with the Virginia Company, the Separatists left
    Holland and sailed for 65 days at sea on the Mayflower until they
    arrived off the rocky coast of New England in 1620, a trip in which
    only one person died and one person was born.
    • Less than half of the pilgrims on the Mayflower were actually Separatists.
    • Contrary to myth, the Pilgrims undertook a few surveys before deciding to settle at Plymouth, an area far from Virginia.
    • The Pilgrims became squatters, people without legal right to land and without specific authority to establish government.
  3. Captain Myles Standish (AKA, “Captain Shrimp”) proved to be a great Indian fighter and negotiator.
  4. Before leaving the ship, the Pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, a set of rules by which to obey.
    • Though it wasn’t a constitution, it did set the standard for later
      constitutions. It also set the first step toward self-rule in the
      Northern colonies.
  5. In the winter of 1620-21, only 44 of the 102 survived.
  6. 1621 brought bountiful harvests, though, and the first Thanksgiving was celebrated that year.
  7. William Bradford, chosen governor of Plymouth 30
    times in the annual elections, was a great leader, and helped Plymouth
    to survive and trade fur, fish, and lumber.
  8. In 1691, Plymouth finally merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

III. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

  1. In 1629, some non-Separatist Puritans got a royal charter from
    England to settle in the New World. Secretly, they took the charter
    with them and later used it as a type of constitution.
  2. It was a well-equipped group of 11 ships that carried about 1,000 people to Massachusetts.
  3. John Winthrop was elected governor or deputy governor for 19 years, helping Massachusetts prosper in fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding.

IV. Building the Bay Colony

  1. Soon after the establishment of the colony, the franchise (right to vote) was extended to all “freemen,” adult males who belonged to the Puritan congregations (later called the Congregational Church), making people who could enjoy the franchise about two fifths of the male population.
    • Un-churched men and women weren’t allowed into matters of government.
  2. The provincial government was not a democracy.
    • Governor Winthrop feared and distrusted the common people, calling democracy the “meanest and worst” of all forms of government.
  3. Religious leaders wielded powerful influence over the admission to church membership.
  4. John Cotton, a prominent clergy member, was
    educated at Cambridge and had immigrated to Massachusetts to avoid
    persecution for his criticism of the Church of England.
  5. However, congregations could hire and fire their ministers at will.
  6. Still, there were laws to limit Earthly pleasures, such as a fine of twenty shillings for couples caught kissing in public.
  7. The Puritan concept of Hell was very serious, frightening, and very real.
    • Michael Wigglesworth’s “Day of Doom,” written in 1662, sold one copy for every twenty people.

V. Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth

  1. Tensions arose in Massachusetts.
  2. Quakers were fined, flogged, and/or banished.
  3. Anne Hutchinson was a very intelligent,
    strong-willed, talkative woman who claimed that a holy life was no sure
    sign of salvation and that the truly saved need not bother to obey the
    law of either God or man. A notion known as “antinomianism”.
    • Brought to trial in 1638, Anne boasted that her beliefs were directly from God.
    • She was banished from the colony and eventually made her way to Rhode Island.
    • She died in New York after an attack by Indians.
  4. Roger Williams was a radical idealist hounded his fellow clergymen to make a clean and complete break with the Church of England.
    • He went on to deny that civil government could and should govern religious behavior.
    • He was banished in 1635, and led the way for the Rhode Island colony.

VI. The Rhode Island “Sewer”

  1. People who went to Rhode Island weren’t necessarily similar; they were just unwanted everywhere else.
  2. They were against special privilege.
  3. “Little Rhody” was later known as “the traditional home of the otherwise minded.”
  4. It finally secured a charter in 1644.

VII. New England Spreads Out

  1. In 1635, Hartford, Connecticut was founded.
  2. Reverend Thomas Hooker led an energetic group of Puritans west into Connecticut.
  3. In 1639, settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted in open meeting a trailblazing document called the Fundamental Orders.
    • It was basically a modern constitution.
  4. In 1638, New Haven was founded and eventually merged into Connecticut.
  5. In 1623, Maine was absorbed by Massachusetts and remained so for nearly a century and a half.
  6. In 1641, the granite-ribbed New Hampshire was absorbed into Massachusetts.
    • In 1679, the king separated the two and made New Hampshire a royal colony.

VIII. Puritans Versus Indians

  1. Before the Puritans had arrived in 1620, an epidemic had swept through the Indians, killing over three quarters of them.
  2. At first, Indians tried to befriend the Whites.
    • Squanto, a Wampanoag, helped keep relative peace.
  3. In 1637, though, after mounting tensions exploded, English settlers and the powerful Pequot tribe fought in the Pequot War,
    in which the English set fire to a Pequot village on Connecticut’s
    Mystic River, annihilating the Indians and bringing about forty years
    of tentative peace.
    • In an attempt to save face, the Puritans did try to convert some of
      the Indians, though with less zeal than that of the Spanish and French.
  4. In 1675, Metacom (called King Philip by the English) united neighboring Indians in a last-ditched attack that failed.
    • The King Philip’s War slowed the colonial western
      march, but Metacom was beheaded and quartered and his head was stuck on
      a sharp pike for all to see, his wife and son sold to slavery.

IX. Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence

  1. In 1643, four colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation.
    • It was almost all Puritan.
    • It was weak, but still a notable milestone toward American unity.
  2. The colonies were basically allowed to be semiautonomous commonwealths.
  3. After Charles II was restored to the British throne, he hoped to
    control his colonies more firmly, but was shocked to find how much his
    orders were ignored by Massachusetts.
    • As punishment, a sea-to-sea charter was given to rival Connecticut (1662), and a charter was given to Rhode Island (1663).
    • Finally, in 1684, Massachusetts’ charter was revoked.

X. Andros Promotes the First American Revolution

  1. In 1686, the Dominion of New England was created to bolster the colonial defense against Indians and tying the colonies closer to Britain by enforcing the hated Navigation Acts.
    • The acts forbade American trade with countries other than Britain.
    • As a result, smuggling became common.
    • Head of the Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros.
      • Establishing headquarters in Boston, he openly showed his association with the locally hated Church of England.
      • His soldiers were vile-mouthed and despised by Americans.
  2. Andros responded to opposition by curbing town meetings, restricting the courts and the press, and revoking all land titles.
  3. He taxed the people without their consent.
  4. At the same time, the people of England staged the Glorious Revolution, instating William and Mary to the crown.
    • Resultant, the Dominion of New England collapsed.
    • Massachusetts got a new charter in 1691, but this charter allowed
      all landowners to vote, as opposed to the previous law of voting
      belonging only to the church members.

XI. Old Netherlanders at New Netherland

  1. In the 17th Century, the Netherlands revolted against Spain, and with the help of Britain, gained their independence.
  2. The Dutch East India Company was established, with an army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships (including 40 men-of-war).
  3. The Dutch West India Company often raided rather than traded.
  4. In 1609, Henry Hudson ventured into Delaware and New York Bay and claimed the area for the Netherlands.
  5. It was the Dutch West India Company that bought Manhattan Island
    for some worthless trinkets (22,000 acres of the most valuable land in
    the world today).
  6. New Amsterdam was a company town, run by and for the Dutch company and in the interests of stockholders.
  7. The Dutch gave patroonships (large areas of land) to promoters who agreed to settle at least 50 people on them.
  8. New Amsterdam attracted people of all types and races.
    • One French Jesuit missionary counted 18 different languages being spoken on the street.

XII. Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors

  1. Indian’s attacked the Dutch for their cruelties.
  2. New England was hostile against Dutch growth.
  3. The Swedes trespassed Dutch reserves from 1638 to 1655 by planting the anemic colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River.
  4. Things got so bad that the Dutch erected a wall in New Amsterdam, for which Wall Street is named today.
  5. In 1655, the Dutch sent one-legged Peter Stuyvesant
    to besiege the main Swedish fort, and he won, ending Swedish colonial
    rule and leaving only Swedish log cabins and place names as evidence
    that the Swedes were ever in Delaware.

XIII. Dutch Residues in New York

  1. In 1664, Charles II granted the area of modern-day New York to his brother, the Duke of York, and that year, British troops landed and defeated the Dutch, kicking them out, without much violence.
  2. New Amsterdam was renamed New York.
  3. The Dutch Legacy
    • The people of New York retained their autocratic spirit.
    • Dutch names of cities remained, like Harlem, Brooklyn, and Hell Gate.
    • Even their architecture left its mark on buildings.
    • The Dutch also gave us Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, sleighing, skating, and golf.

XIV. Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania

  1. The Quakers (characteristics)
    • They “quaked” under deep religious emotion.
    • They were offensive to religious and civil rule.
    • They addressed everyone with simple “thee”s and “thou”s and didn’t
      swear oaths because Jesus had said “Swear not at all,” this last part
      creating a problem, since you had to swear a test oath to prove that
      you weren’t Roman Catholic.
    • Though stubborn and unreasonable, they were simple, devoted, democratic people against war and violence.
  2. William Penn, a well-born Englishman, embraced the Quaker faith.
  3. In 1681, he managed to secure an immense grant of fertile land from the king.
    • It was called Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn, who, being the modest person that he was, had insisted that it be called Sylvania.
    • It was the best advertised of all the colonies.

XV. Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors

  1. Thousands of squatters already lived in Pennsylvania.
  2. Philadelphia was more carefully planned than most cities, with beautiful, wide streets.
  3. Penn bought land from the Indians, like Chief Tammany, later patron saint of New York’s political Tammany Hall.
  4. His treatment of the Indians was so gentle that Quakers could walk through Indian territory unarmed without fear of being hurt.
  5. However, as more and more non-Quakers came to Pennsylvania, they mistreated the Indians more and more.
  6. Freedom of worship was available to everyone except for Jews and
    Catholics (only because of pressure from London), and the death penalty
    was only for murder and treason.
  7. No restrictions were placed on immigration, and naturalization was made easy.
  8. The Quakers also developed a dislike toward slavery.
  9. Pennsylvania attracted a great variety of people from all races, class, and religion.
  10. By 1700, only Virginia was more populous and richer.
  11. Penn, unfortunately, was not well-liked because of his friendliness
    towards James II, the deposed Catholic king, and he was jailed at
    times, and also suffered a paralytic stroke, dying full of sorrows.

xii. New Jersey and Delaware prospered as well.
XVI. The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies

  1. New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania
    • All had fertile soil and broad expanse of land.
    • All except for Delaware exported lots of grain.
    • The Susquehanna River tapped the fur trade of the interior, and the rivers were gentle, with little cascading waterfalls.
    • The middle colonies were the middle way between New England and the southern plantation states.
    • Landholdings were generally intermediate in size.
    • The middle colonies were more ethnically mixed than other colonies.
    • A considerable amount of economic and social democracy prevailed.
    • Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, entered
      Philadelphia as a seventeen-year-old in 1720 with a loaf of bread under
      each arm and immediately found a congenial home in the urbane, open
      atmosphere of the city.
    • Americans began to realize that not only were they surviving, but that they were also thriving.

XVII. Makers of America: The English

  1. In the 1600s, England was undergoing a massive population boom.
  2. About 75% of English immigrants were indentured servants.
  3. Most of them were young men from the “middling classes.”
  4. Some had fled during the cloth trade slump in the early 1600s while others had been forced off their land due to enclosure.
  5. Some 40% of indentured servants died before their seven years were over.
  6. Late in the 17th century, as the supply of indentured servants slowly ran out, the southerners resolved to employ black slaves.
  7. From 1629 to 1642, 11,000 Puritans swarmed to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
  8. In contrast to the indentured servants, Puritans migrated in family groups, not alone.
  9. Puritans brought the way of life from England with them to America.
    • i.e. Marblehead, Mass. had mostly fishermen because most of the immigrants had been fisherman in England.
    • i.e. Rowley, Mass. brought from Yorkshire, England their distinctive way of life.
    • In Ipswich, Massachusetts, settled by East Anglican Puritans, the rulers had long terms and ruled with an iron hand.
    • However, in Newbury, people rarely won reelection.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century

I. The Unhealthy Chesapeake

  1. Life in the American wilderness was harsh.
  2. Diseases like malaria, dysentery, and typhoid killed many.
  3. Few people lived to 40 or 50 years.
  4. In the early days of colonies, women were so scarce that men fought
    over all of them. The Chesapeake region had fewer women and a 6:1 male
    to female ratio is a good guide.
  5. Few people knew any grandparents.
  6. A third of all brides in one Maryland county were already pregnant before the wedding (scandalous).
  7. Virginia, with 59,000 people, became the most populous colony.

II. The Tobacco Economy

  1. The Chesapeake was very good for tobacco cultivation.
  2. Chesapeake Bay exported 1.5 million pounds of tobacco yearly in the
    1630s, and by 1700, that number had risen to 40 million pounds a year.
    • More availability led to falling prices, and farmers still grew more.
    • The headright system encouraged growth of the
      Chesapeake. Under this system, if an aristocrat sponsored an indentured
      servant’s passage to America, the aristocrat earned the right to
      purchase 50 acres land, undoubtedly at a cheap price. This meant land
      was being gobbled by the rich, and running out for the poor.
    • Early on, most of the laborers were indentured servants.
      • Life for them was hard, but there was hope at the end of seven years for freedom.
      • Conditions were brutal, and in the later years, owners unwilling to
        free their servants extended their contracts by years for small
        mistakes.

III. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion

  1. By the late 1600s, there were lots of free, poor, landless, single men frustrated by the lack of money, land, work, and women.
  2. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a few thousand of these men in a rebellion against the hostile conditions.
    • These people wanted land and were resentful of Virginia governor William Berkeley’s friendly policies toward the Indians.
    • Bacon’s men murderously attacked Indian settlements after Berkeley
      refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on the
      frontier.
  3. Then, in the middle of his rebellion, Bacon suddenly died of disease, and Berkeley went on to crush the uprising.
  • Still, Bacon’s legacy lived on, giving frustrated poor folks ideas
    to rebel, and so a bit of paranoia went on for some time afterwards.

IV. Colonial Slavery

  1. In the 300 years following Columbus’ discovery of America, only
    about 400,000 of a total of 10 million African slaves were brought over
    to the United States.
  2. By 1680, though, many landowners were afraid of possibly mutinous
    white servants, by the mid 1680s, for the first time, black slaves
    outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies’ new arrivals.
  3. After 1700, more and more slaves were imported, and in 1750, blacks accounted for nearly half of the Virginian population.
    • Most of the slaves were from West Africa, from places like Senegal and Angola.
  4. Some of the earliest black slaves gained their freedom and some became slaveholders themselves.
  5. Eventually, to clear up issues on slave ownership, the slave codes
    made it so that slaves and their children would remain slaves to their
    masters for life (chattels), unless they were voluntarily freed.
    • Some laws made teaching slaves to read a crime, and not even conversion to Christianity might qualify a slave for freedom.

V. Africans in America

  1. Slave life in the Deep South was very tough, as rice growing was much harder than tobacco growing.
    • Many blacks in America evolved their own languages, blending their native tongues with English.
    • Blacks also contributed to music with instruments like the banjo and bongo drum.
  2. A few of the slaves became skilled artisans (i.e. carpenters,
    bricklayers and tanners), but most were relegated to sweaty work like
    clearing swamps and grubbing out trees.
  3. Revolts did occur.
    • In 1712, a slave revolt in New York City cost the lives of a dozen whites and 21 Blacks were executed.
    • In 1739, South Carolina blacks along the Stono River revolted and tried to march to Spanish Florida, but failed.

VI. Southern Society

  1. A social gap appeared and began to widen.
    • In Virginia, a clutch of extended clans (i.e. the Fitzhughs, the
      Lees, and the Washingtons) owned tracts and tracts of real estate and
      just about dominated the House of Burgesses.
      • They came to be known as the First Families of Virginia (FFV).
  2. In Virginia, there was often a problem with drunkenness.
  3. The largest social group was the farmers.
  4. Few cities sprouted in the South, so schools and churches were slow to develop.

VII. The New England Family

  1. In New England, there was clean water and cool temperatures, so disease was not as predominant as in the South.
  2. The first New England Puritans had an average life expectancy of 70 years.
  3. In contrast to the Chesapeake, the New Englanders tended to migrate as a family, instead of individually.
    • Women usually married in their early twenties and gave birth every two years until menopause.
    • A typical woman could expect to have ten babies and raise about eight of them.
  • Death in childbirth was not uncommon.
  1. In the South, women usually had more power, since the Southern men
    typically died young and women could inherit the money, but in New
    England, the opposite was true.
    • In New England, men didn’t have absolute power over their wives (as
      evidenced by the punishments of unruly husbands), but they did have
      much power over women.
  2. New England law was very severe and strict.
    • For example, adulterous women had to wear the letter “A” on their
      bosoms if they were caught (as with The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel
      Hawthorne).

VIII. Life in the New England Towns

  1. Life in New England was organized.
    • New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities.
    • A town usually had a meetinghouse surrounded by houses and a village green.
    • Towns of more than 50 families had to provide primary education.
    • Towns of more than 100 had to provide secondary education.
  2. In 1636, Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train men to become ministers.
    • (Note: in 1693, Virginia established their first college, William and Mary.)
  3. Puritans ran their own churches, and democracy in Congregational
    church government led logically to democracy in political government.

IX. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials

  1. As Puritans began to worry about their children and whether or not
    they would be as loyal and faithful, and new type of sermon came about
    called “jeremiads.”
    • In jeremiads, earnest preachers scolded parishioners for their waning piety in hope to improve faith.
  2. Paradoxically, troubled ministers announced a new formula for church membership in 1662, calling it the “Half-Way Covenant.”
    • In the Half-Way Covenant, all people could come and participate in
      the church, even if they fell short of the “visible-saint” status and
      were somehow only half converted (with the exception of a few extremely
      hated groups).
  3. In the early 1690s, a group of Salem girls claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women.
    • What followed was a hysterical witch-hunt that led to the
      executions of 20 people (19 of which were hanged, 1 pressed to death)
      and two dogs.
    • Back in Europe, larger scale witch-hunts were already occurring.
    • Witchcraft hysteria eventually ended in 1693.

X. The New England Way of Life

  1. Due to the hard New England soil (or lack thereof), New Englanders became great traders.
  2. New England was also less ethnically mixed than its neighbors.
  3. The climate of New England encouraged diversified agriculture and industry.
    • Black slavery was attempted, but didn’t work. It was unnecessary
      since New England was made of small farms rather than plantations as
      down South.
  4. Rivers were short and rapid.
  5. The Europeans in New England chastised the Indians for “wasting”
    the land, and felt a need to clear as much land for use as possible.
  6. Fishing became a very popular industry. It is said New England was built on “God and cod.”

XI. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways

  1. Early farmers usually rose at dawn and went to bed at dusk.
  2. Few events were done during the night unless they were “worth the candle.”
  3. Life was humble but comfortable, at least in accordance to the surroundings.
  4. The people who emigrated from Europe to America were most usually
    lower middle class citizens looking to have a better future in the New
    World.
  5. Because of the general sameness of class in America, laws against
    extravagances were sometimes passed, but as time passed, America grew.

XII. Makers of America: From African to African-American

  1. Africans’ arrival into the New World brought new languages, music, and cuisines to America.
    • Africans worked in the rice fields of South Carolina due to (a)
      their knowledge of the crop and (b) their resistance to disease (as
      compared to Indians).
  2. The first slaves were men; some eventually gained freedom.
  3. By 1740, large groups of African slaves lived together on
    plantations, where female slaves were expected to perform backbreaking
    labor and spin, weave, and sew.
  4. Most slaves became Christians, though many adopted elements from their native religions.
    • Many African dances led to modern dances (i.e. the Charleston).
    • Christian songs could also be code for the announcement of the arrival of a guide to freedom.
    • Jazz is the most famous example of slave music entering mainstream culture.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

I. Conquest by the Cradle

  1. By 1775, Great Britain ruled 32 colonies in North America.
    • Only 13 of them revolted (the ones in what’s today the U.S.).
    • Canada and Jamaica were wealthier than the “original 13.”
    • All of them were growing by leaps and bounds.
  2. By 1775, the population numbered 2.5 million people.
  3. The average age was 16 years old (due mainly to having several children).
  4. Most of the population (95%) was densely cooped up east of the
    Alleghenies, though by 1775, some had slowly trickled into Tennessee
    and Kentucky.
  5. About 90% of the people lived in rural areas and were therefore farmers.

II. A Mingling of the Races

  1. Colonial America, though mostly English, had other races as well.
  2. Germans accounted for about 6% of the population, or about 150,000 people by 1775.
    • Most were Protestant (primarily Lutheran) and were called the
      “Pennsylvania Dutch” (a corruption of Deutsch which means
      German).
  3. The Scots-Irish were about 7% of the population, with 175,000 people.
    • Over many decades, they had been transplanted to Northern Ireland,
      but they had not found a home there (the already existing Irish
      Catholics resented the intruders).
    • Many of the Scots-Irish reached America and became squatters, quarreling with both Indians and white landowners.
    • They seemed to try to move as far from Britain as possible, trickling down to Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas.
    • In 1764, the Scots-Irish led the armed march of the Paxton Boys.
      The Paxtons led a march on Philadelphia to protest the Quaker’
      peaceful treatment of the Indians. They later started the North
      Carolina Regulator movement in the hills and mountains of the colony,
      aimed against domination by eastern powers in the colony.
    • They were known to be very hot-headed and independent minded.
    • Many eventually became American revolutionists.
  4. About 5% of the multicolored population consisted of other European
    groups, like French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish,
    Swiss, and Scots-Highlanders.
  5. Americans were of all races and mixed bloods, so it was no wonder
    that other races from other countries had a hard time classifying them.

III. The Structure of the Colonial Society

  1. In contrast to contemporary Europe, America was a land of opportunity.
    • Anyone who was willing to work hard could possibly go from rags to riches, and poverty was scorned.
    • Class differences did emerge, as a small group of aristocrats (made
      up of the rich farmers, merchants, officials, clergymen) had much of
      the power.
  2. Also, armed conflicts in the 1690s and 1700s enriched a number of merchants in the New England and middle colonies.
  3. War also created many widows and orphans who eventually had to turn to charity.
  4. In the South, a firm social pyramid emerged containing…
    • The immensely rich plantation owners (“planters”) had many slaves (though these were few).
    • “Yeoman” farmers, or small farmers. They owned their land and, maybe, a few slaves.
    • Landless whites who owned no land and either worked for a landowner or rented land to farm.
    • Indentured servants of America were the paupers and the criminals
      sent to the New World. Some of them were actually unfortunate victims
      of Britain’s unfair laws and did become respectable citizens.
      This group was dwindling though by the 1700s, thanks to Bacon’s
      Rebellion and the move away from indentured servant labor and toward
      slavery.
    • Black slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder with no rights
      or hopes up moving up or even gaining freedom. Slavery became a
      divisive issue because some colonies didn’t want slaves while
      others needed them, and therefore vetoed any bill banning the
      importation of slaves.

IV. Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists

  1. The most honored profession in the colonial times was the clergy
    (priests), which in 1775, had less power than before during the height
    of the “Bible Commonwealth,” but still wielded a great
    amount of authority.
  2. Physicians were not highly esteemed and many of them were bad as medical practices were archaic.
    • Bleeding was often a favorite, and deadly, solution to illnesses.
    • Plagues were a nightmare.
      • Smallpox (afflicting 1 of 5 persons, including George Washington)
        was rampant, though a crude form of inoculation for it was introduced
        in 1721.
      • Some of the clergy and doctors didn’t like the inoculation though, preferring not to tamper with the will of God.
  3. At first, lawyers weren’t liked, being regarded as noisy scumbags.
    • Criminals often represented themselves in court.
    • By 1750, lawyers were recognized as useful, and many defended
      high-profile cases, were great orators and played important roles in
      the history of America.

V. Workaday America

  1. Agriculture was the leading industry (by a huge margin), since farmers could seem to grow anything.
    • In Maryland and Virginia, tobacco was the staple crop, and by 1759, New York was exporting 80,000 barrels of flour a year.
  2. Fishing could be rewarding, though not as much as farming, and it
    was pursued in all the American colonies especially in New England.
  3. Trading was also a popular and prevalent industry, as commerce occurred all around the colonies.
    • The “triangular trade” was common: a
      ship, for example, would leave (1) New England with rum and go to the
      (2) Gold Coast of Africa and trade it for African slaves. Then, it
      would go to the (3) West Indies and exchange the slaves for molasses
      (for rum), which it’d sell to New England once it returned there.
  4. Manufacturing was not as important, though many small enterprises existed.
  5. Strong-backed laborers and skilled craftspeople were scarce and highly prized.
  6. Perhaps the single most important manufacturing activity was lumbering.
    • Britain sometimes marked the tallest trees for its navy’s
      masts, and colonists resented that, even though there were countless
      other good trees in the area and the marked tree was going toward a
      common defense (it was the principle of Britain-first that was
      detested).
  7. In 1733, Parliament passed the Molasses Act,
    which, if successful, would have struck a crippling blow to American
    international trade by hindering its trade with the French West Indies.
    • The result was disagreement, and colonists got around the act through smuggling.

VI. Horsepower and Sailpower

  1. Roads in 1700s America were very poor, and they only connected the large cites.
    • It took a young Benjamin Franklin 9 days to get from Boston to Philadelphia.
  2. Roads were so bad that they were dangerous.
    • People who would venture these roads would often sign wills and pray with family members before embarking.
    • As a result, towns seemed to cluster around slow, navigable water sources, like gentle rivers, or by the ocean.
  3. Taverns and bars sprang up to serve weary travelers and were great places of gossip and news.
  4. An inter-colonial mail system was set up in the mid-1700s, but
    mailmen often passed time by reading private letters, since there was
    nothing else to do.

VII. Dominant Denominations

  1. Two “established churches” (tax-supported) by 1775 were the Anglican and the Congregational.
  2. A great majority of people didn’t worship in churches.
  3. The Church of England (the Anglican Church) was official in Georgia, both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and a part of New York.
    • Anglican sermons were shorter, its descriptions of hell were less frightening, and amusements were less scorned.
    • For Anglicans, not having a resident bishop proved to be a problem for unordained young ministers.
    • So, William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train young clergy members.
  4. The Congregational church had grown from the Puritan church, and it was established in all the New England colonies except for Rhode Island.
    • There was worry by the late 1600s that people weren’t devout enough.

VIII. The Great Awakening

  1. Due to less religious fervor than before, and worry that so many
    people would not be saved, the stage was set for a revival, which
    occurred, and became the First Great Awakening.
  2. Jonathan Edwards was a preacher with fiery
    preaching methods, emotionally moving many listeners to tears while
    talking of the eternal damnation that nonbelievers would face after
    death.
    • He began preaching in 1734, and his methods sparked debate among his peers.
    • Most famous sermon was “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry
      God,” describing a man dangling a spider over a blazing fire,
      able to drop the spider in at any time – just as God could do to
      man.
    • His famous metaphor: “The road to hell is paved with the skulls of unbaptized children.”
  3. George Whitefield was even better than Edwards when he started four years later.
    • An orator of rare gifts, he even made Jonathan Edwards weep and
      persuaded always skeptical Ben Franklin to empty his pockets into the
      collection plate.
    • Imitators copied his emotional shaking sermons and his heaping of blame on sinners.
  4. These new preachers were met with skepticism by the “old lights,” or the orthodox clergymen.
  5. However, the Great Awakening led to the founding of “new
    light” centers like Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
  6. The Great Awakening was the first religious experience shared by all Americans as a group.

IX. Schools and Colleges

  1. Education was most important in New England, where it was used to train young future clergymen.
    • In other parts of America, farm labor used up most of the time that
      would have been spent in school. However, there were fairly adequate
      primary and secondary schools in areas other than New England. The only
      problem was that only well-to-do children could afford to attend.
  2. In a gloomy and grim atmosphere, colonial schools put most of the
    emphasis on religion and on the classical languages, as well as
    doctrine and orthodoxy.
    • Discipline was quite severe, such as a child being cut by a limb from a birch tree.
  3. Also, at least in New England, college education was regarded more important than the ABC’s.
  4. Eventually, some change was made with emphasis of curriculum change
    from dead languages to live ones, and Ben Franklin helped by launching
    the school that would become the University of Pennsylvania.

X. A Provincial Culture

  1. Though there was little time for recreation (due to farm work, fear
    of Indians, etc…), the little free time that was there was used
    on religion, not art.
  2. Painters were frowned upon as pursuing a worthless pastime.
    • John Trumbull of Connecticut was discouraged, as a youth, by his father.
    • Charles Willson Peale, best know for his portraits
      of George Washington, also ran a museum, stuffed birds, and practiced
      dentistry in addition to his art.
    • Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley had to go to England to complete their ambitious careers.
  3. Architecture was largely imported from the Old World and modified to meet American needs.
    • The log cabin was borrowed from Sweden.
    • The classical, red-bricked Georgian style of architecture was introduced about 1720.
  4. Colonial literature was also generally undistinguished.
    • However, a slave girl, Phillis Wheatley, who had never been
      formally educated, did go to Britain and publish a book of verse and
      subsequently wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of
      Alexander Pope.
    • Ben Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack
      was very influential, containing many common sayings and phrases, and
      was more widely read in America and Europe than anything but for the
      Bible.
      • Ben Franklin’s experiments with science, and his sheer power of observation, also helped advance science.

XI. Pioneer Presses

  1. Few libraries were found in early America, and few Americans were rich enough to buy books.
  2. On the eve of the revolution, many hand-operated presses cranked out leaflets, pamphlets, and journals signed with pseudonyms.
  3. In one famous case, John Peter Zenger, a New York
    newspaper printer, was taken to court and charged with seditious libel
    (writing in a malicious manner against someone).
    • The judge urged the jury to consider that the mere fact of
      publishing was a crime, no matter whether the content was derogatory or
      not.
    • Zenger won after his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, excellently defended his case.
    • The importance—freedom of the press scored a huge early victory in this case.

XII. The Great Game of Politics

  1. By 1775, eight of the colonies had royal governors who were appointed by the king.
  2. Three had governors chosen by proprietors.
  3. Practically every colony utilized a two-house legislative body.
    • The upper house was appointed by royal officials or proprietors.
    • The lower house was elected by the people.
  4. Self-taxation with representation came to be a cherished privilege that Americans came to value above most other rights.
  5. Most governors did a good job, but some were just plain corrupt.
    • I.e., Lord Cornbury, first cousin of Queen Anne, was made governor
      of New York and New Jersey in 1702, but proved to be a drunkard, a
      spendthrift, a grafter, and embezzler, a religious bigot, a
      cross-dresser, and a vain fool.
  6. The right to vote was not available to just anyone, just white male landowners only.
    • However, the ease of acquiring land to hard workers made voting a privilege easily attainable to many people in this group.

XIII. Colonial Folkways

  1. Americans had many hardships, as many basic amenities that we have today were not available.
    • Churches weren’t heated at all.
    • Running water or plumbing in houses was nonexistent.
    • Garbage disposal was primitive at best.
  2. Yet, amusement was permitted, and people often worked/partied
    during house-raisings, barn-raisings, apple-parings, quilting bees,
    husking bees, and other merrymaking.
  3. In the South, card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunting were fun.
  4. Lotteries were universally approved, even by the clergy because they helped raise money for churches and colleges.
  5. Stage plays were popular in the South, but not really in the North.
  6. Holidays were celebrated everywhere in the colonies (New England didn’t like Christmas, though).
  7. America in 1775 was like a quilt, each part different and
    individual in its own way, but all coming together to form one single,
    unified piece.

XIV. Makers of America: The Scots-Irish

  1. Life for the Scots was miserable in England, as many were extremely
    poor, and Britain still taxed them, squeezing the last cent out of them.
  2. Migrating to Ulster, in Ireland, the Scots still felt unwelcome, and eventually came to America.
  3. They constantly tried to further themselves away from Britain.
    • Most went to Pennsylvania, where tolerance was high.
  4. The Scots-Irish were many of America’s pioneers, clearing the trails for others to follow.
  5. Otherwise independent, religion was the only thing that bonded these people (Presbyterian).
  6. Their hatred of England made them great allies and supporters of the United States during the Revolutionary War.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

I. France Finds a Foothold in Canada

  1. Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the race for colonies.
    • It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife.
    • In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots.
  2. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies.
    • In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River.
  3. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the “Father of New France.”
    • He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeat the Iroquois.
    • The Iroquois, however, did hamper French efforts into the Ohio Valley later.
  4. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate
    to North America by hordes. The peasants were too poor, and the
    Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave.

II. New France Fans Out

  1. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver.
  2. Beaver hunters were known as the coureurs de bois
    (runners of the woods) and littered the land with place names,
    including Baton Rouge (red stick), Terre Haute (high land), Des Moines
    (some monks) and Grand Teton (big breasts).
  3. The French voyageurs also recruited Indians to
    hunt for beaver as well, but Indians were decimated by the white
    man’s diseases, and the beaver population was heavily
    extinguished.
  4. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians.
  5. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701.
  6. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de LaSalle, to halt Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico.
    • Three years later, he tried to fulfill his dreams by returning, but
      instead landed in Spanish Texas and was murdered by his mutinous men in
      1687.
  7. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts
    and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the
    garden of France’s North American empire.

III. The Clash of Empires

  1. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War
    • The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies.
      • Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on.
    • The French-inspired Indians ravaged Schenectady, New York, and Deerfield, Mass.
    • The British did try to capture Quebec and Montreal, failed, but did temporarily have Port Royal.
    • The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova
      Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French
      settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading
      rights with Spanish America.
  2. The War of Jenkins’s Ear
    • An English Captain named Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish
      commander, who had essentially sneered at him to go home crying.
    • This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia.
    • This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George’s War in America.
    • France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops
      captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cape Breton Island (Fort
      Louisbourg).
    • However, peace terms of this war gave strategically located
      Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France,
      outraging the colonists, who feared the fort.

IV. George Washington Inaugurates War with France

  1. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French.
    • It was lush, fertile, and very good land.
  2. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen.
    • Encountering some Frenchmen in the forest about 40 miles from Fort Duquesne, the troops opened fire, killing the French leader.
    • Later, the French returned and surrounded Washington’s hastily constructed Fort Necessity, fought “Indian style” (hiding and guerilla fighting), and after a 10-hour siege, made him surrender.
    • He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war.

V. Global War and Colonial Disunity

  1. The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three.
  2. The French and Indian War (AKA Seven Years’ War) began with Washington’s battle with the French.
  3. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia.
  4. In Germany (Prussia), Fredrick the Great won his title of
    “Great” by repelling French, Austrian, and Russian armies,
    even though he was badly outnumbered.
  5. Many Americans sought for the American colonies to unite, for strength lay in numbers.
  6. In 1754, 7 of the 13 colonies met for an inter-colonial congress held in Albany, New York, known simply as the Albany Congress.
    • A month before the congress, Ben Franklin had published his famous
      “Join or Die” cartoon featuring a snake in pieces,
      symbolizing the colonies.
    • Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan
      failed because the states were reluctant to give up their sovereignty
      or power. Still, it was a first step toward unity.

VI. Braddock’s Blundering and Its Aftermath

  1. In the beginning, the British sent haughty 60 year-old Gen. Edward Braddock to lead a bunch of inexperienced soldiers with slow, heavy artillery.
  2. In a battle with the French, the British were ambushed routed by French using “Indian-tactics.”
    • In this battle, Washington reportedly had two horses shot from
      under him and four bullets go through his coat, but never through him.
  3. Afterwards, the frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina felt the Indian wrath, as scalping occurred everywhere.
  4. As the British tried to attack a bunch of strategic wilderness posts, defeat after defeat piled up.

VII. Pitt’s Palms of Victory

  1. In this hour of British trouble, William Pitt, the “Great Commoner,” took the lead.
  2. In 1757, he became a foremost leader in the London government and later earned the title of “Organizer of Victory”
  3. Changes Pitt made…
    • He soft-pedaled assaults on the French West Indies, assaults which
      sapped British strength, and concentrated on Quebec-Montreal (since
      they controlled the supply routes to New France).
    • He replaced old, cautious officers with younger, daring officers
  4. In 1758, Louisbourg fell. This root of a fort began to wither the New France vine since supplies dwindled.
  5. 32 year-old James Wolfe, dashing and attentive to
    detail, commanded an army that boldly scaled the cliff walls of a part
    protecting Quebec, met French troops near the Plains of Abraham, and in
    a battle in which he and French commander Marquis de Montcalm both
    died, the French were defeated and the city of Quebec surrendered.
    • The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most
      significant engagements in British and American history, and when
      Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on
      American soil.
  6. In the Peace Treaty at Paris in 1763…
    • France was totally kicked out of North America. This meant the
      British got Canada and the land all the way to the Mississippi River.
    • The French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar
      islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the
      Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations.
  7. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war.
  8. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America.

VIII. Restless Colonists

  1. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident.
    • However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered.
  2. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors.”
    • I.e., the British refused to recognize any American officers above the rank of captain.
    • However, the hardworking Americans believed that they were equals with the Redcoats, and trouble began to brew.
  3. Brits were concerned about American secret trade with enemy traders
    during the war; in fact, in the last year of the war, the British
    forbade the export of all supplies from New England to the middle
    colonies.
  4. Also, many American colonials refused to help fight the French until Pitt offered to reimburse them.
  5. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different
    parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot
    in common (language, tradition, ideals) and barriers of disunity began
    to melt.

IX. War’s Fateful Aftermath

  1. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain.
  2. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could
    lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs
    too.
  3. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer
    play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great
    Britain in control now.
  4. In 1763, Ottawa Chief Pontiac led a few
    French-allied tribes in a brief but bloody campaign through the Ohio
    Valley, but the whites quickly and cruelly retaliated after being
    caught off guard.
    • One commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed.
    • The violence convinced whites to station troops along the frontier.
  5. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians.
    • Actually, this document was meant to work out the Indian problem by
      drawing the “out-of-bounds” line. But, colonists saw it as
      another form of oppression from a far away country. Americans asked,
      “Didn’t we just fight a war to win that land?”
    • In 1765, an estimated one thousand wagons rolled through the town
      of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in
      defiance of the Proclamation.
  6. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this
    blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for
    the Revolutionary War.

X. Makers of America: The French

  1. Louis XIV envisioned a French empire in North America, but defeats in 1713 and 1763 snuffed that out.
  2. The first French to leave Canada were the Acadians.
    • The British who had won that area had demanded that all residents either swear allegiance to Britain or leave.
    • In 1755, they were forcefully expelled from the region.
  3. The Acadians fled far south to the French colony of Louisiana,
    where they settled among sleepy bayous, planted sugar cane and sweet
    potatoes, and practiced Roman Catholicism.
    • They also spoke a French dialect that came to be called Cajun.
    • Cajuns married the Spanish, French, and Germans.
    • They were largely isolated in large families until the 1930s, when
      a bridge-building spree engineered by Governor Huey Long, broke the
      isolation of these bayou communities.
  4. In 1763, a second group of French settlers in Quebec began to
    leave, heading toward New England because poor harvests led to lack of
    food in Quebec because…
    • The people hoped to return to Canada someday.
    • They notably preserved their Roman Catholicism and their language.
    • Yet today, almost all Cajuns and New England French-Canadians speak English.
  5. Today, Quebec is the only sign of French existence that once ruled.
    • French culture is strong there in the form of road signs,
      classrooms, courts, and markets, eloquently testifying to the continued
      vitality of French culture in North America.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

I. The Deep Roots of Revolution

  1. In a broad sense, the American Revolution began when the first colonists set foot on America.
  2. The war may have lasted for eight years, but a sense of
    independence had already begun to develop because London was over 3,000
    miles away.
    • Sailing across the Atlantic in a ship often took 6 to 8 weeks.
    • Survivors felt physically and spiritually separated from Europe.
    • Colonists in America, without influence from superiors, felt that
      they were fundamentally different from England, and more independent.
    • Many began to think of themselves as Americans, and that they were on the cutting edge of the British empire.

II. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances

  1. Of the 13 original colonies, only Georgia was formally planted by
    the British government. The rest were started by companies, religious
    groups, land speculators, etc…
  2. The British embraced a theory that justified their control of the colonies called mercantilism:
    • A country’s economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury.
    • To amass gold and silver, a country had to export more than it imported (it had to obtain a favorable balance of trade).
    • Countries with colonies were at an advantage, because the colonies
      could supply the mother country with raw materials, wealth, supplies, a
      market for selling manufactured goods etc…
    • For America, that meant giving Britain all the ships, ships’ stores, sailors, and trade that they needed and wanted.
    • Also, they had to grow tobacco and sugar for England that Brits would otherwise have to buy from other countries.
  3. England’s policy of mercantilism severely handcuffed American trade.
    • The Navigation Laws were the most infamous of the laws to enforce mercantilism.
      • The first of these was enacted in 1650, and was aimed at rival
        Dutch shippers who were elbowing their way into the American shipping.
      • The Navigation Laws restricted commerce from the colonies to England (and back) to only English ships, and none other.
      • Other laws stated that European goods consigned to America had to land first in England, where custom duties could be collected.
      • Also, some products, “enumerated goods,” could only be shipped to England.
    • Settlers were even restricted in what they could manufacture at
      home; they couldn’t make woolen cloth and beaver hats to export
      (though, they could make them for themselves).
    • Americans had no currency, but they were constantly buying things
      from Britain, so that gold and silver was constantly draining out of
      America, forcing some to even trade and barter. Eventually, the
      colonists were forced to print paper money, which depreciated.
    • Colonial laws could be voided by the Privy Council, though this privilege was used sparingly (469 times out of 8,563 laws). Still, colonists were infuriated by its use.

III. The Merits and Menace of Mercantilism
Merits of mercantilism:

  1. The Navigation Laws were hated, but until 1763, they were not
    really enforced much, resulting in widespread smuggling. This lack of
    enforcement is called “salutary neglect.”
    • In fact, John Hancock amassed a fortune through smuggling.
  2. Tobacco planters, though they couldn’t ship it to anywhere except Britain, still had a monopoly within the British market.
  3. Americans had unusual opportunities for self-government.
  4. Americans also had the mightiest army in the world in Britain, and didn’t have to pay for it.
    • After independence, the U.S. had to pay for a tiny army and navy.
  5. Basically, the Americans had it made: even repressive laws
    weren’t enforced much, and the average American benefited much
    more than the average Englishman.
    • The mistakes that occurred didn’t occur out of malice, at least until the revolution.
    • Also, France and Spain embraced mercantilism, and enforced it heavily.

Menace of mercantilism:

  1. After Britain began to enforce mercantilism in 1763, the fuse for the American Revolution was lit.
  2. Disadvantages of mercantilism included:
    • Americans couldn’t buy, sell, ship, or manufacture under their most favorable conditions.
    • The South, which produced crops that weren’t grown in England, was preferred over the North.
      • Virginia, which grew just tobacco, was at the mercy of the British
        buyers, who often paid very poorly and were responsible for putting
        many planters into debt.
  • Many colonists felt that Britain was just milking her colonies for all they were worth.
    • Theodore Roosevelt later said, “Revolution broke out because
      England failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one.”

IV. The Stamp Tax Uproar

  1. After the Seven Years’ War (French & Indian War), Britain
    had huge debt, and though it fairly had no intention of making the
    Americans pay off all of it for Britain, it did feel that Americans
    should pay off one-third of the cost, since Redcoats had been used for
    the protection of the Americans.
  2. Prime Minister George Grenville, an honest and
    able financier but not noted for tact, ordered that the Navigation Laws
    be enforced, arousing resentment of settlers.
    • He also secured the Sugar Act of 1764, which
      increased duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies; after
      numerous protests from spoiled Americans, the duties were reduced.
  3. The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.
  4. In 1765, he also imposed a stamp tax to raise money for the new military force.
    • The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax.
    • Stamps were required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items as well as on certain types of commercial and legal documents.
    • Both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act provided for offenders to be
      tried in the admiralty courts, where defenders were guilty until proven
      innocent.
    • Grenville felt that these taxes were fair, as he was simply asking
      the colonists to pay their share of the deal; plus, Englishmen paid a
      much heavier stamp tax.
  5. Americans felt that they were unfairly taxed for an unnecessary
    army (hadn’t the French army and Pontiac’s warriors been
    defeated?), and they lashed out violently, especially against the stamp
    tax.
    • Americans formed the battle cry, “No taxation without representation!”
    • Americans were angered, mostly, to the principle of the matter at hand.
    • Americans denied the right of Parliament to tax Americans, since no Americans were seated in Parliament.
  6. Grenville replied that these statements were absurd, and pushed the idea of “virtual representation,” in which every Parliament member represented all British subjects (so Americans were represented).
  7. Americans rejected “virtual representation” as hogwash.

V. Forced Repeal the Stamp Act

  1. In 1765, representatives from 9 of the 13 colonies met in New York City to discuss the Stamp Tax.
    • The Stamp Act Congress was largely ignored in
      Britain, but was a step toward inter-colonial unity (similar to the
      Albany Congress of French & Indian War days).
  2. Some colonists agreed to boycott supplies, instead, making their own and refusing to buy British goods.
  3. Sons and Daughters of Liberty took the law into their own hands,
    tarring and feathering violators among people who had agreed to boycott
    the goods.
    • They also stormed the houses of important officials and took their money.
    • Stunned, demands appeared in Parliament for repeal of the stamp
      tax, though many wanted to know why 7.5 million Brits had to pay heavy
      taxes to protect the colonies, but 2 million colonials refused to pay
      only one-third of the cost of their own defense.
    • In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but passed the Declaratory Act, proclaiming that Parliament had the right “to bind” the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”

VI. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston “Massacre”

  1. Charles “Champaign Charley” Townshend (a man who could
    deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk) persuaded
    Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts in 1767.

They put light taxes on lead, paper, paint, and tea, which were later repealed, except tea.

  1. In 1767, New York’s legislature was suspended for failure to comply with the Quartering Act.
  2. Tea became smuggled, though, and to enforce the law, Brits had to send troops to America.
  3. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a crowd of about 60 townspeople in Boston were harassing some ten Redcoats.
    • One fellow got hit in the head, another got hit by a club.
    • Without orders but heavily provoked, the troops opened fire,
      wounding or killing eleven “innocent” citizens, including Crispus Attucks, a black former-slave and the “leader” of the mob in the Boston Massacre. Attucks became a symbol of freedom (from slave, to freeman, to martyr who stood up to Britain for liberty).
    • Only two Redcoats were prosecuted.

VII. The Seditious Committees of Correspondence

  1. King George III was 32 years old, a good person, but a poor ruler who surrounded himself with sycophants like Lord North.
  2. The Townshend Taxes didn’t really do much, so they were repealed, except for the tea tax.
  3. The colonies, in order to spread propaganda and keep the rebellious moods, set up Committees of Correspondence which was a network of letter-writers and forerunner of the Continental Congress; the first committee was started by Samuel Adams. They were key to keeping the revolution spirit rolling.

VIII. Tea Brewing in Boston

  1. In 1773, the powerful British East India Company, overburdened with 17 million pounds of unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy.
  2. The British decided to sell it to the Americans, who were
    suspicious and felt that it was a shabby attempt to trick the Americans
    with the bait of cheaper tea and paying tax.
  3. On December 16, 1773, some Whites, led by patriot Samuel Adams,
    disguised themselves as Indians, opened 342 chests and dumped the tea
    into the ocean in this “Boston Tea Party.”
    • People in Annapolis did the same and burnt the ships to water level.
    • Reaction was varied, from approval to outrage to disapproval.
    • Edmund Burke declared, “To tax and to please, no more than to love and be wise, is not given to men.”

IX. Parliament Passes the “Intolerable Acts”

  1. In 1774, by huge majorities, Parliament passed a series of “Repressive Acts” to punish the colonies, namely Massachusetts. These were called the Intolerable Acts by Americans.
    • The Boston Port Act closed the harbor in Boston.
    • Self-government was limited by forbidding town hall meetings without approval.
    • The charter to Massachusetts was revoked.
  2. The Quebec Act
    • A good law in bad company, it guaranteed Catholicism to the
      French-Canadians, permitted them to retain their old customs, and
      extended the old boundaries of Quebec all the way to the Ohio River.
    • Americans saw their territory threatened and aroused anti-Catholics
      were shocked at the enlargement that would make a Catholic area as
      large as the original 13 colonies. Plus, Americans were banned from
      this region through the Proclamation Line of 1763.

X. Bloodshed

  1. The First Continental Congress
    • In Philadelphia, from September 5th to October 26th, 1774, the First Continental Congress met to discuss problems.
    • While not wanting independence yet, it did come up with a list of grievances, which were ignored in Parliament.
    • 12 of the 13 colonies met, only Georgia didn’t have a representative there.
    • Also, they came up with a Declaration of Rights.
  2. They agreed to meet again in 1775 (the next year) if nothing happened.
  3. The “Shot Heard ‘Round the World”
    • In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize supplies and to capture Sam Adams and John Hancock.
    • Minutemen, after having eight of their own killed at Lexington,
      fought back at Concord, pushing the Redcoats back, shooting them from
      behind rocks and trees, Indian style.

XI. Imperial Strength and Weaknesses

  1. With war broken open, Britain had the heavy advantage: (1) 7.5
    million people to America’s 2 million, (2) superior naval power,
    (3) great wealth.
  2. Some 30,000 Hessians (German mercenaries) were
    also hired by George III, in addition to a professional army of about
    50,000 men, plus about 50,000 American loyalists and many Native
    Americans.
  3. However, Britain still had Ireland (which required troops) and
    France was just waiting to stab Britain in the back; plus, there was no
    William Pitt.
    • Many Brits had no desire to kill their American cousins, as shown by William Pitt’s withdrawal of his son from the army.
    • English Whigs at first supported America, as opposed to Lord North’s Tory Whigs, and they felt that if George III won, then his rule of England might become tyrannical.
    • Britain’s generals were second-rate, and its men were brutally treated.
    • Provisions were often scarce, plus Britain was fighting a war some 3,000 miles away from home.
    • America was also expansive, and there was no single capital to capture and therefore cripple the country.

XII. American Pluses and Minuses
Advantages

  1. Americans had great leaders like George Washington (giant general), and Ben Franklin (smooth diplomat).
  2. They also had French aid (indirect and secretly), as the French
    provided the Americans with guns, supplies, gunpowder, etc…
  3. Marquis de Lafayette, at age 19, was made a major general in the colonial army and was a great asset.
  4. The colonials were fighting in a defensive manner, and they were self-sustaining.
  5. They were better marksmen. A competent American rifleman could hit a man’s head at 200 yards.
  6. The Americans enjoyed the moral advantage in fighting for a just
    cause, and the historical odds weren’t unfavorable either.

Disadvantages

  1. Americans were terribly lacking in unity, though.
  2. Jealousy was prevalent, as colonies resented the Continental
    Congress’ attempt at exercising power. Sectional jealousy boiled
    up over the appointment of military leaders; some New Englanders almost
    preferred British officers to Americans from other colonies.
  3. Americans had little money. Inflation also hit families of soldiers hard, and made many people poor.
  4. Americans had nothing of a navy.

XIII. A Thin Line of Heroes

  1. The American army was desperately in need of clothing, wool, wagons to ship food, and other supplies.
  2. Many soldiers had also only received rudimentary training.
  3. German Baron von Steuben, who spoke no English, whipped the soldiers into shape.
  4. African Americans also fought and died in service, though in the beginning, many colonies barred them from service.
    • By war’s end, more than 5,000 blacks had enlisted in the American armed forces.
    • African-Americans also served on the British side.
    • In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, issued
      a proclamation declaring freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who
      joined the British Army.
    • By war’s end, at least 1,400 Blacks were evacuated to Nova Scotia, Jamaica, and England.
  5. Many people also sold items to the British, because they paid in gold.
  6. Many people just didn’t care about the revolution, and
    therefore, raising a large number of troops was difficult, if not
    impossible.
  7. Only because a select few threw themselves into the cause with passion, did the Americans win.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

I. Congress Drafts George Washington

  1. After the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775,
    about 20,000 Minutemen swarmed around Boston, where they outnumbered
    the British.
  2. The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10,
    1775, with no real intention of independence, but merely a desire to
    continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would
    consent to a redress of grievances.
    • It sent another list of grievances to Parliament.
    • It also adopted measures to raise money for an army and a navy.
    • It also selected George Washington to command the army.
      • Washington had never risen above the rank of colonel, and his
        largest command had only been of 1,200 men, but he was a tall figure
        who looked like a leader, and thus, was a morale boost to troops.
      • He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of
        justice, and though he insisted on working without pay, he did keep a
        careful expense account amounting to more than $100,000.

II. Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings

  1. In the first year, the war was one of consistency, as the colonists
    maintained their loyalty while still shooting at the king’s men.
  2. In May 1775, a tiny American force called the Green Mountain Boys,
    led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, surprised and captured the
    British garrisons at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point
    • The importance of this raid lay in the fact that they captured much-needed cannons and gunpowder.
  3. In June 1775, the colonials seized Bunker Hill (prior known as Breed’s Hill).
    • Instead of flanking them, the Redcoats launched a frontal attack,
      and the heavily entrenched colonial sharpshooters mowed them down until
      meager gunpowder supplies ran out and they were forced to retreat.
  4. After Bunker Hill, George III slammed the door for all hope of
    reconciliation and declared the colonies to be in open rebellion, a
    treasonous affair.
  5. The king also hired many German mercenaries, called Hessians, who,
    because they were lured by booty and not duty, had large numbers desert
    and remained in America to become respectful citizens.

III. The Abortive Conquest of Canada

  1. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine.
  2. The colonists decided that invading Canada would add a 14th colony
    and deprive Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies in
    revolt.
    • Also, the French-Canadians would support the Americans because they
      supposedly were bitter about Britain’s taking over of their land.
    • General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal.
    • At Quebec, he was joined by the bedraggled army of Gen. Benedict Arnold.
    • On the last day of 1775, in the assault of Quebec, Montgomery was
      killed and Arnold was wounded in one leg, and the whole campaign
      collapsed as the men retreated up the St. Lawrence River, reversing the
      way Montgomery had come.
    • Besides, the French-Canadians, who had welcomed the Quebec Act, didn’t really like the anti-Catholic invaders.
  3. In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk, Virginia, but in March, they were finally forced to evacuate Boston.
  4. In the South, the rebels won a victory against some 1,500 Loyalists
    at Moore’s Creek Bridge, in North Carolina, and against an
    invading British fleet at Charleston Harbor.

IV. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

  1. In 1776, Thomas Paine published the pamphlet Common Sense, which
    urged colonials to stop this war of inconsistency, stop pretending
    loyalty, and just fight.
  2. Nowhere in the universe did a smaller body control a larger one, so
    Paine argued, saying it was unnatural for tiny Britain to control
    gigantic America.
  3. He called King George III “the Royal Brute of Great Britain.”

V. Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”

  1. Paine argued his idea that there should be a “republic”
    where representative senators, governors, and judges should have their
    power from the consent of the people.
  2. He laced his ideas with Biblical imagery, familiar to common folk.
  3. His ideas about rejecting monarchy and empire and embrace an
    independent republic fell on receptive ears in America, though it
    should be noted that these ideas already existed.
    • The New Englanders already practiced this type of government in their town meetings.
  4. Some patriots, though, favored a republic ruled by a “natural aristocracy.”

VI. Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence

  1. Members of the Philadelphia 2nd Continental Congress, instructed by
    their colonies, gradually moved toward a clean break with Britain.
  2. On June 7, 1776, fiery Richard Henry Lee urged for complete independence, an idea that was finally adopted on July 2, 1776.
  3. To write such a statement, Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson,
    already renown as a great writer, to concoct a Declaration of
    Independence.
    • He did so eloquently, coming up with a list of grievances against
      King George III and persuasively explaining why the colonies had the
      right to revolt.
    • His “explanation” of independence also upheld the
      “natural rights” of humankind (life, liberty, and the
      pursuit of happiness).
  4. When Congress approved it on July 2nd, John Adams proclaimed that
    date to be celebrated from then on with fireworks, but because of
    editing and final approval, it was not completely approved until July
    4th, 1776.

VII. Patriots and Loyalists

  1. The War of Independence was a war within a war, as not all colonials were united.
    • There were Patriots, who supported rebellion and were called “Whigs.”
    • There were Loyalists, who supported the king and who often went to
      battle against fellow Americans. The Loyalists were also called
      “Tories.”
    • There were Moderates in the middle and those who didn’t care
      either way. These people were constantly being asked to join one side
      or another.
  2. During the war, the British proved that they could only control
    Tory areas, because when Redcoats packed up and left other areas, the
    rebels would regain control.
  3. Typical Loyalist (Tory)
    • Loyalists were generally conservatives, but the war divided
      families. For example, Benjamin Franklin was against his illegitimate
      son, William, the last royal governor of New Jersey.
    • Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican Church was strongest (the South).
    • Loyalists were less numerous in New England, where Presbyterianism
      and Congregationalism flourished. Loyalists were more numerous in the
      aristocratic areas such as Charleston, SC.
  4. Typical Patriot
    • The Patriots were generally the younger generation, like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry.
    • The Patriot militias constantly harassed small British detachments.
    • Patriots typically didn’t belong to the Anglican Church
      (Church of England) but were Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, or
      Methodist.
  5. There were also those known as “profiteers” who sold to
    the highest bidder, selling to the British and ignoring starving,
    freezing soldiers (i.e. George Washington at Valley Forge).

VIII. The Loyalist Exodus

  1. After the Declaration of Independence, Loyalists and Patriots were
    more sharply divided, and Patriots often confiscated Loyalist property
    to resell it (an easy way to raise money).
  2. Some 50,000 Loyalists served the British in one way or another
    (fighting, spying, etc…), and it was an oddity that the Brits
    didn’t make more use of them during the war.

IX. General Washington at Bay

  1. After the evacuation of Boston, the British focused on New York as a base for operations.
    • An awe-inspiring fleet appeared off the coast in July 1776,
      consisting of some 500 ships and 35,000 men—the largest armed
      force seen in America ever until the Civil War.
    • Washington could only muster 18,000 ill-trained men to fight, and they were routed at the Battle of Long Island.
      • Washington escaped to Manhattan Island, crossed the Hudson River to
        New Jersey, reaching the Delaware River with taunting, fox-hunt calling
        Brits on his heels.
    • He crossed the Delaware River at Trenton on a cold December 26,
      1776, and surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping
      off their Christmas Day celebration (drinking).
    • He then left his campfires burning as a ruse, slipped away, and
      inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton,
      showing his military genius at its best.
    • It was odd that Gen. William Howe, the British general,
      didn’t crush Washington when he was at the Delaware, but he well
      remembered Bunker Hill, and was cautious.

X. Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion

  1. London officials adopted a complicated scheme for capturing the
    vital Hudson River valley in 1777, which, if successful, would sever
    New England from the rest of the colonies. The plan was such
    that…
    • General Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada.
    • General Howe’s troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany.
    • A third and much smaller British force commanded by Col. Barry St.
      Ledger would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the
      Mohawk Valley.
  2. However, Benedict Arnold, after failure at Quebec, retreated slowly
    along the St. Lawrence back to Lake Champlain, where the British would
    have to win control (of the lake) before proceeding.
    • The Brits stopped to build a huge force, while Arnold assembled a tattered flotilla from whatever boats he could find.
    • His “navy” was destroyed, but he had gained valuable
      time, because winter set in and the British settled in Canada, thus,
      they would have to begin anew the next spring.
      • Had Arnold not contributed his daring and skill, the Brits most
        likely would have recaptured Ticonderoga and Burgoyne could have
        started from there and succeeded in his venture.
  3. Burgoyne began his mission with 7,000 troops and a heavy baggage
    train consisting of a great number of the officers’ wives.
    • Meanwhile, sneaky rebels, sensing the kill, were gathering along his flanks.
  4. General Howe, at a time when he should be starting up the Hudson, deliberately embarked for an attack on Philadelphia.
    • He wanted to force an encounter with Washington and leave the path
      wide open for Burgoyne’s thrust. He thought he had enough time to
      help Burgoyne if needed.
    • Washington transferred his troops to Philadelphia, but was defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown.
    • Then, the fun-loving Howe settled down in Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne “to the dogs.”
    • Ben Franklin, in Paris, joked that Howe hadn’t captured
      Philadelphia, but that “Philadelphia had captured Howe.”
  5. Washington finally retired for the winter at Valley Forge, where
    his troops froze in the cold, but a recently arrived Prussian
    drillmaster, Baron von Steuben, whipped the cold troops into shape.
  6. Burgoyne’s doomed troops were bogged down, and the rebels
    swarmed in with a series of sharp engagements, pushing St. Legers force
    back at Oriskany while Burgoyne, unable to advance or retreat,
    surrendered his entire force at The Battle of Saratoga, on October 17,
    1777.
    • This was perhaps one of the most decisive battles in British and American history.
    • The importance of Saratoga lay in the fact that afterwards, France
      sensed America might actually win and came out to officially help
      America.

XI. Revolution in Diplomacy?

  1. France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and secretly supplied the Americans throughout much of the war.
  2. The Continental Congress sent delegates to France. The delegates
    were guided by a “Model Treaty” which sought no political
    or military connections, but only commercial ones.
    • Ben Franklin played the diplomacy game by wearing simple gray
      clothes and a coonskin cap to supposedly exemplify a raw new America
  3. After the humiliation at Saratoga, the British offered the
    Americans a measure that gave them home rule—everything they
    wanted except independence.
  4. After Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to enter the war against Britain.
    • Louis XVI’s ministers argued that this was the perfect time
      to act, because if Britain regained control, she might then try to
      capture the French West Indies for compensation for the war.
    • Now was the time to strike, rather than risk a stronger Britain with its reunited colonies.
  5. France, in 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America
    everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of independence.
    • The Americans accepted the agreement with caution, since France was
      pro-Catholic, but since the Americans needed help, they’d take it.

XII. The Colonial War Becomes a Wider War

  1. In 1779, Spain and Holland entered the war against Britain.
  2. In 1780, Catherine the Great of Russia took the lead in organizing
    the Armed Neutrality (she later called it the Armed Nullity) that lined
    up all of Europe’s neutrals in passive hostility against England.
  3. America, though it kept the war going until 1778, didn’t win
    until France, Spain, and Holland joined in and Britain couldn’t
    handle them all.
  4. Britain, with the French now in the seas, decided to finally
    evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their forces in New York, and
    even though Washington attacked them at Monmouth on a blisteringly hot
    day in which scores of men died of sunstroke, the British escaped to
    New York.

XIII. Blow and Counterblow

  1. French reinforcements, commanded by Comte de Rochambeau, arrived in
    Newport, Rhode Island in 1780, but flares sometimes erupted between the
    Americans and the French.
  2. In 1780, feeling unappreciated and lured by British gold, Gen.
    Benedict Arnold turned traitor by plotting with the British to sell out
    West Point.
    • When the plot was discovered, he fled with the British.
    • “Whom can we trust now?” cried George Washington in anguish.
  3. The British devised a plan to roll up the colonies from the South.
    • Georgia was ruthlessly overrun in 1778-1779.
    • Charleston, South Carolina, fell in 1780.
    • In the Carolinas, Patriots bitterly fought their Loyalist neighbors.
    • However, in 1781, American riflemen wiped out a British detachment
      at King’s Mountain, and then defeated a smaller force at Cowpens.
    • At the Carolina campaign of 1781, Quaker-reared tactician Gen.
      Nathanael Greene distinguished himself with his strategy of delay.
      • By slowly retreating and losing battles but winning campaigns, he
        helped clear the British out of most of Georgia and South Carolina.

XIV. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

  1. 1777 was known as the “bloody year” on the frontier, as Indians went on a scalping spree.
  2. Most of the Indians supported Britain and believed that if they
    won, it would stop American expansion into the West, and save Indian
    land.
  3. Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, recently converted to Anglicanism, and
    his men ravaged the backcountry of Pennsylvania and New York until
    checked by the Americans in 1779.
  4. In 1784, the pro-British Iroquois (the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras
    had sided with the Americans, the other four with the British) signed
    the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the first treaty between the U.S. and an
    Indian nation.
    • Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of their land.
  5. Even in wartime, pioneers moved west, showing their gratitude to
    the French with such town names as Louisville while remembering the
    revolution with Lexington, Kentucky.
  6. George Rogers Clark, an audacious frontiersman, floated down the
    Ohio River with about 175 men in 1778-1779 and captured forts
    Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vicennes in quick succession.
  7. The tiny American navy never really hurt the British warships, but
    it did destroy British merchant shipping and carried the war into the
    waters around the British Isles.
  8. Swift privateers preyed on enemy shipping, capturing many ships and forcing them to sail in convoys.

XV. Yorktown and the Final Curtain

  1. Before the last decisive victory, inflation continued to soar, and
    the government was virtually bankrupt. It announced that it could only
    repay many of its debts at a rate of 2.5 cents on the dollar.
  2. However, Cornwallis was blundering into a trap.
    • Retreating to Chesapeake Bay and assuming that British control of
      the seas would give him much needed backup, Cornwallis instead was
      trapped by Washington’s army, which had come 300 miles from NY,
      Rochambeau’s French army, and the navy of French Admiral de
      Grasse.
  3. After hearing the news of Cornwallis’ defeat, Lord North cried, “Oh God! It’s all over!”
  4. Stubborn King George wanted to continue the war, since he still had
    54,000 troops in North America and 32,000 in the U.S., and fighting did
    continue for about a year after Yorktown, especially in the South, but
    America had won.

XVI. Peace at Paris

  1. Many Brits were weary of the war, since they had suffered heavily
    in India and the West Indies, the island of Minorca in the
    Mediterranean which had fallen, and the Rock of Gibraltar was tottering.
  2. Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay met in Paris for a peace deal.
    • Jay suspected that France would try to keep the U.S. cooped up east of the Alleghenies and keep America weak.
    • Instead, Jay, thinking that France would betray American ambition
      to satisfy those of Spain, secretly made separate overtures to London
      (against instructions from Congress) and came to terms quickly with the
      British, who were eager to entice one of their enemies from the
      alliance.
  3. The Treaty of Paris of 1783
    • Britain formally recognized U.S. independence and granted generous
      boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi River to the
      west, the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the South.
    • The Yankees also retained a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.
    • Americans couldn’t persecute Loyalists, though, and Congress
      could only recommend legislature that would return or pay for
      confiscated Loyalist land.

XVII. A New Nation Legitimized

  1. Britain ceded so much land because it was trying to entice America from its French alliance.
    • Remember, George Rogers Clark had only conquered a small part of that western land.
  2. Also, during the time, the American-friendly Whigs were in control
    of the Parliament, which was not to be the case in later years.
  3. France approved the treaty, though with cautious eyes.
  4. In truth, America came out the big winner, and seldom, if ever, have any people been so favored.

XVIII. Makers of America: The Loyalists

  1. Loyalists were conservative, well-educated, and thought that a
    complete break with Britain would invite anarchy. They felt that
    America couldn’t win against the most powerful nation in the
    world.
  2. Many Britons had settled in America after the Seven Years’ War, and they had reason to support their home country.
  3. Thousands of African-Americans joined the British ranks for hope of freedom from bondage.
    • Many Black Loyalists won their freedom from Britain.
    • Others suffered betrayal, such as when Cornwallis abandoned over
      4,000 former slaves in Virginia and when many Black Loyalists boarded
      ships expecting to embark for freedom but instead found themselves sold
      back into slavery.
    • Some Black exiles settled in Britain, but weren’t really easily accepted.
  4. Most Loyalists remained in America, where they faced special
    burdens and struggled to re-establish themselves in a society that
    viewed them as traitors.
  5. Hugh Gaine, though, succeeded in building back his name.
    • He reopened his business and even won contracts from the new government.
    • He also published the new national army regulations authored by Baron von Steuben.
    • When New York ratified the Constitution in 1788, Gaine rode the float at the head of the city’s celebration parade.
    • He had, like many other former Loyalists, become an American.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

I. The Pursuit of Equality

  1. The American Revolution was more of an accelerated evolution than a revolution.
  2. However, the exodus of some 80,000 Loyalists left a great lack of conservatives.
    • This weakening of the aristocratic “upper crust” let Patriot elites emerge.
  3. The fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains.
    • The Congregational church continued to be legally established (tax
      supported) by some New England states, but the Anglican Church was
      humbled and reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church.
  4. Slavery was a large, problematic issue, as the Continental Congress
    of 1774 had called for the abolition of slavery, and in 1775, the
    Philadelphia Quakers founded the world’s first antislavery
    society.
    • This new spirit that “all men are created equal” even inspired a few slave owners to free their slaves.
  5. Another issue was women. They still were unequal to men, even
    though some had served (disguised as men) in the Revolutionary War.
    • There were some achievements for women such as New Jersey’s 1776 constitution which allowed women to vote (for a time).
    • Mothers devoted to their families were developed as an idea of
      “republican motherhood” and elevated women to higher
      statuses as keepers of the nation’s conscience. Women raised the
      children and thereby held the future of the republic in their hands.

II. Constitution Making in the States

  1. The Continental Congress of 1776 called upon colonies to draft new
    constitutions (thus began the formation of the Articles of the
    Confederation).
    • Massachusetts contributed one innovation when it called a special
      convention to draft its constitution and made it so that the
      constitution could only be changed through another specially called
      constitutional convention.
    • Many states had written documents that represented a fundamental law.
    • Many had a bill of rights and also required annual election of legislators.
    • All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial
      branches since they distrusted power due to Britain’s abuse of it.
    • In most states, the legislative branch was given sweeping powers,
      though some people, like Thomas Jefferson, warned that “173
      despots [in legislature] would surely be as oppressive as one.”
  2. Many state capitals followed the migration of the people and moved
    westward, as in New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and
    Georgia.

III. Economic Crosscurrents

  1. After the Revolution, Loyalist land was seized, but people didn’t chop heads off (as later in France).
  2. Goods formerly imported from England were cut off, forcing Americans to make their own.
  3. Still, America remained agriculturalist by a large degree. Industrialization would come much later.
  4. Prior to war, Americans had great trade with Britain, and now they
    didn’t. But they could now trade with foreign countries, and with
    any nation they wanted to, a privilege they didn’t have before.
  5. Yankee shippers like the Empress of China (1784) boldly ventured into far off places.
  6. However, inflation was rampant, and taxes were hated. The rich had
    become poor, and the newly rich were viewed with suspicion. Disrespect
    of private property became shocking.

IV. A Shaky Start Toward Union

  1. While the U.S. had to create a new government, the people were far from united.
  2. In 1786, after the war, Britain flooded America with cheap goods, greatly hurting American industries.
  3. However, the states all did share similar constitutions, had a rich
    political inheritance form Britain, and America was blessed with men
    like Washington, Madison, Jefferson, Hamilton, and John Adams, great
    political leaders of high order.

V. Creating a Confederation

  1. The new states chose a confederation as their first
    government—a loose union of states where a federal and state
    level exist, yet the state level retains the most sovereignty to
    “do their own thing.”
    • For example, during the war, states had created their own individual currencies and tax barriers.
  2. The Articles of the Confederation was finished in 1777, but it was
    finally completely ratified by the last state, Maryland, on March 1,
    1781.
  3. A major dispute was that states like New York and Virginia had huge
    tracts of land west of the Appalachians that they could sell off to pay
    off their debts while other states could not do so.
    • As a compromise, these lands were ceded to the federal government,
      which pledged to dispense them for the common good of the union (states
      would be made).
    • The Northwest Ordinance later confirmed this.

VI. The Articles of the Confederation: America’s First Constitution

  1. The main thing to know regarding the Articles is that they set up a
    very weak government. This was not by accident, but by plan. The reason
    a weak government was desired was simply to avoid a strong national
    government that would take away unalienable rights or abuse their power
    (i.e. England).
  2. The Articles had no executive branch (hence, no single leader), a
    weak Congress in which each state had only one vote, it required 2/3
    majority on any subject of importance, and a fully unanimous vote for
    amendments.
  3. Also, Congress was pitifully weak, and could not regulate commerce and could not enforce tax collection.
    • States printed their own, worthless paper money.
    • States competed with one another for foreign trade. The federal government was helpless.
  4. Congress could only call up soldiers from the states, which weren’t going to help each other.
    • Example: in 1783, a group of Pennsylvanian soldiers harassed the
      government in Philadelphia, demanding back pay. When it pleaded for
      help from the state, and didn’t receive any, it had to shamefully
      move to Princeton College in New Jersey.
  5. However, the government was a model of what a loose confederation
    should be, and was a significant stepping-stone towards the
    establishment of the U.S. Constitution.
  6. Still, many thought the states wielded an alarmingly great of power.

VII. Landmarks in Land Laws

  1. The Land Ordinance of 1785 answered the question, “How will
    the new lands in the Ohio Valley be divided up?” It provided the
    acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds be
    used to pay off the national debt.
    • This vast area would be surveyed before settlement and then divided
      into townships (six miles square), which would then be divided into 36
      square sections (1 mile square) with one set aside for public schools
      (section #16).
  2. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 answered the question, “How
    will new states be made once people move out there?” It made
    admission into the union a two stage affair:
    • There would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government.
    • When a territory had 60,000 inhabitants, they wrote a state
      constitution and sent it to Congress for approval. If approved,
      it’s a new state.
    • It worked very well to solve a problem that had plagued many other nations.

VIII. The World’s Ugly Duckling

  1. However, Britain still refused to repeal the Navigation Laws, and
    closed down its trading to the U.S. (proved useless to U.S. smuggling).
    It also sought to annex Vermont to Britain with help from the Allen
    brothers and Britain continued to hold a chain of military posts on
    U.S. soil.
    • One excuse used was that the soldiers had to make sure the U.S. honor its treaty and pay back debts to Loyalists.
  2. In 1784, Spain closed the Mississippi River to American commerce.
  3. It also claimed a large area near the Gulf of Mexico that was ceded to the U.S. by Britain.
    • At Natchez, on disputed soil, it also held a strategic fort.
  4. Both Spain and England, while encouraging Indian tribes to be
    restless, prevented the U.S. from controlling half of its territory.
  5. Even France demanded payment of U.S. debts to France.
  6. The pirates of the North African states, including the arrogant Dey
    of Algiers, ravaged U.S. ships in the area and enslaved Yankee sailors.
    Worse, America was just too weak to stop them.

IX. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy

  1. States were refusing to pay taxes, and national debt was mounting as foreign credibility was slipping.
  2. Boundary disputes erupted into small battles while states taxed goods from other states.
  3. Shays’ Rebellion, which flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786.
    • Shays’ was disgruntled over getting farmland mortgages.
      Notably, the inability to get land is the same motivation for rebellion
      as Bacon’s Rebellion back in 1676 in Virginia. And, the desire
      for land was also the motivator of the Paxton Boys in Pennsylvania in
      1764.
    • Daniel Shays was convicted, but later pardoned.
    • The importance of Shays’ Rebellion‡ The fear of such
      violence lived on and paranoia motivated folks to desire a stronger
      federal government.
  4. People were beginning to doubt republicanism and this Articles of the Confederation.
  5. However, many supporters believed that the Articles merely needed to be strengthened.
  6. Things began to look brighter, though, as prosperity was beginning
    to emerge. Congress was beginning to control commerce, and overseas
    shipping was regaining its place in the world.

X. A Convention of “Demigods”

  1. An Annapolis, Maryland convention was called to address the
    Articles’ inability to regulate commerce, but only five states
    were represented. They decided to meet again.
  2. On May 25, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island
    wasn’t there) met in Philadelphia to “revise the Articles
    only.”
    • Among them were people like Hamilton, Franklin, and Madison.
    • However, people like Jefferson, John and Sam Adams, Thomas Paine,
      Hancock, and Patrick Henry were not there. Notably the Patriots like
      Sam Adams were seen as too radical.

XI. Patriots in Philadelphia

  1. The 55 delegates were all well-off and mostly young, and they hoped
    to preserve the union, protect the American democracy from abroad and
    preserve it at home, and to curb the unrestrained democracy rampant in
    various states (like rebellions, etc…).

XII. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises

  1. The delegates quickly decided to totally scrap the Articles and create a new Constitution.
    • Virginia’s large state plan called for Congressional
      representation based on state population, while New Jersey’s
      small state plan called for equal representation from all states (in
      terms of numbers, each state got the same number of representatives,
      two.)
    • Afterwards, the “Great Compromise” was worked out so
      that Congress would have two houses, the House of Representatives,
      where representation was based on population, and the Senate, where
      each state got two representatives
    • All tax bills would start in the House.
  2. Also, there would be a strong, independent executive branch with a
    president who would be military commander-in-chief and who could veto
    legislation.
  3. Another compromise was the election of the president through the
    Electoral College, rather than by the people directly. The people were
    viewed as too ignorant to vote.
  4. Also, slaves would count as 3/5 of a person in census counts for representation.
    • Also, the Constitution enabled a state to shut off slave importation if it wanted, after 1807.

XIII. Safeguards for Conservatism

  1. The delegates at the Convention all believed in a system with
    checks and balances, and the more conservative people deliberately
    erected safeguards against excesses of mobs. Such as…
    • Federal chief justices were appointed for life, thus creating stability conservatives liked.
    • The electoral college created a buffer between the people and the presidency.
    • Senators were elected by state legislators, not by the people.
    • So, the people voted for 1/2 of 1/3 of the government (only for representatives in the House).
  2. However, the people still had power, and government was based on the people.
  3. By the end of the Convention, on Sept. 17, 1787, only 42 of the original 55 were still there to sign the Constitution.

XIV. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists

  1. Knowing that state legislatures would certainly veto the new
    Constitution, the Founding Fathers sent copies of it out to state
    conventions, where it could be debated and voted upon.
    • The people could judge it themselves.
  2. The American people were shocked, because they had expected a
    patched up Articles of the Confederation and had received a whole new
    Constitution (the Convention had been very well concealed and kept
    secret).
  3. The Federalists, who favored the proposed stronger government, were
    against the anti-federalists, who were opposed to the Constitution.
    • The Federalists were more respectable and generally embraced the
      cultured and propertied groups, and many were former Loyalists. These
      folks lived nearer the coast in the older areas.
  4. Anti-federalists truthfully cried that it was drawn up by aristocratic elements and was therefore anti-democratic.
    • The Anti-federalists were mostly the poor farmers, the illiterate,
      and states’ rights devotees. It was basically the poorer classes
      who lived westward toward the frontier.
    • They decried the dropping of annual elections of congressional
      representatives and the erecting of what would become Washington D.C.,
      and the creation of a standing army.

XV. The Great Debate in the States

  1. Elections were run to elect people into the state conventions.
  2. Four small states quickly ratified the Constitution, and Pennsylvania was the first large state to act.
  3. In Massachusetts, a hard fought race between the supporters and
    detractors (including Samuel Adams, the “Engineer of
    Revolution” who now resisted change), and Massachusetts finally
    ratified it after a promise of a bill of rights to be added later.
    • Had this state not ratified, it would have brought the whole thing down.
  4. Three more states ratified, and on June 21, 1788, the Constitution
    was officially adopted after nine states (all but Virginia, New York,
    North Carolina, and Rhode Island) had ratified it.

XVI. The Four Laggard States

  1. Virginia, knowing that it could not be an independent state (the
    Constitution was about to be ratified by the 9th state, New Hampshire,
    anyway), finally ratified it by a vote of 89 to 79.
  2. New York was swayed by The Federalist Papers, written by John Jay,
    James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, and finally yielded after
    realizing that it couldn’t prosper apart from the union.
  3. North Carolina and Rhode Island finally ratified it after intense pressure from the government.

XVII. A Conservative Triumph

  1. The minority had triumphed again, and the transition had been peaceful.
  2. Only about 1/4 of the adult white males in the country (mainly those with land) had voted for the ratifying delegates.
  3. Conservationism was victorious, as the safeguards had been erected against mob-rule excesses.
  4. Revolutionaries against Britain had been upended by revolutionaries against the Articles.
    • It was a type of counterrevolution.
  5. Federalists believed that every branch of government effectively
    represented the people, unlike Anti-federalists who believed that only
    the legislative branch did so.
  6. In the U.S., conservatives and radicals alike have championed the heritage of democratic revolution.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

I. Growing Pains

  1. In 1789, the new U.S. Constitution was launched, and the population was doubling every 20 years.
    • America’s population was still 90% rural, with 5% living west of the Appalachians.
    • Vermont became the 14th state in 1791, and Kentucky, Tennessee, and
      Ohio (states where trans-Appalachian overflow was concentrated) became
      states soon after.
    • Visitors looked down upon the crude, rough pioneers, and these western people were restive and dubiously loyal at best.
  2. In the twelve years after American independence, laws had been
    broken and a constitution had been completely scrapped and replaced
    with a new one, a government that left much to be desired.
  3. America was also heavily in debt, and paper money was worthless,
    but meanwhile, restless monarchs watched to see if the U.S. could
    succeed in setting up a republic while facing such overwhelming odds.

II. Washington for President

  1. At 6’2”, 175 pounds, with broad and sloping shoulders, a strongly
    pointed chin and pockmarks from smallpox, George Washington was an
    imposing figure, which helped in his getting unanimously elected as
    president by the Electoral College in 1789.
  2. His long journey from Mt. Vernon to New York (capital at the time)
    was a triumphant procession filled with cheering crowds and roaring
    festivities, and he took his oath of office on April 30, 1789, on a
    balcony overlooking Wall Street.
  3. Washington established a diverse cabinet (which was not necessary Constitutional).
    • Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
    • Secretary of the Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
    • Secretary of War: Henry Knox

III. The Bill of Rights

  1. Many states had ratified the Constitution on the condition that
    there would be a Bill of Rights, and many Anti-Federalists had
    criticized the Constitution for its lack of a Bill.
  2. The necessary number of states adopted the Bill of Rights in 1791.
  3. Bill of Rights
    • Amendment I: Freedom of religion, speech or press, assembly, and petition.
    • Amendment II: Right to bear arms (for militia).
    • Amendment III: Soldiers can’t be housed in civilian homes during peacetime.
    • Amendment IV: No unreasonable searches; all searches require warrants.
    • Amendment V: Right to refuse to speak during a civil trial; No Double Jeopardy.
    • Amendment VI: Right to a speedy and public trial.
    • Amendment VII: Right to trial by jury when the sum exceeds $20.
    • Amendment VIII: No excessive bails and/or fines.
    • Amendment IX: Other rights not enumerated are also in effect. (“People’s Rights” Amendment)
    • Amendment X: Unlisted powers belong to the state. (“States’ Rights” Amendment)
  4. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created effective federal courts.
  5. John Jay became the first Chief Justice of the United States

IV. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

  1. Born in the British West Indies, Alexander Hamilton’s loyalty to
    the U.S. was often questioned, even though he claimed he loved his
    adopted country more than his native country.
  2. He urged the federal government to pay its debts of $54 million and
    try to pay them off at face value (“Funding at Par”), plus interest, as
    well as assume the debts of the states of $21.5 million (this was known
    as "assumption").
    • Massachusetts had a huge debt, but Virginia didn’t, so there needed
      to be some haggling. This was because Virginia felt it unfair that all
      debts were to be assumed by the entire nation. Essentially, its rival
      states would be at the same level as Virginia, even though they had
      obtained larger debts.
    • The bargain‡ Virginia would have the District of Columbia built on
      its land (therefore gaining prestige) in return for letting the
      government assume all the states’ debts.
  3. The “Funding at Par” would gain the support of the rich to the federal government, not to the states.

V. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes

  1. With the national debt at a huge $75 million, Alexander Hamilton was strangely unworried.
  2. He used the debt as an asset: the more people the government owed
    money to, the more people would care about what would happen to the
    U.S. as a whole nation.
  3. To pay off some of the debt, Hamilton first proposed custom duties,
    and the first one, imposing a low tariff of about 8% of the value of
    dutiable imports, was passed in 1789.
    • Hamilton also wanted to protect America’s infant industries, though
      the U.S. was still dominated by agricultural programs. Little was done
      regarding this.
  4. In 1791, Hamilton secured an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey (at 7 cents per gallon).

VI. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

  1. Hamilton proposed a national treasury, to be a private institution
    modeled after the Bank of England, to have the federal government as a
    major stockholder, to circulate cash to stimulate businesses, to store
    excess money, and to print money that was worth something. This was
    opposed by Jefferson as being unconstitutional (as well as a tool for
    the rich to better themselves).
  2. Hamilton’s Views:
    • What was not forbidden in the Constitution was permitted.
    • A bank was “necessary and proper” (from Constitution).
    • He evolved the Elastic Clause, AKA the “necessary and proper”
      clause, which would greatly expand federal power. This is a “loose
      interpretation” of the Constitution.
  3. Jefferson’s Views:
    • What was not permitted was forbidden.
    • A bank should be a state-controlled item (since the 10th Amendment
      says powers not delegated in the Constitution are left to the states).
    • The Constitution should be interpreted literally and through a “strict interpretation.”
  4. End result: Hamilton won the dispute, and Washington reluctantly
    signed the bank measure into law. The Bank of the United States was
    created by Congress in 1791, and was chartered for 20 years.
    • It was located in Philadelphia and was to have a capital of $10 million.
    • Stock was thrown open to public sale, and surprisingly, a milling crowd oversubscribed in two hours.

VII. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania

  1. In 1794, in western Pennsylvania, the Whiskey Rebellion flared up when fed-up farmers revolted against Hamilton’s excise tax.
    • Around those parts, liquor and alcohol was often used as money.
    • They said they’d been unfairly singled out to be taxed.
    • They cried “taxation without representation” since many were from
      Tennessee and Kentucky which were not yet states and had no one in
      Congress.
  2. Washington cautiously sent an army of about 13,000 troops from
    various states to the revolt, but the soldiers found nothing upon
    arrival; the rebels had scattered.
  3. Washington’s new presidency now commanded new respect, but
    anti-federalists criticized the government’s use of a sledgehammer to
    crush a gnat.
  4. The lesson of the Whiskey Rebellion‡ this government, unlike the Articles, was strong!

VIII. The Emergence of Political Parties

  1. Hamilton’s policies (national bank, suppression of Whiskey Rebellion, excise tax) seemed to encroach on states’ rights.
  2. As resentment grew, what was once a personal rivalry between
    Hamilton and Jefferson gradually evolved into two political parties.
  3. The Founding Fathers had not envisioned various political parties
    (Whigs and Federalists and Tories, etc… had existed, but they had been
    groups, not parties).
  4. Since 1825, the two-party system has helped strengthen the U.S.
    government, helping balance power and ensuring there was always a
    second choice to the ruling party.

IX. The Impact of the French Revolution

  1. Near the end of Washington’s first term, in 1793, two parties had
    evolved: the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and the Hamiltonian
    Federalists.
  2. However, the French Revolution greatly affected America.
  3. At first, people were overjoyed, since the first stages of the
    revolution were not unlike America’s dethroning of Britain. Only a few
    ultraconservative Federalists were upset at this “mobocracy” and revolt.
  4. When the French declared war on Austria, then threw back the
    Austrian armies and then proclaimed itself a republic, Americans sang
    “The Marseillaise” and other French revolutionary songs, and renamed
    various streets and places.
  5. After the revolution turned radical and bloody, the Federalists
    rapidly changed opinions and looked nervously at the Jeffersonians, who
    felt that no revolution could be carried out without a little bloodshed.
  6. Still, neither group completely approved of the French Revolution and its antics.
  7. America was sucked into the revolution when France declared war on
    Great Britain and the battle for North American land began…again.

X. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation

  1. With war came the call by the JDR’s (Jeffersonian
    Democratic-Republicans) to enter on the side of France, the recent
    friend of the U.S., against Britain, the recent enemy.
  2. Hamilton leaned toward siding with the Brits, as doing so would be economically advantageous.
  3. Washington knew that war could mean disaster and disintegration,
    since the nation in 1793 was militarily and economically weak and
    politically disunited.
  4. In 1793, he issued the Neutrality Proclamation, proclaiming the
    U.S.’s official neutrality and warning Americans to stay out of the
    issue and be impartial.
  5. JDR’s were furious, and this controversial statement irked both sides, France and England.
  6. Soon afterwards, Citizen Edmond Genêt, landed at Charleston, South Carolina, as representative to the U.S.
    • On his trip to Philadelphia, he had been cheered rousingly by
      Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans, who supported France, and he came
      to wrongly believe that Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation didn’t
      truly reflect the feelings of Americans.
    • Also, he equipped privateers to plunder British ships and to invade Spanish Florida and British Canada.
    • He even went as far as to threaten to appeal over the head of
      Washington to the sovereign voters. Afterwards, he was basically kicked
      out of the U.S.
  7. Actually, America’s neutrality helped France, since only in that
    way could France get needed American foodstuffs to the Caribbean
    islands.
  8. Although France was mad that the U.S. didn’t help them, officially,
    the U.S. didn’t have to honor its alliance from the Treaty of 1778
    because France didn’t call on it to do so.

XI. Embroilments with Britain

  1. Britain still had many posts in the frontier, and supplied the Indians with weapons.
  2. The Treaty of Greenville, in 1795, had the Indians cede their vast
    tract in the Ohio country to the Americans after General “Mad Anthony”
    Wayne crushed them at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794.
    It was here that the Americans learned of, and were infuriated by,
    British guns being supplied to the Indians.
  3. Ignoring America’s neutrality, British commanders of the Royal Navy
    seized about 300 American merchant ships and impressed (kidnapped)
    scores of seamen into their army.
  4. Many JDR’s cried out for war with Britain, or at least an embargo,
    but Washington refused, knowing that such drastic action would destroy
    the Hamilton financial system.

XII. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell

  1. In a last-ditch attempt to avert war, Washington sent John Jay to England to work something out.
  2. However, his negotiations were sabotaged by England-loving
    Hamilton, who secretly gave the Brits the details of America’s
    bargaining strategy.
  3. The results of the Jay Treaty with England weren’t pretty:
    • Britain would repay the lost money from recent merchant ship
      seizures called “impressment”, but it said nothing about future
      seizures or supplying Indians with arms.
    • America would have to pay off its pre-Revolutionary War debts to Britain.
  4. Result‡ the JDR’s from the South were furious, as the southern
    farmers would have to pay while the northern merchants would be paid.
    Jay’s effigy was burnt in the streets. However, war was avoided.
  5. At this time, the Pinckney Treaty of 1795 with Spain gave Americans
    free navigation of the Mississippi and the large disputed territory
    north of Florida. Oddly, it was the pro-British Jay Treaty that
    prompted Spain to be so lenient in the Pinckney Treaty (since Spain
    didn’t want America buddying up to their enemy, England).
  6. After his second term, Washington stepped down, creating a strong two-term precedent that wasn’t broken until FDR was president.
    • His Farewell Address warned (1) against political parties and (2) against building permanent alliances with foreign nations.
    • Washington had set the U.S. on its feet and had made it sturdy.

XIII. John Adams Becomes President

  1. Hamilton was the logical choice to become the next president, but his financial plan had made him very unpopular.
  2. John Adams, the ablest statesmen of his day, won, 71 to 68, against Thomas Jefferson, who became vice president.
  3. Adams had a hated rival and opponent in Hamilton, who plotted with
    Adams’ cabinet against the president, and a political rival in his vice
    president.
  4. He also had a volatile situation with France that could explode into war.

XIV. Unofficial Fighting with France

  1. France was furious about the Jay’s Treaty, calling it a flagrant
    violation of the 1778 Franco-American treaty, and so began seizing
    defenseless American merchant ships.
  2. In the XYZ Affair, John Adams sent three envoys (including John
    Marshall) to France, where they were approached by three agents, “X,”
    “Y,” and “Z,” who demanded a load of 32 million florins and a $250,000
    bribe just for talking to Talleyrand.
    • Even though bribes were routine in diplomacy, such a large sum for
      simply talking weren’t worth it, and there was no guarantee of an
      agreement.
    • The envoys returned to America, cheered by angry Americans as having done the right thing for America.
  3. Irate Americans called for war with France, but Adams, knowing just
    as Washington did that war could spell disaster, remained neutral.
  4. Thus, an undeclared war mostly confined to the seas raged for two
    and a half years, where American ships captured over 80 armed French
    ships.

XV. Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

  1. Talleyrand, knowing that war with the U.S. would add another enemy
    to France, declared that if another envoy was sent to France, that it
    would be received with respect.
  2. In 1800, the three American envoys were met by Napoleon, who was eager to work with the U.S.
  3. The treaty in 1800, signed in Paris, ended the 1778 alliance in
    return for the Americans paying the claims of its shippers’ as alimony.
  4. In keeping the U.S. at peace, John Adams plunged his popularity and
    lost his chance at a possible second term, but he did the right thing,
    keeping the U.S. neutral while it was still weak.

XVI. The Federalist Witch Hunt

  1. The Federalists scorned the poor people, who in turn were welcomed by the JDR’s.
  2. With the Alien Laws, Federalists therefore raised the residence
    requirements for aliens who wanted to become citizens from five to
    fourteen years, a law that violated the traditional American policy of
    open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation.
    • Another law let the president deport dangerous aliens during peacetime and jail them during times of war.
  3. The Sedition Act provided that anyone who impeded the policies of
    the government or falsely defamed its officials, including the
    president, would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment; it was
    aimed at newspaper editors and the JDR’s.
    • While obviously unconstitutional, this act was passed by the
      Federalist majority in Congress and upheld in the court because of the
      majority of Federalists there too.
    • It was conveniently written to expire in 1801 to prevent the use of it against themselves.
    • Matthew Lyon was one of those imprisoned when he was sentenced to
      four months in jail for writing ill things about President John Adams.
  4. Furthermore, in the elections of 1798-99, the Federalists won the most sweeping victory of their history.

XVII. The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

  1. Resentful Jeffersonians would not take these laws lying down, and
    Jefferson feared that the Federalists, having wiped out freedom of
    speech and of the press, might wipe out more.
  2. He wrote a series of legislation that Kentucky approved in 1798-99,
    and friend James Madison wrote another series of legislation (less
    extreme) that Virginia approved.
    • They stressed the “compact theory” which meant that the 13 states,
      in creating the federal government, had entered into a contract
      regarding its jurisdiction, and the individual states were the final
      judges of the laws passed in Congress. In other words, the states had
      made the federal government, the federal government makes laws, but
      since the states made the federal government, the states reserve the
      right to nullify those federal laws. This compact theory is heard at
      this point, then again in 1832 regarding the national tariff, then
      again in the 1850s over slavery. Civil War erupts afterwards. Notably,
      this theory goes by several names, all synonymous: the “compact
      theory,” “states’ rights theory,” or “nullification.”
    • This legislation set out to kill the Sedition and Alien Laws.
  3. Only those two states adopted the laws.
  4. Federalists, though, argued that the people, not the states, had
    made the contract, and it was up to the Supreme Court to nullify
    legislation, a procedure that it adopted in 1803.
  5. While neither Madison nor Jefferson wanted secession, they did want an end to Federalist abuses.

XVIII. Federalists Versus Democratic-Republicans

  1. The Federalists
    • Most Federalists were the old Federalists from before the Constitution.
    • They wanted a strong government ruled by the educated aristocrats, the “best people.”
    • Most were the merchants, manufacturers, and shippers along the Atlantic seaboard.
    • They were mostly pro-British and recognized that foreign trade was key in the U.S.
  2. The Democratic-Republicans
    • Republicans were led by Thomas Jefferson, a poor speaker but a
      great leader, and an appealer to the common people. They desired rule
      by informed classes and a weaker central government that would preserve
      the sovereignty of the states. They were mostly pro-French.
    • Jefferson was rich and even owned slaves, but he sympathized with the common people.
    • They emphasized that national debt had to be paid off.
    • They were mostly agrarians (farmers), and insisted on no privileges for the upper class.
      • They saw farming was ennobling: it kept people away from wickedness of the cities, in the sun, and close to God.
    • He advocated rule of the people, but not all the people, just those who weren’t ignorant.
    • Slavery could help avoid a class of landless voters by providing the necessary labor.
    • He championed free speech, but he was foully abused by editorial pens.
  3. Thus, as 1800 rolled around, the disunity of America was making its existence very much felt.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Republic

I. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers

  1. In the election of 1800, the Federalists had a host of enemies stemming from the Alien and Sedition Acts.
  2. The Federalists had been most damaged by John Adams’ not declaring war against France.
    • They had raised a bunch of taxes and built a good navy, and then
      had not gotten any reason to justify such spending, making them seem
      fraudulent as they had also swelled the public debt.
      • John Adams became known as “the Father of the American Navy.”
    • Federalists also launched attacks on Jefferson, saying that he had
      robbed a widow and her children of a trust fund, fathered numerous
      children with his slaves (which turned out to be true), called him an
      atheist (he was a Deist), and used other inflammatory remarks.

II. The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”

  1. Thomas Jefferson won the election of 1800 by a majority of 73
    electoral votes to 65, and even though Adams got more popular votes,
    Jefferson got New York. But, even though Jefferson triumphed, in a
    technicality he and Aaron Burr tied for presidency.
    • The vote, according to the Constitution, would now go to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives.
    • Hateful of Jefferson, many wanted to vote for Burr, and the vote
      was deadlocked for months until Alexander Hamilton and John Adams
      persuaded a few House members to change their votes, knowing that if
      the House voted for Burr, the public outcry would doom the Federalist
      Party.
    • Finally, a few changed their minds, and Jefferson was elected to the presidency.
  2. The “Revolution of 1800” was that (1) there was a
    peaceful transfer of power; Federalists stepped down from office after
    Jefferson won and did so peacefully, though not necessarily happily and
    (2) the Republicans were more of the “people’s party”
    compared to the Federalists.

III. Responsibility Breeds Moderation

  1. On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated president in the new capital of Washington D.C.
    • In his address, he declared that all Americans were Federalists,
      all were Republicans, implying that Americans were a mixture. He also
      pledged “honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances
      with none.”
    • Jefferson was simple and frugal, and did not seat in regard to rank
      during his dinners He also was unconventional, wearing sloppy attire,
      and he started the precedent of sending messages to Congress to be read
      by a clerk.
    • There were two Thomas Jeffersons: the scholarly private citizen who
      philosophized in his study, and the harassed public official who
      discovered that bookish theories worked out differently in practical
      politics.
    • Jefferson also dismissed few Federalist officials and those who wanted the seats complained.
    • Jefferson had to rely on his casual charm because his party was so disunited still.

IV. Jeffersonian Restraint

  1. Jefferson pardoned those who were serving time under the Sedition
    Act, and in 1802, he enacted a new naturalization law that returned the
    years needed for an immigrant to become a citizen from 14 to 5.
  2. He also kicked away the excise tax, but otherwise left the Hamiltonian system intact.
  3. The new secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, reduced the national debt substantially while balancing the budget.
  4. By shrewdly absorbing the major Federalist programs, Jefferson
    showed that a change of regime need not be disastrous for the exiting
    group.

V. The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary

  1. The Judiciary Act, passed by the Federalists in their last days of
    Congressional domination in 1801, packed newly created judgeships with
    Federalist-backing men, so as to prolong their legacy.
  2. Chief Justice John Marshall, a cousin of Jefferson, had served at
    Valley Forge during the war, and he had been impressed with the
    drawbacks of no central authority, and thus, he became a lifelong
    Federalist, committed to strengthening the power of the federal
    government.
    • Marbury v. Madison (1803): William Marbury had been one of the
      “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams in his last hours
      as president. He had been named justice of peace for D.C., but when
      Secretary of State James Madison decided to shelve the position,
      Marbury sued for its delivery. Marshall dismissed the case, but he said
      that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus suggesting
      that the Supreme Court could determine the constitutionality of laws
      (AKA, “judicial review”).
  3. In 1804, Jefferson tried to impeach the tart-tongued Supreme Court
    justice, Samuel Chase, but when the vote got to the Senate, not enough
    votes were mustered, and to this day, no attempt to alter the Supreme
    Court has ever been tried through impeachment.

VI. Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior

  1. Jefferson had a natural fear of a large, strong, standing military
    since such a military could be turned on the people. So, he reduced the
    militia to 2500 men, and navies were reduced a bit to peacetime footing.
  2. However, the pirates of the North African Barbary States were still
    looting U.S. ships, and in 1801, the pasha of Tripoli indirectly
    declared war when he cut down the flagstaff of the American consulate.
    • Non-interventionalist Jefferson had a problem of whether to fight
      or not, and he reluctantly sent the infant navy to the shores of
      Tripoli, where fighting continued for four years until Jefferson
      succeeded in extorting a treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805 for
      $60,000.
    • Stephen Decatur’s exploits in the war with the ship Intrepid made him a hero.
    • The small, mobile gunboats used in the Tripolitan War fascinated
      Jefferson, and he spent money to build about 200 of them (these boats
      might be zippy and fast, but they did little against large
      battleships). The years eventually showed building small ships to be a
      poor decision.

VII. The Louisiana Godsend

  1. In 1800, Napoleon secretly induced the king of Spain to cede the Louisiana territory to France.
  2. Then, in 1802, the Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of
    deposit guaranteed by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795. Such deposit
    privileges were vital to the frontier farmers who floated their goods
    down the Mississippi River to its mouth to await oceangoing vessels.
    • These farmers talked of marching to New Orleans to violently get
      back what they deserved, an action that would have plunged the U.S.
      into war with Spain and France.
  3. In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join regular minister
    Robert R. Livingston to buy New Orleans and as much land to the east of
    the river for a total of $10 million, tops.
  4. Instead, Napoleon offered to sell New Orleans and the land west of
    it, Louisiana, for a bargain of $15 million, thereby abandoning his
    dream of a French North American empire.
    • This abandonment was due to the rebellion in Haiti, led by
      Toussaint L’Ouverture, which had been unsuccessful, but had
      killed many French troops due to yellow fever. The decision to sell
      Louisiana was also because Napoleon needed cash to renew his war with
      Britain.
  5. The Louisiana Purchase was finalized on April 30, 1803.
  6. Jefferson had a dilemma, since the Constitution said nothing about
    purchasing foreign land, but on the other hand, this deal was simply
    too good to pass up!
    • After considering an amendment, Jefferson finally decided to go
      through with the deal anyway, even though nothing in the Constitution
      talked about land purchases. Jefferson had been a strict interpreter of
      the Constitution, but he was now using a loose interpretation.
    • Federalists, normally loose interpreters, took a strict
      interpretation and opposed the purchase. Federalist didn’t want
      the new lands because they correctly foresaw new lands meant new
      settlers and new states, which meant more farmers and more Republicans.
    • Thus, both parties made a full 180° turnaround from their
      previous philosophical beliefs about the Constitution simply because of
      the practical matters at hand.
  7. The Senate quickly approved the purchase with Jefferson’s
    urging, and the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United
    States. This was the biggest bargain in history averaging 3 cents per
    acre.

VIII. Louisiana in the Long View

  1. The purchase created a precedent of acquisition of foreign territory through purchase.
  2. In the spring of 1804, Jefferson sent William Clark and Meriwether
    Lewis to explore this new territory. Along with a Shoshoni woman named
    Sacajawea, the two spent 21/2 years exploring the land, marveling at
    the expanses of buffalo, elk, deer, antelope, and the landscape and
    went all the way to Oregon and the Pacific before returning.
    • Other explorers, like Zebulon Pike trekked to the headwaters of the
      Mississippi River in 1805-06 and ventured to the southern portion of
      Louisiana, Spanish land in the southwest, and sighted Pike’s Peak.

IX. The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

  1. The Federalists now sank lower than ever, and tried to scheme with
    Aaron Burr to make New England and New York secede from the union; in
    the process Aaron Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.
  2. In 1806, Burr was arrested for treason, but the necessary two witnesses were nowhere to be found.
  3. The Louisiana Purchase was also nurturing a deep sense of loyalty
    among the West to the federal government, and a new spirit of
    nationalism surged through it.

X. A Precarious Neutrality

  1. In 1804, Jefferson won with a margin of 162 electoral votes to 14
    for his opponent, but this happiness was nonexistent because in 1803,
    Napoleon had deliberately provoked Britain into renewing its war with
    France.
    • As a result, American trade sank as England and France, unable to
      hurt each other (England owned the sea thanks to the Battle of
      Trafalgar while France owned the land thanks to the Battle of
      Austerlitz), resorted to indirect blows.
    • In 1806, London issued the Orders in Council, which closed ports
      under French continental control to foreign shipping, including
      American, unless they stopped at a British port first.
    • Likewise, Napoleon ordered the seizure of all ships, including American, which entered British ports.
    • Impressment (illegal seizure of men and forcing them to serve on
      ships) of American seamen also infuriated the U.S.; some 6,000
      Americans were impressed from 1808-11.
    • In 1807, a royal frigate the Leopard confronted the U.S. frigate,
      the Chesapeake, about 10 miles off the coast of Virginia, and the
      British captain ordered the seizure of four alleged deserters. When the
      American commander refused, the U.S. ship received three devastating
      broadsides that killed 3 Americans and wounded 18. In an incident in
      which England was clearly wrong, Jefferson still clung to peace.

XI. The Hated Embargo

  1. In order to try to stop the British and French seizure of American
    ships, Jefferson resorted to an embargo. His belief was that the only
    way to stay out of the war was to shut down shipping.
    • Jefferson thought Britain and France relied on American goods (it
      was really the opposite, Americans relied on Europe’s goods).
    • Also, the U.S. still had a weak navy and a weaker army.
  2. The Embargo Act of late 1807 forbade the export of all goods from
    the United States to any foreign nation, regardless of whether they
    were transported in American or foreign ships.
    • The net result was deserted docks, rotting ships in the harbors,
      and Jefferson's embargo hurt the same New England merchants that it was
      trying to protect.
    • The commerce of New England was harmed more than that of France and Britain.
    • Farmers of the South and West were alarmed by the mounting piles of unexportable cotton, grain, and tobacco.
    • Illegal trade mushroomed in 1808, where people resorted to smuggling again.
  3. Finally, coming to their senses and feeling the public’s
    anger, Congress repealed the act on March 1, 1809, three days before
    Jefferson’s retirement and replaced it with the Non-Intercourse
    Act, which reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except
    France and England.
    • However, this act had the same effect as the Embargo because America’s #1 and #2 trade partners were Britain and France.
    • Thus, economic coercion continued from 1809 to 1812, when war struck.
  4. The embargo failed for two main reasons: (1) Jefferson
    underestimated the bulldog British and their dependence on American
    goods and (2) he didn’t continue the embargo long enough or
    tightly enough to achieve success.
    • Even Jefferson himself admitted that the embargo was three times
      more costly than war, and he could have built a strong navy with a
      fraction of the money lost.
  5. During the time of the embargo, the Federalist Party regained some of its lost power.
  6. However, during this embargo, resourceful Americans also opened and
    reopened factories, and thus, the embargo helped to promote
    industrialism—another irony since it was Jefferson who was
    committed to an agrarian, while it was his archrival Alexander Hamilton
    who was committed to industry.
  7. Also, the embargo did affect Britain, and had it been continued, it might have succeeded.
    • In fact, two days before Congress declared war in June 1812, London
      ordered the Orders in Council to be suspended. Had America known this
      fact, war would have likely not been declared.

XII. Madison’s Gamble

  1. After Jefferson, James Madison took the oath of presidency on March 4, 1809, short, bald, and not a great speaker.
  2. In 1810, Congress adopted a bargaining measure called Macon’s
    Bill No. 2, which while permitting American trade with all the world,
    also promised American restoration of trade to France and/or England if
    either dropped their commercial restrictions.
    • Napoleon had his opportunity: in August of 1810, he announced that
      French commercial restrictions had been lifted, and Madison, desperate
      for recognition of the law, declared France available for American
      trade.
    • Of course, Napoleon lied, and never really lifted restrictions, but
      meanwhile, America had been duped into entering European affairs
      against Great Britain.

XIII. Tecumseh and the Prophet

  1. In 1811, new young politicians swept away the older
    “submission men,” and they appointed Henry Clay of
    Kentucky, then 34 years old, to Speaker of the House.
  2. The western politicians also cried out against the Indian threat on
    the frontier. These young, aggressive Congressmen were known as
    “War Hawks.”
  3. Indians had watched with increasing apprehension as more and more
    whites settled in Kentucky, a traditionally sacred area where
    settlement and extensive hunting was not allowed except in times of
    scarcity.
    • Thus, two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the Prophet, decided that
      the time to act was now, and gathered followers, urging them to give up
      textile clothing for traditional buckskin garments, arguing eloquently
      for the Indian’s to not acknowledge the White man’s
      “ownership” of land, and urging that no Indian should cede
      control of land to whites unless all Indians agreed.
    • On November 7, 1811, American general William Henry Harrison
      advanced upon Tecumseh’s headquarters at Tippecanoe, killed the
      Prophet, and burned the camp to the ground.
    • Tecumseh was killed by Harrison at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, and the Indian confederacy dream perished.
    • In the South, Andrew Jackson crushed the Creek Indians at the
      Battle of Horseshoe Bend on March 27, 1814, effectively breaking the
      Indian rebellion and leaving the entire area east of the Mississippi
      open for safe settlement.
  4. The War Hawks cried that the only way to get rid of the Indians was
    to wipe out their base, Canada, since the British had helped the
    Indians.
    • War was declared in 1812, with a House vote of 79 to 49 and a very
      close Senate vote of 19 to 13, showing America’s disunity.

XIV. Mr. Madison’s War

  1. Why did America go to war with Britain and not France? Because
    England’s impressments of American sailors stood out, France was
    allied more with the Republicans, and Canada was a very tempting prize
    that seemed easy to get, a “frontiersman’s frolic.”
  2. New England, which was still making lots of money, damned the war
    for a free sea, and Federalists opposed the war because (1) they were
    more inclined toward Britain anyway and (2) if Canada was conquered, it
    would add more agrarian land and increase Republican supporters.
  3. In brief, America’s reasons for entering the War of 1812 were…
    • “Freedom of the seas” – The U.S. wanted the right to sail and trade without fear.
    • Possibility of land – The U.S. might gain Canada or Florida.
    • Indian issues – Americans were still upset about British guns being giving to Indians.
  4. The nation became sectionalized. Generally, the North was against war, the West and the South was for the war.
    • Thus, a disunited America had to fight both Old England and New
      England in the War of 1812, since Britain was the enemy while New
      England tried everything that they could do to frustrate American
      ambitions in the war.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

I. On to Canada Over Land and Lakes

  1. Due to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst fought wars.
  2. There was not a burning national anger, like there was after the
    Chesapeake outrage; the regular army was very bad and scattered and had
    old, senile generals, and the offensive strategy against Canada was
    especially poorly conceived.
  3. Had the Americans captured Montreal, everything west would have
    wilted like a tree after its trunk has been severed, but the Americans
    instead focused a three-pronged attack that set out from Detroit,
    Niagara, and Lake Champlain, all of which were beaten back.
  4. In contrast, the British and Canadians displayed enthusiasm early
    on in the war and captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, which
    commanded the upper Great Lakes area (the battle was led by British
    General Isaac Brock).
  5. After more land invasions were hurled back in 1813, the Americans,
    led by Oliver Hazard Perry, built a fleet of green-timbered ships
    manned by inexperienced men, but still managed to capture a British
    fleet. His victory, coupled with General William Henry Harrison’s
    defeat of the British during the Battle of the Thames, helped bring
    more enthusiasm and increased morale for the war.
  6. In 1814, 10,000 British troops prepared for a crushing blow to the
    Americans along the Lake Champlain route, but on September 11, 1814,
    Capt. Thomas MacDonough challenged the British and snatched victory
    from the fangs of defeat and forced the British to retreat.

II. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

  1. In August 1814, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area,
    dispersed 6,000 panicked Americans at Bladensburg, and proceeded to
    enter Washington D.C. and burn most of the buildings there.
  2. At Baltimore, another British fleet arrived but was beaten back by
    the privateer defenders of Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key wrote
    “The Star Spangled Banner.”
  3. Another British army menaced the entire Mississippi Valley and
    threatened New Orleans, and Andrew Jackson, fresh off his slaughter of
    the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, led a hodgepodge
    force of 7,000 sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, entrenching
    them and helping them defeat 8,000 overconfident British that had
    launched a frontal attack in the Battle of New Orleans.
  4. The news of this British defeat reached Washington early in February 1815, and two weeks later came news of peace from Britain.
  5. Ignorant citizens simply assumed that the British, having been
    beaten by Jackson, finally wanted peace, lest they get beaten again by
    the “awesome” Americans.
  6. During the war, the American navy had oddly done much better than
    the army, since the sailors were angry over British impressment of U.S.
    sailors.
  7. However, Britain responded with a naval blockade, raiding ships and ruining American economic life such as fishing.

III. The Treaty of Ghent

  1. At first, the confident British made sweeping demands for a
    neutralized Indian buffer state in the Great Lakes region, control of
    the Great Lakes, and a substantial part of conquered Maine, but the
    Americans, led by John Quincy Adams, refused. As American victories
    piled up, though, the British reconsidered.
  2. The Treat of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, was an armistice,
    acknowledging a draw in the war and ignoring any other demands of
    either side. Each side simply stopped fighting. The main issue of the
    war, impressment, was left unmentioned.

IV. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

  1. As the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts,
    Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island secretly met in
    Hartford from December 15, 1814 to January 5, 1815, to discuss their
    grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs.
    • While a few talked about secession, most wanted financial
      assistance form Washington to compensate for lost trade, and an
      amendment requiring a 2/3 majority for all declarations of embargos,
      except during invasion.
  2. Three special envoys from Mass. went to D.C., where they were
    greeted with the news from New Orleans; their mission failed, and they
    sank away in disgrace and into obscurity.
    • The Hartford Convention proved to be the death of the Federalist
      Party, as their last presidential nomination was trounced by James
      Monroe in 1816.

V. The Second War for American Independence

  1. The War of 1812 was a small war involving some 6,000 Americans
    killed or wounded, and when Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 with
    500,000 men, Madison tried to invade Canada with about 5,000 men.
  2. Yet, the Americans proved that they could stand up for what they
    felt was right, and naval officers like Perry and MacDonough gained new
    respect; American diplomats were treated with more respect than before.
  3. The Federalist Party died out forever, and new war heroes, like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, emerged.
  4. Manufacturing also prospered during the British blockade, since there was nothing else to do.
  5. Incidents like the burning of Washington added fuel to the bitter
    conflict with Britain, and led to hatred of the nation years after the
    war, though few would have guessed that the War of 1812 would be the
    last war America fought against Britain.
  6. Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent, since not even
    an Indian buffer state had been achieved, and the Indians, left by the
    British, were forced to make treaties where they could.
  7. In 1817, though, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes,
    the Rush-Bagot Treaty between the U.S. and Britain provided the
    world’s longest unfortified boundary (5,527 mi.).
  8. After Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo, Europe sank into
    an exhaustion of peace, and America looked west to further expand.

VI. Nascent Nationalism

  1. After the war, American nationalism really took off, and authors
    like Washington Irving (Rumpelstiltskin, The Knickerbocker Tales such
    as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow) and James Fenimore Cooper (The
    Leatherstocking Tales which included The Last of the Mohicans) gained
    international recognition.
  2. The North American Review debuted in 1815, and American painters
    painted landscapes of America on their canvases, while history books
    were now being written by Americans for Americans.
  3. Washington D.C. rose from the ashes to be better than ever, and the navy and army strengthened themselves.
  4. Stephen Decatur, naval hero of the War of 1812 and the Barbary
    Coast expeditions, was famous for his American toast after his return
    from the Mediterranean: “Our country! In her intercourse with
    foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right
    or wrong!”

VII. “The American System”

  1. After the war, British competitors dumped their goods onto America
    at cheap prices, so America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the
    first in U.S. history designed for protection, which put a 20-25%
    tariff on dutiable imports.
  2. It was not high enough, but it was a great start, and in 1824, Henry Clay established a program called the American System.
    • The system began with a strong banking system.
    • It advocated a protective tariff behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish.
    • It also included a network of roads and canals, especially in the
      burgeoning Ohio Valley, to be funded for by the tariffs, and through
      which would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West
      to the North and East.
    • Lack of effective transportation had been one of the problems of
      the War of 1812, especially in the West, and in 1817, Congress sought
      to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements, but
      Madison vetoed it, saying it was unconstitutional, thus making the
      states look for their own money to build the badly needed roads.

VIII. The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

  1. James Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent 183 to 34, and ushered in a short period of one-party rule.
  2. He straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of Nationalism.
  3. Early in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he received heartwarming welcomes.
  4. A Boston newspaper even went as far as to declare that an “Era of Good Feelings” had began.
  5. However, seeds of sectional troubles were planted. Notably, the
    South did not like the tariff saying it only benefited the North and
    made the South pay higher prices. And, the South disliked the internal
    improvements linking the North and West—the South didn’t
    see any benefits in paying taxes for roads and canals in other states.

IX. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

  1. In 1819, a paralyzing economic panic (the first since
    Washington’s times) engulfed the U.S., bringing deflation,
    depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens,
    and overcrowded debtors’ prisons.
    • A major cause of the panic had been over-speculation in land prices, where the Bank of the United States fell heavily into debt.
    • Oddly, this started an almost predictable chain of panics or
      recessions. An economic panic occurred every 20 years during the 1800s
      (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893).
  2. The West was especially hard hit, and the Bank of the U.S. was soon viewed upon as the cause.
  3. There was also attention against the debtors, where, in a few
    overplayed cases, mothers owing a few dollars were torn away from their
    infants by the creditors.

X. Growing Pains of the West

  1. Between 1791 and 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13.
  2. This explosive expansion of the west was due in part to the cheap
    land, the elimination of the Indian menace, the “Ohio
    Fever,” and the need for land by the tobacco farmers, who
    exhausted their lands.
  3. The Cumberland Road, begun in 1811 and ran ultimately from western
    Maryland to Illinois. And, the first steamboat on western waters
    appeared in 1811.
  4. The West, still not populous and politically weak, was forced to ally itself with other sections, and demanded cheap acreage.
  5. The Land Act of 1820 gave the West its wish by authorizing a buyer
    to purchase 80 acres of land at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash; the
    West demanded and slowly got cheap transportation as well.

XI. Slavery and the Sectional Balance

  1. Sectional tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to become a slave state.
  2. Although it met all the requirements of becoming a state, the House
    of Representatives stymied the plans for its statehood when it proposed
    the Tallmadge Amendment, which provided that no more slaves be brought
    into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of
    children born to slave parents already in Missouri (this was shot down
    in the Senate).
  3. Angry Southerners saw this as a threat figuring that if the
    Northerners could wipe out slavery in Missouri, they might try to do so
    in all of the rest of the slave states.
  4. Plus, the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.

XII. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

  1. Finally, the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri Compromise.
    • Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be
      admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance (it went from 11
      free states and 11 slave states to 12 and 12).
    • All new states north of the 36°30’ line would be free, new states southward would be slave.
  2. Both the North and South gained something, and though neither was totally happy, the compromise worked for many years.
    • Monroe should have been doomed after the 1819 panic and the
      Missouri problem, but he was so popular, and the Federalist Party so
      weak, that he won in 1820 by all but one vote (unanimity was reserved
      for Washington).

XIII. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

  1. Chief Justice John Marshall helped to bolster the power of the government at the expense of the states.
  2. McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): This case involved Maryland’s
    trying to destroy the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes.
    Marshall invoked the Hamiltonian principle of implied powers and denied
    Maryland’s right to tax the bank, and also gave the doctrine of
    “loose construction,” using the elastic clause of the
    Constitution as its basis. He implied that the Constitution was to last
    for many ages, and thereby was constructed loosely, flexibly, to be
    bent as times changed.
  3. Cohens vs. Virginia (1821): The Cohens had been found guilty by
    Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, had appealed to
    the Supreme Court, and had lost, but Marshall asserted the right of the
    Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in
    all questions involving powers of the federal government. The federal
    government won, the states lost.
  4. Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824): When New York tried to grant a monopoly
    of waterborne commerce, Marshall struck it down by saying that only
    Congress can control interstate commerce, not the states themselves; it
    was another blow to states’ rights.

XIV. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

  1. Fletcher vs. Peck (1810): After Georgia fraudulently granted 35
    million acres in the Yazoo River country (Mississippi) to privateers,
    the legislature repealed it after public outcry, but Marshall ruled
    that it was a contract, and that states couldn’t impair a
    contract. It was one of
  2. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819): Dartmouth had been granted a
    charter by King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it.
    Dartmouth appealed, using alumni Daniel Webster to work as lawyer, and
    Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand. It was a contract,
    and the Constitution protected those and overruled state rulings.
  3. Marshall’s rulings gave the Supreme Court its powers and
    greatly strengthened the federal government, giving it power to
    overrule state governments sometimes.

XV. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida

  1. The Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana
    Purchase at the 49th parallel and provided for a ten-year joint
    occupation of the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of
    rights and claims by neither Britain nor America.
  2. When revolutions broke out in South and Central America, Spanish
    troops in Florida were withdrawn to put down the rebellions, and Indian
    attacks ravaged American land while the Indians would then retreat back
    to Spanish territory.
  3. Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian
    chiefs without ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting
    Indians, and seized St. Marks and Pensacola.
  4. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson; all
    wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge
    concessions from Spain.
  5. The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and
    shadowy claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas. The U.S. paid $5
    million to Spain for Florida.

XVI. The Menace of Monarchy in America

  1. Monarchs in Europe now were determined to protect the world against
    democracy, and crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in
    Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans.
  2. Also, Russia’s claims to North American territory were
    intruding and making Americans nervous that Russia might claim
    territory that was “rightfully American.”
  3. Then, in August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George
    Canning, approached the American minister in London proposing that the
    U.S. and Britain combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest
    in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the
    European despots to keep their hands off of Latin American politics.

XVII. Monroe and His Doctrine

  1. Sly and careful John Q. Adams sensed a joker in the proposal,
    correctly assumed that the European powers weren’t going to
    invade America anytime soon, and knew that a self-denouncing alliance
    with Britain would morally tie the hands of the U.S.
  2. He knew that the British boats would need to protect South America
    to protect their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a
    defiant, nationalistic blast at all Europe.
  3. Late in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating non-colonization and nonintervention.
  4. Dedicated primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no
    colonization in the Americas could happen anymore and also, European
    nations could not intervene in Latin American affairs.
  5. In return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against Turkey.

XVIII. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

  1. The monarchs of Europe were angered, but couldn’t do anything
    about it, since the British navy would be there to stop them, further
    frustrating them.
  2. Monroe’s declaration made little splash in Latin America,
    since those who knew of the message also recognized that it was the
    British navy and not America that was protecting them, and that the
    U.S. was doing this only to protect its own hide.
  3. Not until 1845 did President Polk revive it.
  4. In the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian tsar fixed the
    southern boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40’ and it
    stayed at that.
  5. The Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense
    Doctrine, since Monroe was concerned about the safety of his own
    country, not Latin America.
  6. The doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement.
  7. It was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a
    voice of patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.
  8. Many Americans falsely concluded that the Republic was in fact
    insulated from European dangers simply because it wanted to be and
    because, in a nationalistic outburst, Monroe had publicly warned the
    Old World powers to stay away.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 13 - The Rise of Mass Democracy

I. The “Corrupt Bargain” of 1824

  1. After the Era of Good Feelings, politics was transformed. The big
    winner of this transformation was the common man. Specifically, the
    common white man as universal white manhood suffrage (all white men
    could vote) became the norm.
  2. In the election of 1824, there were four towering candidates:
    Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H.
    Crawford of Georgia, and John Q. Adams of Massachusetts.
    • All four called themselves Republicans.
    • Three were a “favorite son” of their respective region but Clay
      thought of himself as a national figure (he was Speaker of the House
      and author of the “American System”).
  3. In the results, Jackson got the most popular votes and the most
    electoral votes, but he failed to get the majority in the Electoral
    College. Adams came in second in both, while Crawford was fourth in the
    popular vote but third in the electoral votes. Clay was 4th in the
    electoral vote.
  4. By the 12th Amendment, the top three electoral vote getters would
    be voted upon in the House of Reps. and the majority (over 50%) would
    be elected president.
  5. Clay was eliminated, but he was the Speaker of the House, and since
    Crawford had recently suffered a paralytic stroke and Clay hated
    Jackson, he threw his support behind John Q. Adams, helping him become
    president.
    • When Clay was appointed Secretary of the State, the traditional
      stepping-stone to the presidency, Jacksonians cried foul play and
      corruption. Jackson said he, the people’s choice, had been swindled out
      of the presidency by career politicians in Washington D.C.
    • John Randolph publicly assailed the alliance between Adams and Clay.
  6. Evidence against any possible deal has never been found in this “Corrupt Bargain,” but both men flawed their reputations.

II. A Yankee Misfit in the White House

  1. John Quincy Adams was a man of puritanical honor, and he had
    achieved high office by commanding respect rather than by boasting
    great popularity. Like his father, however, he was able but somewhat
    wooden and lacked the “people’s touch” (which Jackson notably had).
  2. During his administration, he only removed 12 public servants from
    the federal payroll, thus refusing to kick out efficient officeholders
    in favor of his own, possibly less efficient, supporters.
  3. In his first annual message, Adams urged Congress on the
    construction of roads and canals, proposed a national university, and
    advocated support for an astronomical observatory.
    • Public reaction was mixed: roads were good, but observatories
      weren’t important, and Southerners knew that if the government did
      anything, it would have to continue collecting tariffs.
  4. With land, Adams tried to curb over-speculation of land, much to
    Westerners’ anger even though he was doing it for their own good, and
    with the Cherokee Indians, he tried to deal fairly with them although
    the state of Georgia successfully resisted federal attempts to help the
    Cherokees.

III. Going “Whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828”

  1. Jacksonians argued, “Should the people rule?” and said that the
    Adams-Clay bargaining four years before had cheated the people out of
    the rightful victor.
    • They successfully turned public opinion against an honest and honorable president.
  2. However, Adams’ supporters also hit below the belt, even though Adams himself wouldn’t stoop to that level.
    • They called Jackson’s mother a prostitute, called him an adulterer
      (he had married his wife Rachel thinking that her divorce had been
      granted, only to discover two years later that it hadn’t been), and
      after he got elected, Rachel died. Jackson blamed Adams’ men who had
      slandered Andrew Jackson for Rachel Jackson’s death—he never forgave
      them.
  3. John Q. Adams had purchased, with his own money and for his own
    use, a billiard table and a set of chessmen, but the Jacksonians had
    seized this, criticizing Adams’ incessant spending.

IV. “Old Hickory” as President

  1. When he became president, Andrew Jackson had already battled
    dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis, and lead poisoning from two bullets
    lodged somewhere in his body.
  2. He personified the new West: rough, a jack-of-all-trades, a genuine folk hero.
  3. Born in the backwoods of the Carolinas (we’re not even sure if it
    was North or South Carolina, and both states still claim to be his
    home), Jackson had been early orphaned, was interested in cockfighting
    as a kid, and wasn’t really good with reading and writing, sometimes
    misspelling the same word twice in one letter.
  4. He went to Tennessee, where he became a judge and a congressman,
    and his passions were so profound that he could choke up on the floor.
  5. A man with a violent temper, he got into many duels, fights, stabbings, etc…
  6. He was a Western aristocrat, having owned many slaves, and lived in
    a fine mansion, the Hermitage, and he shared many of the prejudices of
    the masses.
  7. He was called “Old Hickory” by his troops because of his toughness.
  8. He was anti-federalist, believing that the federal government was
    for the privileged only, although he maintained the sacredness of the
    Union and the federal power over the states. Still, he welcomed the
    western democracy.
  9. Jackson commanded fear and respect from his subordinates, and
    ignored the Supreme Court on several occasions; he also used the veto
    12 times (compared to a combined 10 times by his predecessors) and on
    his inauguration, he let commoners come into the White House.
    • They wrecked the china and caused chaos until they heard that there
      was spiked punch on the White House front lawn; thus was the “inaugural
      bowl.”
    • Conservatives condemned Jackson as “King Mob” and berated him greatly.

V. The Spoils System

  1. The spoils system rewarded supporters with good positions in office.
  2. Jackson believed that experience counted, but that loyalty and
    young blood and sharp eyes counted more, and thus, he went to work on
    overhauling positions and erasing the old.
  3. Not since the election of 1800 had a new party been voted into the
    presidency, and even then, many positions had stayed and not changed.
  4. Though he wanted to “wipe the slate clean,” only 1/5 of the men
    were sent home, and clean sweeps would come later, but there were
    always people hounding Jackson for positions, and those who were
    discharged often went mad, killed themselves, or had a tough time with
    it.
  5. The spoils system denied many able people a chance to contribute.
  6. Samuel Swartwout was awarded the lucrative post of collector of the
    customs of the port of New York, and nearly nine years later, he fled
    for England, leaving his accounts more than a million dollars short,
    and thus becoming the first person to steal a million dollars from the
    government.
  7. The spoils system was built up by gifts from expectant party
    members, and the system secured such a tenacious hold that it took more
    than 50 years before its grip was even loosened.

VI. The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations”

  1. In 1824, Congress had increased the general tariff from 23% to 37%, but wool manufactures still wanted higher tariffs.
  2. In the Tariff of 1828, the Jacksonians (who disliked tariffs)
    schemed to drive up duties to as high as 45% while imposing heavy
    tariffs on raw materials like wool, so that even New England, where the
    tariff was needed, would vote the bill down and give Adams another
    political black eye.
    • However, the New Englanders backfired the plan and passed the law (amended).
    • Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun reversed their positions from
      1816, with Webster supporting the tariff and Calhoun being against it.
    • The Southerners immediately branded it as the “Tariff of Abominations.”
  3. In the South at this time, Denmark Vesey, a free Black, led an
    ominous slave rebellion in Charleston. This raised fears by Southern
    whites and led to a tightening of control over slaves.
    • The South mostly complained because it was now the least expanding of the sections.
    • Cotton prices were falling and land was growing scarce.
  4. Southerners sold their cotton and other products without tariffs,
    while the products that they bought were heavily taxed. The South said
    all tariffs did for them was hike up prices.
  5. Tariffs led the U.S. to buy less British products and vice versa,
    but it did help the Northeast prosper so that it could buy more of the
    South’s products.
  6. John C. Calhoun secretly wrote “The South Carolina Exposition” in
    1828, boldly denouncing the recent tariff and calling for nullification
    of the tariff by all states.
  7. However, South Carolina was alone in this nullification threat,
    since Andrew Jackson had been elected two weeks earlier, and was
    expected to sympathize with the South against the tariff.

VII. “Nullies” in South Carolina

  1. South Carolinians, still scornful toward the Tariff of 1828,
    attempted to garner the necessary two-thirds majority to nullify it in
    the S.C. legislature, but determined Unionists blocked them.
  2. In response to the anger at the “Tariff of Abominations,” Congress
    passed the Tariff of 1832, which did away with the worst parts of the
    Tariff of 1828, such as lowering the tariff down to 35%, a reduction of
    10%, but many southerners still hated it.
  3. In the elections of 1832, the Nullies came out with a two-thirds
    majority over the Unionists, met in the state legislature, and declared
    the Tariff of 1832 to be void within S.C. boundaries.
    • They also threatened with secession against the Union, causing a huge problem.
    • President Jackson issued a ringing proclamation against S.C., to
      which governor Hayne issued a counter-proclamation, and civil war
      loomed dangerously.
    • To compromise and prevent Jackson from crushing S.C. and becoming
      more popular, the president’s rival, Henry Clay, proposed a compromise
      bill that would gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by about 10% over a
      period of eight years, so that by 1842 the rates would be down to 20%
      to 25%.
  4. The Tariff of 1833 narrowly squeezed through Congress.
  5. However, to save face, Congress also passed the Force Bill (AKA the
    “Bloody Bill”) that authorized the president to use the army and navy,
    if necessary, to collect tariffs.
  6. No other states had supported South Carolina’s stance of possible secession, though Georgia and Virginia toyed with the idea.
  7. Finally, S.C. repealed the nullification ordinance.

VIII. The Trail of Tears

  1. By 1830, the U.S. population stood at 13 million, and as states emerged, the Indians were stranded.
  2. Federal policy officially was to acquire land from the Indians through formal treaties, but too many times, they were tricked.
  3. Many people respected the Indians, though, and tried to Christianize them.
    • i.e. the Society for Propagating the Gospel Among Indians (est. 1787).
  4. Some Indians violently resisted, but the Cherokees were among the
    few that tried to adopt the Americans ways, adopting a system of
    settled agriculture, devising an alphabet, legislating legal code in
    1808, and adopting a written constitution in 1827.
  5. The Cherokees, the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and the Seminoles were known as the “Five Civilized Tribes.”
  6. However, in 1828, Congress declared the Cherokee tribal council
    illegal, and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian lands and
    affairs, and even though the Cherokees appealed to and won in the
    Supreme Court, Jackson refused to recognize the decision.
  7. Jackson, though, still harbored some sentiment of Indians, and
    proposed that they be bodily transferred west of the Mississippi, where
    they could preserve the culture, and in 1830, Congress passed the
    Indian Removal Act, in which Indians were moved to Oklahoma.
    • Thousands of Indians died on the “Trail of Tears” after being
      uprooted from their sacred lands that had been theirs for centuries.
    • Also, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1836 to deal with Indians.
  8. In 1832, in Illinois and Wisconsin, the Sauk and Fox tribes revolted but were crushed.
  9. From 1835 to 1842, the Seminoles waged guerrilla warfare against
    the U.S., but were broken after their leader, Osceola, was seized; some
    fled deeper into the Everglades of Florida; others moved to Oklahoma.

IX. The Bank War

  1. Andrew Jackson, like most westerners, distrusted big banks, especially the BUS—Bank of the United States.
    • To Jackson and westerners, the BUS was simply a tool of the rich to get richer.
    • The BUS minted coin money (“hard money”), but not paper money.
      Farmers out west wanted paper money which caused inflation, and enabled
      them to more easily pay off their debts.
    • Jackson and westerners saw the BUS and eastern banks as being in a
      conspiracy to keep the common man down economically. This conspiracy
      was carried out through hard money and debt.
  2. The BUS, led by Nicholas Biddle, was harsh on the volatile western
    “wildcat” banks that churned out unstable money and too-lenient credit
    for land (which the westerners loved). The BUS seemed pretty autocratic
    and out of touch with America during its New Democracy era, and it was
    corrupt.
  3. Nicholas Biddle cleverly lent U.S. funds to friends, and often used the money of the BUS to bribe people, like the press.
  4. However, the bank was financially sound, reduced bank failures,
    issued sound notes, promoted economic expansion by making abundant
    credit, and was a safe depository for the funds of the Washington
    government.
  5. It was highly important and useful, though sometimes not necessarily pure and wholesome.
  6. In 1832, Henry Clay, in a strategy to bring Jackson’s popularity
    down so that he could defeat him for presidency, rammed a bill for the
    re-chartering of the BUS—four years early.
  7. He felt that if Jackson signed it, he’d alienate his followers in
    the West and South, and if he vetoed it, he’d lose the supports of the
    “best people” of the East.
  8. He failed to realize that the West held more power now, not the East.
  9. The re-charter bill passed through Congress easily, but Jackson
    demolished it in a scorching veto that condemned the BUS as
    unconstitutional (despite political foe John Marshall’s ruling that it
    was okay), and anti-American.
  10. The veto amplified the power of the president by ignoring the Supreme Court and aligned the West against the East.

X. “Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832

  1. Jackson’s supporters again raised the hickory pole while Clay’s men
    detracted Jackson’s dueling, gambling, cockfighting, and fast living.
  2. However, a new third party, the Anti-Masonic Party, made its entrance for the first time.
    • Opposed to the fearsome secrecy of the Masonic order, it was
      energized by the mysterious murder of someone who threatened to expose
      the Freemason’s secrets.
    • While sharing Jacksonian ideals, they were

against Jackson, a Mason.
* Also, they were supported by churches hoping to pass religious reform.

  1. Also for the first time, national conventions were held to nominate candidates.
  2. Clay had the money and the “support” of the press, but the poor
    people voted too, and Jackson won handily, handing Clay his third loss
    in three tries.

XI. Burying Biddle’s Bank

  1. Hoping to kill the BUS, Jackson now began to withdraw federal funds
    from the bank, so as to drain it of its wealth; in reaction, Biddle
    began to call for unnecessary loans, personally causing a mini panic.
  2. Jackson won, and in 1836, the BUS breathed its last breath, but
    because it had been the only source of sure credit in the United
    States, hard times fell upon the West once the BUS died, since the
    wildcat banks were very unreliable.

XII. The Birth of the Whigs

  1. Under Jackson, the modern two-party system of politics came to be.
  2. Opponents of Jackson despised his iron-fisted nature and called him
    “King Andrew.” This wide group coalesced into the Whig party, united
    only by dislike of Jackson.
  3. Generally, the Whigs:
    • Disliked Jackson
    • Supported Henry Clay’s American System and internal improvements.
  4. Once formed, American would have at least two major political parties thenceforth.

XIII. The Election of 1836

  1. “King Andrew” was too old to run again, but offered Martin van Buren to follow in his coattails.
  2. The Whigs suffered from disorganization. They tried to offer a
    favorite son candidate from each section of the country—their hopes
    were that no one would win a majority of electoral votes, the election
    would thus be thrown to the House of Representatives, and they could
    win there. Their scheme failed, and van Buren won.

XIV. Big Woes for the “Little Magician”

  1. Van Buren was the first president to have been born in America, but
    he lacked the support of many Democrats and Jackson’s popularity.
  2. A rebellion in Canada in 1837 threatened to plunge America into
    war, and Van Buren also inherited the depression caused by Jackson’s
    BUS killing.

XV. Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasury

  1. The Panic of 1837 was caused by the “wildcat banks” loans, the
    over-speculation, the “Bank War,” and the Specie Circular stating that
    debts must be paid in specie (gold or silver), which no one had.
  2. Failures of wheat crops caused by the Hessian fly also worsened the
    situation, and the failure of two large British Banks in 1836 had
    already started the panic going.
  3. Hundreds of banks fell, including some of Jackson’s “pet banks,”
    banks that had received the money that Jackson had withdrawn from the
    BUS to kill it.
  4. The Whigs proposed expansion of bank credit, higher tariffs, and
    subsidies for internal improvements, but Van Buren spurned such ideas.
  5. Instead, he proposed the “Divorce Bill” (separating the bank from
    the government and storing money in some of the vaults of the larger
    American cities, thus keeping the money safe but also unavailable) that
    advocated the independent treasury, and in 1840, it was passed.
    • The next year, the victorious Whigs repealed it, but in 1846, it
      was brought back; it finally merged with the Federal Reserve System in
      the next century.

XVI. Gone to Texas

  1. Americans continued to covet Texas, and in 1823, after Mexico had
    gained independence from Spain, Stephen Austin had made an agreement
    with the Mexican government to bring about 300 families into a huge
    tract of granted land to settle.
  2. The stipulations were: (1) they must become Mexican citizens, (2)
    they must become Catholic, and (3) no slavery allowed. These
    stipulations were largely ignored by the new settlers.

XVII. The Lone Star Rebellion

  1. The Texans (among them Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie) resented the
    “foreign” government, but they were led by Sam Houston, a man whose
    wife had left him.
  2. In 1830, Mexico freed its slaves and prohibited them in Texas, much to the anger of citizens.
  3. In 1833, Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to clear up differences and was jailed for 8 months.
  4. In 1835, dictator Santa Anna started to raise an army to suppress the Texans; the next year, they declared their independence.
  5. After armed conflict and slaughters at the Alamo and at Goliad,
    Texan war cries rallied citizens, volunteers, and soldiers, and the
    turning point came after Sam Houston led his army for 37 days eastward,
    then turned on the Mexicans, taking advantage of their siesta hour,
    wiping them out, and capturing Santa Anna.
  6. The treaty he was forced to sign was later negated by him on grounds that the treaty was extorted under duress.
  7. Texas was supported in their war by the United States, but Jackson
    was hesitant to formally recognize Texas as an independent nation until
    he had secured Martin Van Buren as his successor, but after he
    succeeded, Jackson did indeed recognize Texas on his last day before he
    left office, in 1837.
  8. Many Texans wanted to become part of the Union, but the slavery issue blocked this.
  9. The end was an unsettled predicament in which Texans feared the return of Santa Anna.

XVIII. Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840

  1. In 1840, William Harrison was nominated due to his being issueless and enemyless, with John Tyler as his running mate.
  2. He had only been popular from Tippecanoe (1811) and the Battle of the Thames (1813).
  3. A stupid Democratic editor also helped Harrison’s cause when he
    called the candidate a poor old farmer with hard cider and
    inadvertently made him look like many poor Westerners.
  4. With slogans of “Tippecanoe and Tyler too,” the Whigs advocated
    this “poor man’s president” idea and replied, to such questions of the
    bank, internal improvements, and the tariff, with answers of “log
    cabin,” “hard cider,” and “Harrison is a poor man.”
  5. The popular election was close, but Harrison blew Van Buren away in the Electoral College.
  6. Basically, the election was a protest against the hard times of the era.

XIX. Politics for the People

  1. When the Federalists had dominated, democracy was not respected, but by the 1820s, it was widely appealing.
    • Politicians now had to bend to appease and appeal to the masses,
      and the popular ones were the ones who claimed to be born in log cabins
      and had humble backgrounds.
    • Those who were aristocratic (too clean, too well-dressed, too grammatical, to highly intellectual) were scorned.
  2. Western Indian fighters and/or militia commanders, like Andrew
    Jackson, Davy Crocket, and William Henry Harrison, were quite popular.
  3. Jacksonian Democracy said that whatever governing that was to be done should be done directly by the people.
  4. This time was called the New Democracy, and was based on universal white manhood suffrage.
    • In 1791, Vermont became the first state admitted to the union to allow all white males to vote in the elections.
  5. While the old bigwigs who used to have power sneered at the
    “coonskin congressmen” and the “bipeds of the forest,” the new
    democrats argued that if they messed up, they messed up together and
    were not victims of aristocratic domination.

XX. The Two-Party System

  1. The Democrats had so successfully absorbed the Federalist ideas
    before, that a true two party system had never emerged—until now.
  2. The Democrats
    • Glorified the liberty of the individual.
    • Clung to states’ rights and federal restraint in social and economic affairs.
    • Mostly more humble, poorer folk.
    • Generally from the South and West.
  3. The Whigs
    • Trumpeted the natural harmony of society and the value of community.
    • Berated leaders whose appeals and self-interest fostered conflict among individuals.
    • Favored a renewed national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements, public schools, and moral reforms.
    • Mostly more aristocratic and wealthier.
    • Generally from the East.
  4. Things in Common
    • Based on the people, with “catchall” phrases for popularity.
    • Both also commanded loyalties from all kinds of people.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy (1790 - 1860)

I. The Westward Movement

  1. The U.S. marched quickly toward the West which proved to be very hard with disease and loneliness.
  2. Frontier people were individualistic, superstitious and ill-informed of current matters.

II. Shaping the Western Landscape

  1. The westward movement molded the environment.
    • Tobacco overuse had exhausted the land forcing settlers to move on, but “Kentucky bluegrass” thrived.
    • Settlers trapped beavers, sea otters, and bison for fur to ship back East.
  2. The spirit of nationalism led to an appreciation of the American wilderness.
    • Artist George Catlin pushed for national parks and later achieved it with Yellowstone in 1872.

III. The March of the Millions

  1. In the mid-1800s, the population continued to double every 25 years.
    • By 1860, the original 13 states now had become 33 states; the
      American population was 4th in the world (behind Russia, France,
      Austria).
    • Urban growth continued explosively.
      • In 1790, only New York & Philadelphia had more than 20,000 people, but by 1860, 43 cities had.
      • With growth came poor sanitation ‡ later, sewage systems and piped-in water came about.
  2. A high birthrate had accounted for population growth, but near 1850s, millions of Irish and German came.
    • They came due to a surplus population in Europe, but not all came to the U.S.
    • The appeal of the U.S. was for land, freedom from church, no aristocracy, 3 meat meals a day.
    • Also, transoceanic steamships were used meaning travel time dropped to 12 days and it was safer.

IV. The Emerald Isle Moves West

  1. The Irish potato famine in the mid-1840s led to the death of 2 million and saw many flee to the U.S.
    • “Black Forties”—they mainly came to cities like Boston and especially New York (biggest Irish city).
    • They were illiterate, discriminated against by older Americans, and received lowest-paying jobs (railroad-building).
    • They were hated by Protestants because they’re Catholic.
    • Americans hated the Irish (such as “NINA”—No
      Irish Need Apply); the Irish hated competition with blacks for the
      low-paying jobs.
    • The Ancient Order of Hibernians was established to aid the Irish.
    • Gradual property ownership came about, and their children earned education.
    • The Irish were attracted to politics, and often filled police departments as officers.
    • The politicians tried to appeal to the Irish by yelling at London (“Twisting the Lion’s Tail”).

V. The German Forty-Eighters

  1. 1 million Germans poured in between 1830s-1860s because of crop failures and revolution/war of 1848.
    • Liberals such as Carl Schurz contributed to the elevation of the U.S. political scene.
    • They had more money than the Irish, so they bought land in West, especially in Wisconsin.
    • Their votes were crucial, so they were wooed by U.S. politicians, yet they lacked potency because they were rather spread out.
      • The Germans contributed to the U.S. culture (i.e. the Christmas tree) and isolationism.
    • They urged public education (started kindergarten) and freedom (they were enemies of slavery).
    • They faced resent from old Americans because the Germans grouped
      themselves together, were aloof, clung to their old ways and kept
      speaking the German language and religion, and brought beer to the U.S.

VI. Flare-ups of Antiforeignism

  1. “nativists” – older Americans who were prejudiced against newcomers in jobs, politics, and religion
  2. Catholicism became a major faith due to the immigration of the 1840s and 50s; they also set out to build Catholic schools
  3. nativists feared that Catholicism challenged Protestantism (Popish
    idols) so they formed the “Order of Star-Spangled Banner”
    AKA, “The Know-Nothings”
    • they met in secrecy - “I Know-Nothing” was their response to any inquiries
    • fought for restrictions on immigration, naturalization & deportation of alien paupers
    • wrote fiction books about corruption of churches
    • there was mass violence, i.e. Philadelphia in 1844, which burnt churches, schools, and saw people killed
    • it made America a pluralistic society with diversity
    • as time passed, immigrants were less disliked since they were
      crucial to economic expansion & more jobs were becoming available
      (although they were low-paying)

VII. Creeping Mechanization

  1. The industrial revolution spread to U.S. The U.S. was destined to become an industrial giant because…
    • land was cheap, money for investment plentiful, raw materials were plentiful
    • Britain lacked consumers for factory-scale manufacturing whereas America had the growing numbers
    • But, Britain’s long-established factory system was in competition with the infant U.S. industries
    • the Brits kept textile industry secrets as a monopoly (forbade travel of craftsmen & export of machines)
  2. Still, the U.S. remained very rural and was mostly a farming nation

VIII. Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine

  1. Samuel Slater – “Father of the Factory System”
    • learned of textile machinery when working in British
      factory‡ he escaped to U.S., was aided by Moses Brown and built
      1st cotton thread spinner in the U.S. located in Pawtucket, Rhode
      Island (1791)
  2. Eli Whitney built a cotton gin (which was 50 times more effective than separating cotton seed by hand)
    • cotton economics were now profitable and saved the South with “King Cotton”
    • the South flourished and expanded the cotton kingdom westward
    • the Northern factories manufactured textiles (cloth), especially in
      New England due to its poor soil, dense labor, access to sea, and fast
      rivers for water power)

IX. Marvels in Manufacturing

  1. The Embargo Act of the War of 1812 encouraged home manufacturing
  2. after the peace treaty at Ghent, the British poured in a surplus of
    cheap goods, forcing the close of many American factories who could not
    compete with long-established British companies
  3. Congress then passed Tariff of 1816 to protect U.S. economy
  4. Eli Whitney introduced machine-made inter-changeable parts (on muskets) - 1850
    • this was the base of the assembly line which flourished in the North, while the cotton gin flourished South
  5. Elias Howe & Issac Singer (1846) made the sewing machine (the foundation of clothing industry)
  6. The decade of 1860 had 28,000 patents while 1800 only had 306
  7. The principle of limited liability in a corporation (can’t lose more than invested) stimulated the economy
  8. Laws of “free incorporation” came about saying there
    was no need to apply for a charter from a legislature to start a
    corporation
  9. Samuel Morse’s telegraph connected the business world when he asked, “What hath God wrought?”

X. Workers and “Wage Slaves”

  1. The factory system led to impersonal relations
  2. The benefit went to factory owner; hours were long, wages low,
    conditions unsafe and unhealthy, no unions existed to address these
    issues
  3. child labor was heavy; 50% of the industrial labor force were children
  4. adult working condition improved in the 1820s & 30s with the mass vote given to workers
    • 10 hour day, higher wages, tolerable conditions, public education, a ban of imprisonment for debt
    • in the 1840s, President Van Buren established 10 hour day for federal employees
    • many went on strike, but lost because employers simply imported more workers (the much-hated immigrants)
  5. labor unions formed in the 1830s, but were hit by Panic of 1837
    • case of Commonwealth v. Hunt in Massachusetts Supreme Court (1842) legalized unions for peaceful and honorable protest
    • however, the effectiveness of unions was small (due mostly to their
      threat of a strike was always undermined by the management’s
      ability to simply call in “scabs”, plentiful immigrants
      eager to work)

XI. Women and the Economy

  1. women toiled in factories under poor conditions
  2. in Lowell, Massachusetts, a model textile mill employed young, single women under a watchful eye.
  3. opportunities were rare and women mainly worked in nursing, domestic service, teaching (encouraged by Catharine Beecher)
  4. women usually worked before marriage, after marriage they became housewives and mothers
  5. arranged marriages died down; marriages due to love tied family closer
  6. families grew smaller (average of 6); the fertility rate dropped
    sharply; this “domestic feminism” was a crude form of birth
    control
  7. child-centered families emerged with less children and discipline
  8. the home changed from a place of labor, to a place of refuge and rest from labor at the mill
  9. women were in charge of family: small, affectionate, child-centered families. This was a small arena for talented women

XII. Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields

  1. the trans-Allegheny region (Ohio-Indiana-Illinois) became the nation’s breadbasket
    • they planted corn and raised hogs (Cincinnati was known as “the porkopolis” of the west”
  2. inventions that boomed agriculture
    • John Deere – invented the steel plow that cut through hard soil and could be pulled by horses
    • Cyrus McCormick – invented the mechanical mower-reaper to harvest grain
  3. this led to large-scale production and growth of cash crops
  4. The North produced more food than the South (who grew cotton);
    products flowed from the North to the South via sea and rivers, not
    East to West which need transportation revolution in roads and canals

XIII. Highways and Steamboats

  1. improvements in transportation were needed for raw material transport
  2. Lancaster Turnpike – a hard road from Philadelphia to Lancaster, PA which brought economic expansion westward
  3. The federal government constructed the Cumberland Road AKA The National Road (Maryland - Illinois) with state and federal money
  4. Robert Fulton invented the first steamboat, the Clermont in 1807; steamboats were common by the 1830s
    • this caused an increase of U.S. trade because there was no concern for weather and water current
    • this contributed to the development of Southern and Western economies

XIV. “Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York

  1. Gov. DeWitt Clinton’s Big Ditch was the Erie Canal between Lake Erie and the Hudson River
    • it shortened the expense and time of transportation (to one
      twentieth what it was before); cities grew along the canal and the
      price of food was reduced
    • farmers were unable to compete in the rocky soils of the East, so they went to the West

XV. The Iron Horse

  1. The 1st railroad in U.S. was introduced in 1828; by 1860, 30,000
    miles of railroad tracks had been laid in the U.S. (3/4 of those tracks
    were up North)
  2. The railroads were 1st opposed because financiers were afraid of
    losing money from Erie Canal traffic; railroads also caused fires to
    houses from their embers.
  3. Early trains were poorly constructed (with bad brakes) and the gauge of tracks varied

XVIII. Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders

  1. foreign exports
    • South‡ cotton account for 50% of exports
    • North‡ after the repeal of the British Corn Law of 1846, wheat became an important commodity in trade with England
  2. Americans imported more than they exported (causing substantial debt to foreign creditors)
  3. In 1858, Cyrus Field laid a telegraph cable between the U.S. &
    Europe (but died in 3 weeks); a better one was laid in 1866. This
    provided instant communication with Europe—a monumental step
    forward.
  4. American vessels had been idle due to embargoes and panics; the U.S. Navy made little progress
    • the golden age of the American merchant marine came in 1840s and
      50s – Donald Mckay built the clipper ships which dominated the
      seas for a brief time (they were very fast, sleek, and long)
      • tea trade with the British grew and carried many to California
    • America’s brief dominance at sea with the clipper ships was
      crushed by British iron steamers, “Tea kettles” that were
      more reliable and could haul heavier loads, though slower.
  5. speedy communication popped up from Missouri to California, in the
    Pony Express (going 2,000 miles in 10 days). The Pony Express was
    short-lived though, lasting but 2 years, and was replaced by the
    telegraph wire.

XIX. The Transport Web Binds the Union

  1. the steamboat allowed reverse transport of South to West and served to bind them together
  2. more canals led to more trade with East from the West (the South was left out with canals)
  3. New York became the queen port of the country, replacing New Orleans, thanks to the Erie Canal
  4. Principle of divided labor emerged with each region specializing in its own economic activity
    • South cotton to New England; West grain &
      livestock for the East & Europe; East machines, textiles
      for South and West
  5. The South thought the Mississippi River linked them to upper valley
    states; they would overlook man-made links when they began to consider
    secession
  6. Transformed the home, it was once the center of economics, but now served as a refuge from work.

XXI. The Market Revolution

  1. Just as the political landscape of America changed, the economic scene did too. Essentially, business began to grow up.
  2. The era of the self-supported farm was changing to a more modern, specialty driven economy.
  3. These times widened the gap between the rich and poor.
  4. Cities saw the greatest extremes
    • unskilled workers were “drifters” from town to town looking for jobs (1/2 of industrial population)
    • social mobility existed, although rags-to-riches stories were rare
    • the standard of living did rise, however, as wages did rise (this helped diffuse any potential class conflict)
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

I. Reviving Religion

  1. Church attendance was regular in 1850 (3/4 of population attended)
  2. Many relied on Deism (reason rather revelation); Deism rejected
    original sin of man, denied Christ’s divinity but believed in a
    supreme being that created universe with an order, similar to a
    clockmaker.
  3. Unitarian faith begins (New England)
    • believed God existed in only 1 person, not in the orthodox trinity; stressed goodness of human nature
    • believed in free will and salvation through good works; pictured God as a loving father
    • appealed to intellectuals with rationalism and optimism
  4. These perversions of Christianity ignited Christians to “take back their faith” and oppose these new beliefs
  5. Liberalism in religion started in 1800 spawned the 2nd Great
    Awakening a tidal wave of spiritual fervor that resulted in prison
    reform, church reform, temperance movement (no alcohol), women’s
    rights movement, abolition of slavery in 1830s
    • it spread to the masses through huge “camp meetings”
    • the East went to the West to Christianize Indians
    • Methodists and Baptists stressed personal conversion, democracy in church affairs, emotionalism
    • Peter Cartwright – was best known of the “circuit riders” or traveling preachers
    • Charles Grandison Finney – the greatest revival preacher who led massive revivals in Rochester, NY

II. Denominational Diversity

  1. The revival furthered fragmentation of religious faiths
    • New York, with its Puritans, preached “hellfire” and was known as the “Burned-Over District”
    • Millerites (Adventists) – predicted Christ to return to earth
      on Oct 22, 1844. When this prophesy failed to materialize, the movement
      lost credibility.
    • The Awakening widened lines between classes the region (like 1st Great Awakening)
    • conservatives were made up of: propertied Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Unitarians
    • the less-learned of the South the West (frontier areas) were usually Methodists or Baptists
  2. Religion further split with the issue of slavery (i.e. the Methodists and Presbyterians split)

III. A Desert Zion in Utah

  1. Joseph Smith (1830) claimed to have found golden tablets in NY with
    the Book of Mormon inscribed on them. He came up with Mormon or Church
    of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
    • antagonism toward Mormons emerged due to their polygamy, drilling militia, and voting as a unit
    • Smith was killed, but was succeeded by Brigham Young, who led followers to Utah
    • they grew quickly by birth and immigration from Europe
    • they had a federal governor and marched to Utah when Young became governor
    • the issue of polygamy prevented Utah’s entrance to U.S. until 1896

IV. Free School for a Free People

  1. The idea of tax-supported, compulsory (mandatory), primary schools was opposed as a hand-out to paupers
    • Gradually, support rose because uneducated “brats” might grow up to be rabbles with voting rights
    • Free public education, triumphed in 1828 along with the voting power in the Jackson election
    • there were largely ill-taught and ill-trained teachers, however
    • Horace Mann fought for better schools and is the “Father of Public Education”
    • school was too expensive for many community; blacks were mostly left out from education
  2. Important educators - Noah Webster (dictionary and Blueback Speller); William H. McGuffey — McGuffey’s Readers)

V. Higher Goals for Higher Learning

  1. The 2nd Great Awakening led to the building of small schools in the South the West (mainly for pride)
    • the curriculum focused mainly on Latin, Greek, Math, moral philosophy
  2. The 1st state-supported university was founded in the Tar Heel
    state, the Univ. of North Carolina, in 1795; Jefferson started the
    University of Virginia shortly afterwards (UVA was to be independent of
    religion or politics)
  3. women were thought to be corrupted if too educated and were therefore excluded
  4. Emma Willard — established Troy Female Seminary (1821) and Mount Holyoke Seminary (1837) was established by Mary Lyon
  5. Libraries, public lectures, and magazines flourished

VI. An Age of Reform

  1. reformers opposed tobacco, alcohol, profanity, and many other vices, and came out for women’s rights
  2. women were very important in motivating these reform movements
  3. reformers were often optimists who sought a perfect society
    • some were naïve and ignored the problems of factories
    • they fought for no imprisonment for debt (the poor were sometimes
      locked in jail for less than $1 debt); this was gradually abolished
    • reformers wanted criminal codes softened and reformatories created
    • the mentally insane were treated badly. Dorothea Dix fought for reform of the mentally insane in her classic petition of 1843
    • there was agitation for peace (i.e. the American Peace Society) - William Ladd had some impact until Civil War and Crimean war

VII. Demon Rum—The “Old Deluder”

  1. drunkenness was widespread
  2. The American Temperance Society was formed at Boston (1826) –
    the “Cold Water Army” (children), signed pledges, made
    pamphlets, and an anti-alcohol novel emerged called 10 nights in a
    Barroom and What I Saw There
  3. Attack on the demon drink adopted 2 major lines attack…
    • stressed temperance (individual will to resist)
    • legislature-removed temptation - Neal S. Dow becomes the “Father of Prohibition”
    • sponsored Maine Law of 1851 which prohibited making and sale of liquor (followed by others)

VIII. Women in Revolt

  1. Women stayed home, without voting rights. Still, in the 19th century, American women were generally better off than in Europe.
  2. many women avoided marriage altogether becoming “spinsters”
  3. gender differences increased sharply with different economic roles
    • women were perceived as weak physically and emotionally, but fine for teaching
    • men were perceived as strong, but crude and barbaric, if not guided by the purity of women
  4. home was the center of the female’s world (even for reformer Catharine Beecher) but many felt that was not enough
  5. they joined the movement to abolish of slavery
  6. the women’s movement was led by Lucretia Mott, Susan B.
    Anthony (Suzy Bs), Elizabeth Candy Stanton, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell
    (1st female medical graduate), Margaret Fuller, the Grimke sisters
    (anti-slavery advocates), and Amelia Bloomer (semi-short skirts)
    • The Seneca Falls Women’s Rights Convention (1848) – held in NY, it was a major landmark in women’s rights
    • Declaration of Sentiments – was written in the spirit of the
      Declaration of Independence saying that “all Men and Women are
      created equal”
    • demanded ballot for women
    • launched modern women’s rights movement
  7. the women’s rights movement was temporarily eclipsed by
    slavery when the Civil War heated up, but served as a foundation for
    later days

IX. Wilderness Utopias

  1. Robert Owen founded New Harmony, IN (1825) though it failed in confusion
  2. Brook Farm – Massachusetts experiment (1841) where 20
    intellectuals committed to Transcendentalism (it lasted until ‘46)
  3. Oneida Community — practiced free love, birth control,
    eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring; it survived
    ironically as a capitalistic venture, selling baskets and then cutlery.
  4. Shakers – a communistic community (led by Mother Ann Lee); they couldn’t marry so they became extinct

X. The Dawn of Scientific Achievement

  1. Early Americans were interested in practical science rather than pure science (i.e., Jefferson and his newly designed plow).
    • Nathaniel Bowditch – studied practical navigation and oceanography
    • Matthew Maury - ocean winds, currents
  2. Writers were concerned with basic science.
  3. The most influential U.S. scientists…
    • Benjamin Silliman (1779-1864) - pioneer in chemistry geologist (taught in Yale)
    • Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) - served at Harvard, insisted on original research
    • Asa Gray (1810-1888) Harvard, was the Columbus of botany
    • John Audubon (1785-1851) painted birds with exact detail
  4. Medicine in the U.S. was primitive (i.e., bleeding used for cure; smallpox, yellow fever though it killed many).
  5. Life expectancy was unsurprisingly low.
  6. Self-prescribed patent medicines were common, they were usually were mostly alcohol and often as harmful as helpful.
  7. The local surgeon was usually the local barber or butcher.

XI. Artistic Achievements

  1. U.S. had traditionally imitated European styles of art (aristocratic subjects, dark portraits, stormy landscapes)
  2. 1820-50 was a Greek revival, as they’d won independence from Turks; Gothic forms also gained popularity
  3. Thomas Jefferson was the most able architect of his generation (Monticello and University of Virginia)
  4. Artists were viewed as a wasters of time; they suffered from Puritan prejudice of art as sinful pride
  5. Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) - painted Washington and competed with English artists

Charles Willson Peale (1741-1827) painted 60 portraits of Washington
John Trumbull (1756-1843) - captured the Revolutionary War in paint in dramatic fashion

  1. During the nationalism upsurge after War of 1812, U.S. painters portrayed human landscapes and Romanticism
    • “darky” tunes became popular
    • Stephen Foster wrote Old Folks at Home (AKA Suwannee River, his most famous)

XII. The Blossoming of a National Literature

  1. Literature was imported or plagiarized from England
  2. Americans poured literature into practical outlets (i.e. The
    Federalist Papers, Common Sense (Paine), Ben Franklin’s
    Autobiography, Poor Richard’s Almanack)
  3. literature was reborn after the War of Independence and especially after War of 1812
  4. The Knickerbocker group in NY wrote the first truly American literature
    • Washington Irving (1783-1859) - 1st U.S. internationally recognized writings, The Sketch Book
    • James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) - 1st US novelist,
      Leatherstocking Tales (which included The Last of the Mohicans which
      was popular in Europe)
    • William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878) – Thanatopsis, the 1st high quality poetry in U.S.

XIII. Trumpeters of Transcendentalism

  1. Literature dawned in the 2nd quarter of 19th century with the transcendentalist movement (circa 1830)
    • transcendentalism clashed with John Locke (who argued knowledge
      came from reason); for transcendentalists, truth came not by
      observation alone, from with inner light
    • it stressed individualism, self-reliance, and non-conformity
    • Ralph Waldo Emerson was popular since the ideal of the essay reflected the spirit of the U.S.
    • he lectured the Phi Beta Kappa Address “The American Scholar”
    • he urged U.S. writers throw off European tradition
    • influential as practical philosopher (stressed self-government, self-reliance, depending on self)
    • most famous for his work, Self Reliance
    • Henry David Thoreau
    • He condemned slavery and wrote Walden: Or life in the Woods
    • He also wrote On the Duty of Civil Disobedience, which was
      idealistic in thought, and a forerunner of Gandhi and then Martin
      Luther King Jr., saying it is not wrong to disobey a wrong law
    • Walt Whitman wrote Leaves of Grass (poetry) and was “Poet Laureate of Democracy”

XIV. Glowing Literary Lights (not associated with transcendentalism)

  1. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow - wrote poems popular in Europe such as Evangeline
  2. John Greenleaf Whittier - poems that cried against injustice, intolerance, inhumanity
  3. James Russell Lowell - political satirist who wrote Biglow Papers
  4. Oliver Wendell Holmes - The Last Leaf
  5. Women writers
    • Louisa May Alcott - with transcendentalism wrote Little Women
    • Emily Dickinson – wrote of the theme of nature in poems
  6. Southern literary figure – William Gillmore Simms -
    “the cooper of the south”; wrote many books of life in
    frontier South during the Revolutionary War

XV. Literary Individualists and Dissenters

  1. Edgar Allan Poe - wrote “The Raven” and many short stories
    • invented modern detective novel and “psychological thriller”
    • he was fascinated by the supernatural and reflected a morbid sensibility (more prized by Europe)
  2. reflections of Calvinist obsession with original sin and struggle between good & evil
    • Nathaniel Hawthorne - The Scarlet Letter (psychological effect of sin)
    • Herman Melville - Moby Dick, and allegory between good and evil told of a whaling captain

XVI. Portrayers of the Past

  1. George Bancroft – founded the naval academy; published U.S.
    history book and was known as the “Father of American
    History”
  2. William H. Prescott - published on the conquest of Mexico, Peru
  3. Francis Parkman - published on the struggle between France and England in colonial North America
  4. Historians were all from New England because they had the most books. Therefore, there became an anti-South bias.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

I. “Cotton’s Is King!”

  1. Before the 1793 invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin,
    slavery was a dying business, since the South was burdened with
    depressed prices, unmarketable goods, and over-cropped lands.
    • After the gin was invented, growing cotton became wildly profitable and easier, and more slaves were needed.
  2. The North also transported the cotton to England and the rest of
    Europe, so they were in part responsible for the slave trade as well.
  3. The South produced more than half the world’s supply of
    cotton, and held an advantage over countries like England, an
    industrial giant, which needed cotton to make cloth, etc…
  4. The South believed that since England was so dependent on them
    that, if civil war was to ever break out, England would support the
    South that it so heavily depended on.

II. The Planter “Aristocracy”

  1. In 1850, only 1733 families owned more than 100 slaves each, and
    they were the wealthy aristocracy of the South, with big houses and
    huge plantations.
  2. The Southern aristocrats widened the gap between the rich and the
    poor and hampered public-funded education by sending their children to
    private schools.
    • Also, a favorite author among them was Sir Walter Scott, author of
      Ivanhoe, who helped them idealize a feudal society with them as the
      kings and queens and the slaves as their subjects.
  3. The plantation system shaped the lives of southern women.
    • Mistresses of the house commanded a sizable household of mostly
      female slaves who cooked, sewed, cared for the children, and washed
      things.
    • Mistresses could be kind or cruel, but all of them did at one point
      or another abuse their slaves to some degree; there was no
      “perfect mistress.”

III. Slaves of the Slave System

  1. Cotton production spoiled the earth, and even though profits were
    quick and high, the land was ruined, and cotton producers were always
    in need of new land.
  2. The economic structure of the South became increasingly
    monopolistic because as land ran out, smaller farmers sold their land
    to the large estate owners.
  3. Also, the temptation to over-speculate in land and in slaves caused many planters to plunge deep into debt.
    • Slaves were valuable, but they were also a gamble, since they might run away or be killed by disease.
  4. The dominance of King Cotton likewise led to a one-crop economy whose price level was at the mercy of world conditions.
  5. Southerners resented the Northerners who got rich at their expense
    while they were dependent on the North for clothing, food, and
    manufactured goods.
  6. The South repelled immigrants from Europe, who went to the North, making it richer.

IV. The White Majority

  1. Beneath the aristocracy were the whites that owned one or two, or a
    small family of slaves; they worked hard on the land with their slaves
    and the only difference between them and their northern neighbors was
    that there were slaves living with them.
  2. Beneath these people were the slaveless whites (a full 3/4 of the
    white population) that raised corn and hogs, sneered at the rich cotton
    “snobocracy” and lived simply and poorly.
    • Some of the poorest were known as “poor white trash,”
      “hillbillies” and “clay-eaters” and were
      described as listless, shiftless, and misshapen.
    • It is now known that these people weren’t lazy, just sick,
      suffering from malnutrition and parasites like hookworm (which they got
      eating/chewing clay for minerals)
  3. Even the slaveless whites defended the slavery system because they
    all hoped to own a slave or two some day, and they could take perverse
    pleasure in knowing that, no matter how bad they were, they always
    “outranked” Blacks.
  4. Mountain whites, those who lived isolated in the wilderness under
    Spartan frontier conditions, hated white aristocrats and Blacks, and
    they were key in crippling the Southern secessionists during the Civil
    War.

V. Free Blacks: Slaves Without Masters

  1. By 1860, free Blacks in the South numbered about 250,000.
  2. In the upper South, these Blacks were descended from those freed by
    the idealism of the Revolutionary War (“all men were created
    equal”).
  3. In the deep South, they were usually mulattoes (Black mother, White
    father who was usually a master) freed when their masters died.
  4. Many owned property; a few owned slaves themselves.
  5. Free Blacks were prohibited from working in certain occupations and
    forbidden from testifying against whites in court; and as examples of
    what slaves could be, Whites resented them.
  6. In the North, free Blacks were also unpopular, as several states
    denied their entrance, most denied them the right to vote and most
    barred them from public schools.
  7. Northern Blacks were especially hated by the Irish, with whom they competed for jobs.
  8. Anti-black feeling was stronger in the North, where people liked
    the race but not the individual, than in the South, were people liked
    the individual (with whom they’d often grown up), but not the
    race.

VI. Plantation Slavery

  1. Although slave importation was banned in 1808, smuggling of them
    continued due to their high demand and despite death sentences to
    smugglers
  2. However, the slave increase (4 million by 1860) was mostly due to their natural reproduction.
  3. Slaves were an investment, and thus were treated better and more
    kindly and were spared the most dangerous jobs, like putting a roof on
    a house, draining a swamp, or blasting caves.
    • Usually, Irishmen were used to do that sort of work.
  4. Slavery also created majorities or near-majorities in the Deep
    South, and the states of South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama,
    and Louisiana accounted for half of all slaves in the South.
  5. Breeding slaves was not encouraged, but thousands of slaves were “sold down the river” to toil as field-gang workers, and women who gave birth to many children were prized.
    • Some were promised freedom after ten children born.
  6. Slave auctions were brutal, with slaves being inspected like
    animals and families often mercilessly separated; Harriet Beecher Stowe
    seized the emotional power of this scene in her Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

VII. Life Under the Lash

  1. Slave life varied from place to place, but for slaves everywhere,
    life meant hard work, no civil or political rights, and whipping if
    orders weren’t followed.
  2. Laws that tried to protect slaves were difficult to enforce.
  3. Lash beatings weren’t that common, since a master could lower the value of his slave if he whipped him too much.
  4. Forced separation of spouses, parents and children seem to have been more common in the upper South, among smaller plantations.
  5. Still, most slaves were raised in stable two-parent households and
    continuity of family identity across generations was evidenced in the
    widespread practice of naming children for grandparents or adopting the
    surname of a forebear’s master.
  6. In contrast to the White planters, Africans avoided marriage of first cousins.
  7. Africans also mixed the Christian religion with their own native
    religion, and often, they sang Christian hymns as signals and codes for
    news of possible freedom; many of them sang songs that emphasize
    bondage. (“Let my people go.”)

VIII. The Burdens of Bondage

  1. Slaves had no dignity, were illiterate, and had no chance of achieving the “American dream.”
  2. They also devised countless ways to make trouble without getting punished too badly.
    • They worked as slowly as they could without getting lashed.
    • They stole food and sabotaged expensive equipment.
    • Occasionally, they poisoned their masters’ food.
  3. Rebellions, such as the 1800 insurrection by a slave named Gabriel
    in Richmond, Virginia, and the 1822 Charleston rebellion led by Denmark
    Vesey, and the 1831 revolt semiliterate preacher Nat Turner, were never
    successful. However, they did scare the jeepers out of whites, which
    led to tightened rules.
  4. Whites became paranoid of Black revolts, and they had to degrade
    themselves, along with their victims, as noted by distinguished Black
    leader Booker T. Washington.

IX. Early Abolitionism

  1. In 1817, the American Colonization Society was founded for the
    purpose of transporting Blacks back to Africa, and in 1822, the
    Republic of Liberia was founded for Blacks to live.
    • Most Blacks had no wish to be transplanted into a strange civilization after having been partially Americanized.
    • By 1860, virtually all slaves were not Africans, but native-born African-Americans.
  2. In the 1830s, abolitionism really took off, with the Second Great Awakening and other things providing support.
  3. Theodore Dwight Weld was among those who were inflamed against slavery.
  4. Inspired by Charles Grandison Finney, Weld preached against slavery and even wrote a pamphlet, American Slavery As It Is.

X. Radical Abolitionism

  1. On January 1st, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison published the first
    edition of The Liberator triggering a 30-year war of words and in a
    sense firing one of the first shots of the Civil War.
  2. Other dedicated abolitionists rallied around Garrison, such as
    Wendell Phillips, a Boston patrician known as “abolition’s
    golden trumpet” who refused to eat cane sugar or wore cotton
    cloth, since both were made by slaves.
  3. David Walker, a Black abolitionist, wrote Appeal to the Colored
    Citizens of the World in 1829 and advocated a bloody end to white
    supremacy.
  4. Sojourner Truth, a freed Black woman who fought for black
    emancipation and women’s rights, and Martin Delaney, one of the
    few people who seriously reconsidered Black relocation to Africa, also
    fought for Black rights.
  5. The greatest Black abolitionist was an escaped black, Frederick
    Douglass, who was a great speaker and fought for the Black cause
    despite being beaten and harassed.
    • His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass,
      depicted his remarkable struggle and his origins, as well as his life.
    • While Garrison seemed more concerned with his own righteousness,
      Douglass increasingly looked to politics to solve the slavery problem.
    • He and others backed the Liberty Party in 1840, the Free Soil Party in 1848, and the Republican Party in the 1850s.
  6. In the end, many abolitionists supported war as the price for emancipation.

XI. The South Lashes Back

  1. In the South, abolitionist efforts increasingly came under attack and fire.
  2. Southerners began to organize a campaign talking about
    slavery’s positive good, conveniently forgetting about how their
    previous doubts about “peculiar institution’s”
    (slavery’s) morality.
  3. Southern slave supporters pointed out how masters taught their
    slaves religion, made them civilized, treated them well, and gave them
    “happy” lives.
  4. They also noted the lot of northern free Blacks, now were
    persecuted and harassed, as opposed to southern Black slaves, who were
    treated well, given meals, and cared for in old age.
  5. In 1836, Southern House members passed a “gag
    resolution” requiring all antislavery appeals to be tabled
    without debate, arousing the ire of northerners like John Quincy Adams.
  6. Southerners also resented the flood of propaganda in the form of pamphlets, drawings, etc…

XII. The Abolitionist Impact in the North

  1. For a long time, abolitionists like the extreme Garrisonians were
    unpopular, since many had been raised to believe the values of the
    slavery compromises in the Constitution.
    • Also, his secessionist talks contrasted against Webster’s cries for union.
  2. The South owed the North $300 million by the late 1850s, and northern factories depended on southern cotton to make goods.
  3. Many abolitionists’ speeches provoked violence and mob
    outbursts in the North, such as the 1834 trashing of Lewis
    Tappan’s New York House.
  4. In 1835, Garrison miraculously escaped a mob that dragged him around the streets of Boston.
  5. Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy of Alton, Illinois, who impugned the
    chastity of Catholic women, had his printing press destroyed four times
    and was killed by a mob in 1837; he became an abolitionist martyr.
  6. Yet by the 1850s, abolitionist outcries had been an impact on
    northern minds and were beginning to sway more and more toward their
    side.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

I. The Accession of “Tyler Too”

  1. The Whig leaders, namely Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, had planned
    to control newly elected President William H. Harrison, but their plans
    hit a snag when he contracted pneumonia and died—only four weeks
    after he came to the White House.
  2. The new president was John Tyler, a Virginian gentleman who was a lone wolf.
    • He did not agree with the Whig party, since the Whigs were pro-bank
      and pro-protective tariff, and pro-internal improvements, but hailing
      from the South, he was not. Tyler was really more of a Democrat.

II. John Tyler: A President Without a Party

  1. After their victory, the Whigs unveiled their platform for America:
    • Financial reform would come in the form of a law ending the independent treasury system; Tyler agreeably signed it.
    • A new bill for a new Bank of the U.S. was on the table, but Clay
      didn’t try hard enough to conciliate with Tyler and get it
      passed, and it was vetoed.
  2. Whig extremists now started to call Tyler “his accidency.”
    • His entire cabinet resigned, except for Webster.
  3. Also, Tyler vetoed a proposed Whig tariff.
  4. The Whigs redrafted and revised the tariff, taking out the
    dollar-distribution scheme and pushing down the rates to about the
    moderately protective level of 1832 (32%), and Tyler, realizing that a
    tariff was needed, reluctantly signed it.

III. A War of Words with England

  1. At this time, anti-British sentiment was high because the
    pro-British Federalists had died out, there had been two wars with
    Britain, and the British travelers in America scoffed at the
    “uncivilized” Americans.
  2. American and British magazines ripped each other’s countries,
    but fortunately, this war was only of words and not of blood.
  3. In the 1800s, America with its expensive canals and railroads was a
    borrowing nation while Britain was the one that lent money, but when
    the Panic of 1837 broke out, the Englishmen who lost money assailed
    their rash American borrowers.
  4. In 1837, a small rebellion in Canada broke out, and Americans furnished arms and supplies.
  5. Also in 1837, an American steamer, the Caroline, was attacked in N. and set afire by a British force.
  6. Tensions were high afterwards, but later calmed; then in 1841,
    British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to some 130 revolting
    slaves who had captured the ship Creole.

IV. Manipulating the Maine Maps

  1. Maine had claimed territory on its northern and eastern border that
    was also claimed by England, and there were actually small skirmishes
    in the area (the “Aroostook War” of feuding lumberjacks).
  2. Luckily, in 1842 Britain sent Lord Ashburton to negotiate with
    Daniel Webster, and after talks, the two agreed to what is now called
    the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, which gave Britain their desired
    Halifax-Quebec route for a road while America got a bit more land north
    of Maine.
  3. The U.S. also got, as a readjustment of the U.S.—Canadian
    border, the unknowingly priceless Mesabi Range of iron ore up in
    Minnesota. It later provided the iron for steel in the boom of industry.

V. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

  1. Ever since it had declared independence in 1836, Texas had built up
    reinforcements because it had no idea if or when Mexico would attack
    again to reclaim her “province in revolt.” So, Texas made
    treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium. These alliances worried the
    U.S. because…
  2. If Texas "buddied up" to Europe, Britain especially, it’d cause big problems for America, such as…
    • The Monroe Doctrine (where Europe was told to "stay away") would be undermined if England had a buddy over here in Texas.
    • The dominant Southern cotton economy would also be undercut by Texas cotton shipping to England.
  3. The U.S. was at a stand-still over what to do with Texas.
    • The North decried the Southern "slavocracy" (a supposed Southern conspiracy to always gain more slave land).
    • America could not just boldly annex Texas without a war with Mexico.
    • Overseas, Britain wanted an independent Texas to check American expansionism.
    • Yet, Texas would be good boost for American cotton production and provide tons more land. What to do?!

VI. The Belated Texas Nuptials

  1. James K. Polk and his expansionist ideas won the election of 1844.
    His election was seen as a "mandate for manifest destiny," so the
    following year, Texas was formally invited to become the 28th state of
    the Union.
  2. Mexico complained that Americans had despoiled it of Texas, which
    was partly true, but as it turned out, Mexico would not have been able
    to reconquer their lost province anyway.

VII. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

  1. Oregon was a great place, stretching from the northern tip of California to the 54° 40’ line.
  2. Once claimed by Russia, Spain, England, and the U.S., now, only the
    latter two claimed it; England had good reasons for its claims north of
    the Columbia River, since it was populated by British and by the
    Hudson’s Bay Company.
  3. However, Americans had strong claims south of the Columbia River
    (named after his ship by Robert Gray when he discovered the river),
    since they populated it much more. Plus, the Americans occupied and had
    explored the interior of the land, thanks to Lewis and Clark.
  4. The Oregon Trail, an over 2000-mile trail across America, was a common route to Oregon during the early 1840s.

VIII. A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny

  1. In 1844, the two candidates for presidency were Henry Clay, the
    popular Whig who had been defeated twice before, and a dark-horse
    candidate, James K. Polk, who had been picked because the Democrats
    couldn’t agree on anyone else.
  2. Polk, having been Speaker of the House for four years and governor
    of Tennessee for two terms. He was no stranger to politics, was called
    “Young Hickory” (in fact, Polk was born in Pineville, N.C.,
    only some 15 miles from Jackson’s birthplace) and Polk was even
    sponsored by former president Andrew Jackson.
  3. He and the Democrats advocated “Manifest Destiny”, a
    concept that stated that the U.S. was destined to expand across the
    continent and get as much land as possible.
  4. On the issue of Texas, Clay tried to say two things at once, and
    thus, it cost him, since he lost the election (170 to 105 in the
    Electoral; 1,338,464 to 1,300,097 in the popular) by 5000 votes in New
    York.

IX. Polk the Purposeful

  1. Polk laid out a 4-point mission for himself and the nation (then achieved all 4 points in 4 years)
    • Lower the tariff
    • Restore the independent treasury (put U.S. money into non-government banks)
    • Clear up the Oregon border issue
    • Get California
  2. One of Polk’s acts was to lower the tariff, and his secretary
    of the treasury, Robert J. Walker, did so, lowering the tariff from 32%
    to 25% despite complaints by the industrialists.
    • Despite warnings of doom, the new tariff was followed by good times.
  3. He also restored the independent treasury in 1846 and wanted to acquire California and settle the Oregon dispute.
  4. Under Polk, the Oregon border issue was settled.
    • While the Democrats had promoted acquiring all of Oregon during
      their campaign, after the annexation of Texas, the Southern Democrats
      didn’t much care anymore.
    • England and the U.S. had been bargaining for Oregon land to answer, "Where is the border of Oregon?"
      • England first answered 42o latitude; then said the Columbia River
      • The U.S. first answered 54o40' latitude; then said 49o latititude
      • Things were tense for a while, but England realized there were more
        Americans in Oregon than Brits—their leverage was small.
    • So, the British proposed a treaty that would separate British and American claims at the **49th parallel (excluding Vancouver), a proposal that Polk threw to the Senate, and which accepted.
    • The U.S. got the better of the deal since
      • the British second-choice was rejected but the Americans' second-choice was accepted and
      • as with the Maine treaty, the U.S. got a bit more land than England did
    • Those angry with the deal cried, “Why all of Texas but not
      all of Oregon?” The cold, hard answer was that because Mexico was
      weak and that England was strong.

X. Misunderstandings with Mexico

  1. Polk wanted California, but this was difficult due to strained U.S.-Mexican relations.
    • After the annexation of Texas, Mexico had recalled its foreign
      minister, and before, it had been forced to default on its payments of
      $3 million to the U.S.
    • Also, when Texas claimed its southern boundary to be the Rio Grande
      and not the Nueces River like Mexico said, Polk felt that he had to
      defend Texas and did so.
  2. The U.S. then sent John Slidell to Mexico City as an envoy
    instructed to buy California for $25 million, however, once he arrived,
    the Mexican government, pressured by its angry people, refused to see
    him, thus “snubbing” him.

XI. American Blood on American (?) Soil

  1. A frustrated Polk now forced a showdown, and on Jan. 13, 1846, he
    ordered 4000 men under Zachary Taylor to march from the Nueces River to
    the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican troops.
  2. As events would have it, on April 25, 1846, news of Mexican troops
    crossing the Rio Grande and killing of wounding 16 Americans came to
    Washington, and Polk pushed for a declaration of war
    • A group of politicians, though, wanted to know where exactly was
      the spot of the fighting before committing to war; among them was
      Abraham “Spotty” Lincoln because of his “Spot
      Resolution.”
    • Pushed by Polk, Congress declared war, and so began the Mexican-American War.

XII. The Mastering of Mexico

  1. Polk hoped that once American had beaten Mexico enough, he could
    get California and end the war, and the recently dethroned Santa Anna
    told the U.S. that if he could return to Mexico, he would take over the
    government, end the war, and give California to the U.S. He lied.
  2. In the Southwest, U.S. operations led by Stephen W. Kearny (led
    1700 troops from Leavenworth to Santa Fe) and John C. Fremont (leader
    of the Bear Flag Revolt in California) were successful.
  3. “Old Rough and Ready” Zachary Taylor, a general, he
    fought into Mexico, reaching Buena Vista, and repelled 20,000 Mexicans
    with only 5000 men, instantly becoming a hero.
  4. General Winfield Scott led American troops into Mexico City.

XIII. Fighting Mexico for Peace

  1. Polk sent Nicholas Trist to negotiate an armistice with Mexico at a
    cost of $10,000 (Santa Anna took the bribe and then used it for his
    defenses).
  2. Afterwards, Trist was recalled, but he refused to leave.
  3. He negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, which…
    • Gave to America all Mexican territory from Texas to California that
      was north of the Rio Grande. This land was called the Mexican Cession
      since Mexico ceded it to the U.S.
    • U.S. only had to pay $15 million to Mexico for it.
    • $3.5 million in debts from Mexico to the U.S. were absolved as well.
    • In essence, the U.S. had forced Mexico to "sell" the Mexican Cession lands.
  4. In America, there were people clamoring an end to the war (the
    Whigs) and those who wanted all of Mexico (but the leaders of the South
    like John C. Calhoun realized the political nightmare that would cause
    and decided not to be so greedy), so Polk speedily passed the bill to
    the Senate, which approved it, 38 to 14.
  5. Polk had originally planned to pay $25 million just for California,
    but he only paid $18,250,000; some people say that American paid even
    that much because it felt guilty for having bullied Mexico into a war
    it couldn’t win.

XIV. Profit and Loss in Mexico

  1. In the war, America only had 13,000 dead soldiers, most taken by
    disease, and the war was a great practice for the Civil War, giving men
    like Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant invaluable battle experience.
  2. Outside countries now respected America more, since it had made no
    major blunders during the war and had proven its fighting prowess.
  3. However, it also paved the way to the Civil War by attaining more land that could be disputed over slavery.
  4. David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced his Wilmot Proviso (a
    provision or amendment), which stated that slavery should never exist
    in any of the Mexican Cession territories that would be taken from
    Mexico; the amendment was passed twice by the House but it never got
    passed the Senate (where southern states equaled northern).
    • Although it failed, the importance of the Wilmot Proviso lay in the fact that it opened old wounds—those of slavery.
    • In other words, it opened a "can of worms" by raising the question, "Will we have slavery in the Mexican Cession lands?"
    • It's this question that starts the Civil War in 1861, only 13 years later.
  5. Bitter Mexicans, resentful of the land that was taken from them,
    land that halved their country’s size while doubling
    America’s. They took small satisfaction when the same land caused
    disputes that led to the Civil War, a fate called "Santa Anna’s
    Revenge".
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

I. The Popular Sovereignty Panacea

  1. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War, but
    it started a whole new debate about the extension of slavery, with
    Northerners rallying around the Wilmot Proviso (which proposed that the
    Mexican Cession lands be free soil); however, the Southerners shot it
    down.
  2. Before, the two national parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, had
    had strong support from all over the nation; now, that was in jeopardy.
  3. In 1848, Polk, due to tremendous overworking and chronic diarrhea,
    did not seek a second term, and the Democrats nominated General Lewis
    Cass, a veteran of the War of 1812, a senator and diplomat of wide
    experience and considerable ability, and the originator of popular
    sovereignty, the idea that issues should be decided upon by the people
    (specifically, it applied to slavery, stating that the people in the
    territories should decide to legalize it or not).
    • It was good (and liked by politicians) because it was a compromise
      between the extremes of the North and the South, and it stuck with the
      idea of self-determination, but it could spread slavery.

II. Political Triumphs for General Taylor

  1. The Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista
    in the Mexican War, a man with no political experience, but popular
    man, and they avoided all picky issues in his campaign.
  2. Disgusted antislavery Northerners organized the Free Soil Party, a
    party committed against the extension of slavery in the territories and
    one that also advocated federal aid for internal improvements and urged
    free government homesteads for settlers.
    • This party appealed to people angry over the half-acquisition of
      Oregon, people who didn’t like Blacks in the new territory, as
      well as “conscience Whigs” who condemned slavery on moral
      grounds.
    • The Free-Soilers nominated Martin Van Buren.
  3. Neither major party talked about the slavery issue, but Taylor won narrowly.

III. “Californy Gold”

  1. In 1848, gold was discovered in California, and thousands flooded into the state, thus blowing the lid off of the slavery issue.
  2. Most people didn’t “strike it rich,” but there were many lawless men and women.
  3. As a result, California (privately encouraged by the president)
    drafted a constitution and then applied for free statehood, thus
    bypassing the usual territorial stage and avoiding becoming a slave
    state.

IV. Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad

  1. In 1850, the South was very well off, with a Southerner as
    president (Taylor), a majority in the cabinet and on the Supreme Court,
    and equality in the Senate meaning that its 15 states could block any
    proposed amendment that would outlaw slavery. Still, the South was
    worried.
  2. The balance of 15 free states and 15 slave states was in danger
    with the admission of free California (which would indeed destroy the
    equilibrium forever) and other states might follow California as free
    states.
  3. The South was also agitated about Texas’ claims on disputed
    territory and the prospect of no slavery in Washington D.C., thus
    putting a piece of non-slavery land right in the middle of
    slave-holding Virginia and Maryland.
  4. Finally the Underground Railroad, a secret organization that took
    runaway states north to Canada, was taking more and more slaves from
    the South.
  5. Harriet Tubman freed more than 300 slaves during 19 trips to the South.
  6. The South was also demanded a stricter fugitive slave law.

V. Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

  1. In 1850, the South was confronted with catastrophe, with California demanding admission as a free state.
    • Thus, the three giants met together for the last time to engineer a compromise.
  2. Henry Clay, AKA “The Great Compromiser,” now 73 years
    old, urged concession from both the North and the South (the North for
    a fugitive slave law, the South for others) and was seconded by Stephen
    Douglas, the “Little Giant” and fine senator.
  3. Southern spokesman John C. Calhoun, dying of tuberculosis, pleaded
    for states’ rights, for slavery to be left alone, for the return
    of runaway slaves, the restoration of the rights of the South as a
    minority, and the return for political balance.
  4. Northerner Daniel Webster proclaimed that the new land could not
    hold slaves anyway, since it couldn’t cultivate cotton,
    etc… and his Seventh of March speech helped move the North into
    compromise.
  5. As a result of the popular speech, though, Webster was also
    proclaimed a traitor to the North, since he had called for ignoring the
    slavery subject.

VI. Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill

  1. A new group of politicians, the “Young Guard,” seemed
    more interested in purifying the Union rather than patching it up.
  2. William H. Seward, a young senator from New York, was flatly
    against concession and hated slavery, but he didn’t seem to
    realize that the Union was built on compromise, and he said that
    Christian legislators must adhere to a “higher law” and not
    allow slavery to exist; this might have cost him the 1860 presidential
    election.
  3. President Taylor also appeared to have fallen under the influence
    of the “higher law,” vetoing every compromise sent to him
    by Congress.

VII. Breaking the Congressional Logjam

  1. Then, in 1850, Zachary Taylor suddenly died of an acute intestinal disorder, and portly Millard Fillmore took over the reigns.
  2. Impressed by arguments of conciliation, he signed a series of agreements that came to be known as the Compromise of 1850.
  3. Clay, Webster, and Douglas orated on behalf of the compromise for
    the North, but the South hated it; fortunately, they finally accepted
    it after much debate.

VIII. Balancing the Compromise Scales

  1. What the North got… (the North got the better deal in the Compromise of 1850)
    1. California was admitted as a free state, permanently tipping the balance.
    2. Texas lost its disputed territory to New Mexico and (now) Oklahoma.
    3. The District of Columbia could not have slave trade, but slavery
      was still legal. This was symbolic only. It was symbolic in that the
      nation’s capital “took a stance” against the trade.
      However, it was impractical because the trade only was illegal, not
      slavery and because a person could easily buy a slave in next-door
      Virginia.
  2. What the South got…
    1. Popular sovereignty in the Mexican Cession lands. This was good for
      the South because prior to this, there was to be no new slave lands
      (the 36o30’ Missouri Compromise line had drawn that).
      On paper, this opened a lot of land to slavery, possibly. This was bad
      for the South because those lands were too dry to raise cotton anyway
      and therefore would never see slaves.
    2. Texas was paid $10 million for the land lost to New Mexico.
    3. A new, tougher Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was drastic, and it
      stated that (1) fleeing slaves couldn’t testify on their own
      behalf, (2) the federal commissioner who handled the case got $5 if the
      slave was free and $10 if not, and (3) people who were ordered to help
      catch slaves had to do so, even if they didn’t want to.
      • Angry Northerners pledged not to follow the new law, and the Underground Railroad stepped up its timetable.
      • It turns out that the new Fugitive Slave Law was a blunder on
        behalf of the South, since it inflamed both sides, but a civil war
        didn’t occur, and this was better for the North, since with each
        moment, it was growing ahead of the South in population and
        wealth—in crops, factories, foundries, ships, and railroads.

IX. Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

  1. In 1852, the Democrats, unable to agree, finally nominated dark horse Franklin Pierce, a man who was unknown and enemyless.
  2. The Whigs nominated “Old Fuss and Feathers,” Winfield
    Scott, the old veteran of the War of 1812 and the Mexican-American War.
  3. Both parties boasted about the Compromise of 1850, though the Democrats did more.
  4. The Whigs were hopelessly split, and thus, Pierce won in a
    landslide; the death of the Whigs ended the national political
    arguments and gave rise to sectional political alignments.

X. Expansionist Stirrings South of the Border

  1. Pierce tried to be another Polk, and he impressed followers by
    reciting his inaugural address from memory, but his cabinet was filled
    with Southerners like Jefferson Davis and he was prepared to be a
    Southerners’ tool.
  2. In July of 1856, a brazen American adventurer, William Walker,
    grabbed control in Nicaragua and proclaimed himself president, then
    legalized slavery, but a coalition of Latin American states overthrew
    him. This threw some fuel on the “Slavocracy” theory (a
    conspiracy theory where the South was always seeking new slave land).
  3. America also eyed Cuba with envy.
    • Although America wanted Cuba, Spain wouldn’t sell it to the U.S. at any price.
    • So after two attempts to take Cuba failed, and after Spain captured
      the American steamer Black Warrior on a technicality, three U.S.
      foreign ministers met in Ostend, Belgium and drew up the Ostend
      Manifesto which stated that the U.S. was to offer $120 million to Spain
      for Cuba, and if it refused and Spain’s ownership of Cuba
      continued to endanger the U.S., then America would be justified in
      seizing the island (sell it or it’ll be taken).
  4. Northerners were outraged once this “secret” document
    was leaked, and the South could not get Cuba (and obtain another slave
    state). Pierce was embarrassed and more fuel thrown on the Slavocracy
    theory.

XI. The Allure of Asia

  1. Over on the Pacific, America was ready to open to Asia.
    • Caleb Cushing was sent to China on a goodwill mission.
  2. The Chinese were welcoming since they wanted to counter the British.
  3. U.S.—China trade began to flourish.
  4. Missionaries also sought to save souls; they largely kindled resent however.
  5. Relations opened up Japan when Commodore Matthew C. Perry steamed
    into the harbor of Tokyo in 1854 and asked/coerced/forced them to open
    up their nation.
    • Perry’s Treaty of Kanagawa formerly opened Japan.
    • This broke Japan’s centuries-old traditional of isolation,
      and started them down a road of modernization and then imperialism and
      militarism.

XII. Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase

  1. Though the U.S. owned California and Oregon, getting out there was
    very difficult, since the sea routes were too long and the wagon route
    overland was dangerous, so the only real feasible solution lay in a
    transcontinental railroad.
  2. The Southerners wanted a route through the South, but the best one
    would go through Mexico, so Secretary of War Jefferson Davis arranged
    to have James Gadsden appointed minister to Mexico.
    • Two reasons this was the best route: (1) the land was organized
      meaning any Indian attacks could be repelled by the U.S. Army and (2)
      geography—the plan was to skirt south of the Rocky Mtns
    • Finding Santa Anna in power again, he bought the Gadsden Purchase
      for $10 million, and despite clamor about the “rip-off,”
      Congress passed the sale.
  3. A northern railroad would be less effective since it would cross over mountains and cross through Indian territory.
  4. The South now appeared to have control of the location of the
    transcontinental railroad, but the North said that if the organization
    of territories was the problem, then Nebraska should be organized.

XIII. Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

  1. To do this, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed the Kansas-Nebraska
    Act, which would let slavery in Kansas and Nebraska be decided upon by
    popular sovereignty (a concession to the South in return for giving up
    the railroad).
  2. The problem was that the Missouri Compromise had banned any slavery
    north of the 36∞30’ line, so the act would have to repeal
    it.
  3. Southerners had never thought of Kansas as a possible slave state, and thus backed the bill, but Northerners rallied against it.
  4. Nevertheless, Douglas rammed the bill through Congress, and it was passed, repealing the Missouri Compromise.

XIV. Congress Legislates a Civil War

  1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act directly wrecked the Missouri Compromise of 1820 (by opening slavery up above the 36o30’ line) and indirectly wrecked the Compromise of 1850 (when everyone thought the issue was settled and done).
  2. Northerners no longer enforced the Fugitive Slave Law at all, and Southerners were still angry.
  3. The Democratic Party was hopelessly split into two, and after 1856, it would not have a president elected for 28 years.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion

I. Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries

  1. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe published Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a popular book that awakened the passions of the North toward the evils of slavery.
    • In one line, it’s about the splitting up of a slave family
      and the cruel mistreatment of likeable Uncle Tom by a cruel slave
      master.
    • The book sold millions of copies, and overseas, British people were charmed by it.
    • The South cried foul, saying Stowe’s portrayal of slavery was wrong and unfair.
    • The book helped Britain stay out of the Civil War because its
      people, who had read the book and had now denounced slavery because
      they sympathized with Uncle Tom, wouldn’t allow intervention on
      behalf of the South.
  2. Another book, The Impending Crisis of the South, written
    by Hinton R. Helper , a non-aristocratic white North Carolinian, tried
    to prove, by an array of statistics, that the non-slave-holding
    Southern whites were really the ones most hurt by slavery.
    • Published in the North, this book and Uncle Tom’s Cabin were both banned in the South, but widely read in the North. They drove the North—South wedge deeper.

II. The North-South Contest for Kansas

  1. Northerners began to pour into Kansas, and Southerners were
    outraged, since they had supported the Compromise of 1850 under the
    impression that Kansas would become a slave state.
  2. Thus, on election day in 1855, hordes of Southerners “border
    ruffians” from Missouri flooded the polls and elected Kansas to
    be a slave state; free-soilers were unable to stomach this and set up
    their own government in Topeka.
    • Thus, confused Kansans had to chose between two governments: one
      illegal (free government in Topeka) and the other fraudulent (slavery
      government in Shawnee).
  3. In 1856, a group of pro-slavery raiders shot up and burnt part of Lawrence, thus starting violence.

III. Kansas in Convulsion

  1. John Brown, a crazy man (literally), led a band of followers to
    Pottawatomie Creek in May of 1856 and hacked to death five presumable
    pro-slaveryites.
    • This brutal violence surprised even the most ardent abolitionists
      and brought swift retaliation from pro-slaveryites. “Bleeding
      Kansas” was earning its name.
  2. By 1857, Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood, and those
    for slavery devised the Lecompton Constitution, which provided that the
    people were only allowed to vote for the constitution “with
    slavery” or “without slavery.”
    • However, even if the constitution was passed “without
      slavery,” those slaveholders already in the state would still be
      protected. So, slaves would be in Kansas, despite the vote.
    • Angry free-soilers boycotted the polls and Kansas approved the constitution with slavery.
  3. In Washington, James Buchanan had succeeded Franklin Pierce, but
    like the former president, Buchanan was more towards the South, and
    firmly supported the Lecompton Constitution.
  4. Senator Stephen Douglas, refusing to have this fraudulent vote by
    saying this wasn’t true popular sovereignty, threw away his
    Southern support and called for a fair re-vote.
  5. Thus, the Democratic Party was hopelessly divided, ending the last
    remaining national party for years to come (the Whigs were dead and the
    Republicans were a sectional party).

IV. “Bully” Brooks and His Bludgeon

  1. “Bleeding Kansas” was an issue that spilled into
    Congress: Senator Charles Sumner was a vocal anti-slaveryite, and his
    blistering speeches condemned all slavery supporters.
  2. Congressman Preston S. Brooks decided that since Sumner was not a
    gentleman he couldn’t challenge him to a duel, so Brooks beat
    Sumner with a cane until it broke; nearby, Senators did nothing but
    watched, and Brooks was cheered on by the South.
  3. However, the incident touched off fireworks, as Sumner’s
    “The Crime Against Kansas” speech was reprinted by the
    thousands, and it put Brooks and the South in the wrong.

V. “Old Buck” versus “The Pathfinder”

  1. In 1856, the Democrats chose James Buchanan, someone untainted by
    the Kansas-Nebraska Act and a person with lots of political experience,
    to be their nomination for presidency against Republican John C.
    Fremont, a fighter in the Mexican-American War.
  2. Another party, the American Party, also called the
    “Know-Nothing Party” because of its secrecy, was organized
    by “nativists,” old-stock Protestants against immigrants,
    who nominated Millard Fillmore.
    • These people were anti-Catholic and anti-foreign and also included old Whigs.
      • The campaign was full of mudslinging, which included allegations of scandal and conspiracy.
      • Fremont was hurt by the rumor that he was a Roman Catholic.

VI. The Electoral Fruits of 1856

  1. Buchanan won because there were doubts about Fremont’s honesty, capacity, and sound judgment.
  2. Perhaps it was better that Buchanan won, since Fremont was not as
    strong as Lincoln, and in 1856, many people were still apathetic about
    slavery, and the South could have seceded more easily.

VII. The Dred Scott Bombshell

  1. On March 6, 1857, the Dred Scott decision was handed down by the Supreme Court.
    • Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him north into free states
      where he lived for many years. After his master’s death, he sued
      for his freedom from his new master, claiming that he had been in free
      territory and was therefore free. The Missouri Supreme Court agreed,
      freeing him, but his new master appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court,
      which overruled the decision.
  2. Outcomes or decisions of the case…
    • Chief Justice Roger Taney said that no slave could be a citizen of the U.S. in his justification.
    • The Court said a legislature/Congress cannot outlaw slavery, as
      that would go against the 5th Amendment saying a person’s
      property cannot be taken without due process of law. This was the
      bombshell statement.
    • The Court then concluded the Missouri Compromise had been
      unconstitutional all along (because it’d banned slavery north of
      the 36° 30’ line and doing so was against the second point
      listed above).
  3. The case inflamed millions of abolitionists against slavery and even those who didn’t care much about it.
  4. Northerners complained; Southerners were ecstatic about the decision but inflamed by northern defiance, and more tension built.
  5. The North—South scoreboard now favored the South undeniably.
    The South had (1) the Supreme Court, (2) the president, and (3) the
    Constitution on its side. The North had only Congress (which was now
    banned from outlawing slavery).
    • Reasons the Constitution favored the South…
      1. the Supreme Court just said so with the Dred Scott decision and it is the Supreme Court that interprets the Constitution
      2. the 5th Amendment said Congress could not take away property, in this case, slaves
      3. it could be argued that slavery is in the Constitution by way of the Three-Fifths Compromise
      4. it could be argued slavery is not in the Constitution
        since the word “slavery” is not present, but using this
        argument, the 10th Amendment said anything not in the Constitution is
        left up to the states, and the Southern states would vote for slavery.

VIII. The Financial Crash of 1857

  1. Psychologically, the Panic of 1857 was the worst of the 19th
    century, though it really wasn’t as bad as the Panic of 1837.
    It’s causes were
    • California gold causing inflation,
    • over-growth of grain,
    • over-speculation, as always, this time in land and railroads.
  2. The North was especially hard hit, but the South rode it out with
    flying colors, seemingly proving that cotton was indeed king and
    raising Southern egos.
  3. Also, in 1860, Congress passed a Homestead Act that would provide
    160 acres of land at a cheap price for those who were less-fortunate,
    but it was vetoed by Buchanan.
    • This plan, though, was opposed by the northeast, which had long
      been unfriendly to extension of land and had feared that it would drain
      its population even more, and the south, which knew that it would
      provide an easy way for more free-soilers to fill the territories.
  4. The panic also brought calls for a higher tariff rate, which had been lowered to about 20% only months before.

IX. An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges

  1. In 1858, Senator Stephen Douglas’ term was about to expire, and against him was Republican Abraham Lincoln.
    • Abe was an ugly fellow who had risen up the political ladder slowly
      but was a good lawyer, had a down-home common sense about him, and a
      pretty decent debater.

X. The Great Debate: Lincoln Versus Douglas

  1. Lincoln rashly challenged Douglas, the nation’s most
    devastating debater, to a series of seven debates, which the Senator
    accepted, and despite expectations of failure, Lincoln held his own.
  2. The most famous debate came at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln
    essentially asked, “Mr. Douglas, if the people of a territory
    voted slavery down, despite the Supreme Court saying that they could
    not do so (point #2 of the Dred Scott decision), which side would you
    support, the people or the Supreme Court?”
    • “Mr. Popular Sovereignty,” Douglas replied with his
      “Freeport Doctrine,” which said that no matter how the
      Supreme Court ruled, slavery would stay down if the people voted it
      down; tsince power was held by the people.
  3. Douglas won the Illinois race for senate, but more people voted for Abe, so he won the moral victory.
    • Plus, Douglas “won the battle but lost the war” because
      his answer in the Freeport Doctrine caused the South to dislike him
      even more.
      • The South had loved Douglas prior to this due to his popular
        sovereignty position, but then came the Kansas pro-slavery vote which
        he’d shot down.
      • Then the Freeport Doctrine came down where he turned his back on the Supreme Court’s pro-South decision).
    • This Freeport statement ruined the 1860 election for presidency for him, which was what he really wanted all along.

XI. John Brown: Murderer or Martyr?

  1. John Brown now had a plan to invade the South, seize its arms, call
    upon the slaves to rise up and revolt, and take over the South and free
    it of slaves. But, in his raid of Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, the
    slaves didn’t revolt, and he was captured by the U.S. Marines
    under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee and convicted of
    treason, sentenced to death, and hanged.
  2. Brown, though insane, was not stupid, and he portrayed himself as a
    martyr against slavery, and when he was hanged, he instantly became a
    martyr for abolitionists; northerners rallied around his memory.
    Abolitionists were infuriated by his execution (as they’d
    conveniently forgotten his violent past).
  3. The South was happy and saw justice. They also felt his actions were typical of the radical North.

XII. The Disruption of the Democrats

  1. After failing to nominate a candidate in Charleston, South
    Carolina, the Democrats split into Northern and Southern factions, and
    at Baltimore, the Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas for
    president while the Southern Democrats chose John C. Breckinridge.
  2. Meanwhile, the “Know-Nothings” chose John Bell of
    Tennessee and called themselves the Constitutional Union party. They
    tried to mend fences and offered as their platform, simply, the
    Constitution.

XIII. A Rail-Splitter Splits the Union

  1. The Republicans, sensing victory against their split opponents,
    nominated Abraham Lincoln, not William “Higher Law” Seward.
  2. Their platform had an appeal to every important non-southern group:
    for free-soilers it proposed the non-expansion of slavery; for northern
    manufacturers, a protective tariff; for the immigrants, no abridgement
    of rights; for the West, internal improvements at federal expense; and
    for the farmers, free homesteads.
  3. Southerners threatened that Lincoln’s election would result in Southern secession.
  4. Lincoln wasn’t an outright abolitionist, since as late as
    February 1865, he had still favored cash compensation for free slaves.
  5. Abe Lincoln won the election despite not even being on the ballot in the South.

XIV. The Electoral Upheaval of 1860

  1. Lincoln won with only 40% of the popular vote, and had the
    Democratic Party been more organized and energetic, they might have won.
  2. It was a very sectional race: the North went to Lincoln, the South
    to Breckinridge, the “middle-ground” to the
    middle-of-the-road candidate in Bell, and popular-sovereignty-land went
    to Douglas.
  3. The Republicans did not control the House or the Senate, and the
    South still had a five-to-four majority in the Supreme Court, but the
    South still decided to secede.

XV. The Secessionist Exodus

  1. South Carolina had threatened to secede if Lincoln was elected
    president, and now it went good on its word, seceding in December of
    1860.
    • Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas (the
      Deep South) followed in the next six weeks, before Abe was inaugurated.
    • The seven secession states met in Montgomery, Alabama in February
      of 1861 and created the Confederate States of America, and they chose
      Jefferson Davis as president.
  2. President Buchanan did nothing to force the confederacy back into
    the Union, partly because the Union troops were needed in the West and
    because the North was still apathetic toward secession; he simply left
    the issue for Lincoln to handle when he got sworn in.

XVI. The Collapse of Compromise

  1. In a last-minute attempt at compromise (again), James Henry
    Crittenden of Kentucky proposed the Crittenden Compromise, which would
    ban slavery north of the 36°30’ line extended to the Pacific
    and would leave the issue in territories south of the line up to the
    people; also, existing slavery south of the line would be protected.
  2. Lincoln opposed the compromise, which might have worked, because
    his party had preached against the extension of slavery, and he had to
    stick to principle.
  3. It also seems that Buchanan couldn’t have saved the Union no matter what he would have done.

XVII. Farewell to Union

  1. The seceding states did so because they feared that their rights as
    a slaveholding minority were being threatened, and were alarmed at the
    growing power of the Republicans, plus, they believed that they would
    be unopposed despite what the Northerners claimed.
  2. The South also hoped to develop its own banking and shipping, and to prosper.
  3. Besides, in 1776, the 13 colonies had seceded from Britain and had won; now the South could do the same thing.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South

I. The Menace of Secession

  1. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president, having
    slipped into Washington D.C. to thwart assassins, and in his inaugural
    address, he stated that there would be no conflict unless the South
    provoked it.
  2. He marked restoration of the union as his top goal, and offered doubts about it splitting.
    • He stated that geographically, the United States could not be split (which was true).
    • A split U.S. brought up questions about the sharing of the national debt and the allocation of federal territories.
    • A split U.S. also pleased the European countries, since the U.S.
      was the only major display of democracy in the Western Hemisphere, and
      with a split U.S., the Monroe Doctrine could be undermined as well if
      the new C.S.A. allowed Europe to gain a foothold with it.

II. South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

  1. Most of the forts in the South had relinquished their power to the
    Confederacy, but Fort Sumter was among the two that didn’t. And
    since its supplies were running out against a besieging South
    Carolinian army, Lincoln had a problem of how to deal with the
    situation.
    • Lincoln wisely chose to send supplies to the fort, and he told the
      South Carolinian governor that the ship to the fort only held
      provisions, not reinforcements.
    • However, to the South, provisions were reinforcements, and on April
      12, 1861, cannons were fired onto the fort; after 34 hours of
      non-lethal firing, the fort surrendered.
  2. Northerners were inflamed by the South’s actions, and Lincoln
    now called on 75,000 volunteers; so many came that they had to be
    turned away.
  3. On April 19 and 27, Lincoln also called a naval blockade on the South that was leaky at first but soon clamped down tight.
  4. The Deep South (which had already seceded), felt that Lincoln was
    now waging an aggressive war, and was joined by four more Southern
    states: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.
    • The capital of the Confederacy was moved from Montgomery, AL to Richmond, VA.

III. Brother’s Blood and Border Blood

  1. The remaining Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland) were
    crucial for both sides, as they would have almost doubled the
    manufacturing capacity of the South and increased its supply of horses
    and mules by half.
    • They’re called “border states” because…
      1. they are on the North-South border and…
      2. they are slave-states. They have not seceded, but at any moment, they just might.
  2. Thus, to retain them, Lincoln used moral persuasion…and methods of dubious legality:
    • In Maryland, he declared martial law in order to retain a state
      that would isolate Washington D.C. within Confederate territory if it
      went to the South
    • He also sent troops to western Virginia and Missouri to secure those areas.
  3. At the beginning, in order to hold the remaining Border States,
    Lincoln repeatedly said that the war was to save the Union, not free
    the slaves, since a war for the slaves’ freedom would have lost
    the Border States.
  4. Most of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw,
    Chickasaw, Seminole) sided with the South, although parts of the
    Cherokee and most of the Plains Indians were pro-North.
  5. The war was one of brother vs. brother, with the mountain men of
    what’s now West Virginia sending some 50,000 men to the Union.
    The nation’s split was very visible here, as Virginia literally
    split.

IV. The Balance of Forces

  1. The South, at the beginning of the war, did have many advantages:
    • It only had to fight to a draw to win, since all it had to do was
      keep the North from invading and taking over all of its territory.
    • It had the most talented officers, including Robert E. Lee and
      Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, and most of the Southerners had
      been trained in a military-style upbringing and education since they
      were children, as opposed to the tame Northerners. Many top Southern
      young men attended military schools like West Point, The Citadel, or
      VMI.
  2. However, the South was handicapped by a shortage of factories and
    manufacturing plants, but during the war, those developed in the South.
  3. Still, as the war dragged on, the South found itself with a
    shortage of shoes, uniforms, blankets, clothing, and food, which
    didn’t reach soldiers due to supply problems.
  4. However, the North had a huge economy, many more men available to
    fight, and it controlled the sea, though its officers weren’t as
    well-trained as some in the South.
  5. As the war dragged on, Northern strengths beat Southern advantages.

V. Dethroning King Cotton

  1. The South was depending on foreign intervention to win the war, but didn’t get it.
  2. While the European countries wanted the Union to be split (which
    would strengthen their nation, relatively speaking), their people were
    pro-North and anti-slavery, and sensing that this was could eliminate
    slavery once and for all, they would not allow any intervention by
    their nations on behalf of the South. The reason for the pro-North,
    anti-slavery stance by the people, was the effect of Uncle Tom’s
    Cabin—being lowly wage earners, the common people felt Uncle
    Tom’s pain.
  3. Still, the Southern ideas was that the war would produce a shortage
    of cotton, which would draw England and others into the war, right?
    Wrong.
    • In the pre-war years, cotton production had been immense, and thus, England and France had huge surpluses of cotton.
    • As the North won Southern territory, it sent cotton and food over to Europe.
    • India and Egypt upped their cotton production to offset the hike in the price of cotton.
  4. So, King Wheat and King Corn (of the North) beat King Cotton of the
    South, since Europe needed the food much more than it needed the cotton.

VI. The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

  1. The South still hoped for foreign intervention, and it almost got it on a few occasions.
  2. Late in 1861, a Union warship stopped the British mail steamer the
    Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe.
    • Britain was outraged at the upstart Americans and threatened war,
      but luckily, Lincoln released the prisoners and tensions cooled.
      “One war at a time,” he said.
    • British-built sea vessels that went to the Confederacy were also a problem.
      • In 1862, the C.S.S. Alabama escaped to the Portuguese Azores, took
        on weapons and crew from Britain, but never sailed into a Confederate
        base, thus using a loophole to help the South.
  3. Charles Francis Adams persuaded Britain not to build any more ships
    for the Confederacy, since they might someday be used against England.

VII. Foreign Flare-Ups

  1. Britain also had two Laird rams, Confederate warships that could
    destroy wooden Union ships and wreak havoc on the North, but after the
    threat of war by the U.S., Britain backed down and used those ships for
    its Royal Navy.
  2. Near Canada, Confederate agents plotted (and sometimes succeeded)
    to burn down American cities, and as a result, there were several
    mini-armies (raised mostly by British-hating Irish-Americans) sent to
    Canada.
  3. Napoleon III of France also installed a puppet government in Mexico
    City, putting in the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico,
    but after the war, the U.S. threatened violence, and Napoleon left
    Maximilian to doom at the hands of a Mexican firing squad.

VIII. President Davis Versus President Lincoln

  1. The problem with the South was that it gave states the ability to
    secede in the future, and getting Southern states to send troops to
    help other states was always difficult to do. By definition in a
    confederacy, national power was weak.
  2. Jefferson Davis was never really popular and he overworked himself.
  3. Lincoln, though with his problems, had the benefit of leading an
    established government and grew patient and relaxed as the war dragged
    on.

IX. Limitations on Wartime Liberties

  1. Abe Lincoln did make some tyrannical acts during his term as
    president, such as illegally proclaiming a blockade, proclaiming acts
    without Congressional consent, and sending in troops to the Border
    States, but he justified his actions by saying that such acts
    weren’t permanent, and that he had to do those things in order to
    preserve the Union.
  2. Such actions included the advancement of $2 million to three
    private citizens for war purposes, the suspension of habeas corpus so
    that anti-Unionists could be arrested without a formal charge, and the
    intimidation of voters in the Border States.
  3. The Confederate states’ refusal to sacrifice some
    states’ rights led to the handicapping of the South, and perhaps
    to its ultimate downfall.

X. Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

  1. At first, there were numerous volunteers, but after the initial
    enthusiasm slacked off, Congress passed its first conscription law ever
    (the draft), one that angered the poor because rich men could hire a
    substitute instead of entering the war just by paying $300 to Congress.
    • As a result, many riots broke out, such as one in New York City.
  2. Volunteers manned more than 90% of the Union army, and as
    volunteers became scarce, money was offered to them in return for
    service; still, there were many deserters.
  3. The South had to resort to a draft nearly a year before the North,
    and it also had its privileges for the rich—those who owned or
    oversaw 20 slaves or more were exempt from the draft.

XI. The Economic Stresses of War

  1. The North passed the Morrill Tariff Act, increasing tariff rates by about 5 to 10%, but war soon drove those rates even higher.
  2. The Washington Treasury also issued greenback paper money totaling
    nearly $450 million, but this money was very unstable and sank to as
    low as 39 cents per gold dollar.
  3. The federal Treasury also netted $2.6 billion in the sale of bonds.
  4. The National Banking System was a landmark of the war, created to
    establish a standard bank-note currency, and banks that joined the
    National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound
    paper money.
    • The National Banking Act was the first step toward a unified
      national banking network since 1836, when the Bank of the United States
      was killed by Andrew Jackson.
  5. In the South, runaway inflation plagued the Confederates, and
    overall, in the South inflation went up to 9000%, as opposed to
    “just” 80% in the North.

XII. The North’s Economic Boom

  1. The North actually emerged from the Civil War more prosperous than
    before, since new factories had been formed and a millionaire class was
    born for the first time in history.
  2. However, many Union suppliers used shoddy equipment in their supplies, such as using cardboard as the soles of shoes.
  3. Sizes for clothing were invented, and the reaper helped feed millions.
  4. In 1859, a discovery of petroleum oil sent people to Pennsylvania.
  5. Women gained new advances in the war, taking the jobs left behind
    by men going off to battle, and other women posed as men and became
    soldiers with their husbands.
    • Clara Barton and Dorothea Dix helped transform nursing from a lowly
      service to a respected profession, and in the South, Sally Tompkins ran
      a Richmond infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers and was awarded
      the rank of Captain by Jefferson Davis.

XIII. A Crushed Cotton Kingdom

  1. The South was ruined by the war, as transportation collapsed and
    supplies of everything became scarce, and by the end of the war, the
    South claimed only 12% of the national wealth as opposed to 30% before
    the war, and it’s per capita income was now 2/5 that of
    Northerners, as opposed to 2/3 of Northerners before the war.
  2. Still, though many Southerners were resourceful and spirited, the South just couldn’t win.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War

I. Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”

  1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on
    April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a
    swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South
    to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness.
  2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward
    Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit. They expected one big
    battle and a quick victory for the war.
    • The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as spectators gathered in picnics to watch.
    • However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate
      reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson’s line
      holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray.
  3. The Battle of Bull Run showed the North that this would not be a
    short, easy war and swelled the South’s already too-large ego.

II. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

  1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the
    Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an
    excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops, but also a perfectionist
    who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and
    held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by
    Lincoln to advance.
  2. At Lincoln’s urging, he finally decided upon a water-borne
    approach to Richmond (the South’s capital), called the Peninsula
    Campaign, taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to
    Richmond.
    • At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected
      reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after
      “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely
      around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched
      a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days’
      Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862.
    • The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would
      lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began
      to draft an emancipation proclamation.
  3. With the quick-strike plan a failure, the Union strategy now turned
    to total war. Summed up, the plan was to blockade, divide, and conquer.
    The plan included…
    • Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade.
    • Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations.
    • Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River.
    • Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas.
    • Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia.
    • Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission.
    • This was essentially General Winfield Scott’s “Anaconda Plan.”

III. The War at Sea

  1. The Union blockade started with many leaks at first, but it clamped down later.
  2. Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas
    that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since
    Britain herself often used blockades in her wars.
  3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the
    blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union navy also
    seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate
    destination” (to the South) as their reasons; the British
    relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as
    they did in World War I).
  4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an
    old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the
    Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened to break the
    Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to
    fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was
    destroyed later by the South to save it from the North.
    • The lessons of the Monitor vs. the Merrimack were that boats needed to be steam-powered and armored, henceforth.

IV. The Pivotal Point: Antietam

  1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.
  2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win,
    hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign
    countries to intervene on behalf of the South.
    • At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan.
  3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans (as
    wrapping paper for cigars) and were able to stop the Southerners at
    Antietam Creek on September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of
    the Civil War.
    • Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day,
      since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after
      the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded.
    • Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to
      announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which didn’t actually
      free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January
      1, 1863. Lincoln said the slaves would be free in the seceded states
      (but NOT the border states as doing so might anger them into seceding
      too).
      • Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to free the slaves a well.
      • This gave the war a moral purpose (end slavery) to go with its political purpose (restore the union).

V. A Proclamation Without Emancipation

  1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yet-conquered
    Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered
    territories were not liberated since doing so might make them go to the
    South; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and
    wouldn’t free the slaves where he could.
  2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted.
  3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left
    their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of
    its purposes: to undermine the labor of the South.
  4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to incite a slave insurrection.

VI. Blacks Battle Bondage

  1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran
    low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end,
    Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union army.
  2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as
    prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and
    in one case, at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were
    massacred.
    • Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!”
  3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or
    strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the
    Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs
    when Union armies conquered territories that included the plantations
    that they worked on.

VII. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg

  1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for his sideburns) took over
    the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack
    at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862.
  2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his prostitutes) was
    badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his
    outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to
    attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own
    men mistakenly shot him at dusk, and he died.
  3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time,
    at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G.
    Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow
    valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal
    battle in which the North “won.”
    • In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George
      Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge across a field that
      ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates.
    • A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address, which
      added moral purpose to the war saying a new goal was to make sure those
      who’d been killed had not died in vain.

VIII. The War in the West

  1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a
    mediocre West Point graduate who drank too much whiskey and also fought
    under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.”
  2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then muffed-up and
    lost a tough battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the
    Tennessee border.
  3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans.
  4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and
    captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi
    River. Grant redeemed himself here after blundering at Shiloh.
    • The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the
      Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for
      foreign intervention was lost.

IX. Sherman Scorches Georgia

  1. After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman
    was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing
    and burning down Atlanta before completing his infamous “March to
    the Sea” at Savannah.
    • His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging
      “total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields
      and crops, and destroying everything.

X. The Politics of War

  1. The “Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War”
    was created in 1861 and was dominated by “radical”
    Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble.
  2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas, as
    “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace
    Democrats” did not.
    • Copperheads were those who were totally against the war, and
      denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his
      “nigger war.”
    • The most famous of the Copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham, who
      harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the
      South, then came back to Ohio illegally, but was not further punished,
      and also inspired the story The Man without a Country.

XI. The Election of 1864

  1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union
    Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while
    the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan.
    • The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the
      War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign was once again
      full of mudslinging.
    • Near election day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta
      occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln
      smoked his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21.
      • The popular vote was closer: 2.2 million to 1.8.

XII. Grant Outlasts Lee

  1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so
    that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford
    to lose twice as many men while Lee could not.
    • In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men.
    • At Cold Harbor, the Union sent soldiers to battle with papers
      pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses, and over 7,000
      died in a few minutes.
    • The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore and
      death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but U.S. Grant stayed.
      Lincoln wanted somebody who’d keep the “axe to the
      grindstone,” and Grant was his man.
  2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burnt it, and
    cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865,
    where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over.

XIII. The Martyrdom of Lincoln

  1. On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth and died shortly after.
  2. Before his death, few people had suspected his greatness, but his
    sudden and dramatic death erased his shortcomings and made people
    remember him for his good things.
  3. The South cheered Lincoln’s death at first, but later, his
    death proved to be worse than if he had lived, because he would have
    almost certainly treated the South much better than they were actually
    treated during Reconstruction.

XIV. The Aftermath of the Nightmare.

  1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the cream of the American crop.
  2. However, it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the
    U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its growing
    power and reputation; plus, slavery was also eradicated.
  3. The war paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of
    its destiny as the dominant republic of the Western
    Hemisphere—and later, the world.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction

I. The Problems of Peace

  1. After the war, there were many questions over what to do with the
    free Blacks, such as how to reintegrate the Southern states into the
    Union, what to do with Jefferson Davis, and who would be in charge of
    Reconstruction?
  2. The Southern way of life had been ruined, as crops and farms were
    destroyed, the slaves had been freed, the cities were burnt down, but
    still, and many Southerners remained defiant.

II. Freedmen Define Freedom

  1. At first, the freed Blacks faced a confusing situation, as many slave owners re-enslaved their slaves after Union troops left.
    • Other planters resisted emancipation through legal means, citing
      that emancipation wasn’t valid until local or state courts
      declared it.
  2. Some slaves loyally stuck to their owners while others let out
    their pent-up bitterness by pillaging their former masters’ land,
    property, and even whipping the old master.
  3. Eventually, even resisting plantation owners had to give up their
    slaves, and afterwards tens of thousands of Blacks took to the roads to
    find new work or look for lost loved ones.
  4. The church became the focus of the Black community life in the years following the war.
    • Emancipation also meant education for Blacks, but despite all the
      gains Blacks made, they still faced severe discrimination and would
      have to wait a century before truly attaining their rights.

III. The Freedman’s Bureau

  1. In order to train the unskilled and unlettered freed Blacks, the
    Freedman’s Bureau was set up on March 3, 1865. Union General
    Oliver O. Howard headed it.
  2. The bureau taught about 200,000 Blacks how to read (its greatest
    success), since most former slaves wanted to narrow the literary gap
    between them and Whites; the bureau also read the word of God.
  3. However, it wasn’t as effective as it could have been, as
    evidenced by the further discrimination of Blacks, and it expired in
    1872 after much criticism by racist Whites.

IV. Johnson: The Tailor President

  1. Andrew Johnson came from very poor and humble beginnings, and he
    served in Congress for many years (he was the only Confederate
    congressman not to leave Congress when the rest of the South seceded).
  2. He was feared for his reputation of having a short temper and being
    a great fighter, was a dogmatic champion of states’ rights and
    the Constitution, and he was a Tennessean who never earned the trust of
    the North and never regained the confidence of the South.

V. Presidential Reconstruction

  1. Since Abraham Lincoln believed that the South had never legally
    withdrawn from the Union, restoration was to be relatively simple. In
    his plan for restoring the union, the southern states could be
    reintegrated into the Union if and when they had only 10% of its voters
    pledge and taken an oath to the Union, and also acknowledge the
    emancipation of the slaves; it was appropriately called the Ten Percent
    Plan. Like the loving father who welcomed back the prodigal son,
    Lincoln’s plan was very forgiving to the South.
  2. The Radical Republicans felt punishment was due the South for all
    the years of strife. They feared that the leniency of the 10 %
    Plan would allow the Southerners to re-enslave the newly freed Blacks,
    so they rammed the Wade-Davis Bill through Congress. It required 50% of
    the states’ voters to take oaths of allegiance and demanded
    stronger safeguards for emancipation than the 10% Plan.
  3. However, Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill by letting it expire, and the 10% Plan remained.
  4. It became clear that there were now two types of Republicans: the
    moderates, who shared the same views as Lincoln and the radicals, who
    believed the South should be harshly punished.
    • Sadly though, Lincoln was assassinated. This left the 10% Plan’s future in question.
    • When Andrew Johnson took power, the radicals thought that he would
      do what they wanted, but he soon proved them wrong by basically taking
      Lincoln’s policy and issuing his own Reconstruction proclamation:
      certain leading Confederates were disfranchised (right to vote
      removed), the Confederate debt was repudiated, and states had to ratify
      the 13th Amendment.

VI. The Baleful Black Codes

  1. In order to control the freed Blacks, many Southern states passed
    Black Codes, laws aimed at keeping the Black population in submission
    and workers in the fields; some were harsh, others were not as harsh.
  2. Blacks who “jumped” their labor contracts, or walked
    off their jobs, were subject to penalties and fines, and their wages
    were generally kept very low.
  3. The codes forbade Blacks from serving on a jury and some even
    barred Blacks from renting or leasing land, and Blacks could be
    punished for “idleness” by being subjected to working on a
    chain gang.
  4. Making a mockery out of the newly won freedom of the Blacks, the
    Black Codes made many abolitionists wonder if the price of the Civil
    War was worth it, since Blacks were hardly better after the war than
    before the war. They were not “slaves” on paper, but in
    reality, their lives were little different.

VII. Congressional Reconstruction

  1. In December, 1865, when many of the Southern states came to be
    reintegrated into the Union, among them were former Confederates and
    Democrats, and most Republicans were disgusted to see their former
    enemies on hand to reclaim seats in Congress.
  2. During the war, without the Democrats, the Republicans had passed
    legislation that had favored the North, such as the Morrill Tariff, the
    Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act, so now, many Republicans
    didn’t want to give up the power that they had gained in the war.
  3. Northerners now realized that the South would be stronger
    politically than before, since now, Blacks counted for a whole person
    instead of just 3/5 of one, and Republicans also feared that the
    Northern and Southern Democrats would join and take over Congress and
    the White House and institute their Black Codes over the nation,
    defeating all that the Civil War gained.
  4. On December 6, 1865, President Johnson declared that the South had
    satisfied all of the conditions needed, and that the Union was now
    restored.

VIII. Johnson Clashes with Congress

  1. Johnson repeatedly vetoed Republican-passed bills, such as a bill
    extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau, and he also vetoed
    the Civil Rights Bill, which conferred on blacks the privilege of
    American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes.
  2. As Republicans gained control of Congress, they passed the bills
    into laws with a 2/3 vote and thus override Johnson’s veto.
  3. In the 14th Amendment, the Republicans sought to instill the same
    ideas of the Civil Rights Bill: (1) all Blacks were American citizens,
    (2) if a state denied citizenship to Blacks, then its representatives
    in the Electoral College were lowered, (3) former Confederates could
    not hold federal or state office, and (4) the federal debt was
    guaranteed while the Confederate one was repudiated (erased).
  4. The radicals were disappointed that Blacks weren’t given the
    right to vote, but all Republicans agreed that states wouldn’t be
    accepted back into the Union unless they ratified the 14th Amendment.

IX. Swinging ‘Round the Circle with Johnson

  1. In 1866, Republicans would not allow Reconstruction to be carried
    on without the 14th Amendment, and as election time approached, Johnson
    wanted to lower the amount of Republicans in Congress, so he began a
    series of ‘Round the Circle speeches.
  2. However, as he was heckled by the audience, he hurled back insults,
    gave “give ‘em hell” speeches, and generally
    denounced the radicals, and in the process, he gave Republicans more
    men in Congress than they had before—the opposite of his original
    intention.

X. Republican Principles and Programs

  1. By then, the Republicans had a veto-proof Congress and nearly
    unlimited control over Reconstruction, but moderates and radicals still
    couldn’t agree with one another.
  2. In the Senate, the leader of the radicals was Charles Sumner, long
    since recovered from his caning by Preston Brooks, and in the House,
    the radical leader was Thaddeus Stevens, an old, sour man who was an
    unswerving friend of the Blacks.
  3. The radicals wanted to keep the South out of the Union as long as
    possible and totally change its economy and the moderates wanted a
    quicker Reconstruction. What happened was a compromise between the two
    extremes.

XI. Reconstruction by Sword

  1. The Reconstruction Act of March 2, 1867 divided the South into five
    military zones, temporarily disfranchised tens of thousands of former
    Confederates, and laid down new guidelines for the readmission of
    states (Johnson had announced the Union restored, but Congress had not
    yet formally agreed on this).
    • All states had to approve the 14th Amendment, making all Blacks citizens.
    • All states had to guarantee full suffrage of all male former slaves.
  2. The 15th Amendment, passed by Congress in 1869, gave Blacks their right to vote.
  3. In the case Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that
    military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, if
    there were civil courts available.
  4. By 1870, all of the states had complied with the standards of
    Reconstruction, and in 1877, the last of the states were given their
    home rule back, and Reconstruction ended.
    • The end of Reconstruction was part of the Compromise of
      1877—the two presidential candidates were at a stalemate and the
      only way to break the stalemate was with a deal. In the deal, the North
      got their president (Rutherford B. Hayes) and the South got the
      military to pull-out (abandon?) the South and the former slaves, thus
      ending Reconstruction.

XII. No Women Voters

  1. Women suffrage advocates were disappointed by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, since they didn’t give women suffrage.
    • After all, women had gathered petitions and had helped Blacks gain their rights.
    • Frederick Douglass believed in the women’s movement, but believed that it was now “the Negro’s hour.”
  2. As a result, women advocates like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan
    B. Anthony campaigned against the 14th and 15th
    Amendments—Amendments that inserted the word male into the
    Constitution for the first time ever.

XIII. The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

  1. Blacks began to organize politically, and their main vehicle was the Union League.
    • It became a network of political clubs that educated members in
      their civic duties and campaigned for Republican candidates, and later
      even built Black churches and schools, represented Black grievances,
      and recruited militias to protect Blacks.
    • Black women attended the parades and rallies of Black communities.
  2. Black men also began to hold political offices, as men like Hiram
    Revels and Blanche K. Bruce served in Congress (they represented
    Mississippi).
  3. Southern Whites hated seeing their former slaves now ranking above
    them, and they also hated “scalawags,” Southerners who were
    accused of plundering Southern treasuries and selling out the
    Southerners, and “carpetbaggers,” Northerners accused of
    parasitically milking power and profit in a now-desolate South.
  4. One could note that Southern governments were somewhat corrupted during these times.

XIV. The Ku Klux Klan

  1. Extremely racist Whites who hated the Blacks founded the
    “Invisible Empire of the South,” or Ku Klux Klan, in
    Tennessee in 1866—an organization that scared Blacks into not
    voting or not seeking jobs, etc… and often resorted to violence
    against the Blacks in addition to terror.
  2. This radical group undermined much of what abolitionists sought to do.

XV. Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank

  1. Radical Republicans were angry with President Johnson, and they decided to try to get rid of him.
  2. In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which provided
    that the president had to secure the consent of the Senate before
    removing his appointees once they had been approved by the Senate (one
    reason was to keep Edwin M. Stanton, a Republican spy, in office).
  3. However, when Johnson dismissed Stanton early in 1868, the Republicans impeached him.

XVI. A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

  1. Johnson was not allowed to testify by his lawyers, who argued that
    the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and Johnson was acting
    under the Constitution, not the law.
  2. On May 16, 1868, Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single
    vote, as seven Republican senators with consciences voted
    “not-guilty” (interestingly, those seven never secured a
    political office again afterwards).
  3. Die-hard radicals were infuriated by the acquittal, but many
    politicians feared establishing a precedence of removing the president
    through impeachment.

XVII. The Purchase of Alaska

  1. In 1867, Secretary of State William H. Seward bought Alaska from
    Russia to the United States for $7.2 million, but most of the public
    jeered his act as “Seward’s Folly” or
    “Seward’s Ice-box.”
  2. Only later, when oil and gold were discovered, did Alaska prove to be a huge bargain.

XVIII. The Heritage of Reconstruction

  1. Many Southerners regarded Reconstruction as worse than the war
    itself, as they resented the upending of their social and racial system.
  2. The Republicans, though with good intentions, failed to improve the
    South, and the fate of Blacks would remain poor for almost another
    century before the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s secured
    Black privileges.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

I. The “Bloody Shirt” Elects Grant

  1. The Republicans nominated Civil War General Ulysses S. Grant, who was a great soldier but had no political experience.
    • The Democrats could only denounce military Reconstruction and
      couldn’t agree on anything else, and thus, were disorganized.
    • The Republicans got Grant elected (barely) by “waving the
      bloody shirt,” or reliving his war victories, and used his
      popularity to elect him, though his popular vote was only slightly
      ahead of rival Horatio Seymour. Seymour was the Democratic candidate
      who didn’t accept a redemption-of-greenbacks-for-maximum-value
      platform, and thus doomed his party.
  2. However, due to the close nature of the election, Republicans could not take future victories for granted.

II. The Era of Good Stealings

  1. Despite the Civil War, the population still mushroomed, partially
    due to immigration, but during this time, politics became very corrupt.
    • Railroad promoters cheated gullible customers.
    • Stock-market investors were a cancer in the public eye.
    • Too many judges and legislators put their power up for hire.
  2. Two notorious millionaires were Jim Fisk and Jay Gould.
    • In 1869, the pair concocted a plot to corner the gold market that
      would only work if the treasury stopped selling gold, so they worked on
      President Grant directly and through his brother-in-law, but their plan
      failed when the treasury sold gold.
  3. The infamous Tweed Ring (AKA, “Tammany Hall) of NYC, headed
    by “Boss” Tweed, employed bribery, graft, and fake
    elections to cheat the city of as much as $200 million.
    • Tweed was finally caught when The New York Times secured evidence of his misdeeds, and later died in jail.
    • Samuel J. Tilden gained fame by leading the prosecution of Tweed,
      and he would later use this fame to become the Democratic nominee in
      the presidential election of 1876.
    • Thomas Nast, political cartoonist, constantly drew against Tammany’s corruption.

III. A Carnival of Corruption

  1. Grant, an easy-going fellow, apparently failed to see the
    corruption going on, even though many of his friends wanted offices and
    his cabinet was totally corrupt (except for Secretary of State Hamilton
    Fish), and his in-laws, the Dent family, were especially terrible.
  2. The Credit Mobilier, a railroad construction company that paid
    itself huge sums of money for small railroad construction, tarred
    Grant.
    • A New York newspaper finally busted it, and two members of Congress
      were formally censured (the company had given some of its stock to the
      congressmen) and the Vice President himself was shown to have accepted
      20 shares of stock.
  3. In 1875, the public learned that the Whiskey Ring had robbed the
    Treasury of millions of dollars, and when Grant’s own private
    secretary was shown to be one of the criminals, Grant retracted his
    earlier statement of “Let no guilty man escape.”
    • Later, in 1876, Secretary of War William Belknap was shown to have pocketed some $24,000 by selling junk to Indians.

IV. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872

  1. By 1872, a power wave of disgust at Grant’s administration
    was building, despite the worst of the scandals not having been
    revealed yet, and reformers organized the Liberal Republican Party and
    nominated the dogmatic Horace Greeley.
    • The Democratic Party also supported Greeley, even though he had
      blasted them repeatedly in his newspaper (the New York Tribune), but he
      pleased them because he called for a clasping of hands between the
      North and South and an end to Reconstruction.
  2. The campaign was filled with more mudslinging (as usual), as
    Greeley was called an atheist, a communist, a vegetarian, and a signer
    of Jefferson Davis’s bail bond (that part was true) while Grant
    was called an ignoramus, a drunkard, and a swindler.
    • Still, Grant crushed Greeley in the electoral vote and in the popular vote was well.
  3. In 1872, the Republican Congress passed a general amnesty act that
    removed political disabilities from all but some 500 former Confederate
    leaders.

V. Depression, Deflation, and Inflation

  1. In 1873, a paralyzing panic broke out, the Panic of 1873, caused by
    too many railroads and factories being formed than existing markets
    could bear and the over-loaning by banks to those projects.
    Essentially, the causes of the panic were the same old ones
    that’d caused recessions every 20 years that century: (1)
    over-speculation and (2) too-easy credit.
    • It first started with the failure of the New York banking firm Jay
      Cooke & Company, which was headed by the rich Jay Cooke, a
      financier of the Civil War.
    • Before, the greenbacks that had been issued in the Civil War were
      being recalled, but now, during the panic, the
      “cheap-money” supporters wanted greenbacks to be printed en
      mass again, to create inflation.
    • However, supporters of “hard-money” (actual gold and
      silver) persuaded Grant to veto a bill that would print more paper
      money, and the Resumption Act of 1875 pledged the government to further
      withdraw greenbacks and made all further redemption of paper money in
      gold at face value, starting in 1879.
  2. Debtors now cried that silver was under-valued (another call for
    inflation), but Grant refused to coin more silver dollars, which had
    been stopped in 1873, and besides, new silver discoveries in the later
    1870s shot the price of silver way down.
    • Grant’s name remained fused to sound money, though not sound government.
    • As greenbacks regained their value, few greenback holders bothered
      to exchange their more convenient bills for gold when Redemption Day
      came in 1879.
  3. In 1878, the Bland-Allison Act instructed the Treasury to buy and
    coin between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each
    month.
    • The minimum was actually coined and its effect was minimal on creating “cheap money.”
  4. The Republican hard-money policy, unfortunately for it, led to the
    election of a Democratic House of Representatives in 1874 and spawned
    the Greenback Labor Party in 1878.

VI. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

  1. “The Gilded Age,” was a term coined by Mark Twain
    hinting that times looked good, yet if one scratched a bit below the
    surface, there were problems. Times were filled with corruption and
    presidential election squeakers, and even though Democrats and
    Republicans had similar ideas on economic issues, there were
    fundamental differences.
    • Republicans traced their lineage to Puritanism.
    • Democrats were more like Lutherans and Roman Catholics.
    • Democrats had strong support in the South.
    • Republicans had strong votes in the North and the West, and from
      the Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.), an organization made up of
      former Union veterans.
  2. In the 1870s and the 1880s, Republican infighting was led by rivals
    Roscoe Conkling (Stalwarts) and James G. Blaine (Half-Breeds), who
    bickered and deadlocked their party.

VII. The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876

  1. Grant almost ran for a third term before the House derailed that
    proposal, so the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, dubbed the
    “Great Unknown” because no one knew much about him, while
    the Democrats ran Samuel Tilden.
    • The election was very close, with Tilden getting 184 votes out of a
      needed 185 in the Electoral College, but votes in four states,
      Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and part of Oregon, were unsure and
      disputed.
    • The disputed states had sent in two sets of returns, one Democrat, one Republican.

VIII. The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction

  1. The Electoral Count Act, passed in 1877, set up an electoral
    commission that consisted of 15 men selected from the Senate, the
    House, and the Supreme Court, which would count the votes (the 15th man
    was to be an independent, David Davis, but at the last moment, he
    resigned).
  2. In February of 1877, the Senate and the House met to settle the
    dispute, and eventually, Hayes became president as a part of the rest
    of the Compromise of 1877. True to a compromise, both sides won a bit:
    • For the North—Hayes would become president if he agreed to
      remove troops from the remaining two Southern states where Union troops
      remained (Louisiana and South Carolina), and also, a bill would
      subsidize the Texas and Pacific rail line.
    • For the South—military rule and Reconstruction ended when the military pulled out of the South.
    • The Compromise of 1877 abandoned the Blacks in the South by
      withdrawing troops, and their last attempt at protection of Black
      rights was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which was mostly declared
      unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the 1883 Civil Rights cases.

IX. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South

  1. As Reconstruction ended and the military returned northward, whites once again asserted their power.
    • Literacy requirements for voting began, voter registration laws
      emerged, and poll taxes began. These were all targeted at black voters.
    • Most blacks became sharecroppers (providing nothing but labor) or tenant farmers (if they could provide their own tools).
  2. In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson
    that “separate but equal” facilities were constitutional.
    • Thus “Jim Crow” segregation was legalized.

X. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

  1. In 1877, the presidents of the nation’s four largest
    railroads decided to cut wages by 10%. Workers struck back, stopping
    work, and when President Hayes sent troops to stop this, violence
    erupted, and more than 100 people died in the several weeks of chaos.
  2. The failure of the railroad strike showed the weakness of the labor
    movement, but this was partly caused by friction between races,
    especially between the Irish and the Chinese.
  3. In San Francisco, Irish-born Denis Kearney incited his followers to terrorize the Chinese.
  4. In 1879, Congress passed a bill severely restricting the influx of
    Chinese immigrants (most of whom were males who had come to California
    to work on the railroads), but Hayes vetoed the bill on grounds that it
    violated an existing treaty with China.
    • After Hayes left office, the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed in 1882,
      was passed, barring any Chinese from entering the United
      States—the first law limiting immigration.

XI. Garfield and Arthur

  1. James A. Garfield
    • In 1880, the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, a man from
      Ohio who had risen to the rank of major general in the Civil War, and
      as his running mate, a notorious Stalwart (supporter of Roscoe
      Conkling) was chosen: Chester A. Arthur of New York.
    • The Democrats chose Winfield S. Hancock, a Civil War general who
      appealed to the South due to his fair treatment of it during
      Reconstruction and a veteran who had been wounded at Gettysburg, and
      thus appealed to veterans.
    • The campaign once again avoided touchy issues, and Garfield
      squeaked by in the popular vote (the electoral count was wider: 214 to
      155).
      • Garfield was a good person, but he hated to hurt people’s feelings and say “no.”
    • Garfield named James G. Blaine to the position of Secretary of the
      State, and he made other anti-Stalwart acts, but on September 19, 1881,
      Garfield died after having been shot in the head by a crazy but
      disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau, who, after being
      captured, used an early version of the “insanity defense”
      to avoid conviction (he was hanged anyway).
  2. Chester Arthur
    • Chester Arthur didn’t seem to be a good fit for the
      presidency, but he surprised many by giving the cold shoulder to
      Stalwarts, his chief supporters, and by calling for reform, a call
      heeded by the Republican party as it began to show newly found
      enthusiasm for reform.
    • The Pendleton Act of 1883, the so-called Magna Charta of
      civil-service reform (awarding of government jobs based on ability, not
      just because a buddy awarded the job), prohibited financial assessments
      on jobholders, including lowly scrubwomen, and established a merit
      system of making appointments to office on the basis of aptitude rather
      than “pull.”
      • It also set up a Civil Service Commission, charged with
        administering open competitive service, and offices not
        “classified” by the president remained the fought-over
        footballs of politics.
      • Luckily, Arthur cooperated, and by 1884, he had classified nearly 10% of all federal offices, or nearly 14,000 of them.
    • The Pendleton Act partially divided politics from patronage, but it
      drove politicians into “marriages of convenience” with
      business leaders.

XII. The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

  1. James G. Blaine became the Republican candidate, but some
    Republican reformers, unable to stomach this, switched to the
    Democratic Party and were called Mugwumps.
  2. The Democrats chose Grover Cleveland as their candidate but
    received a shock when it was revealed that he might have been the
    father of an illegitimate child.
    • The campaign of 1884 was filled with perhaps the lowest mudslinging in history.
    • The contest depended on how New York chose, but unfortunately, one
      foolish Republican insulted the race, faith, and patriotism of New
      York’s heavy Irish population, and as a result, New York voted
      for Cleveland; that was the difference.

XIII. “Old Grover” Takes Over

  1. Portly Grover Cleveland was the first Democratic president since
    James Buchanan, and as a supporter of laissez-faire capitalism, he
    delighted business owners and bankers.
  2. Cleveland named two former Confederates to his cabinet, and at
    first tried to adhere to the merit system (but eventually gave in to
    his party and fired almost 2/3 of the 120,000 federal employees), but
    he had his problems.
    • Military pensions plagued Cleveland; these bills were given to
      Civil War veterans to help them, but they were used fraudulently to
      give money to all sorts of people.
    • However, Cleveland showed that he was ready to take on the corrupt
      distributors of military pensions when he vetoed a bill that would add
      several hundred thousand new people on the pension list.

XIV. Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff

  1. By 1881, the Treasury had a surplus of $145 million, most of it
    having come from the high tariff, and there was a lot of clamoring for
    lowering the tariff, though big industrialists opposed it.
  2. Cleveland wasn’t really interested in the subject at first,
    but as he researched it, he became inclined towards lowering the
    tariff, so in late 1887, Cleveland openly tossed the appeal for lower
    tariffs into the lap of Congress.
    • Democrats were upset at the obstinacy of their chief while Republicans gloated at his apparently reckless act.

XV. The Billion Dollar Congress

  1. The new Speaker of the House, Thomas B. Reed, was a large, tall man, a tremendous debater, and very critical and quick man.
    • To solve the problem of reaching a quorum in Congress, Reed counted
      the Democrats who were present yet didn’t answer to the roll
      call, and after three days of such chaos, he finally prevailed, opening
      the 51st, or “Billion Dollar” Congress—one that
      legislated many expensive projects.

XVI. The Drumbeat of Discontent

  1. The Populist Party emerged in 1892 from disgruntled farmers.
    • Their main call was for inflation via free coinage of silver.
    • They called for a litany of items including: a graduated income
      tax, government regulation of railroads and telegraphs/telephones,
      direct elections of U.S. senators, a one term limit, initiative and
      referendum, a shorter workday, and immigration restriction.

XVII. Cleveland and Depression

  1. Grover Cleveland won, but no sooner than he had stepped into the
    presidency did the Depression of 1893 break out. It was the first such
    panic in the new urban and industrial age, and it caused much outrage
    and hardships. This completed the almost predictable, every-20-year
    cycle of panics during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837,
    1857, 1873, and 1893).
  2. About 8,000 American business houses collapsed in six months, and dozens of railroad lines went into the hands of receivers.
    • This time, Cleveland had a deficit and a problem, for the Treasury
      had to issue gold for the notes that it had paid in the Sherman Silver
      Purchase Act, and according to law, those notes had to be reissued,
      thus causing a steady drain on gold in the Treasury—the level
      alarmingly dropped below $100 million at one point.
  3. Meanwhile, Grover Cleveland had developed a malignant growth under
    the roof of his mouth, and it had to be secretly removed in a surgery
    that took place aboard his private yacht; had he died, Adlai E.
    Stevenson, a “soft money” (paper money) man, would have
    caused massive chaos with inflation.
  4. Also, 33 year-old William Jennings Bryan was advocating “free
    silver,” and gaining support for his beliefs, but an angry
    Cleveland used his executive power to break the filibuster in the
    Senate—thus alienating the silver-supporting Democrats.

XVIII. Cleveland Breeds a Backlash

  1. Cleveland was embarrassed at having to resort to J.P. Morgan to bale out the depression.
  2. He was also embarrassed by the Wilson-Gorman Tariff. He’d
    promised to lower the tariff, but so many tack-ons had been added, the
    result was nill.
    • Further, the Supreme Court struck down an income tax. It looked like all politicians were tools of the wealthy.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age

I. The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse

  1. After the Civil War, railroad production grew enormously, from
    35,000 mi. of track laid in 1865 to a whopping 192,556 mi. of track
    laid in 1900.
    • Congress gave land to railroad companies totally 155,504,994 acres.
    • For railroad routes, companies were allowed alternate mile-square
      sections in checkerboard fashion, but until companies determined which
      part of the land was the best to use for railroad building, all of the
      land was withheld from all other users.
      • Grover Cleveland stopped this in 1887.
  2. Railroads gave land their value; towns where railroads ran became
    sprawling cities while those skipped by railroads sank into ghost
    towns, so, obviously, towns wanted railroads in them.

II. Spanning the Continent with Rails

  1. Deadlock over where to build a transcontinental railroad was broken
    after the South seceded, and in 1862, Congress commissioned the Union
    Pacific Railroad to begin westward from Omaha, Nebraska, to gold-rich
    California.
    • The company received huge sums of money and land to build its
      tracks, but corruption also plagued it, as the insiders of the Credit
      Mobilier reaped $23 million in profits.
    • Many Irishmen, who might lay as much as 10 miles a day, laid the tracks.
    • When Indians attacked while trying to save their land, the Irish
      dropped their picks and seized their rifles, and scores of workers and
      Indians died during construction.
  2. Over in California, the Central Pacific Railroad was in charge of
    extending the railroad eastward, and it was backed by the Big Four:
    including Leland Stanford, the ex-governor of California who had useful
    political connections, and Collis P. Huntington, an adept lobbyist.
    • The Central Pacific used Chinese workers, and received the same
      incentives as the Union Pacific, but it had to drill through the hard
      rock of the Sierra Nevada.
  3. In 1869, the transcontinental rail line was completed at Promontory
    Point near Ogden, Utah; in all, the Union Pacific built 1,086 mi. of
    track, compared to 689 mi. by the Central Pacific.

III. Binding the Country with Railroad Ties

  1. Before 1900, four other transcontinental railroads were built:
    • The Northern Pacific Railroad stretched from Lake Superior to the Puget Sound and was finished in 1883.
    • The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe stretched through the Southwest deserts and was completed the following year, in 1884.
    • The Southern Pacific (completed in 1884) went from New Orleans to San Francisco.
    • The Great Northern ran from Duluth to Seattle and was the creation
      of James J. Hill, probably the greatest railroad builder of all.
  2. However, many pioneers over-invested on land, and the banks that
    supported them often failed and went bankrupt when the land
    wasn’t worth as much as initially thought.

IV. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

  1. Older eastern railroads, like the New York Central, headed by
    Cornelius Vanderbilt, often financed the successful western railroads.
  2. Advancements in railroads included the steel rail, which was
    stronger and more enduring than the iron rail, the Westinghouse air
    brake which increased safety, the Pullman Palace Cars which were
    luxurious passenger cars, and telegraphs, double-racking, and block
    signals.
    • Nevertheless, train accidents were common, as well as death.

V. Revolution by Railways

  1. Railroads stitched the nation together, generated a huge market and
    lots of jobs, helped the rapid industrialization of America, and
    stimulated mining and agriculture in the West by bringing people and
    supplies to and from the areas where such work occurred.
  2. Railroads helped people settle in the previously harsh Great Plains.
  3. Due to railroads, the creation of four national time zones occurred
    on November 18, 1883, instead of each city having its own time zone
    (that was confusing to railroad operators).
  4. Railroads were also the makers of millionaires and the millionaire class.

VI. Wrongdoing in Railroading

  1. Railroads were not without corruption, as shown by the Credit Mobilier scandal.
  2. Jay Gould made millions embezzling stocks from the Erie, Kansas
    Pacific, the Union Pacific, and the Texas and Pacific railroad
    companies.
  3. One method of cheap moneymaking was called “stock
    watering,” in which railroad companies grossly over-inflated the
    worth of their stock and sold them at huge profits.
  4. Railroad owners abused the public, bribed judges and legislatures,
    employed arm-twisting lobbyists, elected their own to political office,
    gave rebates (which helped the wealthy but not the poor), and used free
    passes to gain favor in the press.
  5. As time passed, though, railroad giants entered into defensive
    alliances to show profits, and began the first of what would be called
    trusts, although at that time they were called “pools.” A
    pool (AKA, a “cartel”) is a group of supposed competitors
    who agree to work together, usually to set prices.

VII. Government Bridles the Iron Horse

  1. People were aware of such injustice, but were slow to combat it.
  2. The Grange was formed by farmers to combat such corruption, and
    many state efforts to stop the railroad monopoly occurred, but they
    were stopped when the Supreme Court issued its ruling in the Wabash
    case, in which it ruled that states could not regulate interstate
    commerce, such as trains.
  3. The Interstate Commerce Act, passed in 1887, banned rebates and
    pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly (so as
    not to cheat customers), and also forbade unfair discrimination against
    shippers and banned charging more for a short haul than for a long one.
    • It also set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to enforce this.
  4. The act was not a victory against corporate wealth, as people like
    Richard Olney, a shrewd corporate lawyer, noted that they could use the
    act to their advantage, but it did represent the first attempt by
    Congress to regulate businesses for society’s interest.

VIII. Miracles of Mechanization

  1. In 1860, the U.S. was the 4th largest manufacturer in the world, but by 1894, it was #1, why?
    • Now-abundant liquid capital.
    • Fully exploited natural resources (like coal, oil, and iron, the
      iron came from the Minnesota-Lake Superior region which yielded the
      rich iron deposits of the Mesabi Range).
    • Massive immigration made labor cheap.
    • American ingenuity played a vital role, as such inventions like
      mass production (from Eli Whitney) were being refined and perfected.
      • Popular inventions included the cash register, the stock ticker,
        the typewriter, the refrigerator car, the electric dynamo, and the
        electric railway, which displaced animal-drawn cars.
  2. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and a new age was launched.
  3. Thomas Edison, the “Wizard of Menlo Park,” was the most
    versatile inventor, who, while best known for his electric light bulb,
    also cranked out scores of other inventions.

IX. The Trust Titan Emerges

  1. Industry giants used various ways to eliminate competition and maximize profits.
    • Andrew Carnegie used a method called “vertical
      integration,” which meant that he bought out and controlled all
      aspects of an industry (in his case, he mined the iron, transported it,
      refined it, and turned it into steel, controlling all parts of the
      process).
    • John D. Rockefeller, master of “horizontal
      integration,” simply allied with or bought out competitors to
      monopolize a given market.
      • He used this method to form Standard Oil and control the oil industry by forcing weaker competitors to go bankrupt.
  2. These men became known for their trusts, giant, monopolistic corporations.
    • J.P. Morgan also placed his own men on the boards of directors of
      other rival competitors to gain influence there and reduce competition,
      a process called “interlocking directorates.”

X. The Supremacy of Steel

  1. In Lincoln’s day, steel was very scarce and expensive, but by
    1900, Americans produced as much steel as England and Germany combined.
  2. This was due to an invention that made steel-making cheaper and
    much more effective: the Bessemer process, which was named after an
    English inventor even though an American, William Kelly, had discovered
    it first:
    • Cold air blown on red-hot iron burned carbon deposits and purified it.
    • America was one of the few nations that had a lot of coal for fuel,
      iron for smelting, and other essential ingredients for steel making,
      and thus, quickly became #1.

XI. Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel

  1. Andrew Carnegie started off as a poor boy in a bad job, but by
    working hard, assuming responsibility, and charming influential people,
    he worked his way up to wealth.
  2. He started in the Pittsburgh area, but he was not a man who liked
    trusts; still, by 1900, he was producing 1/4 of the nation’s
    Bessemer steel, and getting $25 million a year.
  3. J. Pierpont Morgan, having already made a fortune in the banking
    industry and in Wall Street, was ready to step into the steel tubing
    industry, but Carnegie threatened to ruin him, so after some tense
    negotiation, Morgan bought Carnegie’s entire business at $400
    million (this was before income tax). But Carnegie, fearing ridicule
    for possessing so much money, spent the rest of his life donating $350
    million of it to charity, pensions, and libraries.
    • Meanwhile, Morgan took Carnegie’s holdings, added others, and
      launched the United States Steel Corporation in 1901, a company that
      became the world’s first billion-dollar corporation (it was
      capitalized at $1.4 billion).

XII. Rockefeller Grows an American Beauty Rose

  1. In 1859, a man named Drake first used oil to get money, and by the
    1870s, kerosene, a type of oil, was used to light lamps all over the
    nation.
  2. However, by 1885, 250,000 of Edison’s electric light bulbs
    were in use, and the electric industry soon rendered kerosene obsolete,
    just as kerosene had made whale oil obsolete.
  3. Oil, however, was just beginning with the gasoline-burning internal combustion engine.
  4. John D. Rockefeller, ruthless and merciless, organized the Standard
    Oil Company of Ohio in 1882 (five years earlier, he had already
    controlled 95% of all the oil refineries in the country).
  5. Rockefeller crushed weaker competitors—part of the natural
    process according to him—but his company did produce superior oil
    at a cheaper price.
  6. Other trusts, which also generally made better products at cheaper
    prices, emerged, such as the meat industry of Gustavus F. Swift and
    Philip Armour.

XIII. The Gospel of Wealth

  1. Many of the newly rich had worked from poverty to wealth, and thus
    felt that some people in the world were destined to become rich and
    then help society with their money. This was the “Gospel of
    Wealth.”
  2. “Social Darwinism” applied Charles Darwin’s
    survival-of-the-fittest theories to business. It said the reason a
    Carnegie was at the top of the steel industry was that he was most fit
    to run such a business.
  3. The Reverend Russell Conwell of Philadelphia became rich by
    delivering his lecture, “Acres of Diamonds” thousands of
    times, and in it he preached that poor people made themselves poor and
    rich people made themselves rich; everything was because of one’s
    actions only.
  4. Corporate lawyers used the 14th Amendment to defend trusts, the
    judges agreed, saying that corporations were legal people and thus
    entitled to their property, and plutocracy ruled.

XIV. Government Tackles the Trust Evil

  1. In 1890, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was signed into law; it forbade
    combinations (trusts, pools, interlocking directorates, holding
    companies) in restraint of trade, without any distinction between
    “good” and “bad” trusts.
    • It proved ineffective, however, because it couldn’t be enforced.
    • Not until 1914 was it properly enforced and those prosecuted for violating the law were actually punished.

XV. The South in the Age of Industry

  1. The South remained agrarian despite all the industrial advances,
    though James Buchanan Duke developed a huge cigarette industry in the
    form of the American Tobacco Company and made many donations to what is
    now Duke University.
  2. Men like Henry W. Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper urged the South to industrialize.
  3. However, many northern companies set rates to keep the South from
    gaining any competitive edge whatsoever, with examples including the
    rich deposits of iron and coal near Birmingham, Alabama, and the
    textile mills of the South.
    • However, cheap labor led to the creation of many jobs, and despite
      poor wages, many white Southerners saw employment as a blessing.
  4. The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America
    • As the Industrial Revolution spread in America, the standard of
      living rose, immigrants swarmed to the U.S., and early Jeffersonian
      ideals about the dominance of agriculture fell.
    • Women, who had swarmed to factories and had been encouraged by
      recent inventions, found new opportunities, and the “Gibson
      Girl,” created by Charles Dana Gibson, became the romantic ideal
      of the age.
      • The Gibson Girl was young, athletic, attractive, and outdoorsy (not the stay-at-home mom type).
      • However, many women never achieved this, and instead toiled in hard work because they had to do so in order to earn money.
  5. A nation of farmers was becoming a nation of wage earners, but the
    fear of unemployment was never far, and the illness of a breadwinner
    (the main wage owner) in a family was disastrous.
  6. Strong pressures in foreign trade developed as the tireless industrial machine threatened to flood the domestic market.

XVI. In Unions There Is Strength

  1. With the inflow of immigrants providing a labor force that would
    work for low wages and in poor environments, the workers who wanted to
    improve their conditions found that they could not, since their bosses
    could easily hire the unemployed to take their places.
  2. Corporations had many weapons against strikers, such as hiring
    strikebreakers or asking the courts to order strikers to stop striking,
    and if they continued, to bring in troops. Other methods included
    hiring “scabs” or replacements or “lockouts” to
    starve strikers into submission, and often, workers had to sign
    “ironclad oaths” or “yellow dog contracts”
    which banned them from joining unions.
    • Workers could be “blacklisted,” or put on a list and denied privileges elsewhere.
  3. The middle-class, annoyed by the recurrent strikes, grew deaf to the workers’ outcry.
  4. The view was that people like Carnegie and Rockefeller had battled
    and worked hard to get to the top, and workers could do the same if
    they “really” wanted to improve their situations.

XVII. Labor Limps Along

  1. The Civil War put a premium on labor, which helped labor unions grow.
  2. The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, represented a giant boot
    stride by workers and attracted an impressive total of 600,000 members,
    but it only lasted six years.
    • However, it excluded Chinese and didn’t really try to get Blacks and women to join.
    • It worked for the arbitration of industrial disputes and the
      eight-hour workday, and won the latter for government workers, but the
      depression of 1873 knocked it out.
  3. A new organization, the Knights of Labor, was begun in 1869 and
    continued secretly until 1881. This organization was similar to the
    National Labor Union.
    • It only barred liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers,
      bankers, and stockbrokers, and they campaigned for economic and social
      reform.
    • Led by Terence V. Powderly, the Knights won a number of strikes for
      the eight-hour day, and when they staged a successful strike against
      Jay Gould’s Wabash Railroad in 1885, membership mushroomed to 3/4
      of a million workers.

XVIII. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

  1. However, the Knights became involved in a number of May Day strikes of which half failed.
  2. In Chicago, home to about 80,000 Knights and a few hundred
    anarchists that advocated a violent overthrow of the American
    government, tensions had been building, and on May 4, 1886, Chicago
    police were advancing on a meeting that had been called to protest
    brutalities by authorities when a dynamite bomb was thrown, killing or
    injuring several dozen people.
    • Eight anarchists were rounded up yet no one could prove that they
      had any association with the bombing, but since they had preached
      incendiary doctrines, the jury sentenced five of them to death on
      account of conspiracy and gave the other three stiff prison terms.
    • In 1892, John P. Altgeld, a German-born Democrat was elected
      governor of Illinois and pardoned the three survivors after studying
      the case extensively.
    • He received violent verbal abuse for that and was defeated during re-election.
  3. This so-called Haymarket Square Bombing forever associated the
    Knights of Labor with anarchists and lowered their popularity and
    effectiveness; membership declined, and those that remained fused with
    other labor unions.

XIX. The AF of L to the Fore

  1. In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor.
    • It consisted of an association of self-governing national unions,
      each of which kept its independence, with the AF of L unifying overall
      strategy.
  2. Gompers demanded a fairer share for labor.
    • He simply wanted “more,” and sought better wages, hours, and working conditions.
  3. The AF of L established itself on solid but narrow foundations,
    since it tried to speak for all workers but fell far short of that.
    • Composed of skilled laborers, it was willing to let unskilled
      laborers fend for themselves. Critics called it “the labor
      trust.”
  4. From 1881 to 1900, there were over 23,000 strikes involving
    6,610,000 workers with a total loss to both employers and employees of
    about $450 million.
    • Perhaps the greatest weakness of labor unions was that they only embraced a small minority—3%—of all workers.
  5. However, by 1900, the public was starting to concede the rights of
    workers and beginning to give them some or most of what they wanted.
    • In 1894, Labor Day was made a legal holiday.
  6. A few owners were beginning to realize that losing money to fight
    labor strikes was useless, though most owners still dogmatically fought
    labor unions.
  7. If the age of big business had dawned, the age of big labor was still some distance over the horizon.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City

I. The Urban Frontier

  1. From 1870 to 1900, the American population doubled, and the population in the cities tripled.
  2. Cities grew up and out, with such famed architects as Louis
    Sullivan working on and perfecting skyscrapers (first appearing in
    Chicago in 1885).
    • The city grew from a small compact one that people could walk
      through to get around to a huge metropolis that required commuting by
      electric trolleys.
    • Electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones made city life more alluring.
  3. Department stores like Macy’s (in New York) and Marshall
    Field’s (in Chicago) provided urban working-class jobs and also
    attracted urban middle-class shoppers.
    • Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie told of a woman’s
      escapades in the big city and made cities dazzling and attractive.
    • However, the move to city produced lots of trash, because while
      farmers always reused everything or fed “trash” to animals,
      city dwellers, with their mail-order houses like Sears and Montgomery
      Ward, which made things cheap and easy to buy, could simply throw away
      the things that they didn’t like anymore.
  4. In cities, criminals flourished, and impure water, uncollected
    garbage, unwashed bodies, and droppings made cities smelly and
    unsanitary.
    • Worst of all were the slums, which were crammed with people.
    • The so-called “dumbbell tenements” (which gave a bit of
      fresh air down their airshaft) were the worst since they were dark,
      cramped, and had little sanitation or ventilation.
  5. To escape, the wealthy of the city-dwellers fled to suburbs.

II. The New Immigration

  1. Until the 1880s, most of the immigrants had come from the British
    Isles and western Europe (Germany and Scandinavia) and were quite
    literate and accustomed to some type of representative government. This
    was called the “Old Immigration.” But by the 1880s and
    1890s, this shifted to the Baltic and Slavic people of southeastern
    Europe, who were basically the opposite, “New Immigration.”
    • While the southeastern Europeans accounted for only 19% of
      immigrants to the U.S. in 1880, by the early 1900s, they were over 60%!

III. Southern Europe Uprooted

  1. Many Europeans came to America because there was no room in Europe,
    nor was there much employment, since industrialization had eliminated
    many jobs.
    • America was also often praised to Europeans, as people boasted of eating everyday and having freedom and much opportunity.
    • Profit-seeking Americans also perhaps exaggerated the benefits of
      America to Europeans, so that they could get cheap labor and more money.
  2. However, it should be noted that many immigrants to America stayed
    for a short period of time and then returned to Europe, and even those
    that remained (including persecuted Jews, who propagated in New York)
    tried very hard to retain their own culture and customs.
    • However, the children of the immigrants sometimes rejected this Old World culture and plunged completely into American life.

IV. Reactions to the New Immigration

  1. The federal government did little to help immigrants assimilate
    into American society, so immigrants were often controlled by powerful
    “bosses” (such as New York’s Boss Tweed) who provided
    jobs and shelter in return for political support at the polls.
  2. Gradually, though, the nation’s conscience awoke to the
    plight of the slums, and people like Walter Rauschenbusch and
    Washington Gladden began preaching the “Social Gospel,”
    insisting that churches tackle the burning social issues of the day.
  3. Among the people who were deeply dedicated to uplifting the urban
    masses was Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in 1889 to teach
    children and adults the skills and knowledge that they would need to
    survive and succeed in America.
    • She eventually won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, but her pacifism
      was looked down upon by groups such as the Daughters of the American
      Revolution, who revoked her membership.
    • Other such settlement houses like Hull House included Lillian
      Wald’s Henry Street Settlement in New York, which opened its
      doors in 1893.
    • Settlement houses became centers for women’s activism and
      reform, as females such as Florence Kelley fought for protection of
      women workers and against child labor.
    • The new cities also gave women opportunities to earn money and
      support themselves better (mostly single women, since being both a
      working mother and wife was frowned upon).

V. Narrowing the Welcome Mat

  1. The “nativism” and anti-foreignism of the 1840s and
    1850s came back in the 1880s, as the Germans and western Europeans
    looked down upon the new Slavs and Baltics, fearing that a mixing of
    blood would ruin the fairer Anglo-Saxon races and create inferior
    offspring.
    • The “native” Americans blamed immigrants for the
      degradation of the urban government. These new bigots had forgotten how
      they had been scorned when they had arrived in America a few decades
      before.
    • Trade unionists hated them for their willingness to work for
      super-low wages and for bringing in dangerous doctrines like socialism
      and communism into the U.S.
  2. Anti-foreign organizations like the American Protective Association
    (APA) arose to go against new immigrants, and labor leaders were quick
    to try to stop new immigration, since immigrants were frequently used
    as strikebreakers.
  3. Finally, in 1882, Congress passed the first restrictive law against
    immigration, which banned paupers, criminals, and convicts from coming
    here.
  4. In 1885, another law was passed banning the importation of foreign workers under usually substandard contracts.
  5. Literacy tests for immigrants were proposed, but were resisted
    until they were finally passed in 1917, but the 1882 immigration law
    also barred the Chinese from coming (the Chinese Exclusion Act).
  6. Ironically in this anti-immigratnt climate, the Statue of Liberty
    arrived from France—a gift from the French to America in 1886.

VI. Churches Confront the Urban Challenge

  1. Since churches had mostly failed to take any stands and rally
    against the urban poverty, plight, and suffering, many people began to
    question the ambition of the churches, and began to worry that Satan
    was winning the battle of good and evil.
    • The emphasis on material gains worried many.
  2. A new generation of urban revivalists stepped in, including people
    like Dwight Lyman Moody, a man who proclaimed the gospel of kindness
    and forgiveness and adapted the old-time religion to the facts of city
    life.
    • The Moody Bible Institute was founded in Chicago in 1889 and continued working well after his 1899 death.
  3. Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were also gaining many followers with the new immigration.
    • Cardinal Gibbons was popular with Roman Catholics and Protestants, as he preached American unity.
    • By 1890, Americans could choose from 150 religions, including the
      new Salvation Army, which tried to help the poor and unfortunate.
  4. The Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science), founded by
    Mary Baker Eddy, preached a perversion of Christianity that she claimed
    healed sickness.
  5. YMCA’s and YWCA’s also sprouted.

VII. Darwin Disrupts the Churches

  1. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species,
    which set forth the new doctrine of evolution and attracted the ire and
    fury of fundamentalists.
    • “Modernists” took a step from the fundamentalists and
      refused to believe that the Bible was completely accurate and factual.
      They contended that the Bible was merely a collection of moral stories
      or guidelines, but not sacred scripture inspired by God.
  2. Colonel Robert G. Ingersoll was one who denounced creationism, as
    he had been widely persuaded by the theory of evolution. Others blended
    creationism and evolution to invent their own interpretations.

VIII. The Lust for Learning

  1. A new trend began in the creation of more public schools and the provision of free textbooks funded by taxpayers.
    • By 1900, there were 6,000 high schools in America; kindergartens also multiplied.
  2. Catholic schools also grew in popularity and in number.
  3. To partially help adults who couldn’t go to school, the
    Chautauqua movement, a successor to the lyceums, was launched in 1874.
    It included public lectures to many people by famous writers and
    extensive at-home studies.
  4. Americans began to develop a faith in formal education as a solution to poverty.

IX. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

  1. The South, war-torn and poor, lagged far behind in education,
    especially for Blacks, so Booker T. Washington, an ex-slave came to
    help. He started by heading a black normal (teacher) and industrial
    school in Tuskegee, Alabama, and teaching the students useful skills
    and trades.
    • However, he avoided the issue of social equality; he believed in Blacks helping themselves first before gaining more rights.
  2. One of Washington’s students was George Washington Carver,
    who later discovered hundreds of new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes,
    and soybeans.
  3. However, W.E.B. Du Bois, the first Black to get a Ph.D. from
    Harvard University, demanded complete equality for Blacks and action
    now. He also founded the National Association for the Advancement of
    Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.
    • Many of DuBois’s differences with Washington reflected the contrasting life experiences of southern and northern Blacks.

X. The Hallowed Halls of Ivy

  1. Colleges and universities sprouted after the Civil War, and colleges for women, such as Vassar, were gaining ground.
    • Also, colleges for both genders grew, especially in the Midwest,
      and Black colleges also were established, such as Howard University in
      Washington D.C., Atlanta University, and Hampton Institute in Virginia.
  2. The Morrill Act of 1862 had provided a generous grant of the public
    lands to the states for support of education and was extended by the
    Hatch Act of 1887, which provided federal funds for the establishment
    of agricultural experiment stations in connection with the land-grant
    colleges.
  3. Private donations also went toward the establishment of colleges,
    including Cornell, Leland Stanford Junior, and the University of
    Chicago, which was funded by John D. Rockefeller.
  4. Johns Hopkins University maintained the nation’s first high-grade graduate school.

XI. The March of the Mind

  1. The elective system of college was gaining popularity, and it took
    off especially after Dr. Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard.
  2. Medical schools and science were prospering after the Civil War.
    • Discoveries by Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister (antiseptics) improved medical science and health.
    • The brilliant but sickly William James helped establish the
      discipline of behavioral psychology, with his books Principles of
      Psychology (1890), The Will to Believe (1897), and Varieties of
      Religious Experience (1902).
      • His greatest work was Pragmatism (1907), which preached what he believed in: pragmatism (everything has a useful purpose).

XII. The Appeal of the Press

  1. Libraries such as the Library of Congress also opened across America, bringing literature into people’s homes.
  2. With the invention of the Linotype in 1885, the press more than
    kept pace with demand, but competition sparked a new brand of
    journalism called “yellow journalism,” in which newspapers
    reported on wild and fantastic stories that often were false or quite
    exaggerated: sex, scandal, and other human-interest stories.
  3. Two new journalistic tycoons emerged: Joseph Pulitzer (New York
    World) and William Randolph Hearst (San Francisco Examiner, et al.).

d. Luckily, the strengthening of the Associated Press, which had
been established in the 1840s, helped to offset some of the
questionable journalism.
e. Hi Mrs. Kelly!

XIII. Apostles of Reform

  1. Magazines like Harper’s, the Atlantic Monthly, and
    Scribner’s Monthly partially satisfied the public appetite for
    good reading, but perhaps the most influential of all was the New York
    Nation, launched in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, a merciless critic. These
    were all liberal, reform-minded publications.
  2. Another enduring journalist-author was Henry George, who wrote
    Progress and Poverty, which undertook to solve the association of
    poverty with progress.
    • It was he who came up with the idea of the graduated income tax—the more you make, the greater percent you pay in taxes.
  3. Edward Bellamy published Looking Backward in 1888, in which he
    criticized the social injustices of the day and pictured a utopian
    government that had nationalized big business serving the public good.

XIV. Postwar Writing

  1. After the war, Americans devoured “dime-novels” which
    depicted the wild West and other romantic and adventurous settings.
    • The king of dime novelists was Harland F. Halsey, who made 650 of these novels.
    • General Lewis Wallace wrote Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, which
      combated the ideas and beliefs of Darwinism and reaffirmed the
      traditional Christian faith.
  2. Horatio Alger was even more popular, since his rags-to-riches books
    told that virtue, honesty, and industry were rewarded by success,
    wealth, and honor. His most notable book was titled Ragged Dick.
  3. Walt Whitman was one of the old writers who still remained active, publishing revisions of his hardy perennial: Leaves of Grass.
  4. Emily Dickinson was a famed hermit of a poet whose poems were published after her death.
  5. Other lesser poets included Sidney Lanier, who was oppressed by poverty and ill health.

XV. Literary Landmarks

  1. Other famous writers:
    • Kate Chopin, wrote about adultery, suicide, and women’s ambitions in The Awakening.
    • Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) wrote many books, including The
      Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Roughing
      It about the wild West, The Gilded Age (hence the term given to the era
      of corruption after the Civil War) and The Celebrated Jumping Frog of
      Calaveras County.
    • Bret Harte wrote California gold rush stories.
    • William Dean Howells became editor in chief of the Atlantic Monthly
      and wrote about ordinary people and sometimes-controversial social
      themes.
    • Stephen Crane wrote about the seamy underside of life in urban,
      industrial America (prostitutes, etc.) in such books like Maggie: Girl
      of the Street.
      • He also wrote The Red Badge of Courage, a tale about a Civil War soldier.
    • Henry James wrote Daisy Miller and Portrait of a Lady, often making
      women his central characters in his novels and exploring their
      personalities.
    • Jack London wrote about the wild unexplored regions of wilderness in The Call of the Wild, White Fang, and The Iron Heel.
    • Frank Norris’s The Octopus exposed the corruption of the railroads.
    • Paul Laurence Dunbar and Charles W. Chesnutt, two Black writers,
      used Black dialect and folklore in their poems and stories,
      respectively.

XVI. The New Morality

  1. Victoria Woodhull proclaimed free love, and together with her
    sister, Tennessee Claflin, wrote Woodhull and Claflin’s Weekly,
    which shocked readers with exposés of affairs, etc.
  2. Anthony Comstock waged a lifelong war on the “immoral.”
  3. The “new morality” reflected sexual freedom in the
    increase of birth control, divorces, and frank discussion of sexual
    topics.

XVII. Families and Women in the City

  1. Urban life was stressful on families, who were often separated, and
    everyone had to work—even children as young as ten years old.
    • While on farms, more children meant more people to harvest and
      help, in the cities, more children meant more mouths to feed and a
      greater chance of poverty.
  2. In 1898, Charlotte Perkins Gilman published Women and Economics, a
    classic of feminist literature, in which she called for women to
    abandon their dependent status and contribute to the larger life of the
    community through productive involvement in the economy.
    • She also advocated day-care centers and centralized nurseries and kitchens.
  3. Feminists also rallied toward suffrage, forming the National
    American Woman Suffrage Association in 1890, an organization led by
    Elizabeth Cady Stanton (who’d organized the first women’s
    rights convention in 1848 at Seneca Falls, NY) and Susan B. Anthony.
  4. By 1900, a new generation of women activists were present, led by
    Carrie Chapman Catt, who stressed the desirability of giving women the
    vote if they were to continue to discharge their traditional duties as
    homemakers in the increasingly public world of the city.
    • The Wyoming Territory was the first to offer women unrestricted suffrage in 1869.
    • The General Federation of Women’s Clubs also encouraged women’s suffrage.
  5. Ida B. Wells rallied toward better treatment for Blacks as well and formed the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

XVIII. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

  1. Concern over the popularity (and dangers) of alcohol was also
    present, marked by the formation of the National Prohibition Party in
    1869.
    • Other organizations like the Women’s Christian Temperance
      Union also rallied against alcohol, calling for a national prohibition
      of the beverage.
      • Leaders included Frances E. Willard and Carrie A. Nation who literally wielded a hatchet and hacked up bars.
    • The Anti-Saloon League was also formed in 1893.
  2. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was
    formed in 1866 to discourage the mistreatment of livestock, and the
    American Red Cross, formed by Clara Barton, a Civil War nurse, was
    formed in 1881.

XIX. Artistic Triumphs

  1. Art was largely suppressed during the first half of the 1800s and
    failed to really take flight in America, forcing such men as James
    Whistler and John Singer Sargent to go to Europe to study art.
  2. Mary Cassatt painted sensitive portraits of women and children, while George Inness became America’s leading landscapist.
  3. Thomas Eakins was a great realist painter, while Winslow Homer was
    perhaps the most famous and the greatest of all. He painted scenes of
    typical New England life (schools and such).
  4. Great sculptors included Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who made the Robert Gould Shaw memorial, located in Boston, in 1897.
  5. Music reached new heights with the erection of opera houses and the emergence of jazz.
  6. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which allowed the reproduction of sounds that could be heard by listeners.
  7. Henry H. Richardson was another fine architect whose “Richardsonian” architecture was famed around the country.
    • The Columbian Exposition in 1893, in Chicago, displayed many architectural triumphs.

XX. The Business of Amusement

  1. In entertainment, Phineas T. Barnum (who quipped,
    “There’s a sucker born every minute,” and
    “People love to be humbugged.”) and James A. Bailey teamed
    up in 1881 to stage the “Greatest Show on Earth” (now the
    Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus).
  2. “Wild West” shows, like those of “Buffalo
    Bill” Cody (and the markswoman Annie Oakley who shot holes
    through tossed silver dollars) were ever-popular, and baseball and
    football became popular as well.
  3. Baseball emerged as America’s national pastime.
  4. Wrestling gained popularity and respectability.
  5. In 1891, James Naismith invented basketball.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution

I. The Clash of Cultures on the Plains

  1. After the Civil War, the Great West was still relatively untamed,
    wild, full of Indians, bison, and wildlife, and sparsely populated by a
    few Mormons and Mexicans.
  2. As the White settlers began to populate the Great West, the
    Indians, caught in the middle, increasingly turned against each other,
    were infected with White man’s diseases, and stuck battling to
    hunt the few remaining bison that were still ranging around.
    • The Sioux, displaced by Chippewas from the their ancestral lands at
      the headwaters of the Mississippi in the late 1700s, expanded at the
      expense of the Crows, Kiowas, and Pawnees, and justified their actions
      by reasoning that White men had done the same thing to them.
      • The Indians had become great riders, hunters, and fighters ever since the Spanish had introduced the horse to them.
  3. The federal government tried to pacify the Indians by signing
    treaties at Fort Laramie in 1851 and Fort Atkinson in 1853 with the
    chiefs of the tribes. However, the U.S. failed to understand that such
    “tribes” and “chiefs” didn’t necessarily
    represent groups of people in Indian culture, and that in most cases,
    Native Americans didn’t recognize authorities outside of their
    families.
  4. In the 1860s, the U.S. government intensified its efforts by
    herding Indians into still smaller and smaller reservations (like the
    Dakota Territory).
    • Indians were often promised that they wouldn’t be bothered
      further after moving out of their ancestral lands, and often, Indian
      agents were corrupt and pawned off shoddy food and products to their
      own fellow Indians.
    • White men often disregarded treaties, though, and frequently swindled the Indians.
  5. In frustration, many Native American tribes fought back. A slew of
    Indian vs. White skirmishes emerged between roughly 1864 to 1890 in the
    so-called “Indian Wars.”
    • After the Civil War, the U.S. Army’s new mission
      became—go clear Indians out of the West for White settlers to
      move in.
    • Many times though, the Indians were better equipped than the
      federal troops sent to quell their revolts because arrows could be
      fired more rapidly than a muzzle-loaded rifle. Invention of the Colt
      .45 revolver (six-shooter) and Winchester repeating rifle changed this.
    • Generals Sherman, Sheridan, and Custer (at Little Bighorn) all battled Indians.

II. Receding Native Population

  1. Violence reigned supreme in Indian-White relations.
    • In 1864, at Sand Creek, Colorado, Colonel J.M. Chivington’s
      militia massacred some four hundred Indians in cold blood—Indians
      who had thought they had been promised immunity and Indians who were
      peaceful and harmless.
    • In 1866, a Sioux war party ambushed Captain William J.
      Fetterman’s command of 81 soldiers and civilians who were
      constructing the Bozeman Trail to the Montana goldfields, leaving no
      survivors.
      • This massacre was one of the few Indian victories, as another treaty at Fort Laramie was signed two years later.
  2. Colonel Custer found gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota
    (sacred Sioux land), and hordes of gold-seekers invaded the Sioux
    reservation in search of gold, causing Sitting Bull and the Sioux to go
    on the warpath, completely decimating Custer’s Seventh Calvary at
    Little Big Horn in the process.
    • The reinforcements that arrived later brutally hunted down the
      Indians who had attacked, including their leader, Sitting Bull (he
      escaped).
  3. The Nez Percé Indians also revolted when gold seekers made
    the government shrink their reservation by 90%, and after a tortuous
    battle, Chief Joseph finally surrendered his band after a long trek
    across the Continental Divide toward Canada. He buried his hatchet and
    gave his famous speech saying, “From where the sun now stands I
    will fight no more forever.”
  4. The most difficult to subdue were the Apache tribes of Arizona and
    New Mexico, led by Geronimo, but even they finally surrendered after
    being pushed to Mexico, and afterwards, they became successful farmers.
  5. The Indians were subdued due to (1) the railroad, which cut through
    the heart of the West, (2) the White man’s diseases, (3) the
    extermination of the buffalo, (4) wars, and (5) the loss of their land
    to White settlement.

III. Bellowing Herds of Bison

  1. In the early days, tens of millions of bison dotted the American
    prairie, and by the end of the Civil War, there were still 15 million
    buffalo grazing, but it was the eruption of the railroad that really
    started the buffalo massacre.
    • Many people killed buffalo for their meat, their skins, or their
      tongues, but many people either killed the bison for sport or killed
      them, took only one small part of their bodies (like the tongue) and
      just left the rest of the carcass to rot.
  2. By 1885, fewer than 1,000 buffalo were left, and the species was in
    danger of extinction. Those left were mostly in Yellowstone National
    Park.

IV. The End of the Trail

  1. Sympathy for the Indians finally materialized in the 1880s, helped
    in part by Helen Hunt Jackson’s book A Century of Dishonor and
    her novel Ramona.
    • Humanitarians wanted to kindly help Indians “walk the White
      man’s road” while the hard-liners stuck to their
      “kill ‘em all” beliefs, and no one cared much for the
      traditional Indian heritage and culture.
  2. Often, zealous White missionaries would force Indians to convert,
    and in 1884, they helped urge the government to outlaw the sacred Sun
    Dance, called the Ghost Dance by Whites. It was a festival that Whites
    thought was the war-drum beating.
    • At the Battle of Wounded Knee, the “Ghost Dance” was
      brutally stamped out by U.S. troops, who killed women and children as
      well. This battle marks the end of the Indian Wars as by then the
      Indians were all either on reservations or dead.
  3. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 dissolved the legal entities of all
    tribes, but if the Indians behaved the way Whites wanted them to behave
    (become farmers on reservations), they could receive full U.S.
    citizenship in 25 years (full citizenship to all Indians was granted in
    1924). Ironically, an immigrant from a foreign nation could become a
    citizen much, much faster than a native-born Native American.
    • Reservation land not allotted to Indians under the act was sold to railroads.
    • In 1879, the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania was founded to
      teach Native American children how to behave like Whites, completely
      erasing their culture.
    • The Dawes Act struck forcefully at the Indians, and by 1900 they
      had lost half the land than they had held 20 years before. This plan
      would outline U.S. policy toward Indians until the 1934 Indian
      Reorganization Act which helped the Indian population rebound and grow.

V. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker

  1. Gold was discovered in California in the late 1840s, and in 1858,
    the same happened at Pike’s Peak in Colorado.
    “Fifty-Niners” flocked out there, but within a month or
    two, the gold had run out.
  2. The Comstock Lode in Nevada was discovered in 1859, and a fantastic
    amount of gold and silver worth more than $340 million was mined.
  3. Smaller “lucky strikes” also drew money-lovers to
    Montana, Idaho, and other western states. Anarchy in these outposts
    seemed to rule, but in the end, what was left were usually ghost towns.
  4. After the surface gold was found, ore-breaking machinery was
    brought in to break the gold-bearing quartz (which was very expensive
    to do).
  5. Women found new rights in these Western lands however, gaining
    suffrage in Wyoming (1869) (the first place for women to vote), Utah
    (1870), Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896).
  6. Mining also added to the folklore and American literature (Bret Harte & Mark Twain).

VI. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive

  1. As cities back east boomed in the latter half of the nineteenth century, the demand for food and meat increased sharply.
  2. The problem of marketing meat profitably to the public market and
    cities was solved by the new transcontinental railroads. Cattle could
    now be shipped to the stockyards under “beef barons” like
    the Swifts and Armours.
    • The meat-packaging industry thus sprang up.
  3. The “Long Drive” emerged to become a spectacular feeder
    of the slaughterhouses, as Texas cowboys herded cattle across desolate
    land to railroad terminals in Kansas.
    • Dodge City, Abilene, Ogallala, and Cheyenne became favorite stopovers.
      • At Dodge City Wyatt Earp and in Abilene, Marshal James B. Hickok maintained order.
  4. The railroads made the cattle herding business prosper, but it also
    destroyed it, for the railroads also brought sheepherders and
    homesteaders who built barbed-wire, invented by Samuel Glidden, fences
    that erased the open-range days of the long cattle drives.
    • Also, blizzards in the winter of 1886-87 left dazed cattle starving and freezing.
  5. Breeders learned to fence their ranches and to organize (i.e. the Wyoming Stock-Growers’ Association).
    • The legends of the cowboys were made here at this time, but lived on in American lore.

VII. The Farmers’ Frontier

  1. The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed folks to get as much as 160 acres
    of land in return for living on it for five years, improving it, and
    paying a nominal fee of about $30.00. Or, it allowed folks to get land
    after only six month’s residence for $1.25 an acre.
    • Before, the U.S. government had sold land for revenue, but now, it was giving it away.
    • This act led half a million families to buy land and settle out
      West, but it often turned out to be a cruel hoax because in the dry
      Great Plains, 160 acres was rarely enough for a family to earn a living
      and survive. And often, families were forced to give up their
      homesteads before the five years were up, since droughts, bad land, and
      lack of necessities forced them out.
    • However, fraud was spawned by the Homestead Act, since almost ten
      times as much land ended up in the hands of land-grabbing promoters
      than in the hands of real farmers. Sometimes these cheats would not
      even live on the land, but say that they’d erected a
      “twelve by fourteen” dwelling—which later turned out
      to be twelve by fourteen inches!
  2. Taming Western Deserts
    • Railroads such as the Northern Pacific helped develop the
      agricultural West, a place where, after the tough, horse-trodden lands
      had been plowed and watered, proved to be surprisingly fertile.
    • Due to higher wheat prices resulting from crop failures around the
      world, more people rashly pushed further westward, past the 100th
      meridian (which is also the magic 20-inch per year rainfall line),
      where it was difficult to grow crops.
      • Here, as warned by geologist John Wesley Powell, so little rain
        fell that successful farming could only be attained by massive
        irrigation.
      • To counteract the lack of water (and a six year drought in the
        1880s), farmers developed the technique of “dry farming,”
        or using shallow cultivation methods to plant and farm, but over time,
        this method created a finely pulverized surface soil that contributed
        to the notorious “Dust Bowl” several decades later.
    • A Russian species of wheat—tough and resistant to
      drought—was brought in and grew all over the Great Plains, while
      other plants were chosen in favor of corn.
    • Huge federally financed irrigation projects soon caused the
      “Great American Desert” to bloom, and dams that tamed the
      Missouri and Columbia Rivers helped water the land.

VIII. The Far West Comes of Age

  1. The Great West experienced a population surge, as many people moved onto the frontier.
  2. New states like Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming were admitted into the Union.
    • Not until 1896 was Utah allowed into the Union, and by the 20th
      century, only Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona remained as territories.
    • In Oklahoma, the U.S. government made available land that had
      formerly belonged to the Native Americans, and thousands of
      “Sooners” jumped the boundary line and illegally went into
      Oklahoma, often forcing U.S. troops to evict them.
    • On April 22, 1889, Oklahoma was legally opened, and 18 years later, in 1907, Oklahoma became the “Sooner State.”
  3. In 1890, for the first time, the U.S. census announced that a frontier was no longer discernible.
  4. The “closing” of the frontier inspired the Turner Thesis, which stated that America needed a frontier.
  5. At first, the public didn’t seem to notice that there was no
    longer a frontier, but later, they began to realize that the land was
    not infinite, and concern led to the first national park being opened,
    Yellowstone, founded in 1872, followed by Yosemite and Sequoia (1890).

IX. The Fading Frontier

  1. The frontier was a state of mind and a symbol of opportunity.
  2. The “safety valve theory” stated that the frontier was
    like a safety valve for folks who, when it became too crowded in their
    area, could simply pack up and leave, moving West.
    • Actually, few city-dwellers left the cities for the West, since
      they didn’t know how to farm; the West increasingly became less
      and less a land of opportunity for farms, but still was good for hard
      laborers and ranchers.
    • Still, free acreage did lure a host of immigrant farmers to the
      West—farmers that probably wouldn’t have come to the West
      had the land not been cheap—and the lure of the West may have led
      to city employers raising wages to keep workers in the cities.
  3. It seems that the cities, not the West, were the safety valves, as
    busted farmers and fortune seekers made Chicago and San Francisco into
    large cities.
  4. Of hundreds of years, Americans had expanded west, and it was in
    the trans-Mississippi west that the Indians made their last stand,
    where Anglo culture collided with Hispanic culture, and where America
    faced Asia.
  5. The life that we live today is one that those pioneers dreamed of,
    and the life that they lived is one of which we can only dream.

X. The Farm Becomes a Factory

  1. Farmers were now increasingly producing single “cash”
    crops, since they could then concentrate their efforts, make profits,
    and buy manufactured goods from mail order companies, such as the Aaron
    Montgomery Ward catalogue (first sent in 1872) or from Sears.
  2. Large-scale farmers tried banking, railroading, and manufacturing,
    but new inventions in farming, such as a steam engine that could pull a
    plow, seeder, or harrow, the new twine binder, and the combined
    reaper-thresher sped up harvesting and lowered the number of people
    needed to farm.
    • Farmers, though, were inclined to blame banks and railroads for their losses rather than their own shortcomings.
  3. The mechanization of agriculture led to enormous farms, such as
    those in the Minnesota-North Dakota area and the Central Valley of
    California.
    • Henry George described the state as a country of plantations and estates.
    • California vegetables and fruits, raised by ill-paid Mexican workers, made handsome profits when sold to the East.

XI. Deflation Dooms the Debtor

  1. In the 1880s, when world markets rebounded, produced more crops,
    and forced prices down, the farmers in America were the ones that found
    ruin.
  2. Paying back debts was especially difficult in this deflation-filled
    time during which there was simply not enough money to go around for
    everyone. Less money in circulation was called
    “contraction.”
  3. Farmers operated year after year on losses and lived off their fat
    as best they could, but thousands of homesteads fell to mortgages and
    foreclosures, and farm tenancy rather than farm ownership was
    increasing.
  4. The fall of the farmers in the late 1800s was similar to the fall
    of the South and its “King Cotton” during the Civil War:
    depending solely on one crop was good in good times but disastrous
    during less prosperous times.

XII. Unhappy Farmers

  1. In the late 1880s and early 1890s, droughts, grasshopper plagues,
    and searing heat waves made the toiling farmers miserable and poor.
  2. City, state, and federal governments added to this by gouging the
    farmers, ripping them off by making them pay painful taxes when they
    could least afford to do so.
  3. The railroads (by fixing freight prices), the middlemen (by taking
    huge cuts in profits), and the various harvester, barbed wire, and
    fertilizer trusts all harassed farmers.
  4. In 1890, one half of the U.S. population still consisted of farmers, but they were hopelessly disorganized.

XIII. The Farmers Take Their Stand

  1. In the Greenback movement after the Civil War, agrarian unrest had flared forth as well.
  2. In 1867, the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, better
    known as The Grange, was founded by Oliver H. Kelley to improve the
    lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal
    activities.
    • Eventually, it spread to claim over 800,000 members in 1875, and
      the Grange changed its goals to include the improvement of the
      collective plight of the farmer.
    • The Grangers found most success in the upper Mississippi Valley,
      and eventually, they managed to get Congress to pass a set of
      regulations known as the Granger Laws, but afterwards, their influence
      faded.
  3. The Greenback Labor Party also attracted farmers, and in 1878, the
    Greenback Laborites polled over a million votes and elected 14 members
    of Congress.
    • In 1880, the Greenbackers ran General James B. Weaver, a Civil War general, but he only polled 3% of the popular vote.

XIV. Prelude to Populism

  1. The Farmers’ Alliance, founded in the late 1870s, was another
    coalition of farmers seeking to overthrow the chains from the banks and
    railroads that bound them.
    • However, its programs only aimed at those who owned their own land,
      thereby ignoring the tenant farmers, and it purposely excluded Blacks.
    • The Alliance members agreed on the (1) nationalization of
      railroads, (2) the abolition of national banks, (3) a graduated income
      tax, and (4) a new federal sub-treasury for farmers.
  2. Populists were led by Ignatius Donnelly from Minnesota and Mary
    Elizabeth Lease, both of whom spoke eloquently and attacked those that
    hurt farmers (banks, railroads, etc.).
  3. The Alliance was still not to be brushed aside, and in the coming
    decade, they would combine into a new People’s Party (AKA, the
    Populist Party) to launch a new attack on the northeastern citadels of
    power.

XV. Coxey’s Army and the Pullman Strike

  1. The Panic of 1893 fueled the passion of the Populists. Many disgruntled unemployed fled to D.C. calling for change.
    • Most famous of these people was “General” Jacob Coxey.
      “Coxey’s Army” marched on Washington with scores of
      followers and many newspaper reporters. They called for:
      • relieving unemployment by an inflationary government public works program.
      • an issuance of $500 million in legal tender notes.
    • The march fizzled out when they were arrested for walking on the grass.
  2. The Pullman Strike in Chicago, led by Eugene Debs, was more dramatic.
    • Debs helped organize the workers of the Pullman Palace Car Company.
    • The company was hit hard by the depression and cut wages by about 1/3.
    • Workers struck, sometimes violently.
    • U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney called in federal troops to
      break up the strike. His rationale: the strike was interfering with the
      transit of U.S. mail.
    • Debs went to prison for 6 months and turned into the leading Socialist in America.

XVI. Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan

  1. McKinley
    • The leading Republican candidate in 1896 was William McKinley, a
      respectable and friendly former Civil War major who had served many
      years in Congress representing his native Ohio.
    • McKinley was the making of another Ohioan, Marcus Alonzo Hanna, who
      financially and politically supported the candidate through his
      political years.
    • McKinley was a conservative in business, preferring to leaves
      things alone, and his platform was for the gold standard, even though
      he personally was not.
      • His platform also called for a gold-silver
        bimetallism—provided that all the other nations in the world did
        the same, which was not bound to happen.
  2. Bryan
    • The Democrats were in disarray and unable to come up with a
      candidate, until William Jennings Bryan, the “Boy Orator of the
      Platte,” came to their rescue.
    • At the 1896 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Bryan delivered a
      movingly passionate speech in favor of free silver. In this
      “Cross of Gold Speech” he created a sensation and won the
      nomination for the Democratic ticket the next day.
      • The Democratic ticket called for unlimited coinage of silver with
        the ratio of 16 silver ounces worth as much as one ounce of gold.
      • Democrats who would not stand for this left the party.
    • Some Democrats charged that they’d stolen the Populist ideas,
      and during the Election of 1896, it was essentially the
      “Demo-Pop” party.

XVII. Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders

  1. McKinley won decisively, getting 271 electoral votes, mostly from
    the populous East and upper Midwest, as opposed to Bryan’s 176,
    mostly from the South and the West.
  2. This election was perhaps the most important since the elections
    involving Abraham Lincoln, for it was the first to seemingly pit the
    privileged against the underprivileged, and it resulted in a victory
    for big business and big cities.
  3. Thus, the Election of 1896 could be called the “gold vs.
    silver” election. And, put to the vote, it was clear then that
    Americans were going with gold.
  4. Also in the election, the Middle Class preserved their comfortable
    way of life while the Republicans seized control of the White House of
    16 more years.

XVIII. Republican Standpattism Enthroned

  1. When McKinley took office in 1897, he was calm and conservative, working well with his party and avoiding major confrontations.
  2. The Dingley Tariff Bill was passed to replace the Wilson-Gorman law
    and raise more revenue, raising the tariff level to whopping 46.5
    percent.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 27 - Empire and Expansion

I. America Turns Outward

  1. From the end of the Civil War to the 1880s, the United States was
    very isolationist, but in the 1890s, due to rising exports,
    manufacturing capability, power, and wealth, it began to expand onto
    the world stage, using overseas markets to sell its goods.
    • The “yellow press” or “yellow journalism”
      of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst also influenced overseas
      expansion, as did missionaries inspired by Reverend Josiah
      Strong’s Our Country: It’s Possible Future and Its Present
      Crisis. Strong spoke for civilizing and Christianizing savages.
    • People were interpreting Darwin’s theory of
      survival-of-the-fittest to mean that the United States was the fittest
      and needed to take over other nations to improve them.
      • Such events already were happening, as Europeans had carved up Africa and China by this time.
      • In America, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s 1890 book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783,
        argued that every successful world power once held a great navy. This
        book helped start a naval race among the great powers and moved the
        U.S. to naval supremacy. It motivated the U.S. to look to expanding
        overseas.
  2. James G. Blaine pushed his “Big Sister” policy, which
    sought better relations with Latin America, and in 1889, he presided
    over the first Pan-American Conference, held in Washington D.C.
  3. However, in other diplomatic affairs, America and Germany almost
    went to war over the Samoan Islands (over whom could build a naval base
    there), while Italy and America almost fought due to the lynching of 11
    Italians in New Orleans, and the U.S. and Chile almost went to war
    after the deaths of two American sailors at Valparaiso in 1892.
    • The new aggressive mood was also shown by the U.S.—Canadian
      argument over seal hunting near the Pribilof Islands off the coast of
      Alaska.
  4. An incident with Venezuela and Britain wound up strengthening the Monroe Doctrine.
    • British Guiana and Venezuela had been disputing their border for
      many years, but when gold was discovered, the situation worsened.
    • Thus, the U.S., under President Grover Cleveland, sent a note
      written by Secretary of State Richard Olney to Britain informing them
      that the British actions were trespassing the Monroe Doctrine and that
      the U.S. controlled things in the Americas.
    • The British replied by stating that the affair was none of the U.S's business.
    • Cleveland angrily replied by appropriating a committee to devise a
      new boundary and if Great Britain would not accept it, then the U.S.
      implied it would fight for it.
    • Britain didn’t want to fight because of the damage to its
      merchant trade that could result, the Dutch Boers of South Africa were
      about to go to war and Germany’s Kaiser Wilhem was beginning to
      challenge Britain's power.
    • Seeing the benefits of an alliance with the "Yankees," Great
      Britain began a period of "patting the eagle's head," instead of
      America "twisting the lion's tale." This was referred to as the Great
      Rapprochement or reconciliation.

II. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear

  1. From the 1820s, when the first U.S. missionaries came, the United States had always liked the Hawaiian Islands.
  2. Treaties signed in 1875 and 1887 guaranteed commercial trade and
    U.S. rights to priceless Pearl Harbor, while Hawaiian sugar was very
    profitable. But in 1890, the McKinley Tariff raised the prices on this
    sugar, raising its price.
  3. Americans felt that the best way to offset this was to annex
    Hawaii—a move opposed by its Queen Liliuokalani—but in
    1893, desperate Americans in Hawaii revolted.
    • They succeeded, and Hawaii seemed ready for annexation, but Grover
      Cleveland became president again, investigated the coup, found it to be
      wrong, and delayed the annexation of Hawaii until he basically left
      office.
    • Cleveland was bombarded for stopping “Manifest Destiny,” but his actions proved to be honorable for him and America.

III. Cubans Rise in Revolt

  1. In 1895, Cuba revolted against Spain, citing years of misrule, and
    the Cubans torched their sugar cane fields in hopes that such
    destruction would either make Spain leave or America interfere (the
    American tariff of 1894 had raised prices on it anyway).
  2. Sure enough, America supported Cuba, and the situation worsened
    when Spanish General Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler came to
    Cuba to crush the revolt and ended up putting many civilians into
    concentration camps that were terrible and killed many.
  3. The American public clamored for action, especially when spurred on by the yellow press, but Cleveland would do nothing.
    • The Mystery of the Maine Explosion
    • The yellow presses competed against each other to come up with more
      sensational stories, and Hearst even sent artist Frederick Remington to
      draw pictures of often-fictional atrocities.
      • For example, he drew Spanish officials brutally stripping and
        searching an American woman, when in reality, Spanish women, not men,
        did such acts.
      • Then, suddenly, on February 9, 1898, a letter written by Spanish
        minister to Washington Dupuy de Lôme that ridiculed President
        McKinley was published by Hearst.
    • On February 15th of that year, the U.S. battleship U.S.S. Maine
      mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 260 officers and men.
      • Despite an unknown cause, America was war-mad and therefore Spain received the blame.
      • Hearst called down to Cuba, “You supply the pictures, I’ll supply the story.”
      • Actually, what really happened was that an accidental explosion had
        basically blown up the ship—a similar conclusion to what Spanish
        investigators suggested—but America ignored them.
      • The American public wanted war, but McKinley privately didn’t
        like war or the violence, since he had been a Civil War major. In
        addition, Mark Hanna and Wall Street didn’t want war because it
        would upset business.
  4. However, on April 11, 1898, the president sent his war message to
    Congress anyway, since: (1) war with Spain seemed inevitable, (2)
    America had to defend democracy, and (3) opposing a war could split the
    Republican party and America.
  5. Congress also adopted the Teller Amendment, which proclaimed that
    when the U.S. had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give the Cubans
    their freedom and not conquer it.

IV. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila

  1. On paper, at least, the Spanish had the advantage over the U.S.,
    since it had more troops and a supposedly better army, as well as
    younger (and seemingly more daring) generals.
  2. Navy Secretary John D. Long and his assistant secretary, Theodore
    Roosevelt had modernized the U.S. navy, making it sleek and sharp.
    • On February 25, 1898, Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey,
      commanding the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong, and told him to
      take over the Philippines.
    • Dewey did so brilliantly, completely taking over the islands from the Spanish.
  3. Dewey had naval control, but he could not storm the islands and its
    fortresses, so he had to wait for reinforcements, but meanwhile, other
    nations were moving their ships into Manila Harbor to protect their
    men.
    • The German navy defied American blockade regulations, and Dewey
      threatened the navy commander with war, but luckily, this episode blew
      over, due in part to the British assistance of America.
  4. Finally, on August 13, 1898, American troops arrived and captured
    Manila, collaborating with Filipino insurgents, led by Emilio
    Aguinaldo, to overthrow the Spanish rulers.
  5. On July 7, 1898, the U.S. annexed Hawaii (so that it could use the
    islands to support Dewey, supposedly), and Hawaii received full
    territorial status in 1900.

V. The Confused Invasion of Cuba

  • The Spanish sent warships to Cuba, panicking Americans on the
    Eastern seaboard, and the fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, found
    refuge in Santiago harbor, Cuba.
    1. Then, it was promptly blockaded by a better American force.
  • American ground troops, led by fat General William R. Shafter, were
    ill-prepared for combat in the tropical environment (i.e. they had
    woolen long underwear).
  • The “Rough Riders,” a regiment of volunteers led by
    Theodore Roosevelt and Colonel Leonard Wood, rushed to Cuba and battled
    at El Caney stormed up San Juan Hill.
  • Admiral Cervera was finally ordered to fight the American fleet, and his fleet was destroyed.
  • On land, the American army, commanded by General Nelson A. Miles, met little resistance as they took over Puerto Rico.
  • Soon afterwards, on August 12, 1898, Spain signed an armistice.
  • Notably, if the Spaniards had held out for a few more months, they
    might have won, for the American army was plagued with dysentery,
    typhoid, and yellow fever.
    1. Finally, TR wrote a “round-robin” letter demanded that the U.S. government take the troops out before they all died.

VI. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire

  • In negotiations in Paris, America got Guam and Puerto Rico and
    freed Cuba, but the Philippines were a tough problem, since America
    couldn’t honorably give it back to Spain after decades of
    misrule, but the U.S. couldn’t just take it like an imperialistic
    nation.
  • Finally, McKinley decided to keep the Philippines, even though they
    had been taken one day after the end of the war, but he did so because
    of popular public opinion and because it meshed well with business
    interests.
    1. The U.S. paid $20 million for the islands.
  • Upon the U.S. taking of the Philippines, uproar broke out, since
    until now, the United States had mostly acquired territory from the
    American continent, and even with Alaska, Hawaii, and the other
    scattered islands, there weren’t many people living there.
  • The Anti-Imperialist League sprang into being, firmly opposed to
    this new imperialism of America, and its members included Mark Twain,
    William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.
    1. Even the Filipinos wanted freedom, and denying that to them was un-American.
  • However, expansionists cried that the Philippines could become another Hong Kong.
    1. British writer Rudyard Kipling wrote about “The White
      Man’s Burden,” urging America to keep the Philippines and
      “civilize them.”
  • In the Senate, the treaty was almost not passed, but finally,
    William Jennings Bryan argued for its passage, saying that the sooner
    the treaty was passed, the sooner the U.S. could get rid of the
    Philippines. The treaty passed by only one vote.

VII. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

  • The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Ricans a limited degree of
    popular government, and in 1917, Congress granted Puerto Ricans full
    American citizenship.
    1. U.S. help also transformed Puerto Rico and worked wonders in sanitation, transportation, beauty, and education.
  • In the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court barely ruled that the
    Constitution did not have full authority on how to deal with the
    islands (Cuba and Puerto Rico), essentially letting Congress do
    whatever it wanted with them. Basically, the cases said the island
    residents do not necessarily share the same rights as Americans.
  • America could not improve Cuba that much however, other than
    getting rid of yellow fever with the help of General Leonard Wood and
    Dr. Walter Reed.
    1. In 1902, the U.S. did indeed walk away from Cuba, but it also
      encouraged Cuba to write and pass the Platt Amendment, which became
      their constitution.
    2. This amendment said that (1) the U.S. could intervene and restore
      order in case of anarchy, (2) that the U.S. could trade freely with
      Cuba, and (3) that the U.S. could get two bays for naval bases, notably
      Guantanamo Bay.

VIII. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres

  • The Spanish-American War lasted only 113 days and affirmed America’s presence as a world power.
  • However, America’s actions after the war made its German rival jealous and its Latin American neighbors suspicious.
  • Finally, one of the happiest results of the war was the narrowing
    of the bloody chasm between the U.S. North and South, which had been
    formed in the Civil War.
    1. General Joseph Wheeler was given a command in Cuba.

IX. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines

  • The Filipinos had assumed that they would receive freedom after the
    Spanish-American War, but when they didn’t they revolted against
    the U.S.
    1. The insurrection began on February 4, 1899, and was led by Emilio
      Aguinaldo, who took his troops into guerrilla warfare after open combat
      proved to be useless.
    2. Stories of atrocities abounded, but finally, the rebellion was
      broken in 1901 when U.S. soldiers invaded Aguinaldo’s
      headquarters and captured him.
  • President McKinley formed a Philippine Commission in 1899 to deal
    with the Filipinos, and in its second year, the organization was headed
    by amiable William Howard Taft, who developed a strong attachment for
    the Filipinos, calling them his “little brown brothers.”
  • The Americans tried to assimilate the Filipinos, but the islanders
    resisted; they finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.

X. Hinging the Open Door in China

  • Following its defeat by Japan in 1894-1895, China had been carved
    into “spheres of influence” by the European powers.
  • Americans were alarmed, as churches worried about their missionary
    strongholds while businesses feared that they would not be able to
    export their products to China.
  • Finally, Secretary of State John Hay dispatched his famous Open
    Door note, which urged the European nations to keep fair competition
    open to all nations willing and wanting to participate. This became the
    “Open Door Policy.”
    1. All the powers already holding spots of China were squeamish, and
      only Italy, which had no sphere of influence of its own, accepted
      unconditionally.
    2. Russia didn’t accept it at all, but the others did, on
      certain conditions, and thus, China was “saved” from being
      carved up.
  • In 1900, a super-patriotic group known as the “Boxers”
    started the Boxers’ Rebellion where they revolted and took over
    the capital of China, Beijing, taking all foreigners hostage, including
    diplomats.
  • After a multi-national force broke the rebellion, the powers made
    China pay $333 million for damages, of which the U.S. eventually
    received $18 million.
  • Fearing that the European powers would carve China up for good, now, John Hay officially asked that China not be carved.

XI. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?

  • Just like four years before, it was McKinley sitting on his front
    porch and Bryan actively and personally campaigning, but Theodore
    Roosevelt’s active campaigning took a lot of the momentum away
    from Bryan’s.
  • Bryan’s supporters concentrated on imperialism—a bad
    move, considering that Americans were tired of the subject, while
    McKinley’s supporters claimed that “Bryanism,” not
    imperialism, was the problem, and that if Bryan became president, he
    would shake up the prosperity that was in America at the time; McKinley
    won easily.

XII. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick

  • Six months later, a deranged murderer shot and killed William
    McKinley, making Theodore Roosevelt the youngest president ever at age
    42.
    1. TR promised to carry out McKinley’s policies.
  • Theodore Roosevelt was a barrel-chested man with a short temper,
    large glasses, and a stubborn mentality that always thought he was
    right.
    1. Born into a rich family and graduated from Harvard, he was highly
      energetic and spirited, and his motto was “Speak softly and carry
      a big stick,” or basically, “Let your actions do the
      talking.”
  • Roosevelt rapidly developed into a master politician, and a
    maverick uncontrollable by party machines, and he believed that a
    president should lead, which would explain the precedents that he would
    set during his term, becoming the “first modern president.”

XIII. Building the Panama Canal

  • TR had traveled to Europe and knew more about foreign affairs than
    most of his predecessors, and one foreign affair that he knew needed to
    be dealt with was the creation of a canal through the Central American
    isthmus.
    1. During the Spanish-American War, the battleship U.S.S. Oregon had
      been forced to steam all the way around the tip of South America to
      join the fleet in Cuba.
    2. Such a waterway would also make defense of the recent island acquisitions easier (i.e. Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaii).
  • However, the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain had forbade
    the construction by either country of a canal in the Americas without
    the other’s consent and help, but that statement was nullified in
    1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.
  • A Nicaraguan route was one possible place for a canal, but it was
    opposed by the old French Canal Company that was eager to build in
    Panama and salvage something from their costly failure there.
    1. Their leader was Philippe Bunau-Varilla.
    2. The U.S. finally chose Panama after Mount Pelée erupted and killed 30,000 people.
  • The U.S. negotiated a deal that would buy a 6-mile-wide strip of
    land in Panama for $10 million and a $250,000 annual payment, but this
    treaty was retracted by the Colombian government, which owned Panama.
    1. TR was furious, since he wanted construction of the canal to begin before the 1904 campaign.
  • At this point, TR and the U.S. decided enough was enough and it was time for action.
    • On November 3, 1903, another revolution in Panama began with the
      killing of a Chinese civilian and a donkey, and when Colombia tried to
      stop it, the U.S., citing an 1846 treaty with Colombia, wouldn’t
      let the Colombian fleet through.
    • Panama was thus recognized by the U.S., and fifteen days later,
      Bunau-Varilla, the Panamanian minister despite his French nationality,
      signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty that gave a widened (6x10 mi.)
      Panamanian zone to the U.S. for $15 million.
    • TR didn’t actively plot to tear Panama away from Colombia,
      but it seemed like it to the public, and to Latin America, and his
      actions in this incident saw him suffer a political black eye.
  • In 1904, construction began on the Panama Canal, but at first, problems with landslides and sanitation occurred.
    1. Colonel George Washington Goethals finally organized the workers while Colonel William C. Gorgas exterminated yellow fever.
    2. When TR visited Panama in 1906, he was the first U.S. president to leave America for foreign soil.
    3. The canal was finally finished and opened in 1914, at a cost of $400 million.

XIV. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine

  • Latin American nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic
    were having a hard time paying their debts to their European debtors,
    so Britain and Germany decided to send a bit of force to South America
    to make the Latinos pay.
  • TR feared that if European powers interfered in the Americas to
    collect debts, they might then stay in Latin America, a blatant
    violation of the Monroe Doctrine, so he issued his Roosevelt Corollary,
    which stated that in future cases of debt problems, the U.S. would take
    over and handle any intervention in Latin America on behalf of Europe,
    thus keeping Europe away and the Monroe Doctrine intact.
    1. It said in effect, no one could bully Latin America except the U.S.
    2. However, this corollary didn’t bear too well with Latin
      America, whose countries once again felt that Uncle Sam was being
      overbearing.
      • When U.S. Marines landed in Cuba to bring back order to the island
        in 1906, this seemed like an extension of the “Bad
        Neighbor” policy.

XV. Roosevelt on the World Stage

  • In 1904, Japan attacked Russia, since Russia had been in Manchuria,
    and proceeded to administer a series of humiliating victories until the
    Japanese began to run short on men.
    1. Therefore, they approached Theodore Roosevelt to facilitate a peace treaty.
    2. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905, both sides met, and though
      both were stubborn (Japan wanted all of the strategic island of
      Sakhalin while the Russians disagreed), in the end, TR negotiated a
      deal in which Japan got half of Sakhalin but no indemnity for its
      losses.
    3. For this, and his mediation of North African disputes in 1906
      through an international conference at Algeciras, Spain, TR received
      the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.
  • However, due to the Russo-Japanese incident, America lost two
    allies in Russia and Japan, neither of which felt that it had received
    its fair share of winnings.

XVI. Japanese Laborers in California

  • After the war, many Japanese immigrants poured into California, and fears of a “yellow peril” arose again.
  • The showdown came in 1906 after the San Francisco earthquake when
    the city decreed that, due to lack of space, Chinese, Japanese, and
    Korean children should attend a special school.
    1. Instantly, this became an international issue, but TR settled it eventually.
    2. San Francisco would not displace students while Japan would keep its laborers in Japan.
  • To impress the Japanese, Roosevelt sent his entire battleship
    fleet, “The Great White Fleet,” around the world for a
    tour, and it received tremendous salutes in Latin America, New Zealand,
    Hawaii, Australia, and Japan, helping relieve tensions.
  • The Root-Takahira Agreement pledged the U.S. and Japan to respect
    each other’s territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold
    the Open Door Policy in China.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 28 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

I. Progressive Roots

  1. In the beginning of the 1900s, America had 76 million people,
    mostly in good condition. Then before the first decade of the 20th
    century, the U.S. would be influenced by a “Progressive
    movement’ that fought against monopolies, corruption,
    inefficiency, and social injustice.
    • The purpose of the Progressives was to use the government as an agency of human welfare.
  2. The Progressives had their roots in the Greenback Labor Party of the 1870s and 1880s and the Populist Party of the 1890s.
  3. In 1894, Henry Demarest Lloyd exposed the corruption of the
    monopoly of the Standard Oil Company with his book Wealth Against
    Commonwealth, while Thorstein Veblen criticized the new rich (those who
    made money from the trusts) in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).
  4. Other exposers of the corruption of trusts, or
    “muckrakers,” as Theodore Roosevelt called them, were Jacob
    A. Riis, writer of How the Other Half Lives, a book about the New York
    slums and its inhabitants, and novelist Theodore Dreiser, who wrote The
    Financier and The Titan to attack profiteers.
  5. Socialists and feminists gained strength, and with people like Jane
    Addams and Lillian Wald, women entered the Progressive fight.

II. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers

  1. Beginning about 1902, a group of aggressive ten and fifteen-cent popular magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Collier’s, and Everybody’s, began flinging the dirt about the trusts.
  2. Despite criticism, reformer-writers ranged far and wide to lay bare the muck on the back of American society.
    • In 1902, Lincoln Steffens launched a series of articles in McClure’s
      entitled “The Shame of the Cities,” in which he unmasked
      the corrupt alliance between big business and the government.
    • Ida M. Tarbell launched a devastating exposé against Standard Oil and its ruthlessness.
    • These writers exposed the “money trusts,” the railroad
      barons, and the corrupt amassing of American fortunes, this last part
      done by Thomas W. Lawson.
    • David G. Phillips charged that 75 of the 90 U.S. Senators did not represent the people, but actually the railroads and trusts.
    • Ray Stannard Baker’s Following the Color Line was about the illiteracy of Blacks.
    • John Spargo’s The Bitter Cry of the Children exposed child labor.
    • Dr. Harvey W. Wiley exposed the frauds that sold potent patent medicines by experimenting on himself.
  3. The muckrakers sincerely believed that cures for the ills of American democracy, was more democracy.

III. Political Progressivism

  1. Progressives were mostly middle-class citizens who felt squeezed by
    both the big trusts above and the restless immigrant hordes working for
    cheap labor that came from below.
  2. The Progressives favored the “initiative” so that
    voters could directly propose legislation, the “referendum”
    so that the people could vote on laws that affected them, and the
    “recall” to remove bad officials from office.
  3. Progressives also desired to expose graft, using a secret ballot
    (Australian ballot) to counteract the effects of party bosses, and have
    direct election of U.S. senators to curb corruption.
    • Finally, in 1913, the 17th Amendment provided for direct election of senators.
  4. Females also campaigned for woman’s suffrage, but that did not come…yet.

IV. Progressivism in the Cities and States

  1. Progressive cities like Galveston, TX either used, for the first
    time, expert-staffed commissions to manage urban affairs or the
    city-manager system, which was designed to take politics out of
    municipal administration.
  2. Urban reformers tackled “slumlords,” juvenile delinquency, and wide-open prostitution.
  3. In Wisconsin, Governor Robert M. La Follette wrestled control from
    the trusts and returned power to the people, becoming a Progressive
    leader in the process.
    • Other states also took to regulate railroads and trusts, such as
      Oregon and California, which was led by Governor Hiram W. Johnson.
    • Charles Evans Hughes, governor of New York, gained fame by investigating the malpractices of gas and insurance companies.

V. Progressive Women

  1. Women were an indispensable catalyst in the progressive army. They
    couldn’t vote or hold political office, but were active
    none-the-less. Women focused their changes on family-oriented ills such
    as child labor.
  2. Progressives also made major improvements in the fight against
    child labor, especially after a 1911 fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist
    Company in NYC which killed 146 workers, mostly young women.
    • The landmark case of Muller vs. Oregon (1908) found attorney Louis
      D. Brandeis persuading the Supreme Court to accept the
      constitutionality of laws that protected women workers.
    • On the other hand, the case of Lochner vt. New York invalidated a New York law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers.
    • Yet, in 1917, the Court upheld a similar law for factory workers.
  3. Alcohol also came under the attack of Progressives, as
    prohibitionist organizations like the Woman’s Christian
    Temperance Union (WCTU), founded by Frances E. Willard, and the
    Anti-Saloon League were formed.
    • Finally, in 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the sale and drinking of alcohol.

VI. TR’s Square Deal for Labor

  1. The Progressivism spirit touched President Roosevelt, and his
    “Square Deal” embraced the three Cs: control of the
    corporations, consumer protection, and the conservation of the United
    States’ natural resources.
  2. In 1902, a strike broke out in the anthracite coalmines of
    Pennsylvania, and some 140,000 workers demanded a 20% pay increase and
    the reduction of the workday to nine hours.
    • Finally, after the owners refused to negotiate and the lack of coal
      was getting to the freezing schools, hospitals, and factories during
      that winter, TR threatened to seize the mines and operate them with
      federal troops if he had to in order to keep it open and the coal
      coming to the people.
    • As a result, the workers got a 10% pay increase and a 9-hour
      workday, but their union was not officially recognized as a bargaining
      agent.
  3. In 1903, the Department of Commerce and Labor was formed, a part of
    which was the Bureau of Corporations, which was allowed to probe
    businesses engaged in interstate commerce; it was highly useful in
    “trust-busting.”

VII. TR Corrals the Corporations

  1. The 1887-formed Interstate Commerce Commission had proven to be
    inadequate, so in 1903, Congress passed the Elkins Act, which fined
    railroads that gave rebates and the shippers that accepted them.
  2. The Hepburn Act restricted the free passes of railroads.
  3. TR decided that there were “good trusts” and “bad
    trusts,” and set out to control the “bad trusts,”
    such as the Northern Securities Company, which was organized by J.P.
    Morgan and James J. Hill.
    • In 1904, the Supreme Court upheld TR’s antitrust suit and
      ordered Northern Securities to dissolve, a decision that angered Wall
      Street but helped TR’s image.
  4. TR did crack down on over 40 trusts, and he helped dissolve the
    beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvester trusts, but in reality, he
    wasn’t as large of a trustbuster as he has been portrayed.
    • He had no wish to take down the “good trusts,” but the
      trusts that did fall under TR’s big stick fell symbolically, so
      that other trusts would reform themselves.
  5. TR’s successor, William Howard Taft, crushed more trusts than
    TR, and in one incident, when Taft tried to crack down on U.S. Steel, a
    company that had personally been allowed by TR to absorb the Tennessee
    Coal and Iron Company, the reaction from TR was hot!

VIII. Caring for the Consumer

  1. In 1906, significant improvements in the meat industry were passed,
    such as the Meat Inspection Act, which decreed that the preparation of
    meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection
    from corral to can.
    • Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle enlightened the American public
      to the horrors of the meatpacking industry, thus helping to force
      changes.
  2. The Pure Food and Drug Act tried to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals.
    • Another reason for new acts was to make sure European markets could trust American beef and other meat.

IX. Earth Control

  1. Americans were vainly wasting their natural resources, and the
    first conservation act, the Desert Land Act of 1877, provided little
    help.
    • More successful was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which
      authorized the president to set aside land to be protected as national
      parks.
      • Under this statute, some 46 million acres of forest were set aside as preserves.
  2. Roosevelt, a sportsman in addition to all the other things he was,
    realized the values of conservation, and persuaded by other
    conservationists like Gifford Pinchot, head of the federal Division of
    Forestry, he helped initiate massive conservation projects.
    • The Newlands Act of 1902 initiated irrigation projects for the
      western states while the giant Roosevelt Dam, built on Arizona's Salt
      River, was dedicated in 1911
  3. By 1900, only a quarter of the nation’s natural timberlands
    remained, so he set aside 125 million acres, establishing perhaps his
    most enduring achievement as president.
  4. Concern about the disappearance of the national frontier led to the
    success of such books like Jack London’s Call of the Wild and the
    establishment of the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club, a
    member of which was naturalist John Muir.
  5. In 1913, San Francisco received permission to build a dam in Hetchy
    Hetch Valley, a part of Yosemite National Park, causing much
    controversy.
    • Roosevelt’s conservation deal meant working with the big logging companies, not the small, independent ones.

X. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907

  1. TR had widespread popularity (such as the “Teddy”
    bear), but conservatives branded him as a dangerous rattlesnake,
    unpredictable in his Progressive moves.
  2. However, in 1904, TR announced that he would not seek the
    presidency in 1908, since he would have, in effect, served two terms by
    then. Thus he “defanged” his power.
  3. In 1907, a short but sharp panic on Wall Street placed TR at the
    center of its blame, with conservatives criticizing him, but he lashed
    back, and eventually the panic died down.
  4. In 1908, Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, which authorized
    national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of
    collateral.
    • This would lead to the momentous Federal Reserve Act of 1913

XI. The Rough Rider Thunders Out

  1. In the 1908 campaign, TR chose William Howard Taft as his
    “successor,” hoping that the corpulent man would continue
    his policies, and Taft easily defeated William Jennings Bryan; a
    surprise came from Socialist Eugene V. Debs, who garnered 420,793 votes.
  2. TR left the presidency to go on a lion hunt, then returned with much energy.
    • He had established many precedents and had helped ensure that the
      new trusts would fit into capitalism and have healthy adult lives while
      helping the American people.
    • TR protected against socialism, was a great conservationist,
      expanded the powers of the presidency, shaped the progressive movement,
      launched the Square Deal—a precursor to the New Deal that would
      come later, and opened American eyes to the fact that America shared
      the world with other nations so that it couldn’t be isolationist.

XII. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole

  1. William Taft was a mild progressive, quite jovial, quite fat, and passive.
    • He was also sensitive to criticism and not as liberal as Roosevelt.

XIII. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat

  1. Taft urged Americans to invest abroad, in a policy called
    “Dollar Diplomacy,” which called for Wall Street bankers to
    sluice their surplus dollars into foreign areas of strategic concern to
    the U.S., especially in the Far East and in the regions critical to the
    security of the Panama Canal. This investment, in effect, gave the U.S.
    economic control over these areas.
  2. In 1909, perceiving a threat to the monopolistic Russian and
    Japanese control of the Manchurian Railway, Taft had Secretary of State
    Philander C. Knox propose that a group of American and foreign bankers
    buy the railroads and turn them over to China.
  3. Taft also pumped U.S. dollars into Honduras and Haiti, whose
    economies were stagnant, while in Cuba, the same Honduras, the
    Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua, American forces were brought in to
    restore order after unrest.

XIV. Taft the Trustbuster

  1. In his four years of office, Taft brought 90 suits against trusts.
  2. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company.
  3. After Taft tried to break apart U.S. Steel despite TR’s prior
    approval of the trust, Taft increasingly became TR’s antagonist.

XV. Taft Splits the Republican Party

  1. Two main issues split the Republican party: (1) the tariff and (2) conservation of lands.
    • To lower the tariff and fulfill a campaign promise, Taft and the
      House passed a moderately reductive bill, but the Senate, led by
      Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, tacked on lots of upward revisions, and
      thus, when the Payne-Aldrich Bill passed, it betrayed Taft’s
      promise, incurred the wrath of his party (drawn mostly from the
      Midwest), and outraged many people.
      • Old Republicans were high-tariff; new/Progressive Republicans were low tariff.
      • Taft even foolishly called it “the best bill that the Republican party ever passed.”
    • While Taft did establish the Bureau of Mines to control mineral
      resources, his participation in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel of 1910
      hurt him. In the quarrel, Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger
      opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate
      development and was criticized by Forestry chief Gifford Pinchot, who
      was then fired by Taft.
      • Old Republicans favored using the lands for business; new/Progressive Republicans favored conservation of lands.
  2. In the spring of 1910, the Republican party was split between the
    Progressives and the Old Guard that Taft supported, so that the
    Democrats emerged with a landslide in the House.
    • Socialist Victor L. Berger was elected from Milwaukee.

XVI. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture

  1. In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed,
    with LaFollette as its leader, but in February 1912, TR began dropping
    hints that he wouldn’t mind being nominated by the Republicans,
    his reason being that he had meant no third consecutive term, not a
    third term overall.
  2. Rejected by the Taft supporters of the Republicans, TR became a
    candidate on the Progressive party ticket, shoving LaFollette aside.
  3. In the Election of 1912, it would be Theodore Roosevelt
    (Progressive Republican) versus William H. Taft (Old Guard Republican)
    versus the Democratic candidate, whomever that was to be.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 29 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

I. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912

  1. With the Republican party split wide open, the Democrats sensed
    that they could win the presidency for the first time in 16 years.
    • One possible candidate was Dr. Woodrow Wilson, a once-mild
      conservative but now militant progressive who had been the president of
      Princeton University, governor of New Jersey (where he didn’t
      permit himself to be controlled by the bosses), and had attacked trusts
      and passed liberal measures.
    • In 1912, in Baltimore, the Democrats nominated Wilson on the 46th
      ballot, after William Jennings Bryan swung his support over to
      Wilson’s side.
    • The Democratic ticket would run under a platform called “New Freedom,” which would include many progressive reforms.
  2. At the Progressive convention, Jane Addams put Theodore
    Roosevelt’s name on the nomination, and as TR spoke, he ignited
    an almost-religious spirit in the crowd.
    • TR got the Progressive nomination, and entering the campaign, TR
      said that he felt “as strong as a bull moose,” making that
      animal the unofficial Progressive symbol.
  3. Republican William Taft and TR tore into each other, as the former
    friends now ripped every aspect of each other’s platforms and
    personalities.
  4. Meanwhile, TR’s “New Nationalism” and Wilson’s “New Freedom” became the key issues.
    • Roosevelt’s New Nationalism was inspired by Herbert
      Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1910), and it stated that
      the government should control the bad trusts, leaving the good trusts
      alone and free to operate.
      • TR also campaigned for female suffrage and a broad program of
        social welfare, such as minimum-wage laws and “socialistic”
        social insurance.
    • Wilson’s New Freedom favored small enterprise, desired to
      break up all trusts—not just the bad ones—and basically
      shunned social-welfare proposals.
  5. The campaign was stopped when Roosevelt was shot in the chest in
    Milwaukee, but he delivered his speech anyway, was rushed to the
    hospital, and recovered in two weeks.

II. Woodrow Wilson: A Minority President

  • With the Republicans split, Woodrow Wilson easily won with 435
    Electoral votes, while TR had 88 and Taft only had 8. But, the
    Democrats did not receive the majority of the popular vote (only 41%)!
  • Socialist Eugene V. Debs racked up over 900,000 popular votes,
    while the combined popular totals of TR and Taft exceeded Wilson.
    Essentially, TR’s participation had cost the Republicans the
    election.
  • William Taft would later become the only U.S. president to be
    appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, when he was nominated in
    1921.

III. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics

  • Woodrow Wilson was a sympathizer with the South, a fine orator, a
    sincere and morally appealing politician, and a very intelligent man.
    1. He was also cold personality-wise, austere, intolerant of stupidity, and very idealistic.
  • When convinced he was right, Wilson would break before he would bend, unlike TR.

IV. Wilson Tackles the Tariff

  • Wilson stepped into the presidency already knowing that he was
    going to tackle the “triple wall of privilege”: the tariff,
    the banks, and the trusts.
  • To tackle the tariff, Wilson successfully helped in the passing of
    the Underwood Tariff of 1913, which substantially reduced import fees
    and enacted a graduated income tax (under the approval of the recent
    16th Amendment).

V. Wilson Battles the Bankers

  • The nation’s financial structure, as created under the Civil
    War National Banking Act had proven to be glaringly ineffective, as
    shown by the Panic of 1907, so Wilson had Congress authorize an
    investigation to fix this.
    1. The investigation, headed by Senator Aldrich, in effect recommended a third Bank of the United States.
    2. Democrats heeded the findings of a House committee chaired by
      Congressman Arsene Pujo, which traced the tentacles of the “money
      monster” into the hidden vaults of American banking and business.
    3. Louis D Brandeis’s Other People’s Money and How the
      Bankers Use It (1914) furthermore showed the problems of American
      finances at the time.
  • In June 1913, Woodrow Wilson appeared before a special joint
    session of Congress and pleaded for a sweeping reform of the banking
    system.
    1. The result was the epochal 1913 Federal Reserve Act, which created
      the new Federal Reserve Board, which oversaw a nationwide system of
      twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank, and
      had the power to issue paper money (“Federal Reserve
      Notes”).

VI. The President Tames the Trusts

  • In 1914, Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act, which
    empowered a president-appointed position to investigate the activities
    of trusts and stop unfair trade practices such as unlawful competition,
    false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, & bribery.
  • The 1914 Clayton Anti-Trust Act lengthened the Sherman Anti-Trust
    Act’s list of practices that were objectionable, exempted labor
    unions from being called trusts (as they had been called by the Supreme
    Court under the Sherman Act), and legalized strikes and peaceful
    picketing by labor union members.

VII. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide

  • After tackling the triple wall of privilege and leading progressive
    victory after victory, Wilson proceeded with further reforms, such as
    the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916, which made credit available to
    farmers at low rates of interest, and the Warehouse Act of 1916, which
    permitted loans on the security of staple crops—both Populist
    ideas.
  • The La Follette Seamen’s Act of 1915 required good treatment
    of America’s sailors, but it sent merchant freight rates soaring
    as a result of the cost to maintain sailor health.
  • The Workingmen’s Compensation Act of 1916 granted assistance
    of federal civil-service employees during periods of instability but
    was invalidated by the Supreme Court.
  • The 1916 Adamson Act established an eight-hour workday with overtime pay.
  • Wilson even nominated Louis Brandeis to the Supreme
    Court—making him the first Jew ever in that position—but
    stopped short of helping out Blacks in their civil rights fight.
  • Wilson appeased the business by appointing a few conservatives to
    the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Trade Commission, but he used
    most of his energies for progressive support.

VIII. New Directions in Foreign Policy

  • Wilson, unlike his two previous predecessors, didn’t pursue
    an aggressive foreign policy, as he stopped “dollar
    diplomacy,” persuaded Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls
    Act of 1912 (which let American shippers not pay tolls for using the
    canal), and even led to American bankers’ pulling out of a
    six-nation, Taft-engineered loan to China.
  • Wilson signed the Jones Act in 1916, which granted full territorial
    status to the Philippines and promised independence as soon as a stable
    government could be established.
    1. The Filipinos finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.
  • When California banned Japanese ownership of land, Wilson sent
    Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan to plead with legislators,
    and tensions cooled.
  • When disorder broke out in Haiti in 1915, Wilson sent American
    Marines, and in 1916, he sent Marines to quell violence in the
    Dominican Republic.
  • In 1917, Wilson bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark.

IX. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico

  • Mexico had been exploited for decades by U.S. investors in oil,
    railroads, and mines, but the Mexican people were tremendously poor,
    and in 1913, they revolted, and installed full-blooded Indian General
    Victoriano Huerta to the presidency.
    1. This led to a massive immigration of Mexicans to America, mostly to the Southwest.
  • The rebels were very violent and threatened Americans living in
    Mexico, but Woodrow Wilson would not intervene to protect American
    lives.
    1. Neither would he recognize Huerta’s regime, even though other countries did.
    2. On the other hand, he let American munitions flow to Huerta’s
      rivals, Venustiano Carranza and Francisco “Pancho” Villa.
  • After a small party of American sailors were arrested in Tampico,
    Mexico, in 1914, Wilson threatened to use force, and even ordered the
    navy to take over Vera Cruz, drawing protest from Huerta and Carranza.
    1. Finally, the ABC powers—Argentina, Brazil, and
      Chile—mediated the situation, and Huerta fell from power and was
      succeeded by Carranza, who resented Wilson’s acts.
  • Meanwhile, “Pancho” Villa, combination bandit/freedom
    fighter, murdered 16 Americans in January of 1916 in Mexico and then
    killed 19 more a month later in New Mexico.
    1. Wilson sent General John J. Pershing to capture Villa, and he
      penetrated deep into Mexico, clashed with Carranza’s and
      Villa’s different forces, but didn’t take Villa.

X. Thunder Across the Sea

  • In 1914, a Serbian nationalist killed the Austro-Hungarian heir to
    the throne (Archduke Franz Ferdinand). The domino-effect began where
    Austria declared war on Serbia, which was supported by Russia, who
    declared war on Austria-Hungary and Germany, which declared war on
    Russia and France, then invaded neutral Belgium, and pulled Britain
    into the war and igniting World War I.
  • Americans were thankful that the Atlantic Ocean separated the warring Europeans from the U.S.

XI. A Precarious Neutrality

  • Wilson, whose wife had recently died, issued a neutrality
    proclamation and was promptly wooed by both the Allies and the German
    and Austro-Hungarian powers.
  • The Germans and Austro-Hungarians counted on their relatives in
    America for support, but the U.S. was mostly anti-German from the
    outset, as Kaiser Wilhem II made for a perfect autocrat to hate.
  • German and Austro-Hungarian agents in America further tarnished the
    Central Powers’ image when they resorted to violence in American
    factories and ports, and when one such agent left his briefcase in a
    New York elevator, the contents of which were found to contain plans
    for sabotage.

XII. America Earns Blood Money

  • Just as WWI began, America was in a business recession. American
    trade was fiercely protested by the Central Powers, that were
    technically free to trade with the U.S., but were prohibited from doing
    so by the British navy which controlled the sea lanes. The Allies and
    Wall Street’s financing of the war by J.P. Morgan et al, pulled
    the U.S. out of the recession.
  • So, Germany announced its use of submarine warfare around the
    British Isles, warning the U.S. that it would try not to attack neutral
    ships, but that mistakes would probably occur.
    1. Wilson thus warned that Germany would be held to “strict accountability” for any attacks on American ships.
    2. German subs, or U-boats, sank many ships, including the Lusitania,
      a British passenger liner that was carrying arms and munitions as well.
      • The attack killed 1,198 lives, including 128 Americans.
      • Notably the Germans had issued fliers prior to the Lusitania setting sail that warned Americans the ship might be torpedoed.
  • America clamored for war in punishment for the outrage, but Wilson
    kept the U.S. out of it by use of a series of strong notes to the
    German warlords.
    1. Even this was too much for William Jennings Bryan, who resigned rather than go to war.
    2. After the Germans sank the Arabic in August 1915, killing two
      Americans and numerous other passengers, Germany finally agreed not to
      sink unarmed ships without warning.
  • After Germany seemed to break that pledge by sinking the Sussex, it
    issued the “Sussex pledge,” which agreed not to sink
    passenger ships or merchant vessels without warning, so long as the
    U.S. could get the British to stop their blockade.
    1. Wilson couldn’t do this, so his victory was a precarious one.

XIII. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916

  • In 1916, Republicans chose Charles Evans Hughes, who made different
    pledges and said different things depending on where he was, leading to
    his being nicknamed “Charles Evasive Hughes.”
  • The Democratic ticket, with Wilson at its head again, went under
    the slogan “He kept us out of war,” and warned that
    electing Hughes would be leading America into World War I.
    1. Ironically, Wilson would lead America into war in 1917.
    2. Actually, even Wilson knew of the dangers of such a slogan, as
      American neutrality was rapidly sinking, and war was appearing to be
      inevitable.
  • Wilson barely beat Hughes, with a vote of 277 to 254, with the
    final result dependent on results from California, and even though
    Wilson didn’t specifically promise to keep America out of war,
    enough people felt that he did to vote for him.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 30 - The War to End Wars

I. War by Act of Germany

  1. On January 22, 1917, Woodrow Wilson made one final, attempt to
    avert war, delivering a moving address that correctly declared only a
    “peace without victory” (beating Germany without
    embarrassing them) would be lasting.
    • Germany responded by shocking the world, announcing that it would
      break the Sussex pledge and return to unrestricted submarine warfare,
      which meant that its U-boats would now be firing on armed and unarmed
      ships in the war zone.
  2. Wilson asked Congress for the authority to arm merchant ships, but a band of Midwestern senators tried to block this measure.
  3. Then, the Zimmerman note was intercepted and published on March 1, 1917.
    • Written by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman, it secretly
      proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico. It proposed that if
      Mexico fought against the U.S. and the Central Powers won, Mexico could
      recover Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona from the U.S.
  4. The Germans also began to make good on their threats, sinking
    numerous ships. Meanwhile, in Russia, a revolution toppled the tsarist
    regime.
  5. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war,
    which it did four days later; Wilson had lost his gamble at staying out
    of the war.

II. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

  1. Many people still didn’t want to enter into war, for America
    had prided itself in isolationism for decades, and now, Wilson was
    entangling America in a distant war.
    • Six senators and 50 representatives, including the first Congresswoman, Jeanette Ranking, voted against war.
  2. To gain enthusiasm for the war, Wilson came up with the idea of
    America entering the war to “make the world safe for
    democracy.”
    • This idealistic motto worked brilliantly, but with the new American
      zeal came the loss of Wilson’s earlier motto, “peace
      without victory.”

III. Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points

  1. On January 8, 1917, Wilson delivered his Fourteen Points Address to Congress.
  2. The Fourteen Points were a set of idealistic goals for peace. The main points were…
    • No more secret treaties.
    • Freedom of the seas was to be maintained.
    • A removal of economic barriers among nations.
    • Reduction of armament burdens.
    • Adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of natives and colonizers.
    • “Self-determination,” or independence for oppressed minority groups who’d choose their government
    • A League of Nations, an international organization that would keep the peace and settle world disputes.

IV. Creel Manipulates Minds

  1. The Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel, was
    created to “sell” the war to those people who were against
    it or to just gain support for it.
    • The Creel organization sent out an army of 75,000 men to deliver
      speeches in favor of the war, showered millions of pamphlets containing
      the most potent “Wilsonisms” upon the world, splashed
      posters and billboards that had emotional appeals, and showed
      anti-German movies like The Kaiser and The Beast of Berlin.
  2. There were also patriotic songs, but Creel did err in that he
    oversold some of the ideals, and result would be disastrous
    disillusionment.

V. Enforcing Loyalty and Stiffing Dissent

  1. Germans in America were surprisingly loyal to the U.S., but
    nevertheless, many Germans were blamed for espionage activities, and a
    few were tarred, feathered, and beaten.
  2. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 showed
    American fears and paranoia about Germans and others perceived as a
    threat.
    • Antiwar Socialists and the members of the radical union Industrial
      Workers of the World (IWW) were often prosecuted, including Socialist
      Eugene V. Debs and IWW leader William D. Haywood, who were arrested,
      convicted, and sent to prison.
    • Fortunately, after the war, there were presidential pardons (from
      Warren G. Harding), but a few people still sat in jail into the 1930s.

VI. The Nation’s Factories Go to War

  1. America was very unprepared for war, though Wilson had created the
    Council of National Defense to study problems with mobilization and had
    launched a shipbuilding program.
    • America’s army was only the 15th largest in the world.
  2. In trying to mobilize for war, no one knew how much America could
    produce, and traditional laissez-faire economics (where the government
    stays out of the economy) still provided resistance to government
    control of the economy.
    • In March 1918, Wilson named Bernard Baruch to head the War
      Industries Board, but this group never had much power and was disbanded
      soon after the armistice.

VII. Workers in Wartime

  1. Congress imposed a rule that made any unemployed man available to enter the war and also discouraged strikes.
  2. The National War Labor Board, headed by former president William H.
    Taft, settled any possible labor difficulties that might hamper the war
    efforts.
  3. Fortunately, Samuel Gompers’ of the American Federation of
    Labor (AF of L), which represented skilled laborers, loyally supported
    the war, and by war’s end, its membership more than doubled to
    over 3 million.
  4. Yet, there were still labor problems, as price inflation threatened
    to eclipse wage gains, and over 6,000 strikes broke out during the war,
    the greatest occurring in 1919, when 250,000 steelworkers walked off
    the job.
    • In that strike, the steel owners brought in 30,000
      African-Americans to break the strike, and in the end, the strike
      collapsed, hurting the labor cause for more than a decade.
    • During the war, Blacks immigrated to the North to find more jobs.
      But the appearance of Blacks in formerly all-White towns sparked
      violence, such as in Chicago and St. Louis.

VIII. Suffering Until Suffrage

  1. Women also found more opportunities in the workplace, since the men were gone to war.
  2. The war the split women’s suffrage movement. Many progressive
    women suffragists were also pacifists and therefore against the war.
    Most women supported the war and concluded they must help in the war if
    they want to help shape the peace (get the vote).
    • Their help gained support for women’s suffrage, which was finally achieved with the 19th Amendment, passed in 1920.
  3. Although a Women’s Bureau did appear after the war to protect
    female workers, most women gave up their jobs at war’s end, and
    Congress even affirmed its support of women in their traditional roles
    in the home with the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921, which
    federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.

IX. Forging a War Economy

  1. Mobilization relied more on passion and emotion than laws.
  2. Herbert Hoover was chosen to head the Food Administration, since he
    had organized a hugely successful voluntary food drive for the people
    of Belgium.
    • He spurned ration cards in favor of voluntary “Meatless
      Tuesdays” and “Wheatless Wednesdays,” suing posters,
      billboards, and other media to whip up a patriotic spirit which
      encouraged people to voluntarily sacrifice some of their own goods for
      the war.
    • After all, America had to feed itself and its European allies.
  3. Hoover’s voluntary approach worked beautifully, as citizens
    grew gardens on street corners to help the farmers, people observed
    “heatless Mondays,” “lightless nights,” and
    “gasless Sundays” in accordance with the Fuel
    Administration, and the farmers increased food production by one-fourth.
  4. The wave of self-sacrifice also sped up the drive against alcohol,
    culminating with the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the sale,
    distribution, or consumption of alcohol.
  5. Money was raised through the sale of war bonds, four great Liberty Loan drives, and increased taxes.
  6. Still, the government sometimes flexed its power, such as when it took over the railroads in 1917.

X. Making Plowboys into Doughboys

  1. European Allies finally confessed to the U.S. that not only were
    they running out of money to pay for their loans from America, but also
    that they were running out of men, and that America would have to raise
    and train an army to send over to Europe, or the Allies would collapse.
  2. This could only be solved with a draft, which Wilson opposed but finally supported as a disagreeable but temporary necessity.
    • The draft bill ran into heated opposition in Congress but was grudgingly passed.
    • Unlike earlier wars, there was no way for one to buy one’s way out of being drafted.
  3. Luckily, patriotic men and women lined up on draft day, disproving
    ominous predictions of bloodshed by the opposition of the draft.
    • Within a few months, the army had grown to 4 million men and women.
    • African-Americans were allowed in the army, but they were usually
      assigned to non-combat duty; also, training was so rushed that many
      troops didn’t know how to even use their rifles, much less
      bayonets, but they were sent to Europe anyway.

XI. Fighting in France—Belatedly

  1. After the Bolsheviks seized control of Russia, they withdrew the
    nation from the war, freeing up thousands of German troops to fight on
    the Western Front.
  2. German predictions of American tardiness proved to be rather
    accurate, as America took one year before it sent a force to Europe and
    also had transportation problems.
  3. Nevertheless, American doughboys slowly poured into Europe, and
    U.S. troops helped in an Allied invasion of Russia at Archangel to
    prevent munitions from falling into German hands.
    • 10,000 troops were sent to Siberia as part of an Allied expedition
      whose purpose was to prevent munitions from falling into the hands of
      Japan, rescue some 45,000 trapped Czechoslovak troops, and prevent
      Bolshevik forces from snatching military supplies.
    • Bolsheviks resented this interference, which it felt was America’s way of suppressing its infant communist revolution.

XII. America Helps Hammer the “Hun”

  1. In the spring of 1918, one commander, the French Marshal Foch, for
    the first time, led the Allies and just before the Germans were about
    to invade Paris and knock out France, American reinforcements arrived
    and pushed the Germans back.
  2. In the Second Battle of the Marne, the Allies pushed Germany back
    some more, marking a German withdrawal that was never again effectively
    reversed.
  3. The Americans, demanding their own army instead of just supporting
    the British and French, finally got General John J. Pershing to lead a
    front.
  4. The Meuse-Argonne offensive cut German railroad lines and took 120,000 casualties.
    • Sgt. Alvin C. York became a hero when he single-handedly killed 20
      Germans and captured 132 more; ironically, he had been in an antiwar
      sect beforehand.
  5. Finally, the Germans were exhausted and ready to surrender, for
    they were being deserted, the British blockade was starving them, and
    the Allied blows just kept coming.
    • It was a good thing, too, because American victories were using up resources too fast.
    • Also, pamphlets containing seductive Wilsonian promises rained down on Germany, in part persuading them to give up.

XIII. The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany

  1. At 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the Germans
    laid down their arms in armistice after overthrowing their Kaiser in
    hopes that they could get a peace based on the Fourteen Points.
    • This “Armistice Day” later became “Veterans’ Day.”
  2. It was the prospect of endless American troops, rather than the American military performance, that had demoralized the Germans.

XIV. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus

  1. At the end of the war, Wilson was at the height of his popularity,
    but when he appealed for voters to give a Democratic victory in 1918,
    American voters instead gave Republicans a narrow majority, and Wilson
    went to Paris as the only leader of the Allies not commanding a
    majority at home.
  2. When Wilson decided to go to Europe personally to oversee peace
    proceedings, Republicans were outraged, thinking that this was all just
    for flamboyant show.
    • When he didn’t include a single Republican, not even Senator
      Henry Cabot Lodge, a very intelligent man who used to be the
      “scholar in politics” until Wilson came along and was
      therefore jealous and spiteful of Wilson, the Republicans got even more
      angry.

XV. An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris

  1. At the Paris Conference in 1919, the Big Four—Italy, led by
    Vittorio Orlando, France, led by Georges Clemenceau, Britain, led by
    David Lloyd George, and the U.S., led by Wilson—basically
    dictated the terms of the treaty.
  2. Conflicting ambitions ruled the conference. Britain and France
    wanted to punish Germany, Italy wanted money, the U.S. wanted to heal
    wounds through Wilson’s League of Nations
    • Wilson’s baby was the League and so he bargained with Britain and France.
    • Britain and France agreed to go along with the League, Wilson reluctantly agreed to go along with punishment.
      • The War Guilt Clause was passed doing two things, (1) it formally
        placed blame on Germany, a proud and embarrassed people, and (2) it
        charged Germany for the costs of war, $33 billion.

XVI. Hammering Out the Treaty

  1. However, at home in America, the Republicans proclaimed that they
    would not pass the treaty, since to them, it would be unwise to turn
    American decision over to a group of foreign nations (the League of
    Nations). Opponents of the Versailles Treaty reasoned that America
    should stay out of such an international group and decide her decisions
    on her own.
    • Led by Henry Cabot Lodge, William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson
      of California, these senators were bitterly opposed to the League.
    • Upon seeing Wilson’s lack of support, the other European
      nations had stronger bargaining chips, as France demanded the Rhineland
      and Saar Valley (but didn’t receive it; instead, the League of
      Nations got the Saar Basin for 15 years and then let it vote to
      determine its fate) and Italy demanded Fiume, a valuable seaport
      inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs.
  2. The Italians went home after Wilson tried to appeal to the Italian
    people while France received a promise that the U.S. and Great Britain
    would aid France in case of another German invasion.
  3. Japan also wanted the valuable Shantung peninsula and the German
    islands in the Pacific, and Wilson opposed, but when the Japanese
    threatened to walk out, Wilson compromised again and let Japan keep
    Germany’s economic holdings in Shantung, outraging the Chinese.

XVII. The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

  1. The Treaty of Versailles was forced upon Germany under the threat
    that if it didn’t sign the treaty, war would resume, and when the
    Germans saw all that Wilson had compromised to get his League of
    Nations, they cried betrayal, because the treaty did not contain much
    of the Fourteen Points like the Germans had hoped it would.
  2. Wilson was not happy with the treaty, sensing that it was
    inadequate, and his popularity was down, but he did make a difference
    in that his going to Paris prevented the treaty from being purely
    imperialistic.

XVIII. The Domestic Parade of Prejudice

  1. Returning to America, Wilson was met with fierce opposition, as
    Hun-haters felt that the treaty wasn’t harsh enough while the
    Irish denounced the League
  2. The “hyphenated” Americans all felt that the treaty had not been fair to their home country.

XIX. Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919)

  1. When Wilson returned to America, at the time, Senator Lodge had no
    hope to defeat the treaty, so he delayed, reading the entire 264-page
    treaty aloud in the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held hearings
    for people discontent with the treaty to voice their feelings, and
    basically stalled, bogging the treaty down.
  2. Wilson decided to take a tour to gain support for the treaty, but
    trailing him like bloodhounds were Senators Borah and Johnson, two of
    the “irreconcilables,” who verbally attacked him.
  3. However, in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions, reception
    was much warmer, and the high point came at Pueblo, Colorado, where he
    pleaded that the League was the only hope for peace in the future.
    • That night, he collapsed form physical and nervous exhaustion, and several days later, a stroke paralyzed half of his body.

XX. Defeat Through Deadlock

  1. Lodge now came up with fourteen “reservations” to the
    Treaty of Versailles, which sought to safeguard American sovereignty.
    • Congress was especially concerned with Article X, which morally
      bound the U.S. to aid any member of the League of Nations that was
      victimized by aggression, for Congress wanted to preserve its
      war-declaring power.
  2. Wilson hated Lodge, and though he was willing to accept similar
    Democratic reservations and changes, he would not do so from Lodge, and
    thus, he ordered his Democratic supporters to vote against the treaty
    with the Lodge reservations attached.
    • On November 19, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated by a vote of 55 to 39.
  3. About four-fifths of the senators actually didn’t mind the
    treaty, but unless the Senate approved the pact with the Lodge
    reservations tacked on, it would fail completely.
    • Brought up for a vote again, on March 19, 1920, the treaty failed
      again, due in part to Wilson telling Democrats to vote against the
      treaty…again.
    • Wilson’s feud with Lodge, U.S. isolationism, tradition, and
      disillusionment all contributed to the failure of the treaty, but
      Wilson must share the blame as well, since he stubbornly went for
      “all or nothing,” and received nothing.

XXI. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920

  1. Wilson had proposed to take the treaty to the people with a national referendum, but that would have been impossible.
  2. In 1920, the Republican Party was back together, thanks in part to
    Teddy Roosevelt’s death in 1919, and it devised a clever platform
    that would appeal to pro-League and anti-League factions of the party,
    and they chose Warren G. Harding as their candidate in the
    “smoke-filled room,” with Calvin Coolidge as the vice
    presidential candidate.
  3. The Democrats chose James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt as VP,
    and they also supported a League of Nations, but not necessarily the
    League of Nations.
  4. Warren G. Harding was swept into power

XXII. The Betrayal of Great Expectations

  1. U.S. isolationism doomed the Treaty of Versailles and indirectly
    led to World War II, because France, without an ally, built up a large
    military force, and Germany, suspicious and fearful, began to illegally
    do the same.
  2. The suffering of Germany and the disorder of the time was used by
    Adolf Hitler to seize power in Germany, build up popularity, and drag
    Europe into war.
  3. It was the U.S.’s responsibility to take charge as the most
    powerful nation in the world after World War I, but it retreated into
    isolationism, and let the rest of the world do whatever it wanted in
    the hopes that the U.S. would not be dragged into another war, but
    ironically, it was such actions that eventually led the U.S. into WWII.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 31 - American Life in the Roaring ‘20s

I. Seeing Red

  1. After World War I, America turned inward, away from the world, and
    started a policy of “isolationism.” Americans denounced
    “radical” foreign ideas and “un-American”
    lifestyles.
  2. The “Red Scare” of 1919-20 resulted in Attorney General
    A. Mitchell Palmer (“Fighting Quaker”) using a series of
    raids to round up and arrest about 6,000 suspected Communists.
  3. In December of 1919, 249 alleged alien radicals were deported on the Buford.
  4. The Red Scare severely cut back free speech for a period, since the
    hysteria caused many people to want to eliminate any Communists and
    their ideas.
    • Some states made it illegal to merely advocate the violent overthrow of government for social change.
    • In 1921, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were convicted of
      murdering a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard. The two accused were
      Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers, and the courts may
      have been prejudiced against them.
  5. In this time period, anti-foreignism (or “nativism”) was high.
  6. Liberals and radicals rallied around the two men, but they were executed.

II. Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK

  1. The new Ku Klux Klan was anti-foreign, anti-Catholic, anti-black,
    anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist,
    anti-revolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, and
    anti-birth control.
  2. More simply, it was pro-White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) and anti-everything else.
  3. At its peak in the 1920s, it claimed 5 million members, mostly from the South, but it also featured a reign of hooded horror.
    • The KKK employed the same tactics of fear, lynchings, and intimidation.
    • It was stopped not by the exposure of its horrible racism, but by its money fraud.

III. Stemming the Foreign Flood

  1. In 1920-21, some 800,000 European “New Immigrants”
    (mostly from the southeastern Europe regions) came to the U.S. and
    Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, in which newcomers
    from Europe were restricted at any year to a quota, which was set at 3%
    of the people of their nationality who lived in the U.S. in 1910.

*This policy still really favored the Slavs and the southeastern
Europeans in comparison to other groups. So, a new policy was
sought…
* A replacement law was found in the Immigration Act of 1924, which cut
the quota down to 2% and the origins base was shifted to that of 1890,
when few southeastern Europeans lived in America.
* This change clearly had racial undertones beneath it (New Immigrants out, Old Immigrants in).
* This act also slammed the door against Japanese immigrants.
* By 1931, for the first time in history, more people left America than came here.

  1. The immigrant tide was now cut off, but those that were in America struggled to adapt.
    • Labor unions in particular had difficulty in organizing because of the differences in race, culture, and nationality.

IV. The Prohibition “Experiment”

  1. The 18th Amendment (and later, the Volstead Act) prohibited the
    sale of alcohol, but this law never was effectively enforced because so
    many people violated it.
  2. Actually, most people thought that Prohibition was here to stay, and this was especially popular in the Midwest and the South.
  3. Prohibition was particularly supported by women and the
    Women’s Christian Temperance Union, but it also posed problems
    from countries that produced alcohol and tried to ship it to the U.S.
    (illegally, of course).
  4. In actuality, bank savings did increase, and absenteeism in industry did go down.

V. The Golden Age of Gangsterism

  1. Prohibition led to the rise of gangs that competed to distribute liquor.
  2. In the gang wars of Chicago in the 1920s, about 500 people were
    murdered, but captured criminals were rare, and convictions even rarer,
    since gangsters often provided false alibis for each other.
    • The most infamous of these gangsters was “Scarface” Al
      Capone, and his St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. Capone was finally
      caught for tax evasion.
    • Gangs moved into other activities as well: prostitution, gambling,
      and narcotics, and by 1930, their annual profit was a whopping $12
      – 18 billion.
    • In 1932, gangsters kidnapped the baby son of Charles Lindbergh,
      shocking the nation, and this event led Congress to the so-called
      Lindbergh Law, which allowed the death penalty to certain cases of
      interstate abduction.

VI. Monkey Business in Tennessee

  1. Education made strides behind the progressive ideas of John Dewey,
    a professor at Columbia University who set forth principles of
    “learning by doing” and believed that “education for
    life” should be the primary goal of school.
    • Now, schools were no longer prisons.
    • States also were increasingly placing minimum ages for teens to stay in school.
  2. A massive health care program launched by the Rockefeller Foundation practically eliminated hookworm in the South.
  3. Evolutionists were also clashing against creationists, and the
    prime example of this was the Scopes “Monkey Trial,” where
    John T. Scopes, a high school teacher of Dayton, Tennessee, was charged
    with teaching evolution.
    • William Jennings Bryan was among those who were against him, but
      the one-time “boy orator” was made to sound foolish and
      childish by expert attorney Clarence Darrow, and five days after the
      end of the trial, Bryan died.
    • The trial proved to be inconclusive but illustrated the rift between the new and old.
  4. Increasing numbers of Christians were starting to reconcile their
    differences between religion and the findings of modern science, as
    evidenced in the new Churches of Christ (est. 1906).

VII. The Mass-Consumption Economy

  1. Prosperity took off in the “Roaring 20s,” despite the
    recession of 1920-21, and it was helped by the tax policies of Treasury
    Secretary Andrew Mellons, which favored the rapid expansion of capital
    investment.
  2. Henry Ford perfected the assembly-line production to where his
    famous Rouge River Plant was producing a finished automobile every ten
    seconds.
  3. The automobile now provided more freedom, more luxury, and more privacy.
  4. A new medium arose as well: advertising, which used persuasion, ploy, seduction, and sex appeal to sell merchandise.
    • In 1925, Bruce Barton’s bestseller The Man Nobody Knows
      claimed that Jesus Christ was the perfect salesman and that all
      advertisers should study his techniques.
  5. Folks followed new (and dangerous) buying techniques…they
    bought (1) on the installment plan and (2) on credit. Both ways were
    capable of plunging an unexpecting consumer into debt.
  6. Sports were buoyed by people like home-run hero Babe Ruth and boxers Jack Dempsey and Georges Carpentier.

VIII. Putting America on Rubber Tires

  1. Americans adapted, rather than invented, the gasoline engine.
  2. People like Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds (famous for Oldsmobile) developed the infant auto industry.
  3. Early cars stalled and weren’t too reliable, but eventually, cars like the Ford Model T became cheap and easy to own.
    • In 1929, when the bull market collapsed, 26 million motor vehicles
      were registered in the United States, or 1 car per 4.9 Americans.

IX. The Advent of the Gasoline Age

  1. The automobile spurred 6 million people to new jobs and took over the railroad as king of transportation.
    • New roads were constructed, the gasoline industry boomed, and America’s standard of living rose greatly.
    • Cars were luxuries at first, but they rapidly became necessities.
    • The less-attractive states lost population at an alarming rate.
    • However, accidents killed lots of people, and by 1951, 1,000,000
      people had died by the car—more than the total of Americans lost
      to all its previous wars combined.
    • Cars brought adventure, excitement, and pleasure.

X. Humans Develop Wings

  1. On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first
    airplane for 12 seconds over a distance of 120 feet at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
  2. Aviation slowly got off the ground, and they were used a bit in
    World War I, but afterwards, it really took off when they became used
    for mail and other functions.
    • The first transcontinental airmail route was established form New York to San Francisco in 1920.
    • At first, there were many accidents and crashes, but later, safety improved.
  3. Charles Lindbergh became the first person to fly solo across the
    Atlantic Ocean when he did it in his Spirit of St. Louis, going from
    New York to Paris.

XI. The Radio Revolution

  1. In the 1890s, Guglielmo Marconi had already invented wireless
    telegraphy and his invention was used for long distance communication
    in the Great War.
  2. Then, in November of 1920, the first voice-carrying radio station
    began broadcasting when KDKA (in Pittsburgh) told of presidential
    candidate Warren G. Harding’s landslide victory.
  3. While the automobile lured Americans away from home, the radio
    lured them back, as millions tuned in to hear favorites like Amos
    ‘n’ Andy and listen to the Eveready Hour.
  4. Sports were further stimulated while politicians had to adjust
    their speaking techniques to support the new medium, and music could
    finally be heard electronically.

XII. Hollywood’s Filmland Fantasies

  1. Thomas Edison was one of those who invented the movie, but in 1903,
    the real birth of the movie came with The Great Train Robbery.
    • A first full-length feature was D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of
      a Nation, which stunned viewers visually, but seemed to glorify the KKK
      in the Reconstruction era.
    • The first “talkie” or movie with sound was The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson.
    • Hollywood, California, quickly became a hot spot for movie production, due to its favorable climate and landscape.
  2. The first movies featured nudity and female vampires called
    “vamps” until shocked public forced codes of censorship to
    be placed on them.
  3. Propaganda movies of World War I boosted the popularity of movies.
  4. Critics, though, did bemoan the vulgarization of popular tastes wrought by radio and movies.
    • These new mediums led to the loss of old family and oral
      traditions. Radio shows and movies seemed to lessen interaction and
      heighten passivity.

XIII. The Dynamic Decade

  1. For the first time, more Americans lived in urban areas, not the rural countryside.
  2. The birth-control movement was led by fiery Margaret Sanger, and
    the National Women’s Party began in 1923 to campaign for an Equal
    Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
  3. The Fundamentalists of old-time religion even lost ground to the
    new Modernists, who liked to think that God was a “good
    guy” and the universe was a nice place, as opposed to the
    traditional view that man was a born sinner and in need of forgiveness
    through Christ.
  4. A brash new group shocked many conservative older folk (who labeled
    the new style as full of erotic suggestions and inappropriate). The
    “flaming youth” who lived this modern life were called
    “flappers.”
    • They danced new dances like the risqué “Charleston” and dressed more provocatively.
    • Sigmund Freud said that sexual repression was responsible for most
      of society’s ills, and that pleasure and health demanded sexual
      gratification and liberation.
    • Jazz was the music of flappers, and Blacks like W.C. Handy,
      “Jelly Roll” Morton, and Joseph King Oliver gave birth to
      its bee-bopping sounds.
    • Black pride spawned such leaders as Langston Hughes of the Harlem
      Renaissance and famous for The Weary Blues, which appeared in 1926, and
      Marcus Garvey (founder of the United Negro Improvement Association and
      inspiration for the Nation of Islam).

XIV. Cultural Liberation

  1. By the dawn of the 1920s, many of the old writers (Henry James,
    Henry Adams, and William Dean Howells) had died, and those that
    survived, like Edith Wharton and Willa Cather were popular.
  2. Many of the new writers, though, hailed from different backgrounds (not Protestant New Englanders).
    • H.L. Mencken, the “Bad Boy of Baltimore,” found fault in much of America.
      • He wrote the monthly American Mercury.
    • F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote This Side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby, both of which captured the society of the “Jazz Age,” including odd mix of glamour and the cruelty.
    • Theodore Dreiser wrote as a Realist (not Romantic) in An American Tragedy about the murder of a pregnant working girl by her socially-conscious lover.
    • Ernest Hemingway wrote The Sun Also Rises, and A Farewell to Arms,
      and became a voice for the “Lost Generation”—the
      young folks who’d been ruined by the disillusionment of WWI.
    • Sherwood Anderson wrote Winesburg, Ohio describing small-town life in America.
    • Sinclair Lewis disparaged small-town America in his Main Street and Babbitt.
    • William Faulkner’s Soldier’s Pay, The Sound and the Fury, and As I Lay Dying all were famous and stunning with his use of the new, choppy “stream of consciousness” technique.
  3. Poetry also was innovative, and Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot were two great poets.
  4. Eugene O’Neill’s plays like Strange Interlude laid bare human emotions.
  5. Other famous writers included Claude McKay and Zora Neale Hurston.
  6. Architecture also made its marks with the designs of Frank Lloyd
    Wright, Wright was an understudy of Louis Sullivan (of Chicago
    skyscraper fame) and amazed people with his use of concrete, glass, and
    steel and his unconventional theory that “form follows
    function.”
    • Champion of skyscrapers, the Empire State Building debuted in 1931.

XV. Wall Street’s Big Bull Market

  1. There was much over-speculation in the 1920s, especially on Florida
    home properties (until a hurricane took care of that), and even during
    times of prosperity, many, many banks failed each year.
    • The whole system was built on fragile credit.
    • The stock market’s stellar rise made headline news (and
      enticed investors to drop their savings into the market’s
      volatility).
  2. Secretary of the Treasury Mellon reduced the amount of taxes that
    rich people had to pay, thus conceivably thrusting the burden onto the
    middle class.
    • He reduced the national debt, though, but has since been accused of indirectly encouraging the Bull Market.
  3. Whatever the case, the prosperities of the 1920s was setting up the
    crash that would lead to the poverty and suffering of the 1930s.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 32 - The Politics of Boom and Bust

I. The Republican “Old Guard” Returns

  1. Newly elected President Warren G. Harding was tall, handsome, and
    popular, but he had a mediocre mind and he did not like to hurt
    people’s feelings.
    • Nor could he detect the corruption within his adminstration.
  2. His cabinet did have some good officials, though, such as Secretary
    of State Charles Evans Hughes, who was masterful, imperious, incisive,
    and brilliant, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, and Secretary of
    the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon.
  3. However, people like Senator Albert B. Fall of New Mexico, a
    scheming anti-conservationist, became secretary of the interior, and
    Harry M. Daugherty took over the reigns as attorney general.
    • These two became the worst of the scandalous cabinet members.

II. GOP Reaction at the Throttle

  1. A good man but a weak one, Harding was the perfect front for
    old-fashioned politicians to set up for the nation a McKinley-style old
    order.
    • It hoped to further laissez-faire capitalism, and one of the
      examples of this was the Supreme Court, where Harding appointed four of
      the nine justices, including William H. Taft, former president of the
      United States.
  2. In the early 1920s, the Supreme Court killed a federal child-labor law.
    • In the case of Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, the court
      reversed its ruling in the Muller v. Oregon case by invalidating a
      minimum wage law for women.
  3. Under Harding, corporations could expand again, and anti-trust laws were not as enforced or downright ignored.
  4. Men sympathetic to railroads headed the Interstate Commerce Commission.

III. The Aftermath of the War

  1. Wartime government controls disappeared (i.e. the dismantling of
    the War Industries Board) and Washington returned control of railroads
    to private hands by the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920.
  2. The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the Shipping Board,
    which controlled about 1,500 vessels, to get rid of a lot of ships at
    bargain prices, thus reducing the size of the navy.
    • Labor lost much of its power, as a strike was ruthlessly broken in
      1919, and the Railway Labor Board ordered a wage cut of 12% in 1922.
    • Labor membership shrank by 30% from 1920 to 1930.
  3. In 1921, the Veterans’ Bureau was created to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehabilitation for the disabled.
    • Many veterans wanted the monetary compensation promised to them for their services in the war.
    • The Adjusted Compensation Act gave every former soldier a paid-up
      insurance policy due in twenty years. It was passed by Congress twice
      (the second time to override president Calvin Coolidge’s veto).

IV. America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens

  1. Since America had never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, it was
    still technically at war with Germany, so in July of 1921, it passed a
    simple joint resolution ending the war.
  2. The U.S. did not cooperate much with the League of Nations, but
    eventually, “unofficial observers” did participate in
    conferences. The lack of real participation though from the U.S. proved
    to doom the League.
  3. In the Middle East, Secretary Hughes secured for American oil
    companies the right to share in the exploitation of the oil riches
    there.
  4. Disarmament was another problem for Harding and he had to watch the
    actions of Japan and Britain for any possible hostile activities.
  5. America also went on a “ship-scrapping” bonanza.
    • The Washington “Disarmament” Conference of 1921-22
      resulted in a plan that kept a 5:5:3 ratio of ships that could be held
      by the U.S., Britain, and Japan (in that order). This surprised many
      delegates at the conference (notably, the Soviet Union, which was not
      recognized by the U.S., was not invited and did not attend).
    • The Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922 embodied Hughes’s ideas on ship ratios, but only after Japanese received compensation.
    • A Four-Power Treaty, which bound Britain, Japan, France, and the
      U.S. to preserve the status quo in the Pacific, replaced the
      20-year-old Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
    • The Nine-Power Treaty of 1922 kept the open door open in China.
    • However, despite all this apparent action, there were no limits
      placed on small ships, and Congress only approved the Four-Power Treaty
      on the condition that the U.S. was not bound, thus effectively
      rendering that treaty useless.
  6. Frank B. Kellogg, Calvin Coolidge’s Secretary of State, won
    the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the Kellog-Briand Pact (Pact of
    Paris), which said that all nations that signed would no longer use war
    as offensive means.

V. Hiking the Tariff Higher

  1. Businessmen did not want Europe flooding American markets with
    cheap goods after the war, so Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber
    Tariff Law, which raised the tariff from 27% to 35%.
    • Presidents Harding and Coolidge, granted with authority to reduce
      or increase duties, and always sympathetic towards big industry, were
      much more prone to increasing tariffs than decreasing them.
  2. However, this presented a problem: Europe needed to sell goods to
    the U.S. in order to get the money to pay back its debts, and when it
    could not sell, it could not repay.

VI. The Stench of Scandal

  1. However, scandal rocked the Harding administration in 1923 when
    Charles R. Forbes was caught with his hand in the money bag and
    resigned as the head of the Veterans’ Bureau.
    • He and his accomplices looted the government for over $200 million.
  2. The Teapot Dome Scandal was the most shocking of all.
    • Albert B. Fall leased land in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills,
      California, to oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny, but not
      until Fall had received a “loan” (actually a bribe) of
      $100,000 from Doheny and about three times that amount from Sinclair.
  3. There were reports as to the underhanded doings of Attorney General
    Harry Daugherty, in which he was accused of the illegal sale of pardons
    and liquor permits.
  4. President Harding, however, died in San Francisco on August 2,
    1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis, and he didn’t have to live
    through much of the uproar of the scandal.

VII. “Silent Cal” Coolidge

  1. New president Calvin Coolidge was serious, calm, and never spoke more than he needed to.
  2. A very morally clean person, he was not touched by the Harding
    scandals, and he proved to be a bright figure in the Republican Party.
    • It was ironic that in the Twenties, the “Age of
      Ballyhoo” or the “Jazz Age,” the U.S. had a very
      traditional, old-timey, and some would say boring president.

VIII. Frustrated Farmers

  1. World War I had given the farmers prosperity, as they’d produced much food for the soldiers.
    • New technology in farming, such as the gasoline-engine tractor, had increased farm production dramatically.
    • However, after the war, these products weren’t needed, and the farmers fell into poverty.
  2. Farmers looked for relief, and the Capper-Volstead Act, which
    exempted farmers’ marketing cooperatives from antitrust
    prosecution, and the McNary-Haugen Bill, which sought to keep
    agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up
    surpluses and sell them abroad, helped a little.
    • However, Coolidge vetoed the second bill, twice.

IX. A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924

  1. Coolidge was chosen by the Republicans again in 1924, while
    Democrats nominated John W. Davis after 102 ballots in Madison Square
    Garden.
    • The Democrats also voted by one vote NOT to condemn the Ku Klux Klan.
  2. Senator Robert La Follette led the Progressive Party as the third party candidate.
    • He gained the endorsement of the American Federation of Labor and
      the shrinking Socialist Party, and he actually received 5 million votes.
    • However, Calvin Coolidge easily won the election.

X. Foreign-Policy Flounderings

  1. Isolationism continued to reign in the Coolidge era, as the Senate
    did not allow America to adhere to the World Court, the judicial wing
    of the League of Nations.
  2. In the Caribbean and Latin America, U.S. troops were withdrawn from
    the Dominican Republic in 1924, but remained in Haiti from 1914 to
    1934.
    • Coolidge took out troops from Nicaragua in 1925, and then sent them
      back the next year, and in 1926, he defused a situation with Mexico
      where the Mexicans were claiming sovereignty over oil resources.
    • However, Latin Americans began to resent the American dominance of them.
  3. The European debt to America also proved tricky.

XI. Unraveling the Debt Knot

  1. Because America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts,
    those two nations placed huge reparation payments on Germany, which
    then, to pay them, printed out loads of paper money that caused
    inflation to soar.
    • At one point in October of 1923, a loaf of bread cost 480 million German marks.
  2. Finally, in 1924, Charles Dawes engineered the Dawes Plan, which
    rescheduled German reparations payments and gave the way for further
    American private loans to Germany.
    • Essentially, the payments were a huge circle from the U.S. to
      Germany to Britain/France and back to the U.S. All told, the Americans
      never really gained any money or got repaid in genuine.
    • Also, the U.S. gained bitter enemies in France and Britain who were
      angry over America’s apparent greed and careless nature for
      others.

XII. The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928

  1. In 1928, Calvin Coolidge said, “I do not choose to
    run,” and his logical successor immediately became economics
    genius Herbert Hoover. Hoover spoke of “Rugged
    Individualism” which was his view that America was made great by
    strong, self-sufficient individuals, like the pioneers of old days
    trekking across the prairies, relying on no one else for help. This was
    the kind of folk America still needed, he said.
    • Hoover was opposed by New York governor Alfred E. Smith, a man who
      was blanketed by scandal (he drank during a Prohibitionist era and was
      hindered politically by being a Roman Catholic).
  2. Radio turned out to be an important factor in the campaign, and
    Hoover’s personality sparkled on this new medium (compared to
    Smith, who sounded stupid and boyish).
  3. Hoover had never been elected to public office before, but he had
    made his way up from poverty to prosperity, and believed that other
    people could do so as well.
  4. There was, once again, below-the-belt hitting on both sides, as the
    campaign took an ugly turn, but Hoover triumphed in a landslide, with
    444 electoral votes to Smith’s 87.

XIII. President Hoover’s First Moves

  1. Hoover’s Agricultural Marketing Act, passed in June of 1929,
    was designed to help the farmers help themselves, and it set up a
    Federal Farm Board to help the farmers.
    • In 1930, the Farm Board created the Grain Stabilization Corporation
      and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation to bolster sagging prices by
      buying surpluses.
  2. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 raised the tariff to an unbelievable 60%!
    • Foreigners hated this tariff that reversed a promising worldwide
      trend toward reasonable tariffs and widened the yawning trade gaps.

XIV. The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties

  1. Hoover confidently predicted an end to poverty very soon, but on
    October 29, 1929, a devastating stock market crash caused by
    over-speculation and overly high stock prices built only upon
    non-existent credit struck the nation.
    • Losses, even blue-chip securities, were unbelievable as by the end
      of 1929, stockholders had lost over $40 million in paper values (more
      than the cost of World War I)!
    • By the end of 1930, 4 million Americans were jobless, and two years later, that number shot up to 12 million.
    • Over 5,000 banks collapsed in the first three years of the Great Depression.
    • Lines formed at soup kitchens and at homeless shelters.

XV. Hooked on the Horn of Plenty

  1. The Great Depression might have been caused by an overabundance of
    farm products and factory products. The nation’s capacity to
    produce goods had clearly outrun its capacity to consume or pay for
    them.
  2. Also, an over-expansion of credit created unsound faith in money, which is never good for business.
  3. Britain and France’s situations, which had never fully recovered from World War I, worsened.
  4. In 1930, a terrible drought scorched the Mississippi Valley and thousands of farms were sold to pay for debts.
  5. By 1930, the depression was a national crisis, and hard-working
    workers had nowhere to work, thus, people turned bitter and also turned
    on Hoover.

*Villages of shanties and ragged shacks were called Hoovervilles and
were inhabited by the people who had lost their jobs. They popped up
everywhere.

XVI. Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists

  1. Hoover unfairly received the brunt of the blame for the Great
    Depression, but he also did not pass measures that could have made the
    depression less severe than it could have been.
    • Critics noted that he could feed millions in Belgium (after World War I) but not millions at home in America.
  2. He did not believe in government tampering with the economic
    machine and thus moving away from laissez faire, and he felt that
    depressions like this were simply parts of the natural economic
    process, known as the business cycle.
    • However, by the end of his term, he had started to take steps for the government to help the people.

XVII. Hoover Battles the Great Depression

  1. Finally, Hoover voted to withdraw $2.25 billion to start projects to alleviate the suffering of the depression.
    • The Hoover Dam of the Colorado River was one such project.
  2. The Muscle Shoals Bill, which was designed to dam the Tennessee
    River and was ultimately embraced by the Tennessee Valley Authority,
    was vetoed by Hoover.
  3. Early in 1932, Congress, responding to Hoover’s appeal,
    established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which became
    a government lending bank. This was a large step for Hoover away from
    laissez faire policies and toward policies the Democrats (FDR) would
    later employ.
    • However, giant corporations were the ones that benefited most from
      this, and the RFC was another one of the targets of Hoover’s
      critics.
  4. In 1932, Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injection Act,
    which outlawed anti-union contracts and forbade the federal courts to
    issue injunctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing
    (this was good for unions).
  5. Remember, that in past depressions, the American public was often
    forced to “sweat it out,” not wait for government help. The
    trend was changing at this point, forced to do so by the Depression.

XVIII. Routing the Bonus Army in Washington

  1. Many veterans, whom had not been paid their compensation for WWI, marched to Washington, D.C. to demand their entire bonus.
    • The “Bonus Expeditionary Force” erected unsanitary
      camps and shacks in vacant lots, creating health hazards and annoyance.
    • Riots followed after troops came in to intervene (after Congress tried to pass a bonus bill but failed), and many people died.
    • Hoover falsely charged that the force was led by riffraff and reds
      (communists), and the American opinion turned even more against him.

XIX. Japanese Militarists Attack China

  1. In September 1931, Japan, alleging provocation, invaded Manchuria and shut the Open Door.
  2. Peaceful peoples were stunned, as this was a flagrant violation of
    the League of Nations covenant, and a meeting in Geneva, Switzerland,
    was arranged.
  3. An American actually attended, but instead of driving Japan out of
    China, the meeting drove Japan out of the League, thus weakening it
    further.
  4. Secretary of State Henry Stimson did indicate that the U.S.
    probably would not interfere with a League of Nations embargo on Japan,
    but he was later restrained from taking action.
    • Since the U.S. took no effective action, the Japanese bombed
      Shanghai in 1932, and even then, outraged Americans didn’t do
      much to change the Japanese minds.
    • The U.S.’s lackluster actions support the notion that America’s isolationist policy was well entrenched.

XX. Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy

  1. Hoover was deeply interested in relations south of the border, and
    during his term, U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean
    improved greatly.
    • Since the U.S. had less money to spend, it was unable to dominate
      Latin America as much, and later, Franklin D. Roosevelt would build
      upon these policies.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 33 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

I. FDR: A Politician in a Wheelchair

  1. In 1932, voters still had not seen any economic improvement, and they wanted a new president.
  2. President Herbert Hoover was nominated again without much vigor and
    true enthusiasm, and he campaigned saying that his policies prevented
    the Great Depression from being worse than it was.
  3. The Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a tall, handsome
    man who was the fifth cousin of famous Theodore Roosevelt and had
    followed in his footsteps.
    • FDR was suave and conciliatory while TR was pugnacious and confrontational.
    • FDR had been stricken with polio in 1921, and during this time, his wife, Eleanor, became his political partner.
    • Franklin also lost a friend in 1932 when he and Al Smith both sought the Democratic nomination.
  4. Eleanor was to become the most active First Lady ever.

II. Presidential Hopefuls of 1932

  1. In the campaign, Roosevelt seized the opportunity to prove that he
    was not an invalid, and his campaign also featured an attack on
    Hoover’s spending (ironically, he would spend even more during
    his term).
  2. The Democrats found expression in the airy tune “Happy Days
    Are Here Again,” and clearly, the Democrats had the advantage in
    this race.

III. Hoover's Humiliation in 1932

  1. Hoover had been swept into the presidential office in 1928, but in
    1932, he was swept out with equal force, as he was defeated 472 to 59.
  2. Noteworthy was the transition of the Black vote from the Republican to the Democratic Party.
  3. During the lame-duck period, Hoover tried to initiate some of
    Roosevelt’s plans, but was met by stubbornness and resistance.
  4. Hooverites would later accuse FDR of letting the depression worsen so that he could emerge as an even more shining savior.

IV. FDR and the Three R’s: Relief, Recovery, and Reform

  1. On Inauguration Day, FDR asserted, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
  2. He called for a nationwide bank holiday to eliminate paranoid bank withdrawals, and then he commenced with his Three R’s.
  3. The Democratic-controlled Congress was willing to do as FDR said,
    and the first Hundred Days of FDR’s administration were filled
    with more legislative activity than ever before.
    • Many of the New Deal Reforms had been adopted by European nations a decade before.

V. Roosevelt Manages the Money

  1. The Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933 was passed first. FDR
    declared a one week “bank holiday” just so everyone would
    calm down and stop running on the banks.
  2. Then, Roosevelt settled down for the first of his thirty famous “Fireside Chats” with America.
  3. The “Hundred Days Congress” passed the Glass-Steagall
    Banking Reform Act, that provided the Federal Deposit Insurance
    Corporation (FDIC) which insured individual deposits up to $5000,
    thereby eliminating the epidemic of bank failure and restoring faith to
    banks.
  4. FDR then took the nation off of the gold standard and achieved
    controlled inflation by ordering Congress to buy gold at increasingly
    higher prices.
    • In February 1934, he announced that the U.S. would pay foreign gold at a rate of one ounce of gold per every $35 due.

VI. Roosevelt Manages the Money

  1. The Emergency Banking Relief Act gave FDR the authority to manage banks.
  2. FDR then went on the radio and reassured people it was safer to put money in the bank than hidden in their houses.
    • The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act was passed.
    • This provided for the FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corp.) to insure the money in the bank.
  3. FDR wanted to stop people from hoarding gold.
    • He urged people to turn in gold for paper money and took the U.S. off the gold standard.
    • He wanted inflation, to make debt payment easier, and urged the Treasury to buy gold with paper money.

VII. A Day for Every Demagogue

  1. Roosevelt had no qualms about using federal money to assist the
    unemployed, so he created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which
    provided employment in fresh-air government camps for about 3 million
    uniformed young men.
    • They reforested areas, fought fires, drained swamps, controlled floods, etc.
    • However, critics accused FDR of militarizing the youths and acting as dictator.
  2. The Federal Emergency Relief Act looked for immediate relief rather
    than long-term alleviation, and its Federal Emergency Relief
    Administration (FERA) was headed by the zealous Harry L. Hopkins.
  3. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) made available many millions of dollars to help farmers meet their mortgages.
  4. The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced mortgages
    on non-farm homes and bolted down the loyalties of middle class,
    Democratic homeowners.
  5. The Civil Works Administration (CWA) was established late in 1933,
    and it was designed to provide purely temporary jobs during the winter
    emergency.
    • Many of its tasks were rather frivolous (called
      “boondoggling”) and were designed for the sole purpose of
      making jobs.
  6. The New Deal had its commentators.
    • One FDR spokesperson was Father Charles Coughlin, a Catholic priest
      in Michigan who at first was with FDR then disliked the New Deal and
      voiced his opinions on radio.
    • Senator Huey P. Long of Louisiana was popular for his “Share
      the Wealth” program. Proposing “every man a king,”
      each family was to receive $5000, allegedly from the rich. The math of
      the plan was ludicrous.
      • His chief lieutenant was former clergyman Gerald L. K. Smith.
      • He was later shot by a deranged medical doctor in 1935.
    • Dr. Francis E. Townsend of California attracted the trusting
      support of perhaps 5 million “senior citizens” with his
      fantastic plan of each senior receiving $200 month, provided that all
      of it would be spent within the month. Also, this was a mathematically
      silly plan.
  7. Congress also authorized the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in
    1935, which put $11 million on thousands of public buildings, bridges,
    and hard-surfaced roads and gave 9 million people jobs in its eight
    years of existence.
    • It also found part-time jobs for needy high school and college students and for actors, musicians, and writers.
    • John Steinbeck counted dogs (boondoggled) in his California home of Salinas county.

VIII. New Visibility for Women

  1. Ballots newly in hand, women struck up new roles.
  2. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was the most visible, but other ladies
    shone as well: Sec. of Labor Frances Perkins was the first female
    cabinet member and Mary McLeod Bethune headed the Office of Minority
    Affairs in the NYA, the “Black Cabinet”, and founded a
    Florida college.
  3. Anthropologist Ruth Benedict helped develop the “culture and
    personality movement” and her student Margaret Mead reached even
    greater heights with Coming of Age in Samoa.
  4. Pearl S. Buck wrote a beautiful and timeless novel, The Good Earth,
    about a simple Chinese farmer which earned her the Nobel Prize for
    literature in 1938.

IX. Helping Industry and Labor

  1. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), by far the most
    complicated of the programs, was designed to assist industry, labor,
    and the unemployed.
    • There were maximum hours of labor, minimum wages, and more rights
      for labor union members, including the right to choose their own
      representatives in bargaining.
  2. The Philadelphia Eagles were named after this act, which received
    much support and patriotism, but eventually, it was shot down by the
    Supreme Court.
    • Besides too much was expected of labor, industry, and the public.
    • The Public Works Administration (PWA) also intended both for industrial recovery and for unemployment relief.
      • Headed by Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, it aimed at
        long-range recovery by spending over $4 billion on some 34,000 projects
        that included public buildings, highways, and parkways (i.e. the Grand
        Coulee Dam of the Columbia River).
  3. One of the Hundred Days Congress’s earliest acts was to
    legalize light wine and beer with an alcoholic content of 3.2% or less
    and also levied a $5 tax on every barrel manufactured.
    • Prohibition was officially repealed with the 21st Amendment.

X. Paying Farmers Not to Farm

  1. To help the farmers, which had been suffering ever since the end of
    World War I, Congress established the Agricultural Adjustment
    Administration, which paid farmers to reduce their crop acreage and
    would eliminate price-depressing surpluses.
    • However, it got off to a rocky start when it killed lots of pigs
      for no good reason, and paying farmers not to farm actually increased
      unemployment.
    • The Supreme Court killed it in 1936.
  2. The New Deal Congress also passed the Soil Conservation and
    Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, which paid farmers to plant
    soil-conserving plants like soybeans or to let their land lie fallow.
  3. The Second Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 was a more
    comprehensive substitute that continued conservation payments but was
    accepted by the Supreme Court.

XI. Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards

  1. After the drought of 1933, furious winds whipped up dust into the
    air, turning parts of Missouri, Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma
    into the Dust Bowl and forcing many farmers to migrate west to
    California and inspired Steinbeck’s classic The Grapes of Wrath.
    • The dust was very hazardous to the health and to living, creating further misery.
  2. The Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act, passed in 1934, made
    possible a suspension of mortgage foreclosure for five years, but it
    was voided in 1935 by the Supreme Court.
  3. In 1935, FDR set up the Resettlement Administration, charged with the task of removing near-farmless farmers to better land.
  4. Commissioner of Indian Affairs was headed by John Collier who
    sought to reverse the forced-assimilation policies in place since the
    Dawes Act of 1887.
    • He promoted the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (the Indian
      “New Deal”), which encouraged tribes to preserve their
      culture and traditions.
    • Not all Indians liked it though, saying if they followed this
      “back-to-the-blanket” plan, they’d just become museum
      exhibits. 77 tribes refused to organize under its provisions (200 did).

XII. Battling Bankers and Big Business

  1. The Federal Securities Act (“Truth in Securities Act”)
    required promoters to transmit to the investor sworn information
    regarding the soundness of their stocks and bonds.
  2. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was designed as a
    stock watchdog administrative agency, and stock markets henceforth were
    to operate more as trading marts than as casinos.
  3. In 1932, Chicagoan Samuel Insull’s multi-billion dollar
    financial empire had crashed, and such cases as his resulted in the
    Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935.

XIII. The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River

  1. The sprawling electric-power industry attracted the fire of New Deal reformers.
    • New Dealers accused it of gouging the public with excessive rates.
  2. Thus, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933) sought to
    discover exactly how much money it took to produce electricity and then
    keep rates reasonable.
    • It constructed dams on the Tennessee River and helped the 2.5
      million extremely poor citizens of the area improve their lives and
      their conditions.
    • Hydroelectric power of Tennessee would give rise to that of the West.

XIV. Housing Reform and Social Security

  1. To speed recovery and better homes, FDR set up the Federal Housing
    Administration (FHA) in 1934 to stimulate the building industry through
    small loans to householders.
    • It was one of the “alphabetical” agencies to outlast the age of Roosevelt.
  2. Congress bolstered the program in 1937 by authorizing the U.S.
    Housing Authority (USHA), designed to lend money to states or
    communities for low-cost construction.
    • This was the first time in American history that slum areas stopped growing.
  3. The Social Security Act of 1935 was the greatest victory for New
    Dealers, since it created pension and insurance for the old-aged, the
    blind, the physically handicapped, delinquent children, and other
    dependents by taxing employees and employers.
    • Republicans attacked this bitterly, as such government-knows-best
      programs and policies that were communist leaning and penalized the
      rich for their success. They also opposed the pioneer spirit of
      “rugged individualism.”

XV. A New Deal for Labor

  1. A rash of walkouts occurred in the summer of 1934, and after the
    NRA was axed, the Wagner Act (AKA, National Labor Relations Act) of
    1935 took its place. The Wagner Act guaranteed the right of unions to
    organize and to collectively bargain with management.
    • Under the encouragement of a highly sympathetic National Labor
      Relations Board, unskilled laborers began to organize themselves into
      effective unions, one of which was John L. Lewis, the boss of the
      United Mine Workers who also succeeded in forming the Committee for
      Industrial Organization (CIO) within the ranks of the AF of L in 1935.
    • The CIO later left the AF of L and won a victory against General Motors.
  2. The CIO also won a victory against the United States Steel Company,
    but smaller steel companies struck back, resulting in such incidences
    as the Memorial Day Massacre of 1937 at the plant of the Republic Steel
    Company of South Chicago in which police fired upon workers, leaving
    scores killed or injured.
  3. In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act (AKA the “Wages and
    Hours Bill”) was passed, setting up minimum wage and maximum
    hours standards and forbidding children under the age of sixteen from
    working.
  4. Roosevelt enjoyed immense support from the labor unions.
  5. In 1938, the CIO broke completely with the AF of L and renamed itself the Congress of Industrial Organizations (the new CIO).

XVI. Landon Challenges “the Champ”

  1. The Republicans nominated Kansas Governor Alfred M. Landon to run against FDR.
    • Landon was weak on the radio and weaker in personal campaigning,
      and while he criticized FDR’s spending, he also favored enough of
      FDR’s New Deal to be ridiculed by the Democrats as an unsure
      idiot.
  2. In 1934, the American Liberty League had been formed by
    conservative Democrats and wealthy Republicans to fight
    “socialistic” New Deal schemes.
  3. Roosevelt won in a huge landslide, getting 523 electoral votes to Landon’s 8.
  4. FDR won primarily because he appealed to the “forgotten man,” whom he never forgot.

XVII. Nine Old Men on the Bench

  1. The 20th Amendment had cut the lame-duck period down to six weeks,
    so FDR began his second term on January 20, 1937, instead of on March 4.
  2. He controlled Congress, but the Supreme Court kept blocking his
    programs, so he proposed a shocking plan that would add a member to the
    Supreme Court for every existing member over the age of 70, for a
    maximum possible total of 15 total members.
    • For once, Congress voted against him because it did not want to lose its power.
    • Roosevelt was ripped for trying to become a dictator.

XVIII. The Court Changes Course

  1. FDR’s “court-packing scheme” failed, but he did
    get some of the justices to start to vote his way, including Owen J.
    Roberts, formerly regarded as a conservative.
  2. So, FDR did achieve his purpose of getting the Supreme Court to vote his way.
  3. However, his failure of the court-packing scheme also showed how
    Americans still did not wish to tamper with the sacred justice system.

XIX. Twilight of the New Deal

  1. During Roosevelt’s first term, the depression did not
    disappear, and unemployment, down from 25% in 1932, was still at 15%.
    • In 1937, the economy took another brief downturn when the “Roosevelt Recession,” caused by government policies.
    • Finally, FDR embraced the policies of British economist John Maynard Keynes.
      • In 1937, FDR announced a bold program to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending.
      • In 1939, Congress relented to FDR’s pressure and passed the
        Reorganization Act, which gave him limited powers for administrative
        reforms, including the key new Executive Office in the White House.
      • The Hatch Act of 1939 barred federal administrative officials,
        except the highest policy-making officers, from active political
        campaigning and soliciting.

XX. New Deal or Raw Deal?

  1. Foes of the New Deal condemned its waste, citing that nothing had been accomplished.
  2. Critics were shocked by the “try anything” attitude of
    FDR, who had increased the federal debt from $19.487 million in 1932 to
    $40.440 million in 1939.
  3. It took World War II, though, to really lower unemployment. But, the war also created a heavier debt than before.

XXI. FDR’s Balance Sheet

  1. New Dealers claimed that the New Deal had alleviated the worst of the Great Depression.
  2. FDR also deflected popular resent against business and may have
    saved the American system of free enterprise, yet business tycoons
    hated him.
  3. He provided bold reform without revolution.
  4. Later, he would guide the nation through a titanic war in which the democracy of the world would be at stake.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 34 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

I. The London Conference

  1. The 1933 London Conference composed 66 nations that came together
    to hopefully develop a worldwide solution to the Great Depression.
    • President Franklin D. Roosevelt at first agreed to send Secretary
      of State Cordell Hull, but then withdrew from that agreement and
      scolded the other nations for trying to stabilize currencies.
    • As a result, the conference adjourned accomplishing nothing, and furthermore strengthening American isolationism.

II. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

  1. With hard times, Americans were eager to do away with their
    liabilities in the Philippine Islands. And, American sugar producers
    wanted to get rid of the Filipino sugar producers due to the
    competition they created.
  2. In 1934, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, stating that the
    Philippines would receive their independence after 12 years of economic
    and political tutelage, in 1946.
    • Army bases were relinquished, but naval bases were kept.
  3. Americans were freeing themselves of a liability and creeping into
    further isolationism Meanwhile, militarists in Japan began to see that
    they could take over the Pacific easily without U.S. interference or
    resistance.
  4. In 1933, FDR finally formally recognized the Soviet Union, hoping
    that the U.S. could trade with the U.S.S.R., and that the Soviets would
    discourage German and Japanese aggression.

III. Becoming a Good Neighbor

  1. In terms of its relations with Latin America, the U.S. wanted to be
    a “good neighbor,” showing that it was content as a
    regional power, not a world one.
  2. In 1933, FDR renounced armed intervention in Latin America at the
    Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, and the
    following year, U.S. marines left Haiti.
  3. The U.S. also lifted troops from Panama, but when Mexican forces
    seized Yankee oil properties, FDR found himself urged to take drastic
    action.
    • However, he resisted and worked out a peaceful deal.
    • His “good neighbor” policy was a great success, improving the U.S. image in Latin American eyes.

IV. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement

  1. Secretary of State Hull believed that trade was a two-way street,
    and he had a part in Congress’s passing of the Reciprocal Trade
    Agreements Act in 1934 which activated low-tariff policies while aiming
    at relief and recovery by boosting American trade.
    • This act whittled down the most objectionable schedules of the
      Hawley-Smoot law by amending them, lowering rates by as much as half,
      provided that the other country would do the same toward the United
      States.
  2. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act reversed the traditional
    high-tariff policy that had damaged America before and paved the way
    for the American-led free-trade international economic system that was
    implemented after World War II.

V. Storm-Cellar Isolationism

  1. After World War I, many dictatorships sprang up, including Joseph
    Stalin of the Soviet Union, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Adolph
    Hitler of Germany.
    • Of the three, Hitler was the most dangerous, because he was a great
      orator and persuader who led the German people to believe his
      “big lie,” making them think that he could lead the country
      back to greatness and out of this time of poverty and depression.
  2. In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.
  3. Japan slowly began gaining strength, refusing to cooperate with the
    world and quickly arming itself by ending the Washington Naval Treaty
    in 1934 and walking out of the London Conference.
  4. In 1935, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, conquering it, but the League
    of Nations failed to take effective action against the aggressors.
  5. America continued to hide behind the shell of isolationism,
    believing that everything would stay good if the U.S. wasn’t
    drawn into any international embroilments.
    • The 1934 Johnson Debt Default Act forbade any countries that still owed the U.S. money from borrowing any more cash.
  6. In 1936, a group of Princeton University students began to agitate
    for a bonus to be paid to the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFWs) while the
    prospective front-liners were still alive.

VI. Congress Legislates Neutrality

  1. The 1934 Nye Committee was formed to investigate whether or not
    munitions manufacturers were pro-war, existing for the sole purpose of
    making more money and profits, as the press blamed such producers for
    dragging America into the First World War.
  2. To prevent America from being sucked into war, Congress passed the
    Neutrality Acts in 1935-37, acts which stated that when the president
    proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would
    automatically go into effect: no American could legally sail on a
    belligerent ship or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or
    make loans to a belligerent.
    • The flaw with these acts was that they were designed to prevent
      America from being pulled into a war like World War I, but World War II
      would prove to be different.

VII. America Dooms Loyalist Spain

  1. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Spanish rebels led by the
    fascist General Francisco Franco rose up against the leftist-leaning
    republican government.
    • In order to stay out of the war, the U.S. put an embargo on both
      the loyalist government, which was supported by the USSR, and the
      rebels, which were aided by Hitler and Mussolini.
    • During the Civil War, the U.S. just stood by while Franco smothered
      the democratic government. America also failed to build up its fleet,
      since most people believed that huge fleets led to huge wars.
      • It was not until 1938 that Congress passed a billion-dollar naval construction act, but then it was too little, too late.

VIII. Appeasing Japan and Germany

  1. In 1937, Japan essentially invaded China, but FDR didn’t call
    this combat “a war,” thus allowing the Chinese to still get
    arms from the U.S., and in Chicago of that year, he merely verbally
    chastised the aggressors, calling for “a quarantine” of
    Japan (through economic embargoes, perhaps); this was his famous
    “Quarantine Speech.”
    • The Quarantine Speech asked for America to stay neutral but to morally side against the fascist nations.
    • However, this speech angered many isolationists, and FDR backed down a bit from any more direct actions.
  2. In December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank the American
    gunboat, the Panay, but then made the necessary apologies,
    “saving” America from entering war.
    • To vent their frustration, the Japanese resorted to humiliating white civilians in China through slappings and strippings.
    • The Panay incident further supports America’s determination to stay neutral.
  3. Meanwhile, Hitler was growing bolder and bolder after being allowed
    to introduce mandatory military service in Germany, take over the
    German Rhineland, persecute and exterminate about six million Jews, and
    occupy Austria—all because the European powers were appeasing
    him.
    • They naively hoped that each conquest of Germany would be the last.
  4. However, Hitler didn’t stop, and at the September 1938 Munich
    Conference, the Allies agreed to let Hitler have the Sudentenland of
    neighboring Czechoslovakia, but six months later, in 1939, Hitler
    pulled the last straw and took over all of Czechoslovakia.
    • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned to England and
      gave his infamous claim that he’d achieved “peace in our
      time”—true, but it proved to be a short time.

IX. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality

  1. On August 23, 1939, the U.S.S.R. shocked the world by signing a nonaggression treaty with Germany.
    • Now, it seemed that Germany could engulf all of Europe, especially
      without having to worry about fighting a two-front war in case Russia
      fought back.
    • In essence, the nonaggression pact opened the door to Poland.
  2. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, and France and Britain finally
    declared war against Germany, but America refused to enter the war, its
    citizens not wanting to be “suckers” again.
    • Americans were anti-Hitler and anti-Nazi and wanted Britain and
      France to win, but they would not permit themselves to be dragged into
      fighting and bloodshed.
  3. European powers needed American supplies, but the previous
    Neutrality Acts forbade the sale of arms to nations in war, so a new
    Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European nations to buy war materials,
    but only on a “cash-and-carry” basis, which meant Europeans
    had to provide their own ships and pay for the arms in cash.
    • Since the British and French controlled the seas, the Germans couldn’t buy arms from America, as it was intended.

X. The Fall of France

  1. After the fall of Poland, Hitler positioned his forces to attack
    France which led to a lull in the war (so that men could move) that was
    pierced only by the Soviet Union’s attack and conquering of
    Finland, despite $30 million from the U.S. (for nonmilitary reasons).
  2. Then, in 1940, the “phony war” ended when Hitler
    overran Denmark and Norway, and then took over the Netherlands and
    Belgium.
    • Blitzing without mercy, he then struck a paralyzing blow toward France, which was forced to surrender by late June of that year.

b. The fall of France was shocking, because now, all that stood
between Hitler and the world was Britain: if the English lost, Hitler
would have all of Europe in which to operate, and he might take over
the Americas as well.

  1. Finally, Roosevelt moved and called for the nation to massively
    build up its armed forces, with expenses totaling more than $37
    million. He also had Congress pass the first peacetime draft in U.S.
    history on September 6, 1940.
    • 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves would be trained.
  2. At the Havana Conference, the U.S. warned Germany that it could not
    take over orphan colonies in the Americas, as such action
    wouldn’t be tolerated.

XI. Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940)

  1. Now, with Britain the only power fighting against Germany, FDR had
    to decide whether to remain totally neutral or to help Britain.
    • Hitler launched air attacks against the British in August 1940 and
      prepared an invasion scheduled to start a month later, but the
      tenacious defense of the British Royal Air Force stopped him in the
      aerial Battle of Britain.
  2. Those who supported helping Britain formed the Committee to Defend
    America by Aiding the Allies, while those for isolationism (including
    Charles A. Lindbergh) were in the America First Committee, and both
    groups campaigned and advertised for their respective positions.
  3. Britain was in dire need for destroyers, and on September 2, 1940,
    FDR boldly moved to transfer 50 old-model, four-funnel destroyers left
    over from WWI, and in return, the British promised to give the U.S.
    eight valuable defensive base sites stretching from Newfoundland to
    South America.
    • These would stay in American ownership for 99 years.
    • Obviously, this caused controversy, but FDR had begun to stop
      playing the silly old games of isolationism and was slowly starting to
      step out into the spotlight.

XII. FDR Shatters the Two-Term Tradition (1940)

  1. In 1940, it was thought that Robert A. Taft of Ohio or Thomas E.
    Dewey would be the Republican candidate, but a colorful and magnetic
    newcomer went from a nobody to a candidate in a matter of weeks.
    Wendell L. Willkie, became the Republican against Democratic candidate
    Franklin D. Roosevelt, who waited until the last moment to challenge
    the two-term tradition.
    • Democrats felt that FDR was the only man qualified to be president, especially in so grave of a situation as was going on.
  2. Willkie and FDR weren’t really different in the realm of
    foreign affairs, but Willkie hit hard with his attacks on the third
    term.
  3. Still, FDR won because voters felt that, should war come, FDR was the best man to lead America.

XIII. Congress Passes the Landmark Lend-Lease Law

  1. Britain was running out of money, but Roosevelt didn’t want
    all the hassles that came with calling back debts, so he came up with
    the idea of a lend-lease program in which the arms and ships, etc. that
    the U.S. lent to the nations that needed them would be returned when
    they were no longer needed.
    • Senator Taft retorted that in this case the U.S. wouldn’t
      want them back because it would be like lending chewing gum then taking
      it back after it’d been chewed.
  2. The lend-lease bill was argued over heatedly in Congress, but it
    passed, and by war’s end, America had sent about $50 billion
    worth of arms and equipment.
    • The lend-lease act was basically the abandonment of the neutrality policy, and Hitler recognized this.
    • Before, German submarines had avoided attacking U.S. ships, but
      after the passage, they started to fire upon U.S. ships as well, such
      as the May 21, 1941 torpedoing of the Robin Moor.

XIV. Hitler’s Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

  1. On June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked Russia, because ever since the
    signing of the nonaggression pact, neither Stalin nor Hitler had
    trusted each other, and both had been plotting to double-cross each
    other.
    • Hitler assumed his invincible troops would crush the inferior
      Soviet soldiers, but the valor of the Red army, U.S. aid to the
      U.S.S.R. (through lend-lease), and an early and bitter winter stranded
      the German force at Moscow and shifted the tide against Germany.
  2. The Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941, and the result was
    the eight-point Atlantic Charter, which was suggestive of Woodrow
    Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Main points included…
    • There would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the natives.
    • The charter also affirmed the right for people to choose their rulers (self-determination).
    • It declared disarmament and a peace of security, as well as a new League of Nations.
  3. Critics charged that “neutral America” was interfering, ignoring that America was no longer neutral.

XV. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash

  1. To ensure that arms sent to Britain would reach there, FDR finally
    agreed that a convoy would have to escort them, but only as far as
    Iceland, as Britain would take over from there.
  2. There were clashes, as U.S. destroyers like the Greer, the Kearny, and the Reuben James were attacked by the Germans.
  3. By mid-November 1941, Congress annulled the now-useless Neutrality Act of 1939.

XVI. Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor

  1. Japan was still embroiled in war with China, but when America
    suddenly imposed embargoes on key supplies on Japan in 1940, the
    imperialistic nation had now no choice but to either back off of China
    or attack the U.S.; they chose the latter.
  2. The Americans had broken the Japanese code and knew that they would
    declare war soon, but the U.S. could not attack, so based on what the
    Japanese supposedly planned, most Americans thought that the Japanese
    would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.
  3. However, the paralyzing blow struck Pearl Harbor, as on December 7,
    1941, Japanese air bombers suddenly attacked the naval base located
    there (where almost the entire U.S. fleet was located), wiping out many
    ships and killing or wounding 3,000 men.
  4. The next day, the one after “a date which will live in
    infamy” (FDR), the U.S. declared war on Japan, and on December
    11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.

XVII. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

  1. Up until the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, most Americans still
    wanted to stay out of war, but afterwards the event sparked such
    passion that it completely infuriated Americans into wanting to go to
    war.
  2. This had been long in coming, as the U.S. had wanted to stay out of
    war, but had still supported Britain more and more, and the U.S. had
    been against the Japanese aggression but had failed to take a firm
    stand on either side.
  3. Finally, people decided that appeasement didn’t work against
    “iron wolves,” and that only full war was needed to keep
    the world safe for democracy and against anarchy and dictatorship.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 35 - America in World War II

I. The Allies Trade Space for Time

  1. When Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, millions of
    infuriated Americans, especially on the west coast, instantly changed
    their views from isolationist to avenger.
  2. However, America, led by the wise Franklin D. Roosevelt, resisted
    such pressures, instead taking a “get Germany first”
    approach to the war, for if Germany were to defeat Britain before the
    Allies could beat Japan, there would be no stopping Hitler and his men.
    • Meanwhile, just enough troops would be sent to fight Japan to keep it in check.
  3. America had the hardship of preparing for war, since it had been in
    isolation for the preceding decades, and the test would be whether or
    not it could mobilize quickly enough to stop Germany and make the world
    safe for democracy (again).

II. The Shock of War

  1. After the attack at Pearl Harbor, national unity was strong as steel, and the few Hitler supporters in America faded away.
  2. Most of America’s ethnic groups assimilated even faster due
    to WWII, since in the decades before the war, few immigrants had been
    allowed into America.
    • Unfortunately, on the Pacific coast, 110,000 Japanese-Americans
      were taken from their homes and herded into internment camps where
      their properties and freedoms were taken away.
    • The 1944 case of Korematsu v. U.S. affirmed the constitutionality of these camps.
    • It took more than 40 years before the U.S. admitted fault and made $20,000 reparation payments to camp survivors.
  3. With the war, many New Deal programs were wiped out, such as the
    Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and the
    National Youth Administration.
  4. WWII was no idealistic crusade, as most Americans didn’t even
    know what the Atlantic Charter (declaration of U.S. goals going into
    the war such as to fight Germany first, and Japan second) was.

III. Building the War Machine

  1. Massive military orders (over $100 billion in 1942 alone) ended the Great Depression by creating demand for jobs and production.
  2. Shipbuilder Henry J. Kaiser was dubbed “Sir Launchalot”
    because his methods of ship assembly churned out one ship every 14 days!
  3. The War Production Board halted manufacture of nonessential items
    such as passenger cars, and when the Japanese seized vital rubber
    supplies in British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, the U.S. imposed
    a national speed limit and gasoline rationing to save tires.
  4. Farmers rolled out more food, but the new sudden spurt in
    production made prices soar—a problem that was finally solved by
    the regulation of prices by the Office of Price Administration.
  5. Many essential goods were rationed.
  6. Meanwhile labor unions pledged not to strike during the war, some did anyway.
    • The United Mine Workers was one such group and was led by John L. Lewis.
    • In June 1943, Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act,
      which let the federal government seize and operate industries
      threatened by or under strikes.
    • Fortunately, strikes accounted for less than 1% of total working hours of the U.S. wartime laboring force.

IV. Manpower and Womanpower

  1. The armed forces had nearly 15 million men and 216,000 women, and
    some of these “women in arms” included the WAACS (Army),
    the WAVES (Navy), and SPARS (Coast Guard).
  2. Because of the national draft that plucked men (and women) from
    their homes and into the military, there weren’t enough workers,
    so the Bracero Program brought Mexican workers to America as resident
    workers.
  3. With the men in the military, women took up jobs in the workplace,
    symbolized by “Rosie the Riveter,” and upon war’s
    end, many did not return to their homes as in World War I.
    • It must be noted that the female revolution into the work force was
      not as great as commonly exaggerated. At the end of the war, 2/3 of the
      women did return home; the servicemen that came home to them helped
      produce a baby boom that is still being felt today.

V. Wartime Migrations

  1. The war also forced many people to move to new places, and many young folks went to and saw new cities far from home.
  2. FDR used the war as an excuse to pump lots of money into the
    stagnant South to revitalize it, helping to start the blossoming of the
    “Sunbelt.”
    • Still, some 1.6 million blacks left the South for better places,
      and explosive tensions developed over black housing, employment, and
      segregation facilities.
  3. Philip Randolph, leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters,
    threatened a “Negro March to Washington” in 1941 to get
    better rights and treatment.
  4. The president also established the Fair Employment Practices
    Commission to discourage racism and oppression in the workplace, and
    while Blacks in the army still suffered degrading discrimination (i.e.
    separate blood banks), they still used the war as a rallying cry
    against dictators abroad and racism at home—overall gaining power
    and strength.
    • Membership to the NAACP passed the half-million mark, and a new
      organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), was founded in
      1942.
  5. In 1944, the mechanical cotton picker made the need for muscle
    nonexistent, so blacks that used to pick cotton could now leave, since
    they were no longer needed.
    • They left the South and took up residence in urban areas.
  6. Native Americans also left their reservations during the war, finding work in the cities or joining the army.
    • Some 25,000 Native Americans were in the army, and the Navajo and
      Comanches were “code talkers,” relaying military orders in
      the own language—a “code” that was never broken by
      the Axis Powers.
  7. Such sudden “rubbing of the races” did spark riots and
    cause tension, such as the 1943 attack on some Mexican-American navy
    men in Los Angeles and the Detroit race riot (occurring in the same
    year) that killed 25 blacks and 9 whites.

VI. Holding the Home Front

  1. America was the only country to emerge after the war relatively
    unscathed, and in fact, it was much better off after the war than
    before.
    • The gross national product more than doubled, as did corporate profits.
    • In fact, when the war ended and price controls were lifted, inflation shot up.
  2. Despite all of the New Deal programs, it was the plethora of spending during WWII that lifted America from its Great Depression.
    • The wartime bill amounted to more than $330 billion—more than
      the combined costs of all the previous American wars together.
    • While income tax was expanded to make four times as many people pay
      as before, most of the payments were borrowed, making the national debt
      soar from $49 billion to $259 billion (the war had cost as much as $10
      million per hour at one point).

VII. The Rising Sun in the Pacific

  1. The Japanese overran the lands that they descended upon, winning
    more land with less losses than ever before and conquering Guam, Wake,
    the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma (in the process
    cutting the famed Burma Road), the Dutch East Indies, and even pushing
    into China.
  2. When the Japanese took over the Philippines, U.S. General Douglas
    MacArthur had to sneak out of the place, but he vowed to return to
    liberate the islands; he went to Australia.
  3. After the fighters in the Philippines surrendered, they were forced to make the infamous 85-mile Bataan death march.
    • On May 6, 1942, the island fortress of Corregidor, in Manila Harbor, surrendered.

VIII. Japan’s High Tide at Midway

  1. The Japanese onrush was finally checked in the Coral Sea by
    American and Australian forces in the world’s 1st naval battle
    where the ships never saw one another (they fought with aircraft via
    carriers). And, when the Japanese tried to seize Midway Island, they
    were forced back by U.S. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz during fierce
    fighting from June 3-6, 1942.
    • Midway proved to be the turning point that stopped Japanese expansion.
    • Admiral Raymond A. Spruance also helped maneuver the fleet to win,
      and this victory marked the turning point in the war in the Pacific.
    • No longer would the Japanese take any more land, as the U.S. began
      a process called “island hopping,” where the Allies would
      bypass heavily fortified islands, take over neighboring islands, and
      starve the resistant forces to death with lack of supplies and constant
      bombing saturation, to push back the Japanese.
  2. Also, the Japanese had taken over some islands in the Alaskan chain, the Aleutians.

IX. American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo

  1. Americans won at Guadalcanal in August 1942 and then got New Guinea by August 1944.
  2. By island hopping, the U.S. also retook the Aleutian Islands of
    Attu and Kiska in August of 1943, and in November of that year,
    “bloody Tarawa” and Makin, members of the Gilbert Islands,
    fell to the Allies.
  3. American sailors shelled the beachheads with artillery, U.S.
    Marines stormed ashore, and American bombers attacked the Japanese,
    such as Lt. Robert J. Albert who piloted a B-24 “Liberator”
    on 36 missions including his final run before returning home. That
    mission was a record 18 hour and 25 minute strike that he piloted, even
    though his tour of duty was complete, just so his men would not fly
    behind a rookie pilot.
  4. In January and February of 1944, the Marshall Islands fell to the U.S.
  5. The assault on the Marianas (including Guam) began on June 19,
    1944, and with superior planes such as the “Hellcat”
    fighter and a U.S. victory the next day in the Battle of the Philippine
    Sea, the U.S. rolled on, taking the islands and beginning
    around-the-clock bombing raids over Tokyo and other parts of mainland
    Japan.

X. The Allied Halting of Hitler

  1. The U.S. also at first had trouble against Germany, as its U-boats
    proved very effective, but the breaking of the Germans’
    “enigma” code helped pinpoint those subs better.
    • It wasn’t until war’s end that the true threat of the
      German submarines was known, as it was discovered that Hitler had been
      about to unleash a new U-boat that could remain underwater indefinitely
      and cruise at 17 knots underwater.
  2. In May 1942, the British launched a massive raid on Cologne, France, and in August, the U.S. air corps joined them.
    • The Germans, led by the “Desert Fox” Marshall Edwin
      Rommel, drove to Egypt, dangerously close to the Suez Canal, but late
      in October 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery defeated him at El
      Alamein, west of Cairo.
  3. On the Soviet front, the Russians launched a new, blistering
    counteroffensive, regaining about 2/3 of the land they had lost before
    a year later.

XI. A Second Front from North Africa to Rome

  1. The Soviets had begged the Allies to open up a second front against
    Hitler, since Soviet forces were dying by the millions (20 million by
    war’s end), and the Americans were eager to comply, but the
    British, remembering WWI, were reluctant.
    • Instead of a frontal European assault, the British devised an
      invasion through North Africa, so that the Allies could cut
      Hitler’s forces through the “soft underbelly” of the
      Mediterranean Sea.
  2. Thus, a secret attack was coordinated and executed by Dwight D.
    Eisenhower as they defeated the French troops, but upon meeting the
    real German soldiers, Americans were set back at Kasserine Pass.
    • This soft underbelly campaign wasn’t really successful, as
      the underbelly wasn’t as soft as Churchill had guessed, but
      important lessons were learned.
  3. At the Casablanca Conference, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston
    Churchill met and agreed on the term of “unconditional
    surrender.”
  4. The Allies found bitter resistance in Italy, but Sicily finally fell in August 1943.
    • Italian dictator Mussolini was deposed, and a new government was set up.
      • Two years later, he and his mistress were lynched and killed.
    • Germany didn’t leave Italy, though, and for many months, more
      fighting and stalemates occurred, especially at Monte Cassino, where
      Germans were holed up.
  5. The Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944, and it wasn’t
    until May 2, 1945, that Axis troops in Italy finally surrendered.
  6. Though long and tiring, the Italian invasion did open up Europe,
    divert some of Hitler’s men from the Soviet front, and helping
    cause Italy to fall.

XII. D-Day: June 6, 1944

  1. At the Tehran Conference, the Big Three (FDR, Churchill, and Josef
    Stalin, leader of Russia) met and agreed that the Soviets and Allies
    would launch simultaneous attacks.
  2. The Allies began plans for a gigantic cross-channel invasion, and
    command of the whole operation was entrusted to General Eisenhower.
    • Meanwhile, MacArthur received a fake army to use as a ruse to Germany.
  3. The point of attack was French Normandy, and on June 6, 1944, D-Day
    began—the amphibious assault on Normandy. After heavy resistance,
    Allied troops, some led by General George S. Patton, finally clawed
    their way onto land, across the landscape, and deeper into France.
    • With the help of the “French underground,” Paris was freed in August of 1944.

XIII. FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944

  1. Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, a young, liberal governor of
    New York, and paired him with isolationist John W. Bricker of Ohio.
  2. FDR was the Democratic lock, but because of his age, the vice
    presidential candidate was carefully chosen to be Harry S. Truman, who
    won out over Henry A. Wallace—an ill-balanced and unpredictable
    liberal.

XIV. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey

  1. Dewey went on a rampaging campaign offensive while FDR, stuck with WWII problems, could not go out much.
    • The new Political Action Committee of the CIO contributed
      considerable money. It was organized to get around the law banning
      direct use of union funds for political purposes.
  2. In the end, Roosevelt stomped Dewey, 432 to 99, the fourth term
    issue wasn’t even that big of a deal, since the precedent had
    already been broken three years before.
  3. FDR won because the war was going well, and because people wanted to stick with him.

XV. The Last Days of Hitler

  1. On the retreat and losing, Hitler concentrated his forces and threw
    them in the Ardennes forest on December 16, 1944, starting the Battle
    of “the Bulge.” He nearly succeeded in his gamble, but the
    ten-day penetration was finally stopped by the 101st Airborne Division
    that had stood firm at the vital bastion of Bastogne, which was
    commanded by Brigadier General A.C. McAuliffe.
  2. In March 1945, the Americans reached the Rhine River of Germany,
    and then pushed toward the river Elbe, and from there, joining Soviet
    troops, they marched toward Berlin.
  3. Upon entering Germany, the Allies were horrified to find the
    concentration camps where millions of Jews and other
    “undesirables” had been slaughtered in attempted genocide.
    • Adolph Hitler, knowing that he had lost, committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945.
  4. Meanwhile, in America, FDR had died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945.
  5. May 7, 1945 was the date of the official German surrender, and the
    next day was officially proclaimed V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day).

XVI. Japan Dies Hard

  1. American submarines were ruining Japan’s fleet, and attacks
    such as the March 9-10, 1945 firebomb raid on Tokyo that killed over
    83,000 people were wearing Japan out.
  2. On October 20, 1944, General MacArthur finally “returned” to the Philippines.
    • However, he didn’t retake Manila until March 1945.
  3. The last great naval battle at Leyte Gulf was lost by Japan, terminating its sea power status.
  4. In March 1945, Iwo Jima was captured; this 25-day assault left over 4,000 Americans dead.
  5. Okinawa was won after fighting from April to June of 1945, and was captured at the cost of 50,000 American lives.
    • Japanese “kamikaze” suicide pilots, for the sake of
      their god-emperor, unleashed the full fury of their terror at Okinawa
      in a last-ditch effort.

XVII. The Atomic Bombs

  1. At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies issued an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed.
  2. The first atomic bomb had been tested on July 16, 1945, near
    Alamogordo, New Mexico, and when Japan refused to surrender, Americans
    dropped A-bombs onto Hiroshima (on August 6, 1945), killing 180,000 and
    Nagasaki (on August 9, 1945), killing 80,000.
  3. On August 8, 1945, the Soviets declared war on Japan, just as
    promised, and two days later, on August 10, Japan sued for peace on one
    condition: that the Emperor Hirohito be allowed to remain on the
    Japanese throne.
    • Despite the “unconditional surrender” clause, the Allies accepted.
  4. The formal end came on September 2, 1945, on the battleship U.S.S. Missouri where Hirohito surrendered to General MacArthur.

XVIII. The Allies Triumphant

  1. America suffered 1 million casualties, but the number killed by
    disease and infections was very low thanks to new miracle drugs like
    penicillin. But otherwise the U.S. had suffered little losses (two
    Japanese attacks on California and Oregon that were rather harmless).
  2. This was America’s best-fought war, despite the fact that the U.S. began preparing later than usual.
  3. The success was partly thanks to the excellent U.S. generals and admirals, and the leaders.
  4. Industry also rose to the challenge, putting out a phenomenal
    amount of goods, proving wrong Hermann Goering, a Nazi leader who had
    scorned America’s lack of manufacturing skills.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 36 - The Cold War Begins

I. Postwar Economic Anxieties

  1. The Americans cheered the end of World War II in 1945, but many
    worried that with the war over, the U.S. would sink back into another
    Great Depression.
    • Upon war’s end, inflation shot up with the release of price
      controls while the gross national product sank, and labor strikes swept
      the nation.
  2. To get even with labor, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, which
    outlawed “closed” shops (closed to non-union members), made
    unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes
    among themselves, and required that union leaders take non-communist
    oaths. Opposite of the Wagner Act of the New Deal, this new act was a
    strike against labor unions.
  3. Labor tried to organize in the South and West with “Operation Dixie,” but this proved frustrating and unsuccessful.
  4. To forestall an economic downturn, the Democratic administration
    sold war factories and other government installations to private
    businesses cheaply. Congress passed the Employment Act of 1946, which
    made it government policy to “promote maximum employment,
    production, and purchasing power,” and created the Council of
    Economic Advisors to provide the president with data to make that
    policy a reality.
    • It also passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944,
      better known as the GI Bill of Rights, which allowed all servicemen to
      have free college education once they returned from the war.

II. The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970

  1. Then, in the late 1940s and into the 1960s, the economy began to
    boom tremendously, and folks who had felt the sting of the Great
    Depression now wanted to bathe in the new prosperity.
    • The middle class more than doubled while people now wanted two cars
      in every garage; over 90% of American families owned a television.
  2. Women also reaped the benefits of the postwar economy, growing in
    the American work force while giving up their former roles as
    housewives.
  3. Even though this new affluence did not touch everyone, it did touch many.

III. The Roots of Postwar Prosperity

  1. Postwar prosperity was fueled by several factors, including the war
    itself that forced America to produce more than it’d ever
    imagined.
  2. However, much of the prosperity of the 50s and 60s rested on colossal military projects.
    • Massive appropriations for the Korean War, defense spending,
      industries like aerospace, plastics, and electronics, and research and
      development all were such projects.
    • R and D, research and development, became an entirely new industry.
  3. Cheap energy paralleled the popularity of automobiles, and spidery
    grids of electrical cables carried the power of oil, gas, coal, and
    falling water into homes and factories alike.
  4. Workers upped their productivity tremendously, as did farmers, due
    to new technology in fertilizers, etc. In fact, the farming population
    shrank while production soared.

IV. The Smiling Sunbelt

  1. With so many people on the move, families were being strained.
    Combined with the baby boom, this explained the success of Dr. Benjamin
    Spock’s The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care.
  2. Immigration also led to the growth of a fifteen-state region in the
    southern half of the U.S. known as the Sunbelt, which dramatically
    increased in population.
    • In fact, in the 1950s, California overtook New York as the most populous state.
  3. Immigrants came to the Sunbelt for more opportunities, such as in
    California’s electronics industry and the aerospace complexes of
    Texas and Florida.
    • Federal dollars poured into the Sunbelt (some $125 million), and
      political power grew there as well, as ever since 1964, every U.S.
      president has come from that region.
    • Sunbelters were redrawing the political map, taking the economic and political power out of the North and Northeast.

V. The Rush to the Suburbs

  1. Whites in cities fled to the suburbs, encouraged by federal
    agencies such as the Federal Housing Authority and the Veteran’s
    Administration, whose loan guarantees made it cheaper to live in the
    suburbs than in cramped city apartments
    • By 1960, one out of ever four Americans lived in the suburbs.
  2. Innovators like the Levitt brothers, with their monotonous but
    cheap housing plans, built thousands of houses in projects like
    Levittown, and the “White flight” left the cities full of
    the poor and the African-Americans.
    • Federal agencies aggravated this by often refusing to make loans to
      Blacks due to the “risk factor” involved with this.

VI. The Postwar Baby Boom

  1. After the war, many soldiers returned to their sweethearts and
    married them, then had babies, creating a “Baby Boom” that
    would be felt for generations.
  2. As the children grew up collectively, they put strains on
    respective markets, such as manufacturers of baby products in the 1940s
    and 50s, teenage clothing designers in the 60s, and the job market in
    the 70s and 80s.
  3. By around 2020, they will place enormous strains on the Social Security system.

VII. Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri

  1. Presiding after World War II was Harry S. Truman, who had come to
    power after Franklin Roosevelt had died from a massive brain
    hemorrhage.
    • The first president in a long time without a college education,
      Truman at first approached his burdens with humility, but he gradually
      evolved into a confident, cocky politician.
    • His cabinet was made up of the old “Missouri gang,”
      which was composed of Truman’s friends from when he was a senator
      in Missouri.
    • Often, Truman would stick to a wrong decision just to prove his decisiveness and power of command.
  2. However, even if he was small on the small things, he was big on
    the big things, taking responsibility very seriously and working very
    hard.

VIII. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?

  1. A final conference of the Big Three had taken place at Yalta in
    February 1945, where Soviet leader Joseph Stalin pledged that Poland
    should have a representative government with free elections, as would
    Bulgaria and Romania. But, Stalin broke those promises.
  2. At Yalta, the Soviet Union had agreed to attack Japan three months
    after the fall of Germany, but by the time the Soviets entered the
    Pacific war, the U.S. was about to win anyway, and now, it seemed that
    the U.S.S.R. had entered for the sake of taking spoils.
    • The Soviet Union was also granted control of the Manchurian railroads and received special privileges to Dairen and Port Arthur.
  3. Critics of FDR charged that he’d sold China’s Chiang
    Kai-shek down the river, while supporters claimed that the Soviets
    could have taken more of China had they wished, and that the Yalta
    agreements had actually limited the Soviet Union.

IX. The United States and the Soviet Union

  1. With the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. as the only world superpowers
    after WWII, trouble seemed imminent, for the U.S. had waited until
    1933, to recognize the U.S.S.R.; the U.S. and Britain had delayed to
    open up a second front during World War II; the U.S. and Britain had
    frozen the Soviets out of developing nuclear arms; and the U.S. had
    withdrawn its vital lend-lease program from the U.S.S.R. in 1945 and
    spurned Moscow’s plea for a $6 billion reconstructive loan while
    approving a similar $3.75 billion loan to Berlin.
  2. Stalin wanted a protective sphere around western Russian, for twice
    earlier in the century Russia had been attacked from that direction,
    and that meant taking nations like Poland under its control.
  3. Even though both the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. were recent newcomers
    to the world stage, they were very advanced and had been isolationist
    before the 20th century, now they found themselves in a political
    stare-down that would turn into the Cold War and last for four and a
    half decades.

X. Shaping the Postwar World

  1. However, the U.S. did manage to establish structures that were part of FDR’s open world.
    • At a meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, the Western
      Allies established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage
      world trade by regulating the currency exchange rates.
  2. The United Nations opened on April 25, 1945.
    • The member nations drew up a charter similar to that of the old
      League of Nations, formed a Security Council to be headed by five
      permanent powers (China, U.S.S.R., Britain, France, and U.S.A.) that
      had total veto powers, and was headquartered in New York City.
    • The Senate overwhelmingly approved the U.N. by a vote of 89 to 2.
  3. The U.N. kept peace in Kashmir and other trouble spots, created the
    new Jewish state of Israel, formed such groups as UNESCO (U.N.
    Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), FAO (Food and
    Agricultural Organization), and WHO (World Health Organization),
    bringing benefits to people all over the globe.
  4. However, when U.S. delegate Bernard Baruch called in 1946 for a
    U.N. agency free from the great power veto that could investigate all
    nuclear facilities and weapons, the U.S.S.R. rejected the proposal,
    since it didn’t want to give up its veto power and was opposed to
    “capitalist spies” snooping around in the Soviet Union. The
    small window of regulating nuclear weapons was lost.

XI. The Problem of Germany

  1. The Nuremberg Trials of 1945-46 severely punished 22 top culprits of the Holocaust.
  2. America knew that an economically healthy Germany was indispensable
    to the recovery of all of Europe, but Russia, fearing another
    blitzkrieg, wanted huge reparations from Germany.
  3. Germany, like Austria, was divided into four occupational zones
    controlled by the Allied Powers minus China, but as the U.S. began
    proposing the idea of a united Germany, and as the Western nations
    prevented Stalin from getting his reparations from their parts of
    Germany, it became obvious that Germany would remain indefinitely
    divided.
    • In 1948, when the U.S.S.R. choked off all air and railway access to
      Berlin, located deep in East Germany, they thought that such an act
      would starve the Allies out, since Berlin itself was divided into four
      zones as well.
    • However, the Allies organized the massive Berlin Airlift to feed
      the people of Berlin, and in May 1949, the Soviets stopped their
      blockade of Berlin.

XII. The Cold War Congeals

  1. When, in 1946, Stalin used his troops to aid a rebel movement in Iran, Truman protested, and the Soviets backed down.
  2. Truman soon adopted the “containment policy,” crafted
    by Soviet specialist George F. Kennan, which stated that firm
    containment of Soviet expansion would halt Communist power.
  3. On March 12, 1947, Truman requested that the containment policy be
    put into action in what would come to be called the Truman Doctrine:
    $400 million to help Greece and Turkey from falling into communist
    power.
    • So basically, the doctrine said that the U.S. would aid any power
      fighting Communist aggression, an idea later criticized because the
      U.S. would often give money to dictators “fighting
      communism.”
  4. In Western Europe, France, Italy, and Germany were still in
    terrible shape, so Truman, with the help of Secretary of State George
    C. Marshall, implemented the Marshall Plan, a miraculous recovery
    effort that had Western Europe up and prosperous in no time.
    • This helped in the forming of the European Community (EC).
    • The plan sent $12.5 billion over four years to 16 cooperating
      nations to aid in recovery, and at first, Congress didn’t want to
      comply, especially when this sum was added to the $2 billion the U.S.
      was already giving to European relief as part of the United Nations
      Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA).
    • However, a Soviet-sponsored coup that toppled the government of
      Czechoslovakia finally awakened the Congressmen to their senses, and
      they passed the plan.
  5. Truman also recognized Israel on its birthday, May 14, 1948,
    despite heavy Arab opposition and despite the fact that those same
    Arabs controlled the oil supplies in the Middle East.

XIII. America Begins to Rearm

  1. The 1947 National Security Act created the Department of Defense,
    which was housed in the Pentagon and headed by a new cabinet position,
    the Secretary of Defense, under which served civilian secretaries of
    the army, navy, and air force.
  2. The National Security Act also formed the National Security Council
    (NSC) to advise the president on security matters and the Central
    Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government’s foreign
    fact-gathering (spying).
  3. The “Voice of America,” a radio broadcast, began
    beaming in 1948, while Congress resurrected the military draft
    (Selective Service System), which redefined many young people’s
    career choices and persuaded them to go to college.
  4. In 1948, the U.S. joined Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands,
    and Luxembourg to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
    which considered an attack on one NATO member an attack on all, despite
    the U.S.’s policy of traditionally not involving itself in
    entangling alliances.
    • In response, the U.S.S.R. formed the Warsaw Pact, its own alliance system.
    • NATO’s membership grew to fourteen with the 1952 admissions
      of Greece and Turkey, and then to 15 when West Germany joined in 1955.

XIV. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia

  1. General Douglas MacArthur headed reconstruction in Japan and tried
    the top Japanese war criminals. He dictated a constitution that was
    adopted in 1946, and democratized Japan.
  2. However, in China, the communist forces, led by Mao Zedong,
    defeated the nationalist forces, led by Chiang Kai-shek, who then fled
    to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1949.
    • With this defeat, one-quarter of the world population (500,000,000 people) plunged under the Communist flag.
    • Critics of Truman assailed that he did not support the nationalists
      enough, but Chiang Kai-shek never had the support of the people to
      begin with.
  3. Then, in September of 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had
    exploded their first atomic bomb—three years before experts
    thought it was possible, thus eliminating the U.S. monopoly on nuclear
    weapons.
    • The U.S. exploded the hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the Soviets
      followed suit a year later; thus began the dangerous arms race of the
      Cold War.

XV. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists

  1. An anti-red chase was in full force in the U.S. with the formation
    of the Loyalty Review Board, which investigated more than 3 million
    federal employees.
    • The attorney general also drew up a list of 90 organizations that
      were potentially not loyal to the U.S., and none was given the
      opportunity to defend itself.
  2. In 1949, 11 communists were brought to a New York jury for
    violating the Smith Act of 1940, which had been the first peacetime
    anti-sedition law since 1798.
    • They were convicted, sent to prison, and their conviction was upheld by the 1951 case Dennis v. United States.
  3. The House of Representatives had, in 1938 established the Committee
    on Un-American Activities (“HUAC”) to investigate
    “subversion,” and in 1948, committee member Richard M.
    Nixon prosecuted Alger Hiss.
  4. In February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy burst upon the scene, charging
    that there were scores of unknown communists in the State Department.
    • He couldn’t prove it, and many American began to fear that
      this red chase was going too far; after all, how could there be freedom
      of speech if saying communist ideas got one arrested?
    • Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill, which
      would’ve let the president arrest and detain suspicious people
      during an “internal security emergency.”
  5. The Soviet success of developing nuclear bombs so easily was
    probably due to spies, and in 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were
    brought to trial, convicted, and executed of selling nuclear secrets to
    the Russians.
    • Their sensational trial, electrocution, and sympathy for their two children began to sober America zeal in red hunting.

XVI. Democratic Divisions in 1948

  1. Republicans won control of the House in 1946 and then nominated
    Thomas E. Dewey to the 1948 ticket, while Democrats were forced to
    choose Truman again when war-hero Dwight D. Eisenhower refused to be
    chosen.
    • Truman’s nomination split the Democratic Party, as Southern
      Democrats (“Dixiecrats”) nominated Governor J. Strom
      Thurmond of South Carolina on a State’s Rights Party ticket.
    • Former vice president Henry A. Wallace also threw his hat into the ring, getting nominated by the new Progressive Party.
  2. With the Democrats totally disorganized, Dewey seemed destined for
    a super-easy victory, and on election night, the Chicago Tribune even
    ran an early edition wrongly proclaiming “DEWEY DEFEATS
    TRUMAN,” but Truman shockingly won, getting 303 electoral votes
    to Dewey’s 189. And to make things better, the Democrats won
    control of Congress again.
    • Truman received critical support from farmers, workers, and blacks.
  3. Truman then called for a new program called “Point
    Four,” which called for financial support of poor, underdeveloped
    lands in hopes of keeping underprivileged peoples from turning
    communist.
  4. At home, Truman outlined a sweeping “Fair Deal”
    program, which called for improved housing, full employment, a higher
    minimum wage, better farm price supports, a new Tennessee Valley
    Authority, and an extension of Social Security.
    • However, the only successes came in raising the minimum wage,
      providing for public housing in the Housing Act of 1949, and extending
      old-age insurance to more beneficiaries with the Social Security Act of
      1950.

XVII. The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950)

  1. When Russian and American forces withdrew from Korea, they had left
    the place full of weapons and with rival regimes (communist North and
    democratic South).
  2. Then, on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces suddenly invaded South
    Korean, taking the South Koreans by surprise and pushing them
    dangerously south toward Pusan.
    • Truman sprang to action, remembering that the League of Nations had
      failed from inactivity, and ordered U.S. military spending to be
      quadrupled, as desired by the National Security Council Memorandum
      Number 68, or NSC-68.
  3. Truman also used a Soviet absence from the U.N. to label North
    Korea as an aggressor and send U.N. troops to fight against the
    aggressors.
    • He also ordered General MacArthur’s Japan-based troops to Korea.

XVIII. The Military Seesaw in Korea

  1. General MacArthur landed a brilliant invasion behind enemy forces
    at Inchon on September 15, 1950, and drove the North Koreans back
    across the 38th parallel, towards China and the Yalu River.
    • An overconfident MacArthur boasted that he’d “have the
      boys home by Christmas,” but in November 1950, Chinese
      “volunteers” flooded across the border and pushed the South
      Koreans back to the 38th parallel.
  2. MacArthur, humiliated, wanted to blockade China and bomb Manchuria,
    but Truman didn’t want to enlarge the war beyond necessity, but
    when the angry general began to publicly criticize President Truman and
    spoke of using atomic weapons, Harry had no choice but to remove him
    from command on grounds of insubordination.
    • MacArthur returned to cheers while Truman was scorned as a
      “pig,” an “imbecile,” an appeaser to communist
      Russia and China, and a “Judas.”
    • In July 1951, truce discussions began but immediately snagged over the issue of prisoner exchange.
    • Talks dragged on for two more years as men continued to die.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 37 - The Eisenhower Era

I. Affluence and Its Anxieties

  1. The economy really sprouted during the 50s, and the invention of
    the transistor exploded the electronics field, especially in computers,
    helping such companies as International Business Machines (IBM) expand
    and prosper.
  2. Aerospace industries progressed, as the Boeing company made the
    first passenger-jet airplane (adapted from the superbombers of the
    Strategic Air Command), the 707.
  3. In 1956, “white-collar” workers outnumbered “blue
    collar” workers for the first time, meaning that the industrial
    era was passing on.
    • As this occurred, labor unions peaked in 1954 then started a steady decline.
    • Women appeared more and more in the workplace, despite the
      stereotypical role of women as housewives that was being portrayed on
      TV shows such as “Ozzie and Harriet” and “Leave It to
      Beaver.”
      • More than 40 million new jobs were created.
  4. Women’s expansion into the workplace shocked some, but really
    wasn’t surprising if one observed the trends in history, and now,
    they were both housewives and workers.
    • Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique was a
      best-seller and a classic of modern feminine protest literature.
      She’s the godmother of the feminist movement.

II. Consumer Culture in the Fifties

  1. The fifties saw the first Diner’s Club cards, the opening of
    McDonald’s, the debut of Disneyland, and an explosion in the
    number of television stations in the country.
  2. Advertisers used television to sell products while
    “televangelists” like Billy Graham, Oral Roberts, and
    Fulton J. Sheen used TV to preach the gospel and encourage religion.
  3. Sports shifted west, as the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants moved to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, in 1958.
  4. Elvis Presley, a white singer of the new “rock and
    roll” who made girls swoon with his fleshy face, pointing lips,
    and antic, sexually suggestive gyrations, that redefined popular music.
    • Elvis died from drugs in 1977, at age 42.
  5. Traditionalists were shocked by Elvis’s shockingly open
    sexuality, and Marilyn Monroe (in her Playboy magazine spread)
    continued in the redefinition of the new sensuous sexuality.
    • Critics, such as David Riesman in The Lonely Crowd, William H.
      Whyte, Jr. in The Organization Man, and Sloan Wilson in The Man in the
      Gray Flannel Suit, lamented this new consumerist style.
    • Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith questioned the relation between private wealth and public good in The Affluent Society.
  6. Daniel Bell found further such paradoxes, as did C. Wright Mills.

III. The Advent of Eisenhower

  1. In 1952, the Democrats chose Adlai E. Stevenson, the witty governor
    of Illinois, while Republicans rejected isolationist Robert A. Taft and
    instead chose World War II hero Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for
    president and anticommunist Richard M. Nixon to be his running mate.
  2. Grandfatherly Eisenhower was a war hero and liked by everyone, so
    he left the rough part of campaigning to Nixon, who attacked Stevenson
    as soft against communists, corrupt, and weak in the Korean situation.
    • Nixon then almost got caught with a secretly financed “slush
      fund,” but to save his political career, he delivered his famous
      and touching “Checkers Speech.” In it, he denied wrongdoing
      and spoke of his family and specifically, his daughter’s cute
      little cocker spaniel, Checkers. He was forgiven in the public arena
      and stayed on as V.P.
  3. The “Checkers speech” showed the awesome power of
    television, since Nixon had pleaded on national TV, and even later,
    “Ike,” as Eisenhower was called, agreed to go into studio
    and answer some brief “questions,” which were later spliced
    in and edited to make it look like Eisenhower had answered questions
    from a live audience, when in fact he hadn’t.
    • This showed the power that TV would have in the upcoming decades,
      allowing lone wolves to appeal directly to the American people instead
      of being influenced by party machines or leaders.
  4. Ike won easily (442 to 89), and true to his campaign promise, he
    flew to Korea to help move along peace negotiations, yet failed. But
    seven months later, after Ike threatened to use nuclear weapons, an
    armistice was finally signed (but was later violated often).
  5. In Korea, 54,000 Americans had died, and tens of billions of
    dollars had been wasted in the effort, but Americans took a little
    comfort in knowing that communism had been “contained.”
  6. Eisenhower had been an excellent commander and leader who was able
    to make cooperation possible between anyone, so he seemed to be a
    perfect leader for Americans weary of two decades of depression, war,
    and nuclear standoff.
    • He served that aspect of his job well, but he could have used his popularity to champion civil rights more than he actually did.

IV. The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

  1. In February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy burst upon the scene, charging
    that there were scores of unknown communists in the State Department.
  2. He couldn’t prove it, and many American began to fear that
    this red chase was going too far; after all, how could there be freedom
    of speech if saying communist ideas got one arrested?
  3. The success of brutal anticommunist “crusader” Joseph
    R. McCarthy was quite alarming, for after he had sprung onto the
    national scene by charging that Secretary of State Dean Acheson was
    knowingly employing 205 Communist Party members (a claim he never
    proved, not even for one person), he ruthlessly sought to prosecute and
    persecute suspected communists, often targeting innocent people and
    destroying families and lives.
    • Eisenhower privately loathed McCarthy, but the president did little
      to stop the anti-red, since it appeared that most Americans supported
      his actions. But Ike’s zeal led him to purge important Asian
      experts in the State Department, men who could have advised a better
      course of action in Vietnam.
  4. He even denounced General George Marshall, former army chief of staff during World War II.
  5. Finally, in 1954, when he attacked the army, he’d gone too
    far and was exposed for the liar and drunk that he was; three years
    later, he died unwept and unsung.

V. Desegregating American Society

  1. Blacks in the South were bound by the severe Jim Crow laws that
    segregated every aspect of society, from schools to restrooms to
    restaurants and beyond.
    • Only about 20% of the eligible blacks could vote, due to
      intimidation, discrimination, poll taxes, and other schemes meant to
      keep black suffrage down.
  2. Where the law proved sufficient to enforce such oppression,
    vigilante justice in the form of lynchings did the job, and the white
    murderers were rarely caught and convicted.
  3. In his 1944 book, An American Dilemma, Swedish scholar Gunnar
    Myrdal exposed the hypocrisy of American life, noting how while
    “every man [was] created equal,” blacks were certainly
    treated worse than Whites. He pointed out how the U.S. had failed to
    achieve its “Double-V” goal during the war—victory
    overseas against dictatorships (and their racism) and victory at home
    against racism.
    • Even though Jackie Robinson had cracked the racial barrier by
      signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, the nation’s
      conscience still paid little attention to the suffering of blacks, thus
      prolonging their pain.
  4. However, with organizations such as the National Association for
    the Advancement of Colored People, and their rulings such as the 1950
    case of Sweatt v. Painter, where the Supreme Court ruled that separate
    professional schools for blacks failed to meet the test of equality,
    such protestors as Rosa Parks, who in December 1955, refused to give up
    a bus seat in the “whites only” section, and pacifist
    leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr., who believed in peaceful methods
    of civil rights protests, blacks were making their suffering and
    discrimination known to the public.

VI. Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution

  1. After he heard about the 1946 lynchings of black soldiers seeking
    rights for which they fought overseas, Truman immediately sought to
    improve black rights by desegregating the armed forces, but Eisenhower
    failed to continue this trend by failing to support laws.
    • Only the judicial branch was left to improve black civil rights.
  2. Earl Warren, appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, shocked
    his conservative backers by actively assailing black injustice and
    ruling in favor of African-Americans.
  3. The 1954 landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, reversed the previous 1896 ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson
    when the Brown case said that “separate but equal”
    facilities were inherently unequal. Under the Brown case, schools were
    ordered integrated.
    • However, while the Border States usually obeyed this new ruling,
      states in the Deep South did everything they could to delay it and
      disobey it, diverting funds to private schools, signing a
      “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” that promised
      not to desegregate, and physically preventing blacks to integrate.
    • Ten years after the ruling, fewer than 2% of eligible black students sat in the same classrooms as whites.
    • Real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred around 1970.

VII. Eisenhower Republicanism at Home

  1. Eisenhower came into the White House pledging a policy of
    “dynamic conservatism,” which stated that he would be
    liberal with people, but conservative with their money.
  2. Ike decreased government spending by decreasing military spending,
    trying to transfer control of offshore oil fields to the states, and
    trying to curb the TVA by setting up a private company to take its
    place.
    • His secretary of health, education, and welfare condemned free distribution of the Salk anti-polio vaccine as being socialist.
    • Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson tackled agriculture
      issues, but despite the government’s purchase of surplus grain
      which it stored in giant silos costing Americans $2 million a day,
      farmers didn’t see prosperity.
  3. Eisenhower also cracked down on illegal Mexican immigration that
    cut down on the success of the bracero program, by rounding up 1
    million Mexicans and returning them to their native country in 1954.
    • With Indians, though, Ike proposed ending the lenient FDR-style
      treatment toward Indians and reverting to a Dawes Severalty Act-style
      policy toward Native Americans. But due to protest and resistance, this
      was disbanded.
  4. However, Eisenhower kept many of the New Deal programs, since some,
    like Social Security and unemployment insurance, simply had to stay in
    the public’s mind.
    • However, he did do some of the New Deal programs better, such as
      his backing of the Interstate Highway Act, which built 42,000 miles of
      interstate freeways.
  5. Still, Eisenhower only balanced the budget three times in his eight
    years of office, and in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit
    in U.S. history up to that point.
    • Still, critics said that he was economically timid, blaming the president for the sharp economic downturn of 1957-58.
  6. Also, the AF of L merged with the CIO to end 20 years of bitter division in labor unions.
  7. When it came to civil rights, Eisenhower had a lukewarm record at best, and was slow to move.
    • Eisenhower refused to issue a statement acknowledging the Supreme
      Court’s ruling on integration, and he even privately complained
      about this new end to segregation, but in September 1957, when Orval
      Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, mobilized the National Guard to
      prevent nine black students from enrolling in Little Rock’s
      Central High School, Ike sent federal troops to escort the children to
      their classes.
      • That year, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the
        Reconstruction days, an act that set up a permanent Civil Rights
        Commission to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized
        federal injunctions to protect voting rights.
    • Meanwhile, Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian
      Leadership Conference, which aimed to mobilize the vast power of black
      churches on behalf of black rights—a shrewd strategy, since
      churches were a huge source of leadership in the black community.
    • On February 1, 1960, four black college freshmen launched a
      “sit-in” movement in Greensboro, North Carolina, demanding
      service at a whites-only Woolworth’s lunch counter, thus sparking
      the sit-in movement.
    • In April 1960, southern black students formed the Student
      Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, to give more focus and
      force to their civil rights efforts.

VIII. A New Look in Foreign Policy

  1. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles stated that the policy of
    containment was not enough and that the U.S. was going to push back
    communism and liberate the peoples under it. This became known as
    “rollback.” All-the-while he advocated toning down defense
    spending by building a fleet of superbombers called Strategic Air
    Command, which could drop massive nuclear bombs in any retaliation.
    • Eisenhower had a "new look" on a policy of Massive Relatiation.
      Massive Reltaliation was the building up of our forces in the sky to
      scare the enemys. We created the Strategic Air Command (SAC). This was
      an airfleet of superbombers equipped with city-flattening nuclear
      bombs. These fearsome weapons would inflict "Massive Retaliation" on
      the enemy, and were also a great bang for the buck.
  2. Ike tried to thaw the Cold War by appealing for peace to new Soviet
    Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the 1955 Geneva Conference, but the Soviet
    leader rejected such proposals, along with one for “open
    skies.”
  3. However, hypocritically, when the Hungarians revolted against the
    U.S.S.R. and appealed to the U.S. for help, America did nothing,
    earning the scorn of bitter freedom fighters.

IX. The Vietnam Nightmare

  1. In Vietnam, revolutionary Ho Chi Minh had tried to encourage
    Woodrow Wilson to help the Vietnamese against the French and gained
    some support from Wilson, but as Ho became increasingly communist, the
    U.S. began to oppose him.
  2. In March 1954, when the French became trapped at Dienbienphu,
    Eisenhower’s aides wanted to bomb the Viet Minh guerilla forces,
    but Ike held back, fearing plunging the U.S. into another Asian war so
    soon after Korea. After the Vietnamese won at Dienbienphu, Vietnam was
    split at the 17th parallel, supposedly temporarily.
    • Ho Chi Minh was supposed to allow free elections, but soon, Vietnam
      became clearly split between a communist north and a pro-Western south.
    • Dienbienphu marks the start of American interest in Vietnam.
    • Secretary Dulles created the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) to emulate NATO, but this provided little help.

X. Cold War Crises in Europe and the Middle East

  1. In 1955, the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact to counteract NATO, but
    the Cold War did seem to be thawing a bit, as Eisenhower pressed for
    reduction of arms, and the Soviets were surprisingly cooperative, and
    Khrushchev publicly denounced Stalin’s brutality.
    • However, in 1956, when the Hungarians revolted against the USSR, the Soviets crushed them with brutality and massive bloodshed.
    • The U.S. did change some of its immigration laws to let 30,000 Hungarians into America as immigrants.
  2. In 1953, to protect oil supplies in the Middle East, the CIA
    engineered a coup in Iran that installed the youthful shah Mohammed
    Reza Pahlevi, as ruler of the nation, protecting the oil for the time
    being, but earning the wrath of Arabs that would be repaid in the 70s.
  3. The Suez crisis was far messier: President Gamal Abdel Nasser, of
    Egypt, needed money to build a dam in the upper Nile and flirted openly
    with the Soviet side as well as the U.S. and Britain, and upon seeing
    this blatant communist association, Secretary of State Dulles
    dramatically withdrew his offer, thus forcing Nasser to nationalize the
    dam.
    • Late in October 1956, Britain, France, and Israel suddenly attacked
      Egypt, thinking that the U.S. would supply them with needed oil, as had
      been the case in WWII, but Eisenhower did not, and the attackers had to
      withdraw.
    • The Suez crisis marked the last time the U.S. could brandish its “oil weapon.”
  4. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela joined to
    form the cartel Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC.

XI. Round Two for “Ike”

  1. In 1956, Eisenhower again ran against Stevenson and won easily by a landslide.
  2. The GOP called itself the “party of peace” while the
    Democrats assaulted Ike’s health, since he had had a heart attack
    in 1955 and a major abdominal operation in ’56.
    • However, the Democrats did win the House and Senate.
  3. After Secretary of State Dulles died of cancer in 1959 and
    presidential assistant Sherman Adams was forced to leave under a cloud
    of scandal due to bribery charges, Eisenhower, without his two most
    trusted and most helpful aides, was forced to govern more and golf less.
  4. A drastic labor-reform bill in 1959 grew from recurrent strikes in critical industries.
  5. Teamster chief “Dave” Beck was sent to prison for
    embezzlement, and his successor, James R. Hoffa’s appointment got
    the Teamsters expelled out of the AF of L-CIO.
    • Hoffa was later jailed for jury tampering and then disappeared in
      prison, allegedly murdered by some gangsters that he had crossed.
  6. The 1959 Landrum-Griffin Act was designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and prevent bullying tactics.
    • Anti-laborites forced into the bill bans against “secondary boycotts” and certain types of picketing.
  7. A “space-race” began in 1957.
    • On October 4, 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik I into space, and
      a month later, they sent Sputnik II into orbit as well, thus totally
      demoralizing Americans, because this seemed to prove communist
      superiority in the sciences at least.
      • Plus, the Soviets might fire missiles at the U.S. from space.
    • Critics charged that Truman had not spent enough money on missile
      programs while America had used its science for other things, like
      television.
    • Four months after Sputnik I, the U.S. sent its own satellite
      (weighing only 2.5 lbs) into space, but the apparent U.S. lack of
      technology sent concerns over U.S. education, since American children
      seemed to be learning less advanced information than Soviet kids.

*The 1958 National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) gave $887
million in loads to needy college students and grants for the
improvement of schools.

XII. The Continuing Cold War

  1. Humanity-minded scientists called for an end to atmospheric nuclear testing, lest future generations be deformed and mutated.
    • Beginning October 1958, Washington did halt “dirty”
      testing, as did the U.S.S.R., but attempts to regularize such
      suspensions were unsuccessful.
  2. However, in 1959, Khrushchev was invited by Ike to America for
    talks, and when he arrived in New York, he immediately spoke of
    disarmament, but gave no means of how to do it.
    • Later, at Camp David, talks did show upward signs, as the Soviet
      premier said that his ultimatum for the evacuation of Berlin would be
      extended indefinitely.
  3. However, at the Paris conference, Khrushchev came in angry that the
    U.S. had flown a U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory (in this U-2
    incident, the plane had been shot down and Eisenhower embarrassingly
    took personal responsibility), and tensions immediately tightened again.

XIII. Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism

  1. Latin American nations resented the United States’ giving
    billions of dollars to Europe compared to millions to Latin America, as
    well as the U.S.’s constant intervention (Guatemala, 1954), as
    well as its support of cold dictators who claimed to be fighting
    communism.
  2. In 1959, in Cuba, Fidel Castro overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio
    Batista, promptly denounced the Yankee imperialists, and began to take
    U.S. properties for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off
    heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro confiscated more American
    property.
    • In 1961, America broke diplomatic relations with Cuba.
  3. Khrushchev threatened to launch missiles at the U.S. if it attacked
    Cuba; meanwhile, America induced the Organization of American States to
    condemn communism in the Americas.
    • Finally, Eisenhower proposed a “Marshall Plan” for
      Latin America, which gave $500 million to the area, but many Latin
      Americans felt that it was too little, too late.

XIV. Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency

  1. The Republicans chose Richard Nixon, gifted party leader to some,
    ruthless opportunist to others, in 1960 with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as
    his running mate; while John F. Kennedy surprisingly won for the
    Democrats and had Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate.
  2. Kennedy was attacked because he was a Catholic presidential
    candidate, but defended himself and encouraged Catholics to vote for
    him. As it turned out, if he lost votes from the South due to his
    religion, he got them back from the North due to the staunch Catholics
    there.
    • In four nationally televised debates, JFK held his own and looked
      more charismatic, perhaps helping him to win the election by a
      comfortable margin, becoming the youngest president elected (TR was
      younger after McKinley was assassinated).

XV. An Old General Fades Away

  1. Eisenhower had his critics, but he was appreciated more and more for ending one war and keeping the U.S. out of others.
  2. Even though the 1951-passed 22nd Amendment had limited him to two
    terms as president, Ike displayed more vigor and controlled Congress
    during his second term than his first.
  3. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states to join the Union.
  4. Perhaps Eisenhower’s greatest weakness was his ignorance of
    social problems of the time, preferring to smile them away rather than
    deal with them, even though he was no bigot.

XVI. The Life of the Mind in Postwar America

  1. Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea and John
    Steinbeck’s East of Eden and Travels with Charlie showed that
    prewar writers could still be successful, but new writers, who, except
    for Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead and James
    Jones’s From Here to Eternity, spurned realism, were successful
    as well.
  2. Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 and Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.’s
    Slaughter-House Five crackled with fantastic and psychedelic prose,
    satirizing the suffering of the war.
  3. Authors and books that explored problems created by the new
    mobility and affluence of American life: John Updike’s Rabbit,
    Run and Couples; John Cheever’s The Wapshot Chronicle and The
    Wapshot Scandal; Louis Auchincloss’s books, and Gore
    Vidal’s Myra Breckinridge.
  4. The poetry of Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams,
    Theodore Roethke, Robert Lowell (For the Union Dead), Sylvia Plath
    (Ariel and The Bell-Jar), Anne Sexton, and John Berryman reflected the
    twisted emotions of the war, but some poets were troubled in their own
    minds as well, often committing suicide or living miserable lives.
  5. Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a
    Hot Tin Roof were two plays that searched for American values, as were
    Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman and The Crucible.
  6. Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun portrayed
    African-American life while Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of
    Virginia Woolf? revealed the underside of middle class life.
  7. Books by black authors such as Richard Wright (Black Boy), Ralph
    Ellison (Invisible Man), and James Baldwin made best-seller’s
    lists; Black playwrights like LeRoi Jones made powerful plays (The
    Dutchman).
  8. The South had literary artists like William Faulkner (The Sound and the Fury, Light in August), Walker Percy, and Eudora Welty.
  9. Jewish authors also had famous books, such as J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 38 - The Stormy Sixties

I. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit

  1. In 1960, young, energetic John F. Kennedy was elected as president
    of the United States—the youngest man ever elected to that office.
  2. The 1960s would bring a sexual revolution, a civil rights
    revolution, the emergence of a “youth culture,” a
    devastating war in Vietnam, and the beginnings of a feminist revolution.
  3. JFK delivered a stirring inaugural address (“Ask not, what
    your country can do for you…”), and he also assembled a
    very young cabinet, including his brother, Robert Kennedy, as attorney
    general.
    • Robert Kennedy tried to recast the priorities of the FBI, but was resisted by J. Edgar Hoover.
    • Business whiz Robert S. McNamara took over the Defense Department.
  4. Early on, JFK proposed the Peace Corps, an army of idealist and
    mostly youthful volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped
    countries.
  5. A graduate of Harvard and with a young family, JFK was very vibrant and charming to everyone.

II. The New Frontier at Home

  1. Kennedy’s social program was known as the New Frontier, but
    conservative Democrats and Republicans threatened to kill many of its
    reforms.
    • JFK did expand the House Rules Committee, but his program
      didn’t expand quickly, as medical and education bills remained
      stalled in Congress.
    • JFK also had to keep a lid on inflation and maintain a good economy.
    • However, almost immediately into his term, steel management
      announced great price increases, igniting the fury of the president,
      but JFK also earned fiery attacks by big business against the New
      Frontier.
  2. Kennedy’s tax-cut bill chose to stimulate the economy through price-cutting.

iii. Kennedy also promoted a project to land Americans on the moon, though apathetic Americans often ridiculed this goal.

III. Rumblings in Europe

  1. JFK met Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and was threatened, but didn’t back down.
  2. In August of the 1961, the Soviets began building the Berlin Wall to separate East and West Germany.
  3. Western Europe, though, was now prospering after help from the super-successful Marshall Plan.
    • America had also encouraged a Common Market (to keep trade barriers
      and tariff low in Europe), which later became the European Union (EU).
    • The so-called Kennedy Round of tariff negotiations eased trade between Europe and the U.S.
  4. Unfortunately, French leader Charles de Gaulle was one who was
    suspicious of the U.S., and he rejected Britain’s application
    into the Common Market.

IV. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Response”

  1. There were many world problems at this time:
    • The African Congo got its independence from Belgium in 1960 and
      then erupted into violence, but the United Nations sent a peacekeeping
      force.
    • Laos, freed of its French overlords in 1954, was being threatened
      by communism, but at the Geneva Conference of 1962, peace was shakily
      imposed.
    • Defense Secretary McNamara pushed a strategy of “flexible
      response,” which developed an array of military options that
      could match the gravity of whatever crises came to hand.
      • One of these was the Green Berets, AKA, the “Special Forces”.

V. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

  1. The American-backed Diem government had shakily and corruptly ruled
    Vietnam since 1954, but it was threatened by the communist Viet Cong
    movement led by Ho Chi Minh.
  2. JFK slowly sent more and more U.S. troops to Vietnam to
    “maintain order,” but they usually fought and died, despite
    the fact that it was “Vietnam’s war.”

VI. Cuban Confrontations

  1. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress was dubbed the
    “Marshall Plan for Latin America,” and it aimed to close
    the rich-poor gap in Latin American and thus stem communism.
    • However, too many Latin Americans felt that it was too little, too late.
  2. Kennedy also backed a U.S.-aided invasion of Cuba by rebels, but
    when the Bay of Pigs Invasion occurred, on April 17, 1961, it was a
    disaster, as Kennedy did not bring in the air support, and the revolt
    failed.
    • This event pushed recently imposed Cuban leader Fidel Castro closer to the communist camp.
    • JFK took full responsibility for the attack, and his popularity actually went up.
  3. Then, in 1962, U.S. spy planes recorded missile installations in
    Cuba. It was later revealed that these were, in fact, nuclear missiles
    aimed at America.
    • The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted 13 nerve-racking days and put the
      U.S., the U.S.S.R., and the world at the brink of nuclear war. But in
      the end, Khrushchev blinked, backed off of a U.S. naval blockade,
      looked very weak and indecisive, and lost his power soon afterwards.
    • The Soviets agreed to remove their missiles if the U.S. vowed to
      never invade Cuba again; the U.S. also removed their own Russia-aimed
      nuclear missiles in Turkey.
    • There was also a direct phone call line (the “hot
      line”) installed between Washington D.C. and Moscow, in case of
      any crisis.
    • In June, 1963, Kennedy spoke, urging better feelings toward the
      Soviets and beginning the modest policy of détente, or relaxed
      tension in the Cold War.

VII. The Struggle for Civil Rights

  1. While Kennedy had campaigned a lot to appeal to black voters, when
    it came time to help them, he was hesitant and seemingly unwilling,
    taking much action.
  2. In the 1960s, groups of Freedom Riders chartered buses to tour
    through the South to try to end segregation, but white mobs often
    reacted violently towards them. This drew more attention to the
    segregation and what went on down South.
  3. Slowly but surely, Kennedy urged civil rights along, encouraging
    the establishment of the SNCC, a Voter Education Project to register
    the South’s blacks to vote.
  4. Some places desegregated painlessly, but others were volcanoes.
    • 29 year-old James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of
      Mississippi, but white students didn’t let him, so Kennedy had to
      send some 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troops to ensure that Meredith
      could enroll in his first class.
  5. In spring of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. launched a peaceful
    campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama, but police and
    authorities responded viciously, often using extremely high-pressured
    water hoses to “hose down” the sit-in protesters.
    • The entire American public watched in horror as the black
      protesters were treated with such contempt, since the actions were
      shown on national TV.
    • Later, on June 11, 1963, JFK made a speech urging immediate action towards this “moral issue” in a passionate plea.
  6. Still, more violence followed, as in September 1963, a bomb
    exploded in a Birmingham church, killing four black girls who had just
    finished their church lesson.

VIII. The Killing of Kennedy

  1. On November 22, 1963, while riding down a street in Dallas, Texas,
    JFK was shot and killed, allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald, who was
    himself shot by self-proclaimed avenger Jack Ruby, and there was much
    controversy and scandal and conspiracy in the assassination.
  2. Lyndon B. Johnson became the new president of the United States as
    only the fourth president to succeed an assassinated president.
  3. It was only after Kennedy’s death that America realized what
    a charismatic, energetic, and vibrant president they had lost.

IX. The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

  1. Lyndon Johnson had been a senator in the 1940s and 50s, his idol
    was Franklin D. Roosevelt, and he could manipulate Congress very well
    (through his in-your-face “Johnson treatment”); also, he
    was very vain and egotistical.
  2. As a president, LBJ went from conservative to liberal, helping pass
    a Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned all racial discrimination in
    most private facilities open to the public, including theaters,
    hospitals, and restaurants.
    • Also created was the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was aimed at eliminating discriminatory hiring.
  3. Johnson’s program was dubbed the “Great Society,” and it reflected its New Deal inspirations.
    • Public support for the program was aroused by Michael
      Harrington’s The Other America, which revealed that over 20% of
      American suffered in poverty.

X. Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

  1. In 1964, LBJ was opposed by Republican Arizona senator Barry
    Goldwater who attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security
    system, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the
    nuclear test-ban treaty, and the Great Society.
  2. However, Johnson used the Tonkin Gulf Incident, in which North
    Vietnamese ships allegedly fired on American ships, to attack (at least
    partially) Vietnam, and he also got approval for the Tonkin Gulf
    Resolution, which gave him a virtual blank check on what he could do in
    affairs in Vietnam.
  3. But on election day, Johnson won a huge landslide over Goldwater to stay president.

XI. The Great Society Congress

  1. Johnson’s win was also coupled by sweeping Democratic wins that enabled him to pass his Great Society programs.
  2. Congress doubled the appropriation on the Office of Economic
    Opportunity to $2 billion and granted more than $1 billion to refurbish
    Appalachia, which had been stagnant.
  3. Johnson also created the Department of Transportation and the
    Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), headed by Robert C.
    Weaver, the first black cabinet secretary in the United States’
    history.
  4. LBJ also wanted aid to education, medical care for the elderly and indigent, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill.
    • Johnson gave money to students, not schools, thus avoiding the
      separation of church and state by not technically giving money to
      Christian schools.
    • In 1965, new programs called Medicare and Medicaid were installed,
      which gave certain rights to the elderly and the needy in terms of
      medicine and health maintenance.
    • The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the
      “national origin” quota and doubled the number of
      immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. annually, up to 290,000.
    • An antipoverty program called Project Head Start improved the
      performance of the underprivileged in education. It was
      “pre-school” for the poor.

XII. Battling for Black Rights

  1. Johnson’s Voting Rights Act of 1965 attacked racial
    discrimination at the polls by outlawing literacy tests and sending
    voting registrars to the polls.
  2. The 24th Amendment eliminated poll taxes, and in the “freedom
    summer” of 1964, both blacks and white students joined to combat
    discrimination and racism.
    • However, in June of 1964, a black and two white civil rights
      workers were found murdered, and 21 white Mississippians were arrested
      for the murders, but the all-white jury refused to convict the suspects.
    • Also, an integrated “Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party” was denied its seat.
  3. Early in 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. resumed a voter-registration
    campaign in Selma, Alabama, but was assaulted with tear gas by state
    troopers.
    • LBJ’s responded by calling for America to overcome bigotry, racism, and discrimination.

XIII. Black Power

  1. 1965 began a period of violent black protests, such as the one in
    the Watts area of L.A., as black leaders, mocking Martin Luther King,
    Jr., like Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little), who was inspired by the
    Nation of Islam and its founder, Elijah Muhammed. They urged action
    now, even if it required violence, to the tune of his battle cry,
    “by any means necessary.” But, Malcolm X was killed in 1965
    by an assassin.
  2. The Black Panthers openly brandished weapons in Oakland, California.
  3. Trinidad-born Stokely Carmichael led the Student Non-Violent
    Coordinating Committee and urged an abandonment of peaceful
    demonstrations.
  4. Black power became a rallying cry by blacks seeking more rights,
    but just as they were getting them, more riots broke out, and nervous
    whites threatened with retaliation.
  5. Tragically, on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.
    • Quietly, though, thousands of blacks registered to vote and went
      into integrated classrooms, and they slowly built themselves into a
      politically powerful group.

XIV. Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

  1. Johnson sent men to put down a supposedly communist coup in the
    Dominican Republic and was denounced as over-anxious and too hyper.
  2. In Vietnam, though, he slowly sent more and more U.S. men to fight
    the war, and the South Vietnamese became spectators in their own war.
    Meanwhile, more and more Americans died.
  3. By 1968, he had sent more than half a million troops to Asia, and
    was pouring in $30 billion annually, yet the end was nowhere in sight.

XV. Vietnam Vexations

  1. America was floundering in Vietnam and was being condemned for its
    actions there, and French leader Charles de Gaulle also ordered NATO
    off French soil in 1966.
  2. In the Six-Day War, Israel stunned the world by defeating Egypt
    (and its Soviet backers) and gaining new territory in the Sinai
    Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the
    Jordan River, including Jerusalem.
  3. Meanwhile, numerous protests in America went against the Vietnam War and the draft.
    • Opposition was headed by the influential Senate Committee of
      Foreign Relations, headed by Senator William Fullbright of Arkansas.
    • “Doves” (peace lovers) and “Hawks” (war supporters) clashed.
  4. Both sides (the U.S. and North Vietnam) did try to have intervals
    of quiet time in bombings, but they merely used those as excuses to
    funnel more troops into the area.
  5. Johnson also ordered the CIA to spy on domestic antiwar activists,
    and he encouraged the FBI to use its Counterintelligence Program
    (“Cointelpro”) against the peace movement.
  6. More and more, America was trapped in an awful Vietnam War, and it
    couldn’t get out, thus feeding more and more hatred and
    resentment to the American public.

XVI. Vietnam Topples Johnson

  1. Johnson was personally suffering at the American casualties, and he
    wept as he signed condolence letters and even prayed with Catholic
    monks in a nearby church—at night, secretly. And, the fact that
    North Vietnam had almost taken over Saigon in a blistering attack
    called the Tet Offensive didn’t help either.
  2. Johnson also saw a challenge for the Democratic ticket from Eugene
    McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, and the nation, as well as the Democratic
    party, was starting to be split by Vietnam.
    • LBJ refused to sign an order for more troops to Vietnam.
  3. Then, on March 31, 1968, Johnson declared that he would stop
    sending in troops to Vietnam and that he would not run in 1968,
    shocking America.

XVII. The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968

  1. On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot fatally, and the
    Democratic ticket went to Hubert Humphrey, Johnson’s
    “heir.”
  2. The Republicans responded with Richard Nixon, paired with Spiro
    Agnew, and there was also a third-party candidate: George C. Wallace,
    former governor of Alabama, a segregationist who wanted to bomb the
    Vietnamese to death.
  3. Nixon won a nail-biter, and Wallace didn’t do that badly either, though worse than expected.
  4. A minority president, he owed his presidency to protests over the war, the unfair draft, crime, and rioting.

XVIII. The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson

  1. Poor Lyndon Johnson returned to his Texas ranch and died there in 1973.
  2. He had committed Americans into Vietnam with noble intentions, and
    he really wasn’t a bad guy, but he was stuck in a time when he
    was damned if he did and damned if he didn’t.

XIX. The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s

  1. In the 60s, the youth of America experimented with sex, drugs, and defiance.
  2. They protested against conventional wisdom, authority, and traditional beliefs.
  3. Poets like Allen Ginsberg and novelists like Jack Kerouac (who
    wrote On the Road) voiced these opinions of the Beatnik generation.
  4. Movies like The Wild One with Marlon Brando and Rebel without a
    Cause starring James Dean also showed this belief. Essentially, they
    championed the “ne’er-do-well” and the outcast.
  5. At the UC-Berkeley, in 1964, a so-called Free Speech Movement began.
    • Kids tried drugs, “did their own thing” in new institutions, and rejected patriotism.
  6. In 1948, Indiana University “sexologist” Dr. Alfred
    Kinsey had published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, and had
    followed that book five years later with a female version. His findings
    about the incidence of premarital sex and adultery were very
    controversial.
    • He also estimated that 10% of all American males were gay.
    • The Manhattan Society, founded in L.A. in 1951, pioneered gay rights.
  7. Students for a Democratic Society, once against war, later spawned an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen.
  8. The upheavals of the 1960s and the anti-establishment movement can
    largely be attributed to the three P’s: the youthful population
    bulge, the protest against racism and the Vietnam War, and the apparent
    permanence of prosperity, but as the 1970s rolled around, this
    prosperity gave way to stagnation.
  9. However, the “counterculture” of the youths of the
    1960s did significantly weaken existing values, ideas, and beliefs.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 39 - The Stalemated Seventies

I. Sources of Stagnation

  1. After the flurry of economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. economy grew stagnant in the 1970s. No year during that decade had a growth rate that matched any year of the preceding two decades.
    • Part of the slowdown was caused by more women and teens in the work force who typically had less skill and made less money than males, while deteriorating machinery and U.S. regulations also limited growth.
    • A large reason for the 1970s economic woes was the upward spiral of inflation.
  2. Former President Lyndon B. Johnson’s spending on the Vietnam War and on his Great Society program also depleted the U.S. treasury, and this caused too much money in people’s hands and too little products to buy.
  3. Also, since the U.S. did not continue advancing, Americans were caught by the Japanese and the Germans in industries that the U.S. had once dominated: steel, automobiles, consumer electronics.

II. Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War

  1. Upon taking office, President Richard Nixon urged American’s to stop tearing each other apart and to cooperate.
    • He was very skilled in foreign affairs, and to cope with the Vietnam dilemma, he used a policy called “Vietnamization” in which 540,000 American troops would be pulled out of the Southeast Asian nation and the war would be turned back over to the Vietamese.
    • The South Vietnamese would slowly fight their own war, and the U.S. would only supply arms and money but not American troops; this was called the “Nixon Doctrine.”
  2. While outwardly seeming to appease, Nixon divided America into his supporters and opponents.
  3. Nixon appealed to the “Silent Majority,” Americans who supported the war, but without noise.
  4. The war was fought generally by the lesser-privileged Americans, since college students and critically skilled civilians were exempt, and there were also reports of dissension in the army.
    • Soldiers slogged through grimy mud and jungle, trusting nothing and were paranoid and bitter toward a government that “handcuffed” them and a war against a frustrating enemy.
  5. The My Lai Massacre of 1968, in which American troops brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, illustrated the frustration and led to more opposition to the war.
  6. In 1970, Nixon ordered an attack on Cambodia, Vietnam’s neighbor.

III. Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

  1. North Vietnamese had been using Cambodia as a springboard for funneling troops and arms along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and on April 29, 1970, Nixon suddenly ordered U.S. troops to invade Cambodia to stop this.
  2. Much uproar was caused, as riots occurred at Kent State University (where the National Guard opened fire and killed 4 people) and at Jackson State College.
    • Two months later, Nixon withdrew U.S. troops from Cambodia.
  3. The Cambodian incident split even wider the gap beween the “hawks” and the “doves.”
  4. The U.S. Senate repealed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, and in 1971, the 26th Amendment, lowering the voting age to eighteen, was also passed.
  5. In June 1971, The New York Times published a top-secret Pentagon study of America’s involvement of the Vietnam War—papers that had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, a former Pentagon official—these “Pentagon Papers” exposed the deceit used by the Kennedy and Johnson administrations regarding Vietnam and people spoke of a “credibility gap” between what the government said and the reality.

IV. Nixon’s Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow

  1. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union were clashing over their own interpretations of Marxism, and Nixon seized this as a chance for the U.S. to relax tensions and establish “détente.”
  2. He sent national security adviser Dr. Henry A. Kissinger to China to encourage better relations, a mission in which he succeeded, even though he used to be a big anti-Communist.
  3. Nixon then traveled to Moscow in May 1972, and the Soviets, wanting foodstuffs and alarmed over the possibility of a U.S.—China alliance against the U.S.S.R., made deals with America in which the U.S. would sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals, thus ushering in an era of détente, or relaxed tensions.
    • The ABM Treaty (anti-ballistic missile treaty) and the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) also lessened tension, but the U.S. also went ahead with its new MIRV (Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry Vehicles) missiles, which could overcome any defense by overwhelming it with a plethora of missiles; therefore, the U.S.S.R. did the same.
  4. However, Nixon’s détente policy did work, at least in part, to relax U.S.—Soviet tensions.

V. A New Team on the Supreme Bench

  1. When Earl Warren was appointed as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, he headed many controversial but important decisions:
    • Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) struck down a state law that banned the use of contraceptives, even by married couples, but creating a “right to privacy.”
    • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) said that all criminals were entitled to legal counsel, even if they were too poor to afford it.
    • Escobedo (1964) and Miranda (1966) were two cases in which the Supreme Court ruled that the accused could remain silent.
    • Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township vs. Schempp (1963) were two cases that led to the Court ruling against required prayers and having the Bible in public schools, basing the judgment on the First Amendment, which was argued separated church and state.
  2. Following its ruling against segregation in the case Brown v. Board of Education, the Court backed up its ruling with other rulings:
    • Reynolds v. Sims (1964) ruled that the state legislatures, both upper and lower houses, would have to be reapportioned according to the human population. This was to ensure each person’s vote was weighed evenly.
  3. Trying to end this liberalism, Nixon chose Warren E. Burger to replace the retiring Earl Warren in 1969, and this succeeded—by the end of 1971, the Supreme Court had four new members that Nixon had appointed.
    • Strangely though, this “conservative” court made the controversial Roe v. Wade decision allowing abortion.

VI. Nixon on the Home Front

  1. Nixon also expanded Great Society programs by increasing appropriations for Medicare and Medicaid, as well as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which gave benefits to the indigent, aged, blind, and disabled, and he raised Social Security.
  2. Nixon’s so-called “Philadelphia Plan” of 1969 required construction-trade unions working on the federal payroll to establish “goals and timetables” for Black employees.
    • This plan changed “affirmative action” to mean preferable treatment on groups (minorities), not individuals, and the Supreme Court’s decision on Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971) supported this.
    • However, whites protested to “reverse discrimination” (hiring of minorities for fear of repercussions if too many whites were hired).
  3. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was also created to protect nature, as well as OSHA, or the Occupational Health and Safety Administration.
  4. In 1962, Rachel Carson boosted the environmental movement with her book Silent Spring, which exposed the disastrous effects of pesticides (namely, DDT), and in 1950, Los Angeles already had an Air Pollution Control Office.
  5. The Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973 both aimed to protect and preserve the environment and animals.
  6. Worried about inflation, Nixon also imposed a 90-day wage freeze and then took the nation off the gold standard, thus ending the “Bretton Woods” system of international currency stabilization, which had functioned for more than a quarter of a century after WWII.

VII. The Nixon Landslide of 1972

  1. In 1972, the North Vietnamese attacked again, surprisingly, and Nixon ordered massive retaliatory air attacks, which ground the Vietnamese offense to a stop when neither China nor Russia stepped in to help, thanks to Nixon’s shrew diplomacy.
  2. Nixon was opposed by George McGovern in 1972, who promised to end the war within 90 days after the election and also appealed to teens and women, but his running mate, Thomas Eagleton was found to have undergone psychiatric care before, and Nixon won in a landslide.
  3. Nixon also sought to “bomb Vietnam to the peace table.”
    • Despite Kissinger’s promise of peace being near, Nixon went on a bombing rampage that eventually drove the North Vietnamese to the bargaining table to agree to a cease-fire, which occurred on January 23, 1973
      • This peace was little more than a barely-disguised American retreat.
      • In the terms of the peace, the U.S. would withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops and get back 560 prisoners of war.

VIII. The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act

  1. It was then discovered that there had been secret bombing raids of North Vietnamese forces in Cambodia that had occurred since March of 1969, despite federal assurances to the U.S. public that Cambodia’s neutrality was being respected.
    • The public now wondered what kind of a government the U.S. had if it couldn’t be trusted and the credibility gap widened.
  2. Finally, Nixon ended this bombing in June of 1973.
  3. However, soon Cambodia was taken over by the cruel Pol Pot, who tried to commit genocide by killing over 2 million people over a span of a few years.
  4. The War Powers Act of November 1973 (1) required the president to report all commitments of U.S. troops to Congress within 48 hours and and (2) setting a 60 day limit on those activities.
  5. There was also a “New Isolationism” that discouraged the use of U.S. troops in other countries, but Nixon fended off all efforts at this.

IX. The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis

  1. After the U.S. backed Israel in its war against Syria and Egypt which had been trying to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War, the Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, which strictly limited oil in the U.S. and caused a fuel crisis.
    • A speed limit of 55 MPH was imposed, and the oil pipeline in Alaska was approved in 1974 despite environmentalists’ cries, and other types of energy were pursued.
    • Since 1948, the U.S. had been importing more oil than it exported, and oil production had gone down since 1970; thus, this marked the end of the era of cheap energy.
  2. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) lifted the embargo in 1974, and then quadrupled the price of oil by decade’s end.

X. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President

  1. On June 17, 1972, five men working for the Republican Committee for the Re-election of the President (CREEP) were caught breaking into the Watergate Hotel and planting some bugs in the room.
    • What followed was a huge scandal in which many prominent administrators resigned.
    • It also provoked the improper or illegal use of the FBI and the CIA.
    • Lengthy hearings proceeded, headed by Senator Sam Erving, and John Dean III testified about all the corruption, illegal activities, and scandal that took place.
  2. Then, it was discovered that there were tapes that had recorded conversations that could solve all the mysteries in this case. But Nixon, who had explicitly denied participation in this Watergate Scandal earlier to the American people, refused to hand over the tapes to Congress.
    • Also, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign in 1973 due to tax evasion.
    • Thus, in accordance with the new 25th Amendment, Nixon submitted a name to Congress to approve as the new vice president—Gerald Ford.
    • Then came the “Saturday Night Massacre” (Oct. 20, 1973), in which Archibald Cox, special prosecutor of the case who had issued a subpoena of the tapes, was fired and the attorney general and deputy general resigned because they didn’t want to fire Cox.
  3. Nixon’s presidency was coming unraveled.
    • On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to give all of his tapes to Congress.
      • The tapes that had already been handed over showed Nixon cursing and swearing—poor behavior for our president.
    • Late in July 1974, the House approved its first article of impeachment for obstruction of the administration of justice.
    • On August 5, 1974, Nixon finally released the three tapes that held the most damaging information—the same three tapes that had been “missing.” The tapes showed Nixon had indeed ordered a cover-up of the Watergate situation.
    • On August 8 of the same year, he resigned, realizing that he would be convicted if impeached, and with resignation, at least he could still keep the privileges of a former president.
  4. Through it all, the lesson learned was that the Constitution indeed works.

XI. The First Unelected President

  1. Gerald Ford was the first unelected president ever, since his name had been submitted by Nixon as a V.P. candidate when Spiro Agnew resigned due to a bribery scandal while he was Maryland governor. All the other V.P.’s that had ascended to the presidency had at least been supported as running mates of the president that had been elected.
  2. He was also seen as a dumb jock of a president (he was a former Univ. of Michigan football player), and his popularity and respect further sank when he issued a full pardon of Nixon, thus setting off accusations of a “buddy deal.”
  3. His popularity also declined when he granted amnesty to “draft dodgers” thus allowing them to return to the U.S. from wherever they’d run to (usually Canada or Europe).
  4. In July 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki accords, which recognized Soviet boundaries, guaranteed human rights, and eased the U.S.—Soviet situation.
    • Critics charged that détente was making the U.S. lose grain and technology while gaining nothing from the Soviets.

XII. Defeat in Vietnam

  1. Disastrously for Ford, South Vietnam fell to the communist North in 1975, and American troops had to be evacuated, the last on April 29, 1975, thus ending the U.S. role in Vietnam War.
  2. America seemed to have lost the war, and it had also lost a lot of respect.

XIII. Feminist Victories and Defeats

  1. During the 1970s, the feminist movement became energized and took a decidedly aggressive tone.
  2. Title IX prohibited sex discrimination in any federally funded education program.
    • It’s largest impact was seen in the emergence of girls’ sports.
  3. The Supreme Court entered the fray in the feminist movement.
    • The Court’s decisions challenged sex discrimination in legislation and employment.
    • The super-hot Roe v. Wade case legalized abortion, arguing that ending a pregnancy was protected under a right to privacy.
  4. Even more ambitious was the ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) to the Constitution.
    • ERA sought to guarantee gender equality through words.
    • Phyllis Schlafly led other women against ERA. Schlafly said ERA advocates were, “bitter women seeking a constitutional cure for their personal problems.” She used the following arguments against the ERA amendment:
      • It would deprive a woman’s right to be a wife.
      • It would require women to serve in combat.
    • It would legalize homosexual marriage.
    • 38 state legislatures adopted the amendment, 41 were necessary, and the ERA ended.

XIV. The Seventies in Black and White

  1. Race was a burning issue, and in the 1974 Milliken v. Bradley case, the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines.
    • This reinforced the “white flight” to the suburbs that pitted the poorest whites and blacks against each other, often with explosively violent results.
  2. Affirmative action, where minorities were given preference in jobs or school admittance, was another burning issue, but some whites used this to argue “reverse discrimination.”
    • In the Bakke case of 1978, the Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 that Allan Bakke (a white applicant claiming reverse discrimination) should be admitted to U.C.—Davis med school. The decision was ambiguous saying (1) admission preference based on any race was not allowed, but conversely that (2) race could be factored into the admission policy.
  3. The Supreme Court’s only black justice, Thurgood Marshall, warned that the denial of racial preferences might sweep away the progress gained by the civil rights movement.

XV. The Bicentennial Campaign and the Carter Victory

  1. In 1976, Jimmy Carter barely squeezed by Gerald Ford (297 to 240) for president, promising to never lie to the American public. He also had Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress.
  2. He capitalized on being a “Washington outsider,” and therefore untainted by the supposed corruption of D.C. (He’d previously been governor of Georgia.)
  3. In 1978, Carter got an $18 billion tax cut for America, but the economy soon continued sinking.
  4. Despite an early spurt of popularity, Carter soon lost it.

XVI. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy

  1. Carter was a champion for human rights, and in Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe) and South Africa, he championed for black rights and privileges.
  2. On September 17, 1978, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel signed peace accords at Camp David.
    • Mediated by Carter after relations had strained, this was Carter’s greatest foreign policy success.
    • Israel agreed to withdraw from territory gained in the 1967 war, while Egypt would respect Israel’s territories.
  3. In Africa, though, several Communist revolutions took place—not all successful, but disheartening and threatening still.
  4. Carter also pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000, and resumed full diplomatic relations with China in 1979.

XVII. Economic and Energy Woes

  1. Inflation had been steadily rising, and by 1979, it was at a huge 13%. Americans would learn that they could no longer hide behind their ocean moats and live happily insulated from foreign affairs.
  2. Carter diagnosed America’s problems as stemming primarily from the nation’s costly dependence on foreign oil, which was true.
  3. He called for legislation to improve energy conservation, but the gas-guzzling American people, who had already forgotten about the long gas lines of 1973, didn’t like these ideas.
  4. Energy problems escalated under Carter.
    • In, 1979, Iran’s shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, who had been installed by America in 1953 and had ruled his land as a dictator, was overthrown and succeeded by the Ayatollah Khomeini.
      • Iranian fundamentalists were very much against Western/U.S. customs, and Iran stopped exporting oil; OPEC also hiked up oil prices, thus causing another oil crisis.
    • In July 1979, Carter retreated to Camp David and met with hundreds of leaders of various things to advise and counsel him, then he came back on July 15, 1979 and chastised the American people for their obsession of material woes (“If it’s cold, turn down the thermostat and put on a sweater.”) This tough talking stunned the nation.
      • Then, a few days later, he fired four cabinet secretaries and tightened the circle around his Georgian advisors even more tightly.

XVIII. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio

  1. Carter signed the SALT II agreements with Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, but the U.S. Senate wouldn’t ratify it.
  2. Then, on November 4, 1979, a bunch of anti-American Muslim militants stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took the people inside hostage, demanding that the U.S. return the exiled shah who had arrived in the U.S. two weeks earlier for cancer treatments.
  3. Then, in December 27, 1979, the U.S.S.R. invaded Afghanistan, which later turned into their version of Vietnam.
    • However, at the moment, their action threatened precious oil supplies.
  4. Carter put an embargo on the Soviet Union and boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow.
    • He also proposed a “Rapid Deployment Force” that could respond to crises anywhere in the world in a quick manner.
  5. President Carter and America fell into an Iran hostage mess.
    • The American hostages languished in cruel captivity while night TV news reports showed Iranian mobs burning the American flag and spitting on effigies of Uncle Sam.
    • At first Carter tried economic sanctions, but that didn’t work.
    • Later, he tried a daring commando rescue mission, but that had to be aborted, and when two military aircraft collided, eight of the would-be rescuers were killed.
      • It was a humiliating failure for the U.S. and for Carter especially.
    • The stalemated hostage situation dragged on for most of Carter’s term, and was never released until January 20, 1981—the inauguration day of Ronald Reagan.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 40 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

  1. President Jimmy Carter’s administration seemed to be befuddled and bungling, since it could not control the rampant double-digit inflation or handle foreign affairs, and he would not remove regulatory controls from major industries such as airlines.
    • Late in 1979, Edward (Ted) Kennedy declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for 1980. But, he was hurt by his suspicious Chappaquiddick 1969 driving accident in when a young female passenger drowned and he delayed reporting the incident.
  2. As the Democrats dueled it out, the Republicans chose conservative former actor Ronald Reagan, signaling the return of conservatism, since the average American was older than during the stormy sixties and was more likely to favor the right (conservatives).
  3. New groups that spearheaded the “new right” movement included Moral Majority and other conservative Christian groups.
  4. Ronald Reagan was a man whose values had been formed before the turbulent sixties, and Reagan adopted a stance that depicted “big government” as bad, federal intervention in local affairs as condemnable, and favoritism for minorities as negative.
    • He drew on the ideas of a group called the “neoconservatives,” a group that included Norman Podhortz, editor of Commentary magazine, and Irving Kristol, editor of Public Interest, two men who championed free-market capitalism.
  5. Reagan had grown up in an impoverished family, become a B-movie actor in Hollywood in the 1940s, became president of the Screen Actors Guild, purged suspected “reds” in the McCarthy era, acted as spokesperson for General Electric, and become 3Californian governor.
  6. Reagan’s photogenic personality and good looks on televised debates, as well as his attacks on President Carter’s problems, helped him win the election of 1980 by a landslide (489-49).
    • Also, Republicans regained control of the Senate.
  7. Carter’s farewell address talked of toning down the nuclear arms race, helping human rights, and protecting the environment (one of his last acts in office was to sign a bill protecting 100 million acres of Alaskan land as a wildlife preserve).

II. The Reagan Revolution

  1. Reagan’s inauguration day coincided with the release by the Iranians of their U.S. hostages, and Reagan also assembled a cabinet of the “best and brightest,” including Secretary of the Interior James Watt, a controversial man with little regard to the environment.
    • Watt tried to hobble the Environmental Protection Agency and permit oil drilling in scenic places, but finally had to resign after telling an insulting ethnic joke in public.
  2. For over two decades, the government budget had slowly and steadily risen, much to the disturbance of the tax-paying public. By the 1980s, the public was tired of the New Deal and the Great Society programs’s costs and were ready to slash bills, just as Reagan proposed.
    • His federal budget had cuts of some $35 billion, and he even wooed some Southern Democrats to abandon their own party and follow him.
    • But on March 30, 1981, the president was shot and wounded by a deranged John Hinckley. He recovered in only twelve days, showing his devotion to physical fitness despite his age (near 70) and gaining massive sympathy and support.

III. The Battle of the Budget

  1. Reagan’s budget was $695 billion with a $38 billion deficit. He planned cuts, and vast majority of budget cuts fell upon social programs, not on defense, but there were also sweeping tax cuts of 25% over three years.
    • The president appeared on national TV pleading for passage of the new tax-cut bill, and bolstered by “boll weevils,” or Democrats who defected to the Republican side, Congress passed it.
    • The bill used “supply side economics” or “Reaganomics” (policies favorable to businesses) to lower individual taxes, almost eliminate federal estate taxes, and create new tax-free savings plans for small investors.
  2. However, this theory backfired as the nation slid into its worst recession since the Great Depression, with unemployment reaching nearly 11% in 1982 and several banks failing.
    • Critics (Democrats) yapped that Reagan’s programs and tax cuts had caused this mayhem, but in reality, it had been Carter’s “tight money” policies that had led to the recession, and Reagan and his advisors sat out the storm, waiting for a recovery that seemed to come in 1983.
  3. However, during the 1980s, income gaps widened between the rich and poor for the first time in the 20th century (this was mirrored by the emergence of “yuppies”—Young Urban Professionals, very materialistic professionals). And it was massive military spending (a $100 billion annual deficit in 1982 and nearly $200 million annual deficits in the later years) that upped the American dollar. The trade deficit, also rose to a record $152 billion in 1987. These facts helped make America the world’s biggest borrowers.

IV. Reagan Renews the Cold War

  1. Reagan took a get-tough stance against the USSR, especially when they continued to invade Afghanistan, and his plan to defeat the Soviets was to wage a super-expensive arms race that would eventually force the Soviets into bankruptcy and render them powerless.
    • He began this with his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as “Star Wars,” which proposed a system of lasers that could fire from space and destroy any nuclear weapons fired by Moscow before they hit America—a system that many experts considered impossible as well as upsetting to the “balance of terror” (don’t fire for fear of retaliation) that had kept nuclear war from being unleashed all these years. SDI was never built.
  2. Late in 1981, the Soviets clamped down on Poland’s massive union called “Solidarity” and received economic sanctions from the U.S.
    • The deaths of three different aging Soviet oligarchs from 1982-85 and the breaking of all arms-control negotiations in 1983 further complicated dealings with the Soviets.

V. Troubles Abroad

  1. Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 to destroy guerilla bases, and the next year, Reagan sent U.S. forces as part of an international peace-keeping force. But, when a suicide bomber crashed a bomb-filled truck into U.S. Marine barracks on October 23, 1983 killing over 200 marines, Reagan had to withdraw the troops, though he miraculously suffered no political damage.
    • Afterwards, he became known as the “Teflon president,” the president to which nothing harmful would stick.
  2. Reagan accused Nicaraguan “Sandinistas,” a group of leftists that had taken over the Nicaraguan government, of turning the country into a forward base from which Communist forces could invade and conquer all of Latin America.
    • He also accused them of helping revolutionary forces in El Salvador, where violence had reigned since 1979, and Reagan then helped “contra” rebels in Nicaragua fight against the Sandinistas.
    • In October 1983, Reagan sent troops to Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought communists to power. The U.S. crushed the communist rebels.

VI. Round Two for Reagan

  1. Reagan was opposed by Democrat Walter Mondale and V.P. candidate Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman to appear on a major-party presidential ticket, but won handily.
  2. Foreign policy issues dominated Reagan’s second term, one that saw the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev, a personable, energetic leader who announced two new Soviet policies: glasnost, or “openness,” which aimed to introduce free speech and political liberty to the Soviet Union, and perestroika, or “restructuring,” which meant that the Soviets would move toward adopting free-market economies similar to those in the West.
  3. At a summit meeting at Geneva in 1985, Gorbachev introduced the idea of ceasing the deployment of intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF). At a second meeting at Reykjavik, Iceland, in November 1985, there was stalemate. At the third one in Washington D.C., the treaty was finally signed, banning all INF’s from Europe.
    • The final summit at Moscow saw Reagan warmly praising the Soviet chief for trying to end the Cold War.
  4. Also, Reagan supported Corazon Aquino’s ousting of Filipino dictator, Ferdinand Marcos.
  5. He also ordered a lightning raid on Libya, in 1986, in retaliation for Libya’s state-sponsored terrorist attacks, and began escorting oil tankers through the Persian Gulf during the Iran—Iraq War.

VII. The Iran-Contra Imbroglio

  1. In November 1986, it was revealed that a year before, American diplomats led by Col. Olive North had secretly arranged arms sales to Iranian diplomats in return for the release of American hostages (at least one was) and had used that money to aid Nicaraguan contra rebels.
    • This brazenly violated the congressional ban on helping Nicaraguan rebels, not to mention Reagan’s personal vow not to negotiate with terrorists.
    • An investigation concluded that even if Reagan had no knowledge of such events, as he claimed, he should have. This scandal not only cast a dark cloud over Reagan’s foreign policy success, but also brought out a picture of Reagan as a somewhat senile old man who slept through important cabinet meetings.
      • Still, Reagan remained ever popular.

VIII. Reagan’s Economic Legacy

  1. Supply-side economics claimed that cutting taxes would actually increase government revenue, but instead, during his eight years in office, Reagan accumulated a $2 trillion debt—more than all his presidential predecessors combined.
    • Much of the debt was financed by foreign bankers like the Japanese, creating fear that future Americans would have to work harder or have lower standards of living to pay off such debts for the United States.
  2. Reagan did triumph in containing the welfare state by incurring debts so large that future spending would be difficult, thus prevent any more welfare programs from being enacted successfully.
  3. Another trend of “Reaganomics” was the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor. The idea of “trickle-down economics” (helping the rich who own business would see money trickle down to working classes) seemed to prove false.

IX. The Religious Right

  1. Beginning in the 1980s, energized religious conservatives began to exert their political muscle in a cultural war.
    • Rev. Jerry Falwell started the Moral Majority, consisting of evangelical Christians.
    • 2-3 million registered as Moral Majority voters in its first two years.
    • Using the power of media, they opposed sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and homosexuality.
  2. In large part, the conservative movement of the 80s was an answer to the liberal movement of the 60s. The pendulum was swinging back.
    • Conservatives viewed America as being hijacked in the 60s by a minority of radicals with political aims; the conservatives saw themselves as taking back America.

X. Conservatism in the Courts

  1. Reagan used the courts as his instrument against affirmative action and abortion, and by 1988, the year he left office, he had appointed a near-majority of all sitting federal judges.
    • Included among those were three conservative-minded judges, one of which was Sandra Day O’Connor, a brilliant Stanford Law School graduate and the first female Supreme Court justice in American history.
  2. In a 1984 case involving Memphis firefighters, the Court ruled that union rules about job seniority could outweigh affirmative-action concerns.
  3. In Ward’s Cove Packing v. Arizona and Martin v. Wilks, the Court ruled it more difficult to prove that an employer practiced discrimination in hiring and made it easier for white males to argue that they were victims of reverse-discrimination.
  4. The 1973 case of Roe v. Wade had basically legalized abortion, but the 1989 case of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services seriously compromised protection of abortion rights.
    • In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court ruled that states could restrict access to abortion as long as they didn’t place an “undue burden” on the woman.

XI. Referendum on Reaganism in 1988

  1. Democrats got back the Senate in 1986 and sought to harm Reagan with the Iran-Contra scandal and unethical behavior that tainted an oddly large number of Reagan’s cabinet.
    • They even rejected Robert Bork, Reagan’s ultraconservative choice to fill an empty space on the Supreme Court.
  2. The federal budget and the international trade deficit continued to soar while falling oil prices hurt housing values in the Southwest and damaged savings-and-loans institutions, forcing Reagan to order a $500 million rescue operation for the S&L institutions.
    • On October 19, 1987, the stock market fell 508 points, sparking fears of the end of the money culture, but this was premature.
  3. In 1988, Gary Hart tried to get the Democratic nomination but had to drop out due to a sexual misconduct charge while Jesse Jackson assembled a “rainbow coalition” in hopes of becoming president. But, the Democrats finally chose Michael Dukakis, who lost badly to Republican candidate and Reagan’s vice president George Herbert Walker Bush, 112 to 426.

XII. George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War

  1. Bush had been born into a rich family, but he was committed to public service and vowed to sculpt “a kindler, gentler America.”
  2. In 1989, it seemed that Democracy was reviving in previously Communist hot-spots.
    • In China, thousands of democratic-seeking students protested in Tiananmen Square but they were brutally crushed by Chinese tanks and armed forces.
    • In Eastern Europe, Communist regimes fell in Poland (which saw Solidarity rise again), Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania.
      • Soon afterwards, the Berlin Wall came tumbling down.
    • In 1990, Boris Yeltsin stopped a military coup that tried to dislodge Gorbachev, then took over Russia when the Soviet Union fell and disintegrated into the Commonwealth of Independent States, of which Russia was the largest member. Thus, the Cold War was over.
      • This shocked experts who had predicted that the Cold War could only end violently.
  3. Problems remained however, as the question remained of who would take over the U.S.S.R.’s nuclear stockpiles or its seat in the U.N. Security Council? Eventually, Russia did.
  4. In 1993, Bush signed the START II accord with Yeltsin, pledging both nations to reduce their long-range nuclear arsenals by two-thirds within ten years.
    • Trouble was still present when the Chechnyen minority in Russia tried to declare independence and was resisted by Russia; that incident hasn’t been resolved yet.
  5. Europe found itself quite unstable when the economically weak former communist countries re-integrated with it.
  6. America then had no rival to guard against, and it was possible that it would revert back to its isolationist policies. Also, military spending had soaked up so much money that upon the end of the Cold War, the Pentagon closed 34 military bases, canceled a $52 billion order for a navy attack plane, and forced scores of Californian defense plants to shut their doors.
  7. However, in 1990, South Africa freed Nelson Mandela, and he was elected president 4 years later.
    1. Free elections removed the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1990, and in 1992, peace came to Ecuador at last.

XIII. The Persian Gulf Crisis

  1. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait with 100,000 men, hoping to annex it as a 19th province and use its oil fields to replenish debts incurred during the Iraq—Iran War, a war which oddly saw the U.S. supporting Hussein despite his bad reputation.
  2. Saddam attacked swiftly, but the U.N. responded just as swiftly, placing economic embargoes on the aggressor and preparing for military punishment.
  3. Fighting “Operation Desert Storm”
    • Some 539,000 U.S. military force members joined 270,000 troops from 28 other countries to attack Iraq in a war, which began on January 12, 1991, when Congress declared it.
      • On January 16, the U.S. and U.N. unleashed a hellish air war against Iraq for 37 days.
      • Iraq responded by launching several ultimately ineffective “scud” missiles at Saudi Arabia and Israel, but it had far darker strategies available, such as biological and chemical weapons and strong desert fortifications with oil-filled moats that could be lit afire if the enemy got too close.
    • American General Norman Schwarzkopf took nothing for granted, strategizing to suffocate Iraqis with an onslaught of air bombing raids and then rush them with troops.
      • On February 23, “Operation Desert Storm” began with an overwhelming land attack that lasted four days, saw really little casualties, and ended with Saddam’s forces surrender.
      • American cheered the war’s rapid end and well-fought duration and was relieved that this had not turned into another Vietnam, but Saddam Hussein had failed to be dislodged from power and was left to menace the world another day.
  4. The U.S. found itself even more deeply ensnared in the region’s web of mortal hatreds.

XIV. Bush on the Home Front

  1. President Bush’s 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act was a landmark law that banned discrimination against citizens with disabilities.
  2. Bush also signed a major water projects bill in 1992 and agreed to sign a watered-down civil rights bill in 1991.
  3. In 1991, Bush proposed Clarence Thomas (a Black man) to fill in the vacant seat left by retiring Thurgood Marshall (the first Black Supreme Court justice), but this choice was opposed by the NAACP since Thomas was a conservative and by the National Organization for Women (NOW), since Thomas was supposedly pro-abortion.
    • In early October 1991, Anita Hill charged Thomas with sexual harassment, and even though Thomas was still selected to be on the Court, Hill’s case publicized sexual harassment and tightened tolerance of it (Oregon’s Senator Robert Packwood had to step down in 1995 after a case of sexual harassment).
    • A gender gap arose between women in both parties.
  4. In 1992, the economy stalled, and Bush was forced to break an explicit campaign promise (“Read my lips, no new taxes”) and add $133 billion worth of new taxes to try to curb the $250 billion annual budget.
    • When it was revealed that many House members had written bad checks from a private House “bank,” public confidence lessened even more.
  5. The 27th Amendment banned congressional pay raises from taking effect until an election had seated a new session of Congress, an idea first proposed by James Madison in 1789.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 41 - America Confronts the Post-Cold War Era

I. Bill Clinton: the First Baby-Boomer President

  1. In 1992, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton as their candidate (despite accusations of womanizing, drug use, and draft evasion) and Albert Gore, Jr. as his running mate.
  2. The Democrats tried a new approach, promoting growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies while campaigning to stimulate the economy.
  3. The Republicans dwelt on “family values” and selected Bush for another round and J. Danforth Quayle as his running mate. They claimed that “character matters” and so Clinton and his baggage should not be elected.
  4. Third party candidate Ross Perot added color to the election by getting 19,742,267 votes in the election (no electoral votes, though), but Clinton won, 370 to 168 in the Electoral College.
    • Democrats also got control of both the House and the Senate.
  5. Congress and the presidential cabinet were filled with minorities and more women, including the first female attorney general ever, Janet Reno, Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg in the Supreme Court

II. A False Start for Reform

  1. Upon entering office, Clinton called for accepting homosexuals in the armed forces, but finally had to settle for a “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy that unofficially accepted gays and lesbians.
  2. Clinton also appointed his wife, Hillary, to revamp the nation’s health and medical care system, and when it was revealed in October 1993, critics blasted it as cumbersome, confusing, and unpractical, thus suddenly making Hillary Rodham Clinton a liability whereas before, she had been a full, equal political partner of her husband.
  3. By 1996, Clinton had shrunk the federal deficit to its lowest level in a decade, and in 1993, he passed a gun-control law called the Brady Bill, named after presidential aide James Brady who had been wounded in President Reagan’s attempted assassination.
    • In July 1994, Clinton persuaded Congress to pass a $30 billion anticrime bill.
  4. During the decade, a radical Muslim group bombed the World Trade Center in New York, killing six. An American terrorist, Timothy McVeigh, bombed the federal building in Oklahoma in 1995, taking 169 lives. And a fiery standoff at Waco, Texas, between the government and the Branch Davidian religious cult ended in a huge fire that killed men, women, and children.
    • By this time, few Americans trusted the government, the reverse of the WWII generation.

III. The Politics of Distrust

  1. In 1994, Newt Gingrich led Republicans on a sweeping attack of Clinton’s liberal failures with a conservative “Contract with America,” and that year, Republicans won all incumbent seats as well as eight more seats in the Senate and 53 more seats in the House. Gingrich became the new Speaker of the House.
  2. However, the Republicans went too far, imposing federal laws that put new obligations on state and local governments without providing new revenues and forcing Clinton to sign a welfare-reform bill that made deep cuts in welfare grants.
    • Clinton tried to fight back, but gradually, the American public grew tired of Republican conservatism, such as Gingrich’s suggestion of sending children of welfare families to orphanages, and of its incompetence, such as the 1995 shut down of Congress due to a lack of a sufficient budget package.
  3. In 1996, Clinton ran against Republican Bob Dole and won, 379 to 159, and Ross Perot again finished a sorry third.

IV. Clinton Again

  1. Clinton became the first Democrat to be re-elected since FDR.
  2. He put conservatives on the defensive by claiming the middle ground.
    • He embraced the Welfare Reform Bill.
    • He balanced affirmative action (preferential treatment for minorities). When voters and courts began to move away from affirmative action, Clinton spoke against the direction away from affirmative action, but stopped short of any action.
  3. Mostly, Clinton enjoyed the popularity of a president during an economic good-time.
    • He supported the controversial NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) which cut tariffs and trade barriers between Mexico—U.S.—Canada.
    • Similarly, he supported the start of the WTO (World Trade Agreement) to lower trade barriers internationally.
  4. The issue of campaign finance reform rose to water level. Republicans and Clinton alike, gave the issue lip service, but did nothing.

V. Problems Abroad

  1. Clinton sent troops to Somalia (where some were killed), withdrew them, and also meddled in Northern Ireland to no good effect. But after denouncing China’s abuses of human rights and threatening to punish China before he became president, Clinton as president discovered that trade with China was too important to throw away over human rights.
  2. Clinton committed American troops to NATO to keep the peace in the former Yugoslavia, and he sent 20,000 troops to return Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti.
  3. He resolutely supported the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that made a free-trade zone surrounding Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., then helped form the World Trade Organization (WTO), the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and also provided $20 billion to Mexico in 1995 to help its faltering economy.
  4. Clinton also presided over an historic reconciliation meeting in 1993 between Israel’s Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Yasir Arafat at the White House, but two years later, Rabin was assassinated, thus ending hopes for peace in the Middle East.

VI. Scandal and Impeachment

  1. The end of the Cold War left the U.S. groping for a diplomatic formula to replace anti-Communism and revealed misconduct by the CIA and the FBI.
  2. Political reporter Joe Klein wrote Primary Colors, mirroring some of Clinton’s personal life/womanizing. Meanwhile Clinton also ran into trouble with his failed real estate investment in the Whitewater Land Corporation.
    • In 1993, Vincent Foster, Jr. apparently committed suicide, perhaps overstressed at having to (perhaps immorally) manage Clinton’s legal and financial affairs.
  3. As Clinton began his second term, the first by a Democratic president since FDR, he had Republican majorities in both houses of Congress going against him.
  4. Oddly for a president who seemed obsessed with making a place for himself in history, his place likely was made with the infamous Monica Lewinski sex scandal. In it, Clinton had oral sex in the White House Oval Office with the intern Lewinski. Then he denied, under oath, that he had done so, figuring that oral sex was not actually sex.
    • For his “little white lie,” Clinton was impeached by the House (only the 2nd president to be impeached, behind Andrew Johnson right after the Civil War).
    • However, Republicans were unable to get the necessary 2/3 super-majority vote in the Senate to kick Clinton from the White House. So, Clinton fulfilled his final years as president, but did so with a tarnished image and his place in history assured. His actions saw Americans lean toward the realization that character indeed must really matter after all.

VII. Clinton’s Legacy

  1. In his last several months as president, Clinton tried to secure a non-Monica legacy.
    • He named tracts of land as preservations.
    • He initiated a “patients’ bill of rights.”
    • He hired more teachers and police officers.
  2. On the good side, Clinton proved to be a largely moderate Democrat. The economy was strong, the budget was balanced, and he cautioned people from expected big-government from being the do-all and give-all to everyone.
  3. On the bad side, the Monica Lewinski situation created great cynicism in politics, he negotiated a deal with the Lewinski prosecutor where he’d gave immunity in exchange for a fine and law license suspension, and his last-minute executive pardons gave the appearance of rewarding political donors.

VIII. The Bush-Gore Presidential Battle

  1. The 2000 election began to shape up as a colorful one.
    • Democrats chose Vice President Albert Gore. He had to balance aligned with Clinton’s prosperity and against his scandals.
    • The Green Party (consisting mostly of liberals and environmentalists) chose consumer advocate Ralph Nader.
    • Republicans chose Texas governor George W. Bush (son of George H. W. Bush and known simply as “W” or, in Texas, as “Dub-ya”).
  2. A budget surplus beckoned the question, “What to do with the extra money?”
    • Bush said to make big cut taxes for all.
    • Gore said to make smaller tax cuts to the middle class only, then use the rest to shore up the debt, Social Security, and Medicare.
    • Nader, in reality, was little more than a side-show.

IX. The Controversial Election of 2000

  1. A close finish was expected, but not to the degree to which it actually happened.
    • The confused finish was reminiscent of the Hayes-Tilden standoff of 1876.
  2. Controversy surrounded Florida.
    • Having the nation’s 4th most electoral votes, Florida was the swing-state.
    • Florida effectively had a tie, with Bush ahead by the slightest of margins.
    • State law required a recount.
      • The recount upheld Bush’s narrow win.
      • Democrats charged there were irregularities in key counties (notably Palm Beach county that had a large Jewish populace and therefore would figure to be highly Democratic in support of Gore’s V.P. candidate Joseph Lieberman, the 1st Jewish candidate for president or V.P.).
      • At heart of the matter was the infamous “butterfly ballot” which supposedly confused the easily-confounded elderly of Palm Beach county—supposedly to Bush’s advantage.
      • As the confusion wore on and America needed a president A.S.A.P., Florida eventually validated the Bush vote. Additionally, George W.’s brother Jeb Bush was the Florida governor; and, the Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris, who officially validated the Bush-vote, had been appointed by Jeb.
        • For conspiracy theorists, it was like a field-day on Christmas morning.
      • One irony of the election was the role of Ralph Nader. He energized the liberalist liberals (and therefore those who disliked Bush the most). The irony: Green votes for Nader stole votes that would’ve gone to Gore and ostensibly gave the election to Bush.
      • Drama aside, Bush won. Gore actually got more popular votes (50,999,897 to Bush’s 50,456,002), but lost the critical electoral vote (266 to Bush’s 271).

X. Bush Begins

  1. Bush took office talking up his Texas upbringing (true) and talking down his family’s Back-East privilege (also true).
  2. Bush took on hot topics and fired up both sides of the political spectrum.
    • He withdrew U.S. support from international programs that okayed abortion.
    • He advocated faith-based social welfare programs.
    • He opposed stem-cell research, which had great medical possibilities, on the grounds that the embryo in reality was a small person and doing tests on it was nothing other than abortion.
    • He angered environmentalists with his policies.
    • He even worried conservatives by cutting taxes $1.3 trillion. The budget surpluses of the 90s turned into a $400 billion deficit by 2004.

XI. Terrorism Comes to America

  1. On September 11, 2001, America’s centuries-old enjoyment of being on “our side of the pond” ended when militant Muslim radicals attacked America. The radicals hijacked passenger planes and used the planes, and hostages, as guided missiles.
    • Two planes slammed into the World Trade Center towers in New York City. The towers caught afire, then came down.
    • A third plane slammed into the Pentagon.
    • A fourth plane was aiming for the White House, but heroic passengers took back the plane before it crashed in a Pennsylvania field.
  2. America was stunned, to say the least.
  3. President Bush’s leadership after the attacks was solemn and many began to forget the disputed election of 2000.
    • He identified the culprits as Al Qaeda, a religious militant terrorist group, led by Osama Bin Laden.
    • Bin Laden’s hatred toward America revolved around resent of America’s economic, military, and cultural power.
  4. Texas-style, Bush called for Bin Laden’s head. Afghanistan refused to hand him over so Bush ordered the military to go on the offensive and hunt him down. The hunt proved to be difficult and Bin Laden proved elusive.
  5. At the same time, the American economy turned for the worse, and a few Americans died after receiving anthrax-laden letters. Coupled with fear of another attack, anxiety loomed.
  6. Terrorism launched a “new kind of war” or a “war on terror” that required tactics beyond the conventional battlefield. Congress responded in turn.
    • The Patriot Act gave the government extended surveillance rights. Critics charged this was a Big Brother-like infringement of rights—a reversal of the freedoms that Americans were fighting for.
    • The Department of Homeland Security was established as the newest cabinet department. It’s goal was to secure America.

XII. Bush Takes the Offensive Against Iraq

  1. Saddam Hussein had been a long time menace to many people. With Bush, his time had run out. Bush stated he’d not tolerate Hussein’s defiance of the U.N.’s weapons inspectors.
  2. At heart of problems: intelligence at the time suggested that Hussein had and was actively making weapons of mass destruction (“WMDs”). Hussein continually thumbed his nose at the weapon’s inspectors who tried to validate or disprove the threat.
  3. Bush decided it was time for action.
    • Bush sought the U.N.’s approval for taking military action, but some nations, notably France with its Security Council veto, had cold feet.
    • So, Bush decided to go it alone. Heavy majorities of Congress in October of 2002 approved armed force against Iraq.
    • The U.N. tried one last time to inspect, Hussein blocked the inspectors again. The U.N. and inspectors asked for more time still.
    • For Bush, time was up. He launched an attack and Baghdad fell within a month. Saddam went on the run, then was found nine months later hiding in a hole in the ground.
    • Taking Iraq, though not easy, was swift and successful; securing and rebuilding Iraq would prove tougher.

XIII. Owning Iraq

  1. Most Iraqi people welcomed the Americans, but certainly not all.
  2. Factions broke out. Iraqi insurgents attacked American G.I.’s and casualties mounted to nearly 1,200 by 2004.
  3. Americans soon began to wonder, “How long will we be there?”
  4. The new goals were to (1) establish security in Iraq, hopefully by Iraqi troops, and (2) create and turn over control to a new democratically elected Iraqi government.
    • Training Iraqi troops proved pitifully slow.
    • A new government was created and limited power handed over on June 28, 2004.
  5. Iraq became a divisive issue in America. Conservatives generally supported the war and post-war efforts. Liberals charged that Bush was on some ego-tripping battle charge to hunt down phantom weapons of mass destruction.

XIV. A Country in Conflict

  1. Other issues divided America:
    • Democrats continually grumbled about the “stolen” 2000 election.
    • Civil libertarians fumed over the Patriot Act.
    • Pacifists said the WMD reasoning was made up from the get-go to start a war.
    • Big business (like Enron and WorldCom that monkeyed with their books) supposedly fattened the rich and gleaned the poor.
    • Social warfare continued over abortion and homosexuality.
    • Affirmative action still boiled, and the Supreme Court came up with mathematical formulae for minority admittance to undergrads. The Court also stated that in 25 years racial preferences would likely be unnecessary.

XV. Reelecting George W. Bush

  1. Republicans put Bush up for reelection in 2004.
  2. Democrats selected Sen. John Kerry of Massachusetts.
  3. Despite the usual litany of issues (education, health care, etc.) the key issue of the 2004 election was national security.
    • At the heart of the security issue, was the question of the war in Iraq.
    • Bush said to “stay the course”; Kerry took an anti-war position. However, Kerry’s position and image was somewhat confounding:
      • Kerry was a Vietnam war hero, but then a Vietnam war protestor.
      • Kerry voted for military action in Iraq, but then voted against a bill for military spending for the war.
  4. Kerry gained much support by criticizing Bush’s management (or mismanagement) of the Iraq situation. Kerry charged that Bush had no plan for Iraq after the initial take-over. However, Kerry focused only on Bush’s failure and failed to effectively present voters with his own alternative course of action.
  5. In the election, and despite polls to the contrary, Bush won with a surprisingly strong showing (a popular vote of 60,639,281 to Kerry’s 57,355,978) of 286 electoral votes to Kerry’s 252.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 42 - The American People Face a New Century

I. Economic Revolutions

  1. As heavy industry waned, the information age kicked into high gear.
    • Microsoft Corp. and the internet brought about the communications revolution.
    • Entrepreneurs led the way to making the Internet a 21st century mall, library, and shopping center.
    • Speed and efficiency of new communications tools threatened to wipe out other jobs.
  2. White-collar jobs in financial services and high tech engineering were being outsourced to other countries like Ireland and India.
    • Employees could thus help keep the company’s global circuits working 24 hrs. a day.
  3. Many discovered that the new high tech economy was also prone to boom or bust, just like the old economy.
    • In the Spring of 2000, the stock market began its biggest slide since WWII.
    • By 2003, the market had lost $6 trillion in value.
      • American’s pension plans shrank to 1/3 or more.
      • Recent retirees scrambled to get jobs and offset their pension losses which were tied to the stock market.
      • This showed that Americans were still scarcely immune to risk, error, scandal, and the ups-and-downs of the business cycle.
  4. Scientific research propelled the economy.
    • Researchers unlocked the secrets of molecular genetics (1950s).
      • They developed new strains of high yielding, pest/weather resistant crops.
      • They sought to cure hereditary diseases.
      • The movement started to fix genetic mutations.
    • The "Human Genome Project" established the DNA sequence of the 30 thousand human genes, helping create radical new medical therapies.
    • Breakthroughs in cloning animals raised questions about the legitimacy of cloning technology in human reproduction.
    • Stem Cell Research, where zygotes or fertilized human eggs, offered possible cures for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
      • The Bush administration, and many religious groups, believed that this research was killing people in the form of a human fetus.
      • Bush said a fetus is still a human life, despite its small size, and experimenting and destroying it is therefore wrong. For this reason, he limited government funding for stem cell research.

II. Affluence and Inequality

  1. U.S. standard of living was high compared to the rest of human kind
    • Median household income in 2002 = $42,400
  2. Americans, however, weren’t the world’s wealthiest people
  3. Rich still got richer while the poor got poorer
    • The richest 20% in 2001 raked in nearly half the nation’s income while the poorest 20% got a mere 4%
  4. The Welfare Reform Bill (1996) restric5ted access to social services and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find work.
    • This further weakened the financial footing of many impoverished families.
  5. Widening inequality could be measured in different ways as well
    • Chief executives roughly earned 245 times as much as the average worker
    • In 2004, over 40 million people had no medical insurance
    • 34 million (12% of population) were impoverished
  6. Causes of the widening income gap
    • The tax and fiscal policies of the Reagan and both Bush presidencies
    • Intensifying global economic competition
    • shrinkage of high-paying manufacturing jobs for semiskilled/unskilled workers
    • the decline of unions
    • the economic rewards to those of higher education
    • the growth of part time and temporary work
    • the increase of low-skilled immigrants
    • the tendency of educated, working men and woman marriages, creating households w/ high incomes
  7. Educational opportunities also had a way of perpetuating inequality
    • under funding of many schools in poor urban areas

III. The Feminist Revolution

  1. Women were greatly affected by the great economic changes of the late 20th Century
  2. Over 5 decades, women steadily increased their presence in the work place
  3. By 1990s, nearly half of all workers were women
  4. Most surprising was the upsurge of employment in mothers
    • by 1990s, a majority of women with kids as young as one were working
  5. Many universities opened their doors to women (1960s):
    • Yale
    • Princeton
    • West Point
    • The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute (VMI)
  6. Despite these gains, many feminists remained frustrated
    • women still got lower wages
    • were concentrated in few low-prestige, low-paying occupations
      • For example, in 2002, on 29 % of women were lawyers or judges and 25% physicians
      • This is likely due to women would interrupt their careers to bear and raise kids and even took a less demanding job to fulfill the traditional family roles
  7. Discrimination and a focus on kids also helped account for the “gender-gap” in elections
    • Women still voted for Democrats more than men
      • They seemed to be more willing to favor gov’t support for health and child care, education, and job equality, as well as more vigilant in protecting abortion rights—thus, Democratic voters.
  8. Mens’ lives changed in the 2000s as well
    • Some employers gave maternity leave as well as paternity leave in recognition of shared obligations of the two worker household.
    • More men shared the traditional female responsibilities
      • cooking, laundry, and child care
  9. In 1993, congress passed the Family Leave Bill, mandating job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off from work for family reasons

IV. New Families and Old

  1. The nuclear family suffered heavy blows in modern America
    • by 1990s, one out of every two marriages ended in divorce
    • 7x more children were affected by divorce compared to the beginning of the decade
    • Kids who commuted between parents was common ground
  2. Traditional families weren’t just falling apart at an alarming rate, but were also increasingly slow to form in the first place.
    • The proportion of adults living alone tripled in the 4 decades after 1950s
    • In 1990s, 1/3 of women age 25 - 29 had never married
    • Every forth child in US was growing up in a household that lacked two parents
  3. The reason for this
    • the pauperization of many women and children (single parent income = HARD)
    • Single parent hood was the #1 cause for the reason behind poverty
  4. Child raising, the reason behind a family, was being pawned off to day-care centers, school, or TV (electronic babysitter)
  5. Viable families now assumed a variety of different forms
    • Kids in households were raised by a single parent, stepparent, or grandparent, and even kids with gay parents encountered a degree of acceptance that would have been unimaginable a century earlier.
    • Gay marriage and teenage pregnancy was on a decline after the mid-1900s
  6. Families weren’t evaporating, but were altering into much different forms

V. The Aging of America

  1. Old age was expected, due to the fact that Americans were living longer than ever before
    • People born in 2000 could anticipate living to an average 70 years

Miraculous medical advances lengthened and strengthened lives

  1. Longer lives = more older people
    • 1 American in 8 was over 65 years of age in 2000
  2. This aging of population raised a slew of economic, social, and political questions
    • Old people formed a potent electoral bloc that aggressively lobbied for gov’t favors and achieved real gains for senior citizens
    • The share of GNP spent on health care for people over 65 more than doubled
    • The more payments to healthcare, hurt education, thus making social and economic problems further down the road.
      • The old are getting helped, but the young are being punished for it
  3. These triumphs for senior citizens brought fiscal strains, like on Social Security
    • At the beginning of the creation of Social Security, a small majority depended on it.
    • But by now, it has increased, and now workers’ Social Security is actually being funded to the senior citizens. WHY?
      • The ratio of active workers to retirees had dropped so low, that drastic adjustments were necessary
      • Worsened further, when med care for seniors rose out of their price range
  4. As WW2 baby boomers began to retire the Unfunded Liability (the difference between what the gov’t promised to pay to the elderly and the taxes it expected to take in) was about $7 trillion, a number that might destroy US if new reforms weren’t adopted
    • Pressures mounted:
      • to persuade older Americans to work longer
      • invest the current Social Security surplus in equalities and bonds to meet future obligations
      • privatize a portion of the Social Security to younger people who wanted to invest some of their pay-roll taxes into individual retirement accounts

VI. The New Immigration

  1. Newcomers continued to flow into Modern America
    • Nearly 1 million per year from 1980s up to 2000s
    • Contradicting history, Europe provided few compared to Asia/Latin America
  2. What prompted new immigration to the US?
    • New immigrants came for many of the same reasons as the old…
      • they left countries where population was increasing rapidly and…
      • where agricultural/industrial revolutions were shaking people loose of old habits of life
      • they came in search of jobs and economic opportunities
  3. Some came with skills and even professional degrees and found their way into middle-class jobs
    • However, most came with fewer skills/less education, seeking work as janitors, nannies, farm laborers, lawn cutters, or restraint workers.
  4. The southwest felt immigration the hardest, since Mexican migrants came heavily from there
    • By the turn of the century, Latinos made up nearly 1/3 of the population in California, Arizona, and Texas, and nearly 40% in New Mexico
    • Latinos succeeded in making the south west a bi-cultural region by holding onto to their culture by strength in numbers, compared to most immigrants whom had to conform. Plus, it did help to have their ‘mothering country” right next door.
  5. Some “old-stock” Americans feared about the modern America’s capacity to absorb all these immigrants.
    • The Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) attempted to choke off illegal entry by penalizing employers of the undocumented aliens and by granting amnesty of those already here.
    • Ant-immigrant sentiment flared (a lot in CA) in the wake of economic recession in the early 1990s
      • CA voters approved a ballot initiative that attempted to deny benefits, including education, to illegal immigrants (later struck down by courts)
      • State then passed another law in 1998 which put an end to bilingual teaching in state schools
  6. The fact was, that only 11.5% of foreign-born people accounted for the US population
  7. Evidence, nonetheless, still showed that US welcomed and needed immigrants
  8. The good side to it…
    • Immigrants took jobs that Americans didn’t want
    • Infusion of young immigrants and their offspring counter-balanced the overwhelming rate of an aging population

VII. Beyond the Melting Pot

  1. Thanks to their increasing immigration and high birthrate Latinos were becoming an increasingly important minority
    • By 2003, the US was home to about 39 million of them
      • 26 million Chicanos, Mexican American
      • 3 million Puerto Ricans
      • 1 million Cubans
  2. Flexing political powers, Latinos elected mayors of Miami, Denver, and San Antonio
  3. After many years of struggle, the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC0, headed by Cesar Chavez, succeeded in making working conditions better for Chicano “stoop laborers” who followed the planting cycle of the American West
  4. Latino influence seemed likely to grow
    • Latinos, well organized, became the nation’s largest ethnic minority
  5. Asian Americans also made great strides.
    • By the 1980s, they were America’s fastest-growing minority and their numbers reached about 12 million by 2003.
    • Citizens of Asian ancestry were now counted among the most prosperous
      • In 2003, the average Asian household was 25% better off than that of the average white household
  6. Indians, the original Americans, numbered some 2.4 million in 2000 census.
    • Half had left their reservations to live in cities.
    • Unemployment and alcoholism had blighted reservation life
    • Many tribes took advantage of their special legal status of independence by opening up casinos on reservations to the public.
    • However, discrimination and poverty proved hard to break

VIII. Cities and Suburbs

  1. Cities grew less safe, crime was the great scourge of urban life.
    • The rate of violent crimes raised to its peak in the drug infested 80s, but then leveled out in the 90s.
    • The number of violent crimes substantially dropped in many areas after 1995
    • None the less, murders, robberies and rapes remained common in cities and rural areas and the suburbs
  2. In mid-1990s, a swift and massive transition took place from cities to suburbs, making jobs “suburbanized.”
    • The nation’s brief “urban age” lasted for only a little less than 7 decades and with it, Americans noticed a new form of isolationism
    • Some affluent suburban neighborhoods stayed secluded, by staying locked in “gated communities”
    • By the first decade of the 21st century, big suburban rings around cities like NY, Chicago, Houston, and Washington DC had become more racially and ethically diverse
  3. Suburbs grew faster in the West and Southwest
    • Builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting up across the landscapes
    • Newcomers came from nearby cities and from across the nation
      • A huge shift of US population was underway from East to West
      • The Great Plains hurt from the 60% decline of all counties
  4. However, some cities showed signs of renewal
    • Commercial redevelopment gained ground in cities like…
      • New York
      • Chicago
      • Los Angeles
      • Boston
      • San Francisco

IX. Minority America

  1. Racial and ethic tensions also exacerbated the problems of American Cities
    • This was specifically evident in LA (magnet for minorities)
      • It was a 1992 case wherein a mostly white jury exonerated white cops who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect.
      • The minority neighborhoods of LA erupted in anger
        • Arson and looting laid waste on every block
        • Many people were killed
        • Many blacks vented their anger towards the police/judicial system by attacking Asian shopkeepers
        • In return, Asians set up patrols to protect themselves
        • The chaos still lingers decades later
    • LA riots vividly testified to black skepticism about the US system of justice
      • Three years later, in LA, a televised showing of OJ Simpson’s murder trial fed white disillusionment w/ the state of race relations
      • after months of testimony, it looked like OJ was guilty, but was acquitted due to the fact some white cops had been shown to harbor racist sentiments
      • In a a later civil trail, another jury unanimously found Simpson liable for the “wrongful deaths” of his former wife and another victim
      • The Simpson verdicts revealed the huge gap between white and black America (whites = guilty, blacks = 1st verdict stands)
    • Blacks still felt that they were mistreated, especially in 2000 elections when they accused that they weren’t allowed to vote in Florida.
      • Said they were still facing the Jim Crow South of racial indifference
  2. US cities have always held an astonishing variety of ethnic/racial groups, but by 20th century, minorities made up the majority, making whites flee to the suburbs
    • In 2002, 52% of blacks and only 21% of whites lived in central cities
  3. The most desperate black ghettos were especially problematic
    • Blacks who benefited form the 60s Civil Rights Movement left to the suburbs with whites leaving the poorest of the poor in the old ghettos.
    • Without a middle class to help the community, the cities became plagued by unemployment and drug addiction
  4. Single women headed about 43% of black families in 2002, 3 times more than whites
    • Many single, black mothers depended on welfare to feed their kids
  5. Social Scientists made clear that education excels if the child has warm, home environment
    • It seemed clear that many fatherless, impoverished Black kids seemed plagued by educational handicaps which were difficult to overcome
  6. Some segments of Black communities did prosper after the Civil Rights Movement (50s, 60s), although they still had a long trek ahead until they got equality
    • by 2002, 33% of black families had a $50,000 income (= middle class)
    • Blacks also improved in politics
      • Number of black officials elected had risen to the 9,000 mark
      • More than 3 dozen members of congress and mayors of some big cities
      • Voter tallies showed that black votes had risen
  7. By the early 21st century, blacks had dramatically advanced into higher education
    • In 2002, 17% of Blacks over 25 had bachelor’s degree
    • The courts still preserved affirmative action in the university admissions

X. E Pluribus Plures

  1. Controversial issues of color and culture also pervaded the realm of ideas in the late 20th
  2. Echoing early 20th Century “cultural pluralist” like Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne, many people embraced the creed of “multiculturalism”
    • This stressed the need to preserve and primate, rather than squash racial minorities
  3. In 1970s and 80s, the catchword of philosophy was ethnic pride.
    • People wanted to still keep their identity and culture (eg Latinos and Asians)
    • The old idea of a “melting pot” turned into a colorful “salad bowl”
  4. Nation’s classrooms became the heated area for debate
    • Multiculturalists attacked traditional curriculum and advocated a greater focus on achievements of blacks, Latinos, Asians, Indians
    • In defense, critics said that studies on ethnic differences would destroy American values
    • Census Bureau further advocated the debate when in 2000 it allowed respondents to identify themselves w/ more than one of the six categories:
      • black
      • white
      • Latino
      • American Indian
      • Asian
      • Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander

XI. The Life of the Mind

  1. Despite the mind-sapping chatter of the “boob tube,” Americans in the early 21st century read more, listened to more music, and were better educated than ever before
    • Colleges awarded some 2.5 million degrees in 2004
    • 1 in 4 25-34 year old age group was a 4 year college graduate
  2. This spurt of educated people raised the economy
  3. What Americans read said much about the state of US society
    • Some American authors, concerning the west
      • Larry McMurtry the small town West and recollected about the end of the cattle drive era in Lonesome Dove (1985)
      • Raymond Carver wrote powerful stories about the working class in the Pacific Northwest
      • Annie Dillard, Ivan Doig, and Jim Harrison re-created the frontier in the same region as Carver
      • David Guterson wrote a moving tale of interracial anxiety and affection in the WWII era in Pacific Northwest in Snow Falling on Cedars (1994)
      • Wallace Stagner produced many works that transcended their original themes like…
        • Angle of Repose (1971)
        • Crossing to Safety (1987)
      • Norman MacLean wrote two unforgettable events about his childhood in Montana, A River Runs Through It (1976) and Young Men and Fire (1992)
    • African American Authors
      • August Wilson retold the history of the blacks in 20th century w/ emphasis on the psychic cost of the northward migration
      • George Wolf explored sobering questions of black identity in his Jelly’s Last Jam (the life story of jazzman “Jelly Roll” Morton)
      • Alice Walker gave fictional voice to the experiences of black women in her hugely popular The Color Purple
      • Toni Morrison wrote a bewitching portrait of maternal affection in Beloved
      • Edward P. Jones inventively rendered the life of a slave-owning black family in his Pulitzer Prize-wining The Known World.
    • Indians got recognition, too
      • N. Scott Momaday won a Pulitzer Prize for his portrayal of Indian life in House Made of Dawn
      • James Welch wrote movingly about his Blackfoot ancestors in Fools Crow
    • Asian American authors flourished as well
      • Among them was playwright David Hwang, novelist Amy Tan, and essayist Maxine Hong Kingston
      • Gish Jen in Mona in the Promise Land guided her readers into the poignant comedy of suburban family relationships that wasn’t uncommon to 2nd-generation Asian Americans
      • Jhumpa Lahiris’ Interpreter of Maladies, explored the sometimes painful relationship between immigrant Indian parents and their American-born kids
    • Latino writers included…
      • Sandra Cisneros drew hoer own life as a Mexican American kid to evoke Latino life in the working-class Chicago in The House on Mango Street

XII. The American Prospect

  1. American spirit pulsed with vitality in the early 21st century, but bug problems continued
    • Women still fell short of 1st class citizenship
    • US society also wanted to find ways to adapt back to the traditional family, but w/ the new realities of women’s work outside the home
    • Full equality was till an elusive dream for some races
    • Powerful foreign competitors threatened the US economic status
    • The alarmingly unequal distribution of wealth and income threatened to turn America into a society of haves and have-nots, mocking the very ideals of democracy
  2. Environmental worries clouded the countries future
    • Coal-fired electrical energy plants produced acid rain and helped greenhouse effect
    • Unsolved problem of radioactive waste disposal stopped the making of nuclear power plants
    • The planet was being drained of oil and oil spills showed the danger behind oil exploration/transportation
  3. The public looks towards alternative fuel sources in the 21st Century:
    • Solar powers and wind mills
    • methane fuel
    • electric “hybrid” cars
    • the pursuit of an affordable hydrogen fuel cell
    • Energy conservation remained another crucial, but elusive strategy
  4. The task of cleansing the earth of abundant pollutants was one urgent mission confronting the US people
  5. Another was seeking ways to resolve ethnic and cultural conflicts once erupted around the world’s end of the Cold War
  6. All at the same time more doors were opening for the US people
    • opportunities in outer space and inner-city streets
    • artist’s easel and the musician’s concert hall
    • at the inventor’s bench and the scientist’s laboratory
    • The unending quest for social justice, individual fulfillment, international peace
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 12th Edition Textbook Notes

This categories contains AP US History notes for the American Pageant, 12th Edition textbook.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1134 pages
  • Publisher: Houghton Mifflin Company; 12 edition (November 30, 2001)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 0618247327
  • ISBN-13: 978-0618247325

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings 33,000 B.C. - A.D. 1783

 

I. Introduction

  • Recorded human history is only one small portion of earth history
  • European explorers “stumbled” on the Americas, altering the course of history in Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa


II. The Shaping of North America

  • Geologic forces and climate change created the distinctive No. American continent


III. Peopling the Americas

  • Ancient Americans probably crossed the Bering “land bridge” from Asia between 35,000 and 10,000 years ago (25,000 year window). Receding ice and rising oceans eliminated the bridge.
  • These peoples slowly migrated and inhabited both continents, perhaps numbering up to 54 mill. by 1492 AD (4 mill. In No Amer)


IV. The Earliest Americans

  • Corn/maize was the central agricultural crop that sustained many of the Indian cultures, moving them from nomadic hunters toward settled agricultural societies
  • Complex maize culture spread slowly from Mexico north and east into No. Amer, reaching the southeast as late as 1000 AD – Creeks, Choctaws, Cherokees – three-sister farming: corn, beans, squash
  • Iroquois developed their confederacy as late as the 1500s
  • Most American societies were small & migratory – women farmed, men hunted – women often held political and cultural authority
  • Though Americans did not dominate the land, they still manipulated it to meet their agricultural needs


V. Indirect Discoverers of the New World== 

  • Despite early settlements in NE NoAmer @ 1000AD, norse explorers lacked the social organization to maintain them
  • European expansion and connections with Africa and Asia were the catalysts for “discovering America
  • Crusades familiarized Europe with exotic and desirable goods that they were now willing to take risks to trade for
  • Expense of trade through middlemen in Asia led Euros to search for alternative routes they could control


VI. Europeans Enter Africa

  • Development of the caravel in 1400s and a new route home by Portuguese allowed Europeans to sail south to sub-Saharan Africa
  • Portuguese merchants set up posts in Africa to trade in gold and slaves, both of which were already established markets in Africa
  • Portuguese also set up plantation agriculture systems for sugar in Atlantic/African islands – commercial crops, dependent upon enslaved labor
  • Dias (1488) rounded So Africa & Da Gama (1498) sailed to India, establishing a direct water route to Asia
  • Newly unified Spain (Isabella & Ferdinand) sought to compete with Portugal by finding an alternate route, looking west


VII. Columbus Comes Upon a New World

  • Many factors set the stage enabling Columbus’ achievement to become a momentous historical shift:
  • European desire for more Asian and African products – at a cheaper price
  • African systems of enslaved labor were adopted by the Portuguese & Spanish for plantation agric.
  • Long range ocean navigation by Europeans was now possible with better technology, inluding the compass
  • New Spanish nation-state provided the money, political will and power to undertake exploration & colonization
  • Renaissance nurtured a spirit of optimism and human achievement
  • Printing press enabled spread of knowledge & ideas
  • Columbus sought a new route to Asia – his discovery of America was not his goal
  • 1492 changed the Atlantic world forever – Europe (markets, $, technology) Africa (labor) Americas (raw materials)


VIII. When Worlds Collide

  • An ecological exchange complemented the social exchange between Euro, Africa and Amer.
New World Provided: Old World (Europe) provided: Africa provided:
gold, silver    
corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, beans,
chocolate		 wheat, sugar, rice, coffee  
syphilis smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, etc  
  Horses, cows, pigs  
    Enslaved labor
  • New World foods became dominant foods for modern world & fed pop growth in Euro and Africa
  • Old World diseases devastated Indians who had lowered or no resistance to them: killed up to 90% of population


IX. The Spanish Conquistadores

  • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) gives Spain bulk of American claims (Portugal can claim Brazil) – becomes dominant in exploration and colonization
  • God, Gold and Glory fuel the conquistadores
  • New World gold and silver created wealth in Europe and set off inflation (500% ca. 1550-1650) & laid foundation for modern banking, money and capitalism
  • Carib. islands were jump-off pints for conquests of Americas
  • Encomienda – a system of enslaving Indians – gov’t would give Indian populations to landholders in exchange for promise to Christianize them


X. The Conquest of Mexico

  • Hernan Cortes was able to use his own men, weapons, Indian allies and devastating diseases to gradually overcome the Aztec Empire (in Mexico), beginning in 1619 and culminating in August 1621
  • Spanish rule was marked by the introduction of Spanish culture and customs and intermarriage with Indians


XI. The Spread of Spanish America

  • By the 1550’s, hundreds of Spanish towns and cities flourished in Amer. – est. Cathedrals, converting Indians, est. colleges
  • Spain sought to protect its empire from encroachments by other Euro. countries (Eng., France) further north by establishing provinces
  • New Mexico est. in 1609; est, settlements in lower Miss. and Texas (1716); California missions (1769+)
  • Subjugated natives and suppressed their culture
  • Popé’s Rebellion (1680) – native reaction to Spanish rule and religious suppression in New Mex – Spain did not regain full control until 1720s
  • “Black Legend” – exaggeration of Spanish rule perpetuated by other Europeans - that the Spanish only tortured the Americans, stole their gold; but Spanish rule was marked by a more full cultural fusion between Spain, and Indians
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America 1500-1733

 

I. Introduction

  • By the 1600s, the New World was profoundly altered by Spanish colonization with a changed ecology, disease, conquest and enslavement
  • North America was about to be further transformed by Spanish, English and French colonization


II. England’s Imperial Stirrings

  • Domestic religious and political conflict meant limited English interest in colonization in the 16th Cent
  • Elizabeth’s ascension to the throne (1558) brought stability, and a new rivalry with Catholic Spain, leading to a new interest in imperialism
  • Ireland was the first object of English imperialism as the British conquered the “savage” Irish


III. Elizabeth Energizes the England

  • New English efforts at expansion – pirates/buccaneers raided Spanish ships and colonies – Francis Drake
  • Newfoundland (1583) and Roanoke Island (1585) were two early attempts at settlement – both failed
  • Defeat of Spanish Armada by England in 1588 marked the beginning of the end of the Spanish dominance – Sp. began losing its vast empire – too large to manage
  • 1588 a “red-letter” date in American history – started England on its way to naval dominance, which in turn secured prosperity for American colonies


IV. England on the Eve of Empire

  • Many factors contributed to England’s colonization
    • Large population growth – 3 mill (1550)  4 mill (1600) --- provides people
    • Enclosure of land forced many farmers off the land, looking for a place to be (some turned to Puritanism) --- provides people and motive
    • Primogeniture also left younger sons with a need to find some other avenue to wealth – provides people and motive
    • Joint-stock company allowed several investors (“adventurers”) to pool money for a larger “pot” of capital – provides financial capital
    • Relative peace permitted exploration and colonization without distraction


V. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling

  • Virginia Co gets charter to colonize in N. America – investors sought gold and trade routes, viewed as a short term investment
  • Charter guarantees to settlers same English rights as if in England
  • Jamestown est. May, 1607
  • Many settlers suffered from disease and failures to properly prepare/provision the colony
    • By 1610 only 60 of 400 settlers survived
  • Lord De La Warr assumed “command” of Virginia in 1610 and developed it into viable colony
    • Still, by 1825 only 1200 of 8000 settler survived


VI. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

  • Conflict with N. Americans centered on competition for land – desire of colonists for it and desire of Indians to protect it (conflict not based on trade, or labor/enslavement)
  • Colonists call for “perpetual war” in 1620s
  • First Anglo-Powhatan War (1610-1614) ends in truce; Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1644-1646) ends with British victory – separation of populations
  • English initially saw little or no role for Nat. Americans in colonial economy, but rather as a competitor for land and resources


VII. The Indians’ New World

  • As in rest of new World, disease wreaked havoc on Native populations and cultures, weakening abilities to effectively cope with colonizers
  • Many nations lost their histories, traditional lands and economic foundation tied to land, flexible movement and trade networks
  • Inter-tribal competition increased with introduction of European communities – Nat. Americans and Europeans gradually increased trade relations and became an important part of the Atlantic economy
  • Inland nations (Algonqians in Grt. Lakes) were able to exploit British and French competition, but not permanently


VIII. Virginia: Child of Tobacco

  • Tobacco, initially cultivated by Rolfe became the key economic commodity of colonial Virginia --- created demand for land and helped push settlements upriver and westward (more conflict with Nat. Americans)
  • Labor intensive commodity economy
  • Enslaved Africans brought in 1619, but enslaved labor was limited until end of 1600s – instead relied on indentured servitude
  • House of Burgesses est. 1619 – first representative assembly in America
  • Became a Royal Colony in 1624 (James I revoked charter)


IX. Maryland: Catholic Haven

  • 4th colony est. 1634 – Lord Baltimore (Catholic) – proprietary
  • Small number of large landholders (Catholic) surrounded by small farmers (Protestant)
  • Tobacco main crop; indentured servants/small landholders main labor force
  • Act of Toleration (1649) meant to protect religious rights of all Christians and Catholic minority. Protections not extended to Jews or atheists
  • Representative assembly part of gov’t


X. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

  • Spain lost, England gained Caribbean island colonies by mid 1600s
  • Economy based on sugar cultivation – required large amounts of land, extended time to properly cultivate a crop, large amount of labor to plant, grow and process for trade – meant large wealth/capital required to invest --- plantation system
  • Staple crops imported from other colonies
  • Labor needs were met by importation and enslavement of Africans – 250,000 between 1640-1690 – and Nat Americans
  • Massive enslavement called for social and legal controls – brutality and “slave codes” that limited the rights African and Afro-Caribbean slaves – Barbados Slave Code. These ideas for controlling enslaved peoples were later brought to American South


XI. Colonizing the Carolinas

  • Colonization efforts in America gained ground during the Restoration period (1660s)
  • Carolinas developed trade connections with Caribbean colonies, including an Indian slave trade – rice became a key staple crop
  • Africans also imported for labor and agricultural skills
  • Frequent conflicts with Nat. American and Florida Spanish


XII. The Emergence of North Carolina

  • Populated by migrant from Virginia – typically poorer, owning small farms, not a religious community
  • Frequent wars with Nat. Americans – drove out Tuscaroras
  • Separated from Carolina (So. Carolina) in 1712


XII. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony

  • Est. in 1733 – much later than other 13 in No. America, population remained small
  • Intended to be a haven for debtors/prisoners as well as a buffer to Spanish antagonists from Florida
  • Slavery initially outlawed, permitted after 1750


XIV. The Plantation Colonies

  • Common traits:
    • Commercial agriculture – tobacco & rice
    • Enslaved labor used
    • Large landholders dominated social structure (less in No Carolina and Georgia)
    • Slow development of cities; spread out sparse populations; few community institutions (schools)
    • Anglican/Episcopalian church dominant religion
    • Expansive – westward penetration
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies 1619-1700

 

I. Introduction

  • Distinctive differences in the process of colonization between northern and southern colonies shaped each region’s culture


II. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

  • Calvinism evolved from the Protestant reformation and became the dominant theology for the northern colonies
    • God is all powerful and all knowing; who is going to heaven (elect) and hell has been predestined
    • Humans are not God and cannot know if they are among the elect – start looking for signs of conversion/grace. If a person realizes they are among the elect, they are expected to live their life accordingly, be a “visible saint”
  • Calvinists in England sought to go further than Henry VIII and actually “purify” their church – connected well with the socially displaced “victims” of economic changes in England, like the woolen districts, who sought order in a now disordered world
  • Some Calvinists/Puritans became increasingly selective – suggested that only the “visible saints” should be members of the Church of England. These Separatists would break from the Ch of Eng to prove thier point
    • James I was happy to let them do so – just in America


III. The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

  • Pilgrims sought a refuge from both religious and cultural harassment – agreed to settle in Virginia
  • Sailed with other non-Separatists in 1620, but missed Virginia, ended up squatting in Cape Cod
  • All eligible signed the Mayflower Compact, agreement to form a gov’t based on majority-rule
  • Difficult winter was followed by a prosperous harvest in 1621
  • Colony quickly became stable socially and economically, though small
  • William Bradford important governor
  • The mixing of Separatists and non-Separtists prevented colony from become the true religious model the Pilgrims intended


IV. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

  • Massachusetts Bay founded by more moderate Puritans in 1629, same year Charles I abolished Parliament and began persecuting Puritans
  • Began settling in 1630, well-provisioned and populated (1,000 colonizers) and became an outlet for more Puritan migration through the 1640s (~20,000 to Mass Bay, while almost 50,00 migrated to W. Indies)
  • Also quickly develop a strong diversified economy and a stable society of like-minded colonists who sought a new community as well as wealth and prosperity
  • “City upon a hill” – an model for others – the right blend of faith, work, social structure


V. Building the Bay Colony

  • “Democratic” governance a basis for community
    • Town meetings – all property holders could have a say
    • Colonial government elected – though only Church members (“visible saints” or freemen) could vote, still large proportion (2/5ths) of population than in England
    • Government was supposed to enforce the authoritative religious ideas, and impose them on all colonists, including the non-believers. All colonists supported both the gov’t and the Church with taxes
    • Congregations could hire/fire ministers, clergy barred from holding political office
  • Protestant ethic – celebrated work
  • Although recognized physical/wordly desires and needs, Puritans sought to repress indulgence in pleasure – “blue laws” imposed strict social mores


VI. Trouble In The Bible Commonwealth

  • Mass Bay was not a homogeneous society – non-believers and other forms of Protestant belief existed in the colony, challenging the authority of both the Congregational Church and gov’t
    • Quakers openly challenged Puritan othrodoxy – punished by gov’t
    • Anne Hutchinson – antinomianism – the elect had no need to live a pious life – banished for beliefs in 1638
    • Roger Williams – a separatist who pushed the moderate Mass. Puritans; sought a firmer separation between church and gov’t – banished for agitation in 1636


VII. The Rhode Island “Sewer”

  • Colony est. by banished Williams 1636, chartered 1644 – developed a very liberal organization
    • True freedom of religion and toleration
    • No compulsory attendance at worship
    • No tax supported church
    • Broad voting rights (though eventually adopted property qualification)
  • Characterized as independent and individualist society


VIII. New England Spreads Out

  • Several small settlements throughout New England were established and attracted migrants from Mass as well as England
  • Connecticut/Hartford wrote Fundamental Orders (1639), a constitutional document using democratic principles
  • New Haven (west of Conn R.) modeled after Mass – forced to merge with Conn in 1662
  • Maine & New Hampshire– initially fishing outposts (before Plymouth), peppered by small settlements – NH joined Mass 1641, separated in 1679; Maine joined Mass 1677
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the 17th Century 1607-1692

 

I. Introduction

  • Development of permanent settlements
  • Cultures adapting to each other
  • Strong ties to the economy of the Atlantic


II. The Unhealthy Chesapeake

  • Life was brutal for early settlers
  • Diseases like malaria, dysentery, and typhoid ran rampant
  • Life expectancy was greatly reduced compared to England
  • Settlements grew slowly as starting a family was difficult due to the lack of young women
  • Eventually people gained immunity and Virginia started to grow


III. The Tobacco Economy

  • The Chesapeake was so hospitable to tobacco that settlers planted it before corn to eat
  • Settlers pushed into virgin territories to find fresh soil
  • Tobacco farms grew so rapidly there was a shortage of labor
  • Help came in the form of indentured servants who worked in exchange for passage and ‘freedom dues’
  • Virginia and Maryland employed the headright system where the master that brought over servants gained extra land
  • Indentured servants eventually made up ¾ of immigrants


IV. Frustrated Freedmen and Bacon’s Rebellion

  • The number of landless, single young men grew rapidly
  • A group of rebels led by Nathaniel Bacon attacked Indians and burned the capital in response to the Governor’s inactions
  • The Rebellion was quelled but it illuminated a division between the gentry and frontiersmen
  • Without the prospect of future indentured servants, the tobacco empire looked toward Africa


V. Colonial Slavery

  • In 1698 the Royal African Company lost its monopoly on the slave trade
  • Americans cashed in, bringing cheaper slaves to the colonies in much greater number than before – Africans made up half Virginia’s population by 1750
  • Most slaves were captured from tribes of the west coast of Africa, brand and bound and transported over the middle passage
  • Survivors of the journey were put on auction blocks in the colonies
  • Slaves codes were enacted to regulate slave life


VI. Africans in America

  • The South was the harshest on a slave’s well being
  • The tobacco farms were easier due to their organization
  • With the growth of native born African-Americans, a distinct culture developed

VII. Southern Society

  • Social structure widened and a hierarchy became defined
  • At the top were rich, hard working planters; following them were the small farmers; and third were the servant class


VIII. The New England Family

  • Cooler climate limited disease
  • Life expectancy actually increased for NE settlers
  • Families were commonplace and the center of life
  • Women had children every two years for 20+ years leading to large families and a steady growing population
  • Differences in social structure and life expectancy of males led to differences in the legal rights of women


IX. Life in the New England Towns

  • Based on small villages and farms
  • People clustered due to Indians, the French and Dutch, and tenants of unity of Puritanism
  • Growth was orderly; towns were legally chartered, distribution of land was closely regulated by proprietors
  • Many towns had a meeting house and elementary school – education was important (Puritans founded Harvard)


X. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials

  • Puritan beliefs were strong but church control was fading
  • To address the declined in conversions and membership, ministers created the Half-Way Covenant
  • The Half-Way Covenant reduced restriction of church membership making the church less exclusive in hopes increase membership
  • In 1692 hysteria swept through Salem, Massachusetts as 20 young girls were killed after being accused of being bewitched


XI. The New England Way of Life

  • Stony soil led New Englanders to a hardworking lifestyle
  • Immigrants were uncommon due to the lack of easy profit
  • The climate and geography led to a diversifies agriculture and industry
  • Europeans sought to improve the land by clearing wood, building roads, and settling
  • The English brought a myriad of livestock
  • The rocky soil led New Englanders to focus on the harbors – timber and shipbuilding became a major industry


XII. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways

  • Life was ruled by the seasons – planting in the spring, tending in the summer, harvesting in the fall
  • Early to bed and early to rise
  • Women undertook household labor while men tended to outdoor labor
  • Frontier life did not see a division of classes
  • Attempts to recreate stratified societies like Europe proved futile

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution 1700-1775

 

I. Introduction:

• Britain controlled 32 colonies in North America but only 13 get the distinction of rebelling

• Distinct social, economic and political structures played a major role

II. Conquest by Cradle

• The colonists doubled their numbers every 25 years

• In 1700 there were 20 English subjects to every one American subject; by 1775 that advantage had fallen to 3 to 1

• Most of the population settled east of the Alleghenies while only a few pioneers ventured into Kentucky and Tennessee

• The most populous states were Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, North Carolina and Maryland

• The only cities were Philadelphia, New York, Boston, and Charleston

III. A Mingling of Races

• America had the reputation of a ‘melting pot’ from the outset

• Germans made up 6% of the population and settled largely in Pennsylvania

• Scots-Irish made up 7% of the population, settling in Pennsylvania and pushing west into the frontier

• Numerous European groups made up another 5%

• African accounted for 20%

• All of these groups mingled and intermarried creating a national identity not found anywhere in Europe

IV. The Structure of Colonial Society

• While seventeenth century America was marked by general equality with a lack of a noble class, eighteenth century America began to “Europeanize”

• Merchant elites were class, as were widows and orphans, wage laborers, and public charity cases

• A lower class of paupers and criminals formed

• The lowest class were slaves

V. Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists

• Christian ministry was the most honored profession

• Physicians and doctors were not held in high esteem; remedies were bizarre

• Lawyers were not held in high esteem

VI. Workaday America

• Agriculture was the leading industry, involving 90% of the population

• Fishing and whaling were profitable ventures

• Triangular trade developed between America, Europe, and the Caribbean

• Manufacturing took a backseat to agriculture and trading

• Lumbering was most important among manufacturing fields

• The American colonies built up so many overseas trading partners that Britain began to take notice and become involved

VII. Horsepower and Sailpower

• Roads were horrible and land travel took immense amounts of time

• To avoid roads, people tried to rely on rivers for transport

• Establishments such as halls and taverns sprang up along major routes

VIII. Dominant Denominations

• The Church of England , or Anglican Church, was the official faith of Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and part of New York

• The Congregational Church, which had grown out of the Puritan Church, was established in the New England colonies

• Churches were hurt by not having a resident bishop but were wary of strengthening the king’s hand in America

IX. The Great Awakening

• The Puritan churches had two burdens: their elaborate theological doctrines and their compromising efforts to liberalize membership

• Many followers began to loosen up on the Calvinist idea of predestination

• Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield were masterful orators who spread messages of baptism, human helplessness, and the need for divine omnipotence

• Many effects = emotive spirituality undermined older clergy, increased competitiveness between churches, encouraged missionary work, led to founding of colleges

X. Schools and Colleges

• Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth

• Education focused on making good Christians before good citizens

• Colonial schools emphasized religion, classical languages, doctrine and dogma

• Colleges were needed to produce new ministers

XI. A Provincial Culture

• Art and culture was still modeled after European tastes

• Architecture was all modeled after the Old World

• Literature and art was undistinguished

• Ben Franklin made strides as the first “civilized” American

XII. Pioneer Presses

• Hand-operated printing presses cranked out pamphlets, leaflets, and journals

• Around 40 newspapers were in circulation in the late 1700’s

• News lagged weeks behind

• The Zenger Trial paved the way for freedom of the press after John Peter Zenger criticized New York’s governor

XIII. The Great Game of Politics

• Colonial governments took various forms

• Some were royal governors, proprietors, and elected governors

• Every colony used a two-house legislative body

• Voting was done by men that owned property

XIV. Colonial Folkways

• Food was plentiful although plain

• Churches were not heated, homes were drafty, there was no running water

• Amusement and social gatherings were sought after and welcomed in many forms

• Despite differences, the colonies bore striking similarities in language, customs, religion

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America 1608-1763

 

France Finds a Foothold in Canada
  • Emergence as a European power
    • Louis XIV becomes king in 1643
    • Takes interest in North America
    • 1608
      • Quebec established
      • led by Samuel de Champlain
    • Friendly relations with Huron Indians
      • Agree to battle against Iroquois
      • Iroquois then ally themselves with Britain
  • Government of New France
    • Under direct control by Henry XIV
    • French peasants had no motive to move out of France
    • New government offered no freedom of religion

 

New France Fans Out

  •    Fur trade
    • Beaver pelt hats in high demand in European market
    • Voyageurs named many North American places during this period
    • Recruited Indians into business
    • Decimated Great Lakes beaver population
    • Introduced French Catholic "Jesuit" Missionaries to North America
      • Tried to convert Indians
      • Attempted to save them from corrupt fur business
  • Exploration
    • Robert De la Salle
      • Floated down Mississippi in 1682
      • Named entire region Louisiana in honor of French king
      • French persistently tried to block Spain from Gulf of Mexico
    • Founded New Orleans in 1718

 

The Clash of Empires

  • King William's War
    • 1689-1697
  • Queen Anne's War
    • 1702-1713
  • Both wars were made up of small detachments of troops engaging in guerilla warfare
  • Neither country was deeply commited in either conflict
  • Treat signed at Utrecht in 1713
    • France and ally Spain defeated badly by Britain
    • Britain given Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay

 

George Washington Inaugurates War with France

  • Ohio Valley
    • Critical area for both France and Britain
    • France wanted to connect Canadian and Mississippi territories
    • Britain wanted to expand colonies westward
    • Virginian families securing land rights to 500,000 acres in the area
    • France building forts along Ohio River
  • 1754
    • George Washington sent to Ohio Valley with 150 militia
    • First shots fired, French leader killed
    • Washington soon overwhelmed and gave up land claims
  • Britain uproots Acadiams in 1755
    • Wary that they would betray British crown

 

Global War and Colonial Disunity

  • French and Indian War
    • Unofficially started with the shots fired by George Washington's men in 1754
    • Fought throughout the West Indies, Europe, North America, Africa, and the Philippines
    • French troops primarily based in Europe
      • Left few resources for the battle in North America
      • Eventually defeated by Britain in Europe
    • General population of colonies was indifferent to war
    • Only colonists close to the battles contributed
  • Intercolonical Albany congress
    • Tried instilling colonial unity
    • Only 7 of 13 colonies sent delegates
    • Benjamin Franklin become leader of the Congress

 

Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath

  • General Braddock
    • Sent to Virginia
    • Ordered to capture Fort Duquesne
    • French and Indian forces attacked from forests
    • British forces forced to retreat with staggering losses
    • Kept trying to conquer lands throughout American frontier
Pitt's Palms of Victory
  • Strategy for victory
    • Focused on the Montreal area
    • Defeat French stronghold to conquer the rest of French lands
  • Battle of Quebec
    • 1759
    • Montreal falls in 1760
    • French troops driven out of North America
  • 1763 Peace Treaty
    • France relinquished all land in North America
    • Allowed to keep several sugar islands in the West Indies
    • Gave all Mississippi River area land to Britain
  • Britain becomes dominant force in North America
  • Strongest navy in world

 

War's Fateful Aftermath

  • Americans wanted to spread westward
  • Indian and Spanish threats reduced greatly after the war
  • Pontiac's Uprising
    • Ottawa chief Pontiac led allied Indian tribes, with French traders, against British settlements in Ohio Valley
    • British retaliated by using biological warfare tactics
      • Sent blankets infected with smallpox virus to Pontiac's tribes
      • Quickly decimated population
      • Rebellion quickly halted
  • Proclomation of 1763
    • Britain prohibited settlement west of the Appalachians
    • Feared of another Indian rebellion
    • Americans viewed proclamation as an attack on their liberty
    • Many settlers resisted and proceeded to head west
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution 1763-1775

Deep Roots ot Revolution

 

  • 2 main ideas of government had started to form in the colonists' minds
    - Republicanism and "radical" Whigs

 

Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances

 

  • Every colony, besides Georgia, wasn't formally founded by the British government
  • Mercantilism - the British theory that justified their control over the colonies
  • The Navigation Law - 1650, the first law Parliament passed to regulate the colonies

 

Merits and Menace of Mercantilism

 

  • Benefits - tobacco planters and other colonies, protection of the English navy
  • Burdens -  liabilities, colonies felt used

 

 The Stamp Tax Uproar

 

  • Prime Minister George Grenville - the main man that enforced the Navigation Laws
  • 1763 - Navigation Law
  • 1764 - Sugar Act
    -raising the tax revenue on sugar
  • 1765 - Quartering Act
    -required to provide food and lodging to British soliders, even private homes
  • 1765 - Stamp Act
    -tax on info. papers, legal documents etc
 

Forced Repeal of the Stamp Act

 

  • The Parliament was forced to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766 becuase of the continuous rebellions of the colonies

 

The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston "Massacre"

  • 1767 - "Champagne Charley" Townshend passed teh Townshend Acts

    -taxed on glass, white lead, paper, paints and, most importantly, tea

  • The British sent troops over to the colonies in 1768 that were "drunk"
  • March 5, 1770 - A rebellion was started in Boston against the "red coats"
  • *1772 - Samuel Adams formed "Committees of Correspondence" in New York ---> spread spirit of resistance
  • *1773 - Virginia formed the House of Burgessed
  • *1773 - British East India Company was about to go out of business and was going to see tea to the colonies cheap but with a hidden tax ---> infruated colonists
  • *1773 December 16 -  The Boston Tea Part

 

The "Intolerable Acts"

-1774 -  named by the colonists, the intolerable acts were a British made series of acts designed to mock America

 

  • Boston Port Act
    - closing of the Boston harbor till all damages of the Boston Tea Party were paid for   
  • Quartering Act
    -the power to lodge British troops anywhere, even private colonist homes
  •  Quebec Act
    -gave the French their Catholic religion adn old customs
     

Bloodshed

  • 1774 - forming of the Continental Congress

    ---> 55 men, most significant action was the creation of The Association

  • The Association - complete boycott of British goods
  • 1775 April - British troops were sent to Lexington and Concord
    --->resulting the Lexington Massacre

 

Imperial Strength and Weakness

  • Strength - population, professional army, wealth
  • Weakness - soliders were needed at other areas around the globe besides the colonies, distance, lacking leaders, lacking food
     
     
     

 *1781 - The Articles of Confederation were written

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire 1775 - 1783

Chapter 8
America Secedes from the Empire
1775-1783

Congress Drafts George Washington
The Second Continental Congress selected George Washington to head the army besieging Boston.

Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings
From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were both affirming their loyalty to the king by sincerely voicing their desire to patch up difficulties while at the same time raising armies and killing redcoats. In May 1775, a tiny American force under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. There, a store of gunpowder and artillery was secured. In June 1775, the colonists captured Bunker Hill. The British took it back with a large number of soldiers. In July 1775, the Second Continental Congress adopted the "Olive Branch Petition", which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop further hostilities. The petition was rejected by the king. With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power. In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion. He then hired German Hessians to bring order to the colonies.

The Abortive Conquest of Canada
In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine. In the same month, colonists made an attack on Canada in hopes that it would close it off as a possible source for a British striking point. The attack failed when General Richard Montgomery was killed. In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk.

Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense
The Americans continued to deny any intention of independence because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous. Thomas Paine released a pamphlet called Common Sense in 1776. It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence.

Paine and the Idea of "Republicanism"
Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a republic, where power flowed from the people themselves.

Jefferson's Explanation of Independence
On July 2, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia's resolution of declaring independence was passed. It was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to draft up the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was formally approved by Congress on July 4, 1776. It was an explanation of everything the king had done to the Americans.

Patriots and Loyalists
During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called "Tories" and the Patriots were called "Whigs." Tory: "a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched." The Loyalists made up 16% of the American population. Many people of education and wealth remained loyal to England. Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican church was strongest. The Loyalists were well entrenched in New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. They were least numerous in New England. The Patriots were numerous where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished-mostly in New England.

The Loyalist Exodus
Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were treated relatively mild. After, though, they were hanged, imprisoned, and roughly handled. They Loyalists were forced to leave because the Patriots had to eliminate their weaknesses.

General Washington at Bay
The British concentrated New York City as a base of operation due to the fact that Boston was evacuated in March 1776. In 1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the Battle of Long Island. Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island. General William Howe was General Washington's adversary. On December 26, 1776, Washington surprised and captured 1,000 Hessians who were sleeping.

Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion
London officials had an intricate scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River valley in 1777. It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force, lead by General Burgoyne, would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany. The 3rd force was commanded by colonel Barry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777 to American general Horatio Gates (Burgoyne's Blunder). This win made it possible for the urgently needed foreign aid from France. (Turning point in war.)

Strange French Bedfellows
After the shooting at Lexington in April 1775, French secretly provided arms to the Americans. The British offered the Americans home rule after the Battle of Saratoga. The French didn't want Britain to regain its colonies for fear that Britain would seize the sugar rich French West Indies. In order to stop this, the French made an open alliance with the Americans in 1778, offering all the British did with the exception of independence.

The Colonial War Becomes a World War
Spain and Holland became allies against Britain in 1779. The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City.

Blow and Counterblow
General Benedict Arnold turned traitor against the Americans in 1780. General Nathaniel Greene succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina.

The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier
The Treaty of Fort Stanwix- (1784) the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation; signed with the Iroquois. George Rogers Clark- conceived the idea of capturing the British of the wild Illinois country in 1778-1779. John Paul Jones is known as the father of the navy. He employed the tactic of privateering. Privateering- when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted manpower from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few.

Yorktown and the Final Curtain
From 1780-1781, the U.S. government fell nearly bankrupt. British General Cornwallis fell back to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. This time in war was one of the few times when British naval superiority had been lacking. Admiral de Grasse offered to join the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea. George Washington, along with Rochambeau's army, and Admiral de Grasse cornered Cornwallis. He was forced to surrender on October 19, 1781.

Peace at Paris
In 1782, a Whig ministry replaced the Tory regime of Lord North. Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783:

  • British formally recognized the independence of the United States.
  • Florida is given to Spain.
  • Britain granted generous boundaries, stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south.
  • Yankees were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.
  • The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted.
  • Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection.

Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated the peace terms with Britain.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

 

  I.    The Pursuit of Equality

1.     Declaration of Independence - "All men are created equal"

2.     Fight for separation of church and State

oCongressional Church established in New England States

oStrongest in Virginia

o1786 Thomas Jefferson won passage of Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom

3.     1775 - Philadelphia Quakers Founded 1st antislavery society (in the world)

4.     1774 - Continental Congress tried to abolish slave trade (Some northern states did)

oLaws still discriminated against slaves

oNo state south of Pennsylvania abolish slavery

oAfraid slavery might break union

5.     1776 - Abigail Adams advocated for women’s rights

oWomen keeps of the nations conscience ( republican motherhood)

II.    Constitution Making in the States

1.     1776 - Continental Congress called to draft new constitutions

2.     Massachusetts created a special convention to creates its constitution

oDirect ratification by the people

o1780 - Mass. adopted Constitution that could only be changed by constitutional convention (later limited to federal Constitution)

3.     British - Constitution is a cummulation of laws

4.     Most documents had a Bill of Rights

5.     All states made executive and judicial branches (weak in comparison to today)

III.    Economic Crosscurrents

1.     Loyalists large land holdings were taken and divided into small farms

2.     America mostly made of farming

3.     Britain cut off good imports

4.     Americans could trade freely with foreign nations

5.     1784 - Express of China carried ginseng to China

6.     Wide divide in rich and poor class

IV.    A Shaky Start Toward Union

1.     1786 - Hard times hit bottom

2.     13 states had similar gov't

3.     Political leaders of time:

oGeorge Washington

oJames Madison

oJohn Adams

oThomas Jefferson

oAlexander Hamilton

 V.    Creating a Confederation

1.    States:

oCoined money

oraised armies and navies

ohad tariff barriers

2.    1778 - Virginia ratified treaty of alliance with France (alone without others states being involved)

3.    1776 - Articles of Confederation

onot ratified by all 13 states until 1781 (last Maryland)

4.    1787 - Northwest Ordinance

5.    Public land handed to Federal gov't (bond of Union)

VI.    The Articles of Confederation Americas First Constitution

1.    Joint action was to be taken by states

2.    No executive branch

3.    Each state had one vote in congress

4.    9 States needed for bills to pass

5.    2 Weaknesses of Congress:

1)    Congress was weak - no power to regulate commerce

2)    Congress could not enforce tax-collection programs.

6.    1783 – Penn soldiers marched to Philadelphia and made threatening demonstrations on Independence Hall

7.    Articles of Confederation acted as a model

oThomas Jefferson claimed it to be the best one exsisting

oWeak

oStepping Stone for current constitution (today)

VII.    Landmarks in Land Laws

1.    1785 – Land Oridinence – acrage of the old Northwest should be used to pay off national debt.

2.    Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – government of the old Northwest

oSolution: judicial compromise

1.    2 evolutionary stages

2.    When it has reached 60,000 inhabitants it could be admitted as a state

VIII.    The World’s Ugly Ducking

1.    Foreign relations with London remain troubled

2.    British believed they would win Americas trade back

3.    Spain unfriendly to new republic in America

4.    1784 – Spain closed river commerce to American trade

5.    Spain claimed large area north of Gulf of Mexico granted to US by British in 1783

6.    Dey of Algiers took American commerce and enslaved Yankee Sailors

IX.    The Horrid Specter of Anarchy

1.    Public debt rising – credit evaporating in foreign nations

2.    States had quarrels

3.    States printed own paper money

4.    Shay’s Rebellion – 1786 in Massachusetts

oBackcountry farmers were loosing farms through mortgages

oLed by Captain Daniel Shay

oThey demanded states issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers

oMass. responded with small army at Springfield where the movement collapsed

oMass. Legislators soon passed debtor-relief laws

5.    Fear of Mobocracy

6.    need for stronger central gov’t

 X.    A Convention of “Demigods”

1.    1786 – Virginia called for convention in 1786 at Annapolis, MD

o9 States appointed delegates

oOnly 5 states were represented

2.    Alexander Hamilton asked congress to summon a convention for 1787 inPhiladelphia for speaking of Articles of Confederation

oEvery state except RI choose a delegate

o55 state delegates from 12 states met May 25, 1787

oJefferson called the attendants “Demigods”

3.    George Washington elected as chairman

4.    James Madison known as Father of the Constitution

5.    Hamilton wanted a super powerful gov’t

XI.    Patriots in Philadelphia

1.    No delegate represented the poor

2.    Young group and men and interested in nationalism

3.    Lord Sheffield - also a founding father in a sense

4.    Delegates wanted to preserve union and restrain states

5.    Washington - who seen Shay’s Rebellion - was a founding father

XII.    Hammering out a Bundle of Compromises

1.    Completely get rid of Articles (instructions were to revise it)

2.    Virginia – “large-state plan”

oRepresentation in both houses should be based on population

3.    New Jersey – “small-states plan”

oRepresentation in both houses should be equal

4.    “Great Compromise”

oHouse of Representatives- based on population (larger states)

oSenate- equal representation (smaller states) each state having two

oEvery tax bill or revenue measure must originate in the house

5.    President - broad authority

oMake appointments to domestic offices

oVeto legislation

oPower to wage war – Congress (only) could declare war

oMethod of electing president – Electoral College

6.    Slaves counted as 3/5 a person

7.    Slave trade could continue till 1807

oStates already forbid slave trade (except Georgia)

XIII.    Safeguard for Conservationism

1.    3-branches of gov’t

oChecks and balances among them

2.    Federal judges appointed for life

3.    President elected indirectly by Electoral College

4.    Senators indirectly elected by State Legislator

5.    House of Rep. elected directly by citizens

6.    2 principles

o1. Gov’t based on consent of governed

o2. Powers of gov’t should be limited (limited by written Constitution in Americans case)

7.    Convention lasting from May 25 – September 17, 1787

oOnly 42 out of 55 delegates stayed to sign the Constitution

o3 out of the 42 refused to sign

oDelegates returned to states for ratification

XIV.    The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists

1.    Adopted scheme where only 9/13 states had to ratify the Constitution

2.    Antifederalists opposed strong federal gov’t

oAt odds against federalists who favored it

oKey Antifederalists: Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee

oWanted attachment of a Bill of Rights

3.    Federalists – Washington and Franklin

oControlled press

oWealthier

XV.    The Great Debate in States

1.    4 small states accepted Constitution quickly

2.    Officially adopted June 21, 1788 by 9 states

oExcluding Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island

XVI.    The Four Laggard States

1.    Virginia had fierce opposition by Antifederalists

oRatified by 89 to 79

2.    James Madison

o“The Federalist” – book of essays commenting the Constitution

3.    New York ratified

oDecided it could not prosper without the union

o30 to 27

4.    North Carolina and Rhode Island

oBoth unwillingly ratified after new gov’t was in effect

XVII.    A Conservative Triumph

1.    American minority triumphed twice

oAmerican Radicals vs. British Motherhood

oMinority Conservatives overthrew Articles of Confederation

 

States in order of Ratification of the Constitution

 

Vote #

 

Delaware  

 

Dec. 7, 1787

 

Unanimous

 

Pennsylvania     

 

Dec. 12, 1787    

 

46/23

 

New Jersey

 

Dec. 18, 1787    

 

Unanimous

 

Georgia

 

Jan. 2, 1788

 

Unanimous

 

Connecticut

 

Jan. 9, 1788

 

128/40

 

Massachusetts

 

Feb. 7, 1788

 

187/168

 

Maryland   

 

Apr. 28, 1788

 

63/11

 

South Carolina

 

May 23, 1788

 

149/73

 

New Hampshire

 

Jun. 21, 1788

 

57/46

 

Virginia     

 

Jun. 26, 1788     

 

89/79

 

New York

 

Jul. 26, 1788

 

30/27

 

North Carolina

 

May 21, 1788     

 

195/77

 

Rhode Island

 

May 29, 1790

 

34/32

 

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

 

Major Themes

  • Fundamental disagreements over the functions and policies of the new national government laid the foundations of the American political system.
  • Defining a foreign policy based on self-interest was crucial to the survival of the new nation.

Major Questions

  • How critical was George Washington to the early years of the republic?
  • What practical & philosophical issues and concerns led to the formation of national political parties?
  • What were the overall aims of American foreign policy during the early years of the republic?

Pre-Reading

  • Are there any issues left over from the Revolutionary and Critical periods that might suggest continued conflict under the new Constitution?

Growing Pains

  • when the constitution was launched in 1789, the republic was continuing to grow at an alarming rate
  • America's population was still about 90 percent rural, despite the flourishing cities
  • People of the western waters in the stump studded clearings of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio were loyal

 

Washington for President

  • 1789 Washington was drafted as president by the electoral college
  • Washington commanded his followers by strength of character rather than by the arts of the politician.
  • April 30th, 1789 Washington took office on a crowded balcony overlooking Wall Street.
  • Washington established a cabinet, at first only having three department heads serving under him: Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury), and Henry Knox (Secretary of War).

The Bill of Rights

  • Many anti-federalists criticized the Constitution written in Philadelphia because of it's failure to guarantee individual rights such as freedom of religion and trial by jury though many states had ratified the Constitution under the understanding that those guarantees would soon be included in the Constitution.
  • Amendments to the Constitution would be proposed in either of two ways-by a new constitutional convention requested by two thirds of the states or by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress. James Madison determined to draft the amendments himself due to the fear that a new convention might unravel the narrow federalist victory in the ratification struggle.
  • 1791, the first eten amendments to the Constitution (Bill of Rights) safeguard some of the most precious American principles. Protected freedom of religion, speech, press, the right to bear arms, right to be tried by jury, and the right to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances. It also prohibits cruel and unusual punishment and the arbitrary government seizure of private property.
  • Madison inserted a crucial ninth amendment, declaring that specifying certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people
  • The first congress also created effective federal courts under the judiciary act of 1789. The act organized the supreme court with a chife justice and five associates as well as federal district and circuit courts and established an office for an attorney general.

Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

  • Alexander Hamilton: a native of the British West Indies whose genius was unquestioned, loved his adopted country more than his countrymen. He regarded himself as a kind of prime minister in Washington's cabinet and on occasion, became involved into other affairs of different departments, including his arch-rival Thomas Jefferson.
  • Hamilton set out immediately to correct the economic vexations that had crippled the Articles of Confederation. His plan was to shape the fiscal policies of the administration to favor wealthier groups in order to receive support from them.
  • His first objective was to bolster the national credit. he urged congress to fund the entire national debt at par and to assume completely the debts incurred by the states during the recent war
  • Funding par meant that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest.
  • 1790, congress passed Hamilton's measure, causing buying of paper holdings of farmers, war veterans, and widows.
  • 21.5 million assumed debt of the states
  • States burdened with heavy debts, like Massachusetts, were for Hamilton's plan unlike states with small debts such as Virginia, were more against. Virginia did not want the state debts assumed. The District of Columbia would gain commerce and prestige.

Customs Duties and Excise Taxes

  • The national debt had swelled to $75 million owing to Hamilton's insistence on honoring the outstanding federal and state obligations alike.
  • Hamilton's objectives were as much political as economic. He believed that national debt was positive in a way, the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal state in the success of his ambitious enterprise. He wanted to make debt an asset for vitalizing the financial system as well as the government itself.
  • Hamilton used tariffs to pay interest on debt. Tariffs revenues depended on a vigorous foreign trade.
  • The first tariff law, imposing a low tariff of about 8 percent on the value of dutiable imports, was speedily passed by the first Congress in 1789 even before Hamilton was sworn in. Revenue was by far the main goal, but the measure was also designed to erect a low protective wall around infant industries which wanted more. Hamilton had the vision that the industrial revolution would soon reach America and argued for protection of well to do manufacturing groups, vital to his economic program.
  • Congress dominated by the agricultural and commercial interests
  • 1791, Hamilton secured from congress an excise tax on a few domestic items, notability whiskey. It was 7 cents a gallon.

Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

  • Hamilton proposed a Bank of the United States: powerful private institution--->gov't=major stockholder, federal Treasury-deposit is surplus monies; print urgently needed paper money, provide stable national currency
  • Jefferson insisted no authorization existed in Constitution for such a bank; powers not specifically granted to central gov't belong to states; states not Congress had power to charter banks
  • Hamilton argued national bank was proper and necessary; "implied power" by Constitution; evolved "loose construction" by invoking the "elastic clause" of Constitution
  • Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed bank measure into law;
  • Bank of U.S. created in 1791; stock open to public sale; lots of supporters


Mutinous Moonshiners of Pennsylvania

  • The Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 strongly challenged national gov't--->quite minuscule
  • Hamilton's high excise tax was a burden on an economic necessity and a medium of exchange for pioneer folk
  • Alcohol sold more cheaply than bales of grain; distillers erected whiskey poles, and tarred and feathered revenue officers
  • Washington called together militia of several states to stop rebels

 


The Emergence of Political Parties

  • Hamilton's financial successes created some political liabilities; his schemes encroached on states' rights
  • Personal feud between Hamilton and Jefferson developed into full-blown and bitter political rivalry
  • Newspapers spread Jefferson's and Madison's oppositional ideas among the people--->political parties began to emerge
  • two-party system has existed ever since
  • competition for power proved to be among ingredients of a sound democracy
  • Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and Hamiltonian Federalists


The Impact of the French Revolution

  • American people overjoyed with upheaval of French people against Louis XVI
  • Federalists not happy
  • 1792: France declares war on Austria...hurls back invading foreigners...proclaims itself a republic...news reaches America, many Americans rejoice
  • French guillotine, Reign of Terror->Federalists frightened of Jeffersonian masses; Jeffersonians understood a few thousand aristocratic heads were a cheap price for freedom
  • earlier battles of French Revolution did not directly affect America, but then Britain became involved
  • conflagration spread to New World affecting the expanding young American Republic


Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

  • The Franco-American aliiance of 1778 was still in place.
  • Neutrality Proclomation issued in 1793.
  • This document proclaimed the government's official neutrality in the widening conflict but sternly warned American citizens to be impartial toward both armed camps.
  • Washington's method of announcing it unilaterally, without consulting Congress, infuriated the pro-French Jeffersonians, while pro-British Federalists were heartened.


Embroilments with Britain

  • Britain retained the chain of northern frontier posts on U.S. soil, which was in defiance with the peace treaty of 1783
  • British agents openly sold firearms and fire-water to the Indians of the Miami Confederacy, and alliance of eight Indian nations who terrorized Americans invading their lands
  • British ignored America's rights of neutrallity and siezed aroung three hundred ships, impressed scores of seamen into service on British vessels and threw hundreds of others in dungeons.


Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell

  • Washington sent Cheif Justice John Jay to London in 1794, in a last attempt to avert war with Britain.
  • British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U.S, soil, although the British had said this before in 1783.
  • British also consented to pay damages for the recent seizures of American ships, but said nothing about the stopping of future maritime seizures and impressments, or about supplying arms to Indians.
  • Jay's Treaty outraged Jeffersonians because it seemed like an abject surrender to Britain.
  • Pickney's Treaty of 1795 granted everything the Americans demanded of Spain, including free navigation of the Mississippi and the largely disputed territory north of Florida.
  • In his Farewell Address, Washington stongly advised the avoidance of "permanent alliances" for "extaordinary Emergencies."


John Adams Becomes President

  • Alexander Hamilton was the best known member of the Federalist party, now that Washington had left, but his financial policies made him so unpopular that he couldn't hope to be elected.
  • Federalists turned instead to John Adams and the Jeffersonians rallied behind Thomas Jefferson.
  • The issues of the campaigns focused heavily on personalities, but the Jeffersonians assailed the too-forecful crushing of the Whiskey Rebellion and the negotiation of Jay's Treaty.
  • John Adams won the election, and Thomas Jefferson, as runner up, became vice-president.

Unofficial Fighting with France

  • French infuriated by Jay’s treated- condemned it as the initial step toward an alliance with Britain- violation of Franco-American Treaty of 1778
  • French warships seize American merchant vessels
  • President Adams tried to reach an agreement with the French
  • War hysteria swept through the United States- slogan “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute.”
  • Federalists- delighted, Jeffersonian- shamed
  • War preparations pushed along even with Jeffersonian resistance in Congress- Navy Department created/expanded, Marine Corps established, new army of ten thousand men authorized
  • Bloodshed confined to the sea- 1798-1800 80+ armed French vessels captured, several hundred Yankee merchant ships lost to the French


Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

  • France didn’t want war with the US, would only increase their enemy list
  • Because the conflict with the French was pushing the US and Britain closer, France stated that if Americans sent another minister, he would be received with proper respect.
  • Early 1799 Adams the name of a new minister to the Senate, enraging Hamilton and his faction, though favorable opinion- Jeffersonian and reasonable Federalists- wanted to try again for peace.
  • Convention of 1800 signed in Paris. France agreed to annul the 22-year-old marriage of inconvenience, US agreed to pay damage claims of American shippers


The Federalist Witch Hunt

  • Federalists capitalized on anti-French frenzy to push laws through Congress designed to minimize Jeffersonians
  • First law raised the residence requirements for aliens who wanted to become citizens from five to fourteen years- violated the traditional American policy of open-door hospitality, and speedy assimilation
  • Two additional Alien Laws- president empowered to deport dangerous foreigners in time of peace, and to deport or imprison them in the time of hostilities
  • Sedition Act- anyone who impeded the policies of government or falsely defamed its officials would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment- violation of freedom of speech, and freedom of the press.
  • Jeffersonian editors convicted under Sedition Act by packed juries and prejudiced Federalist judges
  • Supreme Court, dominated by Federalists, didn’t declare the Sedition Acts unconstitutional- law made to expire in 1801 so it couldn’t be used against Federalists if they lost the next election
  • Alien and Sedition Acts commanded widespread popular support- Federalists, riding a wave of popularity, scored the most sweeping victory of their entire history in the 1798-1799 congressional elections.


The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

  • Jeffersonians feared that in Federalists wiped out free speech/press, then they would then wipe out other constitutional guarantees- could lead to Jeffersonian party being wiped out- country might slide into dangerous one-party dictatorship
  • Jefferson wrote a series of resolutions, approved by the Kentucky legislature in 1798 and 1799, Madison drafted a similar, less extreme, statement adopted by the Virginia legislature in 1798
  • Jefferson and Madison stressed the compact theory- the thirteen sovereign states, in creating the federal government, had entered into a “compact” or contract, regarding its jurisdiction- states were final judge of whether the federal government had broken the “compact” by overstepping authority- the resolutions claimed federal regime had overstepped authority, and Alien and Sedition acts should be nullified
  • No other state legislatures agreed with Kentucky- some refused to endorse the Virginia/Kentucky resolutions
  • Federalists argued that people, not states, made the original compact, and the Supreme Court should be the one to nullify unconstitutional legislature passed by Congress


Federalist Versus Democratic-Republican

The Two Political Parties, 1793-1800               
Federalist Features          Democratic-Republican Features     
Rule by the "best people"        Rule by the informed masses       
Hostility to extension of democracy      Friendliness toward extension of democracy   
A powerful central government at expense of state's rights  A weak central government so as to preserve states' rights 
Loose interpretation of Constitution      Strict interpretation of Constitution     
Governments to foster business        No special favors for business; agriculture preferred   
Protective tariff          No special favors for manufacturers     
Pro-British          Pro-French         
National debt a blessing, if properly funded      National debt a bane; rigid economy     
An expanding bureaucracy        Reduction of federal officeholders     
A powerful central bank        Encouragement to state banks       
Restrictions on free speech and press      Relatively free speech and press       
Concentration in seacoast area        Concentration in South and Southwest; agricultural/backcountry 
A strong navy to protect shippers      Minimal navy for coastal defense     

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic 1800-1812

 

Federalist and republican Mudslingers

  • Hamilton, a victim of arrogance, privately printed a pamphlet that attacked the credibility of President Adams. The Jeffersonians soon got a hold of this and published it to the masses.
  • The most damaging blow to the Federalists was the refusal of Adams to give them a rousing fight with France. Their feverish war preparations had swelled the public debt and had required disagreeable new taxes, including a stamp tax. The war scare died out. The military preparations now seemed not only unnecessary but extravagant. the seamen for the new navy were called "john Adam's jackasses :0. And John Adams himself was known as "the Father of the American Navy"
  • The Federalists concentrated their fire on Jefferson himself, who became the victim of one of America's earliest "whispering campaigns". He was accused of robbing a widow and her children of a trust fund and of having fathered numerous mulatto children by his own slave women.
  • As a liberal in religion, Jefferson had earlier incurred the wrath of the orthodox clergy, largely through his successful struggle to separate church and state in his native Virginia.
  • Although Jefferson did believe in God, preachers throughout New England, stronghold of Federalism and congregationalism thundered against his alleged atheism. Old ladies of Federalist families, fearing Jefferson's election, even buried their Bibles or hung them in wells.

The Jeffersonian "Revolution of 1800"

  • Jefferson won by a majority of 73 electoral votes to 65. In defeat, the colorless and presumably unpopular Adams polled more electoral strength than he had gained four years earlier- except for New York.
  • The Empire state fell into the Jeffersonian basket, and with it the election, largely because Aaron Burr, a master wire-puller, turned New York to Jefferson by the narrowest of margins. The Virginian polled the bulk of his strength in the South and West, particularly in those states where universal white manhood suffrage had been adopted.
  • John Adams suffered the fate of being the last Federalist President. The Federalist party soon dissapeared in the days of Andrew Jackson.
  • Although a change of 250 votes would have deemed Adams victorious, Jefferson claimed it to be another Revolution and a return to the original spirit of the Revolution.

Responsibility Breeds Moderation

  • Jefferson was inaugurated president on July 4, 1801 in the swampy village of Washington
  • Jefferson's inaugural address, beautifully phrased, was a classic statement of democratic principles. "The will of the majority is in all cases to prevail", Jefferson declared. But, he added, "that will to be rightful must be reasonable; the minority possess their equal rights, which equal law must protect, and to violate would be oppression". Seeking to allaay Federalist fears Jefferson ingratiatingly intoned, "we are all Republicans, we are all Federalists"
  • Jefferson practiced Pell-Mell, seating without regard to rank or class at official dinners.
  • Jefferson was forced to reverse many of the political principles he had so vigorously championed. Jefferson was scholarly private and was harrassed by citizens

Jeffersonian Restraint

  • Jefferson was determined to undo the Federalist abuses begotten by the anti-French hysteria. The hated Alien Sedition Acts had already expired. The incoming president speedily pardoned the "martyrs" who were serving sentences under the Sedition Act, and the government remitted many fines.
  • Shortly after Congress, the Jeffersonians enacted the new naturalization law of 1802. This act reduced teh unreasonable requirement of fourteen years of residence to the previous and more reasonable requirement of five years.
  • Jefferson actually kicked away only one substantial prop of the Hamiltonian system. He hated the excise tax, which bred bureaucrats and bore heavily on his farmer following, and he early persuaded Congress to repeal it. His to principle thus cost the federal government about a million dollars a year in urgently needed revenue.

Jefferson, A Reluctant Warrior

  • One of Jefferson's first actions as president was to reduce the military establishment to a mere police force of twenty five hundred officers and men.
  • the united States would set an example for the world, forswearing military force and winning friends through "peaceful coercion". Also, the Republicans distrusted large standing armies as standing invitations to dictatorship.
  • Pirates of the North African Barbary States had long made a national industry of blackmailing and plundering merchant ships that ventured into the Mediterranean. Preceding Federalist administrations, in fact, had been forced to buy protection. At the time of the French crisis of 1798, when Americans were shouting, "Millions for the defense but not one cent for tribute".
  • The pasha of Tripoli, dissatisfied with his share of protection money, informally declared war on the United States by cutting down the flagstaff of the American consulate.
  • After four years of intermittent fighting, marked by spine-tingling exploits, Jefferson succeeded in extorting a treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805. It was secured at the bargain price of only $60,000-a sum representing ransom payments for captured Americans.

The Louisiana Godsend

  • 1800, A treaty between the King of France and Napoleon, granted Napoleon the territory of the trans- Mississippi region of Louisiana, which included the area of New Orleans.
  • Jefferson knew that when the time was ripe, American could dislodge Spain from the territory, but he also knew that if France moved into the area, a huge amount of bloodshed would be required to dislodge France. And even then he knew he would need the help of their former enemy Britain to do it.
  • Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to haggle with the French for the purchase of the Lousiana Territory for a maximum of 10 million dollars.
  • France unexpectedly was willing to sell the territory for 15 million.
  • France wanted to sell it because Napoleon wanted to focus on the struggles closer to home, and with Britain naval dominance, doubted that it would be of any use to him. Plus the previous use to him was to provide the sugar rich west Indies with food, but since disease had pushed his forces from the islands it was now useless to him.
  • Jefferson accepted the land although the right was not granted in the Constitution because of the impatience of the French. 828,000 square miles of land were gain for about 3 cents an acre.


Louisiana in the Long View

 

  • Jefferson sent out his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and a young army officer, William Clark to explore the Northern region the the Louisiana Territory with the aid of a Sushoni woman named Sacajawea.
  • Lewis and Clarks two and a half year trip brought back stories of abundance, promises for the future, and of the lands out West.
  • Lewis brought back his near death experiences along with information of the Indian tribes out west, and of the grazing buffalo on the never ending plains.
  • Pioneers and missionaries would wind their way down the new trails in the decades to come and to plant American claims on the Oregon region.

The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

  • The ability of the government to control this vast new expanse of land was doubted by many.
  • Aaron Burr, Jefferson's first term vice-president (He was kicked out the second term), joined a group of Federalists to plot the secession of New England and New York. Luckily, Alexander Hamilton foiled the conspiracy and saved the republic!!!!
  • More was to come though. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, and concerned of his honor Hamilton accepted the duel. Unwilling to fire, Hamilton was killed by Burr's first shot.
  • Burr's political career died as did Hamilton. He turned his attention to a greater prize.
  • He allied with General James Wilkinson, the military governor of the Louisiana Territory in a plan to seperated the western U.S. from the Eastern U.S.
  • Although much of their planning is shrouded and a mystery, it is know that just as they were to meet and go on with their plan, Wilikinson learned that Jefferson had found out about the plan and betrayed Burr before fleeing to New Orleans.
  • Burr, being tried for treason, fled to Europe where he unsucessfully tried to convince Napoleon to ally with Britian to conquer the U.S.


America: A Nutcracked Neutral

  • Jefferson was reelected in 1804; 162:14 electoral votes
  • The London government, beginning in 1808 issued a series of Orders in Council, which closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping, including American, unless the vessels first stopped at a British port.
  • Impressment of American seamen was still a major threat from not only Britain

The Hated Embargo

  • America's navy and army were too weak to fight Britain and France, due to Jefferson's anti-navalism and his love of peace.
  • The warring nations in Europe depended heavily on America's trade, and so Jefferson drew up the Embargo act of 1807, which Congress hastily passed. This act forbade the export of all goods from the United States, whether in American or in foreign ships.
  • An enormous illicit trade began in 1808, where bands of armed Americans on loaded rafts overawed or overpowered fedaeral agents.
  • Congress repelled the Embargo on March1, 1809, and provided the Non-Intercourse Acts as a replacement. These acts formally reopened trade with every nation but Britain and France.
  • During the months the Embargo act was in place, New Englands floundering economy led to the reopening of of old factories and the creation of new ones.

Madison's Gamble

  • Madison took the presidential oath on March 4, 1809.
  • The Non-Intercourse Acts expired in 1810, but Congress made Macon's Bill No. 2, which reopened American's trade with the entire world. If either Britain or France repealed its commercial restrictions, America woulkd restore its embargo against the non-repealing nation.
  • In August 1810, word came from Napoleon's foreign minister that French decrees might be repealed if Britain also lifted its Orders in Council. but Napoleon's true purpose was to maneuver the United States into resuming its embargo against the British, thus creating a partial blockade against his enemy that he would not have to raise a finger to enforce.
  • Madison knew better than to trust Napoleon, but he gambled that the threat of seeing the United States trade exclusively with France would lead the British to repeal their restrictions.
  • The terms of Macon's Bill gave the British three months to live up to their implied promise by revoking the Orders in Council and reopening the Atlantic to neutral trade. Britain didn't, as they had a firm contol of the seas and London saw little need to bargain. American could either trade exclusively with Briatin, or no one at all.
  • Madison reestablished the embargo with Britain alone, which he knew meant the end of American neutrality.


Tecumseh and the Prophet

  • War Hawks pushed for America's involvement in the war and the extermination of the renewed Indian threat to the pioneer settlers who were streaming into trans-Allegheny wilderness.
  • Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, the Prophet, formed a confederacy of all the tribes east of the Mississippi, inspiring a vibrant movement of Indian unity and cultural renewal.
  • In the fall of 1811, William Henry Harrison gathered an army and advanced to Tecumseh's headquarters. Tecumsehs was recruiting supporters in the South, but the Prophet attacked Harrison's force with a small band of Shawnees, who were routed and their settlement was burned.
  • This battle discredited the Prophet, and drove Tecumseh into an alliance with Britain. When America's war with Britain came, he fought with the British till he died in 1813 at the Battle of Thames.


Mr. Madison's War

  • By the spring of 1812, Madison believed war with Britain to be inevitable. He turned to war to restore confidence in the republican experiment.
  • Madison and the Republicans believed that only a vigorous assertion of American rights could demonstrate the viability of American nationhood, and of democracy as a form of government.
  • Madison asked Congress to declare war on June 1, 1812. Congress obliged him two weeks later.
  • Support for the war came from the South and West, but also from Republicans in Pennsylvania and Virginia.
  • The bitterness of New England Federalists against "Mr. Madison's War" led them to treason or near-treason.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism 1812-1824

 

I. On to Canada Over Land and Lakes

  1. Due to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst fought wars.
  2. There was not a burning national anger, like there was after the Chesapeake outrage; the regular army was very bad and scattered and had old, senile generals, and the offensive strategy against Canada was especially poorly conceived.
  3. Had the Americans captured Montreal, everything west would have wilted like a tree after its trunk has been severed, but the Americans instead focused a three-pronged attack that set out from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain, all of which were beaten back.
  4. In contrast, the British and Canadians displayed enthusiasm early on in the war and captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, which commanded the upper Great Lakes area (the battle was led by British General Isaac Brock).
  5. After more land invasions were hurled back in 1813, the Americans, led by Oliver Hazard Perry, built a fleet of green-timbered ships manned by inexperienced men, but still managed to capture a British fleet. His victory, coupled with General William Henry Harrison’s defeat of the British during the Battle of the Thames, helped bring more enthusiasm and increased morale for the war.
  6. In 1814, 10,000 British troops prepared for a crushing blow to the Americans along the Lake Champlain route, but on September 11, 1814, Capt. Thomas MacDonough challenged the British and snatched victory from the fangs of defeat and forced the British to retreat.

II. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

  1. In August 1814, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area, dispersed 6,000 panicked Americans at Bladensburg, and proceeded to enter Washington D.C. and burn most of the buildings there.
  2. At Baltimore, another British fleet arrived but was beaten back by the privateer defenders of Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star Spangled Banner.”
  3. Another British army menaced the entire Mississippi Valley and threatened New Orleans, and Andrew Jackson, fresh off his slaughter of the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, led a hodgepodge force of 7,000 sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, entrenching them and helping them defeat 8,000 overconfident British that had launched a frontal attack in the Battle of New Orleans.
  4. The news of this British defeat reached Washington early in February 1815, and two weeks later came news of peace from Britain.
  5. Ignorant citizens simply assumed that the British, having been beaten by Jackson, finally wanted peace, lest they get beaten again by the “awesome” Americans.
  6. During the war, the American navy had oddly done much better than the army, since the sailors were angry over British impressment of U.S. sailors.
  7. However, Britain responded with a naval blockade, raiding ships and ruining American economic life such as fishing.

III. The Treaty of Ghent

  1. At first, the confident British made sweeping demands for a neutralized Indian buffer state in the Great Lakes region, control of the Great Lakes, and a substantial part of conquered Maine, but the Americans, led by John Quincy Adams, refused. As American victories piled up, though, the British reconsidered.
  2. The Treat of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, was an armistice, acknowledging a draw in the war and ignoring any other demands of either side. Each side simply stopped fighting. The main issue of the war, impressment, was left unmentioned.

IV. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

  1. As the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island secretly met in Hartford from December 15, 1814 to January 5, 1815, to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs.
    • While a few talked about secession, most wanted financial assistance form Washington to compensate for lost trade, and an amendment requiring a 2/3 majority for all declarations of embargos, except during invasion.
  2. Three special envoys from Mass. went to D.C., where they were greeted with the news from New Orleans; their mission failed, and they sank away in disgrace and into obscurity.
    • The Hartford Convention proved to be the death of the Federalist Party, as their last presidential nomination was trounced by James Monroe in 1816.

V. The Second War for American Independence

  1. The War of 1812 was a small war involving some 6,000 Americans killed or wounded, and when Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 with 500,000 men, Madison tried to invade Canada with about 5,000 men.
  2. Yet, the Americans proved that they could stand up for what they felt was right, and naval officers like Perry and MacDonough gained new respect; American diplomats were treated with more respect than before.
  3. The Federalist Party died out forever, and new war heroes, like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, emerged.
  4. Manufacturing also prospered during the British blockade, since there was nothing else to do.
  5. Incidents like the burning of Washington added fuel to the bitter conflict with Britain, and led to hatred of the nation years after the war, though few would have guessed that the War of 1812 would be the last war America fought against Britain.
  6. Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent, since not even an Indian buffer state had been achieved, and the Indians, left by the British, were forced to make treaties where they could.
  7. In 1817, though, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes, the Rush-Bagot Treaty between the U.S. and Britain provided the world’s longest unfortified boundary (5,527 mi.).
  8. After Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo, Europe sank into an exhaustion of peace, and America looked west to further expand.

VI. Nascent Nationalism

  1. After the war, American nationalism really took off, and authors like Washington Irving (Rumpelstiltskin, The Knickerbocker Tales such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow) and James Fenimore Cooper (The Leatherstocking Tales which included The Last of the Mohicans) gained international recognition.
  2. The North American Review debuted in 1815, and American painters painted landscapes of America on their canvases, while history books were now being written by Americans for Americans.
  3. Washington D.C. rose from the ashes to be better than ever, and the navy and army strengthened themselves.
  4. Stephen Decatur, naval hero of the War of 1812 and the Barbary Coast expeditions, was famous for his American toast after his return from the Mediterranean: “Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!”

VII. “The American System”

  1. After the war, British competitors dumped their goods onto America at cheap prices, so America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the first in U.S. history designed for protection, which put a 20-25% tariff on dutiable imports.
  2. It was not high enough, but it was a great start, and in 1824, Henry Clay established a program called the American System.
    • The system began with a strong banking system.
    • It advocated a protective tariff behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish.
    • It also included a network of roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley, to be funded for by the tariffs, and through which would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to the North and East.
    • Lack of effective transportation had been one of the problems of the War of 1812, especially in the West, and in 1817, Congress sought to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it, saying it was unconstitutional, thus making the states look for their own money to build the badly needed roads.

VIII. The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

  1. James Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent 183 to 34, and ushered in a short period of one-party rule.
  2. He straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of Nationalism.
  3. Early in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he received heartwarming welcomes.
  4. A Boston newspaper even went as far as to declare that an “Era of Good Feelings” had began.
  5. However, seeds of sectional troubles were planted. Notably, the South did not like the tariff saying it only benefited the North and made the South pay higher prices. And, the South disliked the internal improvements linking the North and West—the South didn’t see any benefits in paying taxes for roads and canals in other states.

IX. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

  1. In 1819, a paralyzing economic panic (the first since Washington’s times) engulfed the U.S., bringing deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded debtors’ prisons.
    • A major cause of the panic had been over-speculation in land prices, where the Bank of the United States fell heavily into debt.
    • Oddly, this started an almost predictable chain of panics or recessions. An economic panic occurred every 20 years during the 1800s (panics occurred during 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893).
  2. The West was especially hard hit, and the Bank of the U.S. was soon viewed upon as the cause.
  3. There was also attention against the debtors, where, in a few overplayed cases, mothers owing a few dollars were torn away from their infants by the creditors.

X. Growing Pains of the West

  1. Between 1791 and 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13.
  2. This explosive expansion of the west was due in part to the cheap land, the elimination of the Indian menace, the “Ohio Fever,” and the need for land by the tobacco farmers, who exhausted their lands.
  3. The Cumberland Road, begun in 1811 and ran ultimately from western Maryland to Illinois. And, the first steamboat on western waters appeared in 1811.
  4. The West, still not populous and politically weak, was forced to ally itself with other sections, and demanded cheap acreage.
  5. The Land Act of 1820 gave the West its wish by authorizing a buyer to purchase 80 acres of land at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash; the West demanded and slowly got cheap transportation as well.

XI. Slavery and the Sectional Balance

  1. Sectional tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to become a slave state.
  2. Although it met all the requirements of becoming a state, the House of Representatives stymied the plans for its statehood when it proposed the Tallmadge Amendment, which provided that no more slaves be brought into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri (this was shot down in the Senate).
  3. Angry Southerners saw this as a threat figuring that if the Northerners could wipe out slavery in Missouri, they might try to do so in all of the rest of the slave states.
  4. Plus, the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.

XII. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

  1. Finally, the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri Compromise.
    • Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance (it went from 11 free states and 11 slave states to 12 and 12).
    • All new states north of the 36°30’ line would be free, new states southward would be slave.
  2. Both the North and South gained something, and though neither was totally happy, the compromise worked for many years.
    • Monroe should have been doomed after the 1819 panic and the Missouri problem, but he was so popular, and the Federalist Party so weak, that he won in 1820 by all but one vote (unanimity was reserved for Washington).

XIII. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

  1. Chief Justice John Marshall helped to bolster the power of the government at the expense of the states.
  2. McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): This case involved Maryland’s trying to destroy the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes. Marshall invoked the Hamiltonian principle of implied powers and denied Maryland’s right to tax the bank, and also gave the doctrine of “loose construction,” using the elastic clause of the Constitution as its basis. He implied that the Constitution was to last for many ages, and thereby was constructed loosely, flexibly, to be bent as times changed.
  3. Cohens vs. Virginia (1821): The Cohens had been found guilty by Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, had appealed to the Supreme Court, and had lost, but Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government. The federal government won, the states lost.
  4. Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824): When New York tried to grant a monopoly of waterborne commerce, Marshall struck it down by saying that only Congress can control interstate commerce, not the states themselves; it was another blow to states’ rights.

XIV. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

  1. Fletcher vs. Peck (1810): After Georgia fraudulently granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River country (Mississippi) to privateers, the legislature repealed it after public outcry, but Marshall ruled that it was a contract, and that states couldn’t impair a contract. It was one of
  2. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819): Dartmouth had been granted a charter by King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it. Dartmouth appealed, using alumni Daniel Webster to work as lawyer, and Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand. It was a contract, and the Constitution protected those and overruled state rulings.
  3. Marshall’s rulings gave the Supreme Court its powers and greatly strengthened the federal government, giving it power to overrule state governments sometimes.

XV. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida

  1. The Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the 49th parallel and provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of rights and claims by neither Britain nor America.
  2. When revolutions broke out in South and Central America, Spanish troops in Florida were withdrawn to put down the rebellions, and Indian attacks ravaged American land while the Indians would then retreat back to Spanish territory.
  3. Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs without ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized St. Marks and Pensacola.
  4. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson; all wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain.
  5. The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and shadowy claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas. The U.S. paid $5 million to Spain for Florida.

XVI. The Menace of Monarchy in America

  1. Monarchs in Europe now were determined to protect the world against democracy, and crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans.
  2. Also, Russia’s claims to North American territory were intruding and making Americans nervous that Russia might claim territory that was “rightfully American.”
  3. Then, in August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning, approached the American minister in London proposing that the U.S. and Britain combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European despots to keep their hands off of Latin American politics.

XVII. Monroe and His Doctrine

  1. Sly and careful John Q. Adams sensed a joker in the proposal, correctly assumed that the European powers weren’t going to invade America anytime soon, and knew that a self-denouncing alliance with Britain would morally tie the hands of the U.S.
  2. He knew that the British boats would need to protect South America to protect their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a defiant, nationalistic blast at all Europe.
  3. Late in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating non-colonization and nonintervention.
  4. Dedicated primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no colonization in the Americas could happen anymore and also, European nations could not intervene in Latin American affairs.
  5. In return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against Turkey.

XVIII. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised

  1. The monarchs of Europe were angered, but couldn’t do anything about it, since the British navy would be there to stop them, further frustrating them.
  2. Monroe’s declaration made little splash in Latin America, since those who knew of the message also recognized that it was the British navy and not America that was protecting them, and that the U.S. was doing this only to protect its own hide.
  3. Not until 1845 did President Polk revive it.
  4. In the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian tsar fixed the southern boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40’ and it stayed at that.
  5. The Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense Doctrine, since Monroe was concerned about the safety of his own country, not Latin America.
  6. The doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement.
  7. It was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a voice of patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.
  8. Many Americans falsely concluded that the Republic was in fact insulated from European dangers simply because it wanted to be and because, in a nationalistic outburst, Monroe had publicly warned the Old World powers to stay away.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 13 - The Rise of a Mass Democracy The Rise of a Mass Democracy

 

Major Themes

  • A new spirit of mass democracy, symbolized by Jackson’s election to the Presidency, swept through American society, bringing new energy as well as conflict and corruption to public life
  • The growth of the Whigs signaled the emergence of the second American political party system


Major Question

What were the advantages and disadvantages of the politics of mass democracy?




Pre-Reading

What were the basic tenets of “Jeffersonian democracy?”





Outline

Intro

  • Economic distress and the issue on slavery raised the political stakes in the 1820's and 1830's
  • New political campaigning parties emerged and new ways of campaigning were used as politicians tried to sway the minds of the voters.
  • Poeple no longer viewed political parties as corrupt but instead as a vital part of the checks and balances of the American democracy.
  • 1828, the democrats came to be and faced opposition from a party in the form of the Whigs.
  • People started voting, while in 1824 only 25% of the population voted, that number increased to 78% in 1840.


The "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824

  • Four candidates towered above the others: John quincy adams of Massachusetts, henry Clay of Kentucky, William H crawford of Georgia, and Andrew jackson of tenessee all ran 1824
  • All four rivals professed to be Republicans but Andrew Jackson had the strongest appeal especially in the West where his campaign against the forces of corruption and privilege in government resonated deeply.
  • 1825 Adams was elected president and Henry clay was the new secretary of state
  • Angry Jacksonian protestors complained about the corrupt bargain between Adams and Clay.

A Yankee Misfit in the White House

  • It was difficult for John Adams to win support because people thought he lead with corruption. he also did not possess many arts or qualities of a politition.
  • Much of the nation was turning away from post-Ghent nationalism and toward states rights and sectionalism.
  • Adams urged the construction of roads and canals. He renewed george washintons proposal for a university.
  • The public reaction to these proposals was prompt and unfactorable. observatories seemed like a waste of money to the American public
  • Adams land policty agonized the westerners and they clamored for wide open expansion.

Going Whole Hog for Jackson in 1828

  • Republicans had spit into two parties for Jackson and political mudslinging exaterated both parties. 1828 opposing parties described how Jacksons mother was a prostitute and his wife as an adultress
  • Jackson also participated in the mudslinging and described how Adams was a gambler and won a slave girl in a bet.

"Old Hickory" as President

  • Jackson was brought up as an early orphaned brawler who fought more than he looked to learn and read.
  • Once he found to express himself in writing he moved "up west" to Tenessee.
  • He became a member of the Congress, became involved in many duels and arguments because of his temper and passion.
  • 1832 he was nominated as president, second president without a college education (Washington was the first)
  • His election symbolized a rising of the masses and people from all over the backcountry traveled to see him inaugarated and perhaps get a political office themselves.
  • He opened the White house to the public and the masses rushed in, breaking everything and some even threatening the president.
  • Many shuddered for these were the opening seens for the bloody French Revolution.


The Spoils System

  • Jackson designed the spoils system to reward supporters of the democratic party.
  • The system gave high ranking positions in government to the people who had helped the democratic party no matter how incompetent they were.
  • There hadn't been a big political overturn since the fall of the Federalist party in 1800.
  • The spoils system led to corruption when many of the men in office were illiterate and incompetent and took the position is office for the spoils not the toils of the office.
  • Samuel Swarthout, who was appointed as the collector of customs in the port of New York, was the first politician to steal money from the government in the sum of 1 million dollars.

"Old Hickory" Wallops Clay in 1832

  • During Jackson's running for second term, Jackson recieved fierce opposition from Henry Clay.
  • For the first time, a third party entered the field, the party was known as the anti-Masonic party.
    • The anti-Masons were a group that was opposed to the influence and fearsome secrecy of the of the Masonic order, condemning them as the citadels of privelege and monopoly.
    • The party attracted the support of the Protestants, looking to use political power to influence the effect of religious morals and reforms.
  • Henry Clay and the National Republicans enjoyed ample funds supplied by the Bank of the United States in the sum of $50,000.
  • Jackson, idol of the masses, overswept the Henry Clay in a lopsided vote of 219 to 49 in electoral votes.

Burying Biddle's Bank

  • The Bank of the Unites States was due to expire in 1836.
  • In 1833 Jackson decided to bury the bank for good by removing federal deposits from its vaults. By slowly siphoning off the government's funds, he would bleed the band dry and ensure its demise.
  • The president's closest advisors opposed this policy. Jackson was forced to reshuffle his cabinet twice before he could find a secretary of the Treasury who would bend to his iron will.
  • Surplus federal funds were placed in several dozen state institutions called "pet banks"

 

The Election of 1836

  • Jackson carefully rigged the nominating convention so that Martin Van Buren would win.
  • The Whigs couldn't nominate a single presidential candidate. Their strategy was to instead run several prominent "favorite sons." They hoped to scatter the vote so that no candidate would win a majority. However Van Buren still won.


Big Woes for the Little Magician

  • Martin Van Buren was the 8th president and the first to be born in America. He had great experience in legislative and administrative life, which put him ahead.
  • He had many enemies such as the Democrats and the ones who hated Jackson
  • Canadian rebellion against Britain causing toil in the northern frontier.
  • Van Buren also entered at the beginning of a depression

 

Politics for the People

  • The election of 1840 demonstrated some major changes in American politics since the Era of Good Feelings. One change was the triumph of a populist democratic style.
  • The common man was now moving to the center of the national political stage.

The Two-Party System

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy 1790-1860

 

Major Theme

Improvements in technology, finance and changes in population had far reaching effects on American society and the United States' role in the world.




Major Question

What is the relationship between the transformative effects of economic and industrial change and the concomitant political changes during this period?




Pre-Reading

Characterize the American economy and economic structure following independence.




Outline

Introduction

  • Numerous Americans pushed west in search of cheap land and opportunity
  • Immigrants also went west and made their way to fast growing cities
  • New machinery quickened cultivation of crops and manufacturing of goods; workers laboring under new, more demanding expectations
  • Better roads, faster steamboats, farther-reaching canals, and railroads all helped move people, raw materials, and manufactured goods from coast to coast and Gulf to Great Lakes by mid-nineteenth centruy
  • All this led to more dynamic, market-oriented, national economy


The Westward Movement

  • Andrew Jackson exemplified westward march of American people
  • Life was grim for pioneer families: poorly fed, ill-clad, living in hastily erected shanties, victims of disease, depression, premature death, and loneliness(esp. women)
  • Frontier life tough on women and men
  • Jacksonian politics aimed to emancipate the lone-wolf, enterprising businessperson
  • Pioneers were very individualistic except for the occassional tasks that were beyond their own individual resources


Shaping the Western Landscape

  • Pioneers exhausted the land in tobacco regions and pushed on, leaving behind barren and rain-gutted fields
  • "Kentucky bluegrass" thrived after cane in Kentucky bottomlands was burned off-->ideal pasture for livestock and lured thousands more into Kentucky
  • The American West felt pressure of civilization-->1820s:furtrappers setting traplines all over; many animals(bison, beaver, otter) brought to point of near-extinction; exploitation of West's natural bounty
  • However, Americans still revered nature and admired America's beauty and wilderness
  • Wild, unspoiled character of land became distinctive characteristic of U.S. and inspired literature and painting and eventually kindled a powerful conservative movement
  • George Catlin was one of the 1st Americans to advocate the preservation of nature as a deliberate national policy-->led to creation of a national park system, starting with Yellowstone Park in 1872


The March of the Millions

  • As the people expanded westward, population size increased at a dramatic rate.
  • When population increased, so did the problems of slums, feble street lighting, inadequate policing, impure water, foul sewage, rats, and improper garbage disposal.
  • A high birthrate accounted for most of the increase of population, but by the 1840's, immigration was adding hundreds of thousands.

The Emerald Isle Moves West

  • A potato famine swept through Ireland, leaving around 2 million dead. Irish left their homeland for America to start anew.
  • Almost all the Irish settled in large seaboard cities like Boston and New York, becasue they didn't have enough money to go West.
  • Irish immigrants were looked down upon, and many were turned away when they came looking for jobs. (No Irish Need Apply.)
  • The Irish tended to remain in low-skill jobs, but they slowly improved their lot(usually by acquiring modest amounts of property). they soon began to control powerful city machines, like New York's Tamamany Hall. Many became police officers as well (Paddy Wagons.)


The German Forty-Eighters

  • German's came en masse, due to poor farming conditions and seeking political refuge.
  • Unlike the Irish, many Germans possessed a large amount of material goods. most pushed out to the Middle West, and like the Irish, formed an influential body of voters.
  • Germans tended to be more educated than Americans, and strongly supported public schooling.
  • Conestoga wagon, the Kentucky rifle, and the Christmas tree were all German contributions
  • Germans fled from militarism and constant wars of Europe


Flare-ups of Antiforeignism

  • Fear that the immigrants would outbreed, outvote, and overwhelm the old "native" stock led to strong feelings of predjudism.
  • most immigrants were Roman Catholic, and due to the vast amount of immigrants, Catholics became a powerful religious group im America.
  • Older-stock Americans were alarmed by the amount of Catholics, and began the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, or Know-Nothing party. They demanded strict restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing the deportation of alien paupers.
  • Mass violence came about because of the harsh prejudism.

Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine

  • Samuel Slater considered the father of the factory system


The Iron Horse

The Iron Hourse were trains. They were cheap, fast, and relatively reliable. Unlike the first railroad made in 1828, these could be used in all seasons. By 1860 the United States had roughly 30 thousand miles of railroad.


Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders

  • A cable was stretched between Newfoundland to Ireland in 1858. The cable went dead after 3 months, but a heavier cable laid in 1866 permanently linked the American and European continents.
  • Clipper ships were the fastest ships of the time, built in the 1840's and 1850's. They sacrificed cargo space for speed. They were beat out by the British iron tramp steamers ("teakettles").
  • The Pony Express was established in 1860 to carry mail from St. Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California. Trips could be made in 10 days, in any season or weather conditions. They folded after 18 months.

The Transport Web Binds the Union

During the 1830's and 1840's, new, faster forms of transportation allowing the connection of the east and west. Trade routes shifted more western through Buffalo, instead of New Orleans. The United States economy was split into three sections; Western grain and livestock, Southern cotton, and Eastern machine and textiles. These economic patterns tied the east and the west together.


The Market Revolution

This Revolution changed the way the economy worked. Now people were working for wages and bought what they beeded. This new economic system fuurthered the gap between the rich and poor. Cities were consequently filled with drifters, people who "drifted" around doing thankless jobs for low wages. With all the new opportunity in America, a surge of immigrants was seen. On average, there was a 1% raise of wage for nonskilled workers each year.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture 1790-1860

Reviving Religion


  • Christian Religion
    • Many people (3/4 of the 23 million people pop.) still attended church regularly
    • Orthodoxy softened greatly by the rationalist ideas of the French Revolution
  • Deism
    • Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason
      • All churches were "set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolize power and profit"
    • Liberal ideas (Deism) embraced by many of the Founding Fathers
    • Deism supported science and reason rather than the Bible and revelation
    • Rejected concept of sin and Christ's divinity
    • Believed in one Supreme Being
    • Helped inspire the unitarian faith (God existed in only one person)
  • Second Great Awakening
    • Reaction to the liberalism
    • Effects of the Second Great Awakening
      • Many converted souls across America
      • Shattered and reorganized churches
      • Many new sects
    • Camp Meetings
      • Thousands would gather in encampment in order to "get religion"
      • Boosted church membership
      • Humanitarian reforms
    • Peter Cartwright
      • Traveling preacher
      • Converted 1000's to Methodist beliefs
      • "Muscular" conversion
    • Charles Grandison Finley
      • Trained as a lawyer
      • Pungent message
      • Abolitionist and Revivalist for Oberlin College
    • Feminization of Reilgion
      • First and most fervent enthusiasts of revivalism
      • Made up majority of new church member


Denominational Diversity


  • "Burned-Over District"
    • Western NY, where the desendants of the New Engalnd Puritans settled
  • Millerites and Adventists
    • Rose from Burned Over District in the 1830's
    • Interpreted (Bible) that Christ would return to Earth on 10/22/1844
    • Failure of revival of Christ did not destroy the movement
  • Second Great Awakening
    • Widened lines between classes and religions
    • Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congressionalists, & Unitarians still wealthier and more educated
    • Methodists, Baptists,and new sects were less prosperous, learned, and sprang up in the South and West
  • Slavery divides churches
    • Religious diversity divides churches

Desert Zion in Utah


  • Joseph Smith found "golden plates," which translated into a Book of Mormon (Church of Latter-Day Saints)
  • Ohio, Missouri, Illinois all were not happy with this new religion, and Smith ended up being murdered by a mob in 1844
  • Brigham Young took up the religion leading and led the followers to Utah, where they used irrigation to make the desert flourish
  • Mormons practice polygamy, and ignored Congress's antipolygamy laws of 1862 and 1882. This delayed Utah's statehood until 1896


Free Schools for a Free People


  • There were very few tax-supported primary schools, so many poor people were uneducated
  • However, higher classes began to realize that these undereducated poor would eventually become voters
  • School taxes were started so that public education was available for all
  • 1825-50: and increase in # of schools, but many teachers weren't better educated than their students and had crappy wages
  • HORACE MANN: secretary of Mass. Board of Education worked towards better wages and education for teachers
  • NOAH WEBSTER: made better textbooks that promoted patriotism, and also made the Dictionary
  • WILLIAM H. MCGUFFEY: made "grade-school" readers that taught morality, patriotism, and idealism


Higher Goals for Higher Learning


  • New denominational, liberal arts colleges were academically poor, usually used to satisfy local pride than to advance learning
  • Curriculums in the new colleges included mainly
    • Latin
    • Greek
    • Mathematics
    • Moral philosophy
  • First state-supported universities sprang up in the South
  • Women's higher education was frowned upon due to the beliefs and prejudices of the time
  • However, women's secondary schools gained respectability in the 1820's
  • Those who wanted more knowledge often went to libraries or read magazines
  • Traveling lecturers also helped


An Age of Reform


  • Reforms grew with the country
  • Most ideal reform was the end of slavery
  • Reform movements brought women out of the household
  • Punishments for debt and crimes were softened as the poor gained the vote
  • The mentally ill were treated better due to reforms caused by Dorothy Dix
  • Peace was another wanted reform

Demon Rum - the "Old Deluder"


  • Drinking too much was very common due to custom and the lifestyle
  • 1826- American Temperance Society founded in Boston. Used many methods (songs, pamphlets, pictures...) to get heavy drinkers to sign the Temperance Pledge
  • T.S. Arthur wrote Ten Nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There (2nd only to Uncle tom's cabin)
  • Many supported idea of strengthening willpower to avoid the drink, while some supported illegalizing alcohol (Neal S. dow)
  • Dow, the "Father of Prohibition," sponsored the Maine Law of 1851, which prohibited the making or selling of intoxicating liquors
  • Other northern states followed, but usually these laws were repealed within a decade


Women in Revolt


  • At the open of the nineteenth century women...
    • were expected to take care of the home only
    • could not vote
    • could be legally beaten by her overlord
    • when she was married she couldnt retain title to her property, it passed to her husband
  • american women were treated much better than those in europe
  • As the decades unfolded they increasingly gained freedom and self-determination
  • Compared to women in colonial times 10% of adult women remained "spinsters" at the time of the Civil War
  • women were respected as the "moral backbone" of society
  • Female reformers gathered strength and while demanding rights for women they joined in the reform movement, fighting for temperance and the abolition of slavery
  • The women's rights movement was mothered by
    • Lucretia Mott: a sprightly Quaker
    • Elizabeth Cady Stanton:mother of 7, insisting on leaving "obey" out of her marriage ceremony, advocated sufferage for women
    • Susan B. Anthony
    • Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell:the first female graduate of medical college
  • The Women's Rights Convention at Senaca Falls, NY launched the modern women's rights movement.."Declaration of Sentiments">"all men AND WOMEN are created equal" [1848]
  • The crusade for women's rights was eclipsed by the campaign against slavery in the decade before the Civil War.


Wilderness Utopias


  • "communitarian" communities became all the rage in this age of reform
    • Robert Owen [1825] started one in new Harmony, Indiana..tho it started w. "hard-working visionaries" many different kinds of people that threw-off the "perfect society" were attracted to this utopia, causing the idea of perfection to crumble.
    • Brook Farm in Massachusetts [1841] was "brotherly and sisterly intellectuals" that believed in the philosophy of a superior society...they prospered until a building burnt down and they plunged into debt.
    • The Oneida Community in New York [1848] was more out there w. free love or "complex marraige" practices, use of birth control, parents trying to produce superior kids...the community flourished for approx. 30 yrs bc they were skilled artisans.
    • The Shakers lived the longest [about 1770-1940ish] led by Mother Ann Lee, started in 1770 w. some religious communities, got about 6,000 followers in 1840, but bc of their ban against marriage & sex they were virtually extinct by 1940.
  • most of these communities tried and failed or changed their methods


Dawn of Scientific Achievement


  • Americans were interested in gagets, not pure science, and usually borrowed and adapting Euro findings, commendable ppl were:
    • Nathaniel Bowditch[1733-1838] mathematician who wrote about pracitcal navigation and of oceanographer Matthew F. Maury[1806-1873] on ocean winds and currents
    • Professor Benjamin Silliman[1779-1864] scientist: pioneer chemist & geologist who taught @ yale for 50yrs
    • Professor Louis Agassiz[1807-1873] french-swiss immigrant who was a path-breaking biologist @ harvard for 25yrs
    • Professor Asa Grey[1810-1888] @ harvard, "Columbus of American botany" published over 350 books,monographs,papers & his txtbooks set new standards for clarity & interest
    • John J. Audubon[1785-1851] American bird lore/naturalist, painted wild fowl in natural habitat, Audubon Society for protection of birds named after him [obviously]
  • Medicine in America was still primitive.."Bring Out Your Dead!"
    • smallpox plauges, yellow fever epidemic, "rheumatics", the "miseries", the chills, decayed or ulcerated teeth[pulling often practiced by the brawny town blacksmith]
    • life expectancy still very short & even less so for blacks
    • self-prescribed medicines = common, fad diets, rubbing dead toads on tumors, doctor-prescribed medicines were harmful
    • no anesthetics until early 1840s w. laughing gas and ether


Artistic Achievements


  • America contributed little of note architecturally in the first half of the century.
  • About midcentury strong interest developed in a revival of Gothic reforms, with their emphasis on pointed arches and large windows.
  • Thomas Jefferson was probably the ablest architect of his generation, he brought a classical design to his Virginia home, Monticello.
  • The art of painting suffered from the lack of a wealthy class to sit for portraits and then pay for them.
  • Some of the earliest painters were forced to go to England, America exported artists and imported art.
  • Painting also suffered from the Puritan prejudice that art was a sinful waste of time.
  • Painters nevertheless emerged
    • Gilbert Stuart: produced several portraits of Washington
    • Charles Willson Peale: painted some sixty portraits of Washington, Washington sat for 14 of them.
    • John Trumbull: recaptured the Revolutionary War's scenes and spirit
  • Music slowly shookoff the restraints of colonial days also.


Blossoming of a National Literature

Trumpeters of Transcendentalism


  • started in 1830s Boston known as "the Athens of America"
  • liberalization of Puritan theology
  • happenings brought about by foreign influences
    • German romantic philosophers & Asian religions
  • Transcendentalists disliked prevailing theory(knowledge comes to mind through senses)
  • believed that truthfulness "transcends" senses, & cannot be found through observation alone
  • Every person has an "inner light" that can put him/her in direct contact w/ God("Oversoul")
  • Doctrines of transcendentalism defied definition, but underlay concrete beliefs
  • in religious & social matters, individualism=most important, followed by self-discipline & self-culture
  • these traits of independence lead to hostility towards authority, formal institutions, & conventional wisdom
  • humanitarian reforms brought about for blacks & whites
  • Ralph Waldo Emerson(1803-1882):
    • most well known of transcendentalists
    • trained as a Unitarian minister
    • favorite as a lyceum lecturer
    • in 1837, urged American writers to seek their own heritage & ditch European traditions during his speech, "The American Scholar" which he delivered at Harvard College
    • influential poet & philosopher, he enriched the lives of many
    • he stressed self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, freedom, & self-confidence
    • a critic of slavery by 1850 & supporter of the Union
  • Henry David Thoreau(1817-1862)
    • hated governments that supported slavery & refused to pay Mass. poll tax
    • believed in reducing bodily wants to gain time to pursue truth through meditation & study
    • his writings encouraged Gandhi to resist British rule & Martin Luther King Jr.'s ideas of nonviolence
  • Walt Whitman(1819-1892):
    • loved by expanding America & caught enthusiasm of Americans
    • Leaves of Grass (1855) used lots of different emotions; at first it was a flop but then spread to Europe & gained fame for Whitman


Glowing Literary Lights


  • Professor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow(1807-1882): one of the most popular poets from America
  • taught modern languages at Harvard College for many years
  • Urbane & handsome, he live a pretty good life aside from the fact that 2 of his wives died
  • wrote for the genteel classes, liked by the less cultured
  • most of his poems were based on American traditions
  • popular in Europe, he was the only American to be honored in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey
  • John Greenleaf Whittier(1807-1892): Quaker, Anit-slavery crusade
    • importantly influenced social action; his poems fought against inhumanity, injustice, & intolerance
    • one of the moving forces in his generation(morally, spiritually, humanitarian)
    • "...the poet of human freedom."
  • Professor James Russel Lowell(1819-1891):
    • literary critic, essayist, editor, & a diplomat
    • Biglow Papers, dealt w/ political satire, especially in 1846 (the Mexican War), used poems in Yankee dialect, papers talked about alleged slavery-expansion of Polk administration
  • Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes(1809-1894):nonconforming conversationalist
    • taught at Harvard Med. School
    • prominent poet, novelist, lecturer, essayist, & wit
    • wrote about Boston, Boston Tea Party, Boston Tea Partiers, etc.
  • Louisa May Alcott(1832-1888): grew up in Concord, Mass.
    • father=philosopher, Bronson Alcott
    • she wrote Little Women & other books to support mother & sisters
  • Emily Dickenson(1830-1886): lived in solitude as a recluse
    • explored themes of nature, death, love, & immortality
    • never published poems during life, but after death almost 2000 poems found & published
  • William George Simms(1806-1870): novelist
    • wrote 82 books
    • "the Cooper of the South"
    • themes dealt w/ South during the colonial & Revolutionary War periods
    • married into elite & became slaveowner


Literary Individualists & Dissenters

There were several writers during this time period who did not show the human goodness and social progress that other writers of the time were.


  • Edgar Allan Poe had a ghostly style and wrote several good horror stories
  • Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville both wrote about the struggle between good and evil


Portrayers of the Past

As well as writers several distinguished historians emerged from this time period.3 great historians were George Bancroft, William H. Prescot and Francis Parkman. Many of the great historians were from New England

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy 1793-1860

 

"Cotton is King!"

  • The Cotton kingdom developed into a huge agricultural factory, pouring out avalanches of the fluffy fiber. Quick profits drew planters to the virgin bottomlands of the Gulf States causing cotton farmers to buy more slaves and land.
  • Northern shippers earned a large part of the profits, loading and bulging bales of cotton to southern ports, transporting them to England, selling their fleecy cargo for pounds sterling, and would buy needed goods to sale in the United States.
  • To a large degree, the prosperity of both North and South rested on the bent backs of southern slaves.
  • Cotton = for ½ the value of all Americans exports after 1840, holding foreign nations in partial bondage. Britain's single most important manufacture in the 1850's was cotton cloth, and about one-fifth of its population, directly or indirectly, drew it's livelihood from this industry.
  • South produced more than ½ of entire world’s supply of cotton and about 75% of cotton supply of fiber came from white-carpeted acres of the South
  • In their eyes “Cotton was king”: the gin was his throne and the black bondsmen (slaves) were his henchmen.
  • Cotton was a powerful monarch = if war broke out between North and South, northern warships would cut off the outflow of cotton therefore causing the British factories to close their gates and starving mobs would force London gov’t to break the blockade and the South would triumph.


The Planter "Aristocracy"

  • 1850, only 1,733 families owned more than 100 slaves--> this group led politically and socially
  • these planter aristocrats enjoyed a large share of southern wealth: educated their children in finest schools, money provided leisure for study, reflection, and statecraft, felt obligated to serve the public
  • dominance by favored aristocracy=undemocratic-->widened gap between rich and poor, hampered tax-supported public education(b/c rich planters sent their children to private institutions)
  • Southern aristocrats idealized a feudal society and tried to bring back a type of medievalism (author Sir Walter Scott helped them with this)
  • plantation system shaped lives of southern women: the mistress commanded a large household staff of mostly female slaves, gave daily orders to cooks, maids, seamstresses, laundresses, and body servants
  • relationships between mistresses and slaves ranged from affectionate to atrocious: slavery strained bonds of womanhood-->virtually no slaveholding women believed in abolition


Slaves of the Slave System

  • plantation agriculture was wasteful-->cotton spoiled the good earth, quick profits led to excessive cultivation which led to a heavy flow of population to the west and northwest
  • economic structure of south became monopolistic:small farmers sold to more prosperous neighbors and went north or west
  • plantation system financially unstable: temptation to overspeculate in land and slaves caused planters to plunge in beyond their depth
  • slaves were a heavy investment of capital: some injured, run away, wiped out by disease, etc.
  • dangerous dependence on a one-crop economy-system discouraged healthy diversification of agriculture and manufacturing
  • southern planters resented the north growing at their expense, pained by heavy outward flow of commissions and interest
  • Cotton Kingdom repeled European immigration which added to manpower and wealth of north
  • immigration(german, irish) to south discouraged by competition of slave labor, high cost of fertile land, and ignorance of cotton growing
  • white south became the most Anglo-Saxon section of the nation


The White Majority

  • Only about one-fourth of white Southerners owned slaves or belonged to a slave owning family.
  • The smaller slave owners did not own a majority of the slaves, but they made up a majority of the masters.
  • By 1860 the number of whites who didn't own slaves had reached 6,120,825. This was three-quarters of all southern whites.
  • Many of the poorer whites were hardly better off economically than the slaves, but they took comfort knowing that they outranked African-American slaves.

Free Blacks: Slaves Without Masters

  • Throughout the South were some free blacks who had purchased their freedom with earnings from labor after hours.
  • Free blacks were prohibited from working in certain occupations and forbidden from testifying against whites in court. They were vulnerable to be taken back into slavery.
  • Free blacks were also unpopular in the North. Several states forbade their entrance, most denied them the right to vote, and some barred blacks from public schools. Anti-black feeling was frequently stronger in the North than the South.
  • Frederick Douglass, an abolitionist and self-educated orator of rare power, was several times mobbed and beaten by northern rowdies.

Plantation Slavery

  • Legal importation of slaves being ended in 1808, slaves were still smuggled to the South because of their high value to the farmers. But most of the slave pop. came from reproduction
  • Slaves became so valuable that risky jobs were given to paid Irishmen to spare the slave's life
  • Slaves were being sent into the deep south bc of the cotton boom and the Old South getting soil-exhausted.


Life Under the Lash

  • White southerners exaggerated slave life
  • Actual slave life varied between each southern region, though hard work, ignorance, and oppression was associated with slavery everywhere.
  • Some laws of protection, but hard to enforce due to the fact that slaves were forbidden to testify in court.


The Burdens of Bondage

  • Slaves were deprived of the dignity and sense of responsibility that comes from independence and the right to make choices.
  • Slaves were denied an education, because reading brought ideas, and ideas brought discontent. Many states passed laws forbidding their instruction, and perhaps nine-tenths of adult slaves at the beginning of the Civil War were totally illiterate.
  • In 1800 an armed insurrection led by a slave named Gabriel in Richmond, Virginia, was foiled by informers, and its leaders were hanged. Denmark Vesey, a free black, led another rebellion in Charleston in 1822. It too was betrayed by informers, and Vesey and more than thirty followers were publicly hanged. in 1831 Nat Turner led an uprising that slaughtered sixty Virginians, mostly women and children.
  • slavery fostered brutality of the whip, the bloodhound, and the branding iron
  • defenders of slavery were forced to degrade themselves, along with their victims


Early Abolitionism

  • 1817 American colonization society was founded and in 1822 the republic of liberia was established for former slaves. fifteen thousand blacks were transported there over the next few decades.
  • By 1860 cirtually all southern slaves were no longer Africans but native born African Americans with thier own history and culture, colonization idea appealed some antislaveryities including Abraham lincoln until the time of the civil war
  • 1830, teh abolitionist movement took on new energy and momentum, mounting to the proportions of a crusade. 1833 american abolitionists took heart when their british counterparts unchained the slaves in the west indies.
  • Dwight Weld, inspired by Finney, was aided by merchants in new york Arthur anda Lewis Tappan, and preached antislavery gospel . one of his compelling arguments made it to Harriet beecher stowe's uncle toms cabin.

Radical Abolitionism

  • New Years day, 1831, 26 year old Wiliam Lloyd garrison published in boston the first issue of his militantly antislavery newspaper , THE LIBERATOR. caused uproar.
  • in the paper he claimed that he would not tolerate the poisonous gases weed of slavery and he will be heard.
  • other abolitionists acted as well, 1833, teh american antislavery society was founded. Many black americans viewed themselves as monuments for abolitionists
  • Fredrick douglas, escaping slavery in 1838, ran into abolitionists in 1841 and gave an inspirational speech involving antislavery in massachuesetts. despite threats against him, he published a book about himself in 1845,

The South Lashes Back

  • After a Virginian legislature debated and defeated various slave emancipation proposal, the south would tighten down on its slave codes and moved to prohibit emancipation.
  • The Nullification crisis of 1832 caused Southern whites to respond with reasoning that the Bible and Aristotle supported slavery, and that working conditions were better for Black slaves than Black factory workers.
  • Pro-abolitionist executed freedom of speech with the press and petitions, which upset the southern slaveholders.

The Abolitionist Impact in the North

  • Abolitionists, especially the extreme Garrisonians, were unpopular for a long time in many parts of the North. Garrison’s talk of secession grated harshly on northern ears.
  • The North had a heavy economic stake in Dixieland. By the 18050’s southern planters owed Northern bankers about $300million.
  • Textile factories in the North were fed by cotton from labor systems of slaves, and it these labor systems were disrupted then the supply would be cut off and unemployment would occur in the North. Because of this strong hostility developed in the North against the boat-rocking tactics of the radical antislaveryites.
  • Mobs were provoked by tongue-lashings by extreme abolitionists. Lewis Tappan’s New York house was broken into in 1834 while a crowd cheered from the street. In 1835 Garrison was dragged through the streets of Boston by a rope.
  • By the 1850’s abolitionist outcry had made a deep dent in the northern mind. Citizens had come to see the South as the land of the unfree. Not many Northerners wanted to abolish slavery outright, but a growing number opposed extending it to western territories.

What was the True Nature of Slavery

  • Economic historians report that slavery was in fact very profitable for the owners of the plantations
  • Some would compare the treatment to the slaves like that of the treatment of the Jewish peoples put into Nazi concentration camps.
  • Slavery was like that of a paternal system, owners coaxing work and controlling reluctant slaves like they were machines and not people.
  • The veiw of a slave as a noneducated working machine was wrong, for they kept their culture and wit about them and merely put on a front of an immature mind.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy 1841-1848

 

Major Theme

American expansionism gained momentum in the late 1840s, leading to the acquisition of Texas and Oregon, and then to the Mexican War, adding vast southwestern territories to the United States and igniting political conflict over the slavery issue.


Major Questions

  • Was American expansion across North America an “inevitable” development?
  • What were the costs and benefits of the Mexican War both immediately and in the longer run of American history?
    • Costs:
    • Benefits:

Pre-Reading

  • What were the attitudes of Americans during earlier periods of expansion (i.e.: Pinckney’s Treaty, Louisiana, Florida)?
  • Recall the status of Texas in the late 1830s.
  • What were the attitudes of the major parties (Democrats and Whigs) toward expansion?

Outline


The Accession of "Tyler Too"

  • After Presidents Harrison’s short four week administration, John Tyler, a Virginia gentleman, took over the presidency. He had earlier resigned from the senate rather then accept distasteful instructions from the Virginia legislature.
  • Tyler’s enemies accused him of being a Democrat in Whig clothing, but this charge was only partially true. Tyler belonged to the minority wing of the Whig party, which embraced a number of Jeffersonian states’ righters. Tyler was in fact put on this ticket to gain the vote of this fringe group of whom many were influential southern gentry.
  • Tyler should never have joined this group though, because on almost every major issue he was at odds with the majority of the Whig party, which was pro-bank, pro-protective tariff, and pro-internal improvements.


John Tyler: A President Without a Party

  • After their hard-won victory the Whigs introduced their not-so-secret platform out of Clay’s waistcoat pocket. It outlined a strongly nationalistic program.
  • Financial reform was first. The Whig Congress hurried to pass a law ending the independent treasury system, and President Tyler agreed and signed it. Clay next drove a bill through Congress for a “Fiscal Bank” which would establish a new Bank of the US.
  • Tyler flatly vetoed the bank bell on both practical and constitutional grounds. A drunken mob gathered at night near the White House shouting insults at Tyler.
  • The Whigs tried again, but this time to pass a bill for a “Fiscal Corporation” but the still unbending president vetoed the substitute.
  • Whig extremists dubbed Tyler as “His Accidency” and as an “Executive Ass”. Tyler received numerous letters threatening him with death. Tyler was kicked out of the Whig party, and a serious attempt to impeach him was approached in the House of Reps. His entire cabinet resigned in a body, except the Secretary of State Webster.
  • Tyler reluctantly signed a law for a protective tariff in 1842.


A War of Words With Britain

  • Hatred of Britain came during the nineteenth century came to a head periodically and had to be lanced by treaty settlement or by war. The poison had festered ominously by 1842.
  • Anti-British passions were composed of bitter memories of the two Anglo-American wars, and the genteel pro0British Federalists had died out, yielding to Jacksonian Democrats.
  • British travelers wrote acidly of American tobacco spitting, slave auctioneering, lynching ,eye gouging, and other unsavory features of the rustic Republic. These travel books stirred angry outburst in America. British magazines added fuel when they launched attacks on American shortcomings. American journals struck back, starting the “Third War with England” which was fought with paper.
  • In the nineteenth century America needed to borrow money for internal improvements and Britain had the money to lend.
  • Insurrection in Canada in 1837, although doomed to fail, was supported by hundreds of hot-blooded Americans who furnished military supplies or volunteered for armed service.
  • In 1837 a ship, the Caroline, was attacked by the British bringing supplies across Niagara Falls to Canada, and set on fire. This brought passions to boil. This had alarming aftereffects. Washington officials logged complaints.
  • Three years later in New York, a Canadian was arrested and indicted for murder in connection with the Caroline incident. The London Foreign Office regarded the Caroline raiders as a sanctioned armed force, so if the Americans killed McLeod it would be an act of war. McLeod produced an alibi and was released, though, alleviating tensions.
  • Tension snapped taut again in 1841 when British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to 130 Virginia slaves who had rebelled and capture the American ship Creole.


Manipulating the Maine Maps

  • Early 1840s controversy involved the Maine boundary dispute
  • The British were determined to build a road from seaport of Halifax to Quebec but the route ran through disputed territory claimed by Maine under peace treaty of 1783
  • Lumberjacks from Canada and Maine entered the disputed no-man's-land of the Aroostook River Valley-->ugly fights=Aroostook War
  • 1842: London Foreign Office sent a nonprofessional diplomat, Lord Ashburton, to Washington, who established cordial relations with Secretary Webster
  • These two statesmen finally agreed on a compromise on the Maine boundary: Americans were to retain 7000 of the 12000 square miles of wilderness in dispute...the British got less land but won the Halifax-Quebec route.
  • During negotiations, the Caroline affair was patched up by an exchange of diplomatic notes


The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

  • Mexico refused to recognize Texas's independence and threatened war if America helped Texas
  • Texans forced to maintain a costly military establishment
  • Texas was driven to open negotiations with Britain and France in the hope of securing the defensive shield of a protectorate: 1839&1840, Texans concluded treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium
  • Britain wanted an independent Texas to check the southward surge of the american colossus...then foreign powers could move into America and challenge the Monroe Doctrine----France intereseted in same thing and hoped fragmentatioin and militarization of America would occur
  • British abolitionists hoping to free the few blacks in Texas then move on to freeing nearby slaves in the South
  • British merchants regarded Texas as potentially important free trade area, British manufactureers perceived that the vast Texas plains constituted one of the great cotton-producing areas of the future


The Belated Texas Nuptials

  • Texas was leading issue in presidential campaign of 1844: foes of expansion assailed annexation....southern hotheads cried "Texas or Disunion"
  • proexpansion Democrats(James K. Polk) triumphed over Whigs(Henry Clay)
  • Tyler arranged for annexation by a joint resolution-->required simple majority in both houses of Congress...passes in 1845=Texas formally invited to become the 28th star on the flag
  • Mexico angry and charged that the Americans had despoiled it of Texas
  • Continued existence of independent Texas threatened to involve U.S. in a series of wars in both America and Europe
  • Achieving annexation was a good idea and came at a good time
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle 1848-1854

 

Major Themes

  • Sectional conflict over the expansion of slavery erupted after the Mexican War, was quieted by the Compromise of 1850, and erupted again with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.
  • American expansion of the 1850s was resolutely tied to the question of slavery.

Major Questions

  • Was the practice of compromise on slavery issues good politics or ignorant of reality?
  • At the roots, what were the causes of sectionalism in antebellum America?

disagreements on slavery, territory, as well as fugitive slave laws (ex. Texans, Southern slave owners)


Pre-Reading

How did the Whigs and Democrats deal with the issue of slavery in during the 1830s and 1840s?




The Popular Sovereignty Panacea

  • Each of the two great political parties was a vital bond of unity, for each enjoyed powerful support in both North and South; therefore they agreed that it was strategy to ignore the issue of slavery.
  • President Polk got sick and only could serve ne term so democrats selected General Lewis Cass, a veteran of the War of 1812, to be the new leader.
  • Cass supported expanding slavery and was well known as the reputed father of “popular sovereign.” The public liked popular sovereignty not just because it had a persuasive appeal but that it accorded with the democratic tradition of self-determination. Politicians liked it because it seemed a comfortable compromise between the abolitionist bid for a ban on slavery in the territories and southern demands that Congress protect slavery in the territories.
  • Popular sovereign had one fatal defect: it might have helped spread the disease of slavery.


Political Triumph for General Taylor

  • Whigs favored Zachary Taylor over Clay, due to Clay's large amount of speeches.
  • Whigs focused campaign on opponents flaws not real issues such as slavery in the territories
  • Anti-slavery men in the North, disgusted with Taylor and Cass, organized the Free Soil Party. Which wanted no slavery in territories, advocating federal aid for improvements internal improvements and urging free government homesteads for settlers
  • this new group gained support from those unhappy with Polk and northerners.
  • Free-soiler Van Buren diverted votes from Cass in New York caused Taylor to win election.


"Californy Gold"

  • The discovery of Gold in Cali in 1848 sent a high fever to go mine gold.
  • Only a few people struck it rich mining while most would've made more money staying at home.
  • People who were best off were those who businessed off of the miners to wash clothes and other services
  • High percentage of settlers were lawless men followed by women, which caused an outburst of crime with robbery, claim jumping, and murder
  • Taylor privately encouraged Cali to outlaw slavery and apply to become a state, skipping the territorial stage.
  • California entered as a free state


Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad

  • The south in 1850 was relatively well off, The south had seated war hero Zachary Taylor in the white house, planter from Louisiana. If outnumbered in the house, the south had equality in the senate, where it could alteast neutralize northern maneuvers.
  • North and South believed slavery was seriously threatened where it already existed below the Mason-Dixon line. The fifteen states could easily veto and proposed constitutional amendment.
  • The south was worried, there were fifteen free states as well as slave states and the admission of California would destroy the delicate equilibrium in the Senate, slave territory under the American flag was running short.
  • Texas claimed a huge area east of the Rio grande and north of forty-second parallel, embracing half of present day New Mexico. Federal Government proposed to detach this prize, while Texans wanted to claim what they thought was rightfully theirs.
  • Many southerners also complained of the nagging of the abolitionists from the north and suffered a loss of many runaway slaves, many of whom were assisted by the underground railroad, which consisted of a series of stops and safe houses for slaves to hide and travel to places free of slavery.
  • One famous "conducter" who helped runaway slaves was Harriet Tubman, she rescued more than three hundred slaves including her aged parents, and earned the title "Moses"
  • By 1850 southerners were demanding a new and more stringent fugitive slave law. The old one passed in 1793 had been proven inadequate. The south estimated about 1,000 runaway slaves a yar out of its total of 4 million

Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

  • Congress was confronted with catastrophe in 1850, Free sould California was banging on the door for admission and fire eaters in the south were voicing ominous threats of secession. The crisis brought into congressional forum teh most distinguished assemblage of statesmen since the constitutional convention of 1787, teh old guard of the dying generation and the young gladiators of the new.
  • Henry Clay, 73 years old, played a crucial role. He was still eloquent , conciliatory, and captivating. He proposed and skillfully defended a series of compromises. He was ably seconded by thirty seven year old senator Stephen A Douglas whose role was less spectacular but even more important. Clay urged with all his persuasiveness that the North and South both make enacting more feasible fugitive slave law.
  • Daniel Webster, took the senate spotlight to uphold clays compromise measures in his last great speech. As for slavery he asked, why legislate on the subject?

Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill

  • The debate of 1850 in Congress was not yet finished for the Young Guard from the North were yet to have their say. This group, the north, were more interested in removing and cleaning it than in patching and protecting it.
  • William H. Seward was one of the main northern speakers who seemed not to realize that compromise had brought the Union together and that when the sections could no longer compromise, they would have to part company
  • Seward argued that Christian legislators must obey God’s moral law as well as man’s mundane law therefore appealing to a “higher law” then the Constitution. He used this as a reason to stop slavery from spreading. This phrase may have cost him the presidential nomination and the presidency in 1860.
  • President Taylor agreed with Seward and his “Higher Law.”

Breaking the Congressional Logjam

  • In 1850 the deadlock in Congress ended when President Taylor dyed and Millard Fillmore took over. Fillmore signed the series of compromise measures that passed Congress after seven long months of stormy debate but the Compromise of 1850 was delicate in the extreme.
  • The northern states “Union savers” accepted these compromises but the southerners “fire eater” were still against. The north and the south came together as the Second Era of Good Feelings starts which didn’t last long.


Balancing the Compromise Scales

  • California, as a free state, tipped the Senate balance permanently against the South. The territories of New Mexico and Utah were open to slavery on the basis of popular sovereignty. The southerners urgently needed more slave territory to restore the "sacred balance."
  • Most alarming of all, the drastic new Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 stirred up a storm of opposition in the North. The fleeing slaves could not testify in their own behalf, and they were denied a jury trial.
  • The Underground Railroad stepped up its timetable, and infuriated northern mobs rescued slaves from their pursuers.

Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

  • Meeting in Baltimore, Tthe Democratic nominating convention of 1852, startled the nation. Hopelessly deadlocked, it finally stampeded to the second dark horse candidate in American history
  • Franklin Pierce, lawyer-politician, was trying to be pushed back by the whig party with the cry, who is Franklin Pierce? Pierce was a weak and indecisive figure.
  • Luckily for democrats, the whig party was slpit. Antislavery Whigs of the North swallowed Scott as their nominee but deplored his platform, which endorsed the hated Fugitive Slave Law
  • General Scott, victorious on the battlefield, met defeat at teh ballot box. His friends remarked whimsically that he was not used to running, actually he was stabbed in teh beack by his fellow whigs.
  • The election of 1852 was fraught with frightening significance, though it may have seemed tame at the time. It marked the effective end of the disorganized whig party and whthin a few years its complete death

President Pierce the Expansionist

  • Pierce was willing to be a tool for the southerners to gain more slave territory.
  • William Walker became president of Nicaragua in 1856 by force and opened it up to southern slavery. Soon the central American nations united and overthrew him.
  • Great Britain took control of Greytown, which was at the eastern end of the proposed Nicaraguan canal root to prevent the Americans from gaining that vital trade artery.
  • Threat of an armed conflict was on the horizon.
  • 1850, the Clayton Bulwer Treaty stopped the possibility of armed conflict by stating that neither America or Britain would fortify or secure exclusive control over any future isthmian waterways.
  • This proved to be a ball and chain for American canal promoters in the future.
  • America became a Pacific power with the acquisition of California and Oregon. This made it so the trade with the Far East began to flourish.
  • After 200 years of isolation, Japan opened up to the world because of the Russian menace on their doorstep.
  • America sent a fleet of warships to flex the muscles of America and to convince Japan to sign a trade treaty. 1854 a commercial treaty was signed.

Coveted Cuba: Pearl of the Antilles


  • Cuba was the prime objective of Manifest Destiny in the 1850s. Supporting a large population of enslaved blacks, it was coveted by the South as the most desirable slave territory available.
  • During 1850-1851 two "filibustering" expeditions, each numbering several hundred armed men, descended upon Cuba. Both feeble efforts were repelled, and the last one ended in tragedy when the leader and fifty followers were summarily shot or strangled. Now was the time for President Pierce to provoke a war with Spain and seize Cuba.
  • Norther free-soilers, already angered by the Fugitive Slave Law and other gains for slavery, rose in an outburst of wrath against the "manifesto of brigands." Confronted with disruption at home, the red-faced Pierce administration was forced to drop its brazen schemes for Cuba.

Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase

  • Acute transportation problems were another legacy of the Mexican War. Feasible land transportation was imperative of the newly won possessions on the Pacific Coast might break away.
  • Railroad promoters, both North and South, had projected many drawing-board routes to the Pacific Coast. But the estimated cost in all cases was so great that for many years there could obviously be only one line. The favored section would reap rich rewards in wealth, population, and influence.
  • Another chunk of Mexico now seemed desirable, because the campaigns of the recent war had shown that the best railway route ran slightly south of the Mexican border.
  • James Gadsden negotiated a treaty in 1853, which ceded to the United States the Gadsden Purchase area for $10 million.


Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

  • 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois long to break the North-South dealock over westward expansion and spread a line of settlements across the continent. He was also a heavy investor in Chicago and the railroad industry.
  • Douglas proposed to that the new territory be sliced into 2 new territories, Kansas and Nebraska. The issue of slavery in these new territories would be settled by popular sovereignity.
  • The Missouri compromise of 1820 had forbidden slavery in the Nebraska territory. So for popular sovereignity to take its course, the compromise had to be repealed.
  • Pres. Peirce threw his full weight behind the Kansas-Nebraska Bill with the "help" of his southern advisors.
  • The repealing of the Compromise was not taken lightly because it had been around for so long. But with Douglas's political wit and quick mind he shoved the Bill through Congress.
  • Northerners were furious over the repeal of the Compromise and now viewed Douglas as a traitor. Although he still gained strong support from the democratic party.


Congress Legislates a Civil War

  • The Kansas-Nebraska Bill made it so that the Northerners would no longer give any more ground to the south. And where there is not compromise, there is war. (Dude good quote, remember that!)
  • The Fugitive slave law plus the Kansas-Nebraska left the Northerners and Southerners throwing more and more hostility across the continent.
  • The Republican party sprang up in the west. It was a combination of all of the opposing politicians to the Kansas-Nebraska Act and spread to the East like a roadrunner being chased by a coyote.
  • The rift was started at the Mason Dixon line after the start of the Republican party. The Union was in dire peril, for what is a country when it is 2 countries?
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion 1854-1861

 

Major Themes

Major national crises in the late 1850s culminated in the election of the Republican Lincoln to the presidency in 1860, resulting in the secession of seven states and the formation of the Confederate States of America


Major Questions

Why was sectional compromise impossible in 1860, when such compromises had previously worked in 1820, 1833, and 1850?


Pre-Reading

What issues, including slavery, seemed to divide North and South by the mid 1850s? List them.


Chapter Outline

Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries


  • Harriet Beecher Stowe published her novels Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Upset about the Fugitive Slave law, she was determined to awaken the North to the wickedness of slavery by laying bare its terrible inhumanity. Millions of copies of her book were sold at home and abroad. It was also put on stage. The book actually helped to start and win the Civil War. Uncle Tom left a profound impression on many in the North. Thousands of readers declared they would have nothing to do with enforcing the Fugitive State Law after reading it. Millions of youth that read it became the Boys in Blue who volunteered and fought in the Civil War.
  • The Impending Crisis of the South was written by Hinton R. Helper, a nonaristocratic white man from North Caroline, five years after Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Being against slavery and blacks, he tried to statistically prove that nonslaveholding whites were the ones who suffered most from the millstone of slavery. His book was banned in the South but thousands of copies, in condensed form, were distributed as campaign literature by the Republicans.


The North-South Contest for Kansas

Newcomers to Kansas were mostly westward-moving pioneers in search of richer lands beyond the sunset. A small part of the inflow was financed by groups of northern abolitionists or free-soilers. The most famous of these antislavery organizations was the New England Emigrant Aid Company, which sent about 2000 people to the troubled area to forestall the South, and to make a profit. Southern spokesmen raised cries of betrayal. They had supported the Kansas-Nebraska act, with the unspoken understanding that Kansas would become slave and Nebraska free. The northeners were now out to "abolitionize" bothKansas and Nebraska. In 1855, proslavery border ruffians flooded Kansas to vote for a proslavery government, which won. Antislaveryites set up their own government in Topeka.




Kansas in Convulsion

John Brown came to Kansas, dedicated to the abolitionist cause. In retaliation for the attack on Lawrence, he led a band of followers to Pottawatomie Creek in May 1856, and hacked five men who were suspected to be proslaveryites to pieces.

Civil war in Kansas continued intermittently until it merged with the large-scale Civil War of 1861-1865. The Kansas conflict destroyed millions of dollars worth of property, paralyzed agriculture in certain areas, and cost scores of lives.

By 1857 Kansas had enough people, mainly free-soilers, to apply for statehood on a popular sovereignty basis. The proslaveryites created the Lecompton Constitution. People were not allowed to vote for or against the constitution as a whole, but for either slavery or antislavery. If they voted against slavery, all the owners of slaves already in Kansas would be protected, thus ensuring that whatever the outcome, slavery would be present in Kansas. Antislaveryites boycotted this, so the proslavery forces approved the contitution with slavery late in 1857.

Buchanan threw his weight behind the Lecompton Constitution, but Douglas fought for fair play and democratic principles. The compromise was that the entire Lecompton Constitution was submitted to a popular vote.

 

"Bully" Brooks and His Bludgeon

  • "Bleeding Kansas" also spattered blood on floor of Senate in 1856. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was a leading abolitionist and one of the most disliked men in the Senate. Made a speech,"The Crime Against Kansas" after miscarriage of popular sovereignty. He condemned the proslavery men and referred insultingly to South Carolina and its Senator Andrew Butler.
  • Congressman Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina resented the insults to his state and its senator. On May 22, 1856, he approached Sumner and pounded him with an eleven-ounce cane until it broke. Sumner fell bleeding and unconscious to the floor.
  • Counteroutrage put Brooks in the wrong, the House of Representatives couldn't muster enough votes to expel Brooks, but he resigned and was triumphantly reelected.
  • Sumner was forced to leave his seat for 3.5 years and go to Europe for treatment for injuries to head and nervous system. Meanwhile, MA reelected him, leaving his seat empty. Bleeding Sumner joined Bleeding Kansas as a political issue.
  • Free-soil North mightily aroused against "Bully" Brooks, copies of Sumner's speech were sold by the tens of thousands, each blow that struck the senator made thousands of republican votes-->south angered at Sumner's speech and at the North applauding it.


"Old Buck" Versus "The Pathfinder"

  • Democrats met in Cincinnati to nominate their presidential standard-bearer of 1856-->shied away from Pierce and Douglas, finally chose James Buchanan, not tainted by the Kansas-Nebraska uproar but in a crisis "Old Buck" Buchanan was mediocre, irresolute, and confused. Democrats pushed popular sovereignty.
  • Republicans met in Philadelphia and decided on John C. Fremont, the Pathfinder of the West, without political experience but wasn't tarred with the Kansas brush. platform came out vigorously against the extension of slavery into the territories.
  • Antiforeignism was injected into the campaign: recent influx of immigrants from Ireland and Germany had alarmed "nativists". They organized the American party, known also as the Know-Nothing party because of its secretiveness. In 1856, the antiforeign and anti-catholic nominated the ex-president Millard Fillmore and adopted the slogan "Americans Must Rule America."
  • Mudslinging bespattered both candidates. "Old Fogy" Buchanan was assailed because he was a bachelor, Fremont reviled because of his illegitimate birth and the allegation that he was a Roman Catholic.


The Electoral Fruits of 1856

  • Buchanan, polling less than a majority in popular vote, won handily. tally in Electoral College was 174 to 114(Fremont) and Fillmore getting 8. Popular vote: 1,832,955=Buchanan, 1,339,932=Fremont, 871,731=Fillmore
  • Republicans go down to defeat b/c doubts of Fremont's honesty, capacity, sound judgement and treats of southern "fire eaters" that election of a sectional "black republican" would be a declaration of war on them, forcing them to secede.
  • many northerners, anxious to save union and business connections with south, intimidated into voting for buchanan-->innate conservatism triumphed
  • fortunate for Union that secession and civil war did not come in 1856 following a republican victory, Fremont was no abraham lincoln and north was more willing to let south depart in peace than in 1860
  • Republicans in 1856 rightfully claimed a "victorious defeat", the new party had made an astonishing showing against well-oiled democratic machine
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South 1861-1865

 

Chapter Themes

  • The North used its advantages of industrial and human resources to wage a successful total war against the South
  • Lincoln's skillful handling of domestic politics and foreign policy was an important aspect of the Northern success

Major Questions

  • How justified was Lincoln's wartime abridgement of civil liberties and his treatment of the Copperheads?
  • What made Lincoln a great President?

Chapter Outline

The Menace of Secession

  • Lincoln's inaugaral adress said there would be no conflict unless the Sout provoked it. secession was impratical because we can't physically separate.
  • uncontested secession would create new controversies:what share of national debt should south be forced to take, what portion of federal territorites, if any, should confederate states be allotted, how would fugitive slave issue be resolved
  • underground railraod would redouble its activity-->would only have to transport its passengers across ohio river instead of canada
  • European nations would be delighted if powerful democracy of united states broke into two hostile parts-->transplant to america their ancient concept of the balance of power, divide and conquer, colonies of european powers in new world safer, european imperialists could more easily defy the monroe doctrine and seize territory in americas with no unified republic to stand in their way

South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

  • Major issue of divided Union was federal forts in South-->as states left they had seized unitied states' arsenals, mints, and other public property within their borders.
  • Two significant forts left in south still flying stars and stripes-more important=Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor had only provisions lasting a few weeks, if no supplies could come commander would have to surrender.
  • Lincoln notified South Carolinians that an expedition would be sent to provision the garrison, not to reinforce it, but to southerners provision meant reinforcement
  • a Union naval force was started on its way to Fort Sumter, southerners saw this as an act of aggression-->April 12, 1861 carolinians opened fire on fort, after 34 hour bombardment, which took no lives, the garrison surrendered
  • North electrified, some thought south should leave, but assault provoked north to fight. Lincoln issued a call to states for 75,000 militiamen, volunteers sprang to the colors. on April 19 and 27, the president proclaimed a leaky blockade of southern seaports
  • call for troops aroused the south, in southern eyes Lincoln was now waging a war-->Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina reluctantly joined embattled seceeded sisters(7 states became 11) Richmond, Virginia replaced Montgomery, Alabama as Confederate capital


Brothers' Blood and Border Blood

  • Border states that did not leave the Union included Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and eventually West Virginia. The population of all the border states was more then half the confederacy.
  • Missouri would be doubled the South's manufacturing capabilities and nearly 50% of the South's horses and Mules.
  • Kentucky and West Virginia held the strategic Ohio River.
  • Lincoln dealth with the border states by only putting Union soldiers where they needed to be, and nowhere else.
  • An anti-slavery war was extremely unpopular in the Butternut region of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
  • Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminole Indians joined the Confederacy. They thought that since they had slaves they should join. To secure their loyalty, the Confederacy gave them delegates in the Confederate Congress.
  • The Civil War was a "brothers' war". Volunteers from the North went South, and vice versa. The loyal slave states gave the North 300,000 men. There were many brothers who were separated, one joining the Union and the other the Confederacy.

The Balance of Forces

  • When the war broke out, the South had several advantages. They could fight defensively on their own turf, the North had to invade the vast Confederate territory, conquer it, then force it back into the Union. The South did not have to win the war to gain independence, it just had to fight the Union to draw. The South had more talented military officers such as Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. The South were bred to fight (managing guns and horses from birth) and were able to get ahold of sufficient weaponry.
  • The South had several major disadvanteds though. As the war dragged on they had major shortages of food, clothes, and supplies. They lacked and adequate transportation system, and they had a weak economy.
  • Advantages of the North were the economy, which had aout 3/4 of the nations wealth and railways, they controlled the sea, and had more manpower. (22million men in the north, with 800,000 immigrants coming in. 9million men in the South, 3.5milling of those being slaves.)
  • Disadvantages of the North was the men were not prepared for military life, and they were less fortunate in choices for commanders, but eventually found Ulysess S. Grant.

Dethroning King Cotton

  • Europe's ruling classes were sympathetic towards the Confederate's and their semifuedal, aristocratic order.
  • Working people supported North, read Uncle Tom's cabin. with the gov't not wanting a revolt South didn't get the support they were hoping and needed.
  • King Cotton wasn't able to sway factories, logically textile mills would support south for cotton, but the south was so successful the pre-war years that Britain and france had a stockpile of cotton and wouldn't need more until a year and a half later when Lincoln had already anounced his slave-emancipation.
  • "cotton-famine in Britain struck and left workers out of jobs and food. relieved by...
    • Americans sent over cargoes of foodstuffs, and cotton the Union Army would capture of buy from land in South.
    • Confederates were also able to send some to Britain
    • Egypt and India responded to higher cotton prices by increasing their output
  • Wheat and Corn proved to be King over Cotton.
    • During the war the north produced bountiful crops of grain while British suffered from bad harvests.
      • Britain had to import large amounts of America's cheap and bountiful grain.

The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

  • European rulers schemed to take advantage of America's distress
  • Trent Affair: a Union warship cruising north of Cuba stopped a British mail steamer, the Trent, and removed two Confederate diplomats heading to Europe.
    • Britain was outraged and sent troops for Canada, demanding surrender and an apology.
      • bc of slow communications both sides got chances to cool and no war was fought.
  • Alabama: Britain built a commerce-raider for the Confederates called, Alabama this was not a warship bc it left British ports with no guns and picked them up somewhere else. This was officered by confederates but manned by Brtions and never entered a Confederate naval base, making Britain the chief naval base for Conderacy
    • Alabama destroyed over sixty vessels, angering the North, they diverted attention from their blockade to wild goose chases after the Alabama. When they caught up to it, Alabama was quickly destroyed.
    • 1863, London openly violated its own leaky laws and seized another raider being built for the south and confederate commerce-destroyers seized more than 250 ships, severely crippling the American merchant marine, which never fully recovered

Foreign Flare-ups

  • In 1863, two Confederate warships were being built in the British shipyard of John Laid and Sons. Their large iron rams and large-caliber guns would have destroyed the Union blockade. They were far more dangerous than the swift but lightly armed Alabama. If delivered to South, would have sunk squadron and brough Northern cities under fire and North would have invaded Canada and a full war with Britain would have erupted. To avoid infuriating the North, the London government bought the ships for the Royal Navy.
  • Britain repented its sorry role in Alabama business-->agreed in 1871 to submit Alabama dispute to arbitration, 1872 paid American claimants $15.5 million for damages caused by wartime commerce-raiders.
  • The British established the Dominion of Canada in 1867. It was partly designed to strengthen the Canadians against the possible vengeance of the United States.
  • Emperor Napoleon III of France dispatched a French army to occupy Mexico City in 1863. The actions of Napoleon were in direct violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Napoleon was counting on the Union not retaliating due to its weakness. When the Civil War ended in 1865, Napoleon was forced to abandon Mexico City.

President Davis Versus President Lincoln

  • The one defect of the South was that its own states could secede. Some state troops refused to serve outside their borders.
  • President Jefferson Davis of the Confederacy often had disputes with his own congress. Davis's task as President proved to be beyond his powers.
  • Lincoln and the North enjoyed a long-established government that was financially stable and fully recognized at home and abroad.

Limitations on Wartime Liberties

Due to the fact that Congress was not in session when the war broke out, President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade, increased the size of the Federal army, directed the secretary of the Treasury to advance $2 million without appropriation or security to 3 private citizens for military purposes, and suspended the habeas corpus (stated that a citizen could not be held without the due process of a trial) - all of which were required to be approved by Congress.


Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

  • 1863, congress passed a federal conscription law for the first time on a nationwide scale in the United States. They were unfair to the poor,rich boys, including John D. Rockefeller, could hire substitutes to go in their places or purchase exemption outright by paying 300$ hence 300 dollar men. Drafteens who did not have the cash complained about the policy and said its either 300 dollars or your life.
  • 1863, a riot broke out in ny city from irish americans who shouted, down with lincoln and down with the draft,
  • more than 90 percent of the Union troops were volunteers, since social and patriotic pressures to enlist were strong. Bounties for enlistment were offered by federal, state, and local authorities. A volunteer might pocket 1000 dollars.
  • the government offered much to get people to enlist. But the Rolls of the Union army counted about 200,000 deserters of all classes, and the Confederates were also dealing with this problem.

The Economic Stresses of War

  • The North dealt with financial problems better than the South, Taxes on alcohol and tobacco were substantially increased by congress.
  • early 1861, after enough anti protection, southern members had succeeded, congress passed the moral tariff act
  • 1863, national banking system issued by congress which allowed the establishment of bank note currency, banks that joined the national banking system could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money backed by them.
  • taxing in the south caused revenue to dry up, to where the confederate dollar was worth only 1.6 cents. when lee surrendered, the war had inflicted a 6,000 dollar inflation rate on the south.

The North's Economic Boom

  • Newly invented laborsaving machinery enabled the North to expand economically. Mechanical reapers (farm machines used to harvest grain) allowed for men to leave the farms for the war and provided grain that contributed to Northern profits.
  • The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania in 1859 led to a rush of people known as the "Fifty-Niners."
  • The Civil War opened up many jobs for women that were originally occupied by men.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War 1861-1865

 

Chapter Themes

The Civil War evolved into a total war to end slavery and transform the nation


Major Questions

What made Lincoln a great president?

Although Abraham Lincoln made and proceeded with many unconstitutional decisions and actions, they were made in order to save the Union. He understood that he might encounter opposition in his decisions but he knew he must do whatever was needed in order to save the precious democratic Union. Abraham Lincoln was a great president because he understood the importance of situations and knew how to act, whether or not it was constitutional. He was a great public speaker and he could relate situations to the people and he would act any way possible in order to preserve and to save the Union itself- Amanda - Becky

Why did the North win the Civil War?

The North won for many reasons: they had the majority of the populations, black men were able to enlist, and the blockaded of the Southern port. Because the North had the majority of the population that meant they had more men to fight therefore having an endless and expendable amount of troops. It also helped that 10% of the Union army were black men. The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 declared “forever free” the slaves not only in the North but to the Confederate states still in rebellion. Because black men were free they began to enlist in the Union Army and Lincoln defended his policies toward blacks’ enlisting, in a letter stating: “You say you will not fight to free Negroes. Some of them seem willing to fight for you....” Lincoln’s other actions, like the blockade of Southern ports which caused the North to have better feed to maintain its troops while Southern troops lacked even shoes, help win the Civil War. 

Chapter Outline

Bull Run Ends the "Ninety-Day War"

  • Summer of 1861, a Union army of thirty thousand men drilled near Washington. Lincoln concluded that an attack on a smaller Confederate force at Bull run might be a try. If the attack is successful, it could demonstrate the superiority of Union arms and it may lead to the capture of Richmond. If Richmond fell, secession would be discredited, and the Union could be restored without economic and social system of the South
  • July 21st, 1861, Yankee recruits swaggered out of Washington toward Bull run Congressmen and Spectators followed with lunch baskets to witness the fight not knowing that it could result and true violence/ At first, the battle went well for the yankees, but then Stonewall Jackson gray-clad warriors stood like a stone wall and confederate reinforcements arrive unexpectedly. Panic seized the Union troops and they fled in shameful confusion. The confederates themselves feasted on captured lunches
  • The battle of bull run caused political conflict. Victory for the South was almost worse than defeat because it led to over-confidence.

"Tardy George" McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

  • In 1861 General George B, McClellan was given command of the Army of the Potomac. McClellan had seen plenty of fighting, first in the Mexican War and then as an observer of the Crimean War in Russia.
  • He was like by his men and given the nick name “little Mac” because he was an excellent organizer and drillmaster injecting good morale into the Army of Potomac. But he was a perfectionist not getting the war isn’t perfect, didn’t like to run risk, his reports from head of Pinkerton’s Detective Agency were unreliable, and he was overcautious therefore getting call a “baboon” by the general.
  • McClellan would drill his army without moving but toward Richmond until Lincoln demanded him to advance. He took a waterborne approach to Richmond, which lies at the western base of a narrow peninsula formed by the James and York Rivers (hence the name Peninsula Campaign).
  • In 1862: he and about 100,000 men took to capture Yorktown (which took two month). When they were close to Richmond Lincoln sent reinforcements to chase “stonewall” Jackson. At halt to further Richmond, McClellan had “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate horse soldiers rode completely around this army on reconnaissance while Robert E. Lee lunched a shocking counterattack – The Seven Days’ Battle (June 26- July 2, 1862)
  • McClellan was drove back to the sea and the Union forces abandoned the Peninsula Campaign because it was a costly failure and Lincoln temporarily abandoned McClellan as commander of the Army if the Potomac. But in McClellan defense he had 10,000 casualties Lee had 20,000.
  • If McClellan had succeeded in taking Richmond and ending the war in mid 1862- the Union would have probably have been restored with minimal disruption to the “peculiar institution” and Slavery would have survived, at least for a time.
  • Lee had ensured that the war would endure until slavery was demolished and the Old South thoroughly destroyed, so Lincoln had no choice but to turn toward total war. Northern military plan had six components:
    1. Suffocate the South by blockading its coasts
    2. Liberate the slaves and undermine the very economic foundations of the Old South
    3. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River backbone
    4. Chop the Confederacy to pieces by sending troops through Georgia and Carolinas
    5. Decapitate it by capturing its capital at Richmond
    6. (Ulysses Grant’s idea) try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and to grind it into submission.

The War at Sea

  • The North attempted for a blockade but of course is impossible to cover entire coast, so they focused on major ports, using boats from warships to ferries
  • Even though blockade was poor Britain stayed away from South to prevent future war
  • Blockade skyrocketed prices and swift steamers were able to sneak past the blockade to make a high profit.
  • Yankee ships stopped British freighters going to a midpoint with reasoning that the goods were intended to go to South
  • Southerners rebelled with a iron coating an old wooden ship and took some Union ships, but Union responded with their own small ironclad and beat the south.
  • Britain and France had already built several ironclads, but this was the first battle-testing of these new craft. these powerful ironclads became the future of naval battles and made the old wooden ones obselete.

The Pivotal Point: Antietam

  • Robert E. Lee got a victory over General John Pope at Second Battle of Bull Run(August 29-30, 1862)
  • Lee moved into Maryland hoping to strike a blow that would encourage foreign intervention and get the Border State and its sisters to withdraw from the Union-->marylanders did not respond
  • Critical battle at Antietam Creek, Maryland: McClellan ("Little Mac") was restored to active command of main Northern army, got lucky with finding Lee's battle plans, succeeded in halting Lee at Antietam on September 17, 1862, in one of the bitterest and bloodiest days of the war
  • more or less a draw militarily: but Lee retired across Potomac, McClellan-removed from his field command for the 2nd and final time
  • most decisive battle of the Civil War-->Jefferson Davis never again so near a victory as on that day, the British and French gov'ts on the verge of diplomatic mediation:a form of interference sure to be resented by the North
  • long-awaited "victory" that Lincoln needed for launching his Emancipation Proclamation-->preliminary on September 23, 1862, final on January 1, 1863
  • Civil War became more of a moral crusade, since fate of slavery and the south it had sustained was sealed


A Proclamation Without Emancipation

Blacks Battle Bondage

  • Blacks mostly enlisted in the Union armies, most of the from the slave states, but many from free soil North. Blacks accounted for a bout 10 percent of the total enlistments in the Union forces on land and sea and included two Massachusetts regiments raised largely through the efforts of the ex-slave Frederick Douglas.
  • With reasons of Pride and Prejudice and Principle, the Confederacy could not bring itself to enlist blacks in the army a month before the war ended. Meanwhile, thousands were forced into labor battalions the building of fortifications the supplying of armies and other war connected activities. slaves were the stomach of the confederacy, they kept the economy and plantations going while the white men fought.
  • tens of thousands of blacks fled their plantations and revolted against arriving union armies with or without an emancipation proclamation. Twenty five thousand joined shermans march through Georgia in 1864 and it caused problems in supply and discipline.

Lee's Last Lunge at Gettysburg

  • After Antietam Lincoln replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac with General A.E. Burnside, whose over-elaborate side-whiskers came to known as “burnsides” or “sideburns.”
  • Burnside launched a rash frontal attack on Lee's strong position at Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1862, on December 13, 1862. More than ten thousand Northern soldiers were killed or wounded in casualties nicknamed “Burnside’s Slaughter Pen."
  • During the battle at Chancellorsville, Virginia on May 2-4, 1863, Hooker was badly beaten, but not before Jackson was mortally wounded. Hooker was replaced by General George G. Meade.
  • As Lee moved his Confederate force to the north again (this time to Pennsylvania), he was met by Meade's force at Gettysburg on July 1-3, 1863.
  • The failure of General George Pickett's magnificent but futile charge finally broke the back of the Confederate attack.
  • Pickett's charge has been called the "high tide of the Confederacy." It defined both the northernmost point reached by any significant Southern force and the last real chance for the Confederates to win the war.

The War in the West

  • Ulysses S. Grant became Lincoln's general for the North.
  • His first major victory came when his troops captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson on the Tennesse and Cumberland Rivers in February 1862.
  • this victory riveted kentucky more securely to the union and opened the gateway to the strategically important region of tennesse, as well as georgia and the heart of dixie.
  • After this victory, grant tried to capture the mississippi valley at corinth, but was defeated at Shiloh. the battle at Shiloh showed that there would be no quick end to the war in the west.


Sherman Scorches Georgia

  • General Grant transferred to east Tennessee theater, where Confederates had driven Union forces from Chickamauga into Chattanooga, then laid siege.Grant won a series of desperate engagements in November 1863(Missionary Ridge, Lookout Mountain) Chattanooga liberated and way opened for invasion of Georgia.
  • General William Tecumseh Sherman in charge of conquest-->captured Atlanta in September 1864 and burned the city in November.
  • left supply base, lived off country for 250 miles, weeks later emerged at Savannah
  • Sherman's "Blue Bellies" cut a 60 mile swath of destruction through Georgia: burned buildings, tore up railroad rails, bayoneted family portraits, ran off with valuable "souveniers"
  • one of Sherman's major purposes was to destroy supplies destined for Confederate army and to weaken the morale of the men at the front by waging war on their homes
  • Sherman was a pioneer practitioner of "total war", his success attested by increasing numbers of Confederate desertions
  • after seizing Savannah, Sherman's army moved into South Carolina, destruction worse, many Union soldeiers believed this state, the "hell-hole of secession" had provoked the war-->capital city, Columbia, burst into flames-->army continued north, deep in North Carolina by war's end

The Politics of War

  • The election of 1864 fell right in the middle of the war. The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of War tried to keep Lincoln out of office becuase they resented the expanding power of the president.
  • Lacking a leader due to the death of Stephen A. Douglas, the democratic party split into two seperate parties. The War Democrats who supported Lincoln and his office and the Peace Democrats who did not. At the extreme were copperheads who obstructed the war through attacks on Lincoln and against emancipation.
  • Clement L. Vallandigham was part of the copperheads party. He spread the word that the war was cruel and wicked and that it should be ended. Lincoln banished him to Confederate lines claiming that if he liked them so much he should go join them.
  • Vallandigham fled to Canada and ran for governor of Ohio there. He did not win. He later went back to his home state before the war ended but was not further prosecuted. He inspired Edward Everett Hale to write the book "A Man Without a Country".

The Election of 1864

  • As the election approached, Lincolns authority depended on his retaining Republican support, while spiking the threat from the Peace Democrats and Copperheads. Republican party executed a clever maneuver. Joining with the War Democrats, it proclaimed itself to be the Union party. Thus the Republican party passed temporarily out of existence.
  • Lincoln was accused of lacking force, of being over ready to compromise, of having not won the war, and shocking many sensitive souls by his ill timed and earthy jokes. Lincoln ran with Andrew Johnson, a loyal war democrat from Tennessee,who had been a small slave owner when the conflict began. He was placed in the Union party in order to attract War democrats and the voters in the border states.
  • Lincoln was in Jeopardy of losing his presidency against McClelan but when Lincoln Triumphed, desertions from the South increased sharply. 

Grant Outlasts Lee

  • President Lincoln chose General Grant to lead the assault on the Confederate capital of Richmond.
  • Grant had 100,000 men and engaged Lee in a series of battles in the Wilderness of Virginia (Wilderness Campaign).
  • On June 3, 1864, Grant ordered the frontal assault on Cold Harbor.
  • Thousands of Union soldiers were killed within a matter of minutes, but Grant's strategy of losing two men and killing one Confederate worked.
  • He captured Richmond and cornered Lee.
  • On April 9, 1865, Lee was forced to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia (a significant portion of the Confederate army) at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia, effectively ending the Civil War.

The Martyrdom of Lincoln

  • Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth on April 14, 1865
  • His death caused his good parts to shine through and he was seen even better.
  • Southern supporters rejoiced due to Lincoln's will to keep at was, but later realized that it made tensions worse between North and South than if he was alive.
  • The southeners recognized that lincoln'skindliness and moderation would have been the most effective shields between them and vindictive treatment by the Union.

The Aftermath of the Nightmare

  • Over 600,000 men died in action or of disease, over a million were killed or seriously wounded
  • Direct monetary costs totaled $15billion, does not include continuing expenses(pensions, interes on national debt), intangible costs cannot be calculated(dislocations, disunities, wasted energies, lowered ethics, blasted lives, bitter memories, burning hates)
  • National gov't emerged unbroken, nullification and secession laid to rest
  • Civil War=supreme test of American democracy, proved itself-->great English Reform Bill of 1867:Britain=true political democracy
  • African-Americans in a position to claim their rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness
  • Nation united politically again, danger of unleashing the slave power on Caribbean neighbors and transformation of area from Panama to Hudson Bay into an armed camp averted
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction 1865-1877

 

Chapter Outline

The Problems of Peace

  • After the war, many confederate war leaders were captured and a popular Northern song was "hang Jeff Davis" and even the children sang it. Davis was temporarily clapped into irons during the early days of his two-year imprisonment but he and his fellow conspirators were release because the odds were that no Virginia jury would convict them. All rebel leaders were pardoned by President Johnson as sort of a christmas present in 1868.
    • Although Congress did not remove all remaining civil disabilities until 30 years later and fully restored Davis's citizenship more than a century later.
  • The South had collapsed because of the war economically and socially. The "Old" confident south had perished and the South needed to rebuild. Good looking cities such as charleston and Richmond had been reduced to rubble strewn and full of weeds. Inflation ruined local business. Banks and factories had been shut down and the transportation system had been broken down completely, Agriculture, the economic lifeblood of the south was hopelessly crippled, the fields were filled with weeds and livestock have been driven away by plundering yankees and the slave labor system had collapsed, the south was left in peril.
  • Many southerners were angered shouting "damn Yankees" and spoke out against government. Southern aristocrats were humbled temporarily reduced from proud to poverty


Freedmen Define Freedom

  • Emancipation took effect unevenly in different parts of the Confederacy.
  • Many thought that African Americans were ‘incapable of accepting “freedom” in any sense’ because:
    1. Some slaves resisted the liberating Union armies due to their loyalty to their masters.
    2. Freed blacks had no idea what to do now since they’re free and all they know how to do is labor work causing whites to resume leadership/control.
  • Education arose for the blacks due to the emancipation proclamation. Blacks were now able to learn to how to read and write.
  • Church became the main focus of black community life; they formed their own churches pastured by their own ministers.
  • Many ex-slaves: sought families, organized society around churches, sought education, as many remained poor.

The Freedman's Bureau

  • Freedman's Bureau was created to help the newly freed slaves who were considered less experienced at life
  • Kind of life welfare; provided clothing, food, medical care, edu.
  • Greatest achievement was the education mostly cause blacks wanted to be closer to whites and read the word of God
  • Bureau was week in other departments, little land was given to blacks that was promised, land was captured from Confederate

Johnson: The Tailor President

  • Johnson was born into an extremely poor family and therefore never went to school. instead he became the apprentice to a tailor at ten. he taught himself how to read, and later his wife taught him how to write and do simple arithmetic.
  • Johnson was a champion of the poor whites against planter aristocrats, although he did own a few slaves. elected to Congress, he became favored by the north when he refused to secede with his state. after Tennesse was partialy reclaimed by union soldiers, he was appointed war general.
  • Johnson then moved into the vice presidency-->Lincoln's Union party in 1864 needed support from War Democrats and other pro-southern elements and Johnson seemed to be ideal. Unfortunately, he arrived at the vice-presidential inaugural ceremonies in a scandalous condition-->he had been recently afflicted with typhoid fever and had been urged by his friends to take a stiff bracer of whiskey, he did.
  • "Old Andy" Johnson was intelligent, able, forceful, gifted with honesty, devoted to duty and people, dogmatic champion of states' rights and Constitution. However, he was a misfit-->Southerner did not understand the North, a Tennessean had earned distrust of the South, a Democrat who had never been accepted by Republicans, a president who had never been elected to the office, not at home in a republican white house. wrong man in wrong place at wrong time-->a Reconstruction policy would have failed in his hands.

The Baleful Black Codes

  • The first of the new Southern regimes sanctioned by Johnson were the Black Codes.
  • The Black Codes were designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated blacks.
  • Mississippi passed the first law like this in Nov 1865, with other states soon following.
  • The Black Codes varied in severity from state to state, Mississippi being the harshest and Georgia the most lenient.
  • The Black Codes were aimed to create a stable subservient labor force.
  • Consequences for "jumped" labor contracts were usually one year service under the contract holder at pittance wages. Violators could be made to forgeit back wages, or could be dragged back to work by a paid "Negro-catcher".
  • Blacks freedom was recognized, and they had the right to marry, but could not serve on a jury, and in a few stats could not rent or lease land. They could be punished for "idleness" by forced servitude on a chain-gang. They were not allowed the right to vote.

Congressional Reconstruction

  • blacks could dismantle the economic program of the republican party by lowering tariffs, rerouting the transcontinental railroad, repealing the free farm homestead act, possibly even repudiating the national debt. President Johnson thus deeply disturbed the congressional republicans when he announced on December 6th, 1865, that the recently rebellious states had satisfied his conditions and that in his view the union was now restored.
  • Among those who presented themselves at the Capitol in Dec 1865, there was four former Confederate generals, five colonels, and various members of the Richmond cabinet and Congress who tried reclaiming their seats.. The presence of these "whitewashed rebels" infuriated the Republicans in Congress.
  • While the South had been "out" from 1861 to 1865 the Republicans in Congress had enjoyed a relatively free hand. They had passed much legislation that favored the North, such as the Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act.
  • Before the war a black slave had counted as three-fifths of a person. Now the slave was five-fifths of a person. Because of this, a full counting of free blacks showed that the rebel states were entitled to twelve more votes in Congress and twelve more presidential electoral votes.

Johnson Clashes with Congress

  • the clash came out into the open in february 1866 when Johnson vetoed a bill, extending the life of the Feedmen's Bureau.
  • the Republicans, in March 1866, passed the civil rights Bill. this conferred on blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the black codes.
  • Johnson veteod this bill, but Congress ignored his veto, something they repeatedly did henceforth. Congress assumed the dominant role in running the government,
  • Republicans now wanted to rivet the principles of the Civil Rights Bill into the constitution as the Fourteenth Amendment(they were afraid southerners might one day get control of Congress and repel the law), the amendment as approved by Congress and sent to the states in June 1866 (1)conferred civil rights, including citizenship but excluding the franchise, on the freedmen;(2)reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and electoral college if it denied blacks the ballot;(3)disqualified from federal and state office former Confederates who as federal officeholders had sworn to support the Constituiton;(4)guaranteed the federal debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts
  • radical faction disappointed that 14th didn't grant right to vote, but all republicans agreed no state should be welcomed back into Union without first ratifying the 14th
  • president Johnson advised southern states to reject it, all except tennessee defiantly spurned amendment

Republican Principles and Programs

  • Republicans now had a veto-proof Congress and unlimited control of the Reconstruction policy, but moderates and radicals still disagreed on the path to take.
  • The radicals in senate were led by Charles Sumner; he fought for black freedom and radical equality.
  • The most powerful radical in the house was Thaddeus Stevens, he was a strong supporter of black freedom and was known for defending runaway slaves in court without fee and even asked to be buried in a black cemetery when he died. He was a leading figure on the Joint Committee of Reconstruction.
  • Radicals wanted to keep the south out for a time and use federal power to bring about aneconomic and social transformation in the South.
  • Moderate republicans preferred policies that restrained states from abridging citizens’rights rather than policies that involved the federal government directly in individual lives.
  • One thing both groups did agree on was the necessity to enfranchise black voters.

Reconstruction by the Sword

  • Viscous and bloody race riots had erupted in many Southern cities. congress passed the reconstruction act on march 2nd 1867. supplemented by later measures, this drastic legislation divided the south into five military districts, each commanded by a union general and policed by blue-clad soldiers about twenty thousand
  • Congress laid down stringent conditions for the readmission of the seceded states. the wayward states were required to ratify the fourteenth amendment which gave slaves their right to freedom.
  • The only fear was that once the states had been readmitted into the Union they would take away suffrage from the black males so 1869, the fifteenth amendment was passed granting black suffrage and it was ratified by the required number of states in 1870.

No Women Voters

  • The passage of the three reconstruction era amendments (thirteenth, fourteenth and the fifteenth) delighted former abolitionist but deeply disappointed Feminists. Although women played a huge role during the civil war, many were still discouraged. It was unfair for the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to give rights to black males, but not none to the women. The fight for black freedom and the fight for women's rights were one in the same in the eyes of many women.

 

The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

The Ku Klux Klan

  • southern whites resorted to savage measures against radical rule, many resented success and ability of black legislators
  • founded in Tennessee in 1866, besheeted nightriders would approach cabins of an "upstart" black and attempt to scare them, if fright didn't produce desired effect, force was employed
  • many ex-bondsmen and white carpetbaggers took the hint and shunned the polls, but others who persisted were flogged, mutilated, or murdered
  • became a refuge for numerous bandits and cutthroats
  • Congress, outraged, passed the harsh Force Acts of 1870 and 1871, federal troops able to stamp out much of the "lash law" but by this time the Invisible Empire had already done its work of intimidation
  • many outlawed groups continued tactics in the guise of "dancing clubs", "missionary societies," and "rifle clubs"
  • white resistance undermined attempts to empower blacks politically, south openly flouted 14th and 15th amendments, wholesale disfranchisement achieved by intimidation, fraud, and trickery
  • literacy tests, unfairly administered by whites to advantage of illiterate whites-->justified by goal of white supremacy

Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank

  • Radicals annoyed by Johnson's obstructions, wanted to remove him by constitutional processes-->"Bluff Ben" Wade of Ohio would become president
  • Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 which required the president to secure the consent of the Senate before he could remove his cabinet members once they had been approved by the Senate.
  • Its purpose was to keep the secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, in the president's cabinet.
  • When Johnson dismissed Stanton in 1868, the House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors," charging him with various violations of the Tenure of Office Act
  • two additional articles in Constitution related to johnson's verbal assaults on the Congress

A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

  • The now radical-led Senate sat on a court to try Johnson on impeachment charges. The House conducted the prosecution.
  • On May 16, 1868 the Senate voted with only one less than needed for a 2/3 vote, that Johnson should be not removed from office.
  • Several factors shaped the outcome; fear of setting a precedent, and political considerations.
  • Johnson tried remaining in office by stating, through his lawyer, that if allowed to remain in office, he would stop obstructing Republican policies.
  • Radicals were furious for not being able to muster the 2/3rd vote required.

The Purchase of Alaska

  • Johnson's administration, largely reduced to a figurehead, achieved it's most enduring success in the field of foreign relations; the purchase of Alaska from Russia.
  • The Russians by 1867 were in a mood to sell the vast and chilly expanse of land, Alaska, because they were already overextended in North America. They preferred the United States to any other purchaser, primarily because they wanted to strengthen further the Republic as a barrier against their ancient enemy, Britain.
  • In 1867 Secretary of State William Seward signed a treaty with Russia that transferred Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million. But Seward's enthusiasm for these frigid wastes was not shared by his ignorant or uninformed countrymen.
  • It is speculated that America bought Alaska not for it's usefulness, but due to that fact that Russia and the tsar and been friendly during the Civil War, and they didn't want to turn their backs on that.

The Heritage of Reconstruction

  • Many white Southeners saw reconstruction as worse than the war itself. they hated the upending of their social and racial system, political empowerment of blacks, and the federal intervention in their local affairs.
  • republicans wanted to protect freed slaves and to promote the fortunes of the Republican party. their efforts actually backfired. reconstruction gave only fleeting benefits to the blacks and extinguished the Republican part in the south for one hundred years.


Varying Viewpoints: How Radical was Reconstruction?

  • Reconstruction provoked sectional, racial, and constitutional questions about which people felt deeply about and remain deeply divided even today.
  • In the early 1900s students of William A. Dunning, a Columbia University historian,published a series of histories of the recanstruction South. Dunning and his students were influenced by the turn-of-the-century spirit of sectional conciliation as well as by current theories about black racial inferiority. because of the racial attidues still present, they sided with white southeners, and called Reconstruction as a national disgrace. if the south had wronged the North by seceding, the North had wronged the south by reconstructing.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age 1869-1896

 

Major Themes

  • Political life in the Gilded Age was marked by ineptitude, stalemate, and corruption. Despite similarity at the national level, the two parties competed fiercely for offices and spoils, while doling out “pork-barrel” benefits to veterans and other special interest groups.
  • The serious issues of monetary and agrarian reform, labor, race, and economic fairness were largely swept under the rug by the political system, until revolting farmers and a major economic depression in 1893 created a growing sense of crisis and demands for radical change,

Major Questions

  • What conditions seemed to promote the ineptitude, stalemate and corruption that seemed so prevalent in politics in the Gilded Age? Civil-service reform, tariffs, currency, divisions within the separate political parties, and the tendencies for people to hop to a different party when they didn't like their own.

Pre-Reading

Coming out of the Reconstruction period, characterize each of the two major political parties, the Republicans and the Democrats. Reflect on the philosophy of each party regarding government, economics and finance, civil rights, constituencies, issues of concerns, etc,


  REPUBLICANS DEMOCRATS
TARIFF High rates Low rates
GOV'T ACTION Intervention (where necessary) States rights; limited activity
GOV'T SPENDING High spending Low spending
CURRENCY Mixed- pro-gold, deflation Mixed- pro-silver, inflation
REFORM Mixed- support reform Mixed- anti-reform



The "Bloody Shirt" Elects Grant

  • The People did not want a professional politician as President during Reconstruction. They felt that a good general would make a good president. General Grant was the most popular Northern hero to emerge from the war. He was a greenhorn in the political arena. His one presidential vote had been cast for the Democratic ticket in 1856. The Republicans nominated Grant for the presidency in 1868. Their platform called for continued Reconstruction of the South, under the North. Republicans gained popularity for Grant by "waving the bloody shirt"; reviving gory memories of the Civil War.

 

The Era of Good Stealings

  • Post-Civil War, the majority of businesspeople and government officials continued to do their jobs with decency and honor, but the whole postwar atmosphere was fetid. People went as far as to say that the Man on the Moon had to hold his nose when passing over America. Free wheeling railroad promoters scammed investors. Many people scammed the stock-market with price manipulation. Judges and legislators put their powers up for higher.
  • Notorious in this new financial world was a pair of partners, "Jubilee Jin" Fisk, the brass, and Jay Gould, the brains. They convinced Grant through his stepbrother not to sell gold through the Treasury, then raised the price themselves by buying out all available gold. Contrary to his promises, Grant had the Treasury sell gold.
  • Another example was Burly "Boss" Tweed who scammed New York City citizens out of as much as 200million. He was stopped when the New York Times secured damning evidence in 1871.

Depression, Deflation, and Inflation

  • Crash in 1873:promoters had laid more railroad track, sunk more mines, erected more factories, and sowed more grainfields than existing markets could bear--bankers made toom many imprudent loans to finance these enterprises--profits failed to materialize and loans went unpaid, causing credit based house of cards to fall
  • more than fifteen thousand businesses went bankrupt
  • black americans hard hit:Freedman's Savings and Trust Company made unsecured loans to companies that went under
  • "folding money" issued during the war depreciated b/c of popular mistrust and legality
  • by 1868, treasury had already withdrawn $100 million of the "battle-born currency" from circulation: "hard money" people excited for total disappearance, "cheap money"(debtor groups) wanted a reissuance of the greenbacks-->more money=cheaper money=rising prices and easier to pay debts
  • creditors want deflation, debtors want inflation
  • "hard money" advocates get Grant to veto a bill to print more paper money in 1874 and Resumption Act of 1875(pledged gov't to further withdrawl of greenbacks from circulation and redemption of all paper currency in gold at face value)
  • debtors looked for relief in silver, wanted coinage of more silver
  • Hard money Republicans pushed "contraction":treasury began to accumulate gold stocks agains tthe appointed day for resumption of metallic-money payments coupled with reduction of greenbacks-->deflationary effect:amount of money per capita decreased(1870-1880--$19.42-$19.37)
  • contraction worsened the impact of depression, but did restore the gov'ts credit rating and brought embattled greenbacks up to full face value
  • republican hard-money policy helped elect a democratic HofR in 1874 and spawned Greenback Labor Party in 1878

Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

  • political seesaw delicately balanced--every presidential election was close and majority party in HofR switiched 6 times in 11 sessions between 1869 and 1891-->only 3 sessions had the same party controlling the house, senate, and white house
  • democrats and republicans saw nearly eye to eye on questions like tariff and civil-service reform, and currency---however, quite competitive, tightly organized and commanded fierce loyalty from members
  • nearly 80 of eligible voters cast their ballots in pres. elections, and "ticket splitting"(failing to vote the straight party line) was rare
  • republican voters tended to adhere to creeds that traced their lineage to Puritanism, stressed strict codes of personal morality & believed gov't should play a role in regulating economic and moral affairs of society
  • democrats, mostly immigrant lutherans and roman catholics, more likely to adhere to faiths that took a less stern view of human weakness, professed toleration of differences in an imperfect world, spurned gov't efforts to impose a single moral standard on entire society
  • differences produced raucous political contests at local level, issues like prohibition and education loomed large
  • democrats had solid electoral base in south and in northern industrial cities, republicans had strength in midwest and rural northeast and got votes from grateful freedmen in the south and members of the Grand Army of the Republic
  • both parties disbursed jobs in return for votes, kickbacks, and party service
  • fighting within republican party in 1870s&1880s:"Stalwart" faction led by Roscoe Conkling embraced system of swapping civil-service jobs for votes, opposed to Conklingites were the Half-Breeds(led by James G. Blaine) who wanted civil service reform--stalemate

The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876

  • Grant runs for 3rd termin 1876, but Housed derailed bandwagon-->two-term tradition
  • Republicans turn to Rutherford B. Hayes("The Great Unknown")
  • Democrats turn to Samuel J. Tilden

The Birth of Jim Crow in the post-Reconstruction South

  • White democrats resume political power in South & exercised it ruthlessly-->blacks who tried to assert their rights faced unemployment, eviction, and physical harm
  • Blacks and poor whites forced into sharecropping and tenant farming
  • "crop-lien" system: storekeepers extended credit to small farmers for food and supplies and in return took a lien on their harvests
  • Merchants manipulated the system so farmers remained in debt

The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

  • James G. Blaines persistence finally paid off in 1884. He was a politician from Maine blessed with almost everything except a reputation for honesty. He was the clear choice of the Republican Convention in Chicago. Reform-minded Republicans found evidence against Blaine in the "Mulligan letters" connecting him to a corrupt deal involving federal favors to a southern railroad. Some reformers, unable to swallow this, joined the Democrats. They were referred to sneeringly as Mugwumps.
  • Democrats turned towards Grover Cleveland, who was a solid but not brilliant lawyer of 47. He had gone from the mayor's office in Buffalo to the governorship of New York and the presidential nomination in three short years. Republicans digging for some dirt against Cleveland found that he had been involved in an affair with a Buffalo widow. She had an illegitimate son who was then 8, that Grover had made financial provision for, implying that it was his. Democratic elders hurried to Cleveland with this news and tried to get him to lie like a gentleman, but he told the truth.
  • Few fundamental differences separated the parties in 1884. Cleveland swept the South and squeaked into office with 219 to 192 electoral votes and 4,879,507 to 4,850,930 popular votes.

Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff

  • during Civil War tariff schedules jacked up to raise revenues for military, american industry profited from this protection
  • but high duties continued to pile up revenue at customshouses, by 1881 treasury was running an annual surplus of $145 million
  • congress could reduce surplus in 2 ways: 1)squander it on pensions and "pork-barrel" bills, &thus curry favor with veterans and other self-seeking groups.2)lower the tariff(big industrialists opposed
  • Grover Cleveland-interested, lower barriers=lower prices for consumers and less protection for monopolies, end to treasury surplus
  • tossed an appeal for lower tariffs into lap of congress in late 1887, divided the 2 parties as 1888 presidential election loomed
  • democrats=Cleveland, republicans=benjamin harrison-->tariff=main issue
  • republicans raised a war chest of some $3million out of nervous industrialists, money used to line up corrupt "voting cattle", or "repeaters" and"floaters"
  • Harrison nosed out Cleveland:233 to 168 electoral votes, cleveland polled more popular votes(5,537,857 to 5,447,129)
  • Cleveland became 1st sitting president to be voted out of his chair since Martin Van Buren in 1840

The Billion Dollar Congress

  • Republicans under Harrison were excited for federal offices but in HofR, they had only 3 more votes than necessary
  • Democrats preparing to obstruct all House business by refusing to answer roll calls, demanding roll calls to determine the presence of a quorum, and employing other delaying tactics
  • New Republican Speaker of the House, Thomas B. Reed-->intimidating
  • 1st Congress in history to appropriate a billion dollars

Cleveland and Depression

  • With the Populists divided and the Republicans discredited, Cleveland took office again in 1893, becoming the only president ever reelected after defeat. He was the same old man, with just a little more polish. Cleveland had just seated himself in the chair when the depression of 1893 burst. Lasting for about four years, it was the most punishing economic downturn of the 19th century. The causes were the splurge of overbuilding and speculation, labor disorders, and the ongoing agricultural depression. The pinch on finances began when European banking houses began to call in loans from the United States.
  • About 8,000 businesses collapsed in six months. Soup kitchens fed the unemployed, while gangs of hobos wandered around. The Federal government, bound by the let-nature-take-its-course philosophy, saw no legitimate way to relieve the suffering masses.
  • Cleveland summoned Congress into extra session in the summer of 1893 to try and repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1840 to try and stop the Federal Treasury from being bled dry. This act was eventually repealed.
  • Another complication was occurring behind Americans backs. Cleveland had a malignant growth on the top of his mouth. He had to removed by a surgeon on his private yacht, to keep it secret. In 1894 the gold reserve sank to $41 million. The United States was in grave danger of going off of the gold standard. Early in 1895 Cleveland turned to J. P. Morgan for help. The bankers agreed to lend the government $65 million in gold.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age 1865-1900

 

Major Themes

  • America accomplished heavy industrialization after the Civil War, marked by the growth of the transcontinental railroad and large-scale industrial consolidation
  • Industrialization transformed American labor, but workers failed to develop effective labor organizations that could match the corporate organization of business

Major Questions

  • A third of this chapter (9 of 28 pages) is devoted to the railroad industry. Why?

Because the industrial advances were blooming and the building of railroads were increasing (transcontinental), railroads at this time was a main source of transportation not only for goods but people too. 

  • What were the costs and benefits of the post Civil War industrial transformation? (see The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America for overview)
  • Why did American workers have such trouble responding to the new industrial condition of labor? Why were business and the middle-class public generally hostile to unionization?

 

Outline

The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse


  • after 1865, the establishment of railroads began to increase as business and Industrialization in the west increased. Transcontinental building was very risky in it required government subsidies. Congress, impressed by arguments pleading military and postal needs, began to advance liberal money loans to two favored cross continent companies in 1862.
  • land grants were made in broad belts along the proposed route within these belts the railroads were aloud to choose alternate mile square sections in checker board fashion. the railroads withheld all the land from other users. 1887 Grover Cleveland put and end to this and threw open to settlement the still unclaimed public portions of the land grant areas.
  • In 1865 there were only 35,000 miles of steam railways in the US, by 1900 it increased to 192,556 miles.
  • Granting land was a "cheap" way to subsidize a much-desired transportation system, because it avoided new taxes for direct cash grants.

Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

  • Cornelious Vanderbuild promised lower prices for railroad costs and thus secured himself 100 million dollars to invest into the industry.
  • He was one of the first ones to replace the iron rails with steel rails which was a sound economic investment because steal rails could carry more weight and were safer. A standard gauge of track also came into use which eliminated the cost and inconvenience of numerous changes from one track to another.
  • The Westinghouse air brake was also a major contribution to the safety and efficiency of railroads.
  • The Pullman Palace car was described as a luxury hotel on wheels, although the safety was questionable because of swaying kerosene lamps.
  • Accidents continued to be almost daily tragedies, despite safety devices like the telegraph, double-tracking, and the block signal

Revolution by Railways

  • Railroads opened up fresh markets for manufactured goods after the civil war and sped raw materials to factories. the building of the railroads themselves made up most of the steel industry. railroads stimulated mining and agriculture, especially in the West.
  • Railroads were the boon for cities and completely encourage business and they are considered the main spark for industrialization.

Wrongdoing in Railroading

  • In order to increase the weight of cows, "stock watering" was employed. It entailed forcing a cow to bloat itself with water before it was weighed for sale. This technique enabled railroad stock promoters to inflate their claims about a given line's assets and profitability and sell stocks and bonds in excess of the railroad's actual value.
  • Railroaders, feeling they were above the law, abused the public by bribing judges and legislatures.
  • Railroad kings were manipulators of a huge natural monopoly and exercised too much direct control over the lives of people.
  • Many rail barons granted bribed powerful shippers in return for steady traffic.
  • The earliest form of combination was the “pools”--an agreement to divide the business in a given area and share the profits.

Government Bridles the Iron Horse

  • The depression of the 1870s caused farmers to protest against being "railroaded" into bankruptcy. Under pressure from organized agrarian groups, many midwestern legislatures tried to regulate the railroad monopoly.
  • In 1886 the Supreme Court decreed that individual states had no power to regulate interstate commerce.
  • The Interstate Commerce Act prohibited rebates and pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly. Most important, it set up the Interstate Commerce Commission to administer and enforce the new legislation.
  • The new legislation provided an orderly forum where competing business interests could resolve their conflicts with peace. Avoiding rate wars.

Miracles of Mechanization

  • Republic became number one in manufacturing nations of the world by 1894
  • Liquid capital was now abundant, Civil War created immense fortunes, customary borrowings from foreign capitalists
  • Natural resources of the nation now fully exploited-->coal, oil, iron
  • Massive immigration helped make unskilled labor cheap and plentiful (eastern and southern europe)
  • American ingenuity played a vital role-->techniques of mass production being perfected, tons of patents issued
  • Business operations facilitated by cash register, stock ticker, typewriter
  • Urbanization speeded by refrigerator car, electric dynamo, electric railway
  • Telephone=major by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876
  • Thomas Alva Edison=most versatile inventor: phonograph, mimeograph, dictaphone, moving picture, perfection of electric light bulb

Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel

  • After accumulating some capital, Carnegie entered the steel business. He was not a monopolist and disliked monopolistic trusts.
  • By 1900 he was producing one-fourth of the nation's Bessemer steel.
  • J. Pierpont Morgan had made a legendary reputation for himself by financing the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks.
  • Carnegie and Morgan crossed pathes. Carnegie, looking to sell his business bartered with Morgan until they finally came to the agreement of 400 million dollars.
  • Carnegie spent 350 million of the 400 million on libraries and charity means.
  • Morgan went on to buy other businesses and develop the first 1.4 billion dollar business.

Government Tackles the Trust Evil

  • After prolonged pulling and hauling, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 was finally signed into law. The Sherman Act forbade combinations in restraint of trade, without any distinction between "good" trusts and "bad" trusts. It contained legal loopholes through which clever corporation lawyers could wriggle. Contrary to original attempt, It was used to curb labor unions or labor combinations that were deemed to be restraining trade.
  • More new trusts were formed in the 1890s under President McKinley than during any other like period.
  • Not until 1914 were the jaws of the Act tightened and monopolies were seriously threatened for the benefit of the public good.

The South in the Age of Industry

  • 1880's Southern agriculture received a welcome boost when machine made cigarettes replaced the roll your own variety and tobacco consumption shot up James Buchanan duke took full advantage of the new technology to mass produce the dainty coffin nails in the 1890 by creating the American Tobacco Company. In what was becoming a familiar pattern he absorbed his main competitors into the American Tobacco Company.


The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America

  • During the decades after the Civil War, economic miracles increased the standard of living in the United States. The industry of agriculture declined to manufacturing.
  • The only group that was affected by the new industrial age was woman.
  • Women found jobs as inventions arose; the typewriter and the telephone switchboard gave women, “hello girls”, new economic and social opportunities. One woman, Charles Dana Gibson, created the “Gibson Girl” which is a magazine image of an independent and athletic “new women”.
  • The nation of farmers and independent producers was becoming a nation of wage earners. By the beginning of the 1900s, the vast majority of the nation's population earned wages.

In Unions There is Strength

  • Factories became less centered around workers since, their jobs became simple such as pulling a lever. Bosses stopped showing interest in individuals, less value placed on manual skills than ever before
  • New machines provided many new jobs but hurt the manual worker in the short run. Railroads came in handy to ship new employees to factories. Immigration increased
  • Employers power over workers was high, they could bring in strikebreakers (scabs), or employ thugs to beat up labor organizers. They could also take workers to court, call in police, make workers sign "yellow dog" contracts that they wont join a labor union, employers could lock their doors against rebellious workers "lockout", the starve them into submission, put names of agitators on a "black list" and circulate it to fellow employers
  • Middle-class public annoyed by strikes, became deaf to outcry of the worker-->Carnegie and Rockefeller battled to the top, the laborer could do the same
  • Strike seemed like a foregin importation-->unpatriotic

Labor Limps Along

  • Labor Unions given strong boost by Civil War-->more of a premium on labor, mounting cost of living provided an urgent incentive to unionization
  • The National Labor Union-organized in 1866, represented several workers, lasted six years and attracted some 600,000 members--> skilled, unskilled, farmers, but not chinese, small efforts to include women and blacks
  • Blacks organized their own Colored National Labor Union, the two labor unions unable to work together due to racism
  • National Labor Union wanted 8 hour workday, eventually got it for government workers
  • depression of 1870s hurt labor, but never completely toppled
  • Wage reductions in 1877 caused disruptive strikes on railroads that nothing short of federal troops could restore order
  • Knights of Labor was created in 1869 as a secret society, secrecy continued until 1881-->sought to include all workers, barred only "nonproducers":liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers, stockbrokers-->broad goals:economic and social reform-producers' cooperatives, codes for safety and health, frowned upon industrial warfare, wanted an 8 hour work day
  • Leader of Knights of Labor=Terence V. Powderly, Knights won a number of strikes for the 8hour day
  • Staged a successful strike against Jay Gould's Wabash Railroad in 1885, membership mushroomed

The AF of L to the Fore

  • The elitist American Federation of Labor, born in 1886, was largely the brainchild of squat, square jawed Samuel Gompers. this colorful Jewish cigar maker born in a London tenement and removed from school at age ten was brought to America when thirteen. Taking his turn at reading informative literature to fellow cigar makers in New York, he was pressed into overtime service because of his strong voice.

  • Significantly. the American Federation of Labor was just what it called itself, a federation. It consisted of an association of self governing national unions each of which kept its independence with the AF of L unifying overall strategy. No individual laborer as such could join the central organization.

  • It's purpose was to gain better wages, hours, and working conditions.

Varying Viewpoints:Industrialization: Boon or Blight

  • While the nation began to industrialize, more people who became successful were usually self made and had connections with transportation and were involved in lots of companies and businesses. little changes occurred in peoples lives that would effect there overall economic status whether it was inflation or deflation. never the less, people still strive to earn a living whether or not the American class system was completely equal when involving the economy.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City 1865-1900

 

Outline

 

The Urban Frontier

  • Cities grew massively in and out-->skycraper and transit lines; different districts for business, industry, and residential neighborhoods-->segregation by race, ethnicity, and social class
  • Industrial jobs drew people off their farms and into factory centers; Other Attractions=glitter of city lights, electricity, indoor plumbing, telephones, engineering marvels(skyscraper, Brooklyn Bridge)
  • Department stores attracted urban middle-class shoppers and provided urban working-class jobs, many for women, heralded consumerism and widened class divisions
  • Move to the city introduced Americans to new ways of living
  • Crimnals flourished, sanitary facilities could not keep up with explosion of population, impure water, uncollected garbage, unwashed bodies, droppings from draft animals caused nasty stench
  • Cities monuments of contradictions-->full of constrasting styles
  • Slums worst of all-->really crowded, filthy, rat-infested(esp after perfection of "dumbell" tenement), several families sardined together

Southern Europe Uprooted

  • The population of Europe nearly doubled in the century after 1800 due to abundant supplies of fish and grain from America and the widespread cultivation of Europe.
  • Many Europeans left Europe because the population was vastly increasing and there was basically no room left.
  • They did this because American was seen as a land of great opportunity.
  • This was beneficial to profit-seeking Americans because they wanted low-wage labor, passengers in the steamboats, and states wanted more population.
  • Europeans also seeked religious freedom.

Reactions to the New Immigration

  • Trading jobs and services for votes, a powerful boss might claim the loyalty of thousands of followers.
  • One woman who was deeply dedicated to uplifting the urban masses was Jane Addams, who was one of the first generation of college-educated women. She established Hull House, the most prominent American settlement.
  • The women of Hull House successfully lobbied in 1893 for an Illinois antisweatshop law that protected women workers and prohibited child labor.

Narrowing the Welcome Mat

  • The new immigrants have came for mostly the same reasons as the old, to seek new opportunity, escape poverty and squalor of Europe. Nativists viewed these new waves of europian immagrants as a horde and often gave them a rude reception. The new wave came as a surprise as the birthrate increased and many became upset.
  • Native Americans voiced additional fears. they blamed the immigrants for the degradation of urban government. trade unionists assailed the alien arrivals for their willingness to work for starvation. wages that seemed to them like princely sums and for importing their intellectual baggage such dangerious doctrines as socialism. communism and anarchism.
  • Many business leaders, who had welcomed the flood of cheat manual labor began to fear that they had embraed a frankeinstiens monster.
  • Many unions were created and many argued that if business recieved rights, so should its workers because after all, they are people. people protected by the constitution.

Churches Confront the Urban Challenge

  • Protestant churches suffered significantly from the population move to the cities, where many of their traditional doctrines and pastoral approaches seemed irrelevant.
  • Many churches suffered heavily from the switch to cities, where their preachings seemed irrelevant.
  • Larger houses of worship became mere forms of entertainment with their stained glass windows and pipe organs.
  • A new generation of urban revivalists stepped into this spreading moral vacuum. Dwight Lyman Moody, a Protestant evangelist, proclaimed a gospel of kindness and forgiveness. He contributed to adapting the old-time religion to the facts of city life. The Moody Bible Institute was founded in Chicago in 1889 to carry out his work.
  • Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were gaining enormous strength from the New Immigration.
  • By 1890, there were over 150 religious denominations in the United States. (YMCA-Young Men’s Christian Associations and YWCA- Young Women’s Christian Association)
  • The, Church of Christ Scientist was founded in 1879 by Mary Baker Eddy who preached that the true practice of Christianity heals sickness.

Darwin Disrupts the Churches

  • Charles Darwins theory on evolution created many rifts in the church. Old clergymen being thrown out of office and biology teachers being fired for teaching evolution.

The Lust for Learning

  • public education continued its upward climb. the ideal of tax-supported elementary schools, adopted on a nationwide basis before the civil war, was still gathering strength. Americans were accepting the truism that a free government cannot function sucessfully if the people are shackled by ignorance.
  • 1870, more and more states were making at least a grade school education compulsory and this gain helped check the frightful abuses of child labor.
  • 1880's and 1890's the spread of high schools developed. before the civil war, it was common to have private schools and tax supported schools were rare. now a grade school education was the birthright of every citizen.
  • Free textbooks being provided by taxpayers, teacher-training schools expanded, kindergartens gained support, New Immigration brought vast new strength to private Catholic parochial schools
  • public schools however excluded millions of adults-->partially remedied by the Chautauqua movement:organizers achieved success through nationwide public lectures, extensive courses of home study
  • Crowded cities provided better educational facilities
  • illiteracy rate fell from 20% to 10.7%

Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

  • The South lagged far behind other regions in public education, and African-Americans suffered the most.
  • The leading champion of black education was ex-slave Booker T. Washington. He taught in 1881 at the black normal and industrial school at Tuskegee, Alabama. His self-help approach to solving the nation's racial problems was labeled "accommodationist” because it stopped short of directly challenging white supremacy. Washington avoided the issue of social equality instead he grudgingly acquiesced in segregation in return for the right to develop the economic and educational resources of the black community.
  • George Washington Carver taught and researched at Tuskegee Institute in 1896. He became an internationally famous agricultural chemist.
  • Black leaders, including Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois, attacked Booker T. Washington because Washington condemned the black race to manual labor and perpetual inferiority. Du Bois helped to form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.

The Hallowed Halls of ivy

  • After the Civil War many new colleges sprung up and more women and blacks went to college
  • The Morril Act of 1862 was much to blame. it provided grants.
  • Hatch Act of 1887 extended this, providing federal funds for establishments of agricultural experiment stations.
  • philanthropy richly supplemented federal grants to higher education.
  • there was an increase in professional and tech schools

The March of the Mind

  • Demand for "practical" courses and specialized training in the sciences
  • Elective system(students choose more courses in cafeteria fashion) gaining popularity
  • Medical schools and medical science prospered-->improved public health
  • New health-promoting precautions led to life expectancy at birth to increase
  • William James-->many writings, made deep mark on many fields(religion, psychology, pragmatism, history of philosophy)​​

Apostles of Reform

  • Magazines partially satisfied the public appetite for good reading.
  • Possibly the most influential journal of all was the New York Nation. Started in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, it ccalled for civil-service reform, honesty in government, and a moderate tariff.
  • Henry George, another journalistic author, wrote the book Progress and Poverty in 1879.

Literary Landmarks

  • more writers began relating their literary work to some of the realism of an industrial society. such as mark twain, stephen crane, bret harte, william dean howells and chopin

Families and Women in the City

  • The stress of urban life on families led to the "divorce revolution"
  • In the city more kids meant more mouths to feed so the average family size decreased rapidly and the birthrate went down.
  • Charlotte Perkins Gilman called for woman to leave there roles of dependency and to go out and become an active part of the economy.
  • Women had been fighting for womens suffrage since before the Civil War, in their newest fight they said that women needed to be able to vote because they ran the household and who better to know what was needed for the people when they took care of the people.
  • The womens suffrage movement however excluded black females because they were afraid it would compromise there efforts if blacks were to join.
  • Black women created their own womens movement.

Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

  • temperance reformers doubled and many blamed alcohol for society's wrongdoings and believed it should be banned. liquor consumption had increased during the nerve racking days of the civil war and immigrant groups acccustomed to alcohol in the old country, were hostile to restraints on it. whisky loving foreigners in boston would rudely hiss temperance lecturers.
  • The national prohibition party organized in 1869, polled a sprinkling of votes in some of the ensuing presidential elections. among the favorite songs of these sober souls were "ill marry no man if he drinks", "vote down the vile traffic", and "the drunkard's doom"
  • Woman's Christian Temperance Union organized in 1874 by Frances E. Willard, Carrie A. Nation=deranged, carried a hatchet smashing saloon bottles and bars
  • AntiSaloon League formed in 1893
  • statewide prohibition temporary triumph in 1919 by 18th amendment
  • The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was created in 1866; American Red Cross launched in 1881

Artistic Triumphs

  • Music and portrait painting was gaining popularity. The phonograph, invented by Thomas Edison, enabled the reproduction of music by mechanical means

The Business of Amusement

  • The circus, coming from the American demand for fun, emerged in the 1880s. 
  • Baseball was also emerging as the national pastime, and in the 1870s a professional league was formed.
  • Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution 1865-1896

 

Chapter Themes

  • After the Civil War, whites overcame the Plains Indians’ resistance and settled the West, bringing to a close the long frontier phase of American history
  • The farmers who populated the West often found themselves the victims of an economic revolution in agriculture and in the 1880s turned to political action to address their concerns

Chapter Questions

  • Was the federal government biased against workers and farmers in the late 19th century? Huizinga Yes, they were. The government was unsympathetic for the plight of the worker, and racial conflicts. With the big trusts above and restless immigrants working for cheap labor from below them, they "squeezed" middle-class citizens. There were also many corrupt deals between big businesses and the government.


Outline

Bellowing Herds of Bison​

  • Tens of millions of bison covered the western prairies when white Americans arrived
  • These bison were the staff of life for Native Americans-->flesh provided food; dried dung provided fuel; hides provided clothing,lariats, and harnesses
  • When Civil War ended 15 million were still grazing
  • Railroad construction caused the massacre of the herds-->slain for hides, tongues or other meat, or just for amusement
  • This wholesale butchery left fewer than a thousand buffalo alive by 1885-->in danger of complete extinction
  • Shocking example of greed and waste


The End of the Trail​ 

  • Humanitarians wanted to treat Indians kindly & persuade them to "walk the white man's road"
  • Hard-liners insisted on current policy of forced containment and brutal punishment
  • Neither side showed much respect-->Christian reformers sometimes withheld food to force Indians to give up their tribal religion and assimilate to white culture-->1884-Sun Dance outlawed
  • "Ghost Dance" cult stamped out in 1890 by the army at Battle of Wounded Knee: 200 Indian men, women, and children killed; 29 soldiers

The Farmers' Frontier

  • The Homestead Act seemed like a blessing to farmers, farmers could gain up to 160 acres in the West as long as the improved the land and payed a fee of 30 dollars.
  • However, the Homstead Act soon got said to be a hoax. For 2 out of every 3 farmers had to leave their farms because of the inadequate land for farming.
  • The farmers claimed that the land was useless because it was hard and dry because of the millions of buffalo that had trampled it down and the lack of forests and rain water.
  • When the broke the ground with an iron plow they soon discovered that the land was in fact very rich.
  • In the west, farmers imported resistant strands of wheat from Russia that could survive in the harsh Western conditions and began to grow more resistant crops.
  • A method of shallow farming was developed that worked great in the West. This made the top of the soil very fine and light which contributed to the Dust Bowl.
  • The government soon funded massive irrgation that practically moved rivers and made the West a bountiful land.


The Far West Comes of Age

  • 1870's to 1890's the west experience a massive growth in population. a parade of new western states proudly joined the union. boomtown colorado, offspring of the pikes peak goldrush was greeted in 1876 as teh centennial state.
  • 1889-1890 a republican congress eagerly seeking more republican electoral and congressional votes admited in a wholesale lot six new washington idaho and whyoming. 1890 the mormon church banned polygamy not sure what that is but i will look it up, polygamy: multiple marraige btw dont look it up bad things happen. so anway in 1890 it was banned by the mormon church however in the state of utah it was not deemed admission into the mormon church until 1896
  • The federal government made vast open land of fertile soil available to settlers what a nice thing to do but the land was also inhabited by native americans and it was in oklahoma!! MANY greedy sooners jumped the gun as the book refers to it and charged into oklahoma to take a advantage of the land and do what you think they do since they are greedy. they had to be maintained by federal troops who would shoot these intruders horses.
  • April 22, 1889, Oklahoma was opened for settlement and 50,000 boomers rushed into the territory. In the night a lonely spot in the prarie land showed the tent city of Guthrie, with some 10,000 people camping there. By the end of the year Oklohoma had 60,000 inhabitants and was declared a territory. It was admitted as a state in 1907 as the "Sooner State"


The Fading Frontier

  • In 1890, the head main guy superintended of the census announced that the for first time in America's experience, a frontier line that divided the frontier was no longer evident; all unsettled areas were now broken up by isolated bodies of settlement. {Whoa!}
  • The "closing" of the frontier inspired one the most influential essays written in American history! {How exciting!!} This essay was written by Fredrick Jackson turner and it was named "The Significance of the Frontier in American History". I would assume that it would be about why the frontier is important. 
  • Many people were upset that their frontier free land was disappearing and the secretary of war had prophesied in 1827 that five hundred years would be needed to fill the West.
  • This land was not limitless and seeds were planted to preserve the vanishing resource. Many parks were randomly created to preserve the vanishing resource too- the first Yellowstone in 1872, followed by Yosemite and Sequoia in 1890.
  • The frontier was seen as a "safety valve" and a place of new opportunity and peace. The free land did lure immigrant farmers to the West.
  • Western migration may have actually caused urban employers to maintain wage rates high enough to discourage workers from leaving to go farm the West.
  • Cities of the West began to grow as failed farmers, failed miners, and unhappy easterners sought fortune in cities. After 1880, the area from the Rockies to the Pacific Coast was the most urbanized region in America, measured by the percentage of people living in cities.

The Farm Becomes a Factory

  • The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed a settler to acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for 5 years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee of about $30. Instead of public land being sold primarily for revenue, it was now being given away to encourage a rapid filling of empty spaces and to provide a stimulus to the family farm.
  • One effect if the Homestead Act was high prices which caused farmers to change from being self-reliant, to growing one cash crop and use that money to buy their food instead of growing it.
  • The Homestead Act also turned out to be a cruel hoax because the land given to the settlers usually had terrible soil and the weather included no precipitation. Many homesteaders were forced to give their homesteads back to the government.
  • Along with bad land, the expensive machinery made farming quicker and easier but was risky due to costs.The new technology caused some farmers to leave farming and others to prosper into large farms.
  • After the shocking 6-year drought in the West in the 1880s had destroyed farmers' crops, "dry farming" took root on the plains. Its methods of frequent shallow cultivation were adapted to the dry western environment, but over time it depleted and dried the soil.
  • Once wheat was introduced to the West, it flourished. Eventually federally-financed irrigation projects caused the Great American Desert to bloom.

Deflation Dooms the Debtor

  • Farmers turned to a one crop economy, either wheat or corn. This was a very competitive industry because the price of their product was determined in a world market by the world output. Due to deflation, the price of crops dropped. The new technology caused production to increase but due to the increase of crops farmers were digging themselves into a bigger hole where they caused their own prices to drop. This was bad for farmers, because thousands of farms had mortgages, and mortgage rates were rising higher and higher. 

 

The Farmers Take Their Stand

  • Prices sagged in 1868, host of farmers sought relief from low prices and high indebtedness by demanding an inflation of the currency with paper money
  • The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, organized in 1867, led by Oliver H. Kelley​--> 1st objective was to enhance lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities.
  • Farm men and women found all the Grange's activities a godsend, farmers receptive to mumbo-jumbo and hierarchy(men:Laborer to Husbandman, women:Maid to Matron)
  • 1875:claimed 800,000 members-->chiefly in midwest and south, met in red schoolhouses
  • Grangers raised goals from individual self-improvement to improvement of the farmers' collective plight-->established cooperatively owned stores for consumers and cooperatively owned grain elevators and warehouses for producers-->most ambitious experiment was an attempt to manufacture harvesting machinery(financial disaster)
  • Grangers moved into politics-->through state legislation strove to regulate railway rates and storage fees charged by railroads and operators of warehouses and grain elevators
  • Many state courts were disposed to recognize the principle of public control of private business for the general welfare
  • Grangers' influence fades-->organization lives on
  • Farmers' grievances found vent in Greenback Labor party(combined inflationary appeal with program for improving labor)
  • 1878- Greenback Laborites polled over a million votes and elected 14 members of Congress-->1880- presidential election: Greenbackers ran General James B. Weaver(an old Granger and was a favorite but only polled 3% of total popular vote)


Prelude to Populism

  • Rural discontent came through the Farmers' Alliance--> farmers came together to socialize and break grip of railroads and manufacturers through cooperative buying and selling
  • Alliance weakened by plight of landless tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and farmworkers & exclusion of blacks
  • 1880s: Colored Farmers' National Alliance emerged for black farmers
  • Out of Farmers' Alliances emerged new political party: the People's party, known as the Populists-->called for nationalizing railroads, telephones, telegraph; instituting a graduated income tax; creating a new federal "subtreasury"; free and unlimited coinage of silver

Class Conflict: Plowholders Versus Bondholders


  • In the election of 1896, Bryan went around campaigning for silver. He hoped to gain the votes of the farmers and masses to win the election.
  • The big business owners however back McKinley and thus payed off their workers to vote for McKinley, with rewards and sometimes threats.
  • Bryan campaigned vigorously, giving more than 600 speeches and going through 27 states. He once have 36 speeches in one day.
  • The McKinley campaign treasure broke a record with 16 million dollars stored within its vaults compared tot he 1 million in the hands of the Democratic party.
  • In the end it came to who had the most money. McKinley had the backing of the big business owners and the money to pay them off. And Bryan and the few farmers who supported inflation.
  • This was the last campaign where one of the candidates ran purely fromt he support of the farmers, from now on candidates had to depend on the blooming cities with their influx of immigrants in order to have any chance of getting into office.


Republican Stand-pattism Enthroned

  • 1897 MCKINLEY TOOK THE INAUGURAL OATH AND HE WAS SEEN as a conservative man who usually went with the majority. CONSERVATIVE NATURE CAUSED HIM TO SHY AWAY FROM THE FLAMING BANNER OF REFORM. BUSINESS WAS GIVEN A FREE REIN AND HE TRUSTS WHICH HAD TRUSTED THEM IN 1896 WERE ALLOWED TO DEVELOP MORE MIGHTY MUSCLES WITHOUT SERIOUS RESTRAINTS
  • ALMOST AS SOON A MCKINLEY TOOK OFFICE THE TARIFF ISSUE WHICH HAD PLAYED SECOND FIDDLE TO SILVER IN THE BATTLE OF 96 QUICKLY FORCED ITSELF TO THE FORE. THE CURRENT WILSON GORMAN LAW WAS NOT RAISING ENOUGH REVENUE TO COVER THE ANNUAL TREASURY DEFICITS AND THE REPUBLICANS TRUSTS THOUGHT THAT THEY HAD PURCHASED THE RIGHT TO ADDITIONAL TARIFF PROTECTION BY THEIR LUSH CONTRIBUTIONS TO HANNA'S WAR CHEST IN DUE COURSE THE DINGLE Y TARIFF BILL WAS JAMMED THROUGH THE HOUSE IN 1897.
  • THE PROPOSED NEW RATES WERE HIGH BUT NOT HIGH ENOUGH TO SATISFY THE PATCHY LOBBYISTS WHO ONCE AGAIN DESCENDED UPON THE SENATE. OVER 850 AMENDMENTS WERE TACKED ONTO THE OVERTURNED BILL. THE RESULTING PIECE OF PATCHWORK FINALLY ESTABLISHED THE AVERAGE RATES A T 46.5 PERCENT SUBSTANTIALLY HIGHER THAN THE DEMOCRATIC WILSON GORMAN ACT OF 1994 AND IN SOME CATEGORIES EVEN HIGHER THAT THE MCKINLEY ACT OF 1989
  • Prosperity flooded throughout America with the end of the Depression. And Republicans politicians liked to take credit for bringing the prosperity about whether it was true or not.

 

Varying Viewpoints: Was the West Really Won?

After reading the article I completely agree with Tyler’s statement that the west was more conquered by suppressing the Native American people rather than the American and European settler actually winning it. When the American settlers moved west, off the back they were bad news spreading disease, taking over their land too by signing treaties with the “chiefs” of various “tribes”, and ruin their culture (like the buffalo). Those examples along with others are reasons why the West was definitely not won but taken over by force =o


In a way, the west was shaping the settlers liking based on how they lived. So in a way it was sort of "tamed" but not really more changed. As an example of the very strange thing i just said it would be like picturing the life style of Native American peoples. They live off of nature and respect it, usually they try to conserve so there is no need to build massive cities. the American settlers on the other hand, do live by building and changing as much as possible in order to for-fill their needs of imperialism and in order to do this they need natural resources and they would sort of suck the land dry of what is has to offer. The frontier is seen as an American icon because of the fact that it helped settlers advance and explore for their lives and merely for entertainment from discovery.
*??? I don’t agree with this statement because when they used “tamed” they meant they controlled and restrained the Native Americans not in the sense of way of living.

In conclusion and to make sense of all this, the west wasnt really won

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 27 - The Path of Empire 1890-1899

 

Major Themes:

  • Expansionism beyond North America
  • Causes of, nature of, and consequences of the Spanish-American War
  • A new foreign policy: imperialism instead of isolationism
  • Conflicting beliefs: the imperialist debate
  • What is the role of the executive in determining foreign policy?


Major Questions:

  • Compare/contrast “imperialism” of the 1890s with earlier periods of American expansion. Instead of Imperialism involving other countries, the United States was more focused on what was going on internally instead of others. During this time, many small businesses became large businesses, and many other businesses as well started to rise up into the great sale competition. By this time, the true meaning of imperialism began to change as competition arose, leaving weaker company's and products in peril. 
  • In what ways were the US and European brands of imperialism during this period similar and different?
  • How was the Spanish-American War justified and how did it reflect American politics and culture? 
  • Has America always been an expansionist nation? 
  • What are the roots of imperialism? 


Pre-Reading

  • Identify and briefly characterize at least two periods of expansion prior to the Civil War:
  • Following the Civil War, what was the one area of expansion described in the text prior to ch. 27?
  • Attitudes toward foreign regions are not likely formed overnight. Describe the typical white American attitude toward “others” expressed in the late 19th century – Afr.Americans, N. Americans, immigrants.
  • Restate the aims and goals of the Monroe Doctrine.

Outline

America Turns Outward

  • Farmers and Factory owners began to look for markets beyond American shores as agricultural and industrial production boomed. Many Americans believed that the United States had to expand or explode. Their country was bursting with a new sense of power generated by the robust growth in population, wealth, and productive capacity and it was trembling from the hammer blows of labor violence and agrarian unrest.
  • Other forces also whetted the popular appetite for overseas involvement. the lurid yellow press of Joseph's Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst described foreign exploits as manly adventures the kind of dashing derring do that was the stuff of young boys dreams.

Dewey's May Day Victory at Manila

  • The American People plunged into the war lightheartedly, like schoolchildren off to a picnic. Bands blared incessantly "There'll be a hot time in the old town tonight and Hail, Hail, the gangs all here. leading some foreigners to believed that those were national anthems. The war got off to a giddy start for American forces. Even before the declaration of war, on February 25th, 1898, wile navy secretary john d long was a way from the office, his hot blooded assistant secretary Theodore Roosevelt took matters into his own hands. Roosevelt commanded the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong to descend upon Spain's Philippines in the event of war. Mckinley confirmed these instructions.
  • May 1, 1898: George Dwey carried out his orders sailing boldly with 6 warships into the harbor of Manila, trained his guns the next morning on the 10 ship Spanish fleet. Nearly 4,000 Spaniards killed and wounded, no loss of a single life in Dewey's fleet

Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

  • Many inhabitants in Puerto Rico lived in poverty, population grew faster than economy
  • Foraker Act of 1900, Congress accorded Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government and in 1917, granted them U.S. citizenship
  • However, many inhabitants still wanted independence, no matter what America did for them
  • 1901: Insular Cases decreed that the flag did not outrun the Constitution and that the outdistanced document did not necessarily extend with full force to the new windfalls-->Filipinos and Puerto Ricans subject to American rule but not all American rights
  • An American military government set up in cuba under General Leonard Wood wrought miracles in gov't, finance, education, agriculture, and public health; frontal attack on yellow fever
  • U.S. honored Teller Amendment of 1898 withdrew from cuba in 1902
  • Americans afraid of power of countries like germany forced cuba to write into their own constitution of 1901 the Platt Amendment
  • Platt Amendment: bound themselves not to impair their independence by treaty or by contracting a debt beyond their resources, agreed that the U.S. might intervene with troops to restore order and to provide mutual protection, promised to sell or lease needed coaling or naval stations to U.S.

Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?

  • President McKinley's renomination by the Republicans in 1900 was a foregone conclusion. He had won a war and acquired rich, though burdensome, real estate and he had safeguarded the gold standard and he had brought the promised prosperity of the full dinner pail. An irresistible vice presidential boom developed for Theodore Teddy Roosevelt.
  • After putting Roosevelt into the vice presidency, he sported a western style cowboy hat that made him stand out sstick a white crow at the republican convention. To cries of We want teddy, he was handily nominated. A wary mark hanna reportedly moaned that there would now be only one heartbeat between him and the presidency of the united states

Building the Panama Canal

  • After the Spanish-American war, American began to see the benefits of canal across the American isthmus.
  • Legal means were blocking the Americans from building there canal because of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty stating that the Americans could not secure exclusive control over an isthmian route.
  • British yielded ground and consented to the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901 that allowed the Americans to build and fortify a canal.
  • June 1902 the Panama Canal was decided to be built, but the Panama senate refused to give up any land to the Americans.
  • November 3, 1903, the Panamanians revolted thinking that the building of the canal would bring prosperity, the US navy prevented Columbian troops from crossing the isthmus to quell the rebellion.
  • Roosevelts "SHaking of the big stick" worsened relations with Latin America.
  • 1914, the Canal was finished just as WW1 was beginning


TR's Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine

  • Latin American debt defaults prompted further Rooseveltian involvement in affairs south of the border. Nations such as Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were chronically in arrears in their payments to European creditors. Germany actually bombarded a town in delinquent Venezuela in 1903.
  • Roosevelt feared that if the Germans or British got their foot in the door as bill collectors, they might remain in Latin America, in flagrant violation of the Monroe Doctrine. He therefore declared a brazen policy of preventive intervention. better known as teh Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. He announced that in the event of future financial malfeasance by the Latin American nations, the United States itself would intervene, take over the customs houses, pay off the debts, and keep the troublesome Europeans on the other side of the Atlantic.
  • This new brandishing of the big stick in the Caribbean became effective in 1905 when U.S. took over management of tariff collections in the Dominican Republic
  • TR's rewriting of the Monroe Doctrine promoted the "Bad Neighbor" Policy
  • new corollary used to justify wholesale interventions and repeated landings of the marines
  • shadow of big stick fell on cuba in1906, revolutionary disorders brought an appeal from the cuban president U.S. marines landed-->police forces withdrawn temporarily in 1909, but in Latin American eyes the episode was another example of the power of the Colossus of the North

Varying Viewpoints:Why Did America Become a World Power

Other countries around America were expanding and becoming larger and more industrialized. Therefore the United States had an obligation to do so as well or it could fall to other world powers.

Increased industrial output required more raw materials and overseas markets

Race and gender: conquest of "inferior" peoples seemed natural, needed to restore nation's masculine virility, race fueled militarism

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 28 - America on the World Stage 1899-1909

 

Major Themes

  • A new foreign policy: imperialism instead of isolationism
  • Conflicting beliefs: the imperialist debate
  • What is the role of the executive in determining foreign policy?


Major Questions

  • Has America always been an expansionist nation?
    • No, for quite some time, America was not an imperialistic nation, but an isolationist country. America wanted to European nations to stay out of their affairs, in return the US stayed out of their affairs.
  • What are the roots of imperialism?
    • Imperialism is often started by a need or want for more natural resources. A new colony can also be a greta source of income as well. Some nations feel that it is their duty to help others as well (White Man's Burden).
  • What questions does the Philippines War raise about America’s new overseas involvement?
  • What role does Asian immigration and the fear of the “yellow peril” play in shaping America’s relations with East Asia in the early 20th century?


Pre-Reading

  • Restate the aims and goals of the Monroe Doctrine.

It forbid European powers from interfering in the affairs of Latin American countries. This was done to protect the American interests in the Western Hemisphere.


Chapter Questions

Pages 646-651

  • What does the “white man’s burden” refer to?

The white mans burden refers to the idea that American culture and customs were superior to those of less fortunate and poorer countries so the felt that it was their duty to help those people. They thought that taking over these people and "americanizing" them was the proper thing to do. It also has to do with social darwinism and the idea that the best and strongest countries will prosper and it was their duty to help the less fortunate. This was also caused by American exceptionalism.


  • Why was the Philippine-American War such a brutal affair and why is it not as well remembered as the less costly Spanish-American War?
    • The Philippine-American War was so brutal due to the barbarous methods of guerrilla warfare. America also outgunned the Filipinos as well. Forcing water down peoples throats until they provided info was known as "water cure." it is not remembered as highly due to the American investment of millions of dollars in the Philippines.
  • Describe McKinley’s “benevolent assimilation.”
    • Millions of American dollars were poured into improving the infrastructure of the Philippines. Economic stimulation was provided through the trade of sugar. Americans also provided education and made English a second language.
  • Why did it take so long for the US to grant the Philippines its independence (July 4, 1946)?
  • What role do American missionaries play in shaping US foreign policy in Asia?
  • Briefly describe the “Open Door” and comment on the reaction of various European nations.
    • The Americans saw that Europeans were interested in China after its defeat against Japan. Americans were afraid that the Europeans would monopolize the trade through China. This would hurt the American trade greatly. The Open Door policy said that all spheres of influence would obey the Chinese trading rights. Britain, Germany, France, and Japan all accepted this policy.


==Pages 652-661


  • Read the highlighted quotes from Senators Beveridge and Hoar (p. 653). What is the essence of their arguments for and against imperialism?

The arguement for imperialism basically says that the Philippines are ours and that we should not abandon them or the markets in China. And it also says that we can not renounce our mission of civilizing the world.

The argument against it says that even though we are a republic if we deprive any other nation their rights then we become just as bad as they are.


  • Why did the US want to see a canal built across Central America?

The US wanted to see a canal built across Central America for a few different reasons. It would inrease the strength of the navy by increasing its mobility, allowing ships to go from one coast to the other without having to go all the way down around the tip of South America. It also would make defense of acquisitions, such as Puerto Rico, and Hawaii, much easier. It would make trade easier as well.


  • How was the Monroe Doctrine modified by the Roosevelt Corollary? What were the consequences of its application in Latin America?

The Monroe Doctrine orignally stated that European powers were not to interven in Latin American affairs but the Roosevelt Corollary went one step further by saying that Amercia would intervene to prevent them from intervening. Latin Americans cursed the Monroe Doctrine mistakingly as a result of the Corollary and thought that instead of providing a shield the Monroe Doctrine just hid the fact the the Americans were trying to take over.


  • Explain “preventive intervention” and how it conflicts with or supports American principles.
  • Compare TR’s role in both the Russo-Japanese War and the Panamanian Revolution.
  • What message did the parade of the Great White Fleet in the Pacific send? Was it effective?
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 29 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt 1901-1912

 

Major Themes

  • Progressivism was a reform movement aimed at using government power to correct the social and economic problems associated with industrialization
  • Progressivism had both local and national focal points, and was large enough to include several competing theories

Major Questions

  • In what ways did progressivism set the stage for modern government?
  • In what ways was progressivism a source for beneficial reform and in what ways was it a harmful movement?
  • What are the major characteristics of the progressive movement?

Pre-Reading

  • Identify, briefly, earlier reform movements (abolition, labor, women’s rights, etc), their time period, and their major characteristics

Outline

Progressive Roots

  • The government could no longer practice a laissez-faire policy
  • Populists considered trusts as corrupt withh a lot of wrongdoing
  • Jocob Riis shocked middle class Americans with How the Other Half Lives
    • Exposed the New York City Slums
  • Socialists began to register strength at the ballots
  • Messengers of social gospel promoted progressivism from their Christianity
  • Feminists added social injustice to their list of needed reforms

Progressivism in the Cities and States

  • Progressives scored some of their most impressive gains in the cities.
  • Frustrated by the inefficiency and corruption of city gov't many localities followed the pioneering example of Galveston, Texas.
    • In 1901 it had appointed expert staffed commisions to manage urban affairs.
  • Other communities adopted the city-manager system, also designed to take politics out of municipal administration.
  • Some of these "reforms" obviously valued effeciency more highly than democracy, as control of civic affairs was further removed from the people's hands.
  • Urban reformers attacked "slumlords", juvenile delinquency, and wide-open prostitution which flourished in red-light districts unchallenged by bribed police
  • City dwellers also moved to halt the corrupt sale of franchises for street cars and other public utilities.
  • Progressivism naturally bubbled up to the state level notably in Wisconsin
    • The governor, Robert M. La Follette, was an overbearing crusader who emerged as the most militant of the progressive Republican leaders
      • He wrested considerable control from the crooked corporations and returned it to the people.
      • He also perfected a scheme for regulating public utilities while laboring in close association with experts on the faculty of the state university at Madison
  • Other states marched steadily toward the progressive camp, as they undertook to regulate railroads and trusts, chiefly through public utilities commissions.

TR's Square Deal for Labor

  • Roosevelt feared that the public interest was submerged in a sea of indifference
  • Demanded a "Square Deal" for labor, capital, and the public
    • Embraced control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources
  • A strike in the Pennsylvanian coal mines began in 1902
    • Workers wanted a 20% pay increase, and a reduced work day
    • The strike caused a decreased supply of coal, this caused factories to and schools to shut down
    • Roosevelt summoned representatives from each side to the White House
    • Threatened seizeure of the mines by federal troops
    • Workers got a 10% pay increase and a shorter work day
  • Roosevelt urged Congress to create a new Department of Commerce and Labor
    • In 1903 it passed and the Bureau of Corporations joined the President's cabinet

TR Corrals the Corporations

  • The Interstate Commerce Commision couldn't stop the railroads
  • Elkins Act of 1903 provided heavy fines to the railroads who gave rebates, and to the shippers who used the rebates
  • Hepburn Act of 1906 restricted free passes and bribery
  • The Commerce Commision was extended to include companies and pipelines
  • Roosevelt attacked the Northern Securities Company in 1902
    • This trust was ordered to dissolve by the Supreme Court in 1904
  • The Beef trust was found illegal (1905) and so were those of sugar, fertilzer, harvesters, and other key products
  • Roosevelt wanted the government to run the company, not business

Caring for the Consumer

  • Some American meat was claimed to be tainted
    • Foreign nations threatened to ban the US imports
  • The Jungle by Upton Sinclair (1906) appalled the public with the exposure of the unsanitary products
  • Roosevelt appointed an investigative commitee
    • Piles of poisoned rats, rope ends, splinters, and other debris were being canned as potted ham
  • Meat Inpection Act of 1906
    • The preparation of meat shipped oveer state lines would have to be subject to federal inspection
  • Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906
    • Designed to prevent adulturation and mislabeling of foods and drugs

The "Roosevelt Panic" of 1907

  • Roosevelt was elected president "in his own right' in 1904 and entered his term with enormous personal popularity.
  • Yet the conservative Republican bosses considered him dangerous and unpredictable.
  • They grew increasingly more resistent as he called ever more loudly for regulating the corporations, taxing incomes, and protecting workers.
  • Roosevelt suffered a setback in 1907 when a short but punishing panic descended on Wall Street.
    • the financial flurry featured frightened "runs" on banks, suicides, and criminal indictments against speculators.
  • The financial world blamed Roosevelt for the storm and said that he had unsettled industry with his boat-rocking tatics.
  • Conservatives damned him as "Theodore the Meddler" and named the current distress "Roosevelt Panic"
  • The president lashed back at the critics when he accused "certain malefactors of great wealth" of having deliberately engineered the monetary crisis to force the gov't to relax its assaults on trusts.
  • The panic of 1907 paved the way for long-overdue fiscal reforms.
  • It laid bare the need for a more elastic medium of exchange.
  • In a crisis like this, hard-pressed banks were unable to increase the volume of money in circulation and those with ample reserves were reluctant to lend to their less fortunate competitors.
  • In 1908 Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act which authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral.

Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole

  • William Howard Taft at first inspired widespread confidence.
  • The saying goes "Everybody loves a fat man," and Taft was personally popular
  • He graduated second in his class at Yale and had established an enviable reputation as a lawyer and judge.
  • He had been a trusted administrator under Roosevelt in the Philippines, at hom, and in Cuba
  • But he suffered from lethal political handicaps.
    • Roosevelt had led the conflicting elements of the Republican party by the sheer force of his personality, in contrast, Taft had none of the arts of a dashing political leader.
    • He generally adopted an attitude of passivity toward Congress.
    • He was a poor judge of public opinion and his candor made him a chronic victim of "foot-in-mouth" disease.

The Dollar Goes Abroad as a Diplomat

  • Use American investments to boost American political interest abroad, "dollar diplomacy"
  • Washington encouraged Wall Street bankers to invest extra money into strategic, foreign areas, esp. in Far East & areas important to the security of the Panama Canal
    • NY bankers would strengthen US defenses & foreign policies & bring in more $ for US & themselves by displacing investors from rival powers like Germany
  • Manchuria= object of Taft's biggest effort to force in the $ to Far Eastern theater
    • US Rivals: Russia & Japan controlled railroads of Manchuria
    • Taft saw RR monopoly as a possible execution of Chinese economic interests & a slamming of the Open Door in US merchants' faces
    • 1909, Secretary of State Philander C. Knox proposed that US & foreign bankers should buy the Manchurian RRs & then give them to China under a self-liquidating arrangement
    • Russia & Japan refused Knox's offer & Taft was ridiculed
  • Caribbean: revolution, "Yankee Lake"
    • Washington pushed Wall Street bankers to pump $ into financial vacuums in Honduras & Haiti to keep out foreign $
    • US under Monroe Doctrine didn't let foreign nations intervene & felt obligated to prevent political & economic instability
    • Necessity brought armed US to Caribbean intervention
    • Restoring order & protecting US investment in Dominican Republic, Honduras, & Cuba brough US forces in
    • 1912 , revolutionary upheaval in Nicaragua---->landing of 2,500 marines(remaining there for 13 years

Taft the Trustbuster

  • Taft managed to gain some fame as a smasher of monopolies.
  • The ironic truth is that Taft brought 90 suits against the trusts during his 4 years in office compared with some 44 for Roosevelt in seven and a half years.
  • The most sensational judicial acts by Taft came in 1911
    • In that year the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the mighty Standard Oil Company
    • Even more explosively in that year Taft decided to press an antitrust suit against the U.S. Steel Corporation.
      • This infuriated Roosevelt who had personally been involved in one of the mergers that prompted the suit


The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture

  • Uprising in Republican ranks now a full on revolt
  • In 1911, National Progressive Republican League formed w/ the Senator of Wisconsin, La Follette as leading Republican candidate for presidential nomination, assuming that Roosevelt would not run again
  • Roosevelt changed his "anti-3rd termer" views as Taft decided to discard "my policies"
  • Feb. 1912, Roosevelt formally wrote that he was willing to accept Republican nomination to 7 state governors
    • Reason being that the 3rd term tradition applied to 3 consecutive elective terms
  • Roosevelt raged through the pres. primaries claiming the pres. had fallen under the thumb of reactionary bosses & that Taft was trying to do good but was doing so in a feeble manner
    • Taft fought back saying Roosevelt supporters were "emotionalists and neurotics"
  • 1912, Republican convention in Chicago
    • Rooseveltites 100+/- delegates short of nomination, challenged 250+/- Taft delegates to be seated
    • Most contests settled in favor of Taft
    • Roosevelt adherents refused to vote & Taft was victorious
  • After losing nomination, Roosevelt didn't give up & was now ready to lead a 3rd-party crusade
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 30 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad 1912-1916

 

Major Themes

  • Role of third parties in American politics
  • Wilson’s domestic economic and social reform
  • Failure of Wilson’s missionary diplomacy

Major Questions

  • Compare and contrast Wilsonian progressivism with Rooseveltian progressivism.

Wilsonian:


  • Called the "New Freedom" program
    • Stronger antitrust legislation
    • Banking reform
    • Tariff Reductions
    • Small businesses
    • Laissez-faire
    • No social welfare
      • "Man on the make" (as in Self-made)
    • Crush big industries with antitrust laws

Rooseveltian:


  • Called the "New Nationalism"
    • Followed ideas of Herbert Croley (The Promise of American Life, 1910)
      • More trustbusting
      • Grouping labor unions
      • More regulatory agencies
    • Woman Suffrage
    • Social welfare
      • Minimum Wage
      • Social Insurance
  • "...activist welfare state..."


Both: They agreed on these things, but differed in strategy:


  • More active gov't (in economic/social affairs)
  • Trustbusting


  • In what ways was Wilson’s “moral” foreign policy a departure from established foreign policies of the Republicans and in what ways was it similar?

Wilson hated aggressive foreign policy imperialism. He didn't like Roosy's big stick (ooohh, that sounds dirty) or Taft's "dollar diplomacy." Although he didn't approve of imperialism, he did take some imperialistic actions. His imperialism was usually forced, though, either by foreign anger or by a wish for complete control of the Caribbean.



SEE NEW DIRECTIONS IN FOREIGN POLICY


  • Assess America's neutrality in the early years of the war.

Although America claimed it was neutral, it carried on trade with the Allies but not the Central Powers. This was kosher (or as Farley would say, "organic") because America was open for trade with anyone. Unfortunately for the Centrals (namely Germany), Britain controlled the seas with their Almighty and Dominating Navy (ADN for short.) The ADN refused to let German ships pass to America (or back) and adopted a harrassing policy with American ships, in which the ADN "herded" into British ports to prevent them from going to German ones. America was "neutral" legally, but biased towards the Allies.



 

Outline

The "Bull Moose" Campaign of 1912

  • Democrats nominated (Thomas) Woodrow Wilson in 1912
    • gave him a strong new platform to run on called "new freedom"
      • called for stronger anti-trust legislation, bankiing reform, and tariff reductions
  • "Progressive Republican Party" (third party) nominated Roosy
    • Roosy said he felt "as strong as a bull moose" and hence the "Bull Moose" party
  • Republicans nominated Fatty Tafty (they have the same letters!!!!!)
    • Republican vote would be split between Roosy and Fatty (see excellent cartoon at top of 688)
  • Main question was which type of Progressivism would win (Roosy Vs. Wilson)
    • See Main Question # 1
  • Roosy got shot in Milwaukee but finished his speech (I only put this in here because it reminds me of K-Dog'sbonus about McK) Hope you enjoy you're new Nickname Mr. Kanoff (see K-Dog reference)


Woodrow Wilson: a Minority President

  • Wilson wins:
    • 435 electoral, 6,296,547 popular
  • Roosy had:
    • 88 electoral, 4,118,571 popular
  • Fatty had:
    • 8 electoral, 3,486,720 popular
    • Weird how America didn't like the Fatty then, but is all fatty now
  • Wilson had only 41% of popular
    • Not very big, hence "minority president"
    • had less votes than his predecessor, Bryan had amassed in any of his defeats
  • Eugene V. Debs was nominated by Socialist party
    • Had 900,672 popular, and was excited about it
    • This leads me to conclude the Socialists are (metaphorically) equal to the kids in the Chess Club in HighSchool (no friends)
  • Republicans were now the minority in Congress (for 6 yrs.) and no president (for 8 yrs.)
  • Fatty stayed happy and became a Supreme Court Justice (1921)


Wilson: The Idealist in Politics

  • First president from one of the seceded states since Zachary Taylor, 64 years earlier
  • He was greatly influenced by his being from the South
    • Sympathized w/ the Confedracy
      • Inspired his ideal of "self-determination" for people of other countries
    • Believed in Jeffersonian democracy (faith in the well-informed masses)
  • Son of a Presbyterian minister, therefore spoke religiously
    • Wasn't all about the arm-waving like Roosy was
  • Believed president should be dynamic and lead
    • Felt the President should act as a kind of "Prime Minister"
    • Often appealed directly to the people instead of to Senators
  • Suffered personality defects:
    • Could be cold and standoffish in public
    • Very stern
    • Preferred humanity in mass rather than as individuals
    • Somewhat arrogant
    • Hated journalists and stupid senators
    • Stubborn and unwilling to compromise
  • He had a strong sense of "moral righteousness"
    • More stubborn than Roosy in the sense that when he felt he was right, he wouldn't compromise
    • Check out chapter 31 with his League of Nations-ized Treaty of Versailles and the whole "my way or the highway" attitude


Wilson Tackles the Tariff

  • Few presidents have gone into the White House w/ a clearer vision than Wilson
    • called for an assault on "the triple wall of privelege": tariffs, banks, and trusts
  • Tackled the tariff first
    • talked to Congress in person
    • passed the Underwood Tariff bill
      • reduced tariff rates
      • reduced import fees substantially
    • when tons of lobbyists tried to stop thee bill, Wilson gave a message to the people urging them to hold their representatives in line
      • the move worked
    • under the 16th Ammendment, a gratuated income tax was made for those who made more than $3,000 a year (more than most)


Wilson Battles the Bankers

  • Attacked banking next, w/ its biggest problem being that the money was not elastic
    • in June 1913, Wilson gave another speech in front of Congress, this time asking for reform in the banking system
      • for a decentralized bank in gov't hands versus a strong private bank like the Reublicans had envisioned
  • Victory again as the Federal Reserve Act was passed in 1913
    • Federal Reserve Board (appointed by the pres.) oversaw a system of 12 regional reserve districts, each w/ its own central bank
    • had a good measure of public coontrol
    • could issue paper money- "Federal Reserve Notes"- backed by commercial paper money
    • helped during WWI


The President Tames the Trusts

  • Finally, w/ another speech, Wilson went after the trusts
  • Another victory as the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 was passed
    • it empowered a presidentially appointed commision to investigate industries engaged in interstate commerce
    • the commision was suppossed to stop monopolies at their source
  • Clayton act passed
    • helped out labor
      • held labor exempt from anti-trust prosecution
      • legalized strikes and peaceful picketing


Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide

  • After dealing with the triple wall of privilege Wilson made many other reform acts
    • THe Federal Farm Loan Actof 1916-made credit available to farmers at low rates
    • The Warehouse act of 1916 authorized loans on the security of staple crops
    • He passed the La Follette Seamen's Act in 1915 to help sailors
    • He also helped workers with the Workingmen's Compensation Act of 1916 which assisted workers when they were injured
    • passed many other acts to help workers
  • did not deal with better treatment of blacks at all
  • For the 1916 election he knew he needed to woo the progressive voters

New Directions in Foreign Policy

  • Wilson recoiled from aggresive foreign policy- anti imperialism
  • He was also anti dollar diplomacy
  • He repealed the Panama Canal Tolls act in 1914 and granted the Philipines territorial status
  • Wilson also defused a possible crisis with Japan by sending William Jennings Bryan to make California let Japanese have land
  • twice Wilson had to send troops to protect American interests once in Haiti and once in the Dominican Republic
  • In 1917 Wilson bought the Virgin Islands

Thunder Across the Sea

  • In 1914 a serb patriot killed the heir to the throne of Austria Hungary which started a chain reaction of nations being pulled into the war
  • the sides were the central powers-Germany Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria and the Allies-France Britain Russia Japan and Italy
  • American thought themselves safe with the barrier of the sea


A Precarious Neutrality

  • Wilson really didn't want to go to war so he told everyone we were staying neutral
  • Both sides of the war tried to woo America by both talking crap about each other
  • Germans and Austro-Hungarians depended on sympathy from their many countrymen in America
    • lots were, others were just happy to be away from the mess
  • most Americans were anti-German from the begining
    • not many were a fan of Kaiser Wilhelm II
    • Gtown struck innocent Belgium
    • G's restorted to violence in American factories and ports
    • USians found a German operative's plans for industrial sabotage
      • this really made Americans angry
  • Still the majority of the US wanted to stay neutral

America Earns Blood Money

  • US was pulled out of hardtimes by the Brit and French war-orders
  • J.P.Morgan advanced the Allies $2.3 billion
  • Gtown could trade w/ US but Brits had an air-tight trade blockade against Gtown so we went to Britain's ports instead
  • Gtown said "fine, we're going to put a submarine war area around the British Isles"
  • Berlin officials said we'll try not to sink you guys but mistakes will occur
    • we said fine but you're fully responsible for your actions
  • Uboats sank 90 ships in first months
  • Lusitania was a controversial sinking bc it killed 128 Americans
    • this really made Americans angry but Wilson still said NOOO.
  • then the Arabic sunk w/ 2 American lives
    • we raised an eyebrow and Berlin said fine we won't sink unarmed and unresisting passenger shipswithout warning
  • Then they sunk the Sussex
    • they said we'll stick to our word this time if you tell the allies to modify what we regard as their illegal blockade
    • US couldn't do that


Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916

  • 1916: bull moose Progressives and Republicans met in Chicago
  • Progressives renominated TR, but he declined, not wanting to split the Repub. party again [with was the death call of the Progressive party]
  • Progressives nominated Supreme Court justice Charles Evan Hughes
  • The Republican platform vied for the Democratic tariff, assaults on the trusts and Wilson's wishy-washiness in dealing w. Mexico and Germany
  • Hughes straddled the line between not taking action against the Kaiser and being isolated
  • TR unsurprisingly campaigned for war
  • Wilson's campaign slogan "He Kept Us Out of War"
  • Hughes swept the East expecting the presidency
  • but everyone else voted for wilson
    • 277 to 254
    • 9,127,695 to 8,533,507

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 31 - The War to End War 1917-1918

 

Major Themes

  • America’s war effort produced profound economic, political, and social changes
  • Practicality of Wilson’s Fourteen Points

 

Major Questions

  • How did the US mount a “total” war effort? What measures were necessary top accomplish this?
  • What circumstances led to the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations by the US Senate?


Outline

War by Act of Germany

  • To defend American interests short of war, the president asked Congress for authority to arm American merchant ships.
  • A band of midwestern senators launched a filibuster to block the measure and Wilson denounced them as a "little group of willful men" who were rendering a great nation "helpless and contemptible", but their obstruction was a reminder of the continuing strength of American isolationism.
  • The Zimmermann note was intercepted and published on March 1, 1917 infuriating Americans especially westerners.
    • The German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann had secretly proposed a German-Mexican alliance, with veiled promises to Mexico of recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
  • Following the Zimmermann notes German U-boats sank four unarmed American merchant vessels in the first two weeks of March.
    • The President lost a gamble that America could pursue neutral trade without being sucked into maelstrom
  • Wilson at last asked Congress for a declaration of war on the evening of April 2, 1917.
  • In later years a myth developed that Americ was dragged unwittingly into war by munitions makers and Wall Street bankers who were desperate to protect their profits and loans.
  • The weapons merchants and financiers though, were already thriving uneffected by wartime gov't restrictions and heavy taxation.
  • America declared war on April 6, 1917
    • Held the trademark "Made In Germany"


Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

  • It fell to the Scholarly Wilson who was deeply respectful of American traditions, to shatter one of the most sacred of those traditions by entangling America in a distant European war.
    • Posed a threat to the leadership skills of Wilson
  • For more than a century Americans had prided themselves on their isolationism from the periodic outbursts of militarized violence that afflicted the Old World, and now German U-boats had roughly shoved America into the abyss.
  • Many in Congress had voted against the war resolution
  • Wilson could not get any enthusiasm, especially in the Midwest, by fighting to make the world safe from the submarine.
  • Wilson would have to claim more glorified aims, he declared the twin goals of "a war to end war" and a crusade "to make the world safe for democracy"
  • He won over the nation with his lofty ideals. He contrasted the selfish war aims of the others with America's shining altruism.
  • Wilson genuinely believed in the principles he so eloquently intoned.
  • Probably no other appeal could have successfully converted the American people from their historic hostility to involvement in European squabbles.
  • Wilson's appeal worked-perhaps too good.
    • He fired up the public mind to a fever pitch


Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points

  • Wison quickly came to be recognized as the moral leader of the Allied cause.
  • He delievered his famed Fourteen Points Address to an enthusiastic Congress on January 8, 1918.
  • Although one of his primary purposes was to keep reeling Russia in the war, his vision inspired all the Allies to make mightier efforts and demoralized the enemy gov'ts by holding out alluring promises to their dissatisfied minorities.
  • The first 5 of the Fourteen Points were broad in scope.
    • 1- A proposal to abolish secret treaties pleased liberals of all countries.
    • 2- Freedom of the seas appealed to Germans, as well as to Americans who distrusted British sea power.
    • 3- A removal of economic barriers among nations was comforting to Germany, which feared postwar vengeance.
    • 4- A reduction of armament burdens was gratifying to taxpayers everywhere.
    • 5- An adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and the colonizers was reassuring to the anti-imperialists.
  • The other points proved no less seductive.
  • They held out the hope of independence to oppressed minority groups, such as the Poles.
  • Point number 14 forshadowed the League of Nations- which was an international organization the Wilson dreamed would provide a system of collective security.
    • Felt that the League of Nations would create worldwide political independence and territorial integrity for all nations
  • Wilson's appealing points were not everywhere applauded.


Creel Manipulates

  • Mobilizing people's minds for war was an urgent task facing the Washington authorities.
  • The Committee on Public Information was created for this purpose
    • It was headed by journalist George Creel who was gifted with zeal and imagination and whose job was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilsonian war aims.
  • The Creel organization employed some 150,000 workers at home and overseas, proved that words were indeed weapons.
  • It sent out 75,000 "four-minute men", who often were longer-winded than that, to deliver speeches containing much "patriotic pep"
  • Creel's propaganda came in varied forms.
    • Posters were splashed on billboards.
    • Leaflets and pamphlets
    • Propaganda bookelets.
  • The entire nation catching the frenzied spirit of a religious revival burst into song.
  • Creel typified American war mobilization, which relied more on aroused passion and voluntary compliance than on formal laws.
  • But he oversold the ideals of Wilson and led the world to expect too much.


Enforcing Loyalty and Stifling Dissent

  • German-Americans numbered over 8 million, on the whole the proved to be dependably loyal to the US
  • Rumormongers thought, were quick to spread stories of spying and sabotage.
  • A few German-Americans were tarred, feathered, and beated and in one extreme case a German Socialist was lynched by a drunken mob.
  • As emotion mounted, hatred of Germans and things Germanic swept the nation.
  • Orchestras found it unsafe to present German-composed music, German books were removed from library shelves, and German classes were cancled in high schools and colleges.
  • The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 reflected current fears about Germans and anti war Americans.
  • Especially visible among the 1,900 prosecutions undertaken under these laws were antiwar Socialist and members of the radical Industrial Workers of the World.
  • Virtually and critiscism of the gov't could be censored and punished.
  • Some critics claimed the new laws were bending, if not breaking, the First Amendment.
  • In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court affirmed the laws legality arguing that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech pased a "clear and present danger" to the nation.


The Nation’s Factories Go to War

  • The nation was not ready to go to war
  • Wilson had only mild preparations that were from 1915
    • Council of National Defense
    • Ship building program
    • Addition of 100,000 to the army
  • Ignorance was a big roadblock
    • No one knew how much steel or gunpowder the nation could produce
  • In March 1918 Bernard Baruch was appointed to head the War Industries Board
    • Had to be disbanded days after the armistice

 

Suffering Until Suffrage

  • Women were forced to take up various roles in society during the War
    • This caused a delay in the women's movement
    • Most of the women were pacifists and were inclined to the war altogether
  • The majority of the women were represented by the National American Women's Suffrage Association which supported the war
    • They argued that women must have a role as a way to shape the Peace
    • Winning democracy abroad was the best way to own democracy at home for women
  • Wilson endorsed women's suffrage due to their hard work
  • In 1920 the 19th amendment was ratified giving them suffrage
  • After the war many women gave up their jobs and returned to their normalcy
  • The Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921 gave financial aid and health care


Forging a War Economy

  • preperation for war was primarily derived from inspiring a sense of partiotism instead of implementing law
  • Hoover, head of the food administration set an example of using propaganda to rally support
    • used posters, billboards, newspapers, etc
    • soon delcared "meatless tuesdays" and "wheatless wednesdays" all on voluntary basis
    • led to an increase in self restraint due to voluntary rationing<- helped prohibition
    • voluntary approach proved very effective
  • other departments adopted this method of propaganda
  • gov't also put extreme pressure on citizens to buy war bonds
  • Wilson administration primatily relid on voluntary means of war support but did occasionally use gov't power


Making Plowboys into Doughboys

  • most americans did not initally want to enter the war despite their support for the allies' cause
  • in 1917 the allies requested american military intervention
  • the american gov't needed to amass a quick army was fjorced to pass a conscription law
    • draft was fair and could not bo bought out of
  • army grew drastically in only a few months
  • though recruits were supposed to recieve 8 months of training many recived very little


Fighting in France – Belatedly

  • with the removal of russian troops from the allied force american soldiors became even more essential
  • american troops often were undertrained
  • shipping proved a challenge for the allied powers
  • Americans primarily served in france however they also served in belgium,italy, and russia

The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany

  • germans, now ready to admit defeat turned to wilson to garuntee a fair treaty
    • they counted on a treaty based on the fourteen points, which did not happen
  • Wilson demanded that the Kaiser be removed before any formal negotiations would begin
  • This was done and the German's quickly ceased fighting
  • Americans primarily contrubuted by was of supplies rather than military action, however the prospect of seemingly endless American troops had a strong demoralizing effect on the Germans


Wilson Steps Down From Olympus

  • Expectations were high for Wilson's plans for reshaping the peace after success in the war
    • At the end of the war, Wilson was at the peak of his popularity & power
    • Wilson was cherished by some Europeans, no other man ever occupied such a pinnacle as moral leader of the world
    • Wilson had prestige of victory, & economic resources from mightiest nation behind him
  • Then he began making tragic fumbles-
    • "Politics Is Adjourned" kept partisan political strife out of view during war
      • Wilson broke the truce by appealing for a Dem. victory in Congress election(Nov. 1918) in hopes to strengthen his hand at the Paris peace table
      • Plan backfired when voters put Republican majority back in Congress
      • Wilson went to Paris defeated & the only one that didn't control a legislative majority at home
    • Wilson ticked off the Republicans:
      • Republicans enraged that Wilson went to Paris in person to help make peace bc no pres. had ever gone to Europe & his trip looked like a "flamboyant grandstanding" to critics
      • Snubbed Senate during assembly of his peace delegation & didn't include any Republican senators in his official party


An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris

  • the common people belived wilson a hero of morality, but politicians kept him at arms length fearing that his presance might sow the seeds of revolution
  • representatives of America, France, Italy, and Britian had the most influence over the treaty
  • efficiency was very important due to ensuing anarchy after the war
  • Wilson's primary goal was to establis the League of Nations
  • he also wasnted to prevent any biased distrobution of Germany's colonial holdings
    • in this he failed b/c though the territories were not colonies per se the mother nathion sill treated them as such
  • in Feburary 1919 most European diplomats agreed to join the League of Nations

 

The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

  • The Treaty of Versailles was given to the Germans in June of 1919
  • Germans had believed that peace would be granted based on the Fourteen Points
    • Only a few of these points were actually honored
  • Compromise was needed at Paris because the Allied Powers were torn by secret treaties and individualistic goals
    • Wilson was forced to give up a few of the points in order to protect his more important
  • Wilson was not happy with the results of the treaty because the League of Nations was not powerful
  • though Wilson did not achieve many of his goals and recognized the injustice of the treaty it was still much fairer b/c of him


The Domestic Parade of Prejudice

  • Returning for the second time to America, Wilson sailed straight to political typhoon
    • Isolationists protested the treaty, especially the US atmitance into the League of Nations
    • Critics also abused him about the Treaty of Versailles
  • The pact was criticized due to its harshness, while others thought it was not harsh enough
  • Many Americans of recent forgien descent opposed the treaty for not benefitting thier own nation enough
  • Irish-Americans denounced the League as well
    • They felt that Britain was given power that was not needed or deserved


Wilson's Tour and Collapse

  • The President had a reason to be optomistic even with the mounting discontent
    • The people still seemed favorable and the "Wilson League" was strongly stable in Part I
  • Senator Lodge was not able to defeat the Treaty at this time, he wanted to "Americanize It"
  • Wilson went on a tour of speeches in order to appeal to the confused public about the treaty
    • Began in September 1919
    • His campaign was undertaken by protests by physicians and friends
    • People wanted to impeach him after angry Senators presented a few days later
    • The reaction in the West was much warmer and welcoming
  • Wilson was forced back to Washington when a stroke paralyzed half of his body


The Solemn Referendum of 1920

  • Wilson proposed to settle treaty issue in the upcoming 1920 pres. campaign by appealing to the people for a "solemn referendum"
  • June 1920, Republicans met in Chicago, creating a vague platform that could appeal to pro-League-ers & anti-League-ers w/in the party
  • Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding was favored & nominated
    • Harding was a prosperous, small-town newspaper editor
    • Mass. Governor Calvin Coolidge nominated for VP
      • gained conservative support by breaking up a police strike in Boston
  • Democrats nominated Ohio Governor James M. Cox
    • Dem. VP nominee was Assisstant Navy Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt of NY
  • Democrats attempted to make the campaign a referendum on the League but Harding challenged efforts by issuing contradictory statements on the issue
  • Both pro- & anti-League Republicans claimed Harding's election would propel their cause, but Harding suggested that he would work for a vague Association of Nations, not the League
  • Harding won w/ over 7million votes, 16,143,407 to 9,130,328 for Cox, the electoral count was 404 to 127
    • W/ 919,799 votes, Eugene V. Debs, a federal prisoner, won the largest amount of votes ever for a left-wing Socialist party
  • People were tired of pro. high-browism, star-reaching idealism, do-goodism, moral strain, & self-sacrifice
  • Eager to get back to normal & accept a 2nd-rate pres. but got a 3rd-rate one
  • Republican isolationists successfully turned Harding's victory into death for the League

The Betrayal of Great Expectations

  • The inablility to spawn the League of Nations as a powerful Worldwide Peace organization showed America's shortcomings
    • There is no way to tell is this would have averted WWII
    • America was blamed for the failure by the rest of the Allied forces
  • The failure of the Treaty of Versailles was also blamed on America
    • The American aspect of the Treaty was never put into place,allowing for the failure of the Treaty
  • The Senate formed a treaty with France fearing that the new generation of Germans would form arms illegally
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 32 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties" 1919-1929

 

Major Themes

  • New technologies, mass-marketing, new forms of entertainment fostered rapid cultural change along with the early development of a consumer lifestyle.
  • Changes in moral values and uncertainty about the future produced anxiety as well as intellectual critiques of American culture


Major Questions

  • What were some of the cultural developments that were “conservative” in nature? Which developments were “liberal” in nature?
  • What were the economic and social consequences of the emerging mass-consumption economy
  • In what ways were the 1920s a reaction against the progressive era?


Outline

Seeing Red

  • Fear of communism rose in America after the Bolshevic Revolution in Russia in 1917
  • The "red scare" of 1919-1920 caused by hatred of left-wingers whose American ideals were suspect
    • Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer rounded up 6,000 suspects and earned the name, "Fighting Quaker"
      • doubled his efforts after a bomb went off in his home in June 1919 and was redubbed the "Quaking Fighter"
    • another highlight was the deportation of 249 people to the "workers paradise" of Russia
    • also, in 1920, another unexplained bomb went off in Wall Street and killed 38 people and wounded several hundred others
  • Laws were made to prevent the mentioning of any other form of government
    • 5 lawfully elected members of the New York legislature were denied their seats because they were socialists in 1920
  • Red Scare was good for conservative business people because they could denounce labor unions as Communist and evil while their plans were American and right
  • "Judicial Lynching"
    • Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were both accused of the murders of a paymaster and his guard in 1921
    • the jury and the judge were all prejudiced against them because they were both Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers
    • case dragged on 6 years and then they were electrocuted
    • became martyrs for the Communist cause
    • probably would have only of been given a jail term if the environment wasn't as prejudiced


Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK

  • with the introduction of even stronger xenophobic feelings than ever before in American history, the KKK rose again as a strongly nativist group
  • this radiacally minded right wing group advocated racism on all front and a return to the ideals of a protestant society
  • the Klan became very large, including as many as 5 million members
  • quickly fell apart in the late 1920's as more moral people recognized the attrocities of the Klan's methods


Stemming the Foreign Flood

  • In 1920-1921 800000 immigrants came to America
    • This caused a nativist stir in America calling to stem the flow of immigrants
  • This was done by The Emergency Quota Act of 1921
    • this let only 3% of immigrants per nationality in the US get in
  • This act was replaced in 1924 with the Immigration Act of 1924
    • This limited the immigrants allowed to 2% and used an earlier census than the Quota Act
    • This act was worse for southern and western Europeans
    • This act limited all Japanese immigration
  • First time in American history that America was filling up and needed a stopper



 

The Prohibition Experiment

  • Alcohol was made illegal in 1919 by the 18th ammendment
  • This law was very popular in the south and west
  • There was very strong opposition to the law in eastern cities
  • Opponents of the law thought that if they violated it enough it would change
  • Prohibition may have gone better if there were more officials
  • Really the law had no teeth... many people drank and there were thousands of saloon replacements called speakeasies
  • This was not a complete failure... less alcohol was consumed and bank savings went up


The Golden Age of Gangsterism

  • with the prohibition of alcohol came the illegal and immensely profitable business of smuggling or "bootlegging"
  • this was typically done by gangs who practiced widespread organized crime throughout the 1920's
  • despite the widespread criminal activity and gang wars, few convictions were made
  • Chicago was the center of most gang activity
  • Gangsters also partook in other illegal ventures: prostitution, narcotics,gambling


Monkey Business in Tennessee

  • Education continued to improve
    • more states required young people to stay in school until 16 or 18
    • amount of 17 year olds who graduated school almost doubled in the 1920s to more than 1/4
  • Professor John Dewey created progressive learning or "learning by doing"
  • Advances in health care increased the life expectancy from 50 years in 1901 to 59 in 1921
  • Progressive learning and science both subjected to criticism from Fundamentalists
    • said that teaching Darwinism was destroying faith in God and the Bible and the moral breakdown of youth in the jazz age
    • attempts were made to stop the teaching of evolution, espcially in the Bible Belt South
  • "Monkey Trial" held at Dayton, Tennessee in 1925
    • John T. Scopes found guilty and fined $100
    • against him was former presidential candidate Bryan who died of stroke 5 days later
    • hollow victory for Fundamentalists, looked sort of silly
    • Bible ended up still being the main source of America's spiritual life

The Mass Consumption Society

  • Prosperity came to the US in the 1920s
  • There was rapid expansion of capitol investments and ingenious machines were made
  • Henry Ford invented the assembly line which sparked the huge automobile business
  • a new arm of American commerce was made-advertising
  • Sports also became big business
  • several games entrance fees made a million dollars+
  • The idea of paying on credit also came about now


Putting America on Rubber Tires

  • The invention of the automobile was the most influencial of the 1920s w/ it's assembly-line methods and mass-production techniques
  • Europeans acutally invented the car but Americans adapted it
    • Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds [Oldsmobile] were the main developers of the auto industry
  • 1910: 69 existing car companies annually produced a total of 181,000 units
  • They were slow and unreliable, stalling frequently
  • Detroit was the motorcar capital of America
  • Frederick W. Taylor, inventor/engineer, introduced many useful efficiency techniques
  • Henry Ford contributed most to America's automobile-ization
    • Model T was cheap, ugly, rugged, reasonable reliable, rough, and clattering
      • behavior of the car was so eccentric that it was made fun of a lot
    • Henry was an ill-educated millionaire & his empire was based on his associate's organizational talent
    • Devoted himself to the gospel of standardization
    • Sold a total of 20 million Model T's by 1930
  • By 1929, 26 million motor vehicles were registered in the US; averaging 1 for every 4.9 Americans
    • [more cars in US then in the whole world at that point]


The Advent of the Gasoline Age

  • This industry depended on steel but displaced steel from its kingpin role
    • 6 Million were employed by 1930
    • Others were created by supporting roles
      • Rubber, Glass, Fabrics, and highway construction all contributed to jobs
    • America's standard of living also increased
  • The petroleum industry boomed with development of oil derricks throughout the nation
  • The railroad industry took a signifigant hit due to the widespread use of cars, busses, and trucks
  • There were many positive effects
    • Speedy marketing of perishable foods
    • Farms could get their goods to the market faster, cheaper, and fresher
    • The need for roads caused America to build the finest network of hard surfaced roads in the world
  • The new cars also allowed for more leisure time
  • Less attractive states lost population at an alarming rate
  • By the late 1920s Americans owned more cars than bathtubs
  • Busses consolidated school districts
  • The need for speed made citizens statistics
    • By 1951, 1 million had died on the road
  • Crime was aided by cars because it allowed for a quick get away
  • The automobile contributed to a notably improved air quality, despite its later noteriety as a polluter


Humans Develop Wings

  • Gasoline allowed people to fly
    • The Wright brothers stayed airbourne for 12 seconds in their plane on December 17, 1903
    • This spanned 120 feet
  • The world slowly shrank as avaiation got off the ground
    • Planes were used for various purposes during the Great War (1914-1918)
    • The first transcontinental airmail route was established from NY to San Francisco in 1920
  • Charles Lindbergh flew his plane from NY to Paris in a couragous 33 hour 39 minute flight
    • Seeked prize of $25,000
  • This gave birth to an giant new industry
    • The accident rate was high, though only slightly higher than that of the railroads
    • By the 1930's travel on airways was signifigantly safer than on a highway
  • Took many of thee passengers of railroads greatly hurting the RR industry
  • Ariel bombs made some consider the planes as a curse
  • Made travel much quicker, it "shriveled the world"


The Radio Revolution

  • thank you!
  • Guglielmo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy in the 1890s and his creation was used for long-range communication in WWI
  • Next the voice-carrying radio came along, baffling many
  • Other miracles were the transatlantic wireless phonographys, radiotelegraphys and television
  • Radios at first only reached local areas but by the late 1920s technological improvements made long-distance broadcasting possible
    • National commercials took over local programming
    • commercials made radio a vehicle for American free enterprise
    • Radios drew families back to the home and helped knit together communities and neighborhoods and THE NATION once more
  • The radio was a large contribution educationally and culturally
    • Sports were stimulated
    • politicians had to adjust to the millions as opposed to thousands
    • world events effected people more personally
    • music of various artists and symphony orchestras were more widely listened to and known
    • the radio helped people who couldn't go experience these kind of events


Hollywood's Filmland Fantasies

  • Many inventors made the movie (including Edison)
    • 1890s: Started out in the "naughty peep-show penny arcades"
    • 1903: The Great Train Robbery airs
      • First story sequence (not quite a movie) played in 5cent theaters called "nickelodeons"
    • The Birth of a Nation by D.W.Griffith (1915) was about the old KKK and how great it was
  • Hollywood was sunny and such, so was the movie capital
    • First producers starred sexay naked ladies called "vamps" until people complained
    • Used "anti-kaiser" movies during WWI to sell bonds and boost morale
  • 1927: "Talkies" came to be
    • The Jazz Singer, starring Al Jolson had sound
    • Theaters were set up to play movies with music and voices
    • Color movies were being made
  • Movies were the new entertainment of the era
    • Movie stars made more than the Prez.
    • People knew movie star names better than political ones
      • Sort of like today
  • Had profound effect of assimilation on immigrants
    • Young immigrant children tuned into radios and movies instead of listening to parents and following old world customs
    • Helped them learn the culture/language and fit in
    • Led to working-class bridge of language barrier
      • Helped them get reforms (strikes more effective because can talk to one another now)

The Dynamic Decade

  • Census of 1920 showed that most lived in urban areas
  • Women were finding (crappy) jobs in cities
    • These jobs had low wages
    • Often not good (retail clerks, office typing...)
      • These jobs were deemed "women's work"
    • Margaret Sanger: Attempted (and succeeded) a Birth-Control Movement
    • Alice Paul: Started National Women's Party (1923)
      • Wanted an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution
      • Succeeded 70 yrs. later
  • Churches were changing
    • OLD: Fundamentalists, Hellfire and Brimstone, Don't Sin or You Will Burn Forever
    • NEW: God is your friend and the world is a "chummy" place
    • Some made "wholesome" movies for the young'uns
    • Some had advertisement
      • "Come to Church: Christian Worship Increases Your Efficiency"
  • America is at "sex o'clock"
    • Advertisers used sex to sell everything
    • Women were more free
      • Flappers had short hair and short dresses
      • More makeup
      • One-piece Bathingsuits
    • Freud helped
      • Argued that "sexual repression" led to mental illness
      • "Health demands sexual gratification"
  • Teens got into the sexy stuff too...
    • OLD: Kissing = marriage proposal
    • NEW: Jazz dancing (close and sweaty kind of like something else....), Cars (wheeled prostitution houses), Dark movie theaters...
  • Jazz was the tunes of the era
    • Moved up from New Orleans during WWI with the migrating Blacks
    • W.C.Handy wrote "St. Louis Blues" and it became a classic
    • "Jelly Roll" Morton, Joseph "Joe" King Oliver, Paul Whiteman were all famous
  • Racial pride developed in the North
    • HARLEM: one of the largest black communitites anywhere
    • Langston Hughes wrote The Weary Blues (1926)
    • Marcus Garvey was a political leader
      • Founded United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)
      • Hoped to help blacks return to Africa
      • He sponsored all-black businesses to put "black money in black pockets"
      • Eventually deported (1927)
      • UNIA helped new-comers to the north establish racial pride, even after the deportation


Cultural Liberation

  • The writer's of the previous era were dying out
    • Henry James died 1916
    • Henry Adams died 1918
    • William Dean Howells died in 1920
  • Some managed to carry through
    • Edith Wharton and Willa Cather were still popular
  • New writers became well-known
    • Most came from culturally different backgrounds
    • Gave American literature "...a new vitality, imaginativeness, and artistic quality."
    • H.L.Mencken was "Bad Boy of Baltimore"
      • Wrote in American Mercury about marriage, patriotism, democracy, prohibition, Rotarians, middle-class America, the South, and Puritans
      • Criticed heavily
      • "Puritanism was the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, might be happy."
  • The war affected many new writers
    • F. Scott Fitzgerald
      • This Side of Paradise (1920), was called a bible for the young. Flappers read it.
      • The Great Gatsby (1925)
    • Theodore Dreiser
      • An American Tragedy (1925) had a similar theme to Gatsby
    • Ernest Hemingway
      • Fought in Italy in 1917
      • The Sun Also Rises (1926) told of the expatriates in Europe
      • A Farewell to Arms (1929) told all about the war experience
      • Killed himself with a shotty in 1961
  • Some writers turned to small-town life
    • Sherwood Anderson
      • Winesburg, Ohio (1919) told about a wide array of characters
    • Sinclair Lewis
      • Main Street (1920) was about a woman's war against provincialism
      • Babbitt (1922) explored the life of George F. Babbitt
    • William Faulkner
      • Soldier's Pay (1926) was about the war
      • The Sound and the Fury (1929) and As I Lay Dying (1930) were both about the South in the past
  • Poetry was obviously different
    • Ezra Pound
      • Had a "Make It New" doctrine
      • Strongly influenced T.S. Eliot
    • T.S. Eliot
      • "The Waste Land" (1922) was very influential
    • Robert Frost
      • Wrote about New England
    • e.e.cummings
      • Used new diction and typesets to get interesting effects
  • Plays were changed, too
    • Eugene O'Neill
      • Made a play about sex called the Strange Interlude (1928)
      • Had more than a dozen productions
      • Wone the Nobel Prize in 1936
  • Artists (painters) rose up in Greenwich Village
  • Harlem had some outstanding black artists
    • Writers
      • Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston
    • Jazz Artists
      • Louis Armstrong, Eubie Blake
  • Architecture changed
    • Instead of flashy Greek, people like Frank Lloyd Wright supported making the building "grow from their sites"
    • Empire State Building was a great achievement at 102 stories tall


Wall Street's Big Bull Market


  • Signs pointed to a crash of the economic joyride in the 1920s, several hundred banks failed annually
  • "Something-for-nothing" craze
    • Real estate speculation
  • Stock exhange
    • Speculations ran wild, boom-or-bust trading pushed market up great peaks
    • Stock market=gambling den
    • Practically everyone was buying stocks "on margin"(small down payment)
    • Rags-to-riches Americans
    • Few responded to warnings that the prosperity couldn't last forever
    • Little was done by Wash. DC to slow down $-mad speculators
    • 1914, national debt=$1,188,235,400→ $23,976,250,608 in 1921
      • Conservative principles of $ management pointed to surplus funds to reduce financial burden
    • 1921, Republican Congress made a businesslike move toward economic sanity by creating Bureau of the Budget
      • Bureau's director→assist president in preparing estimates of receipts & expenditures for submission to Congress as the annual budget
        • This new reform was set to prevent haphazardly extravagant appropriations
  • The taxes inherited from the war were especially distasteful to Secretary of the Treasury Mellon as well as to his fellow millionaires.
  • Their theory was that such high levies forced the rich to invest in tax-exempt .rather than in the factories that provided prosperous payrolls.
  • They also argued that high taxes not only discouraged business but, in so doing, also brought a smaller net return to the Treasury than moderate taxes.
  • Mellon helped engineer a series of tax reductions from 1921 to 1926
  • Congress followed his lead by repealing the excess-profits tax, abolishing the gift tax, and reducing excise taxes, the surtax, the income tax, and estate taxes.
  • In 1921 a wealthy person with and income of $1 million had paid $663,000 in income taxes, in 1926 the same person paid about $200,000.
  • Secretary Mellon's spare-the-rich policies shifted much of the tax burden from the wealthy to the middle-income groups.
  • Mellon reduced the national debt by $10 billion but many believe he should have reduced the debt even more.

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 33 - The Politics of Boom and Bust 1920-1932

 

Major Themes

  • The Republican administrations of the 1920s pursued conservative, pro-business policies at home and economic unilateralism abroad.
  • The great crash of 1929 led to a severe prolonged depression that devastated the American economy and spirit and which resisted Hoover’s limited efforts to fix it.


Major Questions- I'll do 2, someone else do some also!!

  • In what ways were the 1920s a reaction against the progressive era?
  • Was American isolationism of the 1920s linked to the rise of movements like the Ku Klux Klan?
  • To what extent did the policies of the 1920s contribute to the depression?

Because the '20's were the years of consumption in America, the Americans themselves didn't understand all of the consequences of their actions. By buying stock "on the margin," the people contributed to the collapse of the stock market. Using credit cards and other forms of credit led to businesses going bankrupt when people didn't pay their bills. Banks were failing all over the place, and so many people lost their life savings (this was before FDIC). The idea of "have now, pay later" was the major influential factor.


  • How did the depression challenge the traditional belief of Hoover and other Americans in “rugged individualism?”

Many Americans were still under the impression that if a select few could do the "self-made man" thing, everyone should be able to. However, with the coming of the Depression, more and more laborers became unemployed. It became nearly impossible to find work, and there was no government welfare agency. Therefore, in order to survive in society, people needed help. The "rugged individualism" theory hurt the starving, destitute poor, who could no longer do it by themselves. Eventually, Hoover had to give out a "stimulus" type thing to the "top of the economic pyramid." He gave money to the RR's and other corporations, hoping that it would trickle to the lower classes. After this more or less failed, he gave money to the lower classes, and hoped it would trickle up.


Outline

The Republican "Old Guard" Returns

  • Warren G. Harding looked presidential, but was often overwhelmed with his presidency
    • He was unable to detect how bad his evil associates were
  • Harding did promise to bring the "best minds" together
    • Charles Evans Hughes- Secretary of State
      • Masterful, imperious, incisive, and brilliant
    • Andrew Mellon- Secretary of Treasury
      • Multimillionare and a collector of art
    • Herbert Hoover- Secretary of Commerce
      • Brought his second rate cabinet post to a first rate importance
      • Brought up foreign trade for the US manufacturers
  • These "best minds" were offset by two of the worst
    • Senator Albert B. Fall- Secretary of Interior
      • Scheming anticonsevrationist
    • Harry M. Daugherty- Attorney General
      • Was supposed to prosecute wrongdoers


GOP Reaction at the Throttle

  • Harding was a perfect "front" for enterprising industrialists
    • old order came back into being
    • hoped to improve the business of laissez-faire
      • gov't would help guide business to greater profits
  • Made courts and administrative bereaus more friendly to their cause
    • Harding lived less than three out of four years in office, but apointed four out of nine justices
    • some of his choices ended up going against popular currents for the next two decades
    • a fortunate choice was Taft who performed his duties and was more liberal about them than his associates
  • Supreme Court killed some progressive laws in the early 1920's
    • reverseed its own reasoning in cases like Adkins v. Children's Hospital and Muller v. Oregon (which stated that women were in need of protection in the workplace)
    • invalidated a minimum wage law for women
      • because women now had the vote, they were now equal to men and therefore could no longer be protected in special legislation
    • caused controversy
  • Corporations were better off under Harding
    • anti-trust laws were often ignored, circumvented, or feebly enforced
    • encouraged to regulate themselves rather than be regualted


The Aftermath of War

  • Wartime government controls on the economy were swiftly dismantled.
  • The War Industries Board dissappeared and with that progressive hopes for more government regulation of big business disappeared.
  • Washington returned the railroads to private management in 1920.
  • Congress passed the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920
    • encouraged private consolidation of the railroads and pledged the Interstate Commerce Commision to guarantee their profitability.
  • The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the Shipping Board, which controlled about fifteen hundred vessels, to dispose of much of the hastily built wartime fleet at bargain-basement prices.
  • Under the La Follette Seaman's Act of 1915 American shipping could not thrive in competition with foreigners.
  • Labor was suddenly deprived of its wartime crutch of friendly gov't support.
  • A bloody strike in the steel industry was ruthlessly broken in 1919, partly by exploiting ethnic and racial divisions among the steelworkers and partly by branding the strikers as dangerous "reds"
  • The Railway Labor Board ordered a wage cut of 12% in 1922 provoking a 2 month strike.
  • Unions wilted in the hostile political environment and membership decreased by nearly 30% between 1920 and 1930
  • In 1921 Congress generously created the Veterans Bureau, authorized to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehibilitation for the disabled.
  • Veterans quickly organized into pressure groups.
    • The American Legion had been founded in 1919. The legion soon became distinguished for its militant patriotism, conservatism and zealous antiradicalism.
    • The legion also became notorious for its aggressive lobbying for veterans' benefits. The former servicemen demanded compensation to make up for the wages they had "lost" when they fought.
      • In 1924 Congress passed the Adjusted Compensation Act which gave every former soldier a paid-up insurance policy due in twenty years- adding about $3.5 billion to the total cost of the war.


America Seeks Benefits without Burdens

  • U.S. rejects Treaty of Versailles & therefore still at war w/ Germany, Austria, & Hungary almost 3 yrs after the armistice
  • July 1921, Congress passes a joint resolution declaring the war officially over
  • Harding
    • Isolationism
      • Harding administration continued to regard the League of Nations as unclean, refusing (@ 1st) to support the League's world health program
      • As a rivalry between Britain & U.S. in the Middle East over oil-drilling concessions hightened, Harding couldn't keep his back turned to the rest of the world completely
        • experts realized that oil would be as much needed for victory in battles of the future as it was during WWI
        • Secretary Hughes secured the right to share in the exploitation of Middle East for U.S. oil companies
    • Disarmament
      • Harding was pushed by businesspeople that were unwilling to pay out of their pockets for $ to finance the naval building program started during the war


Hiking the Tariff Higher

  • A comparable lack of realism afflicted foreign economic policy in the 1920s.
  • Businesspeople sought to keep the prosperous home market to themselves by putting up insurmountable tariff walls around the US
  • They feared a flood of cheap goods from recovering Europe, esp. during the brief but sharp recession of 1920-1921
  • Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law in 1922
  • Schedules were boosted from the average of 27% under the Underwood Tariff of 1913 to an average of 38.5%
  • Duties on farm produce were increased and the principle was proclaimed that the general rates were designed to equalize the cost of American and foreign production.
  • The president was authorized with the advice of the factfinding Tariff Commission to reduce or increase duties by as much as 50%
  • Presidents Harding and Coolidge were far more friendly to tariff increases than to reductions.
  • In 6 years they authorized 32 upward changes.
  • The high-tariff course set of a chain reaction.
    • European producers felt the spueeze. An impoverished Europe need to sell its manufactured goods to the US if it hoped to achieve economic recovery and to pay its huge war debt.
    • America needed to give foreign nations a chance to make a profit from it so that they could buy its manufactured goods and repay debts.
  • The American example spurred European nations to pile up higher barriers themselves


The Stench of Scandal

  • 1923- Colonol Charles R. Forbes was head of the Veterans Bureau but had to resign when caught embezzling
    • Had once deserted the army
    • Appointed by Harding
    • Took about 200 million, mostly from hospitals
    • Got 2 yrs. in fed. penitentiary
  • 1921- Teapot Dome Scandal
    • There were 2 naval oil reserves
      • Teapot Dome, Wyoming
      • Elk Hills, California
    • Albert B. Fall was secretary of navy
      • Got these reserves transferred to the Interior Department
      • Leased the lands to oilmen (Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny)
      • First got about $400,000 of "loans" from the two men
    • Details got out in 1923 and all three were taken to court in '24
      • Decision dragged until '29
      • Fall got 1 yr. in jail for taking a bribe
      • Sinclair and Doheny got off scott-free
    • Acquittal of Bribe-Givers killed the trust in the courts
      • "Rich people don't go to prison"
  • Att. General Daugherty was selling pardons and liquor permits
    • He was tried in '27 but got away with it after 2 hung juries
  • Harding didn't have to hear all about the scandals because he died
    • Bonus Maybe???
      • Went on a speech-making trip across the country
      • On the way back, he died in San.Fran. (August 2, 1923)**
      • Had pneumonia and thrombosis
      • Harding just wasn't strong enough to be the president


"Silent Cal" Coolidge

  • Veep Calvin Coolidge was visiting family in Vermont
    • "Justice of the Peace" Daddy swore his son in on the family Bible
    • He didn't talk much, so was known as "Silent Cal"
    • Believed strongly in the status quo
    • Loved Big Business
      • "The man who builds a factory builds a temple..."
  • Because of his Laissez-faire policies, people like Cal
  • He was "thrify" so agreed to lowering taxes and debts
  • Got rid of scandalous admin's from Harding's time
  • People got over the scandals because of the "good times" going on in the economy department


Frustrated Farmers

  • Farmers in a boom-or-bust cycle in the 1920's
    • end of war brought an end to gov't assured high prices and an end to mass purchases by other nations
    • tracters was increasing the amount of their crops making them less profitable
  • Many schemes to help the farmers
    • Capper-Volstead Act which exempted farmers from antitrust prosecution
    • McNary-Haugen Bill
      • sought to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing gov't to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad
      • losses were to be made up by a special tax on farmers
      • bill was passed and vetoed twice
  • Farm prices stayed down


A Three-way Race for the White House in 1924

  • Republicans:
    • "Keep Cool and Keep Coolidge"
    • "Silent Cal" gets a repeat nomination
    • Got 15,718,211 popular, 382 electoral
  • Democrats:
    • Had a more difficult time deciding
    • Had many tensions:
      • "Wet" vs. "Dry"
      • Urbanites vs. Farmers
      • Fundamentalists vs. Modernists
      • Liberals vs. "Stand-Patters"
      • Immigrants vs. Old-Stock Americans
    • Finally picked John W. Davis
      • Not much different the Coolidge
    • Got 8,385,283 popular, 136 electoral
  • Non-Party:
    • Bob La Follette (Senator) decided to run for Presidents
    • He got the support of the AF of L, the Socialst Party, and the "New" Progressive party (not to mention Farmers)
    • Had only a presidential ticket
    • Wanted Gov't ownership of RR's, relief for farmers, no monopolies, wanted to limit Judicial Review for laws
    • Got 5 million popular, 13 electoral

Foreign Policy Flounderings

  • isolationism remained the main forgien policy throughout the time period
    • congress still would not allow US involvement in League of Nations
    • the exception to this was the armed intervention in the Carribean
  • overshadowing all foriegn policy issues was the problem of international debts
    • European nations ovwed US $16 billion
    • they couldn't pay this sum
    • argued that it should be conunted as war expenses
    • said that their war fueled american economy
    • also claimed high us tariffs prevented trade necessary to get the $


Unravleing the Debt Knot

  • America wanted its money back from its war allies
    • Allies pressured Germany to pay $32 billiion in war reparations
    • Germany allowed rampant speculation
      • 480 million marks for a loaf of bread or about $120 million preinflation
  • Sensible statesmen called for reduction or even cancellation of war debts, many others against
    • Coolidge asked, " They hired the money, didn't they?"
  • Reality came in the form of the Dawes Plan created by Charles Dawes, Coolidge's running mate
    • it rescheduled German reparation payments and allowed America to lend money to Germany
      • America lends to Germany who pays Britain and France who pays back America
    • idea caused by credit which died in 1929
      • Hoover called for suspension of debts for one year in 1931
      • all countries in debt soon stopped paying all together except "honest little Finland" which payewd off its debt in 1976
  • US never got its money and Europeans disliked America

 

Predient Hoover's First Moves

  • prosperity was predominant in the late 1920s
    • but unorganized wage earners & esp. disorganized farmers weren't getting their share of the wealth
  • Agricultural Marketing Act helped wounded farmers
    • designed to "help farmers help themselves" mainly thru producer's cooperatives
    • set up Federal Farm Board w. $ 1/2 million at their disposal for buying/selling/storing
  • Federal Farm Board creat the Grain Stabilization Corporation AND the Cotton Stabilization Corporation
    • goal: bolster decreasing prices by buying up surpluses
    • prices soon fell tho, suffocating the two agencies
    • farmers hoped the tariff would save them
  • Hoover had promised to call Congress into special session to consider agricultural relief & to bring about "limited" changes in the tariff
    • these hope-giving promises had def helped him win votes in the mid-west
  • Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930
    • started in the House as a pretty reasonable protective measure to assist the farmers
    • whin it came out of the lobbyist Senate it had about 1000 amendments, turning it into the hightest protective tariff in the nation's peacetime history
      • 38.5% to nearly 60% (est. by Fordney-McCumber Act of 1922)
    • foreigners felt it was a "blow below the trade belt"
    • reversed a promising worldwide tredt toward reasonable tariffs
    • plunged America & other nations deeper into the Depression
    • increase internation financial chaos
    • force US further inot economic isolationism


The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties

  • On March 4th 1929 everything looked peachy for Herbert Hoover- no one saw the coming crisis
  • The Crash came in October 1929 when foreign investors and domestic speculators started to sell
  • After they sold everyone else started to sell and 16,410,030 stocks were sold
  • loses were some 40 billion for stockholders by the end of 1929
  • America was hit the hardest of all the countries by this depression
  • by the end of 1930 more than 4 million were out of a job
    • 2 years later that number tripled
  • over 5 thousand banks collapsed in the first three years
    • Thousands lost there savings because of this
  • Families felt alot of stress blame was sometimes placed on the father


Hooked on the Horn of Plenty

  • There were several cause for the great depression
    • The nations overproduction of goods
    • Too much money going to to few people
      • not enough money going into salaries and wages
    • The debt and installment system was also at fault
    • The economic weakness of Europe and other areas was felt in the US
    • There was also a drought in the Mississippi valley
    • Farm tenancy was also spreading in the south
    • Many of the citizens who were not at fault at all were out of a job




Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists

  • The Great Depression basically made Hoover look really bad
  • He was not able to engineer a way to fight the great depression
  • He did not believe in government handouts-weakens the national fiber
  • As America sunk deeper into depression Hoover decided to give money to the Railroads bank and rural credit corporations. Hopeing that wealth would trickle down to the lower classes
  • critics sneered at his attempts-they wanted money now for the poor
  • Honestly Hoovers policys did help prevent a further sinking into depression


Herbert Hoover: Pioneer for the New Deal

  • recommended Congress vote lots of $ for useful public works
    • he secured from Congress $2.25 billion for such projects
  • Hoover Dam on the Colorado River
    • started plans during Coolidge, beginning in 1930 under Hoover, completed in 1936 under FDR
    • used for irrigation, flood control, & electric power
  • Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
    • became a gov't leding bank w/ it's initial working capital of $1/2 million
    • designed to provide indirect relief by assisting insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, RRs, & even hard-pressing state & local gov'ts
    • no loans were given to individuals
    • was v. veneficial but came a little too late for max. usage
    • giant corporations benefitted form this
    • acutally had a stroy New Dealish aire
  • Norris - La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act in 1932
    • benefited labor
    • outlawed antiunion contracts
    • forbade federal courts from issuing injuctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, & peaceful picketting
  • tho he started out w/ a 19th century bias, by the end of his term he had started puching toward gov't assistance for needy citizens
  • Hoover suffered from a critical Congress
    • 1st 2 yrs, Repub majority was v. uncooperative
    • 2nd 2 yrs, Dems almost controlled both houses
    • Repubs and Dems tag-teamed to harass Hoover


Routing the Bonus Army in Washington

  • veterans were hard-hit victims of the depression
    • wanted their payment for their service early eve tho it had been deferred by COngress in 1924 to be paid in 1945
  • The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (BEF)
    • had about 20,000 members
    • went to Washington in 1932
    • set up a giant unsanitary Hooverville, disturbing the public health
    • the bonus bill failed in Congress by a little, so Hoover paid off 6000 vets to leave while others stayed, defying Hoover's orders
  • Riots followed so Hoover called in the army to evacute the vets
    • Gen. George Douglas MacArthur came in w/ bayonets and tear gas
      • harsher than Hoover wanted
    • "Battle of Anacosita Flats"
  • Hoover's popularity dropped a lot
    • he "ditched, drained, & damned the country"
    • helped Dems (FDR) win support in upcoming election


Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy

  • The arrival in the White House was good for the United States's southern neighbors
    • Most Americans had less money to invest and pulled out of Latin America after the stock market crashed
    • Hoover was a major advocate of good will
  • Hoover wanted to abandon the Roosevelt Corrilary
    • Negociated a new treaty with Haiti that provided the complete withdrawl of US platoons by 1934
    • Early in 1933 the last group of Marines left Nicaragua (Had been stationed there for last 20 years)
  • Hoover returned America to the "Good Neighbor" policy
  • Returned to this policy after attempting to repair the damage that was caused by those before him
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 34 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

 

Major Themes

  • The New Deal was a massive federal program generated by the Roosevelt administration designed to bring about relief, recovery and reform and ultimately ushered in a new age of federal supremacy.
  • The New Deal, while popular, had numerous liberal and conservative critics.


Major Questions

  • How did the New Deal represent efforts at relief, recovery and reform?
  • What were the legacies of the New Deal?
  • How did the New Deal represent both liberal and conservative characteristics?


Pre-Reading

  • What were the causes of the Great Depression?
    • The stock market crash
    • The poor lifestyle of the "roaring twenties" Americans
    • Buying stocks on the margin
    • Too little money in the banks
    • Credit cards
    • Drought and farm issues
    • Panic among stockbrokers, bank-users, and American public in general


Outline

FDR: Politician in a Wheelchair

  • FDR's paralysis humbled him, and taught him:
    • patience
    • tolerance
    • compassion
    • strenth of will
  • Eleanor Roosevelt was one of FDR's greatest political assets
    • was FDR's legs, she traveled countless miles w/ or on his behalf
    • most active First Lady
      • lobbied
      • gave speeches
      • had a newspaper column
    • battled for the impovershed and oppressed
    • against segregation
  • Had massive political appeal
    • commanding presence and great speaking voice despite accent
    • for big gov't spending to relieve those out of work
    • preferred to spend little but believed that money, and not humanity, was expendable
    • thought of as a traitor to his class (coming from a rich family)
  • Quickly nominated by democratic convention in Chicago
    • promised a balanced national budget and new, sweeping social and economic reforms
    • accepted nomination in person
    • "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people."


Presidential Hopefuls of 1932

  • Roosevelt took the offensive and was eager to show that he was ready and wanted to show himself off to as many people as possible
    • preached the New Deal for the "forgotten man" repeatedly
      • somewhat vague and contradictory
      • written by a small group of reform-minded intelectuals who later wrote much of the New Deal legislation
    • promised a balanced budget andd scolded deficits created by Hoover
    • very optimistic
      • "Happy Days Are Here Again" was the theme song and it fit FDR's smile
  • Hoover's campaign was much different
    • very grim, supporters poorly assured voters that "The Worst Is Past," "It Might Have Been Worse," and "Properity Is Just Around The Corner"
    • when speaking, Hoover only reaffirmed his faith in American free enterprise and individual initiative, and gloomily predicted that if the Hawley-Smoot Tariff was repealed that grass would grow "in the streets of a hundred cities"


Hoover's Humiliation in 1932

  • Hoover brought in during great prosperity and was kicked out during the great depression
    • 22,809,638 for FDR and 15,758,901 for Hoover
    • in e.college it was 472 to 59
      • only carried 6 republican states
  • Black people switched from being Rep.s to being Dem.s b/c they were the worst sufferers of the depression
  • All Dem.s had to do was harness the grudge against the Rep.s
    • most people wanted a new deal not the New Deal
    • almost any Democratic candidate could have won
  • Still 4 months left of Hoover after election
    • coldn't try to make any long term goals w/out FDR
      • FDR was uncooperative
      • only arranged 2 meetings w/ FDR to discuss the war-debt problem
      • FDR didn't want to assume responibility w/out authority
    • Hoover confessed to trying to bind FDR to an anti-inflation policy which would prevent many New Deal experiments
    • depression worsened
      • 1/4 of workers were unemployed
      • banks closed all over the nation
      • Hooverites accused FDR of letting the depression worsen, so he could come out as the hero


FDR and the the Three R's: Relief Recovery and Reform

  • Inauguration of March 4, 1933, Franky (we already used Roosy) made his famous quote:
    • "Let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.'
  • Step 1: Banking holiday
    • From March 6-10
    • Franky called the Hundred Days Congress which made a ton of legislation to dael with the issue at hand
  • The New Deal was based on 3 R's:
    • Relief
    • Recovery
    • Reform
  • Came in 2 Varieties
    • Short Range goals (esp. first 2 yrs.)
      • Relief
      • Immediate recovery
    • Long Range goals
      • Permanent recovery
      • Reform
    • Usually overlapped and contradicted
  • Because most of the Congress was new, they shared the panic of the country and passed whatever Franky wanted
  • He often did things "off the cuff"
    • Felt that any movement was better than none
  • Many movements came from the Progressive era
    • Unemployment insurance
    • Old-age insurance
    • Minimum-wage regulations
    • Conservation
    • Child labor restrictions
  • Lots of European nations had already made many of these reforms
    • USA seemed backwards for not having them

Roosevelt Tackles Money and Banking

  • The Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933 invested the president with power to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen solvent banks.
  • Roosevelt next turned to the radio to deliver the first of his thirty famous "fireside chats"
    • He gave assurances that it was now safer to keep money in a reopened bank than "under the matress'. Confidence returned and banks began to unlock their doors.
  • Congress enacted the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act.
    • This provided for the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation which insured indevidual deposits up to $5,000.
    • The epidemic of bank failures ended
  • Roosevelt then sought to protect the melting gold reserve and to prevent panicky hoarding.
  • He ordered all private holdings of gold to be surrendered to the Treasury in exchange for paper currency and then took the nation off the gold standard.
  • Congress responded to his recomendation by canceling the gold-payment clause in all contracts and authorizing repayment in paper money.
  • The goal of Roosevelts "managed currency" was inflation, which he thought would relieve debtors' burdens and stimulate new production.
  • His principle instrument for achieving inflation was gold buying.
  • He instructed the Treasury to purchase gold at increasing prices.
  • This policy did increase the amount of dollars in circulation as holders of gold cashed it in at the elevated prices.
  • In Feb. 1934 FDR returned the nation to a limited gold standard for purposes of international trade only.


Creating Jobs for the Jobless

  • high unemployment rates called for immidiate action
    • 1 out of every 4 workers were jobless when FDR stepped in
    • FDR easily used federal $ to assist the unemployed & "prime the pump" before the flow
  • Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
    • most popular "alphabetical agency"
    • provided employment in the fresh air on gov't camps for 3 million uniformed young men who might have resorted to/ developed crimial habits
    • reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, swamp drainage
    • had to send home most of their pay to parents
    • human resources & natural resources were conserved
  • Federal Evergency Relief Act
    • helped unemployed adults
    • was more for immidiate relief then long-term recovery
    • Federal Emergency Relief Administration est. to advise
  • Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
    • many millions of $s were given to farmers to meet their mortgages
  • Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC)
    • refinance mortgages on nonfarm homes
    • assisted about 1 million need households
  • Civil Works Administration (CWA) 1933
    • branch of FERA
    • provided temporary jobs during the winter emergency
    • "boondoggling" (not lanyard-making like during summer rec) < easy tasks that gave ppl atleast some form of income


A Day for Every Demagogue

  • unemployment still soared; temporary fixes weren't enough
  • danger signal appeared: rise of demagogues
  • Father Charles Coughlin
    • started broadcasting in 1930; slogan: "Socail Justice"
    • preached anti-New Deal to some 40 million listeners
    • fans became so anti-Semetic, fascistic, & demagogic that he was silenced by his ecclesiastic superiors
  • Senator Huey P. ("Kingfish") Long of Louisiana
    • publicized his "Share Our Wealth" program, promising to make "Every Man a King"
    • every fam would recieve $5000
    • fear of Long becoming a fascist dictator ended when he was assassinated in Louisiana in 1935
      • (presidential conspiracy anyone?? like the murder of Marylin Monroe...lol)
  • Dr. Francis E. Townsend of California
    • retired physician whose saving had been wiped out
    • said everyone 60 and older should recieve $200 a month
  • partly to quiet these quacks, Congress issued the:
  • Works Progress Administration (WPA) 1935
    • objective: employment on useful projects
    • spent about $11 billion on 1000s of public buildings, bridges, and hard-surfaced roads
    • wan't all about infrastructure
      • 1 controlled crickets in Wyoming
      • another built a monkey pen in Oklahoma City
    • over a period of 8yrs, 9 million ppl were given jobs
    • also found part-time jobs for needy high school & college students as well as actors, musicians, and writers
      • John Steinbeck was a recipient
      • millions of pieces of art were created


A Helping Hand for Industry and Labor

  • The NRA was a major step to help the comeback
    • National Recovery Administration (not Rifle!)
    • Was most complex
    • Had a 3-barrel approach:
      • Industry
      • Labor
      • The Unemployed
  • Individual industries were ordered to make "codes"
    • Set labor hour maximum
    • Minimum wage levels
  • Labor got benefits
    • Workers could bargain through a representative THEY chose
    • Antiunion contracts were illegalized
    • Child labor was restricted
  • The "fair competition" codes would be tough on industry
    • Needed sacrifice from labor and management
    • Had mass meetings in the streets to rouse people to the cause
    • Made a Blue Eagle as the symbol
  • The self-sacrifice became an issue, and the Eagle lost followers
    • Some people displayed the stickers that showed they were members but they violated the codes in secret
    • In Sup.Court case Schecter ("sick chicken"):
      • Congress can't "delegate legislative powers" to the Prez
      • Congress can't apply interstate commerce control to local (fowl) business
      • Franky wasn't happy, but this actually benefitted him
  • Public Works Administration was also meant for recovery and unemployment fixing
    • Lead by Harold L. Ickes
    • $4 billion was spent for about 34,000 projects
      • Public buildings
      • Highways
      • Parkways
      • Grand Coulee Dam (on Columbia R.)
    • This dam seemed foolish
      • Millions of acres can be irrigated
        • Government trying to reduce surplus
      • More electrical power
        • Area had little industry
        • No market for more power
    • Dam would become important during WWII
  • Gov't tried to raise $ for itself (to help more people) by stimulating liquor industry
    • 3.2% alcoholic drinks were legalized
    • Tax of $5 on every barrel
    • Drys were unhappy and called Franky names
    • 1933 saw the repeal of the 18th Amendment through the 21st one


Paying Farmers Not to Farm

  • since 1918 farmers had suffered from overproduction
  • During the depression conditions worsened and many morgages were foreclosed
  • the emergency Congress made the AAA which stopped the farmers from producing as much to increase prices
  • the AAA paid the farmers not to produce crops
  • Some of the crops had already been planted when the AAA was made and was wasted
  • In 1936 the AAA was taken down by the supreme court
  • The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment act was passed instead of the AAA
  • This act paid farmers to plant soil conserving plants like soybeans




Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards

  • many factors contrubuted to the dust bowl
    • severe drought through the 1930's
    • extreme winds
    • overfarming
    • poor irrigation methods
  • many midwest farmers moved west to work as migrant workers
  • the New Deal worked to help these farmers
    • Fraizier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act suspended mortgage forclosures for 5 years (voided by supreme court)
    • Resettlement Administration helped farmers find better land
    • CCC planed trees to hold soil and prevent wind
  • Native Americans were also granted the right to form thier own tribal governments


Battling Bankers and Big Business

  • The Hundred Days Congress passed the "Truth in Securities Act" (Federal Securities Act)
    • Required promoters to transmit investors info regarding stocks and bonds
  • Further measures were taken in protection
    • The Securities and Exchange Commission was authorized
      • Was an administrative agency that made stocks operate more like a trading mart and less like a casino
  • The Public Utilities Holding Company Act of 1935 prevented bloated growth, except when it was good for the economy


The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River

  • The Electric Power Industry had grown from nothing to an investment of $13 Billion in a few decades
    • Accused by the New Dealers of excessive rates
  • The Tennessee River would allow the federal government to break up the electric monopoly through the development of hydroelectric power
    • Would bring many jobs (short term)
    • Would reform the power industry (long term)
  • An act creating the Tennessee Valley Authority was passed in 1933
    • Mainly due to Senator George W. Norris (Nebraska)
  • The TVA was determined to discover the actual cost f electricity
    • Set up to test the fairness of the rates
  • Electric companies argued that the discovered rates were so low because of dishonest bookkeeping and an absence of taxes
  • The TVA brought full employment, cheap power, low cost housing, abundant cheap nitrates, restoration of eroded soil, reforestation, improved navigation, and flood control


Housing Reform and Social Security

  • Roosevelt set up the Federal Housing Administration as early as 1934 to speed recovery and for better houses
  • In 1937 Congress authorized the United States Housing Administration
    • Designed to lend money to states of communities for low cost construction
  • The Social Security Act of 1935
    • Provided for federal-state unemployment insurance
    • Security was provided for retired old timers
      • Specific groups recieved regular payment from Washington
      • This was to be paid for by a payroll tax
    • The American system was inspired by the European sections


A New Deal for Unskilled Labor

  • The NRA blue eagles were a godsend to organized labor, as New Deal brought decrease in unemployment


Landon Challenges "the Champ" in 1936

  • Democrats:
    • Obviously nominated Franky for Round II
  • Republicans:
    • Didn't know how to win
    • Decided on Senator of Kansas
      • Alfred M. Landon
    • Was moderate, but had accepted some New Deals
      • Not the Social Securities idea though
    • Hoover backed Landon and the whole group insulted Franky and his ideas for reform
  • Democrats:
    • Got 16,674,665 popular, 8 electoral
  • Republicans:
    • Got 27,752,869 popular, 523 electoral
  • Many people switched from R's to D's after this battle
    • Needy groups turned to Franky
    • Blacks esp. changed to Democrats
      • Lincoln was finally dead
  • Franky appealed to the "forgotten man"
    • Reliefers obviously voted D because they were getting gov't aid
    • The South, Blacks, Urbanites, and the poor all started working together
      • New Immigrants (Catholics and Jews) were also treated more fairly under Franky




 


Nine Old Men on the Supreme Court

  • In 1937 Roosevelt was reelected
  • He saw victory as a reason to continue the new deal
  • He thought that the primarily conservative judges on the supreme court were impeading progress
  • Early in 1937 he proposed legislation that would add another judge for every judge over 70
  • This was a bad idea
  • Supreme Court was seen as a sacred part of America




The Court Changes Course

  • Roosevelts idea of packing the court was protested against greatly
  • He was accused of being a dictator
  • The court in response to this idea became more liberal and changed their ruling on womens minimum wage and began to be more friendly to the new deal
  • Later during his presidency he did appoint several judges and his proposed legislation did make the court more friendly to the new deal but it made the people less friendly to him
  • Few reforms were passed after 1937


The Twilight of the New Deal

  • Roosevelts 1st term from 1933 to 1937 did not banish the depression.
  • Unemployment persisted in 1936 at about 15%, down from the 25% of 1933.
  • The country seemed to be inching its way back to economic health.
  • In 1937 the economy took another sharp downturn.
    • Gov't policies had caused it, as new Social Security taxes began to bite into payrolls and as the administration cut back on spending out of continuing reverence for the orthodox economic doctrine of the balanced budget.
  • In April 1937 Roosevelt announced a program to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending. This abrubt policy reversal marked a major turning point in the gov'ts relation to the economy.
  • Roosevelt had been meanwhile pushing the remaining reform measures of the New Deal.
  • Early in 1937 he urged Congress to authorize a sweeping reorganization of the national administration in the interestsof streamlined efficiency.
  • In 1939 in the Reorganization Act, Congress gave Roosevelt limited powers for administrative reforms including the key new Executive Office in the White House.
  • The New Dealers were accused of having the richest campiagn chest in history
  • Congress adopted the Hatch Act of 1939 which barred federal administrative officials, except the highest policy-making officers from active political campaigning and soliciting. It also forbade thee use of gov't funds for political purposes as well as the collection of campaign contributions from people receiving relief payments.
  • The Hatch Act was broadened in 1940 to place limits on campaign contributions and expenditures but clever ways of getting around it were found that on the whole the legislation proved dissappointing.
  • By 1938 the New Deal had lost most of its early momentum.


New Deal or Raw Deal

  • Foes of the New Deal called Roosevelt incompetent
    • They felt that he had don e nothing and an earthquake could have done better
    • Some felt that he was good because he was doing something at least
  • The federal government was gaining power and causing the states to fall into the background
  • The national debt was growing greatly
    • In 1932 it was $19,487,000,000
    • In 1939 it was $40,440,000,000
    • US stood for "unlimited spending"
  • Conservatives felt that laborers and farmers were getting too much help
  • Roosevelt was also accused of trying to purge Congress of all of his opposers in order to get his way
  • The New Deal failed to cure the depression
    • Just a band aid
    • There was still a large gap between production and consumption
    • More surplusses than under Hoover
    • Millions still lacked jobs
  • WWII solved the problem, not the New Deal


FDR's Balance Sheet

  • democrats needed to defend their enormous spending
  • they admitted to some waste but defended this by saying that they needed to act quickly
  • they argued that the new deal helped to relieve the crisis and paid for it self in human capital
  • they cliamed it was the governments responsibility to protect its citizens
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 35 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War 1933-1941

 

Major Themes

  • Despite strong desire for isolationist neutrality, the US eventually moved toward an interventionist foreign policy, culminating in its assistance to Great Britain and entry into World War II.


Major Questions

  • What events and attitudes caused the US to assume a larger role in world affairs leading up to its entry into WW II?

SEE America's Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent FOR AN EVEN BETTER OVERVIEW



There were quite a few different events and such that allowed the US to join the War. At the beginning, everyone wanted to maintain their isolationist policies. No one wanted to get involved in foreign affairs, whether it was for Britaina and France, the Allies of the previous war, or for Germany, the enemy of the previous war. However, as Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, and then France fell, America realized that it was only Britain standing against Germany, Russia, and Italy. No one wanted Britain to fall, so Congress passed acts that assisted Britain. Japan was showing agression towards China and sympathy with Germany, and so eventually the US felt obligated to end trade with them. Japan retaliated with an attack on Pearl Harbor. This riled the American "Fighting Spirit," and led to the USA joining the war. You could say that Pearl Harbor was the straw (more like bale of hay in this case) that broke the camel's back.


Pre-Reading

  • What are the historical roots of American neutrality and isolationism leading up to the 1930s?


Outline

The London Conference

  • The London Economic Conference (66 nations) showed how thoughtful the foreign policy of FDR was
    • The delegates wanted to organize a global attack on depression
    • Also wanted to establish rates that national currencies could be exchanged at
      • Exchange rates needed to be set in order to resume international trade
      • Essential to world trade
    • Roosevelt first agreed to send an American delegate to the conference
      • However he was unwilling to sacrifice the domestic recovery for international cooperation
      • Wanted to be able to change the American dollar in order to stabilize economy as he had been doing for the New Deal
    • Sent a message to London scolding conference for trying to establish currencies and signaled America's leave from the conference
      • The unwillingness for American involvement ended all hopes at the conference
    • The planet plunged further into depression due to this move
  • This also set up international feelings of extreme nationalism
    • Made a worldwide conference even harder to establish


Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

  • FDR as well as most other Americans wanted to withdraw their funds from Asia
    • Organized labor disliked the low-wages of the Filipino workers
    • American sugar producers also wanted to get rid of Philippine competition
  • Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934
    • Was concerned about the fact that freedom had been promised to the Philippines at some point
    • Provided independence to the Philippines after 12 years of economic tutelage (ended in 1946)
    • U.S. naval bases stayed however
  • America was freeing itself from the Philippines rather than giving freedom to the Filipinos
    • Isolationists rejoiced
    • Japan was calculatinging that they had little to fear from an inward looking U.S. giving up its principal possession in Asia
  • FDR recognized the Soviet Union in 1933
    • Anti-communists weren't happy
    • Motivated by the hope of starting trade w/ the Soviet Union and that he might be able to start friendly relations to counter-balance the possible threat from Germany and Japan


Becoming a Good Neighbor

  • FDR extended his hand to being a good neighbor to Latin America
    • suggested America was contented w/ only being a regional power
  • The Great Depression had cooled off interest in Latin America for economic reasons
  • Tied to swing Latin America to our side by endorsing noniterventionism (at Pan-American conference in Montevido, Uruguay)
    • last marines left Haiti in 1934
    • Cuba was released from U.S. intervention in 1934
      • Guantanamo Bay remained U.S. property
    • Panama was alsom released from a tight American grip
  • Mexican gov't seized American oil properties in 1938
    • investors were angered greatly and wanted armed intervntion
    • settlement reached in 1941, even though oil companies lost most of their claims in the process
  • Good Neighbor policy a grand success
    • America looked on as more kind now
    • FDR was held in high esteem
      • "traveling salesman for peace"
      • was in the Inter-American Conference at Buenos Aires, Argentina

 

Secretary Hull's Reciprocal Trade Agreements

  • Secretary of State Hull was associated with Good Neighborism (such as many other New Dealers) and believed in a low tariff
  • The Reciprocal trade agreements Act of 1934 was designed to lift American export trade (relief and recovery)
    • Amended the Hawley-Smoot law laws
    • Roosevelt was empoweref to lower tariff rates by as much as 50%, as long as the other country would do the same
  • Hull had succeded in negociating pacts with 21 countries by the end of 1939
    • US trade increased greatly
  • Reversed the traditional high tariff policies that had damaged economies around the world after WWI
  • There was now an American-led free-trade international economic system that greatly increased international trade


Impulses Toward Storm-Cellar Isolationism

  • After 1918, Totalitarianism began to spread in Europe.
    • The Great Depression had a big part in it
      • People felt helpless and wanted some kind of cure
      • Turned to the Government and Strong Leaders
        • US turned to FDR/New Deal while Germany turned to Hitler
    • USSR started the spread with Communism
      • Joseph Stalin was dictator
    • Italy goes to Fascism
      • Benito Mussolini is leader
    • Germany becomes Nationalist
      • Adolf Hitler is dictator
  • Hitler was the "Most Dangerous"
    • Born in Austria, tried to be a painter
    • Had great public speaking skills
    • Was leader of the Nazi Party
    • Hitler/Mussolini made an alliance:
      • Rome-Berlin Axis
  • Japan was also dissatisfied
    • Was a "have-not" power
    • Needed more space for the population
    • Japan started building the navy, stepped out of the Naval Treaty, left conferences
  • Mussolini wanted Africa
    • Attacked Ethiopia (1935)
    • Used Bombers and Tanks against the Spears and Old Guns of Ethiopians
  • League of Nations was useless
    • Could have stopped Mussolini if made an oil embargo, but didn't
  • America held even tighter to Isolationism
    • Didn't like dictators, but didn't want to get involved
    • Felt that by "owning" the western hemisphere, they would be safe
    • Thought that WWI was a bad idea, and weren't eager to do a repeat
    • Didn't like that some hadn't paid their war debts
      • Congress makes the Johnson Debt Default Act (1934)
        • Any nation that didn't pay its debts can't borrow from the USA again
  • America didn't realize the power of the dictaors
    • The "have-nots" wanted to "have"
    • America was more worried about being drawn into the war than about totalitarianism
    • The People made a movement to forbid war declarations from Congress except for invasions or public approval


Congress Legislates Neutrality

  • Lots of books and magazine articles were writen about the Merchants who were making money off of the war by selling goods
  • Senator Gerald Nye (North Dakota) led a committee meant to investigate this "profitable business" (1934)
    • Using a form of yellow journalism (exaggerating), this committee placed blame for WWI on American bankers/gun makers instead of Germany
    • People (somehow) felt that since the manufacturers made money from the war, they made the war happen
    • Therefore, if profits were killed, America could avoid the war (majorly twisted logic)
  • Congress started passing Acts
    • After Ethiopia/Italy Conflict, the Neutrality Acts of 1935, '36, and '37 were passed
      • They said that when THE PRESIDENT acknowledged a foreign war:
        • No Americans can sell/transport munitions, sail on "belligerent" ships (as in those belionging to people in the war) or make loans to a belligerent
    • Killed the "freedom of the seas" idea
    • The Neutrality Acts were aimed at keeping America out of the war
  • All of this was referred to as "Storm-Cellar" Neutrality
    • People hide in a storm cellar during really bad storms (hurricanes, tornadoes....)
  • People thought that America could decide whether or not to go to war
    • They didn't consider outside events might force them in
  • This neutrality was not very morally sound
    • America wasn't going to treat aggressors and victims differently
    • Since it wouldn't help the weak, the strong could totally p'own


America Dooms Loyalist Spain

  • Spain had a Civil War going on (1936-1939)
    • Turned out to be a really mini-version of WWII
  • Spanish rebels were fighting against their republican government
    • Led by Fransisco Franco
    • Hitler and Mussolini helped him
    • Wanted to overthrow the Loyalists (who currently led Spain)
    • Got even more help from Stalin, and Americans didn't support the revolution because of the communist ties
  • It used to be that the Loyalist Government would have been able to buy munitions from America, but:
    • Congress changed neutrality acts so that there was an arms embargo to Loyalists and Rebels
    • Franco appreciated this (that's not a good thing)
  • By not acting, Spain was doomed, and the dictators got more power
    • Nice going America
  • America wouldn't join the war, and also wouldn't build the military
    • No way to fend off aggressors (if there were any)
    • Thought that big fleets/navies led to big wars, and didn't want tax-payers to have to build ships during Depression
    • 1938 was the year Congress passed the naval construcion act

Appeasing Japan and Germany

  • 1937 Japanese militarists bombed the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing that led to a major invasion of China
    • Curtain Raiser of WWII
  • FDR didn't consider this war so no invoking of neutrality legislation
    • for 1, it would cut off the munitions that China really depended on
    • BUT Japan could stil buy lots of war supplies from us
  • FDR delivered "Quarantine Speech" in autumn 1937
    • inspired by aggressions of Italy & Japan
    • called for "positive endeavors" to "quarantine" the aggressors (by economic embargoes)
    • isolationists & other anit-involements loudly protested b/c they feared it would lead to a "shooting quarantine"
      • this startled FDR so he sought less direct means to curb the dictators
  • December 1937 Japanese aviators bombed & sank an American gunboat Panay in Chinese waters
    • killed 2, wounded 30
    • would've led to war buy TOkyo apologized & paid an indemnity
    • Japanese militarists humiliated Amreicans in China [slappings & stippings]
  • Adolf Hitler started defying the Treaty of Versailles
    • 1935 he introduced military service in Germany
    • then he marched into demilitarized German Rhineland
    • then he prosecuted then exterminated the Jewish population in the areas under his control, wipieng out 6 million innocent victims in gas chambers
    • March 1938 Hilter occupied Germany
  • the democratic powers stood back & watched in indecision hoping he was done
  • Hitler wanted more & more, proceeding to demand for Sudentenland of Czechosolvakia
  • This was where Britain & France wanted a conference, ready to appease Hitler
    • FDR also sent many messages to Hitler and Mussolini urging a peaceful settlement
  • In Munich, Germany @ the conference, the Western European democracies [& US] hoped Sudentenland was Hitler's last claim & he said it was
  • He lied & 6 months after the agreement he took all of Chzechosolvakia

Hitler's Belligerancy and US Neutrality

  • summer of 1939 France & Britian tried to negotiate w/ Joseph Stalin a mutual-defense treaty; he declined
    • and instead on August 23, 1939 he signed a nonaggression treaty w. foe Hitler, stunning everyone
  • This meant that Hitler now could attack Poland and the Western democracies w.o Soviet Union "stabbing them in the back"
    • everyone knew they were plotting agianst each other
  • Germany demanded a return of the areas in Poland taht were takend from them in WWI
    • they invaded Poland @ dawn on Sept 1, 1939
  • WWII was finally declared, ending the truce of 1919-1939
    • Britain and France aided Poland & declared war
    • they weren't able to do anything really due to lack of army/military and the fact that it only took Hitler 3 months to claim Poland
  • FDR again enforced neutrality, hoping good would triumph over evil
    • Britain and France needed aid but the Neutrality Act of 1937 sternly forbid it
  • so FDR went to Congress to make some exception to the Act and after 6 weeks the Neutrality Act of 1939 emerged
    • it said European democracies could buy Am. war materials on a "cash-and-carry basis"
      • they had to transport their own munition in their own ships, paying in cash, this way America avoided: loans, war debts, and torpedoed american arms-carriers
    • FDR also included danger zones where American merchant ships were forbidden to enter
  • Th Neutrality Act of 1939 intentionally favored the democracies [own controlled the Atlantic so America could only trade w. them] & sparked Am. economy, helping solve the decade-long unemployment crisis

The Fall of France

  • "phony war"- the months after the fall of Poland, a quiet time for Europe
    • Hitler moved his army from Poland to France
    • The quiet period ended when the Soviet Union attacked Finland in order to protect precious and strategic buffer territory
      • Finland granted $30 million by an isolationist Congress for nonmilitary supplies
      • Despite their resistance, Finland fell to the Soviets
  • April 1940, a quick end to the "phony war" came when Hitler attacked Denmark & Norway w/o warning & the next month he attacked the Netherlands & Belgium w/ a blow at France afterwards
  • By June 1940, France was forced to surrender
    • The British managed to evacuate (& save a bulk of their army) from the French port of Dunkirk
    • The evacuation inspired P.M. Winston Churchill
    • Americans were shocked at France's collapse
  • If Britain fell to Hitler, then he would have the "workshops, shipyards, & slave labor of Western Europe" at his disposal & possibly the British fleet
  • Roosevelt summoned the debt-burdened nation to build huge airfleets & a 2-ocean navy (to check up on Japan)
    • Congress appropriated $37 billion, which was more than the whole cost of fighting in WWI & 5x the cost of any New Deal budget
    • Sept. 6, 1940(date approved), Congress passes a conscription law
      • under this law, 1.2 million troops & 800,000 reserves are trained each year
  • The Netherlands, Denmark, & France adopted colonies in the New World & worried they too would fall to Germany
    • At the Havana Conference of 1940, the US decided to share the responsibility of upholding the Monroe Doctrine w/ its 20 New World neighbors


Hitler's Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

  • Two globe-shaking events marked the course of World War II before the assault on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.
    • One was the fall of France in June 1940
    • The other was Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941
  • Hitler and Stalin didnt trust each other.
  • They engaged in prolonged dickering in a secret attempt to divide potential territorial spoils between them, but Stalin balked at dominant German congrol of the Balkans.
  • Hitler decided to crush his coconspirator, seize the oil and other resources of the Soviet Union and then have two free hands to snuff out Britain.
  • On June 22, 1941 Hitler launched a devastating attack on his Soviet neighbor.
    • Roosevelt immediately promised assistance and backed up his words by making some military supplies available.
    • he extended $1 billion


US Detsroyers and Hitler's U-boats Clash

  • American convoys under the lend lease act were easy targets for German attack
  • In July 1941 FDR decided to allow American destroyers to protect the convoys as far as Iceland, where protection would be taken over by the British
  • Despite Hitler's orders not to attack American merchant ships several u-boats did
  • FDR permitted American war ships to attack German boats on sight
  • neutrality quickly lost support as agressive actions and preperation ensued


Suprise Assault on Pearl Harbor

  • Since Sept. 1940, Japan had been a military ally of Nazi Germany
  • Japan-still down & out after the "China incident"
  • Japan depended on shipments of scrap iron, steel, oil, & aviation gas from the US
  • Despite being highly unpopular in US, Roosevelt held off an embargo against Japan out of fear for the weak, oil-rich Dutch East Indies
  • In late 1940, Washington imposed the 1st of its embargoes on supplies to Japan
  • 1941, US froze Japanese assets in the US & a cessation of all gas shipments & other necessary war items
  • Japan had 2 choices:
    • Give in to US demands
    • Break embargo by attacking oil supplies & other riches of Southeast Asia
  • Nov. / Dec. 1941, final negotiations w/ Japan took place in Washington
    • The State Department told Japan to leave China & offered to renew trade relations on a limited basis
    • Japan refused to leave China
  • Officials in Washington "cracked" the Japanese code & knew the Japanese were going to wage war
    • US could not attack 1st bc of its democratic philosophy & had to wait/listen to public debates & Congress
  • Roosevelt was misled by Japanese ship movement & no one (including Roosevelt) expected the Japanese to come after Hawaii 1st
    • While Japan was prolonging negotiations in Washington, Japanese bombers attacked w/o warning on "Black Sunday" (Dec. 7, 1941)
    • 3,000+/- US casualties, many destroyed aircrafts (luckily, the 3 priceless aircraft carriers were outside the harbor), all 8 battleships were sunk or immobilized & many small vessels were destroyed or damaged
  • The next day, Congress recognized that war was "thrust" upon the US
    • roll call in the Senate & House was only 1 vote short of unanimity
    • Germany & Italy(Jap. allies) declared war on Dec. 11, 1941
      • a unanimous vote in Senate & House
  • The unofficial war was now official


America's Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

  • the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor paid off only in the short run
  • it unified Americans as no other event had
  • It was not the only cause of American involvement in WWII
  • Americans had consistantly followed a series of events that would inevitably lead them to war
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 36 - America in World War II

 

Major Themes

  • Unified by Pearl Harbor, America effectively carried out a war mobilization effort that produced vast social and economic changes within American Society..


Major Questions

  • How did America’s domestic response to WWII differ from its reaction to WWI?
  • What was the significance of the use of the atomic bomb in 1945? Does its use have relevance today?


Outline

The Allies Trade Space for Time

  • Americans wanted to "Get Japan First!" but Britain and America had already agreed to "Get Germany First"
    • This was smart, because once Germany was out of the way, everything else wouldn't be as hard
    • Also, if the US was attacking Japan and Germany overran Europe, there would be no stopping Hitler
  • The Allies needed time to get supplies, men, and munitions across the ocean and such
    • The Allies had a bigger population
    • The USA had the best military (potentially)
  • America had to set itself up for war production all over again
    • Had to worry about the Allies in Europe being smushed by Germany
    • Germany could develop new weapons, changing the rules of the war
  • There wasn't help from foreign nations this time:
    • America would have to supply its own troops with necessities (food, clothes, transportation, munitions)
      • It also had to give all of this stuff to its Allies


The Shock of War

  • America was completely unified this time around
    • Communists in America had disagreed with the sar, but after Germany turned around on USSR, they wanted total war against the Axis Powers
    • Immigrants (Italian-Americans, German-Americans) supported America
      • The Immigration Limits had helped these groups assimilate, so there was less worry about Hyphen Americans
    • The exception was Japanese-Americans
      • There was a history of Japanese immigrant hatred, and it flared during the war
      • About 110,000 J-A's were put in "internment camps" which was a fancy way of saying concentration camps
        • 2/3 were American born citizens
      • There was a wide-spread fear that the J-A's would spy for their home country
      • Supreme Court upheld the Internment Camps in the Korematsu v. U.S. (later apologized and paid $20,000 to each survivor)
  • The "new" Conservative Congress killed lots of New Deal Programs (CCC, WPA...)
    • The New Deal was done and the new goal was to Win the War
    • The government made a little propoganda, ubt mostly focused on action (lack of time)
      • 9/10 Americans didn't know any of the Atlantic Charter
      • A majority didn't know what the war was about
    • All the same, America pushed hard and got down to work
      • They were mondo-efficient


Building the War Machine

  • The economy was healed by the War
    • About $100 billion in military orders was made in 1942
      • This took up the overproduction of the G.Depression
    • War Production Board was created and American Factories made:
      • 40 billion bullets
      • 300,000 aircraft
      • 76,000 ships
      • 86,000 tanks
      • 2.6 million machine guns
    • Henry J. Kaiser (strange the people would trust that last name in a time like this, but put the Japanese in camps...)
      • Sir Launchalot made tons of ships
    • The WPB stopped production of nonessential things (passenger cars)
      • Made a priority idea
      • When natural rubber supplies died, it made 51 synthetic rubber plants
    • Farmers also increased output (gotta feed the hungry and all that)
      • They had less workers, but better fertilizers and machines allowed for increased output
  • There were also economic strains
    • 1942 saw serious inflation
    • The Office of Price Administration made regulations to stop the upward climb of prices
      • There was rationing (butter, meat...) but there was black markets that killed these ideas a little bit
      • The WLB made "ceilings" on wages
    • Labor Unions got angry about the wage-ceilings
      • Membership went from 10 mill. to 13 mill.
      • There were many violations of the no-strike pledges
        • United Mine Workers (led by John L. Lewis) were especially prominent
      • The government was concerned that strikes would lower production and therefore jeopardize victory hence:
        • Passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act
          • Government could take over "tied-up" industries
          • Strikes against gov't owned industries were illegalized
          • Gov't took over the mines and RRs for a little while
    • Despite the strikes, American workers in general put out a great effort


Manpower and Womanpower

  • The armed services enlisted nearly 15 million men in World War II and some 216,000 women who were employed for noncombat duties.
  • Best known of these "women in arms" were the WAACs (army), WAVES (navy), SPARs (coast guard)
  • The US exempted certain key categories of industrial and agricultural workers from the draft in order to keep its mighty industrial and food-producing machines humming.
  • But even with these exemptions thedraft left the nation's farms and factories so short of personnel that new workers had to be found.
  • An agreement with Mexico brought thousands of Mexican agricultural workers across the borderto harvest the fruit and grain crops of the West.
  • More than 6 million women took up jobs outside the home, over half of them had never before worked for wages.
  • Many were mothers and the gov't was obliged to set up some 3,000 day-care centers to care for their children.
  • The war foreshadowed an eventual revolution in the roles of women in American society.
  • The war's immediate impact on women's lives has frequently been exaggerated. the great majority of American women did not work for wages in the wartime economy but continued in their traditional role.
  • In Bri. and the Soviet Union a far greater percentage of women, including mothers were pressed into industrial employment.
  • A poll in 1943 revealed that a majority of American women would not take a job in a war plant if it were offered.
  • At the end of the war two-thirds of women war workers left the labor force.
    • Many were forced out of their jobs by employers and unions eager to re-employ returning servicemen.




Wartime Migrations

  • During the war many people moved into boomtowns that had war industries
  • about 1.6 million blacks migrated west and north leaving the south to seek war jobs
  • After this migration race became a national issue
  • In 1941 Roosevelt issued an executive order forbidding discrimination in the armed forces
  • After the war millions more blacks migrated north
  • The war also brought about an exodus of the Native Americans from reservations to cities
    • Several native americans also served in the armed forces
  • A few race riots occurred in various cities caused by the influx of new people




Holding the Home Front

  • Americans were the lucky few who saw no action on the home front
  • the war boosted our economy & brought us out of the Great Depression
  • businesses greatly benefitted from the war, doubling product $$ in 5 yrs
  • income increased despite wartime taxes
    • resulting in price controls being lifted (1946) & Am. consumerism raising prices to 33% in < 2 yrs
    • Europe struggled along due to the damages of war
  • the war ushered in major gov't interventionism
    • the rationing system
    • ppl working for the armed forces
    • ppl working for the defense industries (employers & unions monitered by FEPC& WLB)
    • ppl's need cared for by gov't-sponsered:
      • housing projects
      • day-care centers
      • health plans
    • Office of Scientific Research and Development
      • gov't & universites working together for scientific research, foreshadowing Am's technological & economic leadership in the postwar era
  • 1941-1945 are looked back as the origins of a "warfare-welfare state"
  • WWII war costs: $330 billion
    • 10x more than WWI
    • twice as much as ALL federal spending since 1776
    • income-tax net expanded to include 4x more ppl
    • max. tax rates rose as high as 90%
    • 2/5ths war costs paid from current revenues, the rest was borrowed
    • Nation debt 1941: $49 billion; 1945: $259 billion
    • once production started running, the war cost $10 million per hour!


The Rising Sun in the Pacific

  • Japanese militarists realized they had to win quickly or lose slowly
  • At the same time as the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched other assaults on various Far Eastern places inluding:
    • U.S. outposts of Guam, Wake, & the Philippines
    • Hong Kong (British-Chinese port) & British Malaya
    • Burma-the U.S. was was trucking munitions over the Burma Rd. to a Chinese army under Jiang Jieshi
    • Dutch East Indies (oil-rich)
  • The Philippines succeeded in slowing down the Japanese mikado's warriors for 5 months
  • The Japanese then landed a small & effective army
    • Gen. MacArthur w/drew to Bataan to be on the defense
      • there 20,000+/- US troops & a bigger force of untrained Filipinos held off Jap. attacks until April 4, 1942
    • Before the US surrendered, MacArthur, w/ orders from Washington, secretly left Australia to head the resistance against the Japanese
      • After surrendering, the remaining army was treated terribly in the 80-mile Bataan Death March to POW camps
    • Corregidor(an island fort in Manila Harbor) held out until May 6, 1942
      • it then surrendered to the Japanese giving the complete control of the Philippine archipelago to Japan


Japan's High Tide at Midway

  • The Japanese pushed southward
    • They invaded New Guinea, north of Australia, & landed on the Solomon Islands
  • May 1942, Japanese onrush was checked by a naval battle fought in the Coral Sea
    • a US carrier task force w/ Aussie support=heavy losses for Japan
    • for the 1st time ever, fighting was done completely by carrier-based aircraft, neither side fired directly at one another
  • Then, Japan decided to seize Midway Island 1,000+ miles northwest of Honolulu
    • Could attack Pearl Harbor more
    • Hoped to negotiate a cease-fire in the Pacific with USA
  • Battle of Midway:
    • June 3-6, 1942
    • Americans led by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
      • Used a smaller fleet than the Japanese, but the Japanese lost 4 major carriers and retreated
  • Midway and Coral Sea were important
    • US had halted the Japanese
    • However, Japan took over Kiska and Attu (islands near Alaska)
    • Americans sent troops to defend Alaska
  • Japanese were overextended, and so it was easier to dislodge them later on


The Allied Halting of Hitler

  • Hitler entered the war with a fleet of ultramodern subs
    • Ship destruction far outran ship construction for Allies
  • Was a hard and slow battle turning the tides in subsea war
    • Tactics were strengthened by the use of air patrol and radar
    • Allied submarine tactics improved greatly when Britain broke the German code
      • Allowed the Allies to pinpoint German U-Boats
  • In the spring of 1943 the Allies first gained an advantage over the U-Boats
    • The Battle of the Atlantic was close, but the Allies won
  • The turning point for the land-air war had come late in 1942
    • The British were joined by the Americans in August 1942 and bombed many German cities
    • In late October the Germans were pushed back to Tunisia
  • On the Soviet front, the red army gave the Allies a new lift
    • In Sept. 1942, the Russians stalled the Germans at Stalingrad
    • The Russians launched a resiliant attack and never let up
    • Stalin had regained about 2/3 of the Soviet land that Hitler had taken


A Second Front from North Africa to Rome

  • Soviet losses in 1942 were terrible millions had already died
  • The soviets wanted the allies to open a new front to give them cut them some slack
  • The Americans wanted to assault Frances coastline
    • Britain thought that would fail so the allies postponed an invasion of Europe
  • They did start a new front though in November 1942 about 400000 men invaded North Africa which they took finally in may 1943
  • Roosevelt and Churchill meeting in Morocco decided to issue the terms of unconditional surrender
    • This move was partly to appease the soviets who still wanted a larger second front
  • The allies soon after took Sicily in August 1943
    • Italy also surrender around this time
  • However hitlers troops were still in Italy and they fought bitterly against the allies
  • The allies stalled out for many months in Italy and after D day it became a sort of sideline war


D-Day: June 6, 1944

  • The Soviets had constantly pused for a second front agains Germany
  • FDR, Stalin, and Curchill agreed to meet in Iran
    • they agreed on a two front assault on Germany
    • Elaborate plans were made for an invasion of Normandy
  • The assault was to be sent from England
    • millions of primarily American soldiors as well was munitions flooded the island
  • General Eisenhower was selected to be in charge of the assault
  • French normandy was chosen due to its reletively weak german defenses(still very strong)
    • allies already had control over the air and prevented reinforcement
    • a feint made Germans think the attack woiuld be farther north
  • the allies at first secured only a small beachead, but quickly spread on a relentless assualt twoard Germany


FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944

  • the Presidential Campaign of 1944 couldn't have come at a worse time i.e. the climax of the war
  • Repubs nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the 42 yr old, short, liberal, "mustachioed", dapper, NYC prosecuter of grafters & racheteers from New York
    • he wan't very worldly so the convention nominated isolationist Senator John W. Bricker of Ohio for Vice President
    • platform: prosecution of the war & creation of new international peace organization
  • Dems obviously nominated FDR, the "indispensible man" of the Dems
  • He was oddly forgotten & lots of attention was forcused on the Vice President nominee [lucky for FDR]
    • Henry A. Wallace, secretary of agriculture, desired a renomination but conservative Dems saw him as ill-balanced & an unpredictable liberal
    • major "ditch Wallace" campaign emerged
    • nomination went to smiling Harry S. Truman of Missouri
      • had recently conducted and investigation of wasteful war espenditures as the chairman of the Senate Commitee conducting that investigation
      • no one had much against him or on him

Roosevelt Defeats Dewey

  • Dewey took the offensive because Roosevelt was too busy directing the war
    • Republicans feared the "lifer" in the White House
  • In the closing weeks Roosevelt left his desk finally
  • Roosevelt won 432 to 99 in the Electoral college
    • 25,606,585 to 22,014,745 in the pop vote
  • Roosevelt won primarily because the war was going well
  • Foreign policy was also a decisive factor in the winning of FDR
  • Experience again played a role in the election of FDR


The Last Days of Hitler

  • In mid-December the Third Reich was crumbling, allied bombers had decimated almost all German factories and cities and the Western Allies were striking repeated heavy blows
  • At one last bid for the survival of Nazi Germany, Hitler through all of his reserves ( which he had been secretly building up) at the Western Allies on December 16th, 1944
    • struck in the Ardennes Forest with the hope of reaching and capturing the key Allied supply point of Antwerp, Belgian (a port)
    • somehow caught the Allies (mostly Americans) off guard and drove them back
    • the ten day penetration was finally stopped after the 101st Airborne Division had held their ground at Bastogne
  • In March 1945, the Americans reached the Rhine River where by incredibly good luck, they found one key bridge undemolished
    • soon reached the Elbe River in April and met up with their Soviet comrades
  • Found concentration camps where the Jews had been killed
    • the Washington Government had known about Hitler's campaign of genocide, but did not know how serious it was
  • Soviets reached Berlin in April 1945
    • pillage and rape
  • After marrying his long time mistress (Eva Braun), Hitler commited suicied on April 30th
  • Roosevelt died in Georgia on April 12th
  • V-E (Victory in Europe) Day on May 7th, 1945

 

The Atomic Bombs

  • Strategists had been planning the invasion of the Japanese homeland
    • it was expected to cost hundreds of thousands of American lives (and many more Japanese)
    • Japan still wouldn't surrender unconditionally and had no outward intention to
  • Potsdam Conference gave Japan an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed
    • warning was showered over Japan by bombers
  • America had the a-bomb
    • had made it due to Einstein's pleas that America make one before the Germans did
    • Germany had lost before it got used, Japan became the next target
    • first a-bomb tested in the desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico on July 16th, 1945
  • A-bomb used on Hiroshima first on August 6th, 1945
    • 180,000 died, 70,000 instantly
  • Japan would not yield, so on August 9th a second a-bomb was used on Nagasaki
    • 80,000 died instantly
  • Japan finally surrendered on August 10th, 1945 under the condition that their Son of Heaven, Hirohito, remained on the throne
    • allies accepted on August 14th
    • official surrender on September 2nd, 1945
      • ceremonies conducted by General MacArthur on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay
      • V-J Day celebrated at home


The Allies Triumphant

  • America suffered nearly a million casualties
    • reduced greatly by advances in health care
  • America was one of the few nations not utterly destroyed by the war
  • Americans became known as the military power of the world
  • Won primarily through miricles of industry
    • America simply had more supplies
    •  
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 37 - The Cold War Begins 1945-1952

 

Major Themes

  • America emerged from WW II as the world’s strongest economic power and started a postwar economic boom that lasted two decades.
  • A bulging population migrated to the suburbs and sunbelt leaving cities increasingly to minorities and the poor
  • The end of WW II left the US and Soviet Union as the two dominant world powers. They became locked in a Cold War confrontation – a global ideological conflict between democracy and communism.


Major Questions

  • Was the primary threat from the Soviet Union a military or an ideological one?
    • The threat from the Soviet Union was more of an ideological threat than a military threat. It was an ideological threat because there really wasn't an actual military conflict between the US and the USSR, like physical combat or other military attacks taken against the United States. There were, however, a lot of threats from either side with a military build-up and an on going arms race to back up the threats.
  • Assess the impact of each of these changes in American society: increased affluence, suburban growth, growing women’s presence in the workforce, the “baby boom”.


Outline

Postwar Economic Anxieties

  • Many Americans were still concerned with the Great Depression, and now the relations between them and the Soviets were degrading
    • There were many residual effects of the Depression
      • Increased suicide rate
      • Decreased Marriage/Birth Rates
      • Sexual Depression
  • The economy was shaky to start
    • "Gross National Product" (how much the country produces) decreased from Wartime Production
    • Prices rose
    • Strikes rampaged
      • Strikers couldn't afford what they were making because of increased prices
  • Organized Labor had issues with the conservatives
    • 1947- The first Republican Congress in 14 yrs. passed the Taft-Hartley Act
      • Killed "closed" all-union jobs
      • Unions became liable for damages
      • Union leaders had to take noncommunist oaths
    • The North had experienced a growth in numbers of Unions
      • Wanted to bring around the South and the West
      • However, the Southern textile/steel mills wouldn't be unionized due to residual racism
    • Union membership hit a top in 1950, and then kept decreasing
  • Democrats tried to prevent the "economic downturn"
    • Sold war factories and government owned sections of industry
    • Made the Employment Act of 1946
      • Was now a gov't policy "to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power."
      • Act also made an Economic Advisors Council for prez. that would help him make this policy happen
    • Servicemen's Readjustment Acts of 1944
      • Also called GI Bill of Rights
      • Reacting to fear that the GI's wouldn't be able to find work at home
      • Hoped to send former soldiers to school
      • $14.5 billion was spent
      • Also allowed the Veterans Administration to guarantee $16 billion in loans
        • Vet's could use these loans to buy homes, farms, small businesses...
      • The GI Bill definetly made a huge contribution to keeping the economy afloat


The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970

  • GNP (gross nat'l prod.) started to get higher in 1948, and by 1950 was super strong (like Superman, but better)
    • National income doubled in the '50's, then doubled again in the 60's
    • Americans were 6% of planetary population, with 40% of wealth
      • This prosperity would later help the civil rights movement
      • Helped with welfare programs like Medicare
      • Allowed America to assert leadership during this time period
    • Those who had suffered during the Depression wanted to float to the top now
      • The Middle Class made up 60% of population now
        • Majority of people owned a car and washing machine
        • About 90% owned a TV (invented 1920's, used 1940's)
        • 60% owned their own homes (compared to >40% in the 20's)
    • Women got the most of the Postwar Prosperity
      • Urban offices and shops had places for women to work
      • The service area of the economy grew, and many jobs went to women
      • 25% of the workforce was women
      • However, tradition still held women responsible for keeping home and children
        • This tension would lead to the Feminist Movement of 1960's


The Roots of Postwar Prosperity

  • Many things factored into the P.P.
    • WWII
      • USA used the war to help fix the economy, while other countries suffered fighting
      • Other countries couldn't "hold a candle" to the US
    • Military Budgets
      • Some feared a "permanent war economy"
      • Economic goodness of 50's was due to money laid out for Korean War
      • Defensive spending = 10% of GNP until 60's
      • Pentagon drained money into aerospace, plastics, and electronics industries
        • We were better in these areas than any one else
      • Scientific research and development also sparked by military $
    • Cheap Energy
      • America and Europe controlled petroleum in Middle East
        • Prices stayed low
      • America doubled oil consumption in 25 yrs after war
        • Made highways
        • Installed Air-conditioning
        • Electricity-Generating Capacity increased by 6x in 25 yrs.
      • Electrical cables also helped
        • The powers of oil, gas, coal, and water were used in the factories
        • Were carried by these cables
  • Power of Nature (sounds like a Hippy theme song) helped productivity
    • Productivity increased at a rate of 3%/year for 20 years
    • Work force was becoming more educated
      • By 1970, 90% of school-age population (5-18 I'm guessing) was in a school setting
    • Standard of living rose significantly
  • The Economic Structure of the economy changed and helped the postwar production
    • Work force moved out of farming
      • The gains in productivity here were the highest
      • Lumping of "family farms" allowed "agribusinesses" to use machinery
      • One farmer could now feed 50 people vs. 15 from the 40's
      • Only 2% of the population was farming now, but still fed most of the world


The Smiling Sunbelt

  • For about 3 decades after 1945 an average of 30 million people changed residences every year.
  • Families especially felt the strain as distance divided parents from children, and brothers and sisters from one another.
  • One sign of this stress was the phenomenal popularity of advice books on child-rearing, especially Dr. Benjamin Spock's The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care. It was first published in 1945 and it instructed millions of parents during the ensuing decades in the kind of homely wisdom that was once transmitted naturally from grandparent to parent, and from parent to child.
  • In fluid postwar neighborhoods friendships were also hard to sustain.
  • The Sunbelt - was a 15-state area stretching in a smililing crescent from Virginia through Florida and Texas to Arizona and California.
    • This region increased its pop. at a rate nearly double that of the old industrial zones of the Northeast.
  • In the 1950s California alone accounted for one-fifth of the entire nation's population growth and by 1963 it had outdistanced New York as the most populous state.
  • The South and Southwest were a new frontier for Americans after WWII. Modern pioneers came in search of jobs, a better climate, and lower taxes.
  • They found jobs in abundance especially in the electronics industry of California, the areospace complexes in Florida and Texas and in the huge military installations that powerful southern congressional representatives secured for their districts.
  • Federal dollars accounted for much of the Sunblelt's prosperity, though southern and western politicians led the cry against gov't spending.


The Rush to the Suburbs

  • Most of the Americans fled from the cities to the suburbs
    • This movement was encouraged by government policies
      • The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) & The Vetrans Administration (VA)
        • Made owning a house in the suburbs economically atractive than an apt. in the cities
      • Tax deductions on mortgages also provided financial incentive
    • Highways allowed transportation to work in the cities
    • By 1960 one in four lived in a suburb
  • This movement caused a boom in the construction industry
    • The Levitt Brothers revolutionized the housing industry
    • Builders...
      • Errected hundreds of houses in a single project
      • Specialized crews
      • Factory assembled framing
      • put on roofs
      • strung wires
      • plumbed
      • and made all aspects cost effective
  • Blacks migrated to the North and moved to suburbs
    • Imported poverty to the Northern cities and suburbs
  • Taxpaying business also fled to the suburbs and formed malls
  • Sometimes there was segregation due to these policies
    • Blacks were denied loans due to the "risk"
    • Others strove to keep minorities out of their neighborhoods


The Postwar Baby Boom

  • "Baby boom"- an increase in the birthrate in the decade & a half after 1945.
  • Men and women "tied the nuptial knot" in record numbers at war's end and then began to "fill the nation's empty cradles."
  • They added more than 50 million babies to the nation's pop. by the end of the 1950s.
  • The birthrate reached its peak in 1957 & from there began to drop.
    • By 1973 fertility rates dropped below the point necessary to maintain existing population figures.
  • If the downward trend continued, only further immigration would lift the U.S. population above its 1996 level of some 264 million.
  • As the oversize postwar generation grew it was destined to change many aspects of American life.
    • Elementary-school enrollments increased to nearly 34 million pupils in 1970, then began a steady decline as that age group grew up, leaving schools closed & teachers unemployed.
  • Babies and toddlers in the 1940s and 1950s made up a profitable market for manufacturers of canned food and other baby products.
  • As they became teenagers in the 1960s, they spent an estimated $20 billion a year for clothes and recorded rock music.
  • In the 1970s the consumer tastes of the baby boomers changed again and the most popular jeans maker began marketing pants with a fuller cut.
  • In the 1980s the generation "bumped and jostled" each other in the job market, trying to secure a spot on the ladder of social mobility.
  • In the 90s the began to enter middle age- raising its own "secondary boom" of children.
  • Eventually, the children of the baby boom will retire(21st century/now) & put a huge strain on the Social Security system.


Truman: The "Gutty" Man from Missouri

  • Truman was considered the "Accidental President"
    • Lacked confidence and looked inexperienced
      • "the average man's average man"
    • Lacked a college education
  • Gradually gained confidence, to the point of cockiness
  • Permitted his old associates of the "Missouri Gang" to gather in office
    • Truman was stubbornly loyal to "Missouri Gang"
  • Tried to show off his decisiveness & power of command to a skeptical public by going off not completely prepared to a wrongheaded notion
    • "To err is Truman"
  • Was often small on small things, but was also big on big things
    • Had old-fashioned characteristics: moxie, authenticity, few pretensions, & rock-solid integrity
    • Didn't dodge his responsibility


Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?

  • Much was unresolved between US and the Soviets about the postwar fates of Germany, Eastern Europe, and Asia
  • The Big Three met at Yalta in Feb 1945
    • final plans were made for smashing and capturing Germany
    • Though he later broke this promise, Stalin had agreed that Poland, w/ revised boundaries, should have a representative gov't based on free elections
    • Bulgaria and Romania were also to have free elections, but in the end they also did not.
    • Plans were announced for est.ing the United Nations [not called that at the time]
  • America was concerned about having major casulaties from the assult on Japan, so we asked Russia to put some troops in Manchuria and Korea to lighten the death load, but Moscow needed pursuations, i.e. troops, to bring them into the Far Eastern conflict
  • Stalin finally agreed to attack Japan after Germany was defeated for 3 months, but of course we had to give a little to get a little
    • Soviets were promised:
      • Sakhlin Island [lost to Japan in 1905]
      • Japan's Kurile Islands
      • joint control over the railroads of Manchuria
      • special privileges in the 2 key sea ports: Dairen and Port Arthur
    • this would give Stalin control over v. important industrial centers of America's weakening Chinese ally
  • Critics claimed that the conference gave Stalin a bunch of control over China and that this control seriously contributed to Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) 's fall to communists 4 yrs later
    • they also attacked Stalin for selling out on agreements about Poland and other Eastern European countries
  • Roosevelt appologists said that Stalin's ambitions were really held back at the conference and obviously things would have been different if he had just kept his promise; plus a war w/ the spread out Europe-occupied "red army" was unthinkable
  • The Yalta conference wasn't really a peace settlement but more of a testing of one another w. the other's intentions
  • Despite broken promises, Roosevelt clamied that the agreement was "so elastic that the Russians can stretch it all the way from Yalta to Washington without ever technically breaking it."
  • All were just waiting for peace

The US and the Soviet Union

  • Mistrust btwn the 2 powers was ancient; communism and captialism never had warm and cozy feelings for each other
    • US had refused to recognize the Bolshevik revolutionary gov't until 16 yrs after it was est. [1933]
    • Soviets were skeptical about US and Britain's delay to enter the war, leaving Russia w/ WAY more casulaties
    • US and Britain didn't include the USSR in their project for developing atomic weapons
    • Washington gov't spontaneously terminated vital lend-lease aid to bruised USSR in 1945, making Moscow beg for $6 billion; at the same time Washington was approving a similar $3.75 billion loan to Britain in 1946
  • Stalin's views were that the USSR's security was put above all
    • it had twice before been betrayed by surrounding countries and he had made it clear from the beginning of the war that he would have friendly gov'ts on the western border esp Poland
    • These spheres of influence would protect the soviets and help them strengthen its revolutionary base as the world's leading communist country
      • Americans saw this "sphere of influence" as an EMPIRE [Bolshevik call for world revolution]
      • Plus this clashed w. FDR's dream of an "open world", demilitarized, decolonized, democtratized and the UN
  • America and the USSR acutally scarily resembled each other
    • both had been largely isolated b4 WW2 [Am. by choice, USSR was just left out]
    • both had history of "missionary"-like dipolmacy [give the whole world their revolutionary views (ideology) and say it's the best]
  • Both wanted to influence the battered and broken Europe-after-WW2
  • it seemed as tho confrontation was unavoidable
  • the Big Three were only friends until their common enemy was destroyed
    • rivalry btwn Russia (communistic, despotic) and US (capitalistic, democratic) was inevitable
    • The Cold War had begun
  • the following 4 1/2 decades shaped Soviet-American relations and overshadowed the postwar international order all over the world and molded societies, economies,and lives of individuals also all over the world

Shaping the Postwar World

  • Meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, the Western Allies established the International Monetary Fund, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
    • encouraged world trade and economic growth in war-torn and under-developed areas
    • Soviets declined to participate
  • United Nations opened on April 25th, 1945
    • Roosevelt choseboth Republican and Democratic senators for the U.S. delegation
    • representatives from 50 nations met at the San Fransisco War Memorial and made the UN Charter
    • had a Security Council, dominated by the U.S., U.K., the U.S.S.R., France, and China
      • each had a veto
    • Assembly which would be controlled by the smaller countries
    • Senate approved the document warmly on July 28th, 1945, by a vote of 89 to 2
    • set up in New York City
  • Had some gratifying initial success
    • helped preserve peace in Iran, Kashmir, and other spots
    • played a large part in creating Israel
    • the U.N. Trusteeship lead former colonies to independence


The Problem of Germany

  • The Allies wanted to completely eliminate Nazism and to punish those convicted of war crimes
    • Held the Nuremburg Trials, which were important to history because they were the first time that individuals were punished for specific war crimes and held responsible
    • Some of the crimes were Crimes Against Humanity or the Laws of War, Plotting Aggressions Contrary to Peace Treaties
  • The Nuremburg version of justice was harsh
    • 12 people were sentenced to death, 7 to long term jail.
    • Many complained against it using the excuse that the crimes had not been defined at the beginning of the war
  • The Allies were somewhat undecided as to what to do with Germany
  • It was agreed by all the other Allies but the Soviets that Germany's industry should not be destroyed
    • The other Allies also thought that Germany should be reunited, but Stalin destroyed that idea by tightening his grip on Eastern Germany
  • East Germany was one of many countrys that became the Soviet's satelites
  • Berlin was deep in East Germany and the Soviets wanted the Allies out of it, so they tried to starve them out
    • They erected the Berlin Wall and enforced a blockeade
  • Did not work:
    • America organized the Berlin airlift dropping thousands of supplies to Berliners


Crystallizing the Cold War

  • In 1946 Stalin broke his agreement to remove troops from irans northern province
    • Truman protested this and Stalin backed off
  • After many remarks from Truman to Stalin the Containment doctrine first evolved
  • Truman accepted this doctrine and started to employ it in 1947
  • His first move was to ask congress for 400 million dollars in aid for Greece and Turkey
    • He also said that the US must support free people who are being subjugated by an outside force
    • became known as the Truman Doctrine
  • Another problem for Truman was the economic chaos that still engulfed western Europe
    • Communist parties could use this chaos against those countries to gain power
  • Secratary of State Marshall proposed that the European nations make a joint recovery plan that would be helped by the US
  • The Marshall plan ended up calling for about 12.5 billion dollars in aid
  • Congress agreed to this in April 1948 after Czechoslovakia was rocked by a communist coup
  • The Marshall plan was one of Trumans great accomplishments
    • It revived the European economy
    • It also made the communist parties in France and Italy lose ground
  • In 1948 Truman made another decision as oil resources dwindled in the US
  • He recognized the Jewish state of Israel which pissed off the Arabs
  • THis decision severly complicated foreign policy with the middle east


America Begins to Rearm

  • though the period of the cold war was not open war it was not truly peace either
  • the constant soviet threat maintained a large military investment by the american government
  • the National Security Act was passed creating the National Security Council and the CIA
  • the Soviet threat also unified western Europe
    • the American gov't decided to join this pact (NATO)
    • this was very different from previous american forgien policy


Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia

  • Reconstruction in Japan was much more smooth than reconstruction in Germany
    • run almost entirely by McArthur
    • introduced western democracy
    • japanese were very cooperative
    • quickly became a world industrial power
  • Chinese reconstruction was a failure
    • America failed to fully support chinese nationalists who soon fell to communist revolutionaries
    • nearly one quarter of the population of the world became communist
  • Soviets developed a nuclear weapon in 1949
  • this began a dangerous arms race between the two superpowers that led to both sides developing weapons with the potential to destroy the world

 

Democratic Divisions in 1948

  • In 1946 Republicans won control of Congress
  • Republicans Nominated Thomas E. Dewey for president
  • The Democratice party became extremely divided as Truman is renominated,
    • A states rights party is formed nominating J. Strom Thurmond
    • A new progressive party nominates Henry A. Wallace
    • So the Democrats are split 3 ways and victory seems certain for Dewey
  • Dewey became very overconfident by the polls and really did not campaign effectively
  • Truman Traveled the country by train to deliver many speeches and improved support by speaking on improving civil rights
  • Somehow Truman wins the election and the democrats regain control of congress
  • In his inagural address Truman calls for a new program
    • THe plan was to lend money to weaker peoples to keep them from becoming commis
    • This plan greatly assisted impoverished countries


The Military Seesaw in Korea

  • September 15, 1950, MacArthur succeeded w/ launching an amphibious landing behind enemy lines at Inchon instead of fighting his way out of the southern Pusan perimeter
    • w/in 2 weeks, the North Koreans went back to the "sanctuary" of the 38th parallel
    • The UN authorized a crossing by MacArthur (as long as there was no Chinese/Soviet intervention)
  • Americans now considered Korea to be another potential enemy
  • Chinese communists already publicly warned that they would take action if hostile troops approached the strategic Yalu River boundary between China & Korea
    • MacArthur dismissed the Chinese threats
  • November 1950, Chinese "volunteers" came across MacArthur's overextended lines & sent the UN's forces back down the peninsula
    • fighting became a stalemate near the 38th parallel
  • MacArthur pressed for retaliation
    • He wanted a blockade of the Chinese coast & bombings on Chinese bases in Manchuria
    • Washington policy makers refused to enlarge the expensive conflict
      • the Joint Chief of Staff decided that a bigger clash in Asia would be all wrong
        • Europe, not Asia, was the 1st concern of the administration & the USSR, not China, was the biggest threat
  • MacArthur felt restricted & hated the concept of a "limited war"
    • April 11, 1951, Truman removes MacArthur from command
  • July 1951, discussions for a truce began near the firing line but the issue of prisoner exchange caused the discussion to drag on for almost 2 years while men kept dying
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 38 - The Eisenhower Era 1952-1960

 

Major Themes

  • The Eisenhower years were characterized by prosperity and moderate conservatism at home and by the tensions of the Cold War abroad
  • While Eisenhower and the majority of Americans held to a cautious, family oriented perspective on domestic social questions, an emerging civil rights movement and the influence of television and popular music presented challenges to the spirit of national consensus


Major Questions

  • Was the decade of the 1950s a time of triumph, or a period of suppression and conformity?

It was both. While at home, some of the civil rights movements gained attention, and managed to succeed. Women moved into business even more, the African-Americans finally got some rights, and corruption in labor was squished (a triumph-ish kind of suppression). However, many other countries (Hungary, Vietnam, Korea) suffered suppression at the hands of their communist parties. On top of that, Senator McCarthy managed to get people to spy on their neighbors, and everyone was worried about saying the wrong thing. Everyone had to fit into a mold in order to avoid being named as a Communist.


  • Was the nonviolent civil rights movement a success?

Yes. Rosa Parks started a chain reaction with her refusal to stand up on a bus, and a bus boycott was enacted. (If I'm remembering correctly, blacks did get equality on buses shortly thereafter). The sit-in strikes worked wonders, and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. led people to fight peacefully for equality. Segregation was ended, athe government got involved to defend the integration.


  • What were the causes of the Vietnam War?

The French owned Vietnam, and nationalists there were trying to become self-governing. There had originally been a hope of help from the US, but the Cold War changed things. The Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, was becoming communist, and the US wouldn't help him fight off the French. Now, the US had to help the French win in order to contain communism. Guerrilla warfare led to the French losing, and the Communists taking over Vietnam.




Outline

The Advent of Eisenhower

  • Democratic hopes for re-election of 1952 was hurt by the Korean War and the firing of General MacArthur
    • chose Adlai E. Stevenson
  • Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard M. Nixon (the commie hunter) for p. and v.p.
    • Ike was already popular, perfect candidate for the new age of TV politics, was a hero due to his being the supreme Allied commander in Europe during WWII and being the first supreme commander of NATO
    • left the tough campaigning to Nixon who attacked the Democrats, but faltered when reports of tapping a secret “slush fund” and somehow saved face w/ his “Checkers speech” on TV
  • this demonstrated the soon to be political importance of looking good on TV
  • Ike reluctantly used this new medium, giving “answers” to a nonexistent crowd, questions were dubbed in later
  • TV threatened the role of the political parties since now the candidates could now appeal directly to the people instead of bargaining w/ other political bosses
  • Ike won by a landslide (helped by a last-minute pledge to personally end the war in Korea), broke the solid South, and ensured GOP control of Congress

 

“Ike” Takes Command

  • Ike kept his promise and flew to Korea in December 1952, but peace was not made until 7 months later (after threatening to use atomic weapons), armistice was repeatedly broken in future decades
  • Korean War lasted three years
    • 54,000 Americans dead plus millions more Chinese and North and South Koreans
    • billions of dollars spent
    • same conditions as before the war; division of Korea at 38th parallel
    • at least communism “contained” and no full-scale global conflict
  • Ike’s leadership style was to be above the fray and bickering of those around him, he projected an image of sincerity, fairness, and optimism
    • greatest asset was popularity
    • was like a grandpa to America, so he was well suited to soothing the people
    • critics say he should have done more to better social justice instead of social harmony


The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

  • On of the first problems facing Ike was the growing popularity of Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, who became popular when in a February 1950 speech he accused the Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, of knowingly employing 205 commies
    • when pressed for names, he said there were only 57 fo sho commies
    • couldn’t prove anyone was a commie
    • was encouraged and became more bold
    • not the most effective commie hunter, but the most ruthless
      • did the most damage to American traditions of fair play and free-speech
      • ruined the careers of countless officials, writers, and actors
      • high approval rating by the people
      • feared by political enemies
  • Ike hated him, but tried to stay out of his ways
    • appeased McCarthy by giving him control of personnel policy at the State Department
  • Last straw when he attacked the U.S. Army
    • Army fought back w/ 35 days of TV hearings
    • downhill from there, McCarthy died a 3 years later due to chronic alcoholism


Desegregating the South

  • America held about 15 million blacks, 2/3rds still in the South
  • Jim Crow laws still separated blacks from whites everyday, keeping them economically inferior and politically powerless
  • Everyday facilities were segregated
    • schools, public bathrooms, drinking fountains, restaurants, waiting rooms, trains and buses had different sections for each
    • Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his wife, Coretta had to spend their honeymoon[1953] in a blacks-only funeral parlor b/c hotels in Alabama didn't serve blacks
  • 20% of southern blacks were registered to vote (fewer than 5% in Deep South states like Mississippi and Alabama)
  • Some television networks blotted out black speakers so as to not offend southern stations
  • Violence enforced these Jim Crow Laws
    • 6 black veterans were lynched in the summer of 1946 after claiming to have served
    • 15 yr old Emmett Till was lynched by a Mississippi mob in 1955 for leering at a white woman
  • Swedish scholar Gunnar Myrdal exposed America's belief in all men created equal as contradictory b/c of their treatment towards blacks in hi s 1944 book An American Dilemma
  • Jack Roosevelt ("Jackie") Robinson broke the barrier in big-league baseball when the Brooklyn Dodgers signed him in 1947
  • African-Americans didn't suffer silently
    • NAACP pushed for dismantling of segregation for years
    • 1944 the Supreme Court ruled the "white primary" unconstitutional, un-labeling the Southern Democratic Party as a white person's club
    • 1950 Thurgood Marshall [NAACP chief legal counsel, later a supreme court justice] in the case ofSweatt v. Painter , pushed that separate is most definitely NOT equal
  • December 1955, Rosa Parks would not give up her seat for a white person and was arrested
    • this sparked a yearlong boycott of the city buses and was a symbol to the South that blacks would no longer be submissive
  • This boycott pushed young pastor Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. to popularity
    • seemed an unlikely champion of the downtrodden and disfranchised
    • raised in a prosperous black family in Atalanta; educated party in the North; was pretty much sheltered his whole life from the horrors of segregation
  • His speaking skills, his devotion to the biblical and constitutional conceptions of justice, his devotion to Gandhi's philosophies on nonviolence threw him to the forefront of the black revolution

Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution

  • "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that."- Truman after hearing about the lynching of the black veterans
  • He quickly responded by commissioning a report: "To Secure These Rights"
    • 1948 he followed his report by ending segregation in federal civil service and ordered "equality of treatment and opportunity" in the armed forces
    • the military protested at first, but due to shortage of men they were forced to comply
    • Congress was stubborn about passing civil rights legislation
    • Dwight D. Eisenhower showed no real interest in the racial issue
  • Civil rights progress was made by former governor of California, Chief Justice Earl Warren
    • Shocked many traditionalists incl. the President by judicially intervening in taboo social issues
    • was privately scorned by pres. Eisenhower but Warren persisted to encourage the Court to apply his populist principles
    • many protested, as shown by signs on the side of highways, but Warren 's defenders said the Court was doing the right thing by addressing important social issues seeing as how Congress just turned their backs on the issue
  • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas May 1954
    • unanimous decision of the Warren Court that segregation in public schools was "inherently unequal" therefore unconstitutional
    • this reversed the decision made in 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson that "separate but equal" is acceptable
    • conservatives were REEEAAALLLYY angry
    • justices insisted that desegregation must go ahead with "all deliberate speed."
  • Border states complied reasonably but the Deep South strongly protested
    • "massive resistance" was organized
    • > 100 southern congressional representatives and senators signed the "Declaration of Constitutional Principles" in 1956 [pledged unyielding resistance to desegregation]
    • several states created "private" school to defy the Supreme Court decision that said only in PUBLIC schools
  • 10 yrs after the Court's decision, < 2% of eligible blacks in the Deep South were in classrooms with whites
  • Southern translation of "all deliberate speed" was apparently deliberately slow

Crisis at Little Rock

  • Eisenhower did little to promote integration
    • he shied away from employing his vast popularity and the prestige of his office to educate white Americans about the need for racial justice
    • he had grown up in an all-white town, served in a segregated army and had advised against integration of the armed forced in 1948 and had criticized Truman's call for a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission
    • he complained the Brown v. Board of Education upset "the customs and convictions of at least two generations of Americans"
    • he refused to endorse the Court's decision
  • Eisenhower was forced to face the Court's decision when in Sept. 1957 Orval Faubus, governor of Arkansas, mobilized the National Guard to prevent 9 black students from enrolling in Little Rock's Central High School
    • Eisenhower sent troops to escort the children to their classes
  • Also in 1957, Congress passed the 1st Civil Rights Act since Reconstruction days
    • the President reassured a southern senator that the legislation represented "the mildest civil rights bill possible"
    • the bill set up a permanent Civil Rights Commission to investigate violation of civil rights & authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights
  • Blacks took the Civil Rights movement and ran w/ it
  • Martin Luther King, Jr.
    • formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 1957
    • was to get the Many black churches power behind black rights
    • this was a smart move seeing as how the churches were the largest & best-organized black institutions that had been allowed to develop in segregated societies
  • Feb 1, 1960 4 black college freshmen in Greensboro, North Carolina spark a spontaneous "sit-in" movement that swept across the south
    • w/o a real plan, they demanded service at a whites-only Woolworth's lunch counter, they kept their seats and came back the next day w/ 19 students, and the next with 85, and by the end of the week: 1000.
    • this sparked a wave of sit-ins , wade-ins, lie-ins, and pray-ins to get equal treatment in restaurants, transportation, employment, housing, and voting registration
  • April 1960 black students form the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced "snick") to give more focus and force to these efforts for civil rights
  • SNCC members would later lose patience with the more stately tactics of the SCLC and the even more deliberate legalisms of the NAACP

Eisenhower Republicanism at Home

  • "Dynamic conservatism" was the pledged philosophy of General Eisenhower's administration as he entered the presidency in 1953
    • "In all those things which deal w/ people, be liberal, be human" / "people's money, or their economy, or their form of government, be conservative" -Eisenhower
  • Eisenhower wanted to balance the fed. budget & protect the Republic form, "creeping socialism"
    • Eisenhower stopped Truman's huge military buildup
    • Supported the change of control of offshore oil fields from the fed. gov't to the states
    • Wanted to curb the TVA, encouraged privated power companies to build generating plants to compete w/ the huge public utility of the New Deal
    • Considered the free distribution of the Salk antipolio vaccine as "socialized medicine"
  • Mexican immigration
    • Mex. gov't worried illegal immigration to the US would undercut the bracero program of legally importing farmworkers
    • 1954, Operation Wetback: roundup of illegal immigrants, about 1 million Mexicans were caught & sent back to Mexico
  • Eisenhower wanted to cancel tribal preservation policies of the "Indian New Deal" (1934)
    • as legal entities, he wanted to "terminate" the tribes & go back to the assimilationist goals of the Dawes Severalty Act(1887)
      • this policy was abandoned in 1961
  • Eisenhower knew that many New Deal programs were legitamate & were permanently woven into US society
    • Social Security, unemployment insurance, & labor & farm programs
  • Eisenhower supported the Interstate Highway Act of 1956, $27 billion plan to build 42,000 miles of highway, creating many construction jobs & speeded up the suburbanization of the US
    • The Highway Act offered benefits to trucking, auto, oil, & travel industries
    • negative for RRs, air quality, energy consumption, & downtown city areas
  • Eisenhowerr balanced the budget 3x during his two terms in office & in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in US history

A New Look in Foreign Policy

  • in 1952 the republicans were starting to turn away from just containment of communism
  • Secretary of state Dulles said they would start to liberate captured peoples and limit military spending
  • To do this he proposed to make a fleet of superbombers fitted with nukes
  • if the communists got out of line we would use this massive retaliation against them
  • This policy costed less but was really quite useless as shown in 1956 when the Hungarians tried to rise up against the soviets
  • America could not use the nuke in this minor crisis you could not justify killing so many for such a small occurence so this policy failed


The Vietnam Nightmare

  • Europe was becoming more secure due to the Marshall plan and NATO however Asia was different
  • Many asian nations were becoming increasingly nationalistic and wanted to get rid of the imperialist yolks
  • Many of these nations leaders became commiunist
  • America was paying for 80% of the the french colonial war with Ho Chi Minh
  • The French were backed up in the fortress Dienbienphu and Eisenhower decided not to assist them with bombers
  • The fortress fell to the nationalists and at a multination conference in Geneva Vietnam was split down the middle
  • Ho Chi Mihn agreed to this so in exchange for all vietnam elections in 2 years, these elections did not happen
  • Eisenhower agreed to give military and economic aid to the government in Saigon so long as that government made social reforms
  • This was not a great idea- backed a loser


A False Lull in Europe

  • In 1955 the Germans were accepted into NATO against Frances wishes
  • Also in 1955 the eastern European countries and the soviets signed the warsaw pact
  • Even with the growing alliances the Cold was seemed to be coming to a close
  • Eisenhower was trying to make an arms control agreement and the soviets agreed to leave Austria
  • However in 1956 the soviets violently halted a revolt from the hungarians showed this was just a momentary lull




Menaces in the Middle East

  • There was major concern about the Soviets being so close to the oil supply in the Mid. East
    • Iran started to resist the US
    • The CIA (1953) helped place Mohammed Reza Pahlevi as a dictator there
      • This would come back to bite the US later
  • There was also a crisis in Egypt
    • Prez. Nasser (of Egypt) was a nationalist who wanted $ to put a dam on the Nile for irrigation and power
    • America and Britain wanted to help but Nasser was "makin' friends" with the communists, so the deal was off
    • Nasser quickly nationalized the Suez Canal
    • The US tried very hard to avoid conflict, but Britain and France went in and attacked (1956)
    • The French and British thought that the US would supply oil to them, but it didn't
    • The UN intervened
    • The US oil supplies were severely diminished
    • Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq and Iran along with Venezuela, made OPEC to control oil


Round Two for Ike

  • Although Eisenhower had suffered a heartattack and abdominal surgery, he was pretty much the same as the last election
  • The election was once again between Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson
    • Eisenhower got 35,590,472 (popular) and 457 (electoral)
    • Stevenson got 26,022,752 (popular) and 73 (electoral)
  • Eisenhower didn't have the majority in any part of Congress
  • For the beginning of his term, Eisenhower relaxed a bit and then later on got back on the saddle
    • He started with labor legislation
    • 1959- There was a new labor-reform bill, which focused on strikes and scandals
      • The Teamster Group (a part of the AF of L and CIO combination) was especially full of corruption
        • Read the details in the book, people. Don't be lazy.
  • The Landrum-Griffin Act: was supposed to hold labor leaders who were guilty of corrupt acts responsible for their actions, but also had parts to prohibit "secondary boycotts" and picketing


The Race with the Soviets into Space

  • Soviet scientists launches Sputnik I, weighing 184 pounds, into orbit on Oct. 4, 1957
  • A month later the launched another, larger satellite called Sputnik II into orbit
  • This breakthrough shattered American self-confidence
  • The Sputniks gave credit to the Soviets claim that the shortcut to superior industrial production lay through communism
  • Military implications of the satellites proved sobering, if they could fire heavy objects into outer space they they could certainly reach America with intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICMBs).
  • "Rocket fever" swept the nation and Eisenhower established NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and directed billions of dollars to missile development.
  • There were humiliating and well-advertised failures like the Vanguard missle that blew up on national television in 1957 just a few feet above the ground.
  • Finally in Feb. 1958 the US managed to put a satellite weighing 2.5 pounds into orbit.
  • By the end of the decade several satellites had been launched and the US had successfully tested its own ICMBs.
  • The Sputnik success led to a critical comparison of the American education system to that of the Soviet Union
  • A strong move developed in the US to replace "frills" with solid subjects.


The Continuing Cold War

  • The nuclear race continued unabated
    • Scientists urged that nuclear tests be stopped before the atmosphere was so polluted that the future generations would be mutated
    • The Soviets proclaimed a suspension in testing in March 1958 after a series of intense trials
    • Washington followed in October 1958
  • Thermo nuclear suicide seemed nearer in July 1958 when Egyptian and communist plottings threatened to engulf Lebanon
    • The US supplied Lebanon troops and restored order
  • Khrushchev was eager to meet with Eisenhower for a conference
    • Arrived in NY in 1959 after US invitation
    • Khrushchev appeared before the UN and resurrected the proposal of complete disarmament
      • Without providing the means needed to achieve this
    • A meeting at Camp David ensued where Khrushchev extended his ultimatum concerning Berlin indefinitely
  • Before the “summit conference” in Paris (May 1960) both Moscow and Washington publicly took a firm stand on the Berlin issue
    • On the eve of the conference an American plane was shot down over Russian soil
    • This caused the conference to collapse before it started


Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism

  • Latin Americans resented the United States' lavishing of billions of dollars on Europe while doling out only millions to the poor relations to the South.
  • They also disliked Washington continuly intervening in Latin American affairs.
  • On the other hand Washington continued to support dictators who claimed to be combating communism.
  • Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista had encouraged huge investments of American capital and Washington in turn had given him some support.
  • When Fidel Castro engineered a revolution early in 1959, he denounced the Yankee imperialists and began to expropriate valuable American properties in pursuing a land-distribution program.
  • The U.S. finally lost patiance and released Cuba from "imperialistic slavery" by cutting off the heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar.
  • Castro retaliated with more whole-sale confiscations of Yankee property and made his left-wing dictatorship an economic and military satellite of Moscow.
  • An exodus of Cubans headed for the U.S. and Washington broke diplomatic relations with Cuba early in 1961
  • Americans talked seriously of invoking the Monroe Doctrine before the Soviets set up a communist base only 90 miles from their shores.
  • Khrushchev proclaimed that the Monroe Doctrine was dead and indicated that he would shower missles upon the US if it attacked his good friend Castro.
  • At San Jose, Costa Rica in Aug. 1960 the U.S. induced the Organzation of American States to condemn communist infilitration into the Americas.
  • President Eisenhower hastily proposed a long-deferred "Marshall Plan" for Latin America. Congress responded to his recommendation with an initial authorization of $500 million.


Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency

  • The VP Nixon was the Republican choice for the nomination
  • Nixon had changed drastically from his old self
    • Old: No-holds-barred campaigner, ruthless
    • New: Mature statesman
    • Defended American democracy globally
    • Nominated unanimously
  • In contrast the Democrats had a free-for-all battle for the nomination
    • John F. Kennedy- tall, youthful, millionaire senator
      • Won impressive victories in the primaries
    • Lyndon B. Johnson- southerly supported, leader of Texas
      • The South was angered when he took second for the nomination
    • JFK got the nomination




The Presidential Issues of 1960

  • Senator Kennedy=Roman Catholic (the 1st since Al Smith's failed campaign in 1928)
    • Old charges about the Pope controlling the White House were revived
      • Kennedy used his 14year service in Congress as back-up & said he wouldn't be swayed by Rome
    • The Protestant South felt threatened by Kennedy's religion
    • The religion factor eventually canceled itself out
      • southern Democrats=against Kennedy
      • northern Democrats=for Kennedy
  • Kennedy vs Nixon:
    • Kennedy charged that the Soviets were gaining on the US in power & prestige
    • Nixon had to defend the old administration, saying the US's prestige & power wasn't slipping, but Kennedy was causing it to w/ his unpatriotic talk
    • Nixon & Kennedy agreed to meet in 4 debates w/ approx. 60 million watching(TV)
      • nobody "won" the debates, they showed the importance of image in an age of TV
        • many viewers found Kennedy's youthful appearance more appealing than Nixon's tired, old appearance
    • Kennedy won by 303 electoral votes to 219 & 118,574 popular votes out of 68+ million total & had strong support from workers(African-Americans & Catholics) in industrial centers
    • The Democrats won both houses of Congress by a wide margin
    • Kennedy=1st Catholic & youngest pres. elected


An Old General Fades Away

  • Eisenhower was still really popular, even at the end
  • The Democratic party dominated the Congress for 6 yrs.
  • Two states had been added (Alaska and Hawaii)
  • The only negative thing about the General was that he didn't use his popularity to sway the public and reform labor
  • However he did manage to limit the fighting type crap
  • He only got more appreciated as time passed


Changing Economic Patterns

  • the economic boom led to a dramatic increasein the number of homeowners nationwide
  • scientific development bacame a primary driving force behind economic growth
    • the development and miniturization of computers brought about numerous new opportunities for labor
  • air travel became popular and production boomed as war plane manufacturing companies began to produce passanger planes
  • people with professional careers began to outnumber unskilled laborers in 1956
    • this trend has since continued
    • union membership has declined since its peak in 1954
  • after the war most women returned to traditional roles but within a few years it became more and more customary for women to hold jobs


Consumer Culture in the Fifties

  • The 1950s witnessed a huge expansion of the middle class and the blossoming of a consumer culture
    • The plastic credit card was introduced in 1950 by the Diner's club
    • 4 years after the credit card was introduced, the first McDonald's hamburger stand opened
    • 1955, Disneyland opened in California
  • Televison:
    • There was a rapid rise in the new technology of television
    • 1946, only 6 TV stations were broadcasting
      • a decade later 442 stations were operating
    • 1951, 7 million TV sets were sold
      • by 1960, virtually every American home had a TV
    • Attendance at movies decreased
    • By the mid-1950s advertisers annually spent $10 billion to hawk their wares on television.
    • Critics fumed that the popular new mass medium was degrading the public's aesthetic, social, moral, political, and educational standards
    • Religion also capitalized on the TV
      • "televangelists" like Billy Graham(Baptist), Oral Roberts(Penticostal Holiness), & Fulton J. Sheen(Roman Catholic) took to the TV to spread the Christian gospel
    • TV also catalyzed the commercialization of professional sports
  • Music:
    • Elvis Presley
      • combined black rhythm & blues w/ white bluegrass & country styles, thus creating rock & roll
      • singing/dancing to rock & roll became a sort of religious rite for the coming of age baby boomers in the 1950s
      • traditionalists were repelled by Presley
  • Critics:
    • Books written by critics:
      • The Lonely Crowd (1950) - David Reisman(Harvard sociologist
      • The Organization Man - William H. Whyte, Jr.
      • The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit(1955) - Sloan Wilson(novelist)
      • The Affluent Society(1958) - John Kenneth Galbraith(Harvard economist)
      • The Coming of Post-Industrial Society(1973) - Daniel Bell(sociologist)
      • The Cultural Contradiction of Capitalism(1976) - Daniel Bell(sociologist)
      • The Power Elite(1956) - C. Wright Mills(radical sociologist)
  • A new lifestyle of affluence & leisure was in full bloom by the end of the decade due to these new innovations


The Life of the Mind in Postwar America

  • literature blossomed in the post war era
  • there was little focus on realistic WWII literature
  • poets and playwrights were especially active

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 39 - The Stormy Sixties 1960-1968

 

Major Themes

  • The Kennedy administration’s “flexible response” doctrine to combat communism bore ill fruit in Cuba and Vietnam. Johnson’s escalation of the war failed while growing domestic opposition finally forced from power
  • Johnson’s Great Society and the civil rights movement brought a tide of liberal social reform that was undermined in part by the Vietnam War


Major Questions

  • Were the cultural upheavals of the 1960s a result of political crises or the inevitable results of affluence and the “baby boom?

These "upheavals" were a little of both. There were many political crises, such as Vietnam, the peaceful protests for civil rights, Black Power violence, and outspoken student protests, that caused some "upheaval." The passing of the Civil Rights Act, among other things, was an obvious example. However, because the "baby boomers" and the general prosperity were something a little bit different, some of the upheaval of this time period were caused simply because it was unique. The increased "boom'd" population led to different reactions to political occurances, and the affluence of the time did the same. See The Cultural Upheavals of the 1960s for more details!!


Outline

Kennedy’s New Frontier Spirit

  • Kennedy was elected and took office on January 20, 1961
    • Was the youngest president ever elected, and the first Catholic
    • young and suave
    • his brother, the 35 year old Robert, was attorny general
      • Robert tried to fix the FBI, which wasn't doing enough to stop organized crime and wasn't helping the civil rights movement very little
    • Robert S. McNamara left the presidency of the Ford Motor Comapany and took over the Defense Department
    • inspired high expectations, esp. among youths
    • created the Peace Corps which would help out underdeveloped countries
    • was educated at Harvard and so were many of his cabinet; they all "radiated confidence"

The New Frontier at Home

  • Fragile Democaratic majorities in Congress
    • expanded the House Rules Committee
      • Needed more people, or else the (majority) Conservatives would shoot down all his plans
    • hard for him to pass New Frontier legislation, including medical assistance to the aged and increased federal aid to education
  • Another problem was the economy
    • campaigned on the theme of revitalizing the economy
    • drew the line at inflation
      • His administration made steel-company owrkers' wages go up, and assumed that the corporations' prices would stay the same (1962)
      • The companies raised their prices anyways, and Kennedy "yelled at them" (to put it in polite terms)
        • they backed down soon afterwards
      • made rest of the big businesses angry
    • made tax cuts and put more money into private hands instead of the government
      • "the most Republican speech since McKinley"
  • Promoted a project into going to the moon
    • would help stimulate the economy w/ billions of dollars being spent
    • would help American military strategy
    • would increase American scientific prestige


Rumblings in Europe

  • A few months after settling into the White House JFK met with Khrushchev in June 1961
    • Khrushchev was belligerent and threatened to make a treaty with East Germany cutting off Western access to Berlin
    • But the President would not be bullied by the Soviets
  • The Soviets backed off of their most bellicose threats but began the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961
    • The concrete and barbed-wire barrier was designed to plug the heavy population drain from East to West Germany
  • Kennedy turned his attention to Western Europe
    • Now prospering due to the Marshall Plan and Common Market
    • In 1962 the Trade Expansion Act cut tariffs up to 50% to all members of the Common Market in order to promote trade
  • The Common Market trade system wasn't accepted by France
    • Charles de Gaulle was suspicious of American intentions in Europe
      • Wanted the US out of all European affairs

Foreign Flare-ups and “Flexible Response”

  • World-wide decolonization created problems for US foreign policy
    • The US was funding the UN which was becoming dominated by the numerous small nations of Africa and Asia
    • Funded the UN interactions in the Congo
  • The country of Laos was freed from France in 1954
    • This jungle kingdom could serve as a river for communism to spread in to all of SE Asia
    • Kennedy's advisors recommended sending in US troops
      • Realized that he had too little forces while remaining in Western Europe
    • Kennedy sought a diplomatic escape in the 14th power Geneva conference
      • Imposed a shaky peace on Laos in 1962
  • Kennedy decided to push for a "flexible response" strategy
    • Developed an array of military options for all possible crisises
    • Added $ to military forces as well as Special Forces (Green Berets)


Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

  • "Flexible Response" seemed like a good idea, but it had problesm in it
    • It kind of made it easier to start shooting than to be diplomatic
    • Allowed more use of force
      • See Vietnam
  • Ngo Dinh Diem's government in Saigon was corrupt and not running very well
    • America had poured in $ to keep it going and stave off communism, but it was not very sturdy ever since the creation of North and South Vietnam
    • 1961- Kennedy orders more troops to Vietnam
  • The point of sending in troops was to allow Diem more time to make social reforms while protecting his government from communism
    • Diem wouldn't cooperate, so the US encouraged an overthrow (by anyone other than the communists) in 1963
    • This led to "political desintegration" and the collapse of South Vietnam
    • Kennedy told the vietnamese it was "their war" and made commitments that made a simple "pullout" almost impossible

Cuban Confrontations

  • Latin America was starting to resent the US
    • 1961- Kennedy made the Allianec for Progres, which was supposed to be the Marshall Plan for Latin America
      • Hoped to minimize gap between rich and poor and prevent communism
    • It didn't work so well (not enough positive impact)
  • There was a plan to overthrow Castro by invading Cuba with exiles
    • These exiles would be trained/armed by America, and would start an uprising from the people of Cuba
    • April 17, 1961- Bay of Pigs
      • US isn't part of direct intervention, and the old aircrafts of the exiles couldn't fight against Castro's more modern ones
      • There was no "popular uprising" form the people
      • The exiles were forced to surrender
        • Most went to jail, while some were traded for humanitarian supplies
        • Kennedy took full responsibility
  • America kept trying to get rid of Castro, and he became MORE communist
    • In 1962, it was discovered that Khrushchev was putting nuclear missles in Cuba
      • It was assumed that these weapons would be used to blackmail the US into doing what the USSR needed
    • Kennedy refused to bomb the missile-launching sites, so:
      • October 22, 1962: Made a "naval quarantine" of Cuba
      • Ordered that the weapons be removed
      • Told Khrushchev that any attack from Cuba would be directly related to USSR, and retaliation would be aimed at Russia
    • For about a week, there was some serious tension (understatement) but it was resolved
      • October 28: Khrushchev took the missiles out of Cuba in exchange for the end of the quarantine and no invasion from the US
      • US agreed to remove missiles in Turkey that were aimed at USSR
  • Results of the Cuban Missile Crisis:
    • Khrushchev was "kicked out" of his Kremlin position
    • Russia started huge military expansion
      • This led to a game of "catch-up" in America
    • Democrats did well in next election because REpublicans had been "Cubanized"
    • Kennedy started to push harder for a "no nuclear testing" treaty with the USSR
      • 1963: A treaty was signed that prevented trial nuclear explosions
    • A Moscow-Washington teletype line was set up to allow immediate communication
    • 1963: Kennedy made a speech at the American University in D.C.
      • Encouraged Americans to stop w

The Struggle for Civil Rights

  • Kennedy had campaignede with a strong appeal to black voters but proceeded gingerly to redeem his promises
  • He had pledged to eliminate racial discrimination in housing "with a stroke of the pen" but it took him almost two years to do so
  • Political concerns stayed the president's hand on civil rights. Kennedy needed the support of southern legislation to pass his economic and social legislation, esp. his medical and educational bills.
  • He believed that those measures would eventually benefit black Americans at leat as much as special legislation on civil rights. Bold moves for racial justice would have to wait
  • After the wave of sit-ins across the South in 1960, groups of Freedom Riders fanned out to end segregation in facilities serving interstate bus passangers.
  • A white mob torched a Freedom Ride bus in May 1961 and Attorney General Robert Kennedy's personal representative was beaten unconcious in another anti-Freedom Ride riot in Montgomery.
  • Washington dispatched federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders.
  • The Kennedys proved ultra-wary about the political associates of Martin Luther King Jr.
    • Fearful of embarassing revelations that some of King's advisors had communist affiliations Robert Kennedy ordered FBI director J. Edgar Hoover to wiretap King's phone in late 1963
  • Encouraged by Robert Kennedy and with financial backing from Kennedy-prodded private foundations, SNCC and other civil rights groups inaugurated a Voter Education Project to register the Souths historically disfranchised blacks.
  • Some southern universities desegregated painlessly but the University of Mississippi became a volcano
  • A 29 air force veteran encountered violent opposition when he attempted to register in Oct. 1962.
  • President Kennedy was forced to send in 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to enroll him in his first class
  • In 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. launched a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama
    • Although blacks constituted nearly half of the citys pop. they made up fewer than %15 of the citys voters.
    • Peaceful civil rights marchers were repeatedly repelled by police with attack dogs and electric cattle prods.
    • High pressure water hoses were directed at civil rights demonstraters even.
  • Kennedy called the civil rights situation a moral issue and committed his personal and presidential prestige to finding a solution
  • He called for new civil rights legislation to protect black citizens.
  • In Aug. 1963 King led 200,000 black and white demonstraters on a peaceful "March on Washington" in support of the proposed legislation.
  • The violence still continued


The Killing of Kennedy

  • November 22, 1963. Violence was haunting America in the mid-1960s
  • Dallas, Texas, JFK was in an open limo when he was shot in the brain & died in seconds
  • the alleged assassin was Lee Harvey Oswald who was shot to death in front of TV cameras by a self-appointed avenger: Jack Ruby
  • Chief Justice Warren's offical investigation couldn't quiet doubts and theories about what really happened
  • Vice President LBJ was sworn in on a plane back to Washington w. Kennedy's body
    • though he distrusted Kennedy's team, he kept most of them and continued to follow JFK's policies
  • The whole nation was in mourning, realizing just how great the young buck was
    • he was in office for approx. 1000 days
    • he was remembered more for his ideals and spirit than the major goals he achieved
    • he had busted the myth that a Catholic could not be trusted w. the Presidency
  • In later years, his reputation was tarnished when his womanizing and involvment w/ organized crime figures were revealed
  • Yet, he was still remembered for his awesomeness [vigor, charisma, idealism] and inspired a later generation of leaders like Bill Clinton [elected in 1992]


The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

  • 6 foot 3 Texan Lyndon Baines Johnson was the new President
    • was first sent to Washington in 1937 as a 29 yr old congressman
    • saw FDR as his policial "daddy", he seriously supported New Deal actions
      • but when he lost a Senate race in 1937, he realized that liberal politics do not get you votes in Texas, so he leaned to the right and won a seat in the Senate by a landslide ["Landslide Lyndon"]
  • "Masterful wheeler-dealer" in the Senate
    • gave the "Johnson Treatment": backslapping, flesh-pressing (?), arm-twisting to friend and foe
  • Democratic majority leader in 1954, gaining power secondary to then-Pres. Eisenhower
  • LBJ's ego and vanity were legendary
    • the Pope gave him a 14th century painting from the Vatican art collection; LBJ gave him a bust [sculpture/painting from basically the shoulders & up]
  • when he became President he was able to show his true liberal colors
  • Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964
    • banned racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, inclu. theatres, hospitals & restaurants
    • strengthened fed. gov't's power to end segregation in schools and other public places
    • created the Equal Emplyment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to elimiate discrimitation during job hirings
    • conservatives tried to add sexual discrimination to the bill but it backfired
      • but the act's Title VII passed w/ the sexual clause
  • the bill would prove to be a powerful instrument of federally enforced gender & racial equality
  • 1965 LBJ issued and executive order for all federal contractors to take "affirmitave action" against discrimination
  • LBJ really pushed JFK's stalled tax bill thru Congress & added proposals of his own for a billion $ "War of Poverty"
  • LBJ showed special concerned for Appalchia where the sickness from the soft-coal industry had left 10s of 1000s of mnt. folk the human slag heap
  • LBJ dubbed his crusade for betterness th "Great Society"
    • a bunch of New Dealish economic & welfare measures to transform American life
  • LBJ's war on poverty was inspired by Michal Harrington's The Other America (1962) which revealed how 20% of "affluent America" 's population (over 40% of the black population) suffered in PoVeRtY


Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

  • In election of 1964 Johnson was nominated by the Democrats and the Republican nominee was Barry Goldwater.
  • Goldwater attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security system, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and most loudly, the Great Society.
  • Democrats exploited the image of Goldwater as a trigger happy cowboy who would "Barry us" in the debris of World War II
  • Johnson seized upon the Tonkin Gulf episode early in Aug. 1964
    • 2 American destroyers were allegedly fired upon by th North Vietnamese on Aug 2 and 4, although exactly what happened still remains unclear. Johnson promptly called the attack "unprovoked" and moved swiftly to make political hay out of the episode
    • He ordered a "limited" retaliatory air raid against Norht Vietnamese bases
    • Johnson also used the incident to spur conressional passage of the all-purpose Tonkin Gulf Resolution
  • Johnson rode to a spectacular victory in November 1964


The Great Society Congress

  • Johnson’s victory smashed the conservative congressional coalition (Southern Democrats and Northern Republicans)
  • Much legislation was passed, only comparable to the One Hundred Days Congress (1933)
    • The growing economy made Johnson feel he could deliver Democratic promises of social reform
  • Escalating the war on poverty, Congress doubled the funds for the Office of Economic Opportunity to $2 Billion
  • Johnson also convinced Congress to create two new cabinet offices
    • The Department of Transportation
    • The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
  • Other laws established the National Endowments for the Arts and Humanities
    • Designed to lift the level of American cultural life
  • Johnson gave educational aid directly to the students instead of the schools
    • LBJ signed this education bill in the humble one room Texas schoolhouse that he attended
  • Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor, became reality in 1965
    • Welcomed by millions without medical insurance
    • Much like the New Deal Programs of FDR

**Improved the lives of millions but undermined the Federal Government’s financial health


  • Immigration and Nationality Acts of 1965 abolished the 1921 quota system
    • Doubled the number of immigrants admitted annually
    • Set a limit on immigration from the Western Hemisphere (120,000)
    • Allowed the admission of US citizens’ close relatives
    • Changed the ethnic composition of the United States
  • The Great Society programs were attacked and conservatives said that billions of dollars were wasted
    • The Poverty rate declined measurably
    • The elderly became richer due to Medicare
    • Educational performance increased
    • Overall general health conditions improved greatly


Battling for Black Rights

  • Johnson passed the Voting rights bill of 1965 to try and lessen the evil of racial discrimination
  • Segregation in the south was weakening especially from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 however voting issues still persisted
  • Throughout the south very few of those blacks eligible to vote got registered
    • Mainly because of scare tactics used by kkk and many acts of violence
    • Also used poll taxes and literacy tests
  • In January 1964 the 24th ammendment was passed forbidding the poll tax
  • In 1965 Martin Luther King Jr resumed his fight for voter registration in alabama
  • A peaceful march of his was attacked by State troopers and one was killed
  • After this violence president Johnson gave an address to the people about overcoming the blight of bigotry and injustice
  • After this address he passed the voting rights act of 1965 banning literacy tests
  • Black southerners now had huge political power and they used it

 

Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

  • Dominicans rose in revolt against their military gov't in 1965
  • Johnson announced that the Dominican Republic was the target of a Castrolike coup by "communist conspirators" and he dispatched some 25000 American troops
  • But the evidence of a communist takeover was fragmentary at best
  • Viet Cong guerrillas attacked an American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam in Feb. 1965
  • The president ordered retaliatory bombing raids against military installations in North Vietnam and for the first time ordered attacking U.S. troops to land.
  • By the middle of March 1965 the Americans had "Operation Rolling Thunder" in full swing.
    • regular full-scale bombing attacks against North Vietnam
  • Before 1965 ended some 184000 American troops were involved most of them slogging through the jungles and ridce paddies of South Vietnam.
  • Aerial bombardment actually strengthened the communists will to resist.
  • The enemy matched every increase in American firepower with more men and more wiliness in the art of guerrilla warfare
  • The war became increasingly Americanized.


Victory for Nixon

  • Vietnam was a less crucial issue than expected
    • Both the Republican candidate & the Democratic candidate wanted to carry on w/ war until an "honorable peace" could be reached by the enemy, in other words: "American victory"
    • many "doves" refused to vote
  • Nixon vs. Humphrey vs. Wallace
    • Nixon(Republican): 301 electoral votes w/ 43.4% of the popular(31,785,480 votes)
    • Humphrey(Democrat): 191 electoral votes w/ 42.7% of the popular(31,275,166 votes)
    • Wallace(American Independent): 46 electoral votes w/ 9,906,473 popular votes
  • Nixon was the 1st pres. elect from his party since 1848 to not bring in at least 1 house of Congress w/ him
  • Nixon carried not 1 major city
  • Nixon was a minority pres. winning due to divisions over the war & protests against the draft, crime, & riots
  • Wallace:
    • won the largest 3rd-party vote in US history
    • showed the power of "populist" politics, appealing to voters' resentments & fears
    • Wallace's candidacy foreshadowed a change in US political life in future decades


The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson

  • Johnson died 4 years after his return to his Texas ranch in Jan. 1969
  • Johnson's legislative leadership for a time was remarkable
    • he did more & worked harder for civil rights than any other pres. since Lincoln
    • showed more compassion for the black, poor, & the poorly educated
    • wanted to be a "people's pres." after his idol, FDR
      • his legislative accomplishments of his 1st 3 yrs in office were comparable to those of the New Deal
  • 1966: LBJ sinking into the quicksands of Vietnam
    • Republicans made gains in Congress & white "backlash" forming against the black movement
    • Great Society programs started to collapse
    • costs of war sucked tax $ into the military
    • inflation ruined the hopes for prosperity
    • LBJ chose to defend the US foothold & enlarge the war rather than be run out
      • he was convinced by advisors that a "cheap" victory was feasible w/ mass aerial bombings & large troop commitments
    • his actions angered both the "hawks" & the "doves"


The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s

  • Struggles against poverty, racisom, & the Vietnam War in the 1960s had important cultural consequences
  • The 1960s came to be seen as divided between 2 eras in terms of morals, values, & behavior
  • 1960s America:
    • Negative attitude toward authority
      • Free Speech Movement 1964: University of CA at Berkley is the location of one of the 1st organized protests against authority
        • lead by Mario Savio, condemned the university "machine" tied to corporate interests rather than human values, "put your bodies upon the gears & upon the wheels,...& you've got to make it stop."
    • Roman Catholics changed their old ways & gave up old customs (like Latin & meatless Fridays)
    • Many young Americans lost their traditional morals:
      • mostly because the US wasn't completely rid of sexism, racism, oppression, & imperialism
      • churches, schools, & families couldn't define values & shape behavior w/ the certainty that once was
      • conventional wisdom & inherited ideas were scrutinized, "Trust no one over 30"
  • The "counterculture"
    • opposed to traditional American ways
    • sons/daughters of middle class became radical political rebels & others turned to drugs, & dropped out of "straight" society, some "did their own thing" & went to "alternative" institutions or communes
    • women decked out in flowers & trousers & men w/ long hair & earrings
    • many counter "revolutions" ended w/ violence & cynicism
    • the Weathermen:
    • an underground terrorist group started by the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) who originally campaigned for antiwar & antipoverty
    • peaceful civil rights demostrations became urban riots
    • innocent experiments w/ drugs like marijuana & LSD ended up frying youths' brains & opened up a world of drug lords & addicts
  • "Sexual revolution"
    • 1960: birth-control pill made it easier to avoid unwanted pregnancy
    • By the 1960s, gays & lesbians were increasingly coming out & demanding sexual tolerance
      • an attack by off-duty cops on gay men in 1969 energized gay & lesbian militancy
    • The sexual revolution finally slowed in the '80s w/ worries about genital herpes & AIDS
  • 1960s wrap up:
    • 3 Ps of the 1960s: youthful population bulge, protest against Vietnam War & racism, & the permanence of prosperity
    • the flower children grew up & had kids of their own
    • civil rights movement went silent
    • war ended
    • economic stagnation caused the bloom of prosperity
    • "counterculture" didn't fully replace older values, but weakened them permanently


VV: The Sixties: Constructive or Destructive

  • controversy btwn: socail classes, races, sexes, and generations
  • 3 decades later, we still felt the effects of the 60s
  • Conservative Republicans revived in 1994 the 60s culture supposedly trashed "traditional values"
  • Liberal Democrats continued to push for affirmative action for women & minorites, protection against the environment, an expanded welfare state, & sexual tolerance [legacies of the 60s]
  • despite good vs. bad, the sixties def. shaped the world we live in now
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 40 - The Stalemated Seventies 1968-1980

 

Major Theme

  • The US struggled to create a more stable post-Vietnam international climate. Detente temporarily reduced Cold war tensions, but difficulties in the Middle East portended a new threat to stability


Major Questions

  • Could any of Nixon’s accomplishments in office compensate for his Watergate crimes?

Although Watergate and the continued bombing of Cambodia were serious crimes, Nixon did some good for the country (I'm not going to say the good compensates, but it shouldn't be ignored...". He allowed for more aid to go to the needy (Old people, single moms, disabled), such Medicaid, AFDC, and Social Security. He also expanded the idea of "affirmative action." While this in itself wasn't so good, helping the African-Americans wasn't bad. Nixon (and the Court) "...opened broad employment and educational opportunities for minorities and women." He also started the EPA and OSHA.

SEE "Nixon on the Home Front" FOR DETAILS


  • What were the consequences of America’s economic vulnerability in the 1970s?

Because America was no longer a world economic power, it became dependent on the rest of the world. It became impossible to revert to any form of isolationism, and the countries involved with OPEC realized they had power over the US. They increased oil prices to painful highs, and didn't let them down for a long time. The deficits in the federal budget increased drastically, and inflation ran rampant (so much fun to type, FYI). The US would begin having trouble "coercing" other countries now (or bribing them even) because it couldn't just sit in it's own production and be safe. It was dependent.




Outline

Sources of Stagnation

  • What caused the decrease in productivity?
    • some credited it to the increase in the women & teenager work force who had fewer skills than adult men & were less likely to take full-time, long-term jobs where skills could be developed
    • others blamed declined investment in new machines, expensive cost of gov't-imposed safety & health regualtions, & shift of US economy from manufacturing to services
  • Vietnam War brought about economic change
    • took tax $ away from education improvements, scientific skill & manufacturing capacity from civilian sector, & started a spiral of inflation
  • Inflation:
    • price of oil prices soared in the 1970s adding to the inflation
    • deepest roots of inflation in gov't policies of 1960s
      • LBJ's simultaneous fighting in Vietnam & funding the Great Society programs in US w/o a tax increase to finance the added costs
        • welfare/military spending=inflationary bc people get $ w/o adding to the supply of goods that $ can buy
        • too much $ w/ too few good=raised prices, happening hugely in 1970-the price of living tripled in the 12 yrs after Nixon was inaugurated, longest/steepest inflation cycle in US history
  • Many major US businesses had little incentive to modernize plants & seek more efficient methods of production
    • the Germans & the Japanese recovered from the war & built new factories w/ the most up-to-date technology & management techniques
      • dominated industries of steel, consumer electronics, & automobiles- fields the US once dominated
  • An unpopular & stalemated war & an unresponsive economy marked the end of the self-confident postwar era


Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War

  • Richard Nixon
    • inaugurated Jan. 20, 1969
    • urged Americans to, "stop shouting at one another" over issues like race relations & Vietnam
    • resentments against "liberal establishment"
    • applied himself to putting US' foreign-policy house in order
  • 1st, Nixon wanted to quiet public distress over Vietnam
    • "Vietnamization"= withdraw 540,000 US troops from S. Vietnam
      • then S. Vietnam could take over fighting their war w/ help of US $, training, weapons, & advice
        • This plan came to be known as the so-called Nixon Doctrine
  • The so-called Nixon Doctrine:
    • proclaimed that the US would honor its existing defense commitments, but in the future, Asians & others would have to fight on their own w/o the support of a large amount of US ground troops
    • Nixon didn't want to end the war, he wanted to win it by other means w/o the loss of more American blood
      • American "doves" were still upset & wanted a prompt, complete, irreversible, & unconditional withdrawal
      • Antiwar protesters staged a national Vietnam moratorium in Oct. 1969, nearly 100,000 people crowded the Boston Common & 50,000 crowded the White House carrying lighted candles
    • Nov. 3, 1969, Nixon delivered a a televised appeal to the "silent majority" that supported the war
      • his appeal was deeply divisive
    • Nixon then unleashed VP Agnew to attack the news media who demanded withdrawal from Vietnam
  • Jan. 1970, Vietnam became the longest & 3rd most costly conflict in US history w/ 40,000 killed & 250,000 wounded
    • the war was also very unpopular even among troops in the field bc draft policies excluded college students & men w/ important civilian skills, troops were unprivileged young Americans
    • Blacks were disproportionatley represented in the army & had a high share of combat fatalities
    • Sabotage, drug abuse, & mutiny dulled army's fighting edge


Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

  • the N. Vietnamese and the Viet Cong had been using Cambodia as a springboard for troops, on April 29, 1970, Nixon ordered (w/o Congressional consent) the American forces to join w/ the S. Vietnamese in cleaning out enemy installations in officially neutral Cambodia
    • caused uproar among student protesters
      • 4 killed at Kent State University and 2 killed at Jackson State College in Mississippi
  • withdrew from Cambodia on June 29, 1970
    • bitterness between hawks and doves increased
    • the Senate tried to come up with ways to restrain Nixon
    • disilusionment of "whitey's war" increased among Afican-Americans
    • reduced draft calls afterwards, shortened period of draftability (on a lotto basis), lowered voting age to 18
  • spring of 1971, more riots aroused
    • new reasons came about like leaked pentagon papers


Nixon’s Détente with Beijing and Moscow

  • Nixon believed the way out of Vietnam was through the USSR and China, who were clashing about rival interpretations of Marxism
    • thinking reinforced by Dr. Kissinger
      • trying secretly to make peace w/ N. Vietnam and paving the road for Nixon to go to Beijing and Moscow
    • Nixon accepted an invitation to visit China (much to the surprise of the people) in 1971 and paved the way to improving relations between Washington and Beijing
    • went to Moscow in May 1972
      • talks ushered in an era of relaxation
        • grain deal of 1972: USA would sell at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other food stuffs
    • anti-ballistic missile treaty reached 1972
      • limited each nation to two clusters of defensive missiles
    • Strategic Arms Limitation Talks: stopped building of long-range nuclear missiles for five years starting in 1972


 


The Nixon Landslide of 1972

  • As the election of 1972 approached the main issue was Vietnam
  • Nixon had promised 4 years earlier to end the war
    • but in the spring of 1972 the war was escalating and N. Vietnam was pushing into S Vietnam
    • this offensive was stopped by nixon
  • Nixons opponent from the democrats was George McGovern who drew support by saying he would bring troops home in 90 days
    • McGovern was basically doomed when his vice pres was shown to have been in psychiatric care and was forced to withdraw from the ticket
  • Nixons position was boosted 12 days before elections when Dr Kissinger said peace was at hand
  • Nixon won by alot... 520 electorals to 17 and 47 million to 29 million popular vote


Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table

  • After two weeks of bombing to try and force Vietnam to agree to peace talks
  • On January 23, 1973 a ceasefire was called
    • The US agreed to withdraw the remaining troops for some 560 prisoners of war
    • The US was aloud to keep giving some aid to south Vietnam but no troops
    • An election was to be held in both sides of Vietnam
    • North Vietnam was aloud to keep 145000 troops in S. Vietnam
  • Really was just an American retreat


Watergate Woes

  • On June 17,1972 a burglary was attempted by the Republican Committee for the Re-election of the President.. known as creep
    • 5 men tried to plant bugging equipment in the Democratic Headquarters
    • CREEP also used many underhanded methods against democrats
    • by 1974 29 people were convicted of being involved in Watergate
  • This scandal caused improper use of the FBI and CIA and IRA by Nixon
    • He used these organizations to harrass enemy politicians
  • A Senate Committee headed by Sam Ervin of NC conducted several hearings about watergate
    • John Dean a former white house lawyer testified that several higher ups in the government including Nixon were involved in covering up the watergate break in
    • At the time though it was just Deans word against the White Houses
  • That soon changed

The Great Tape Controversy

  • In July 1973 a former presidential aide reported the presence in the White house of "bugging" equipment, installed under the president's authority.
  • President Nixon's conversations,in person or on the telephone, had been recorded on tape without notifying the other parties that electronic eavesdropping was taking place
  • Nixon had denied prior knowledge of the Watergate burglary or involvement in the cover-up
  • Now Dean's testimony could be checked against the White House tapes, and the Senate committee could better determine who was telling the truth
  • For months Nixon flatly refused to produce the taped evidence
    • He took refuge behind various principles including separation of powers and executive privilage
  • Vice President Agnew was forced to resign in Oct. 1973 for taking bribes while he was governor and also as vice president
  • President Nixon himself was now in danger of being removed by the impeachment route so Congress invoked the 25th Amendment to prelace Agnew with a congressman from Michigan, Gerald Ford


The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act

  • In July 1973 America was shocked to learn that the U.S. Air Force had already secretly conducted some thirty-five hundred bombing raids against North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia.
  • They had begun in March 1969 and had continued for some 14 months prior to the open American incursion inMay 1970
  • While the raids were happening American officials including the president were avowing that Cambodian neutrality was being respected.
  • After the Vietnam cease-fire in Jan. 1973 Nixon openly carried on his large-scale bombing of communist forces in order to help the rightist Cambodian gov't
  • The stretching of presidential war-making powers was met with furious opposition
  • Nixon agreed to a compromise in June 1973 whereby he would end the Cambodian bombing six weeks later and seek congressional approval of any future action in that country
  • American air raids had blasted Cambodia's people shredded its economy and revolutionized its politics
  • Pol Pot was forced from Cambodia by a full-dress Vietnamese invasion in 1978 followed by a military occupation that dragged on for a decade
  • The War Powers Act of 1973 required the president to report to Congress within forty-eight hours after committing troops to a foreign conflict or "substantially" enlarging American combat units in a foreign country. Such a limited authorization would have to end within sixty days unless Congress extended it for thirty more days
  • Nixon ended bombing of Cambodia in Aug 1973
  • The draft had ended in Jan 1973 and future members of the armed forces were to be well-paid volunteers
  • Demands arose in Congress for reducing american armed forces abroad but President Nixon headed off all serious attempts at troop reduction

The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis

  • Oct. 1973, the Middle East breaks out into war: Syrians & Egyptians surprise attack Israel in an attempt to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War of 1967
    • Kissinger flies to Moscow to stop Soviets from arming the attackers
    • Nixon believes Kremlin will fly combat troops to the Suez area, so he orders for nuclear forces to be on alert, as well as a giant airlift of $2 billions in war materials to the Israelis
    • This helped the Israelis turn the tide; American dipolmacy then brought about an uneasy cease-fire
  • Late Oct 1973 America paid the price for supporting Israel's oil-rich neighbors
    • the Arab nations clamped an embargo on oil for the US & other countries supporting Israel
    • Americans had to lower thermostats & speedometers
    • cars lined up at gas stations, tempers shortened, business recession deepened
  • "energy crisis" brought the attention to long-defferred projects
    • Congress approved the Alaska pipeline
    • national speed limit was set to 55mph to conserve fuel
    • ppl still called for more coal and nuclear power despite the environmental threat
  • 5 months of Arab denial of oil signaled the end of the cheap and abundant energy era
    • 20 yr surplus of world oil supplies had masked the fact that since 1948 US had been a net importer of oil
    • Am's didnt realize that since WWII their oil consumption had more than tripled
    • # of cars increased 250% btwn 1949 and 1972; fuel-efficient engines were not thought about
  • 1974 America was addicted oil and any inturruption of supplies left us very vulnerable
    • Middle East became an extremely important American strategic interest
    • 1990 america found itself in a shooting war w. Iraq to protect it's oil supplies
  • OPEC quadrupled their price for crude oil bills, disrupting the US balance of internation trade & caused more inflation for Am
  • US took the lead in forming the Internation Energy Agency in 1974 as a counterweight to OPEC
    • various parts of the economy began to slow, forcing us to face the facts about our energy dependency
    • but total reconciliation to that was a Very long time coming


The Unmaking of a President

  • 1974 impeachment was looming on Nixon's dubious [yes that is a vocab word that i chose and it wasn't in the book] integrity
  • Nixon responded to the house Judiciary Committee's constant demand for the Watergate tapes by publishing "relevent" portions of the tapes in the spring of 1974
    • substantial pieces of the tape were missing
    • Nixon's obscenities were replaced with "expletive deleted"
  • July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that "executive privilege" gave him no right to withhold from the special prosecutor portions of the tapes relevant to criminal activity
    • Nixon reluctantly complied
  • the House Judiciary Committee moved ahead w/ articles of impeachment
    • July 1974 the committee adopted the 1st article which charged obstruction of "the administration of justice" [including Watergate-related crimes]
    • 2 other articles were approved, accusing Nixon of having abused the powers of his office & of having shown contempt of Congress by ignoring lawful subpoenas for relevenat tapes & other evidence
  • Seeking to soften the blow, on August 5, 1974 Nixon made public 3 subpoenaed tapes of convos w. his chief aide on June 23, 1972
    • one had him giving orders [6 days after Watergate] to use the CIA to hold back an inquiry by the FBI
    • he convicted himself of being an active party to the attempted cover-up [the crime of obstructing justice]
    • he had told the American ppl that he hadn't known anything about Watergate until 9 months after
  • Public response was overwhelming
    • Republican leaders in Congress concluded that Nixon was a loose cannon on the deck of the ship of state
  • The President was informed that his impeachment was guaranteed, suggesting to him that he resign w. honor, or something close to it
  • Nixon choked back tears & dramaticly announced his resignation on August 8, 1974
    • few pres.'s had flown so high and then sunk so low
    • he admitted to having made some "judgments" that "were wrong" but insisted that he had always acted "in what I believed at the time to be the best interests of the nation"
    • many were unconvinced
  • The Nation had survived a constitutional crisis, proving that impeachment could actually work when the public opinion overwhelmingly demanded that it be done
  • The United States of America, on the eve of their 200th birthday as a republic, had given an impressive demonstration of self-disicipline & sefl-gov't to the rest of the world

The First Unelected President

*Gerald Ford was the first man to be made President solely on the vote of Congress


    • He entered the White House in August 1974 with many handicaps
      • Suspected of being a dim-witted college football player
      • Was selected, not elected, for the VP position
      • There was a sour odor of illegitimacy that hung about his presidency
  • Ford unexpectedly granted a complete pardon for any crimes that Nixon may have committed as President
    • The Democrats were outraged and wanted justice
      • They charged that Ford was carrying out a deal that he cooked up with Nixon to get the VP position
      • Ford claimed that he had a desire to heal wounds and move on
  • Ford at first sought to enhance the détente with the Soviet Union
  • Ford met with 34 other national leaders in Finland
    • This meeting officially wrote an end to WWII by finalizing the Soviet dictated boundaries of Poland and the rest of the European nations
    • In exchange the Soviets agreed to guarantee the liberal transactions of people and info to protect “human rights”
  • The US critics charged that the détente was merely a one-way street
    • The US technology flowed to the USSR and things of little importance came back in return
    • Over time Ford began to hate the détente
      • By the end of his presidency, Ford refused to even say the word “détente”




Defeat in Vietnam

  • Early in 1975 the North Vietnamese began to drive southward at full throttle
    • Ford urged Congress to send more weapons
    • Without these weapons and American aid the South Vietnamese quickly collapsed
  • The remaining Americans had to be evacuated by helicopter
    • 140,000 South Vietnamese were also rescued
      • Ford admitted these individuals to the US
      • Eventually some 5000,000 arrived to the US
  • America’s longest, most frustrating war ended with a “loss for the client nation”
    • The US fought to a standstill, but the South Vietnamese failed to prevail even with the assistance of American aircraft, tanks, and munitions
    • The cost for America was $118 billion (in current American dollars) with 56,000 dead and 300,000 wounded
  • The US lost more than a war
    • Lost self esteem
    • Lost confidence in American military
    • Lost the economic muscle that led to global leadership after WWII




Feminist Victories and Defeats

  • The antiwar movements got replaced with Feminist ones
    • The Women's Stride for Equality (on the 50th anniversary of women suffrage 1970) included 1,000s of women
    • Comngress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972):
      • Ended sex discrimination in any "federaly assisted educational program or activity"
      • Allowed for women's/girl's athletics to improve
        • In the 1980s and 1990s this would lead to professionalization of Women's Sports
    • Equal Rights Amendment 1972:
      • "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the US or by any state on account of sex."
      • (Although it says Amendment there, it still needed to be ratified)
      • 28 states ratified it immediatiely
    • HOWEVER:
      • The ERA needed 38 states to ratify it
      • Phyllis Schlafly was antifeminist (because she was secretly a man.....not really) and worked hard to stop the ERA
        • She felt that it ruined the American family because the wife wouldn't need to support her husband...or something
      • 1979: Congress extended the deadline for ratification
      • 1982: Still not ratified (3 states short) so it was "killed"
    • Supreme Court was working for Feminism
      • Reed v. Reed(1971)/ Frontiero v. Richardson(1973):
        • Court fought against discrimination in legilsation/employment
      • Roe v. Wade(1973):
        • Court ruled abortion legal because it was a woman's decision, and it was protected by the "right to privacy" inferred in the Constitution

The Seventies in Black and White

  • Race and integration were still big issues in the '70s
    • Milliken v. Bradley: Supreme Court said that desegregation plans couldn't require students to move across school district lines
      • Basically excused suburban districts, so they don't have a part in the inner-city desegregation, so more whites left for the 'burbs
      • This left desegregation in the most poverty-stricken areas, so the "most disadvantaged elements" of blacks and whites were against one another
    • Affirmative Action was still being questioned
      • White workers/students who were denied (a promotion or acceptance to a school) felt that it was reverse discrimination
      • Rights were being violated because race was being considered above ability
      • Allan Bakke (1978) took the issue to the Supreme Court
        • He said that his application to med. school had been denied because minority candidates were favored
        • The Court agreed, and said tha the U of California had to admit him, and "preference in admissions could not be given to mambers of any group..."
        • But, the Court also said that "racial factors might be taken into account in a school's overall admissions policy."
        • Thurgood Marshall (only black justice) argued that an end to affirmative action would set back the achievements of the recent past
  • Native Americans stood up, too
    • Indians used the Civil Rights Movement as an example and used the courts and civil disobedience
    • Instead of wanting integration, they wanted to be recognized as independent sovereign people
    • 1970: They took Alcatraz back
    • 1972: Took Wounded Knee back
    • United States v. Wheeler (1978) said that Native American tribes had a unique and limited sovereignty
      • Indians had to obey Congress, but not individual states


Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy

  • President Carter diisplalyed from the outset an overriding concern for "human rights" as the guiding principle of his foreign policy
  • The presidents most sepectaular foreign-policy achievement came in Sep. 1978 at Camp David.
    • He courageously risked humiliating failure by invitint President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Isreal to a summit conferance at Camp David
    • After 13 days Carter persuaded the two to sign an accord that held considerable promise of peace.
    • Isreal agreed in principle to withdraw from territory conquered in the 1967 war and Egypt in return promised to respect Isreal's borders.
    • Both countries pledged themselves to sign a formal peace treaty within three months
  • The president resumed full diplomatic relations with China in early 1979 after a nearly 30 year interruption.
  • Carter also successfullly proposed two treaties turning over complete ownership and control of the Panama Canal to the Panamanians by the year 2000
  • Overshadowing all international issues was the reheating of the Cold War with the Soviet Union
  • Thousands of Cuban troops assisted by Soviet advisers appeared in Angola, Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa to support revolutionary factions
  • Arms control negotiations with Moscow stalled


Economic and Energy Woes

  • Adding to Jimmy's probs was the failing health of the economy
    • prices were rising, increasing at a rate of >10% by 1974
    • crippling oil-prices from OPEC gave another blow to the economy
    • recession during Ford's presidency brought inflation down temporarily, but prices resumed their ascent driving inflation rate above 13% by 1979
    • imported oil cost $40 billion in 1978
    • we paid more for our imports then we were able to earn selling our own goods overseas
  • the "oil shocks" of the 1970s made us realize we could never be isolated again.
    • for most of Am. history our foreign trade had accouneted for no more than 10% of GNP
    • huge forign-oil bills drove that figure steadily upward in the 1970s and after
    • by end of 20th cen. 25% of GNP depended on foriegn trade
    • we couldn't dominate in foriegn trade as we had before
  • deficits in the federal budget [reaching about $60 billion in 1980] furhter aggravated the US economy's inflationary probs
    • am. ppl on fixed incomes suffered from inflation [mostly the elderly or workers w/o a strong union to fight for them]
    • ppl w/ $$ to lend pushed interest rates higher hoping to protect themselves from beign repaid in badly depreciated dollars
    • the "prime rate" [ the rate of interest that banks charge their very best customers] vaulted on an unheard-of 20% in ealry 1980
    • small businesses suffered as well as the construction industry [depended on loans to finance new housing & other projects]
  • Carter diagnosed America's economic prob as the costly dependence on foreign oil
    • the pres. called for legislation to improve energy conservation, esp. by curtailing the manufacture of large, gas-guzzling cars
    • april 1977, the ppl protested this, forgetting about the long lines at the pump in 1973
    • public and congressional opposition smother Carter's hopes of quickly initiating an energetic energy program
  • Mohammad Reza Pahlevi [installed as shah of Iran w/ help from the CIA in 1953] had long ruled his oil-rich land w/ a will of steel
    • overthrown January 1979
    • violent revolution was spearheaded in Iran by Muslim fundamentalists who fiercely resented the shah's campaign to westernize and secularize his country
    • US denounced as the "Great Satan" that had helped the shah's efforts
    • OPEC hiked petroleum prices again when Irianian oil stopped flowing into the stream of world commerce
    • Americans were back in long lines at the pump
  • Carter sensed the rising popular discontent of the oil crisis
    • July 1979 he retreated to Camp David, staying for 10 days, calling in over 100 leaders from all walks of life to give him their views while the nation waited for the next step
  • July 15, 1979 Carter came back and revealed his thoughts to the american ppl, scolding them for falling into a "moral and spiritual crisis" and for being too concerned with "material goods"
    • Carter's address stunneand perplexed the nation
  • Carter then fired 4 cabinet secretaries
  • he then circled his Georgian advisers more tightly about the White House by reorganizing and expanding the power of his personal staff
    • critics began to wonder aloud whether Carter, man of the ppl, was losing touch w/ the popular mood of the country
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 41 - The Resurgence of Conservatism 1980-2000

 

Outline

The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980

  • Conservatism was picking up new strength, headed by religious groups
  • Most were less concerned about economy, and more about social issues
    • Abortion, homosexuality, feminism, affirmative action, prayer in schools, tougher punishments for crimes
  • This was titled the "New Right" party
  • Reagan was a great choice for this "New Right" presidency
    • Was agianst activist government, and tried to be like FDR
    • Fought for the common man
    • FDR thought big business was bad, but Reagan blamed big gov't
  • Reagan had a group of thinkers called the "neoconservatives"
    • Norman Podhoretz (magazine editor) and Irving Kristol (magazine editor) wanted free-market capitalism and were very anti-Soviet. Didn't like welfare programs or affirmative action. Supported individualism and family.
  • Reagan started as an actor, then became a politician (kind of like the current Gov. of Cali...)
    • He was governor of CA also
    • Republican Presidential nomination went to Reagan
  • Many Americans viewed Carter's administration as confusing, and many hated the "double-digit" inflation
    • Democrats began to dislike Carter, too
    • They tried to nominate Edward Kennedy (last Kennedy brother), but he was too liberal (and there was some shady stuff in his past)
    • Carter was the Democratic candidate
  • Democrats:
    • 41% popular vote, 49 electoral votes
    • The only insult Carter could use against Reagan was that he might start a nuclear war, but might not
  • Republicans:
    • 51% popular vote, 489 electoral votes
    • Due to Reagan's acting skills, he was very popular, especially on TV
  • Independent:
    • 7% popular vote, no electoral votes
    • John Anderson
  • Republicans got control of Senate, too


The Reagan Revolutiuon

  • Reagan's inauguration was made triumphant w/ the release of the Iranian hostages
  • Assembled a cabinet of the "best and the brightest" and he put important decisions into their hands
    • included controvercial James Watt
      • He was a result of the "Sagebrush Rebellion"
        • an anti-Washington movement that protested federal control of natural resources in the West
      • He wanted to limit the EPA and drill for oil (stopped by environmentalists)
    • Watt resigned after making a public ethnic joke
  • according to Reagan, gov't was the problem and sought to limit it by limiting it's spending
    • message found a receptive audience
    • fed spending had increased from 18% of the GNP to 23%
    • shifting from defence to entitlement programs such as social security
      • counter-"new deal" people finally popped up
      • People were tired of paying to give money to others
      • California did a tax strike that lowered property taxes, and made the government pay more
  • Reagan proposed cuts of $35 billion
    • mostly from social programs
    • wooed southern conservative democrats ("boll weevils") to his support
  • shot on March 6, 1981
    • recovered quickly and 12 days later was back on the job w/ huge support


The Battle of the Budget

  • Congress was caught up in Reagan's popularity, too, so they approved his budget plans
    • $695 billion of expenditures, with about $38 billion defecit...
    • To get this money, Congress cut up some of the Great Society programs
  • Reagan wanted to take down the welfare idea, and to reverse the political policies of recent times
    • He took serious power of the presidency, kind of like LBJ did
  • Part II of the budget was tax cuts
    • 25% reductions in 3 years
    • He used his acting skills in asking for Congress to pass the tax-cut bill, and won
    • Congress lowered individual taxes, reduced fed. estate taxes, and made tax-free savings plans for small investors
    • "Supply-side" economics
    • Budget discipline + tax cuts = stimulated new investment, boosted productivity, dramatic economic growth, less federal defecit
  • This was kind of shot down when the country entered the greatest recession since the Great Depression
    • 11% unemployment, closed businesses, bank failures
    • Importing Japanese cars hurt our automobile industry
    • People (democrats) said that Reagan's tax cuts hurt the lesser man, and favored the rich
    • Reagan just let the recession go and waited for the supply-side economics (Reaganomics) to kick in
      • It did get better in 1983, but:
    • Gaps widened between rich and poor
    • Yuppies emerged (young urban professionals)
      • They became a symbol of the 1980s


Regan Renews the Cold War

  • Regan saw no reason to soften up toward the Soviet Union when he entered the White House
  • The Soviets continued their war in Afghanistan and Regan continued to condemn the Kremlin
  • Regan believed in negotiating with the Soviet Union only from a position of overwhelming strength.
  • His strategy for dealing with them was by enormously expanding U.S. military capabilities.
    • he could threaten the Soviets with an expensive new round of the arms race.
    • The American economy could better bear this new financial vurden the the Soviet system could.
    • Desperate to avoid economic ruin Kremlin leaders would come to the bargaining table
  • The strategy wagered the enormous sum of Reagans defense budgets on the hope that the other side would not call Washingtons bluff and start a new cycle of arms race competition.
  • In March 1983 he announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense system called the Strategic Defense Initiative, popularly known as Star Wars.
  • His plan called for orbiting battle stations in space that could fire laser beams or other forms of concentrated energy to vaporize intercontinental missiles on liftoff.
  • Most scientists considered this an impossible goal
  • The deeper logic of SDI lay in its fit with Reagans overall Soviet Strategy. By pitching the arms contest onto a stratospheric plane of high technology and astronomical expense it would further force the Kremlin's hand.
  • Experts who did not dismiss SDI as ludicrous feared that Star Wars research might be ruinously costly, ultimately unworkable, and fatally destabilizing to the distasteful but effective "balance of terror" that had kept the nuclear peace.
  • Scientific and strategic doubts combined to constrain congressional funding for SDI through the remainder of Reagan's term
  • Relations with the Soviets worsened further in late 1981 when the gov't of Poland clamped martial law on the troubled country/
  • Reagan saw the heavy fist of the Kremlin inside this Polish iron glove and he imposed economic sanctions on Poland and the USSR alike.
  • Relations with Soviets grew even more tense in Sep. 1983 when they blasted a Korean passenger airliner from the skies that had inexplicably violated Soviet airspace, hundreds of civilians including Americans died.
  • By the end of 1983 all armscontrol negotiations with the soviets were broken off.

Troubles Abroad

  • Israel badly strainded its bonds of friendship w/ U.S. by continuing to allow new settlements to be established in the occupied territory of the Jordan River's West Bank.
  • Israel futher risked the stakes in the Middle East in June 1982 when it invaded neighboring Lebanon, seeking to suppress once and for all the guerrilla bases from which Palestinian fighters harassed beleaguered Israel.
  • The Palestinians were subdued but Lebanon was plunged into armed chaos.
  • President Reagan was obliged to send American troops to Beanon in 1983 as part of an international peace-keeping force, but their presence did not bring peace.
  • A suicide bomber crashed an explosives-laden truck into a U.S. Marine barracks on Oct. 23,1983 killing more than two hundred marines.
  • President Reagan soon after withdrew the remaining troops, while suffering no political damage from this horrifying and humiliating attack.
  • A leftist dictator of Nicaragua had deposed the long-time dictator of Nicaragua in 1979, President Carter had tried to ignore the hotly anit-American rhetoric of the revolutionaries but Reagan took their rhetoric at face value and hurled back at them some hot language of his own.
  • He accused the Sandinistas of turning their country into a forward base for Soviet and Cuban military penetration of all of Central America.
  • Brandishing photos taken from spy planes, administration spokespeople claimed that Nicaraguan leftists were shipping weapons to revolutionary forces in El Salvador, torn by violence since coup in 1979.
  • Reagan sent military "advisers" to prop up the pro-American gov't of El Salvador
  • In Oct. 1983 Reagan dispatched a heavy-firepower invasion force to the island of Grenada where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought Marxists to power.


Round Two for Reagan

  • Democrats:
    • Walter Mondale
    • Named VP as GeraldINE (as in woman) Ferraro
    • Mondale lost partly because was VP for Carter
    • 13 electoral voets, 36,459,613 popular
  • Republicans:
    • Obviously Reagan
    • 525 electoral votes, 52,609,797 popular
  • Foreign policy dominated his second term in office
    • Gorbachev, the soviet leader was also in the world news for glasnost ("openess") and perestroika("restructuring") of the Soviet Union
      • both policies called for the shrinking of their military machine and sending the money from their into the civilian economy
      • ceased to deploy intermediate-range forces aimed at the West on April 1985
      • friendlyness towards the West
      • Started to turn the Communist country into a little bit more Democratic (allowed more free speech)
    • several meetings between G and R
      • came up w/ the INF treaty which was a victory for the world
    • both ended the Cold War pretty much
  • other moves in foreign policy included attacks against dictators and terrorists


The Iran-Contra Imbroglio

  • 2 foreign-policy probs seemed impossible to solve to Reagan:
    • continuing # of capturing of Am. hostages, seized by Muslim extremeist groups in Lebanon
    • continuing grip on power of left-wing Sandinista gov't in Nicaragua
  • Reagan repeatedly requested for military aid to the contra rebels fighting against the Sandinista regime but they repeatedly refused
  • unknown to Am. public, Washington officials saw a link btwn the probs of the Middle Eastern hostages & the Central American Sandinistas
    • 1985, Am. diplomats secretly arranged arms sales to the under attack Iranians in return for Iranian aid in obtaining the release of Am. hostages held by Middle Eastern terrorists
    • atleast 1 hostage was set free while $ from the payment for the arms was diverted to the contras [$$ was given from us to the contras]
    • this violated a Congressional ban on military aid to the Nicaraguan rebels as well as Reagan's vow to never negotiate w. terrorists
  • November 1986, new broke out of the secret dealings which caused some major controversy
    • Reagan claimed he was innocent & ignorant of the activities but a congressional committee condemned the "secrecy, deception, and disdain of the law" shown by the administration officials & concluded that "if the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have."
    • criminal indictments were later brought against several prominent individuals including Oliver North [marine colonel], John Poindexter [North's boss & Admiral @ the National Security Council], and Caspar Weinberger [Secretary of Defense]
    • North & Poindexter were found guilty of criminal behavior, but convictions were eventually reversed on appeal and Weingberger received a presidential pardon before he was formally tried
  • the Iran-contra affair cast a dark shadow over the Reagan record in foreign policy, which tends to obscure the pres.'s outstanding achievement in est.ing a new relationship w/ the Soviets
  • Reagan was now seen as lazy, senile, and unattentive to details of policy
  • critics called the actor-turned-president who acted the role of the presidency w/o really understanding the script
  • yet Reagan still remained one of the most popular & beloved presidents in modern American history


Regan's Economic Legacy

  • Reagan took office w. the promise to invigorate the Am. economy by rolling back gov't regulations, lowering taxes, & balancing the budget
    • he eased by regulatory rules, he pushed major tax reform bills thu Congress in 1981 & 1986
    • but a balanced budget was WAAAAAAY out of reach
  • the promised supply-sided economic theory: lower taxes would acutlaly INcrease gov't revenue b/c they would so stimulate the ecomony as a whole
    • tax reduction + huge increases in military spending = "revenue hole" of $200 billion annual deficits
    • adding $2 trillion to the nat'l debt [more than all of Reagan's predecessors combined , including pres.'s of WWI&WWII
  • The Reagan years constituted great ecomonic failure
    • due to the fact that our debt was fincanced by foreign leaders [esp. Japanese] the deficits basically guaranteed that future generations would have to either work harder than their parents , lower their standard of living, or both to pay their foreign creditors when the bills came due
  • yawning deficits encouraged Congress in 1986 to pass legislation commanding a balanced budget by 1991
    • this drastic measure wasn't enough to close the gap btwn the fed. gov't's income & expenditures, & the continuously growing nat'l debt
  • If the deficits represented an economic failure, strangely, they also formed a kind of political triumph
    • Reagan had wanted to slow the growth of gov't & esp. to block or even repeal the social programs launched in the era a of LBJ's Great Society
    • by appearing to make new social spending both practically & politically impossible for the future, the deficits served exactly that purpose
    • this achieved Reagan's hights political objective: the containment of the welfare state
  • Regan therefore guaranteed the long-term up-keep of his dearest political valued to a degree that few presidents have managed to achieve
    • "Reaganomics" would be large & durable
  • Another legacy of 1980s: the sharp reversal of a long-tem tred toward a more fair distribution of income & an increasing squeeze on the middle class
    • early 1990s, median household income acutally declined from $33,500 [1989] to about $31,000 [1993]
    • whether Reagan's policies were to blame or to more deeply running economic currents remained controversial


The Religious Right

  • Religion pervaded American politics in the 1980s, esp. conspicuous was a coalition of conservative, evangelical Christians known as the relgious right.
  • In 1979 the Reverand Jerry Falwell founded a political organization called the Moral Majority.
    • Falwell preached with great success against sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and the spread of gay rights.
  • In its first two years the Moral Majority registered between 2 million and 3 million voters.
  • Members of the religious right were sometimes called "movement conservatives"
  • In many ways the religious right of the 1980s was a reflection of, or answer to, sixties radicalism.
  • Feminists in the 1960s declared that "personal was political", the religious right did the same.
  • What had in the past been personal matters- gender roles, homosexuality, and prayer- became the organizing ground for a powerful political movement.
  • The religious right practiced a form of " identity politics". But rather than defining themselves as Hispanic voters or gay voters, the declared themselves Christian or pro-life voters.
  • They even mirrored the tactics of civil disobedience. Protesters in the 1980s blocked entrances to abortion clinics like protestors in the 1960s had blocked entrances to draft offices
  • Several leaders of the religious right fell from grace in the latter part of the decade.


Conservatism in the Courts

  • the courts were Reagan's principle instrument in the "cultural wars" demanded by the religious right
  • by the end of his time, Reagan had appointed a near-majority of all sitting judges
    • he had also named 3 conservative-minded justices to the US Supreme Court
      • Sandra Day O'Connor was one of them & the first woman on the bench ever
  • Reaganism rejected 2 great icons of liberal political culture:
    • affirmative action
    • abortion
  • The Court showed new conservative colors [1984] when it decreed that union rules about job seniority could outweigh affirmative-action concerns in guiding promotion policies in the city's fire dept.
  • 1989, Ward's Cove Parking v. Antonia AND Martin v. Wilks
    • in both cases, the Court made it more difficult to argue descrimination in the workplace as well as giving white men argument that they were victims of reverse discrimination [by employers who followed affirmative-action processes practices]
      • 1991, Cong. passes legislation that partically reversed the effects of those decisions
  • 1973, Roe v. Wade, the Court had prohibited the states from making laws that interfered w. a woman's right to an abortion durith the eraly months of pregnancy
    • "pro-choice" advocates built ther cases & foundations on this
  • July 1989, Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
    • it didn't completely overturn Roe but it seriously compromised Roe's protection of abortion rights
  • Planned Parenthood v. Casey [1992]
    • ruled that states could restrict access to abortion as long as they didn't place an "undue burden" on the woman
    • this also said how a wife didn't have to inform her husband, but children had to inform their parents as well as other restrictions
  • Right-to-life advocates @ 1st were super happy about the Webster decision but the Court's ruling also stimulated pro-choice organization into a new militancy
    • damaging, troublesome battle loomed as state legislatures across the land confronted abortion
    • this painful cultural conflict over the unborn was also part of Reagan era's gift to the future

Referendum on Reganism in 1988

  • Republicans lost control of the Senate in November 1986
    • Democrats hoped the “Reagan Revolution” may be vulnerable
  • Much of Reagan’s administration showed unethical behavior
    • The Secretary of Labor stepped down in 1985 for charges of fraud and larceny (later acquitted)
    • The President’s personal White House aide was convicted of perjury in 1988
    • Attorney General Edwin Meese was investigated for influence-peddling
    • Regan’s Secretary of Housing and Urban Development was investigated for fraud and favoritism
  • Signs of economic trouble seemed open to political opportunities for the Democrats
    • The Federal deficit and the International Trade Deficit grew largely
    • Oil prices fell and ruined the Southwest, lowering real estate prices, undermining the savings-and-loans institutions
      • Would cost $500 billion for a federal rescue operation
    • More banks folded and buyouts washed Wall Street
    • “Black Monday” (October 19, 1987)- the stock market dropped 508 points in one day
  • The Democrats wanted to cash in on the ethical and economic anxieties
    • Their front runner had to drop out for charges of sexual misconduct
  • George Bush defeated Michael Dukakis for the presidency

The Persian Gulf Crisis

  • The end of the Cold War didn’t mean the end of all wars
    • Bush sent airborne troops to Panama to capture dictator and drug lord Manuel Noriega
    • In the summer of 1990 Saddam Hussein sent armies to overrun the oil rich nation of Kuwait
      • He wanted to control the oil to pay for huge war bills and to control the entire Persian Gulf
  • Ironically America had helped build up Hussein’s military to defeat Iran
  • On August 2, 1990 Saddam’s troops came roaring into Kuwait
  • The UN couldn’t remove the troops with a failed embargo, so an ultimatum was sent, leave Kuwait or we’ll “use all necessary means” to expel the troops. The US lead this military development with the contribution of 539,000 troops, 28 other nations contributed 270,000 troops
  • Congress approved the use of force on January 12




Fighting "Operation Desert Storm"

  • On January 16, 1991 the US and UN allies launched war on Iraq
    • For 37 days warplanes pummeled targets in Kuwait and Iraq
    • This was a display of high tech precision-targeting modern warfare
    • Iraq responded by launching several short range missiles on Saudi Arabia and Israel
      • These did no significant military damage
  • Saddam threatened to engage in “the mother of all wars” with his chemical and biological weapons
    • Other tactics were to release an oil slick into the Gulf to stop all amphibious assault and the ignition of oil wells
  • On February 23 the land war began- lasted 4 days
    • The Un forces suffered light casualties, Iraq’s were destroyed or captured quickly
    • On February 17 Saddam accepted a cease fire and Kuwait was liberated
  • Troops returned to a warm welcome unlike Vietnam




Bush on the Home Front

  • Bush said when elected he was trying to make a gentler America
    • He did this by signing the Americans with disabilaties act which prevented discrimination
    • And with a water projects bill in 1992 which made much more water available to the wests cities
  • He was against bills that made scholarships for minorities and against civil rights legislation that would make it easier for employees to proves discrimination
  • He also nominated Clarence Thomas a black man against affirmative action to replace Thurgood Marshall on the Supreme Court
    • Though a professor Anita Hill accused him of sexual harrasment he was still confirmed
  • After this confirmation women became more against the Republican party mainly because of the abortion issue
  • The economy was Bushs weakest point during his presidency the budget deficit reached 250 billion and unemployment was 7% national
  • In 1990 to try and help balance the budget he passed a budget agreement that made 133 billion in new taxes
    • This killed him politically as he had promised no new taxes




Bill Clinton: The First Baby-Boomer President

  • Clinton reformed democratic policies to make them more appealing to voters
  • he won clearly in televised debates
  • Bush only halfheartedly campaigned for a second term
  • Clinton won the presidency easily
  • He quickly introduced many minority leaders into govenrment


A False Start for Reform

  • Clinton overestimated his electoral mandate for liberal reform, making many costly (bad) decisions
    • One of his 1st initiatives after taking office was to end the ban on gays & lesbians in the armed services, causing a lot of controversy
      • settled for the "don't ask, don't tell" policy that secretly accepted gays & lesbians in armed services w/o officially acknowledging their presence in the military
    • Next, Clinton sought out (& failed) reform the nation's health-care system
      • Clinton appointed his wife/ prominent lawyer/ child-advocate Hillary Clinton as the director of a task force seeking to redesign the medical-service industry
      • October 1993: Hillary's task force unveiled its complicated plan & critics bashed the proposal immediately
        • it was pretty much D.O.A in Congress
    • Defecit-reduction bill in 199
      • By 1996, the federal deficit shrunk to its lowest level in more than a decade
    • Gun control:
      • "Brady Bill" passed by Congress in 1993 named after presidential aide James Brady(wounded/disabled by gun fire during the assassination attempt on Reagan in 1981)
      • July 1994: Clinton persuaded Congress to pass a $30 billion anticrime bill which included a ban on several types of guns
  • An violent epidemic rocked American society in the 1990s
    • A radical Muslim group bombed the World Trade Center in 1993 killing 6 people
    • A bigger bombing of a federal office building in OK C, Oklahoma killed 168 in 1995 by the Branch Davidians
      • A standoff in Wako, Texas between federalist agents & the Branch Davidians in 1993 ending in the destruction of the sect's compound & deaths of many Branch Davidians
        • These showed the secretive underground of paramilitary private "militias" composed of alienated citizens fully armed & suspicious of all gov'ts
  • Hillary Clinton:
    • As B. Clinton's main reform plan architect, H. Clinton took a lot of abuse
    • H. Clinton entered the White House as B. Clinton's full political partner sharing in his political spotlight like no other 1st lady before her
      • H. Clinton soon became more of a political liability & stepped out of the limelight


The Politics of Distrust

  • Republicans had a good opportunity in 1994 to attack Clinton and his failed initiatives
    • led by Newt Gingrich
      • "Contract with America" = an all out assault on budget deficits and radical reductions in welfare programs
      • Democrats countered saying it was a "Contract on America"
    • all 1994 Republican congressional re-elections were won, even picked up 11 governors
    • owned both chambers of federal Congress for the first time in 40 years
  • Republicans overplayed their mandate for conservative retrenchment
    • did not give out new revenues while imposing new obligations on state and local gov'ts
  • Welfare Reform Bill passed
    • all able-bodied unemployed had to find work
    • anti-immigrant
  • Republicans scared people away and Clinton was re-elected in 1996
    • won 379 electoral to 159 against Dole


Clinton Again

  • When elected the democrats controlled neither house so he proposed few legislative goals
  • He passed the Welfare Reform Bill of 1996
  • Clinton pledged to mend affirmative action not end it
  • When in California in 1996 affirmative action was prohibited minority enrollment went down greatly
  • Clinton critisized this assault on affirmative action but did not try to stop them
  • Clintons strongest feature was the economy which under him had the largest growth in history
  • Clinton worked on a global free trade system and promoted the World Trade Organization
  • Americans disliked this trade policy
  • Another issue evolved during the 1996 campaign about campaign finance
    • Clintons campaign recieved money from various improper sources
    • Neither party really wanted to make it an issue because they both did it
  • Two domestic issues stood out in Clintons second term
    • the fight against big tobacco
    • and the fight for gun control
  • He worked to limit the tobacco companys advertisements to youths
  • Clintons administration also tried to use lawsuits to gain the money back that they were wasting on smokers health
  • Due to the many school shootings gun laws were tightened by clinton


Scandal and Impeachment

  • Clinton had to be worried about his rep. because there were accusations of scandal at the start of his term
    • Whitewater Land Corporation- a real-estate business that failed, Clinton had made an investment
      • It was investigated
      • Vincent W. Foster, Jr. was the financial consel for Clinton, and he committed suicide
      • Clinton had loose ethics and a habit of "womanizing"
        • Shown in Primary Colors
      • Nothing was ever proved in the Whitewater investigation
    • 1998- Clinton accused of "sexual affair" with intern Monica Leewinsky
      • He lied about it under oath
      • Paula Jones was charging Clinton with sexual harassment (when he was Governor)
      • Case was allowed to go forward
    • Kenneth Star (prosecutor) had been on the Whitewater case, and was immpressed by the "lied under oath" thing
      • Starr had been watching Clinton like a hawk for a while, hoping he would do something wrong
      • Clinton (after 8 mohths) had to admit to an "inappropriate relationship"
      • Starr gave graphic sexual details annd included 11 posible impeachment accusations (all related to the Lewinsky Incident) to the House of Reps
    • House of Reps was led by Anti-Clinton republicans
      • They started the proces of impeachment
      • Decided on two things:
        • perjury before a grand jury
        • Obstruction of justice
    • Democrats said none of this was fair, but he Republicans were like "yeah, right, whatever"
  • The people (apparently) didn't like the whole "sex with intern" thing, but still like Clinton
  • Starr's reputation was a little tarnished
  • In Jan and Feb of 1999, the impeachment procedding started
    • Senators heard arguments of both sides (Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding)
    • On obstruction of justice charge, Blinton (that's Bill and Clinton combined) was found not guilty
    • Also found not guilty of perjury


Clinton's Legacy

  • With the impeachment trial over Clinton spent what remained of his presidency seeking to secure a legacy for himself as an effective leader and moderate reformer.
  • He designated major swaths of undeveloped land as protected wilderness and won public support for health-care improvements
  • He took advantage of big federal budget surpluses to win congressional approval for hiring 100,000 more teachers and 50,000 more police officers/
  • Budget surpluses brought out the differences between Republicans and Democrats.
  • Beyond the stain of impeachment Clinton's legacy was bound to be a mixed one for his country and his party.
  • When he came into office in 1992 he was determined to make economic growth his first priority and he surely succeeded.
  • The country achieved nearly full employment by the decades end, pverty rates inched down, and median income reached new highs.
  • From 1998 to 2000 the federal budgets resulted in surpluses rather than deficits
  • As a brilliant communicator Clinton kept alive a vision of social justice and racial harmony
  • As an executive he discouraged people from expecting the gov't to remedy all the nation's ills
  • By setting such a low standard for his personal conduct he replenished the sad reservior of public cynicism about politics that Vietnam and Watergate had created a generation before.
  • In the last days of his presidency Clinton negotiated a deal with the Special Prosecutor to win immunity from possible legal action over the Lewinsky scandal by agreeing to a fine and a five-year suspension of his law license.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

The American Pageant, 11th Edition Textbook Notes

Here you will find AP US History notes for the American Pageant, 11th edition textbook. These American Pageant notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

Additional Information:

  • Hardcover: 1136 pages
  • Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing; 11 edition (August 5, 1997)
  • Language: English
  • ISBN-10: 0669397288
  • ISBN-13: 978-0669397284

 

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

Summary:

225 million years ago, Earth was one supercontinent (Pangaea) and ocean. About 10 million years ago, the North America that we know today was formed (geographical shape). The first discoverers of North America were nomadic Asians who wandered over here by way of an exposed land bridge from Russia to Alaska during the Ice Age. Though they were hunters at first, by 5000 BC, they had become hunter-gatherers with a diet of basically corn. Great pre-European Indian cultures included the Pueblos, the Iroquois, the Mound Builders, the Mayans, the Incas, the Aztec, and the Sioux, among others(map of tribes on pg. 8). The Indians revered nature and land, and didn’t carelessly destroy it. Everything was put to use.

In 1000 AD, Vikings discovered Newfoundland, but later abandoned it due to unfavorable conditions. Europeans, though, slowly began to proliferate into non-European worlds starting around the 1400s. After Marco Polo came back with stories of China and its riches, Europeans began to explore. First, they set up settlements in Africa, near the coast, where they used African slaves to work on plantations. In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, opening a sea route to the Far East.

Complications and dangers of this eastern sea route influenced Christopher Columbus to sail west. In doing so, he inadvertently discovered the Americas, though he never knew it. The Portuguese were first to settle in America, but the Spanish later became the dominant nation in the Americas. Spanish Conquistadores swept through Latin and South America, destroying the Aztecs and the Incas. Meanwhile, Magellan’s crew sailed around the world in 1519, becoming the first voyage to do so. As the chapter ended, Spain was very much in control of much of the Americas, though other countries were beginning to challenge the Spanish dominance.

Important People: 

The Aztecs- Native Americans who that lived in what is now Mexico and routinely offered their gods human sacrifices, these people were violent, yet built amazing pyramids and built a great civilization without having a wheel.

The Mound Builders- Indians of the Ohio River Valley.
 
The Mississippian settlement- At Cahokia, near present-day East St. Louis, Illionis, was home to about 40,000 people in at 1100 A.D.

Hiawatha- This was legendary leader who inspired the Iroquois, a powerful group of Native Americans in the northeaster woodlands of the U.S.

The Norse- These Vikings discovered America in about 1000 A.D., when they discovered modern-day Newfoundland. They abandoned it later due to bad conditions.

Marco Polo- Italian adventurer who supposedly sailed to the Far East (China) in 1295 and returned with stories and supplies of the Asian life there (silk, pearls, etc…)

Bartholomeu Días- A Portuguese sailor, he was the first to round the southernmost tip of Africa, a feat he did in 1488.

Vasco da Gama- In 1498, he reached India and returned home with a small but tantalizing cargo of jewels and spices.

Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile- The wedded king and queen of Spain, their marriage united the previously non-existing country.

Christopher Columbus- An Italian seafarer who persuaded Spain to give him three ships for which to sail west to look for a better route to India, he “discovered” America in 1492

Vasco Nuñez Balboa- Discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

Ferdinand Magellan- In 1519, his crew began a voyage and eventually ended up becoming the first to circumnavigate the world, even though he died in the Philippines. The sole surviving ship returned to Europe in 1522.

Ponce de León- In 1513 and 1521, this Spanish Explorer explored Florida, searching for gold (contrary to the myth of his seeking the “Fountain of Youth”).

Francisco Coronado- From 1540 to 1542, he explored the pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, penetrating as far east as Kansas. He also discovered the Grand Canyon and enormous herds of bison.

Hernando de Soto- From 1539 to 1542, he explored Florida and crossed the Mississippi River. He brutally abused Indians and died of fever and battle wounds.

Francisco Pizarro- In 1532, he crushed the Incas of Peru and got lots of bounty.

Bartolomé de Las Casas- A Spanish missionary who was appalled by the method of encomienda, calling it “a moral pestilence invented by Satan.”

Hernán Cortés- Annihilator of the Aztec in 1519.

Malinche- A female Indian slave who knew Mayan and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec.

Montezuma- The leader of the Aztecs at the time of Cortés’ invasion who believed that Cortés was the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl.

Giovanni Caboto- AKA John Cabot, he explored the northeastern coaster of North America in 1497-98.

Giovanni da Verranzo- An Italian explorer dispatched by the French king in 1524 to probe the eastern seaboard of U.S.

Don Juan de Oñate- Leader of a Spanish group that traversed parts of Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in 1598, he and his men proclaimed the province of New Mexico in 1609 and founded its capital, Santa Fe.

Robert de La Salle- Sent by the French, he went on an expedition down the Mississippi in the 1680s.

Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo- He explored the California coast in 1542 but failed to find anything of interest.

Father Junipero Serra- The Spanish missionary who founded 21 missions in California, in 1769, he founded Mission San Diego, the first of the chain.

Key Terms:

maize - the Indian word for corn

Conquistadores - the Spanish word for “conqueror,” these explorers claimed much of America for Spain, slaughtering millions of natives in the process

encomienda - a euphemism for slavery in which Indians were given to colonists to be “Christianized.”

Día de la Raza - Spanish for Columbus Day.

Lake Bonneville - massive prehistoric lake, all of which remains today in the form of the Great Salt Lake.

Treaty of Tordesillas - treaty that settled Spanish and Portuguese differences in the Americas, Portugal got modern-day Brazil; Spain got the rest.

Popé’s Rebellion - revolt in which Indians took over New Mexico and held control for nearly half a century.

Places and Countries:

Timbuktu- Capital of the West African kingdom of Mali, a place located in the Niger River Valley.
 
Madeira, the Canaries, São Tomé, Pricipe- Areas where sugar plantations were established by Portugal then Spain where African slaves were forced to work.

Potosí- A rich silver mine in Bolivia that enriched Spain with lots of wealth.

 
Timeline:

c. 33,000 – 8000 BC

 

 

First humans come to Americas from land bridge connecting Asia and Alaska.

 

 

c. 5000 BC

 

 

Corn is developed as a stable crop in highland Mexico.

 

 

c. 4000 BC

 

 

First civilized societies develop in the Middle East.

 

 

c. 1200 BC

 

 

Corn planting reaches present-day American Southwest.

 

 

c. 1000 AD

 

 

Norse voyagers discover and briefly settle in Newfoundland (Vinland).

 

 

Also, corn cultivation reaches Midwest and southeaster Atlantic seaboard.

 

 

c. 1100 AD

 

 

Height of Mississippian settlement at Cahokia

 

 

c. 1100 – 1300

 

 

Christian crusades arouse European interest in the East.

 

 

1295

 

 

Marco Polo returns to Europe from Asia.

 

 

Late 1400s

 

 

Spain unites.

 

 

1488

 

 

Díaz rounds the southern tip of Africa.

 

 

1492

 

 

Columbus land in the Bahamas.

 

 

1494

 

 

Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal.

 

 

1498

 

 

da Gama reaches India.

 

 

Cabot explores northeastern coast of North America for England.

 

 

1513

 

 

Balboa claims all lands touched by the Pacific Ocean for Spain.

 

 

1513 & 1521

 

 

Ponce de León explores Florida.

 

 

1519 – 1521

 

 

Cortés conquers Mexico for Spain, defeating the Aztecs.

 

 

1522

 

 

Magellan’s crew completes circumnavigation of the world.

 

 

1524

 

 

Verrazano explores eastern seaboard of Norh America for France.

 

 

1532

 

 

Pizarro crushes the Incas.

 

 

1534

 

 

Cartier journeys up the St. Lawrence River.

 

 

1539 – 1542

 

 

de Soto explores the Southeast and discoveres the Mississippi River.

 

 

1540 – 1542

 

 

Coronado explores present-day Southwest

 

 

1542

 

 

Cabrillo explores California coast for Spain.

 

 

1565

 

 

Spanish build fortress at St. Augustine.

 

 

Late 1500s

 

 

Iroquois Confederacy founded (according to Iroquois legend)

 

 

c. 1598 – 1609

 

 

Spanish under Oñate conquer Pueblo peoples of Rio Grande Valley.

 

 

1609

 

 

Spanish found New Mexico.

 

 

1680

 

 

Popé’s rebellion of New Mexico.

 

 

1680s

 

 

French expedition down Mississippi River under La Salle

 

 

1769

 

 

Father Junipero Serra founds Mission San Diego, in California.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Makers of America:

 

- Conquistadores included Hernán Cortes and Francisco Pizarro, who conquered the Aztecs and the Incas respectively.

- Within half a century of Columbus’ “discovery” of America, they had claimed, for Spain, territory that stretched form Colorado to Argentina.

 - They spread from Cuba through Mexico and from Panama, south through Peru.

 - As the Spanish crown tightened its grip on its colonies, though, the conquistadors lost more and more power.

 - Most of them never achieved their dreams of glory, though a few received royal titles.

 - Many of them married Indian women, creating a new class of people called mestizos.

 - The mestizos formed a bridge between Latin America’s Indian and European races.

 

AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 1 - New World Beginnings39 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

I. England’s Imperial Stirring

A. North America

1. North America in 1600 was largely unclaimed, though the Spanish had much control in Central and South America.

2. Spain had only set up Santa Fe, while France had founded Quebec and Britain had founded Jamestown.

3. In the 1500s, Britain didn’t really colonize because of internal conflicts.

a. King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s and launched the English Protestant Reformation.

b. After Elizabeth I became queen, Britain became basically Protestant, and a rivalry with Catholic Spain intensified.

c. In Ireland, the Catholics sought Spain’s help in revolting against England, but the English crushed the uprising with brutal atrocity, and developed an attitude of sneering contempt for natives.

II. Elizabeth Energizes England

A. Colonization

1. After Britain basically defeated Spain (i.e. Spanish Armada defeat), British swarmed to America and took over lead in colonization and power.

a. Sparked new literature, like Shakespeare

2. After Drake circumnavigated the globe, Liz I knighted him on his ship.

3. However, English tries at colonization in the New World failed often and embarrassingly.

4. Britain and Spain finally signed a peace treaty in 1604.

III. England on the Eve of the Empire

A. Reasons for Emigration

1. In the 1500s, Britain’s population was mushrooming

2. Farmers were enclosing land for farming.

3. Puritanism took a strong root in the woolen districts of western and eastern England.

4. Younger sons of rich folk (who couldn’t inherit money) tried their luck with fortunes elsewhere, like America.

5. By the 1600s, the joint-stock company was perfected, being a forerunner to today’s corporations.

IV. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling

A. Jamestown

1. In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from King James I to make a settlement in the New World

a. Such
joint-stock companies usually did not exist long, as stockholders hoped
to form the company, make a profit, and then quickly sell for profit a
few years later.

2. The charter of the Virginia Company guaranteed settlers the same rights as Englishmen in Britain.

3. On May 24, 1607, about a 100 English settlers disembarked from their ship and founded Jamestown

a. Forty colonists perished during the voyage.

b. In mosquito-ridden Virginia, disease was rampant. It didn’t help that a supply ship shipwrecked in the Bahamas in 1609 either.

4. Luckily, in 1608, a Captain John Smith took over control and whipped the colonists into discipline.

a. He
had been kidnapped by local Indians and forced into a mock execution by
the chief Powhatan and had been “saved” by Pocahantas.

b. The act was meant to show that Powhatan wanted peaceful relations with the colonists.

5. Still, the colonists were reduced to eating cats, dogs, rats, even other people.

6. Finally, in 1610, a relief party headed by Lord De La Warr arrived to alleviate the suffering.

7. By 1625, out of an original overall total of 8000 would-be settlers, only 1200 had survived.

V. Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

A. The Indian’s Begin to Lose Power

1. At
first, Powhatan possibly considered the new colonists potential allies
and tried to be friendly with them, but as time passed and colonists
raided Indian food supplies, relations deteriorated and eventually, war
occurred.

2. The First Anglo-Powhatan War ended in 1614 with a peace settlement sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas to colonist John Rolfe.

3. Eight years later, in 1622, the Indians struck again with a series of attacks that left 347 settlers, including John Rolfe, dead.

4. The
Second Anglo-Powhatan War began in 1644, ended in 1646, and effectively
banished the Chesapeake Indians from their ancestral lands.

5. After the settlers began to grow their own food, the Indians were useless, and were therefore banished.

VI. Virginia: Child of Tobacco

A. Tobacco Info

1. Tobacco created a greed for land, since it heavily depleted soil and ruined the land.

2. King James I detested tobacco.

3. Representative self-government was born in Virginia, when in 1619, settlers created the House of Burgesses.

4. Slavery in the Americas was also born in 1619.

VII. Maryland: Catholic Heaven

A. Religious Diversity

1. Founded in 1634 by Lord Baltimore, Maryland was the second plantation colony and the fourth overall colony to be formed

2. It was a place for persecuted Catholics to find refuge.

3. Lord
Baltimore gave huge estates to his Catholic relatives, but the poorer
people who settled there where mostly Protestant, creating friction.

4. However, Maryland prospered with tobacco.

5. It had a lot of indentured servants.

6. Only in the later years of the 1600s (in Maryland and Virginia) did Black slavery began to become popular.

7. Maryland’s
religious statute guaranteed toleration to all Christians, but decreed
the death penalty to Jews and atheists and others who didn’t believe in
the divinity of Jesus Christ.

VIII. The West Indies: Way Station to Mainland America

A. Their Use

1. As the British were colonizing Virginia, they were also settling in the West Indies (Spain’s declining power opened the door).

2. By mid-1600s, England had secured claim to several West Indies islands, including Jamaica in 1655.

3. They grew lots of sugar there.

4. Thousands of African slaves were needed to operate sugar plantations, and these weren’t for the poor either.

5. To control so many slaves “codes” were set up that defined the legal status of slaves and the rights of the masters. They were typically strict.

IX. Colonizing the Carolinas

A. Restoration Period

1. In England, King Charles I had been beheaded. Oliver Cromwell had ruled for ten years before tired Englishmen restored Charles II to the throne.

2. The bloody period had interrupted colonization.

3. Carolina was named after Charles II, and was formally created in 1670.

4. Carolina flourished by developing close economic ties with the West Indies.

5. Many original Carolina settlers had come from Barbados.

6. Interestingly, Indians as slaves in Carolina was protested, but to no avail. Slaves were sent to the West Indies to work, as well as New England.

7. Rice emerged as the principle crop in Carolina.

a. African slaves were hired to work on rice fields, due to their immunity to malaria and their familiarity with rice.

8. Despite violence with Spanish and Indians, Carolina proved to be too strong to be wiped out.

X. The Emergence of North Carolina

A. Conflict

1. Many newcomers to Carolina were “squatters,” people who owned no land.

2. North Carolinians developed a strong resistant to authority, due to geographic isolation from neighbors.

3. In 1712, North and South Carolina were officially separated.

4. In
1711, when Tuscarora Indians attacked North Carolinas, the Carolinians
responded by crushing the opposition, selling hundreds to slavery and
leaving the rest to wander north, eventually becoming the Sixth Nation
of the Iroquois

XI. Late-Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony

A. Georgia’s Purpose

1. Georgia
was intended to be a buffer between the British colonies and the
hostile Spanish settlements in Florida and the enemy French in
Louisiana.

2. Founded in 1733 by a high-minded group of philanthropists, it was the last colony founded.

3. Named after King George II of England, Georgia was also meant to be a haven for wretched souls in debt.

4. James Oglethorpe, the ablest of the founders and a dynamic soldier-statesman, repelled Spanish attacks.

a. He saved “the Charity Colony” by his energetic leadership and by using his own fortune to help with the colony.

5. All Christians except Catholics enjoyed religious toleration, and many missionaries came to try to convert the Indians.

a. John Wesley was one of them, and he later returned to England and founded Methodism.

6. Georgia grew very slowly.

XII. The Plantion Colonies

A. Comparisons and Contrasts

1. Slavery was found in all the plantation colonies.

2. Growth of cities was often stunted by forests.

3. Establishment of schools and churches was difficult.

4. In the South, the crops were tobacco and rice.

5. All the plantation colonies permitted some religious toleration.

6. Confrontations with Native Americans was often.

XIII. Makers of America: The Iroquois

- In what is now New York State, the Iroquois once were a great power.

- They were made up of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Deganawidah, and the Hiawatha.

- They vied with neighboring Indians and later French, English, and Dutch for supremacy.

- The longhouse was the building block of Iroquois society.

- Only
25 feet wide but over 200 feet long, longhouses were typically occupied
by a few blood-related families (on the mother’s side).

- The Mohawks were middlemen with European traders.

- The Senecas were fur suppliers.

- The Five Nations of the Iroquois’ rivals, the neighboring Hurons, Eries, and Petuns, were vanquished.

- Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, the Iroquois allied with the British and French (whichever more beneficial).

- When the American Revolution broke out, the decision to side with who was split.Most sided with the British, but not all.

- Afterwards, the Iroquois were forced to reservations, which proved to be unbearable to these proud people.

- An Iroquois named Handsome Lake arose to warn his tribespeople to mend their ways.

- His teachings live today in the form of the longhouse religion.

-  He died in 1815.

AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 2 - The Planting of English America30.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

  1. The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism
    1. Beginnings
      1. In 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg cathedral.
        1. He ignited the Protestant Reformation.
      2. John Calvin preached Calvinism
        1. Basic doctrines were stated in the 1536 document entitled Institutes of the Christian Religion.
        2. Stated that all humans were weak and wicked.
        3. Only the predestined could go to heaven, no matter what.
        4. Calvinists were expected to seek “conversions,” signs that they were one of the predestined, and afterwards, lead “sanctified lives.”
      3. In England, King Henry VIII was breaking his ties with the Holy Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s.
      4. Some people, called Puritans, were influenced to totally reform the Christian faith.
    2. Puritans
      1. All believed that only “visible saints” should be admitted to church membership.
      2. Separatists vowed to break away from the Church of England because the “saints” would have to sit with the “damned.”
      3. King James I, father of the beheaded Charles I, harassed the Separatists out of England because he thought that if people could defy him as their spiritual leader, they might defy him as their political ruler.
  2. The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth
    1. The Voyage
      1. The Separatists that left were from Holland, where they had fled to after they had left England.
        1. They were concerned that their children were getting to “Dutchified.”
        2. They wanted a place where they were free to worship their own religion and could live and die as good Puritans.
      2. After negotiating with the Virginia Company, the Separatists left Holland and sailed for 65 days at sea on the Mayflower until they arrived off the rocky coast of New England in 1620, a trip in which only one person died and one person was born.
        1. Less than half of the pilgrims on the Mayflower were actually Separatists.
        2. Contrary to myth, the Pilgrims undertook a few surveys before deciding to settle at Plymouth, an area far from Virginia.
        3. The Pilgrims became squatters, people without legal right to land and without specific authority to establish government.
      3. Captain Myles Standish (a.k.a. Captain Shrimp) proved to be a great Indian fighter and negotiator.
      4. Before disembarking from ship, the Pilgrims signed the Mayflower Compact, a set of rules by which to obey.
        1. Though it wasn’t a constitution, it did set the standard for later constitutions.
      5. In the winter of 1620-21, only 44 of the 102 survived.
      6. 1621 brought bountiful harvests, though, and the first Thanksgiving was celebrated that year.
      7. William Bradford, chosen governor of Plymouth 30 times in the annual elections, was a great leader, and helped Plymouth to survive and trade fur, fish, and lumber.
      8. In 1691, Plymouth finally merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
  3. The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth
    1. Settling In
      1. In 1629, some non-Separatist Puritans got a royal charter from England to settle in the New World. Secretly, they took the charter with them and later used it as a type of constitution.
      2. It was a well-equipped group of which about 11,000 people came to Massachusetts.
      3. John Winthrop was elected governor or deputy governor for 19 years, helping Massachusetts prosper in fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding.
  4. Building the Bay Colony
    1. Government
      1. Soon after the establishment of the colony, the franchise was extended to all “freemen:” adult males who belonged to the Puritan congregations (later called the Congregational church), making people who could enjoy the franchise about two fifths of the total population.
        1. Unchurched men and women weren’t allowed in.
      2. The provincial government was not a democracy.
        1. Governor Winthrop feared and distrusted the common people, calling democracy the “meanest and worst” of all forms of government.
      3. Religious leaders wielded powerful influence over the admission to church membership.
      4. John Cotton, a prominent clergy member, was educated at Cambridge and had immigrated to Massachusetts to avoid persecution fro his criticism of the Church of England.
      5. However, congregations could hire and fire their ministers at will.
      6. Still, there were laws to limit Earthly pleasures, such as a fine of twenty shillings for couples caught kissing in public.
      7. The Puritan concept of Hell was very serious and scary.
        1. Michael Wigglesworth’s “Day of Doom,” written in 1662, sold one copy for every twenty people.
  5. Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth
    1. Defiance
      1. Tensions arose in Massachusetts.
        1. Quakers were fined, flogged, and/or banished.
        2. Anne Hutchinson was a very intelligent, strong-willed, talkative woman who claimed that a holy life was no sure sign of salvation and that the truly saved need not bother to obey the law of either God or man.
          1. Brought to trial in 1638, Anne boasted that her beliefs were directly from God.
          2. She was banished from the colony and eventually made her way to Rhode Island.
          3. She died in New York after an attack by Indians.
        3. Roger Williams was a radical idealist hounded his fellow clergymen to make a clean and complete break with the Church of England.
          1. He went on to deny that civil government could and should govern religious behavior.
          2. He was banished in 1635, and flew to the Rhode Island area the next year.
  6. The Rhode Island “Sewer”
    1. Land of the Outcasts
      1. People who went to Rhode Island weren’t necessarily similar; they were just unwanted everywhere else.
      2. They were against special privilege.
      3. “Little Rhody” was later known as “the traditional home of the otherwise minded.”
      4. It finally secured a charter in 1644.
  7. New England Spreads Out
    1. More Settling
      1. In 1635, Hartford, Connecticut was founded.
      2. Reverend Thomas Hooker led an energetic group of Puritans west.
      3. In 1639, settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted in open meeting a trailblazing document called the Fundamental Orders.
        1. It was basically a modern constitution.
      4. In 1638, New Haven was founded and eventually merged into Connecticut.
      5. In 1623, Maine was absorbed by Massachusetts and remained so for nearly a century and a half.
      6. In 1641, the granite-ribbed New Hampshire was absorbed into Massachusetts.
        1. In 1679, the king separated the two and made New Hampshire a royal colony.
  8. Puritans vs. Indians
    1. Violence
      1. Before the Puritans had arrived in 1620, an epidemic had swept through the Indians, killing over three quarters of them.
      2. At first, Indians tried to befriend the Whites.
        1. Squanto, a Wampanoag, helped keep relative peace.
      3. In 1637, though, after mounting tensions exploded, English settlers and the powerful Pequot tribe fought in the Pequot War, in which the English set fire to a Pequot village on Connecticut’s Mystic River, annihilating the Indians and bringing about forty years of tentative peace.
        1. In an attempt to save face, the Puritans did try to convert some of the Indians, though with less zeal than that of the Spanish and French.
      4. IN 1675, Metacom (called King Philip by the English) united neighboring Indians in a last-ditched attack that failed.
        1. The King Philip’s War slowed colonial western march, but Metacom was beheaded and quartered and his head was stuck on a sharp pike for all to see, his wife and son sold to slavery.
  9. Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence
    1. A Bit of Unity Shown
      1. In 1643, four colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation.
        1. It was almost all Puritan.
        2. It was weak, but still a notable milestone toward American unity.
          1. The colonies were basically allowed to be semiautonomous commonwealths.
          2. After Charles II was restored to the British throne, he hoped to control his colonies more firmly, but was shocked to find how much his orders were ignored by Massachusetts.
            1. As punishment, a sea-to-sea charter was given to rival Connecticut (1662), and a charter was given to Rhode Island (1663).
            2. Finally, in 1684, Massachusetts’ charter was revoked.
  10. Andros Promotes the First American Revolution
    1. Opposition to England Grows
      1. In 1686, the Dominion of New England was created to bolster the colonial defense against Indians and tying the colonies closer to Britain by enforcing the hated Navigation Acts.
        1. The acts forbade American trade with countries other than Britain.
        2. As a result, smuggling became common.
        3. Head of the Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros.
          1. Establishing HQ in Boston, he openly showed his association with the locally hated Church of England.
          2. His soldiers were vile-mouthed.
      2. Andros responded to opposition by curbing town meetings, restricting the courts and the press, and revoking all land titles.
      3. He taxed the people without their consent.
      4. At the same time, the people of England staged the Glorious Revolution, instating William and Mary to the crown.
        1. Result, the Dominion of New England collapsed.
        2. Massachusetts got a new charter in 1691, but this charter allowed all landowners to vote, as opposed to the previous law of voting belonging only to the church members.
  11. Old Netherlanders at New Netherland
    1. The Little Guys Gain Power
      1. In the 17th Century, the Netherlands revolted against Spain, and with help of Britain, gained their independence.
      2. The Dutch East India Company was established, with an army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships (including 40 men-of-war).
      3. The Dutch West India Company often raided rather than traded.
      4. In 1609, Henry Hudson ventured into Delaware and New York Bay and claimed the area for the Netherlands.
      5. It was the Dutch West India Company that bought Manhattan Island for some worthless trinkets (22,000 acres of the most valuable land in the world today).
      6. New Amsterdam was a company town, run by and for the Dutch company and in the interests of stockholders.
      7. The Dutch gave patroonships (large areas of land) to promoters who agreed to settle at least 50 people on them.
      8. New Amsterdam attracted people of all types and races.
        1. One French Jesuit missionary counted 18 different languages being spoken on the street.
  12. Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors
    1. Trouble for the Dutch
      1. Indian’s attacked the Dutch for their cruelties.
      2. New England was hostile against Dutch growth.
      3. The Swedes trespassed Dutch reserves from 1638 to 1655 by planting the anemic colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River.
      4. Things got so bad that the Dutch erected a wall in New Amsterdam, for which Wall Street is named today.
      5. In 1655, the Dutch sent one legged Peter Stuyvesant to besiege the main Swedish fort, and he won, ending Swedish colonial rule and leaving only Swedish log cabins and place names as evidence that the Swedes were every in Delaware.
  13. Dutch Residues in New York
    1. The Dutch Get Voted Off the Island
      1. In 1664, Charles II granted the area of modern-day New York to his brother, the Duke of York, and that year, British troops landed and defeated the Dutch, kicking them out, without much violence.
      2. New Amsterdam was renamed New York.
    2. The Dutch Legacy
      1. The people of New York retained their autocratic spirit.
      2. Dutch names of cities remained, like Harlem, Brooklyn, and Hell Gate.
      3. Even their architecture left its mark on buildings.
      4. The Dutch also gave us Easter eggs, Santa Claus, waffles, sauerkraut, bowling, sleighing, skating, and golf.
  14. Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania
    1. William Penn and the Quakers
      1. The Quakers (characteristics)
        1. They “quaked” under deep religious emotion.
        2. They were offensive to religious and civil rule.
        3. They addressed everyone with simple “thee”s and “thou”s and didn’t swear oaths because Jesus had said “Swear not at all,” this last part creating a problem, since you had to swear a test oath to prove that you weren’t Roman Catholic.
        4. Though stubborn and unreasonable, they were simple, devoted, democratic people against war and violence.
      2. William Penn, a well-born Englishman, embraced the Quaker faith.
      3. In 1681, he managed to secure an immense grant of fertile land from the land.
        1. It was called Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn, who, being the modest person that he was, had insisted that it be called Sylvania.
        2. It was the best advertised of all the colonies.
  15. Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors
    1. Penn Settles
      1. Thousands of squatters already lived in Pennsylvania.
      2. Philadelphia was more carefully planned than most cities, with beautiful, wide streets.
      3. Penn bought land from the Indians, like Chief Tammany, later patron saint of New York’s political Tammany Hall.
      4. His treatment of the Indians was so gentle that Quakers could walk through Indian territory unarmed without fear of being hurt.
      5. However, as more and more non-Quakers came to Pennsylvania, they mistreated the Indians more and more.
      6. Freedom of worship was available to everyone except for Jews and Catholics (only because of pressure from London), and the death penalty was only for murder and treason.
      7. No restrictions were placed on immigration, and naturalization was made easy.
      8. The Quakers also developed a dislike toward slavery.
      9. Pennsylvania attracted a great variety of people from all races, class, and religion.
      10. By 1700, only Virginia was more populous and richer.
      11. Penn, unfortunately, was not well-liked because of his friendliness towards James II, the deposed Catholic king, and he was jailed at times, and also suffered a paralytic stroke, dying full of sorrows.
      12. New Jersey and Delaware prospered as well.
  16. The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies
    1. New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania
      1. All had fertile soil and broad expanse of land.
      2. All except for Delaware exported lots of grain.
      3. The Susquehanna River tapped the fur trade of the interior, and the rivers were gentle, with little cascading waterfalls.
      4. The middle colonies were the middle way between New England and the southern plantation states.
      5. Landholdings were generally intermediate in size.
      6. The middle colonies were more ethnically mixed than other colonies.
      7. A considerable amount of economic and social democracy prevailed.
      8. Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, entered Philadelphia as a seventeen-year-old in 1720 with a loaf of bread under each arm and immediately found a congenial home in the urbane, open atmosphere of the city.
      9. Americans began to realize that not only were they surviving, but that they were also thriving.
  17. Makers of America: The English
    • In the 1600s, England was undergoing a massive population boom.
    • About 75% of English immigrants were indentured servants.
    • Most of them were young men from the “middling classes.”
    • Some had fled during the cloth trade slump in the early 1600s while others had been forced off their land due to enclosure.
    • Some 40% of indentured servants died before their seven years were over.
    • Late in the 17th Century, as the supply of indentured servants slowly ran out, the southerners resolved to Black Slaves.
    • From 1629 to 1642, 11,000 Puritans swarmed to the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
    • In contrast to the indentured servants, Puritans migrated in family groups, not alone.
    • Puritans brought the way of life from England with them to America.
      • i.e. Marblehead, Mass. had mostly fishermen because most of the immigrants had been fisherman in England.
      • i.e. Rowley, Mass. brought from Yorkshire, England their distinctive way of life.
    • In Ipswich, Massachusetts, settled by East Anglian Puritans, the rulers had long terms and ruled with an iron hand.
    • However, in Newbury, people rarely won reelection.
AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 3: Settling the Northern Colonies39.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century

  1. The Unhealthy Chesapeake
    1. Life in the American wilderness was harsh.
      1. Diseases like malaria, dysentery, and typhoid killed many.

      2. Few people lived to 40 or 50 years.

      3. In the early days of colonies, women were so scarce that men fought over all of them.

      4. Few people knew any grandparents.

      5. A third of all brides in one Maryland county were already pregnant before the wedding (scandalous).

      6. Virginia, with 59,000 people, became the most populous colony.

  2. The Tobacco Economy
    1. The Chesapeake was very good for tobacco cultivation.

    2. Chesapeake Bay exported 1.5 million pounds of tobacco yearly in the 1630s, and by 1700, that number had risen to 40 million pounds a year.
      1. More availability led to falling prices, and farmers still grew more

      2. Early on, most of the laborers were indentured servants.
        1. Life for them was hard, but there was hope at the end of seven years for freedom.

        2. Conditions were brutal, and in the later years, owners unwilling to free their servants extended their contracts by years for small mistakes.

  3. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion
    1. By the late 1600s, there were lots of free, poor, landless, single men frustrated by the lack of money, land, work, and women (that’s nicely put).

    2. In 1676, Nathaniel Bacon led a few thousand of these men in a rebellion against the hostile conditions.
      1. These people wanted land and were resentful of Virginia governor William Berkeley’s friendly policies toward the Indians.

      2. Bacon’s men murderously attacked Indian settlements after Berkeley refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on the frontier.

    3. Then, in the middle of his rebellion, Bacon suddenly died of disease, and Berkeley went on the crush the uprising.
      1. Still, Bacon’s legacy lived on, giving frustrated poor folks ideas to rebel, and so a bit of paranoia went on for some time afterwards.

  4. Colonial Survey
    1. In the 300 years following Columbus’ discovery of America, only about 400,000 of a total of 10 million African slaves were brought over to the United States.

    2. By 1680, though, many landowners were afraid of possibly mutinous white servants, by the mid 1680s, for the first time, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies’ new arrivals.

    3. After 1700, more and more slaves were imported, and in 1750, Blacks accounted for nearly half of the Virginian population.
      1. Most of the slaves were from West Africa, from places like Senegal and Angola.

    4. Some of the earliest Black slaves gained their freedom and some became slaveholders themselves.

    5. Eventually, to clear up issues on slave ownership, it was made so that slaves and their children would remain slaves to their masters for life, unless they were voluntarily freed.
      1. Some laws made teaching slaves to read a crime, and not even conversion to Christianity might qualify a slave for freedom.

  5. Africans in America
    1. Slave life in the deep South was very tough, as rice growing was much harder than tobacco growing.
      1. Many Blacks in America evolved their own languages, blending their native tongues with English.

      2. Blacks also contributed to music with instruments like the banjo and bongo drum.

    2. A few of the slaves became skilled artisans (i.e. carpenters, bricklayers and tanners), but most were relegated to sweaty work like clearing swamps and grubbing out trees.

    3. Revolts did occur.
      1. In 1712, a slave revolt in New York City cost the lives of a dozen Whites and 21 Blacks were executed.

      2. In 1739, South Carolina blacks along the Stono River revolted and tried to march to Spanish Florida, but failed.

  6. Southern Society
    1. A social gap appeared and began to widen.
      1. In Virginia, a clutch of extended clans (i.e. the Fitzhughs, the Lees, and the Washingtons) owned tracts and tracts of real estate and just about dominated the House of Burgesses.
        1. They came to be known as the First Families of Virginia (FFV).

    2. In Virginia, there was often a problem with drunkenness.

    3. The largest social group was the farmers.

    4. Few cities sprouted in the in the South, so schools and churches were slow to develop.

  7. The New England Family
    1. In New England, there was clean water and cool temperatures, so disease was not as predominant as in the South.

    2. The first New England Puritans had an average life expectancy of 70 years.

    3. In contrast to the Chesapeake, the New Englanders tended to migrate as a family, instead of individually.
      1. Women usually married in their early twenties and gave birth every two years until menopause.

      2. A typical woman could expect to have ten babies and raise about eight of them.

      3. Death in labor for women was not rare, so that wasn’t exactly something to look forward to as an event.

    4. In the South, women usually had more power, since the Southern men typically died young and women could inherit the money, but in New England, the opposite was true.
      1. In New England men didn’t have absolute power over their wives (as evidenced by the punishments of unruly husbands) but they did have much power over women.

    5. New England law was very severe and strict.
      1. For example, adulterous women had to wear the letter “A” on their bosoms if they were caught (ala The Scarlet Letter)

  8. Life in the New England Towns
    1. Life in New England was organized.
      1. New towns were legally chartered by colonial authorities.

      2. A town usually had a meetinghouse surrounded by houses and a village green.

      3. Towns of more than 50 families had to provide primary education.

      4. Towns of more than 100 had to provide secondary education.

    2. In 1636, Massachusetts Puritans established Harvard College to train boys to become ministers.
      1. (Note: in 1693, Virginia established their first college, William and Mary.)

    3. Puritans ran their own churches, and democracy in Congregational church government led logically to democracy in political government.

  9. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials]
    1. As Puritans began to worry about their children and whether or not they would be as loyal and faithful, and new type of sermon came about called “jeremiads.”
      1. Earnest preachers scolded parishioners for their waning piety in hope to improve faith.

    2. Troubled ministers announced a new formula for church membership in 1662, calling it the “Half-Way Covenant.”
      1. Jeremiads continued to thunder from the pulpits.

      2. All people could come, whether or not they were converted (with the exception of a few extremely hated groups).

    3. In the 1690s, a group of Salem girls claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women.

    4. What followed was a hysterical witch-hunt that led to the executions of 20 people (19 of which were hung) and two dogs.
      1. Back in Europe, larger scale witch-hunts were already occurring.

    5. Witchcraft hysteria eventually ended in 1693.

  10. The New England Way of Life
    1. Due to the hard New England soil (or lack thereof), New Englanders became great traders.

    2. New England was also less ethnically mixed than its neighbors.

    3. The climate of New England encouraged diversified agriculture and industry.
      1. Black slavery was attempted but didn’t work.

    4. Rivers were short and rapid.

    5. The Europeans in New England chastised the Indians for “wasting” the land, and felt a need to clear as much land for use as possible.

    6. Fishing became a very popular industry.

  11. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways
    1. Early farmers usually rose at dawn and went to bed at dusk.

    2. Few events were done during the night unless they were “worth the candle.”

    3. Life was humble but comfortable, at least in accordance to the surroundings.

    4. The people who emigrated from Europe to America were most usually lower middle class citizens looking to have a better future in the New World.

    5. Because of the general sameness of class in America, laws against extravagances were sometimes passed, but as time passed, America grew.

  12. Makers of America: From African to African-American
    1. Africans’ arrival into the New World brought new languages, music, and cuisines to America.

    2. Africans working on the rice fields of North Carolina produced lots of rice.

    3. The first slaves were men; some eventually gained freedom.

    4. By 1740, large groups of African slaves lived together on plantations, where female slaves were expected to perform backbreaking labor and spin, weave, and sew.

    5. Most slaves became Christians, though many adopted elements from their native religions.

    6. Many African dances led to modern dances (i.e. the Charleston).

    7. Christian songs could also be code for the announcement of the arrival of a guide to freedom.

    8. Jazz is the most famous example of slave music entering mainstream culture.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of the Revolution 1700 – 1775

  1. I. Conquest by the Cradle
    1. 1. By 1775, Great Britain ruled 32 colonies in North America.
      1. a. Only 13 of them revolted.
      2. b. Canada and Jamaica were wealthier than the 13.
    2. 2. All of them were growing by leaps and bounds.
    3. 3. By 1775, the population numbered 2.5 million people.
    4. 4. The average age was 16 years.
    5. 5. Most of the population was densely cooped up east of the Alleghenies, though by 1775, some had slowly trickled into Tennessee and Kentucky.
    6. 6. About 90% of the people lived in rural areas.
  2. II. A Mingling of the Races
    1. 1. Colonial America, though mostly English, had other races as well.
      1. a. Germans accounted for about 6% of the population, or about 150,000 people by 1775.
        1. (1) Most were Protestant (primarily Lutheran) and were called the Pennsylvania Dutch.
    2. 2. The Scots-Irish were about 7% of the population, with 175,000 people.
      1. a. Over many decades, they had been transplanted to Northern Ireland, but they had not found a home there (the already existing Irish Catholics resented the intruders).
      2. b. Many of them reached America and became squatters, quarreling with both Indians and white landowners.
      3. c. They seemed to try to move as far from Britain as possible, trickling down to Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas.
      4. d. In 1764, the Scots-Irish led the armed march of the Paxton Boys.
      5. e. They were very hotheaded.
      6. f. Many eventually became American revolutionists.
    3. 3. About 5% of the multicolored population consisted of other European group, like French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scots Highlanders.
    4. 4. Americans were of all races and mixed bloods, so it was no wonder that other races from other countries had a hard time classifying them.
  3. III. The Structure of the Colonial Society
    1. 1. In contrast to contemporary Europe, America was a land of opportunity.
    2. 2. Anyone who was willing to work hard could easily go from rags to riches, and poverty was scorned upon.
    3. 3. Class differences did emerge, as a small group of aristocrats (made up of the rich farmers, lawyers, officials, clergymen) had much of the power.
    4. 4. Also, armed conflicts in the 1690s and 1700s enriched a number of merchant princes in the New England and middle colonies.
    5. 5. War also created many widows and orphans who eventually became to charity.
    6. 6. In the South, the hugely rich plantation owners had lots of slaves.
    7. 7. Far less fortunate than the indentured servants of America were the paupers and the criminals sent to the New World.
      1. a. Some of them were actually unfortunate victims of Britain’s unfair laws and did become respectable citizens.
    8. 8. The least fortunate were the Black slaves, who had little or no hope of freedom again.
      1. a. Slavery became a divisive issue because some colonies didn’t want slaves while others needed them, and therefore vetoed any bill banning the importation of slaves.
  4. IV. Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists
    1. 1. The most honored profession in the colonial times was the clergy, which in 1775, had less power than before but still wielded a great amount of it.
    2. 2. Physicians were not highly esteemed and many of them were bad.
      1. a. Bleeding was often a favorite, and deadly, solution to illnesses.
    3. 3. Plagues were a nightmare.
      1. a. Smallpox (afflicting 1 of 5 persons, including George Washington) was rampant, though a crude form of inoculation for it was introduced in 1721.
      2. b. Some of the clergy and doctors didn’t like it though, preferring not to tamper with the will of God.
    4. 4. At first lawyers weren’t liked, being regarded as noisy scumbags.
      1. a. Criminals often represented themselves in court.
      2. b. By 1750, lawyers were recognized as useful, and many defended high-profile cases, were great orators and played important roles in the history of America.
  5. V. Workaday America
    1. 1. Agriculture was the major leading industry (by a huge margin), since farmers could seem to grow anything.
      1. a. In Maryland and Virginia, tobacco was the staple crop, and by 1759 New York was exporting 80,000 barrels of flour a year.
    2. 2. Fishing could be rewarding, though not as much as farming, and it was pursued in all the American colonies especially in New England.
    3. 3. Trading was also a popular and prevalent industry, as commerce occurred all around the colonies.
      1. a. The “triangular trade” was common: A ship, for example, would leave New England with rum and go to the Gold Coast of Africa and trade it for African slaves. Then, it would go to the West Indies and exchange the slaves for molasses, which it’d sell to New England once it returned there.
    4. 4. Manufacturing was not as important, though many small enterprises existed.
    5. 5. Strong-backed laborers and skilled craftspeople were scarce and highly prized.
    6. 6. Perhaps the single most important manufacturing activity was lumbering.
    7. a. Britain sometimes marked the tallest trees for its navy, and colonists resented that, even though there were countless other good trees in the area and the marked tree was going toward a common defense (it was the principle).
    8. 7. In 1733, Parliament passed the Molasses Act, which, if successful, would have struck a crippling blow to American international trade by hindering its trade with the French West Indies.
      1. a. The result was disagreement, and colonists got around it through smuggling.
  6. VI. Horsepower and Sailpower
    1. 1. Roads in 1700s America were very bad, and not until the 18th century did they even connect large cites.
      1. a. It took a young Benjamin Franklin 9 days to get from Boston to Philadelphia.
    2. 2. Roads were so bad that they were dangerous.
      1. a. People who would venture these roads would often sign wills and pray with family members before embarking.
    3. 3. As a result, towns seemed to cluster around slow, navigable water sources, like gentle rivers, or by the ocean.
    4. 4. Taverns and bars sprang up to serve tired travelers and were great places of gossip.
    5. 5. An inter-colonial mail system was set up in the mid-1700s, but mailmen often passed time by reading private letters, since there was nothing else to do.
  7. VII. Dominant Denominations
    1. 1. Two “established” (tax-supported) churches by 1775 were the Anglican and the Congregational.
    2. 2. A great majority of people didn’t worship in churches.
    3. 3. The Church of England (Anglican) was official in Georgia, both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and a part of New York.
      1. a. Anglican sermons were shorter, its descriptions of hell were less frightening, and amusements were less scorned.
      2. b. William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train young clergy members.
    4. 4. The Congregational church had grown from the Puritan church, and it was established in all the New England colonies except for Rhode Island.
      1. a. There was worry that people weren’t devout enough.
    5. 5. For Anglicans, not having a resident bishop proved to be a problem for unordained young ministers.
  8. VIII. The Great Awakening.
    1. 1. Due to less religious fervor than before and worry that so many people would not be saved, the stage was set for a revival, which occurred, and became the Great Awakening.
    2. 2. Jonathan Edwards was a preacher with fiery preaching methods, emotional moving many listeners to tears while talking of the eternal damnation that nonbelievers would face after death.
      1. a. He began preaching in 1734, and his methods sparked debate among his peers.
    3. 3. George Whitefield was even better than Edwards when he started four years later.
      1. a. An orator of rare gifts, he even made Jonathan Edwards weep and persuaded Ben Franklin to empty his pockets into the collection plate.
      2. b. Imitators copied his emotional shaking sermons and his heaping of blame on sinners.
    4. 4. These new preachers were met with skepticism by the “old lights,” or the orthodox clergymen.
    5. 5. However, the Great Awakening led to the founding of “new light” centers like Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth.
    6. 6. The Great Awakening was the first religious experience shared by all Americans as a history.
  9. IX. Schools and Colleges
    1. 1. Education was most important in New England, where it was used to train young future clergymen.
    2. 2. In other parts of America, farm labor used up most of the time that would have been spent in school.
    3. 3. However, there were fairly adequate primary and secondary schools in areas other than New England.
    4. 4. In a gloom and grim atmosphere, colonial schools put most of the emphasis on religion and on the classical languages, as well as doctrine and orthodoxy.
    5. 5. Discipline was quite severe, with such punishments as a child being cut by a piece from a birch tree.
    6. 6. Also, at least in New England, college education was regarded more important than the ABC’s.
    7. 7. Eventually, some change was made in emphasis of curriculum from dead languages to live ones, and Ben Franklin helped by launching the school that would become the University of Pennsylvania.
  10. X. Culture in the Backwoods
    1. 1. Though there was little time for recreation (farm work, fear of Indians, etc…), the little free time that was there was used on religion, not art.
    2. 2. Painters were frowned upon.
      1. a. John Trumbull of Connecticut was discouraged, as a youth, by his father.
      2. b. Charles Willson Peale, best know for his portraits of George Washington, also ran a museum, stuffed birds, and practiced dentistry in addition to his art.
      3. c. Benjamin West and John Singleton Copley had to go to England to complete their ambitious careers.
    3. 3. Architecture was largely imported from the Old World and modified to meet American needs.
      1. a. The log cabin was borrowed form Sweden.
      2. b. The red-bricked Georgian style was introduced in about 1720.
    4. 4. Colonial literature was also generally undistinguished.
      1. a. However, a slave girl, Phillis Wheatley, who had never been formally educated, did go to Britain and publish a book of verse and subsequently wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope.
      2. b. Ben Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac was very influential, containing many common sayings and phrases, and was more widely read in America and Europe than anything except for the Bible.
    5. 5. Ben Franklin’s experiments with science, and his sheer power of observation, also helped advance science.
  11. XI. Pioneer Presses
    1. 1. Few libraries were found in early America, and few Americans were rich enough to buy books.
    2. 2. On the eve of the revolution, many hand-operated presses cranked out leaflets, pamphlets, and journals signed with pseudonyms.
    3. 3. In one famous case, John Peter Zenger, a New York newspaper printer, was taken to court and charged with seditious libel.
      1. a. The judge urged the jury to consider that the mere fact of publishing was a crime, no matter whether the content was derogatory or not.
      2. b. Zenger won after his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, excellently defended his case.
      3. c. Afterwards, freedom of the press was pretty much assured in America.
  12. XII. The Great Game of Politics
    1. 1. By 1775, eight of the colonies had royal governors who were appointed by the king.
    2. 2. Three had governors chosen by proprietors.
    3. 3. Practically every colony utilized a two-house legislative body.
      1. a. The upper house was appointed by royal officials or proprietors.
      2. b. The lower house was elected by the people.
    4. 4. Self-taxation with representation came to be a cherished privilege that Americans came to cherish above most other rights.
    5. 5. Most governors did a good job, but some were just plain corrupt.
      1. a. Lord Cornbury, first cousin of Queen Anne, was made governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702 but proved to be a drunkard, a spendthrift, a gafter, and embezzler, a religious bigot, and a vain fool.
    6. 6. The right to vote was no available to anyone, just white landowners.
      1. a. However, the ease of acquiring land to hard workers made voting a privilege easily attainable to many people.
  13. XIII. Colonial Folkways
    1. 1. Americans had many hardships, as many basic amenities that we have today were not available.
      1. a. Churches weren’t heated at all.
      2. b. Running water in houses was nonexistent.
      3. c. No plumbing was available either.
      4. d. Garbage disposal was primitive at best.
    2. 2. Yet, amusement was permitted, and people often worked on house-raisings, apple parings quilting bees, husking bees, and other merrymaking.
    3. 3. In the South, card playing, horse racing, cockfighting, and fox hunting were fun.
    4. 4. Lotteries were universally approved, even by the clergy because they helped raise money for churches and colleges.
    5. 5. Stage plays were popular in the South, but not really in the North.
    6. 6. Holidays were celebrated everywhere in the colonies (New England didn’t like Christmas, though).
    7. 7. America in 1775 was like a quilt, each part different and individual in its own way, but all coming together to form one single, unified piece.
  14. XIV. Makers of America: The Scots-Irish
    1. 1. Life for the Scots was miserable in England, as many were too poor, and Britain still taxed them, squeezing the last cent out of them.
    2. 2. Migrating to Ulster, the Scots still felt unwelcome, and eventually came to America.
    3. 3. They constantly tried to further themselves away from Britain.
      1. a. Most went to Pennsylvania, where tolerance was high.
    4. 4. The Scots-Irish were many of America’s pioneers, clearing the trails for others to follow.
    5. 5. Otherwise independent, religion was the only thing that bonded these people.
    6. 6. Their hatred of England made them great allies and supporters of the United States during the Revolutionary War.
  15. XV. Varying Viewpoints- Colonial America: Communities of Conflict of Consensus?
    1. 1. Read about it yourself, please.
AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 5: Colonial Society on the Eve of the Revolution 1700 – 177535.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

  1. France Finds a Foothold in Canada
    1. Like England and Holland, France was a latecomer in the colony race.
      1. It was convulsed in the 1500s by foreign wars and domestic strife.

      2. In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued, allowing limited toleration to the French Huguenots.

    2. When King Louis XIV became king, he took an interest in overseas colonies.

    3. In 1608, France established Quebec, overlooking the St. Lawrence River.

    4. Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer, became known as the “Father of New France.”
      1. He entered into friendly relations with the neighboring Huron Indians and helped them defeated the Iroquois.

      2. The Iroquois, however, did hamper French efforts into the Ohio Valley later.

    5. Unlike English colonists, French colonists didn’t immigrate to North America by hordes.
      1. The peasants were too poor, and the Huguenots weren’t allowed to leave.

  2. New France Fans Out
    1. New France’s (Canada) one valuable resource was the beaver.
      1. Beaver hunters were known as the coureurs de bois and littered the land with place names, including Baton Rouge (red stick), Terre Haute (high land), Des Moines (some monks) and Grand Teton (big breasts). (by the way, they drank a lot)

      2. The French voyageurs also recruited Indians to hunt for beaver as well, but Indians were decimated by White Man’s diseases, and the beaver population was heavily extinguished.

    2. French Catholic missionaries zealously tried to convert Indians.

    3. To thwart English settlers from pushing into the Ohio Valley, Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit (“city of straits”) in 1701.

    4. Louisiana was founded, in 1682, by Robert de La Salle, to thwart Spanish expansion into the area near the Gulf of Mexico.
      1. Three years later, he tried to fulfill his dreams by returning, but instead landed in Spanish Texas and was murdered by his mutinous men in 1687.

    5. The fertile Illinois country, where the French established forts and trading posts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, became the garden of France’s North American empire.

  3. The Clash of Empires
    1. King William’s War and Queen Anne’s War (two different fights)
      1. The English colonists fought the French coureurs de bois and their Indian allies.
        1. Neither side considered America important enough to waste real troops on.

      2. The French-inspired Indians ravaged Schenectady, New York, and Deerfield.

      3. The British did try to capture Quebec and Montreal, failed, but did temporarily have Port Royal.

      4. The peace deal in Utrecht in 1713 gave Acadia (renamed Nova Scotia), Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to England, pinching the French settlements by the St. Lawrence. It also gave Britain limited trading rights with Spanish America.

    2. The War of Jenkin’s Ear
      1. An English Captain named Jenkin’s had his ear cut off by a Spanish commander, who had sneered at him to go home crying (essentially).

      2. This war was confined to the Caribbean Sea and Georgia.

      3. This war soon merged with the War of Austrian Succession and came to be called King George’s War in America.

      4. France allied itself with Spain, but England’s troops captured the reputed impregnable fortress of Cap Breton Island.

      5. However, peace terms of this war gave Louisbourg, which the New Englanders had captured, back to France, outraging the colonists, which feared it.

  4. George Washington Inaugurates War with France
    1. The Ohio Valley became a battleground among the Spanish, British, and French.
      1. It was lush and very good land.

    2. In 1754, the governor of Virginia sent 21 year-old George Washington to the Ohio country as a lieutenant colonel in command of about 150 Virginia minutemen.
      1. Encountering some Frenchmen in the forest about 40 miles from Fort Duquesne, the troops opened fire, killing the French leader.

      2. Later, the French returned and surrounded Washington’s hastily constructed Fort Necessity, and after a 10-hour siege, made him surrender.

      3. He was permitted to march his men away with the full honors of war.

  5. Global War and Colonial Disunity
    1. The fourth of these wars between empires started in America, unlike the first three.

    2. The French and Indian War (aka Seven Years’ War) began with Washington’s battle with the French.

    3. It was England and Prussia vs. France, Spain, Austria, and Russia.

    4. In Germany, Fredrick the Great won his title of “Great” by repelling French, Austrian, and Russian armies, even though he was badly outnumbered (skill…).

    5. In previous wars, the Americans were not unified, but now they were.

    6. In 1754, an intercolonial congress was held in Albany, New York.
      1. A month before the congress, Ben Franklin had published his famous “Join or Die” cartoon featuring a snake in pieces, symbolizing the colonies.

    7. Franklin helped unite the colonists in Albany, but the Albany plan failed because it compromised too much.

  6. Braddock’s Blundering and Its Aftermath
    1. In the beginning, the British sent haughty 60 year-old general Braddock to lead a bunch of inexperienced soldiers with slow, heavy artillery.

    2. In a battle with the French, the British were routed.
      1. In this battle, Washington reportedly had two horses shot from under him and four bullets go through his coat, but never him.

    3. Afterwards, the frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina felt the Indian wrath, as scalping was everywhere.

    4. As the British tried to attack a bunch of strategic wilderness posts, defeated after defeat piled up.

  7. Pitt’s Palms of Victory
    1. In this hour of British trouble, William Pitt, the “Great Commoner,” took the lead.

    2. In 1757, he became a foremost leader in the London government.

    3. Later earning the title of “Organizer of Victory,” he soft-pedaled assaults on the French West Indies, assaults which sapped British strength, and concentrated on Quebec-Montreal.

    4. In 1758, Louisbourg fell after a blistering siege.

    5. 32 year-old James Wolfe, dashing and attentive to detail, commanded an army that boldly scaled the cliff walls of a part protecting Quebec, met French troops near the Plains of Abraham, and in a battle in which he and French commander Marquis de Montcalm both died, the French were defeated and the city of Quebec surrendered.
      1. The 1759 Battle of Quebec ranks as one of the most significant engagements in British and American history, and when Montreal fell in 1760, that was the last time French flags would fly on American soil.

    6. In the peace treaty at Paris in 1763, Britain got all of Canada, but the French were allowed to retain several small but valuable sugar islands in the West Indies and two never-to-be-fortified islets in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for fishing stations.

    7. France’s final blow came when they gave Louisiana to Spain to compensate for Spain’s losses in the war.
      1. Great Britain took its place as the leading naval power in the world, and a great power in North America.

  8. Restless Colonials
    1. The colonists, having experienced war firsthand and come out victors, were very confident.
      1. However, the myth of British invincibility had been shattered.

    2. Ominously, friction developed between the British officers and the colonial “boors.”

    3. The British refused to recognize any American officers above the rank of captain.

    4. However, the hardworking Americans believed that they were equals with the Redcoats, and trouble began to brew.

    5. Brits were concerned about American secret trade with enemy traders during the war; in fact, in the last year of the war, the British forbade the export of all supplies from New England to the middle colonies.

    6. Also, many American colonels refused to help fight the French until Pitt offered to reimburse them.

    7. During the French and Indian War, though, Americans from different parts of the colonies found, surprisingly to them, that they had a lot in common (language, ideals), and barriers of disunity began to melt.

  9. Americans: A People of Destiny
    1. Now that the French had been beaten, the colonists could now roam freely, and were less dependent upon Great Britain.

    2. The French consoled themselves with the thought that if they could lose such a great empire, maybe the British would one day lose theirs too.

    3. Spain was eliminated from Florida, and the Indians could no longer play the European powers against each other, since it was only Great Britain in control now.

    4. In 1763, Ottawa chief Pontiac led a few French-allied tribes in a brief but bloody campaign through the Ohio Valley, but the Whites quickly and cruelly retaliated after being caught off guard.
      1. One commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed among the Indians.

      2. Such violence convinced Whites to station troops along the frontier.

      3. Now, land-hungry Americans could now settle west of the Appalachians, but in 1763, Parliament issued its Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting any settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians.
        1. Actually, this document was meant to work out the Indian problem, but colonists saw it as another form of oppression from a far away country.

        2. In 1765, an estimated on thousand wagons rolled through the town of Salisbury, North Carolina, on their way “up west” in defiance of the Proclamation.

    5. The British, proud and haughty, were in no way to accept this blatant disobedience by the lowly Americans, and the stage was set for the Revolutionary War.

  10. Makers of America: The French
    1. Louis XIV envisioned a French empire in North America, but defeats in 1713 and 1763 snuffed that out.

    2. The first French to leave Canada were the Acadians.
      1. The British who had won that area had demanded that all residents either swear allegiance to Britain or leave.

      2. In 1755, they were forcefully expelled from the region.

    3. The Acadians fled far south to the French colony of Louisiana, where they settled among sleepy bayous, planted sugar cane and sweet potatoes, and practiced Roman Catholicism.
      1. They also spoke a French dialect that came to be called Cajun.

      2. Cajuns married Spanish, French, and Germans.

      3. They were largely isolated in large families until the 1930s, when a bridge-building spree engineered by Governor Huey Long, broke the isolation of these bayou communities.

    4. In 1763, a second group of French settlers in Quebec began to leave, heading toward New England because bad harvests led to lack of food in Quebec.
      1. Most hoped to return to Canada someday.

      2. These people also preserved their Roman Catholicism and their language.

      3. Yet today, almost all Cajuns and New England French-Canadians speak English.

    5. Today, Quebec is the only sign of French existence that once ruled.
      1. French culture is strong there in the form of road signs, classrooms, courts, and markets, eloquently testifying to the continued vitality of French culture in North America.

Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

  1. The Deep Roots of Revolution
    1. In a broad sense, the American Revolution began when the first colonists set foot on America.

    2. The war may have lasted for eight years, but a sense of independence had already begun to develop because London was over 3000 miles away.
      1. Sailing across the Atlantic in a ship often took 6 to 8 weeks.

      2. Survivors felt physically and spiritually separated from Europe.

      3. Colonists in America, without influence from superiors, felt that they were fundamentally different from England, and more independent.

      4. Many began to think of themselves as Americans.

  2. The Mercantile Theory
    1. Of the 13 original colonies, only Georgia was formally planted by the British government.
      1. The rest were started by companies, religious groups, land speculators, etc…

    2. The British embrace a theory that justified their control of the colonies: mercantilism:
      1. A country’s economic wealth could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury.

      2. To amass gold and silver, a country had to export more than it imported.

      3. Countries with colonies were at an advantage, because the colonies could supply the mother country with materials, wealth, supplies, etc…

      4. For America, that meant giving Britain all the ships, ships’ stores, sailors, and trade that they needed and wanted.

      5. Also, they had to grow tobacco and sugar for England that Brits would otherwise have to buy from other countries.

  3. Mercantilist Trammels on Trade
    1. The Navigation Laws were the most famous of the laws to enforce mercantilism.
      1. The first of these was enacted in 1650, and was aimed at rival Dutch shippers who were elbowing their way into the American carrying trade.

      2. The Navigation Laws restricted commerce from the colonies to England (and back) to only English ships, and none other.

      3. Other laws stated that European goods consigned to America had to land first in England, where custom duties could be collected.

      4. Also, some products could only be shipped to England and not other nations.

    2. Settlers were even restricted in what they could manufacture at home; they couldn’t make woolen cloth and beaver hats to export (they could make them for themselves).

    3. Americans had no currency, but they were constantly buying things from Britain, so that gold and silver was constantly draining out of America, forcing some to even trade and barter.
      1. Eventually, the colonists were forced to print paper money, which depreciated.

    4. Colonial laws could be voided by the Privy Council, though this privilege was used sparingly (469 times out of 8563 laws).
      1. Still, colonists were inflamed by its use.

  4. The Merits of Mercantilism
    1. The Navigation Laws were hated, but until 1763, they were not really enforced much, resulting in widespread smuggling.
      1. In fact, John Hancock amassed a fortune through smuggling.

    2. Tobacco planters, though they couldn’t ship it to anywhere except Britain, still had a monopoly within the British market.

    3. Americans had unusual opportunities for self-government.

    4. Americans also had the mightiest army in the world, and didn’t have to pay for it.
      1. After independence, the U.S. had to pay for a tiny army and navy.

    5. Basically, the Americans had it made: even repressive laws weren’t enforced much, and the average American benefited much more than the average Englishman.
      1. The mistakes that occurred didn’t occur out of malice, at least until the revolt.

      2. In fact, France and Spain also embraced mercantilism, but enforced it heavily.

  5. The Menace of Mercantilism
    1. However, after Britain started to enforce mercantilism in 1763, the fuse for the American Revolution was lit.

    2. Disadvantages:
      1. Americans couldn’t buy, sell, ship, or manufacture under the most favorable conditions for them.

      2. The South, which produced crops that weren’t grown in England, was preferred over the North.

      3. Virginia, which grew just tobacco, were at the mercy of the British buyers, who often paid very low and were responsible for putting many planters into debt.

      4. Many colonists felt that Britain was just milking her colonies for all their worth.

      5. Theodore Roosevelt said, “Revolution broke out because England failed to recognize an emerging nation when it saw one.”

  6. The Stamp Tax Uproar
    1. After the Seven Years’ War, Britain had a HUGE debt, and though it fairly had no intention of making the Americans pay off all of it for Britain, it did feel that they should pay off one-third of the cost, since Redcoats had been used for the protection of the Americans.

    2. Prime Minister George Grenville, an honest and able financier not noted for tact, ordered that the Navigation Laws be enforced, arousing resentment of settlers.
      1. He also secured the “Sugar Act” of 1764, which increased duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies; after numerous protests from spoiled Americans, the duties were reduced.

    3. The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.

    4. In 1765, he also imposed a stamp tax to raise money for the new military force.
      1. The Stamp Act mandated the use of stamped paper of the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax.

      2. Stamps were required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items as well as on certain types of commercial and legal documents.

      3. Both the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act provided for offenders to be tried in the admiralty courts, where defenders were guilty until proven innocent.

      4. Grenville felt that these taxes were fair, as he was simply asking the colonists to pay their share of the deal; plus, Englishmen paid a much heavier stamp tax.

    5. Americans felt that they were unfairly taxed for an unnecessary army (hadn’t the French army and Pontiac’s warriors been defeated?), and lashed back violently, especially against the stamp tax.
      1. “No taxation without representation!”

    6. Americans took it upon themselves to enforce principle, reminding Brits of the principles that England’s own Puritan Revolution had brought forth.

    7. Americans denied the right of Parliament to tax Americans, since no Americans were seated in Parliament.

    8. Grenville replied that these statements were absurd, and pushed the idea of “virtual representation,” in which every Parliament member represented ALL British subjects.

    9. Americans rejected “virtual representation,” and in truth didn’t really want representation because that wouldn’t have done them good, and if they had really had representation, there wouldn’t be a principle for which to rebel.

  7. Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act
    1. In 1765, representatives from nine colonies met in NYC to discuss the Stamp Tax.
      1. The Stamp Act Congress was largely ignored in Britain, but was a step toward intercolonial unity.

    2. Some colonists agreed to boycott supplies, instead, making their own and refusing to buy British goods.

    3. Sons and Daughters of Liberty took law into their own hands, tarring and feathering violators among people who had agreed to boycott the goods.
      1. They also stormed the houses of important officials and took their money.

      2. Stunned, demands appeared in Parliament for repeal of the stamp tax, though many wanted to know why 7.5 million Brits had to pay heavy taxes to protect the colonies, but 2 million colonials refused to pay only one-third of the cost of their own defense.

      3. In 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but passed the Declaratory Act, proclaiming that Parliament had the right “to bind” the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”

  8. The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston “Massacre”
    1. Charles Townshend (a man who could deliver brilliant speeches in Parliament even while drunk) persuaded Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts in 1767.
      1. They put light taxes on white lead, paper, paint, and tea.

    2. In 1767, New York’s legislature was suspended for failure to comply with the Quartering Act.

    3. Tea became smuggled, though, and to enforce the law, Brits had to send troops to America.

    4. On the evening of March 5, 1770, a crowd of about 60 townspeople in Boston were harassing some ten Redcoats.
      1. One got hit in the head, another got hit by a club.

      2. Without orders but heavily provoked, they opened fire, wounding or killing eleven “innocent” citizens, including Crispus Attucks, the “leader” of the mob.

      3. Only two Redcoats got prosecuted.

  9. The Seditious Committees of Correspondence
    1. King George III was 32 years old, a good person, but a bad ruler who surrounded himself with sycophants like Lord North.

    2. The Townshend Taxes didn’t really do much, so they were repealed, except for the tea tax.

    3. The colonies, in order to spread propaganda and keep the rebellious moods, set up committees of correspondence; the first was started by Samuel Adams.

  10. Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere
    1. In 1773, the powerful British East India Company, overburdened with 17 million pounds of unsold tea, was facing bankruptcy.

    2. The British decided to sell it to the Americans, who were suspicious and felt that it was a shabby attempt to trick the Americans with the bait of cheaper tea and pay tax.

    3. On December 16, 1773, some Whites disguised as Indians opened 342 chests and dumped the tea into the ocean.
      1. People in Annapolis did the same and burned the ships to the ground.

      2. Reaction was varied, from approval to outrage to disapproval.

      3. Edmund Burke declared, “To tax and to please, no more than to love and be wise, is not given to men.”

  11. Parliament Passes the “Intolerable Acts”
    1. In 1774, by huge majorities, Parliament passed a series of “repressive acts” to punish the colonies, namely Massachusetts.

    2. The Boston Port Act
      1. Boston Harbor was closed until retribution was paid.

      2. Also, enforcing officials who killed colonials could now be tried in England.

    3. Massachusetts Government Act
      1. The charter of Massachusetts was revoked.

    4. The Quebec Act
      1. A good law in bad company, it guaranteed Catholicism to the French-Canadians, permitted them to retain their old customs, and extended the old boundaries of Quebec all the way to the Ohio River.

      2. Americans saw their territory threatened and aroused anti-Catholics were shocked at the enlargement that would make a Catholic area as large as the original 13 colonies.

  12. The Continental Congress and Bloodshed
    1. The First Continental Congress
      1. In Philadelphia, from September 5th to October 26th, 1774, the First Continental Congress met to discuss problems.

      2. While not wanting independence then, it did come up with a list of grievances, which were ignored in Parliament.

      3. Only Georgia didn’t have a representative there.

      4. Also, they came up with a Declaration of Rights.

      5. They agreed to meet again in 1775 (the next year) if nothing happened.

    2. The “Shot Heard ‘Round the World”
      1. In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to nearby Lexington and Concord to seize supplies and to capture Sam Adams and John Hancock.

      2. Minutemen, after having eight of their own killed at Lexington, fought back at Concord, pushing the Redcoats back, sniping them from behind rocks and trees.

  13. Imperial Strength and Weaknesses
    1. WAR!!! Britain had the heavy advantage: 7.5 million people to America’s 2 million, superior naval power, great wealth.

    2. Some 30,000 Hessians (German mercenaries) were also hired by George III, in addition to a professional army of about 50,000 men, plus about 50,000 American loyalists and many Native Americans.

    3. However, Britain still had Ireland (used up troops) and France was just waiting to stab Britain in the back; plus, there was no William Pitt.
      1. Many Brits had no desire to kill their American cousins, as shown by William Pitt’s withdrawal of his son from the army.

      2. English Whigs at first supported America, as opposed to Lord North’s Tory Whigs, and they felt that if George III won, then his rule of England might become tyrannical.

      3. Britain’s generals were second-rate, and its men were brutally treated.

      4. Provisions were often scarce, plus Britain was fighting a war some 3000 miles away from home.

      5. America was also expansive, and there was no single capital to capture and therefore cripple the country.

  14. American Pluses and Minuses
    1. Advantages
      1. Americans had great leaders like George Washington (giant general), and Ben Franklin (smooth diplomat).

      2. They also had French aid (indirect), as the French provided the Americans with guns, supplies, gunpowder, etc…

      3. Marquis de Lafayette, at age 19, was made a major general in the colonial army.

      4. The colonials were fighting in a defensive way, and they were self-sustaining.

      5. They were better marksmen.
        1. A competent American rifleman could hit a man’s head at 200 yards.

      6. The Americans enjoyed the moral advantage in fighting for a just cause, and the historical odds weren’t unfavorable either.

    2. Disadvantages
      1. Americans were terribly lacking in unity, though.

      2. Jealousy was prevalent, as colonies resented the Continental Congress’ attempt at exercising power.
        1. Sectional jealousy boiled up over the appointment of military leaders; some New Englanders almost preferred British officers to Americans from other colonies.

      3. Inflation also hit families of soldiers hard, and made many people poor.

  15. A Thin Line of Heroes
    1. The American army was desperately in need of clothing, wool, wagons to ship food, and other supplies.

    2. Many soldiers had also only received rudimentary training.

    3. German Baron von Steuben, who spoke no English, whipped the soldiers into shape.

    4. Blacks also fought and died in service, though in the beginning, many colonies barred them from service.
      1. By war’s end, more than 5000 blacks had enlisted in the American armed forces.

    5. African-Americans also served on the British side.

    6. In November 1775, Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, issued a proclamation declaring freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British Army.
      1. By war’s end, at least 1400 Blacks were evacuated to Nova Scotia, Jamaica, and England.

    7. Many people also sold to the British because they paid in gold.

    8. Many people just didn’t care, and therefore, raising a large number of troops was difficult, if not impossible.

    9. Only because a select few threw themselves into the cause with passion, did the Americans win.

    10. Seldom have so few done so much for so many.

    NOTE: Read Varying Viewpoints: “Whose Revolution?” on your own, please. Thanks.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

  1. Congress Drafts George Washington
    1. After the bloodshed at Lexington and Concord in April of 1775, about 20,000 Minutemen swarmed around Boston, where they outnumbered the British.
    2. The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, with no real intention of independence, merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances.
      1. It sent another list of grievances to Parliament.
      2. It also adopted measures to raise money for an army and a navy.
      3. It also selected George Washington to command the army.
        1. George had never risen above the rank of colonel, and his largest command had only been of 1200 men, but he was a tall figure who looked like a leader, and thus, was a moral boost to troops.
        2. He radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice, and though he insisted on working without pay, he did keep a careful expense account amounting to more than $100,00.
  2. Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings
    1. In the first year, the war was one of consistency, as the colonists maintained their loyalty while still shooting at the king’s men.
    2. In May 1775, a tiny American force led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, surprised and captured the British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point.
    3. In June 1775, the colonials seized Bunker Hill (before known as Breed’s Hill).
      1. Instead of flanking them, the Redcoats launched a frontal attack, and the heavily entrenched colonial sharpshooters mowed them down until meager gunpowder supplies ran out and they were forced to retreat.
    4. After Bunker Hill, George III slammed the door for all hope of reconciliation and declared the colonies to be in open rebellion, a treasonous affair.
    5. The King also hired many German mercenaries, called Hessians, who, because they were lured by booty and not duty, had large numbers desert and remained in America to become respectful citizens.
  3. The Abortive Conquest of Canada
    1. In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine.
    2. The colonists decided that invading Canada would add a 14th colony and deprive Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies in revolt.
      1. Also, the French-Canadians would support the Americans because they supposedly were bitter about Britain’s taking over of their land.
      2. General Richard Montgomery captured Montreal.
      3. At Quebec, he was joined by the bedraggled army of General Benedict Arnold.
      4. On the last day of 1775, in the assault of Quebec, Montgomery was killed and Arnold was wounded in one leg, and the whole campaign collapsed as the men retreated up the St. Lawrence River, reversing the way Montgomery had come.
      5. Besides, the French-Canadians, who had welcomed the Quebec Act, didn’t really like the anti-Catholic invaders.
    3. In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk, Virginia, but in March, they were finally forced to evacuate Boston.
    4. In the South, the rebels won a victory against some 1500 Loyalists at Moore’s Creek Bridge, in South Carolina, and against an invading British fleet at Charleston Harbor.
  4. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense
    1. In 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, which urged colonials to stop this war of inconsistency, stop pretending loyalty, and just fight.
    2. Nowhere in the universe did a smaller body control a larger one, so Paine argued, saying why tiny Britain had to control gigantic America.
    3. He called King George III “the Royal Brute of Great Britain.”
  5. Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”
    1. Paine argued his idea that there should be a “republic” where senators, governors, and judges should have their power from the consent of the people.
    2. He laced his ideas with Biblical imagery, familiar to common folk.
    3. His ideas about rejecting monarchy and empire and embrace an independent republic fell on receptive ears in America, though it should be noted that these ideas already existed.
      1. The New Englanders already practiced this type of government in their town meetings.
    4. Some patriots, though, favored a republic ruled by a “natural aristocracy.”
  6. Jefferson’s “Explanation” of Independence
    1. Members of the Philadelphia Congress, instructed by their colonies, gradually moved toward a clean break with Britain.
    2. On June 7, 1776, fiery Richard Henry urged for complete independence, an idea that was finally adopted on July 2, 1776.
    3. To write such a statement, Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, already renown as a great writer, to concoct a Declaration of Independence.
      1. He did so eloquently, coming up with a list of grievances against King George III and persuasively explaining why the colonies had the right to revolt.
      2. His “explanation” of independence also upheld the “natural rights” of humankind.
    4. When Congress approved it on July 2nd, John Adams proclaimed that date to be celebrated from then on with fireworks, but because of editing and final approval, it was not completely approved until July 4th, 1776.
  7. Patriots and Loyalists
    1. The War of Independence was a war within a war, as not all colonials were united.
      1. There were Patriots, who supported rebellion and were called “Whigs.”
      2. There were Loyalists, who supported the King, often went to battle against fellow Americans, and were called “Tories.”
      3. There were those who didn’t care, and these people were constantly being asked to join one side or another.
    2. During the war, the British proved that they could only control Tory areas, because when Redcoats packed up and left other areas, the rebels would regain control.
    3. The Patriot militias constantly harassed small British detachments.
    4. Loyalists were generally conservatives, but the war divided families.
      1. Benjamin Franklin was against his illegitimate son, William, the last royal governor of New Jersey.
    5. The Patriots were generally the younger generation, like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry.
    6. Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican Church was strongest.
    7. There were also those who sold to the highest bidder, selling the British and ignoring starving, freezing soldiers (i.e. George Washington at Valley Forge).
    8. Loyalists were less numerous in New England, where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished.
  8. The Loyalist Exodus
    1. After the Declaration of Independence, Loyalists and Patriots were more sharply divided, and Patriots often confiscated Loyalist property and resell it (good way to raise money).
    2. Some 50,000 Loyalists served the British in one way or another (fighting, spying, etc…), and it was an oddity that the Brits didn’t make more use of them during the war.
  9. General Washington at Bay
    1. After the evacuation of Boston, the British focused on New York as a HQ for operations.
      1. An awe-inspiring fleet appeared off the coast in July 1776, consisting of some 500 ships and 35,000 men—the largest armed force seen in America ever until the Civil War.
      2. Washington could only muster 18,000 ill-trained men to fight, and they were routed at the Battle of Long Island.<./li>
      3. Washington escaped to Manhattan Island, crossed the Hudson River to New Jersey, reaching the Delaware River with taunting, fox-hunt calling British on his heels.
      4. Crossing the Delaware River at Trenton on a cold December 26, 1776, and surprised and captured a thousand Hessians who were sleeping off their Christmas Day celebration (drinking).
      5. He then left his campfires burning as a ruse, slipped away, and inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton, showing his military genius at its best.
      6. It was odd that General William Howe, the British general, didn’t crush Washington when he was at the Delaware, but he well remembered Bunker Hill, and was cautious.
  10. Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion
    1. London officials adopted a complicated scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River Valley in 1777 which, if successful, would severe New England from the rest of the colonies:
      1. General Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada.
      2. General Howe’s troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne in Albany.
      3. A third and much smaller British force commanded by Colonel Barry St. Ledger would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley.
    2. However, Benedict Arnold, after failure at Quebec, retreated slowly along the St. Lawrence back to Lake Champlain, where the British would have to win control (of the lake) before proceeding.
      1. The Brits stopped to build a huge force, while Arnold assembled a tattered flotilla from whatever boats he could find.
      2. His “navy” was destroyed, but he had gained valuable time, because winter set in and the British settled in Canada; they would have to begin anew the next spring.
        1. Had Arnold not contributed his daring and skill, the Brits most likely would have recaptured Ticonderoga and Burgoyne could have started from there and succeeded in his venture.
    3. Burgoyne began his mission with 7000 troops and a heavy baggage train consisting of a great number of the officers’ wives.
      1. Meanwhile, sneaky rebels, sensing the kill, were gathering along his flanks.
    4. General Howe, at a time when he should be starting up the Hudson, deliberately embarked for an attack on Philadelphia.
      1. He wanted to force an encounter with Washington and leave the path wide open for Burgoyne’s thrust; he thought he had enough time to help Burgoyne if needed.
      2. Washington transferred his troops to Philly, but was defeated at Brandywine Creek and Germantown.
      3. Then, the fun-loving Howe settled down in Philadelphia, leaving Burgoyne “to the dogs.”
      4. Ben Franklin, in Paris, joked that Howe hadn’t captured Philadelphia, but that “Philadelphia had captured Howe.”
    5. Washington finally retired for the winter at Valley Forge, where his troops froze in the cold, but a recently arrived Prussian drill master, Baron von Steuben, whipped the cold troops into shape.
    6. Burgoyne’s doomed troops were bogged down, and the rebels swarmed in with a series of sharp engagements, pushing the St. Legers force back at Oriskany while Burgoyne, unable to advance or retreat, surrendered his entire force at Saratoga, on October 17, 1777.
      1. Perhaps one of the most decisive battles in British and American history.
  11. Strange French Bedfellows
    1. France was eager to get revenge on Britain, and secretly supplied the Americans throughout much of the war.
    2. After the humiliation at Saratoga, the British offered the Americans a measure that gave them home rule—everything they wanted except independence.
    3. After Saratoga, France finally was persuaded to enter the war against Britain.
      1. Louis XVI’s ministers argued that this was the perfect time to act, because if Britain regained control, she might then try to capture the French West Indies for compensation for the war.
      2. Now was the time the strike, rather than risk a stronger Britain with its reunited colonies.
    4. France, in 1778, offered a treaty of alliance, offering America everything that Britain had offered, plus recognition of independence.
      1. The Americans accepted with caution, since France was pro-Catholic, but since they needed help, they’d take it.
  12. The Colonial War Becomes a World War
    1. In 1779, Spain and Holland entered the war against Britain.
    2. In 1780, Catherine the Great of Russia took the lead in organizing the Armed Neutrality (she later called it the Armed Nullity) that lined up all of Europe’s neutrals in passive hostility against England.
    3. America, though it kept the war going until 1778, didn’t win until France, Spain, and Holland joined in and Britain couldn’t handle them all.
    4. Britain, with the French now in the seas, decided to finally evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their forces in New York, and even though Washington attacked them at Monmouth on a blisteringly hot day in which scores of men died of sunstroke, the British escaped to New York.
  13. Blow and Counterblow
    1. French reinforcements, commanded by Comte de Rochambeau, arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in 1780, but flares sometimes erupted between the Americans and the French.
    2. In 1780, feeling unappreciated and lured by British gold, General Benedict Arnold turned traitor by plotting with the British to sell out West Point.
      1. When the plot was discovered, he fled with the British.
      2. “Whom can we trust now?” cried George Washington in anguish.
    3. The British devised a plan to roll up the colonies from the South.
      1. Georgia was ruthlessly overrun in 1778-1779.
      2. Charleston, South Carolina, fell in 1780.
      3. In the Carolinas, Patriots bitterly fought their Loyalist neighbors.
      4. However, in 1781, American riflemen wiped out a British detachment at King’s Mountain, and then defeated a smaller force at Cowpens.
      5. At the Carolina campaign of 1781, Quaker-reared tactician General Nathanael Greene distinguished himself with his strategy of delay.
        1. By slowly retreating and losing battles but winning campaigns, he helped clear the British out of most of Georgia and South Carolina.
  14. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier
    1. 1777 was known as the “bloody year” on the frontier, as Indians went on a scalping spree.
    2. Most of the Indians supported Britain and believed that if they won, it would stop American expansion into the West, and save Indian land.
    3. Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, recently converted to Anglicanism, and his men ravaged the backcountry of Pennsylvania and New York until check by Americans in 1779.
    4. In 1784, the pro-British Iroquois (the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras had sided with the Americans, the other four with the British) signed the Treaty of For Stanwix, the first treaty between the U.S. and an Indian nation.
      1. Under its terms, the Indians ceded most of their land.
    5. Even in wartime, pioneers moved west, showing their gratitude to the French with such town names as Louisville while remembering the Revolution with Lexington, Kentucky.
    6. George Rogers Clark, an audacious frontiersman, floated down the Ohio River with about 175 in 1778-1779 and captured forts Kaskaskia, Chohokia, and Vicennes in quick succession.
    7. The tiny American navy never really hurt the British warships, but it did destroy British merchant shipping and carried the war into the waters around the British Isles.
    8. Swift privateers preyed on enemy shipping, capturing many ships and forcing them to sail in convoys.
  15. Yorktown and the Final Curtain.
    1. Before the last decisive victory, inflation continued to soar, and the government was virtually bankrupt, and announced that it could only repay many of its debts at a rate of 2.5 cents on the dollar.
    2. However, Cornwallis was blundering into a trap.
      1. Retreating to Chesapeake Bay and assuming that British control of the seas would give him much needed backup, Cornwallis instead was trapped by Washington’s army, which had come 300 miles from New York, Rochambeau’s French army, and the navy of French Admiral de Grasse.
    3. After hearing the news of Cornwallis’ defeat, Lord North cried, “Oh God! It’s all over!”
    4. Stubborn King George wanted to continue the war, since he still had 54,000 troops in North America and 32,000 in the U.S., and fighting did continue for about a year after Yorktown, especially in the South, but America had won.
  16. Peace at Paris
    1. Many Brits were weary of the war, since they had suffered heavy reverse in India and the West Indies, the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean had fallen, and the Rock of Gibraltar was tottering.
    2. Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay met in Paris for a peace deal.
      1. Jay suspected that France would try to keep the U.S. cooped up east of the Alleghenies and keep America weak.
      2. Instead, Jay, thinking that France would betray American ambitious to satisfy those of Spain, secretly made separate overtures to London (against instructions from Congress) and came to terms quickly with the British, who were eager to entice one of their enemies from the alliance.
    3. The Treaty of Paris of 1783, Britain formally recognized the USA and granted generous boundaries, stretching majestically to the Mississippi on the west, the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the South.
      1. The Yankees also retained a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.
      2. Americans couldn’t persecute Loyalists, though, and Congress could only recommend legislatures that confiscated Loyalist land.
  17. A New Nation Legitimized
    1. Britain had ceded so much land because it was trying to entice America from its French alliance.
      1. Remember, George Rogers Clark had only conquered a small part of the land.
    2. Also, during the time, the American-friendly Whigs were in control of the Parliament, which was not to be the case in later years.
    3. France approved the treaty, though with cautious eyes.
    4. In truth, America came out the big winner, and seldom, if ever, have any people been so favored.
  18. Makers of America: The Loyalists
    1. Loyalists were conservative, well-educated, thought that a complete break with Britain would invite anarchy, and felt that America couldn’t win against the more powerful army in the world.
    2. Many Britons had settled in America after the Seven Years’ War, and they had reason to support their home country.
    3. Thousands of African-Americans joined the British ranks for hope of freedom from bondage.
      1. Many Black Loyalists won their freedom from Britain.
      2. Others suffered betrayal, such as when Cornwallis abandoned over 4000 former slaves in Virginia and when many Black Loyalists boarded ships expecting to embark for freedom and instead found themselves sold back into slavery.
      3. Some Black exiles settled in Britain, but weren’t really accepted easily.
    4. Most Loyalists remained in America, where they faced special burdens and struggled to re-establish themselves in a society that viewed them as traitors.
    5. Hugh Gaine, though, succeeded.
      1. He reopened his business and even won contracts fro the new government.
      2. He also published the new national army regulations authored by Baron von Steuben.
      3. When New York ratified the Constitution in 1788, Gaine rode the float at the head of the city’s celebration parade.
      4. He had, like many other former Loyalists, become an American.
AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 8: America Secedes from the Empire42.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution 1776 – 1790

  1. A Revolution of Sentiments
    1. The American Revolution was more of an accelerated evolution than a revolution.
    2. However, the exodus of some 80,000 Loyalists left a great lack of conservatives.
    3. This weakening of the aristocratic “upper crust” let Patriot elites emerge.
    4. The fight for separation of church and state resulted in notable gains.
      1. The Congregational church continued to be legally established by some New England states, but the Anglican Church was humbled and reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church.
    5. Slavery was a big, problematic issue, as the Continental Congress of 1774 had called for the abolition of slavery, and in 1775, the Philadelphia Quakers founded the world’s first antislavery society.
      1. This new spirit of “all men are created equal” even inspired a few slave owners to free their slaves.
    6. Another issue was women: they still were unequal to men, even though some had served (disguised as men) in the Revolutionary War.
      1. There were some achievements: New Jersey’s 1776 constitution allowed women to vote (for a time).
      2. Mothers devoted to their families were developed as an idea of “republican motherhood” and elevated women to higher statuses as keepers of the nation’s conscience.
  2. Constitution Making in the States
    1. The Continental Congress of 1776 called upon colonies to draft new constitutions (thus began the formation of the Articles of the Confederation).
      1. Massachusetts contributed one innovation when it called a special convention to draft its constitution and made it so that the constitution could only be changed through another specially called constitutional convention.
      2. Many states had written documents that represented a fundamental law.
      3. Many had a bill of rights and also required annual election of legislators.
      4. All of them deliberately created weak executive and judicial branches (they distrusted power due to Britain’s abusing it).
      5. In most states, the legislative branch was given sweeping powers, though some people, like Thomas Jefferson, warned that “173 despots [in legislation] would surely be as oppressive as one.
    2. Many states moved westward, like New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia.
  3. Economic Crosscurrents
    1. After the Revolution, Loyalist land was seized, but people didn’t chop heads off (France…).
    2. Goods formerly imported from England were cut off, forcing Americans to make their own.
    3. Still, America remained agriculturalist by a lot.
    4. While, with Britain, Americans had great trade, and now they didn’t, they could now trade with foreign countries, and with any nation they wanted to, a privilege they didn’t have before.
    5. Yankee shippers like the Empress of China (1784) boldly ventured into far off places.
    6. However, inflation was rampant, and taxes were hated; the rich had become poor, and the new rich were viewed with suspicion; disrespect of private property became shocking.
  4. A Shaky Start Toward Union
    1. While the U.S. had to create a new government, the people were far from united.
    2. In 1786, after the war, Britain flooded America with cheap goods, greatly hurting American industries.
    3. However, the states all did share similar constitutions, had a rich political inheritance form Britain, and America was blessed with men like Washington, Madison, Jefferson, Hamilton, and John Adams, great political leaders of high order.
  5. Creating a Confederation
    1. Even during the war, the states had created their individual currencies and tax barriers.
    2. The Articles of the Confederation was finished in 1777, but in was finally completely ratified (that was needed) by the last state, Maryland, on March 1, 1781.
    3. A major dispute was that states like New York and Virginia had huge tracts of land west of the Alleghenies that they could sell off to pay off their debts while other states could not do so.
      1. As a compromise, these lands were ceded to the federal government, which pledged to dispense them for the common good of the union (states would be made).
      2. The Northwest Ordinance later confirmed this.
  6. The Articles of the Confederation: America’s First Constitution
    1. The Articles had no executive branch (hence, no single leader), a weak Congress in which each state had only one vote, required 2/3 majority on any subject of importance, and a fully unanimous vote for amendments.
    2. Also, Congress was pitifully weak, and could not regulate commerce or enforce tax collection.
    3. Congress could only call up soldiers from the states, which weren’t going to help each other.
      1. Example: in 1783, a group of Pennsylvanian soldiers harassed the government in Philadelphia, demanding back pay. When it pleaded for help from the state, and didn’t receive any, it had to shamefully move to Princeton College in New Jersey.
    4. However, it was a model of what a loose confederation should be, and was a significant stepping-stone towards the establishment of the U.S. Constitution.
    5. Still, the states wielded an alarmingly too great amount of power.
  7. Landmarks in Land Laws
    1. The Land Ordinance of 1785 provided the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds be used to pay off the national debt.
      1. This vast area would be surveyed before settlement and then divided into townships six miles square, which would then be divided into 36 square sections with one set aside for public schools.
    2. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 made admission into the union a two stage affair:
      1. There would be two evolutionary territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinate to the federal government
      2. When a territory had 60,000 inhabitants, Congress as a state might admit it.
      3. It worked so well to solve a problem that others had plagued many other nations.
  8. The World’s Ugly Duckling
    1. However, Britain still refused to repeal the Navigation Laws, and closed down its trading to the U.S. (proved useless to U.S. smuggling); it also sought to annex Vermont to Britain with help from the Allen brothers and continued to hold a chain of trading posts on U.S. soil.
      1. One excuse used was that the soldiers had to make sure the U.S. honor its treaty and pay back debts to Loyalists.
    2. In 1784, Spain closed the Mississippi River to American commerce.
    3. It also claimed a large area near the Gulf of Mexico that was ceded to the U.S. by Britain.
      1. At Natchez, on disputed soil, it also held a strategic fort.
    4. Both Spain and England, while encouraging Indian tribes to be restless, prevented the U.S. from controlling half of it territory.
    5. Even France demanded payment of U.S. debts to France.
    6. The pirates of the North African states, including the arrogant Dey of Algiers, ravaged U.S. ships in the area and enslaved Yankee sailors; America was too weak to stop them.
  9. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
    1. States were refusing to pay taxes, and national debt was mounting as foreign credibility was slipping.
    2. Boundary disputes erupted into small battles while states taxed goods from other states.
    3. Shays’ Rebellion, which flared up in western Massachusetts in 1786, attacked tax collectors, etc… and caused all sorts of violence.
      1. Shays was convicted but later pardoned.
      2. The fear of such violence lived on, though, and paranoia existed.
    4. People were beginning to doubt republicanism and this Articles of the Confederation.
    5. However, many supporters believed that the Articles merely needed to be strengthened.
    6. Things began to look brighter, though, as prosperity was beginning to emerge, Congress was beginning to control commerce, and overseas shipping was regaining its place in the world.
  10. A Convention of “Demigods”
    1. An Annapolis, Maryland convention was called, but only five states were represented.
    2. On May 25, 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states (Rhode Island wasn’t there) met in Philadelphia to “revise the Articles only.”
      1. Among them were people like Jefferson, Hamilton, Franklin, and Madison.
      2. However, people like Jefferson, John and Sam Adams, Thomas Pain, Hancock, and Patrick Henry were not there (for various purposes).
  11. Patriots in Philadelphia
    1. The 55 delegates were all well-off and young, and they hoped to preserve the union, protect the American democracy from abroad and preserve it at home, and curb the unrestrained democracy rampant in various states (like rebellions, etc…).
  12. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
    1. Some people decided to totally scrap the Articles and create a new Constitution.
      1. Virginia’s large state plan called for Congressional representation based on state population, while New Jersey’s small state plan called for equal representation from all states (in terms of numbers, each state got the same number of reps.)
      2. Afterwards, the “Great Compromise” was worked out so that Congress would have TWO houses, the House of Representatives, were reps were based on population, and the Senate, where each state got two reps.
        1. All tax bills would start in the House.
    2. Also, there would be a strong, independent executive branch with a president who would be military commander in chief and could veto legislation.
    3. Another compromise was the election of the president through the Electoral College, rather than by the people directly.
    4. Also, slaves would count as 3/5 of a person in census counts.
      1. Also, the Constitution enabled a state to shut off slave importation if it wanted after 1807.
  13. Safeguards for Conservatism
    1. The delegates at the Convention all believed in a system with checks and balances, and the more conservative people deliberately erected safeguards against excesses of mobs.
    2. Federal chief justices were appointed for life.
    3. However, the people still had power, and government was based on the people.
    4. By the end of the Convention, on Sept. 17, 1787, only 42 of the original 55 were still there to sign the Constitution
  14. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists
    1. Knowing that state legislatures were certainly veto the new Constitution, the Founding Fathers sent copies of it out to state conventions, where it could be debated and voted upon.
      1. The people could judge it themselves.
    2. The American people were shocked, because they had expected a patched up Articles of the Confederation and had received a whole new Constitution (the Convention had been VERY well concealed and kept secret).
    3. The federalists, who favored the proposed stronger government, were against the antifederalists, who were opposed.
      1. The antifederalists were mostly the poor farmers, the illiterate, and states’ rights devotees; it was basically the poorer classes.
      2. The federalists were more respectable and generally embraced the cultured and propertied groups, and many were former Loyalists.
    4. Antifederalists truthfully cried that it was drawn up by aristocratic elements and was therefore antidemocratic.
    5. They decried the dropping of annual elections of congressional reps and the erecting of what would become Washington D.C., and the creation of a standing army.
  15. The Great Debate in the States
    1. Elections were run to elect people into the state conventions.
    2. Four small states quickly ratified the Constitution, and Pennsylvania was the first large state to act.
    3. In Massachusetts, a hard fought race between the supporters and detractors (including Samuel Adams, the “Engineer of Revolution” who now resisted change), and Massachusetts finally ratified it after a promise of a bill of rights to be added later.
      1. Had this state not ratified, it would have brought the whole thing down.
    4. Three more states ratified, and on June 21, 1788, the Constitution was officially adopted after nine states (all but Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island) had ratified.
  16. The Four Laggard States
    1. Virginia, knowing that it could not be an independent state (the Constitution was about to be ratified by the 9th state, New Hampshire, anyway), so it finally ratified by a vote of 89 to 79.
    2. New York was swayed by The Federalist Papers, written by John Jay, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, and finally yielded after realizing that it could prosper apart from the union.
    3. North Carolina and Rhode Island finally ratified after intense pressure from the government.
  17. A Conservative Triumph
    1. The minority had triumphed again, and the transition had been peaceful.
    2. Only about ¼ of the adult white males in the country (mainly those with land) had voted for the ratifying delegates.
    3. Conservationism was victorious, as the safeguards had been erected against mob-rule excesses.
    4. Revolutionaries against Britain had been upended by revolutionaries against the Articles.
    5. It was a type of counterrevolution.
    6. Federalists believed that every branch of government effectively represented the people, unlike antifederalists who believed that only the legislative branch did so.
    7. In the United States, conservatives and radicals alike have championed the heritage of democratic revolution.

    Please read Varying Viewpoints – “The Constitution: Revolutionary or Counterrevolutionary?” on your own, please.

AttachmentSize
Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 9: The Confederation and the Constitution 1776 – 179035.5 KB
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 10 - Launching of the New Ship of State

  1. A New Ship on an Uncertain Sea
    1. In 1789, the new U.S. Constitution was launched, and population was doubling every twenty years.
      1. America’s population was still 90% rural, with 5% west of the Appalachians.
      2. Vermont became the 14th state in 1791, and Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio (states where trans-Appalachian overflow was concentrated) became states soon after.
      3. Visitors looked down upon the crude, rough pioneers, and these western people were restive and dubiously loyal at best.
    2. In the twelve years after American independence, laws had been broken and a constitution had been completely scrapped and replaced with a new one, something that was not best of government.
    3. America was also heavily in debt, and paper money was worthless, but meanwhile, restless monarchs watched to see if the U.S. could succeed in setting up a republic while facing such overwhelming odds.
  2. Washington’s Profederalist Regime
    1. At 6’2”, 175 pounds, broad and sloping shoulders, a strongly pointed chin and pockmarks from Smallpox, George Washington was an imposing figure, which helped in his getting unanimously drafted as president by the Electoral College in 1789.
    2. His long journey from Mt. Vernon to New York (capital at the time) was a triumphant procession filled with cheering crowds and roaring festivities, and he took his oath of office on April 30, 1789, on a balcony overlooking Wall Street.
    3. Washington established a diverse cabinet (which was not necessary, Constitution-wise).
      1. Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson
      2. Secretary of the Treasury: Alexander Hamilton
      3. Secretary of War: Henry Knox
  3. The Bill of Rights
    1. Many states had ratified the Constitution on the condition that there would be a Bill of Rights, and many antifederalists had criticized the Constitution for its lack of a Bill.
    2. The necessary number of states adopted it in 1791.
      1. Amendment I: Freedom of religion, speech or press, assembly, and petition.
      2. Amendment II: Right to bear arms (for militia).
      3. Amendment III: Soldiers can’t be housed in civilian homes during peacetime.
      4. Amendment IV: No unreasonable searches; all searches require warrants.
      5. Amendment V: Right to refuse to speak during a civil trial; Double Jeopardy.
      6. Amendment VI: Right to a speedy and public trial.
      7. Amendment VII: Right to trial by jury when the sum exceeds $20.
      8. Amendment VIII: No excessive bails and/or fines.
      9. Amendment IX: Other rights not enumerated are also in effect.
      10. Amendment X: Non-federal powers belong to the state.
    3. The Judiciary Act o f 1789 created effective federal courts.
    4. John Jay became the first chief justice of the United States.
  4. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit
    1. Born in the British West Indies, his loyalty to the U.S. was often questioned, even though he claimed he loved his adopted country more than his native country.
    2. He urged the federal government to assume its debts ($54 million) and try to pay them off at face value, PLUS interest, as well as assume the debts of the states ($21.5 million).
      1. Massachusetts had a huge debt, but Virginia didn’t, so there needed some haggling. This was because Virginia felt it unfair that all debts were to be assumed, instead of just a set amount. Essentially, its rival states would be at the same level as it even though they had obtained larger debts.
      2. Virginia would have the District of Columbia built on its land (therefore gaining prestige) in return for letting the government assume all the states’ debts.
    3. The “Funding at Par” would gain the support of the rich to the federal government, not the states.
  5. Customs Duties and Excise Taxes.
    1. With the national debt at a huge $75 million, Alexander Hamilton was strangely unworried.
    2. He used the debt as an asset: the more people the government owed money to, the more people who would care about what would happen to the U.S.
    3. To pay off some of the debt, Hamilton first proposed custom duties, and the first one, imposing a low tariff of about 8% of the value of dutiable imports, was passed in 1789.
      1. Hamilton also wanted to protect America’s infant industries, though since the U.S. was still dominated by agricultural programs, little was done for that.
    4. In 1791, Hamilton secured an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey (7 cents per gallon).
  6. . Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank
    1. Hamilton proposed for a national treasury, to be a private institution modeled after the Bank of England, to have the federal government as a major stockholder, to circulate cash to stimulate businesses, to store excess money, and to print money that was worth something, and was opposed by Jefferson.
    2. Hamilton’s Views:
      1. What was not forbidden in the Constitution was permitted.
      2. A bank was “necessary and proper” (from Constitution).
      3. He evolved the Elastic Clause.
    3. Jefferson’s Views:
      1. What was not permitted was forbidden.
      2. A bank should be a state controlled item (9th Amendment).
      3. The Constitution should be interpreted literally and strictly.
    4. End result: Hamilton won, and Washington reluctantly signed the bank measure into law; the Bank of the Untied States was created by Congress in 1791, and was chartered for 20 years.
      1. It was located in Philadelphia and was to have a capital of $10 million.
      2. Stock was thrown open to public sale, and surprisingly, a milling crowd oversubscribed in two hours.
  7. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania
    1. In 1794, in western Pennsylvania, the Whiskey Rebellion flared up when fed up farmers revolted against Hamilton’s excise tax.
      1. Around those parts, liquor and alcohol was often used as money.
    2. Washington cautiously sent an army of about 13,000 troops from various states to the revolt, but the soldiers found nothing upon arrival; the rebels had scattered.
    3. Washington’s new presidency now commanded new respect, but antifederalists criticized the government’s use of a giant to crush a gnat.
  8. The Emergence of Political Parties
    1. Hamilton’s policies (national bank, suppression of Whiskey Rebellion, excise tax) had seemed to encroach on states’ rights.
    2. As resentment grew, what was once a personal rivalry between Hamilton and Jefferson gradually evolved into two political parties.
    3. The Founding Fathers had not envisioned various political parties (Whigs and Federalists and Tories, etc… had existed but they had been groups, not parties).
    4. Since 1825, the two-party system has helped strengthen the U.S. government, helping balance power and ensuring no huge deviation from the norm.
  9. The Impact of the French Revolution
    1. Near the end of Washington’s first term, in 1793, two parties had evolved: the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and the Hamiltonian Federalists.
    2. However, the French Revolution greatly affected America.
    3. At first, people were overjoyed, since the first stages of the revolution were not unlike America’s dethroning of Britain. Only a few ultraconservative Federalists were upset at this “mobocracy” and revolt.
    4. When the French declared war on Austria, then threw back the Austrian armies and then proclaimed itself a republic people sang “The Marseillaise” and other French revolutionary songs, and renamed various streets and places.
    5. After the revolution turned radical and bloody, the Federalists rapidly changed opinions and looked nervously at the Jeffersonians, who felt that no revolution could be carried out without a little bloodshed.
    6. Still, neither group completely approved.
    7. America was sucked into the revolution when France declared war on Great Britain and the battle for North American land began…again.
  10. Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation
    1. With war came the call by the JDR’s (Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans) to enter on the side of France, the recent friend, against Britain, the recent enemy.
    2. However, Washington knew that war could mean disaster and disintegration, since the nation in 1793 was militarily and economically weak and politically disunited.
    3. In 1793, he issued the Neutrality Proclamation, proclaiming the U.S.’s official neutrality and warning Americans to stay out of the issue and be impartial.
    4. JDR’s were incensed, as this controversial statement irked both sides.
    5. Soon afterwards, Citizen Edmond Genêt, landed at Charleston, South Carolina, as representative to the U.S.
      1. On his trip to Philadelphia, he had been cheered rousingly by Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans, who supported France, and he came to wrongly believe that Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation didn’t truly reflect the feelings of Americans.
      2. Also, he equipped privateers to plunder British ships and to invade Spanish Florida and British Canada.
      3. He even went as far as to threaten to appeal over the head of Washington to the sovereign voters, and afterwards, he was basically kicked out of the USA.
    6. Actually, America’s neutrality helped France, since only in that way could France get needed American foodstuffs.
    7. The U.S. didn’t have to honor its alliance from the Treaty of 1778 because France didn’t call on it to do so.
  11. Embroilments with Britain
    1. Britain still had many posts in the frontier, and supplied the Indians with weapons.
    2. The Treaty of Greenville, in 1795, had the Indians cede their vast tract in the Ohio country to Americans after General “Mad Anthony” Wayne crushed them at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794.
    3. Ignoring America’s neutrality, British commanders of the Royal Navy seized about 300 American merchant ships and impressed scores of seamen into their army.
    4. Many JDR’s cried for war with Britain, or at least an embargo, but Washington refused, knowing that such drastic action would destroy the Hamilton financial system.
  12. Jay’s Treaty and Washington’s Farewell
    1. In a last-ditch attempt to avert war Washington sent John Jay to England to work something out.
    2. However, his negotiations were sabotaged by Hamilton, who secretly gave the Brits the details of America’s bargaining strategy.
    3. The results weren’t pretty:
      1. Britain would repay the lost money from recent merchant ship seizures, but it said nothing about future seizures, impressments, and Indians arms supplying.
      2. America would have to pay off its pre-Revolutionary War debts to Britain.
    4. Result: the JDR’s from the South were INCENSEND and pissed, as the southern farmers would have to pay while the northern merchants would be paid.
    5. At this time, the Pinckney Treaty of 1795 with Spain gave Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and the large disputed territory north of Florida.
    6. After his second term, Washington stepped down, creating a strong two-term precedent that wasn’t broken until FDR was prez.
    7. His Farewell Address warned against binding, permanent alliances, and talked about other stuff.
    8. Washington had set the U.S. on its feet and had made it sturdy.
  13. “Bonny Johnny” Adams Becomes President”
    1. Hamilton was the logical choice to become the next president, but his financial plan had made him very unpopular.
    2. John Adams, the ablest statesmen of his day, won, 71 to 68, against Thomas Jefferson, who became vice president.
    3. Adams had a hated rival and opponent in Hamilton, who plotted with Adams’ cabinet against the president, and a political rival in his vice president.
    4. He also had a volatile situation with France that could explode into war.
  14. Unofficial Fighting with France
    1. France was incensed by Jay’s Treaty, calling it a flagrant violation of the 1778 Franco-American treaty, and began seizing defenseless American merchant ships.
    2. In the XYZ Affair, John Adams sent three envoys (including John Marshall) to France, where they were approached by three agents, “X,” “Y,” and “Z,” who demanded a load of 32 million florins and a $250,000 bribe just for talking to Talleyrand.
      1. Even though bribes were routine in diplomacy, such a large sum for simply talking weren’t worth it, and there was no guarantee of an agreement.
      2. The envoys returned to America, cheered by incensed Americans as having done the right thing for America.
    3. Irate Americans called for war with France, but Adams, knowing just as Washington did that war could spell disaster, remained neutral.
    4. Thus, an undeclared war mostly confined to the seas raged for two and a half years, where American ships captured over 80 armed French ships.
  15. Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party
    1. Talleyrand, knowing that war with the U.S. would add another enemy to France, declared that if another envoy was sent to France, that it would be received with respect.
    2. In 1800, the three American envoys were met by Napoleon, who was eager to work with the U.S.
    3. The treaty in 1800 signed in Paris ended the 1778 alliance in return for the American paying of the claims of its shippers as alimony.
    4. In keeping the U.S. at peace, John Adams plunged his popularity and lost his chance at a possible second term, but he did the right thing, keeping the U.S. neutral while it was still weak.
  16. The Federalist Witch Hunt
    1. The Federalists scorned the poor people, who in turn were welcomed by the JDR’s.
    2. Federalists therefore raised the residence requirements for aliens who wanted to become citizens from five to fourteen years, a law that violated the traditional American policy of open-door hospitality and speedy assimilation.
    3. Another law let the President deport dangerous aliens during peacetime and jail them during times of war.
    4. The Sedition Act provided that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely defamed its officials, including the president, would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment; it was aimed at newspaper editors and the JDR’s.
      1. While obviously unconstitutional, this act was passed by the Federalist majority in Congress and upheld in the court because of the majority of Federalists there too.
      2. It was conveniently written to expire in 1801 to prevent use of it against them.
      3. Matthew Lyon was one of those imprisoned when he was sentenced to four months in jail for writing ill things about President John Adams
    5. Furthermore, in the elections of 1798-99, the Federalists won the most sweeping victory of their history.
  17. The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions
    1. Resentful Jeffersonians would not take this down, and Jefferson feared that the Federalists, having wiped out freedom of speech and of the press, might wipe out more.
    2. He wrote a series of legislation that Kentucky approved in 1798-99, and friend James Madison wrote another series of legislation (less extreme) that Virginia approved.
      1. They stressed the compact theory, which meant that the 13 states, in creating the federal government, had entered into a contract regarding its jurisdiction, and the individual states were the final judges of the laws passed in Congress.
      2. Their legislation nullified the Sedition and Alien Laws.
    3. Only those two states did so.
    4. Federalists, though, argued that the people, not the states, had made the contract, and it was up to the Supreme Court to nullify legislation, a procedure that it adopted in 1803.
    5. While neither Madison nor Jefferson wanted secession, they did want an end to Federalist abuses.
  18. Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans
    1. The Federalists
      1. Most were federalists from before the Constitution.
      2. They wanted a strong government ruled by the educated aristocrats, the “best people.”
      3. Most were the merchants, manufacturers, and shippers along the Atlantic seaboard.
      4. They were mostly pro-British and recognized that foreign trade was key in the U.S.
    2. The Democratic-Republicans
      1. Led by Thomas Jefferson, a bad speaker but a great leader and appealer to the common people, they desired rule by informed classes and a weaker central government that would preserve the sovereignty of the states, and were mostly pro-French.
      2. Jefferson was rich and even owned slaves, but he sympathized for the common people.
      3. The national debt had to be paid off.
      4. They were mostly agrarians, and insisted no special privileges for the upper class.
      5. Farming was ennobling: it kept people away from wicked cities, in the sun, and close to God.
      6. He advocated rule of the people, but not all the people, just those who weren’t ignorant.
      7. Slavery could help avoid a class of landless voters by providing the necessary labor.
      8. He championed for free speech, but he was foully abused by editorial pens.
    3. Thus, as 1800 rolled around, the disunity of America was making its existence very fragile.
Subject: 
US History
Subject X2: 
US History

Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Democracy

  1. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers
    1. In the election of 1800, the Federalists had a host of enemies stemming from the Alien and Sedition Acts.

    2. The Federalists had been most damaged by John Adams’ not declaring war.
      1. They had raised a bunch of taxes and built a good navy, and then had not gotten any reason to justify such spending, therefore making themselves seem like cheap, as they had also swelled the public debt.

      2. John Adams became known as "the Father of the American Navy."

    3. Thus, they also launched attacks on Jefferson, saying that he had robbed a widow and her children of a trust fund, fathered numerous children with his slaves (‘tis true too), calling him an atheist, and using other inflammatory remarks.

  2. The Jeffersonian "Revolution of 1800"
    1. Jefferson won the election of 1800 by a majority of 73 electoral votes to 65, and even though Adams got more popular votes, Jefferson got New York, but even though he triumphed, but a technicality, he and Aaron Burr tied for presidency.
      1. The vote, according to the Constitution, would now go to the Federalist-dominated House of Representatives.

      2. Hateful of Jefferson, many wanted to vote for Burr, and the vote was deadlocked for a long time until Hamilton and John Adams persuaded a few House members to change their votes, knowing that if the House voted for Burr, the public outcry would doom the Federalist Party.

      3. Finally, a few changed their minds, and Jefferson was elected to presidency.

    2. The revolution was that there was a peaceful transfer of power; Federalists stepped down from office after Jefferson won and did so peacefully, though not necessarily happily.

  3. The Federalist Finale
    1. It turns out that Adams was the last Federalist president, and the party sank away afterwards.

    2. Still, the Federalists had been great diplomats, signing advantageous deals with the European nations, and their conservative views had given the U.S. balance.
      1. Their only flaw was that they couldn’t yield to the American public, and since they couldn’t adapt and evolve, they died.

  4. Responsibility Breeds Moderation
    1. On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated president in the new capital of Washington D.C.
      1. In his address, he declared that all Americans were Federalists, all were Republicans, and all were all, implying that Americans were a mixture, and he also pledged “honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none.”

    2. Jefferson was simple and frugal, and did not seat in regard to rank during his dinners; he also was unconventional, wearing sloppy attire, and he started the precedent of sending messages to Congress to be read by a clerk.

    3. There were two Thomas Jeffersons: the scholarly private citizen who philosophized in his study, and the harassed public official who discovered that bookish theories worked out differently in practical politics.Jefferson also dismissed few Federalist officials, and those who wanted the seats complained.

  5. Jefferson also had to rely on his casual charm because his party was so disunited still.

  • Jeffersonian Restraint Helps to Further a “Revolution”
    1. Jefferson pardoned those who were serving time under the Sedition Act, and in 1802, he enacted a new naturalization law that returned the years needed for an immigrant to become a citizen from fourteen to five.

    2. He also kicked away the excise tax, but otherwise left the Hamiltonian system intact.

    3. The new secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, reduced the national debt substantially while balancing the budget.

    4. By shrewdly absorbing the major Federalist programs, Jefferson showed that a change of regime need not be disastrous for the exiting group.

  • The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary
    1. The Judiciary Act, passed by the Federalists in their last days of Congress domination in 1801, packed newly created judgeships with Federalist-backing men, so as to prolong their legacy.

    2. Chief Justice John Marshall, a cousin of Jefferson, had served at Valley Forge during the War, and he had been impressed with the drawbacks of no central authority, and thus, he became a lifelong Federalist, committed to strengthening the power of the federal government.
      1. Marbury vs. Madison (1803): William Marbury had been one of the “midnight judges” appointed by John Adams in his last hours as president. He had been named justice of peace for D.C., but when Secretary of State James Madison decided to shelve the position, he sued for its delivery. Marshall dismissed the case, but he said that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus suggesting that the Supreme Court could determine the constitutionality of laws (judicial review).

    3. In 1804, Jefferson tried to impeach the tart-tongued Supreme Court justice, Samuel Chase, but when the vote got to the Senate, not enough votes were mustered, and to this day, no attempt to alter the Supreme Court has ever been tried through impeachment.

  • The Pacifist Jefferson Turns Warrior
    1. Jefferson reduced the militia to 2500 men, and navies were reduced a bit to peacetime footing.

    2. However, the pirates of the North African Barbary States were still looting U.S. ships, and in 1801, the pasha of Tripoli indirectly declared war when he cut down the flagstaff of the American consulate.
      1. Noninterventionalist Jefferson had a problem of whether to fight or not, and he reluctantly set the infant navy to the shores of Tripoli, where fighting continued for four years until Jefferson succeeded in extorting a treaty of peace from Tripoli in 1805 for $60,000.

      2. The small, mobile gunboats used in the Tripolitan War fascinated Jefferson, and he spent money to build about 200 of them (these boats might be zippy and fast, but they did little against large battleships). Result: bad decision.

  • The Louisiana Godsend
    1. In 1800, Napoleon secretly induced the king of Spain to cede the Louisiana territory to France.

    2. Then, in 1802, the Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit guaranteed by the treaty of 1795; deposit privileges were vital to the frontier farmers who floated their produce down the Mississippi River to its mouth to await oceangoing vessels.
      1. These farmers talked of marching to New Orleans to violently get back what they deserved, an action that would have plunged the U.S. into war with Spain & France.

    3. In 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join regular minister Robert R. Livingston to buy New Orleans and as much land to the east for a total of $10 million, tops.

    4. Instead, Napoleon offered to sell New Orleans and the land west of it, Louisiana, for a bargain of $15 million, thereby abandoning his dream of a French North American empire.
      1. This was due to the rebellion in Haiti, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, which had been unsuccessful but had killed lots of French troops due to yellow fever, and also because Napoleon needed cash to renew his war with Britain.

    5. The Louisiana Purchase was finalized on April 30, 1803.

    6. Jefferson had a dilemma, since this was not what he had authorized, but on the other hand, THIS DEAL WAS TOO GOOD TO PASS UP!!!
      1. After considering an amendment, Jefferson finally decided to go through with the deal anyway, even though nothing in the Constitution talked about land purchases, and Jefferson had been a strict interpreter of the Constitution. Thus, he made a full 180° turnaround from his previous philosophical beliefs about the Constitution.

    7. The Senate quickly approved the purchase soon afterwards, and the Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, and was the biggest bargain in history (average 3 cents per acre).

  • Louisiana in the Long View
    1. The purchase created a precedent of acquisition of foreign territory through purchase.

    2. In spring of 1804, Jefferson sent William Clark and Meriwether Lewis to explore this new territory. Along with a Shoshoni woman named Sacajawea, the two spent 21/2 years exploring the land, marveling at the expanses of buffalo, elk, deer, and antelope, and went all the way to Oregon and the Pacific before returning.

    3. Other explorers, like Zebulon M. Pie trekked to the headwaters of the Mississippi River in 1805-06 and ventured to the southern portion of Louisiana and sighted Pike’s Peak.

    4. The Federalists now sank lower than ever, and tried to scheme with Aaron Burr to make New England and New York secede from the union; in the process Aaron Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.

    5. In 1806, Burr was arrested for treason, but the two witnesses were nowhere to be found.

    6. The Louisiana Purchase was also nurturing a deep sense of loyalty in the West to the federal government, and a new spirit of nationalism surged through it.

  • America: A Nutcrackered Neutral
    1. In 1804, Jefferson won with a margin of 162 Electoral votes to 14 for his opponent, but this happiness was nonexistent because in 1803, Napoleon had deliberately provoked Britain into renewing its war with France.
      1. As a result, American trade sank deep as England and France, unable to hurt each other (England owned the sea thanks to the Battle of Trafalgar while France owned the land thanks to the Battle of Austerlitz), resorted to indirect blows.

      2. In 1806, London issued the Orders in Council, which closed ports under French continental control to foreign shipping, including American, unless they stopped at a British port first.

      3. Napoleon ordered the seizure of all ships, including American, that entered British ports.

      4. Impressment (illegal seizure of men and forcing of them to serve on ships) of American seamen also incensed the U.S.; some 6000 American were impressed from 1808-11 along, angering U.S. people.

      5. In 1807, a royal frigate overhauled the U.S. frigate, the Chesapeake, about 10 miles off the coast of Virginia, and the British captain ordered the seizure of four alleged deserters. When the American commander refused, the U.S. ship received three devastating broadsides that killed 3 Americans and wounded 18. In an incident in which England was clearly wrong, Jefferson still clung to peace.

  • Jefferson’s Backfiring Embargo
    1. In order to try to stop the British and French seizure of American ships, Jefferson resorted to an embargo; after all, Britain and France depended on U.S. goods, didn’t they?
      1. Also, the U.S. still had a weak navy and a weaker army.

    2. The Embargo Act of late 1807 forbade the export of all goods from the United States, whether in American or foreign ships.
      1. The net result was deserted docks, rotting ships in the harbors, and empty soup kitchens, and Jefferson's embargo hurt the same New England merchants that it was trying to protect.

      2. The commerce of New England was harmed more that that of France and Britain.

      3. Farmers of the South and West were alarmed by the mounting piles of unexportable cotton, grain, and tobacco.

      4. Illegal trade mushroomed in 1808, where people resorted to smuggling again.

    3. Finally, coming to their senses and feeling the public’s anger, Congress repealed the act on March 1, 1809, three days before Jefferson’s retirement and replaced it with the Non-Intercourse Act, which reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except France and England.
      1. Thus, economic coercion continued from 1809 to 1812, when war struck.

    4. The embargo failed for two main reasons: (1) Jefferson underestimated the bulldog British and their dependence on American goods and (2) he didn’t continue the embargo long enough or tightly enough to achieve success.
      1. Even Jefferson himself admitted that the embargo was three times more costly than war, and he could have built a strong money with a fraction of the money lost.

    5. During the tie of the embargo, the Federalist Party regained some of its lost power.

    6. However, during this embargo, resourceful Americans also opened and reopened factories, and thus, the embargo helped to promote industrialism—another irony, since Jefferson was committed to an agrarian country.

    7. Also, the embargo did affect Britain, and had it been continued, it might have succeeded.
      1. In fact, two days before Congress declared war in June 1812, London ordered the Orders in Council to be suspended.

  • Jefferson’s Legacy
    1. Jefferson, fearing setting a precedent for a dictatorship, didn’t run for a third term, and since Washington didn’t really want to while Jefferson purposely did not run again, it was he who truly set the two term precedent.

    2. Jefferson and John Adams both died on July 4, 1826 (Jefferson a few hours earlier), but Thomas Jefferson still survives in the democratic ideals and liberal principles of the great nation that he risked his all to found and that he served so long and faithfully.

  • Madison: Dupe of Napoleon
    1. Madison took the oath on March 4, 1809; he was short, bald, and not a great speaker.

    2. In 1810, Congress adopted a bargaining measure called Macon’s Bill No. 2, which while permitting American trade with all the world, also promised American restoration of trade to France and/or England if either dropped their commercial restrictions.
      1. Napoleon had his opportunity: in August of 1810, he announced that French commercial restrictions had been lifted, and Madison, desperate for recognition of the law, declared France available for American trade.,

      2. Of course, Napoleon lied, and never really lifted them, but meanwhile, America had been duped into entering European affairs against Great Britain. :):):)

    3. War Whoops Arouse the War Hawks
      1. In 1811, new young politicians swept away the older “submission men,” and they appointed Henry Clay of Kentucky, then 34 years old, to Speaker of the House.

      2. The western politicians also cried out against the Indian threat on the frontier.

      3. Indians had watched with increasing apprehension as more and more Whites settled in Kentucky, a traditionally sacred area where settlement and extensive hunting was not allowed except in times of scarcity.
        1. Thus, two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and the Prophet, decided that the time to act was now, and gathered followers, urging them to give up textile clothing for traditional buckskin garments, arguing eloquently for the Indian’s to not acknowledge the White Man’s “ownership” of land, and urging that no Indian should cede control of land to whites unless all Indians agreed.

        2. On November 7, 1811, American general William Henry Harrison advanced upon Tecumseh’s headquarters at Tippecanoe an burned it to the ground.

        3. Tecumseh was killed at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, and the Indian confederacy dream perished.

        4. In the South, Andrew Jackson crushed the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on March 27, 1814, effectively breaking the Indian rebellion and leaving the entire area east of the Mississippi open for safe settlement.

      4. The war hawks cried that the only way to get rid of the Indians was to wipe out their base: Canada, since the British had helped the Indians.
        1. War was declared in 1812, with a House vote of 79 to 49 and a very close Senate vote of 19 to 13, showing America’s disunity.

  • Mr. Madison’s War
    1. Why war with Britain and not France? Because England’s impressments stood out, France was allied more with the Republicans, and Canada was a very tempting prize that seemed easy to get, a “frontiersman’s frolic.”

    2. New England, which was still making lots of money, damned the war for a free sea, and Federalists opposed the war because (1) they were more inclined toward Britain anyway and (2) if Canada was conquered, it would add more agrarian land and increase Republican supporters.

    3. Thus, a disunited America had to fight both Old England and New England in the War of 1812, since Britain was the enemy while New England tried everything that they could do to frustrate American ambitions in the war.

    • AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 11: The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Democracy37.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

    1. On to Canada over Land and Lakes
      1. Due to widespread disunity, the War of 1812 ranks as one of America’s worst fought wars.

      2. There was not burning national anger, like there was after the Chesapeake outrage; the regular army was very bad and scattered and had old, senile generals, and the offensive strategy against Canada was especially poorly conceived.
        1. Had the Americans captured Montreal, everything west would have wilted like a tree after its trunk has been severed, but the Americans instead focused a three-pronged attack that set out from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain, all of which were beaten back.

        2. In contrast, the British and Canadians displayed enthusiasm early on in the war and captured the American fort of Michilimackinac, which commanded the upper Great Lakes area (the battle was led by British General Isaac Brock).

      3. After more land invasions were hurled back in 1813, the Americans, led by Oliver Hazard Perry, built a fleet of green-timbered ships manned by inexperienced men, but still managed to capture a British fleet; his victory, coupled with General William H. Harrison’s defeat of the British during the Battle of the Thames, helped bring more enthusiasm and increased morale for the war.

      4. In 1814, 10,000 British troops prepared for a crushing blow to the Americans along the Lake Champlain route, but on September 11, 1814, Thomas Macdonough challenged the British and snatched victory from the fangs of defeat and forced the British to retreat.

    2. Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended.
      1. In August 1814, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area, dispersed 6000 panicked Americans at Bladensburg, and proceeded to enter Washington D.C. and burn most of the buildings there.

      2. At Baltimore, another British fleet arrived but was beaten back by the privateer defenders of Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star Spangled Banner.”

      3. Another British army menaced the entire Mississippi Valley and threatened New Orleans, and Andrew Jackson, fresh off his slaughter of the Creek Indians, led a hodgepodge force of 7000 sailors, regulars, pirates, and Frenchmen, entrenching them and helping them defeat 8000 overconfident British that had launched a frontal attack.

      4. The news of this British defeat reached Washington early in February 1815, and two weeks later came news of peace from Britain.

      5. Ignorant citizens simply assumed that the British, having been beaten by Jackson, finally wanted peace, lest they get beaten again by the “awesome” Americans.

      6. During the war, the American navy had done much better than the army, since the sailors were angry at British impressments.

      7. However, Britain responded with a naval blockade, raiding ships and ruining American economic life such as fishing.

    3. The Treaty of Ghent
      1. At first, the confident British made sweeping demands for a neutralized Indian buffer state in the Great Lakes region, control of the Great Lakes, and a substantial part of conquered Maine, but the Americans, led by John Quincy Adams, refused. As American victories piled up, though, the British reconsidered.

      2. The Treat of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, was an armistice, acknowledging the draw in the war and ignoring any other demands of either side.

    4. Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention
      1. As the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island secretly met in Hartford from December 15 1814 to January 5, 1815, to discuss their grievances and to seek redress for their wrongs.
        1. While a few talked about secession, most wanted financial assistance form Washington to compensate for lost trade, and an amendment requiring 2/3 majority for all declarations of embargos, except during invasion.

        2. Three special envoys from Mass. went to D.C., where they were greeted with the news from New Orleans; their mission failed, they sank away in disgrace and into obscurity.

      2. The Hartford Convention proved to be the death of the Federalist Party, as their last presidential nomination was trounced by James Monroe in 1816.

    5. The Second War for American Independence
      1. The War of 1812 was a small war involving some 6000 Americans killed or wounded, and when Napoleon invaded Russian in 1812 with 500,000 men, Madison tried to invade Canada with about 5000 men.

      2. Yet, the Americans proved that they could stand up for what they felt was right, and naval officers like Perry and Macdonough gained new respect; American diplomats were treated with more respect than before.

      3. The Federalist Party died out forever, and new war heroes, like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, emerged.

      4. Manufacturing also prospered during the British blockade, since there was nothing else to do.

      5. Incidents like the burning of Washington added fuel to the bitter conflict with Britain, and led to hatred of the nation years after the war, though few would have guessed that the War of 1812 would be the last war America fought against Britain.

      6. Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent, since not even an Indian buffer state had been achieved, and the Indians, left by the British, were forced to make treaties where they could.

      7. In 1817, though, after a heated naval arms race in the Great Lakes, the Rush-Bagot Treaty between the U.S. and Britain provided the world’s longest unfortified boundary (5527 mi.).

      8. After Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo, Europe sank into an exhaustion of peace, and America looked west to further expand.

    6. Nascent Nationalism
      1. After the war, American nationalism really took off, and authors like Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper gained international recognition.

      2. The North American Review debuted in 1815, and American painters painted landscape of America on their canvases, while history books were now being written by Americans for Americans.

      3. Washington D.C. rose from the ashes to be better than ever, and the navy and army strengthened themselves.

      4. Stephen Decatur, naval hero of the War of 1812 and the Barbary Coast expeditions, was famous for his American toast after his return from the Mediterranean: “Out country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong!”

    7. “The American System”
      1. After the war, British competitors dumped their goods onto America at cheap prices, so America responded with the Tariff of 1816, the first in U.S. history designed for protection, which put a 20-25% tariff on dutiable imports.
        1. It was not high enough, but is was a great start, and in 1824, Henry Clay established a program called the American System.

        2. The system began with a strong banking system, advocated a protective tariff behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish, and also included a network of roads and canals, especially in the burgeoning Ohio Valley, to be funded for by the tariffs, and through which would flow foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to the North and East.

      2. Lack of effective transportation had been one of the problems of the War of 1812, especially in the West, and in 1817, Congress sought to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it, saying it was unconstitutional, thus making the states look for their own money to build the badly needed roads.

    8. The So-Called Era of Good Feelings
      1. James Monroe defeated his Federalist opponent 183 to 34, and ushered in a short period of one-party rule.

      2. He straddled the generations of the Founding Fathers and the new Age of Nationalism.

      3. Early in 1817, Monroe took a goodwill tour venturing deep into New England, where he received heartwarming welcomes.

      4. A Boston newspaper even went as far as to declare that an “Era of Good Feelings” had began.

    9. The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times
      1. In 1819, a paralyzing economic panic (first since Washington’s times) engulfed the U.S., bringing deflation, depression, bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded debtors’ prisons.
        1. A major cause of the panic had been overspeculation in land prices, where the Bank of the United States fell heavily into debt.

        2. The West was especially hard hit, and the Bank of the U.S. was soon viewed with anger.

        3. There was also attention against the debtors, where, in a few overplayed cases, mothers owing a few dollars were torn away from their infants by the debtors.

    10. Growing Pains of the West
      1. Between 1791 and 1819, nine frontier states had joined the original 13.

      2. This explosive expansion of the west was due in part to the cheap land, the elimination of the Indian menace, the “Ohio Fever,” and the need for land by the tobacco farmers, who exhausted their lands.

      3. The Cumberland Road, begun in 1811 and running ultimately from western Maryland toe Illinois, was noteworthy, and the first steamboat on western waters was in 1811.

      4. The West, still not populous and politically weak, was forced to ally itself with other sections, and demanded cheap acreage.
        1. The Land Act of 1820 gave the West its wish by authorizing a buyer to purchase 80 acres of land at a minimum of $1.25 an acre in cash; the West demanded and slowly got cheap transportation as well.

    11. Slavery and the Sectional Balance
      1. Sectional tensions between the North and the South came to a boil when Missouri wanted to become a slave state.

      2. Although it met all the requirements of becoming a state, House of Reps stymied the plans for its statehood when it proposed the Tallmadge Amendment, which provided that no more slaves be brought into Missouri and also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already in Missouri (this was shot down in the Senate).

      3. Angry Southerners saw this as a threat; if the Northerners could wipe out slavery in Missouri, they might try to do so in all of the rest of the slave states.

      4. Plus, the North was starting to get more prosperous and populous than the South.

    12. The Uneasy Missouri Compromise
      1. Finally, the deadlock was broken by a bundle of compromises known as the Missouri Compromise.
        1. Missouri would be admitted as a slave state while Maine would be admitted as a free state, thus maintaining the balance.

        2. All new states north of 36°30’ line would be free.

        3. Both the North and South gained something, and though neither was totally happy, the compromise worked for many years.

      2. Monroe should have been doomed after the 1819 panic and the Missouri problem, but he was so popular and the Federalist Party so weak that he won in 1820 by all but one vote (unanimity was reserved for Washington).

    13. John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism
      1. John Marshall helped to bolster the power of the government at the expense of the states.

      2. McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): This case involved Maryland’s trying to destroy the Bank of the U.S. by taxing its currency notes. Marshall invoked the Hamiltonian principle of implied powers and denied Maryland’s right to tax the bank, and also gave the doctrine of “loose construction” its famous formulation. He implied that the Constitution was to last for many ages, and urged the end to be legitimate, and let it be within the scope of the Constitution.

      3. Cohens vs. Virginia (1821): The Cohens had been found guilty by Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, had appealed to the Supreme Court, and had lost, but Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions of the state supreme courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government.

      4. Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824): When New York tried to grant a private concern monopoly of waterborne commerce, Marshall struck it down by saying that only Congress can control interstate commerce, not the states themselves; it was another blow to states’ rights.

    14. Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses
      1. Fletcher vs. Peck(1810): After Georgia fraudulently granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River county (Mississippi) to privateers, the legislature repealed it after public outcry, but Marshall ruled that it was a contract, and that states couldn’t impair a contract. It was one of the earliest clear assertions of the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws that conflicted the Constitution.

      2. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819): Dartmouth had been granted a charter by King George III, but New Hampshire had tried to change it. Dartmouth appealed, using alum Daniel Webster to work as lawyer, and Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand. It was a contract, and the Constitution protected those.

      3. Marshall’s rulings gave the Supreme Courts their powers and greatly strengthened the federal government, giving it power to overrule state governments sometimes.

    15. Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida
      1. The Treaty of 1818 put the northern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase at the 49th parallel and provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory with Britain, without a surrender of rights and claims by neither Britain nor America.

      2. When revolutions broke out in South and Central America, Spanish troops in Florida were withdrawn to put down the rebellions, and Indian attacks ravaged American land while the Indians would then retreat back to Spanish territory.
        1. Andrew Jackson swept across the Florida border, hanged two Indian chiefs without ceremony, executed two British subjects for assisting Indians, and seized St. Marks and Pensacola.

      3. Monroe consulted his cabinet as to what to do against Jackson; all wanted to punish him except for John Quincy Adams, who demanded huge concessions from Spain.
        1. The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819 had Spain cede Florida and shadowy claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas.

    16. The Menace of Monarchy in America
      1. Monarchs in Europe now were determined to protect the world against democracy, and crushed democratic rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823), much to the alarm of Americans.

      2. Also, Russia’s claims to North American territory were intruding and making Americans nervous that Russia might claim territory that was “rightfully American.”

      3. Then, in August 1823, the British foreign secretary, George Canning, approached the American minister in London proposing that the U.S. and Britain combine in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European despots to keep their hands off of Latin American politics.

    17. Monroe and His Doctrine
      1. Sly and careful John Q. Adams sensed a joker in the proposal, correctly assumed that the European powers weren’t going to invade American anytime soon, and knew that a self-denouncing alliance with Britain would morally tie the hands of the U.S.

      2. He knew that the British boats would need to protect South America to protect their merchant trade, and presumed it safe to blow a defiant, nationalistic blast at all Europe.

      3. Late in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was born, incorporating noncolonization and nonintervention.
        1. Dedicated primarily to Russia in the West, Monroe said that no colonization in the Americas could happen anymore and also, European nations could not intervene in Latin American affairs.

        2. In return, the U.S. would not interfere in the Greek democratic revolt against Turkey.

    18. Monroe’s Doctrine Appraised
      1. The monarchs of Europe were angered, but couldn’t do anything about it, since the British navy would be there to stop them, further frustrating them.

      2. Monroe’s declaration made little splash in Latin America, since those who know of the message also recognized that it was the British navy and not America that was protecting them, and that the U.S. was doing this only to protect its own hide.

      3. Not until 1845 did President Polk revive it.

      4. In the Russo-American Treaty of 1824, the Russian tsar fixed the southern boundary of his Alaskan territory at 54°40’ and stayed at that.

      5. The Monroe Doctrine might better be called the Self-Defense Doctrine, since Monroe was concerned about the safety of his own country, not Latin America.

      6. The doctrine has never been law, a pledge, or an agreement.

      7. It was mostly an expression of post-1812 U.S. nationalism, gave a voice of patriotism, and added to the illusion of isolationism.

      8. Many Americans falsely concluded that the Republic was in fact insulated from European dangers simply because it wanted to be and because, in a nationalistic outburst, Monroe had publicly warned the Old World powers to stay away.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 12: “The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism”45.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy

    1. Politics for the People
      1. When the Federalists had dominated, democracy was not respected, but by the 1820s, it was widely appealing.
        1. Politicians now had to bend to appease and appeal to the masses, and the popular ones were the ones who claimed to be born in log cabins and had humble backgrounds.

        2. Those who were aristocratic (too clean, too well dressed, too grammatical, to highly intellectual) were scorned.

      2. Western Indian fighters and/or militia commanders, like Andrew Jackson, Davy Crocket, and William Henry Harrison, were quite popular.

      3. Jacksonian Democracy said that whatever governing that was to be done should be done directly to the people.

      4. Called the New Democracy, it was based on universal manhood suffrage.
        1. In 1791, Vermont became the first state admitted to the union to allow all white males to vote in the elections.

      5. While the old bigwigs who used to have power sneered at the “coonskin congressmen” and the “bipeds of the forest,” the new democrats argued that if they messed up, they messed up together and were not victims of aristocratic domination.

    2. Nourishing the New Democracy
      1. The flowering the political democracy was in part caused the logical outgrowth of the egalitarian ideas that had taken root in colonial times.
        1. The steady growth of the market economy also nourished it.

        2. More and more people understood how banks, tariffs, and internal improvements affected the quality of their lives.

        3. The panic of 1819 and the Missouri Compromise of 1820 also helped it grow.

      2. In the panic of 1819, overextended banks had called back their debts, and often, farmers unable to pay up lost their farms while the bankers didn’t have to lose their property because they simply suspended their own payments, and the apparent favoritism caused outcry.

      3. The problem with Missouri had aroused Southern awareness to how the North could try to crush their slavery once and for all.

      4. During the Jacksonian era, voter turnout rose dramatically, as clear political parties developed and new styles of politicking emerged.
        1. In 1824, only ¼ of all eligible voters voted, but that numbered doubled 4 years later.

        2. Candidates increasingly used banners, badges, parades, barbecues, free drinks, and baby kissing in order to “get the vote.”

        3. Now, more members of the Electoral College were being chosen directly by the people rather than be state legislatures.

        4. Since secret meetings now became unpopular, presidential nominations by congressional caucus emerged predominantly.

      5. Briefly, nominations were made by some of the state legislatures, but by 1831, the first of the circuslike national nominating conventions were held.

    3. The Adams-Clay “Corrupt” Bargaining.
      1. In the election of 1824, there were four towering candidates: Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Henry Clay of Kentucky, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and John Q. Adams of Mass.
        1. All four called themselves Republicans.

      2. In the results, Jackson got the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, but he failed to get the majority in the Electoral College. Adams came in second in both, while Crawford was fourth in the popular vote but third in the electoral votes. Clay was 4th in the electoral vote.

      3. By the 12th Amendment, the top three Electoral vote getters would be voted upon in the House of Reps. and the majority (over 50%) would be elected president.

      4. Clay was eliminated, but he was the Speaker of the House, and since Crawford has recently suffered a paralytic stroke and Clay hated Jackson, he threw his support behind John Q. Adams, helping him become president.
        1. When Clay was appointed Secretary of the State, traditional stepping-stone to the presidency, Jacksonians cried foul play.

        2. John Randolph publicly assailed the alliance between Adams and Clay.

      5. Evidence against any possible deal has never been found, but both men flawed their reputations.

    4. A Yankee Misfit in the White House
      1. John Quincy Adams was a man of puritanical honor, and he had achieved high office by commanding respect rather than by boasting great popularity.

      2. During his administration, he only removed 12 public servants from the federal payroll, thus refusing to kick out efficient officeholders in favor of his own, possibly less efficient, supporters.

      3. In his first annual message, Adams urged Congress on the construction of roads and canals, proposed for a national university, and advocated support for an astronomical observatory.
        1. Public reaction was mixed: roads were good, but observatories weren’t important, and Southerners knew that if the government did anything, it would have to continue collecting tariffs.

      4. With land, Adams tried to curb overspeculation on land, much to Westerners’ anger, even though he was doing it for their own good, and with the Cherokee Indians, he tried to deal fairly with them and the state of Georgia successfully resisted federal attempts to help the Cherokees.

    5. The Tricky “Tariff of Abominations”
      1. In 1824, Congress had increased the general tariff from 23% to 37%, but wool manufactures still wanted higher tariffs.

      2. In the Tariff of 1828, the Jacksonians schemed to drive up duties to as high as 45% while imposing heavy tariffs on raw materials like wool, so that even New England, where it was needed, would vote the bill down and give Adams another political black eye.
        1. However, the New Englanders spoiled the plan and passed the law (amended).

        2. Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun reversed their positions from 1816, with Webster supporting the tariff and Calhoun being against it.

        3. The Southerners immediately branded it as the “Tariff of Abominations.”

      3. In 1822, Denmark Vesey, a free Black, had led an ominous slave rebellion in Charleston.

      4. The South mostly complained because it was now the least expanding of the sections.
        1. Cotton prices were falling and land was growing scarce.

    6. The Tariff Yoke in the South
      1. Southerners sold their cotton and other products without tariffs, while the products that they bought were heavily tariffed.

      2. Tariffs led the U.S. to buy less British products and vice versa, but it did help the Northeast prosper so that it could be more of the South’s products.

      3. John C. Calhoun secretly wrote “The South Carolina Exposition” in 1828, boldly denouncing the recent tariff and calling for nullification of the tariff by all states.

      4. However, South Carolina was alone in this nullification threat, since Andrew Jackson had been elected two weeks earlier, and was expected to sympathize with the South.

    7. Going “Whole Hog” for Jackson in 1828”
      1. Jacksonians argued, “Should the people rule?” and said that the Adams-Clay bargaining four years before had cheated the people out of the rightful victor.
        1. They successfully turned public opinion against an honest and honorable prez.

      2. However, Adams’ supporters also hit below the belt, even though Adams himself wouldn’t stoop to that level.
        1. The called his mom a prostitute, called him an adulterer (he had married his wife thinking that her divorce had been granted, only to discover two years later that it hadn’t been), and after he got elected, his wife died, and Jackson blamed Adams’ men who had slandered Andrew Jackson on Rachel Jackson’s death; he never forgave them.

      3. John Q. Adams had purchased, with his own money and for his own use, a billiard table and a set of chessmen, but the Jacksonians had seized, criticizing Adams’ incessant spending.

    8. The Jacksonian “Revolution of 1828”
      1. Jackson got 647,286 popular votes to Adams’ 508,064 and he also beat John in the Electoral College, 178 to 83.
        1. Jackson had support from the West and South, while New England liked Adams.

      2. The political center of gravity was shifting west, as Jackson had won because of his support by the West (well, they played a large part in it anyway).

      3. Jackson sped up the process of transferring national power from the countinghouse to the farmhouse, and became the “People’s President,” not the aristocrat.

      4. Adams still had a distinguished political career after presidency, getting elected to the House of Reps. of Massachusetts, and when he died in 1848, his funeral was the greatest pageant Washington D.C. had ever seen, and his popularity was greater near then end of his political career than during its zenith.

    9. The Advent of “Old Hickory” Jackson
      1. When he became president, Andrew Jackson had already battled dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis, and lead poisoning from two bullets lodged somewhere in his body.

      2. He personified the new West: rough, jack-of-all-trades, a genuine folk hero.

      3. Jackson had been early orphaned, was interested in cockfighting as a kid, and wasn’t really good with reading and writing, sometimes misspelling the same word twice in one letter.

      4. He went to Tennessee, where he became a judge and a Congressman, and his passions were so profound that he could choke up on the floor.

      5. A man with a violent temper, he got into many duels, fights, stabbings, etc…

      6. He was a Western aristocrat, having owned many slaves, and lived in a fine mansion, the Hermitage, and he shared many of the prejudices of the masses.

      7. He was called “Old Hickory” by his troops because of his toughness.

      8. He was anti-federalist, believing that it was for the privileged only, but maintained the sacredness of the Union and the federal power over the states, but he welcomed the western democracy.

      9. Jackson commanded fear and respect from his subordinates, and ignored the Supreme Court on several occasions; he also used the veto 12 times (compared to a combined 10 times by his predecessors) and on his inauguration, he let commoners come into the White House.
        1. They wrecked the china and caused chaos until they heard that there was spiked punch on the White House front lawn; thus was the “inaugural bowl.”

        2. Conservatives condemned Jackson as “King Mob” and berated him greatly.

    10. Jackson Nationalizes the Spoils System
      1. The spoils system: rewarding supporters with good positions in office.

      2. Jackson believed that experience counted, but that young blood and sharp eyes counted more, and thus, he went to work on overhauling positions and erasing the old.

      3. Not since the election of 1800 had a new party been voted into the presidency, and even then, many positions had stayed and not changed.

    11. More Victors than Spoils
      1. Though he wanted to “wipe the slate clean,” only 1/5 of the men were sent home, and clean sweeps would come later, but there was always people hounding Jackson for positions, and those who were discharged often went mad, killed themselves, or had a tough time with it.

      2. The spoils system denied many able people a chance to contribute.

      3. Samuel Swartwout was awarded the lucrative post of collector of the customs of the port of New York, and nearly nine years later, he fled for England, leaving his accounts more than a million dollars short, becoming the first person to steal a million dollars from the government.

      4. The spoils system was built up by gifts from expectant party members, and the system secured such a tenacious hold that it took more than 50 years before its grip was even loosened.

    12. Cabinet Crises and Nationalistic Setbacks
      1. Jackson had a mediocre cabinet, except for secretary of state Martin Van Buren, who was called “Matty” by Jackson and the “Little Magician” by his enemies.

      2. He often consulted with newspaper editors who kept him up to date with his critics and the public opinion, though enemies criticized this perfectly okay thing.

      3. In 1831, the “Eaton Malaria” struck as a scandal: Secretary of War John H. Eaton had married Peggy O’Neale, a woman with whom scandal was linked, who was then scorned upon by the ladies of Jackson’s official family.
        1. Jackson tried to intervene on Peggy’s behalf, but had to accept defeat.

        2. Van Buren then began to pay special attention to pretty Peggy O’Neale, and in the subsequent scandal, Jackson turned increasingly against Calhoun, breaking with him completely eventually when Calhoun resigned as VP in 1832, one year after his followers were purged from the cabinet.

        3. Calhoun turned increasingly sectionalist.

      4. Jackson was hostile to roads and canals; he let interstate roads be constructed, but roads inside states only were vetoed.
        1. In 1830, when he vetoed a bill for improving the Maysville Road, it was a signal victory for eastern and southern states’ rightism in its struggle with Jackson’s own west.

    13. The Webster-Hayne Forensic Duel
      1. Concerned at the power and population draining out of it and into the West, in 1829, New England proposed a resolution designed to curb the sale of public lands.

      2. The South, siding with the West against rival Northeast, had Robert Y. Hayne, a South Carolinian, who noted New England’s disloyalty in the War of 1812, the “Tariff of Abominations,” and New England’s inconsistent tariffs, and also called for nullification.

      3. Daniel Webster, for New England, insisted that the people and not the states had framed the Constitution, and decried nullification; he awesomely pleaded for the Union, ending with “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable.”

    14. Websterian Cement for the Union
      1. Both men were great for their sections, and both were correct on things as they were at the time, though not necessarily on how they were in the past.

      2. Webster’s speech was reprinted and its ideas seared into countless northerners like 21 year-old Abraham Lincoln, and helped win the Civil War years before it occurred by implanting the idea for the Union to fight for: preservation of it.

      3. Jackson, who had been silent for a while, was to be coaxed through some toasts in his honor so that he’d speak up for the states’ rights.

      4. Forewarned, he declared “Our Union: It must be preserved!” and dealt a huge blow to the scheme of the states’ rights advocates.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 13: “The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy”39.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - Jacksonian Democracy at Flood Tide

    1. “Nullies” in South Carolina
      1. South Carolinians, still scornful toward the Tariff of 1828, attempted to garner the necessary two-thirds majority to nullify it in the S.C. legislature, but determined Unionists blocked them.

      2. In response to the anger at the “Tariff of Abominations,” Congress passed the Tariff of 1832, which did away with the worst parts of the Tariff of 1828, such as lowering the tariff down to 35%, a reduction of 10%, but many southerners still hated it.

      3. In the elections of 1832, the Nullies came out with a two-thirds majority over the Unionists, met in the state legislature, and declared the Tariff of 1832 to be void within S.C. boundaries.
        1. They also threatened with secession against the Union, causing a huge problem.

        2. President Jackson issued a ringing proclamation against S.C., to which governor Hayne issued a counter-proclamation, and civil war loomed dangerously.

        3. To compromise and prevent Jackson from crushing S.C. and becoming more popular, the president’s rival, Henry Clay, proposed a compromise bill that would gradually reduce the Tariff of 1832 by about 10% over a period of eight years, so that by 1842 the rates would be down to 20% to 25%.
          1. The Tariff of 1833 narrowly squeezed through Congress.

          2. However, to save face, Congress also passed the Force Bill (aka the “Bloody Bill”) that authorized the president to use the army and navy, if necessary, to collect tariffs.

      4. No other states had supported South Carolina’s stance of possible secession, though Georgia and Virginia toyed with the idea.

      5. Finally, S.C. repealed the nullification ordinance.

    2. A Victory for Both Union and Nullification
      1. The Unionists felt that they had won, since Jackson had appeased the South Carolinians and avoided civil war and an armed clash.

      2. The Nullists felt that they had won too, since they had succeeded in lowering the tariff without losing principle; the people of Charleston, the “Cradle of Secession,” threw a gala for its volunteer troops, though they now ominously considered secession more than nullification.

      3. Generations later, many people felt that if S.C. had been crushed, there would have been no Civil War, since it would not have been so brazen and arrogant and haughty.

    3. The Bank as a Political Football
      1. Jackson and his followers distrusted monopolistic banking and oversized businesses.
        1. He was especially wary of the Bank of the United States (BUS).

      2. In 1832, Henry Clay, in a strategy to bring Jackson’s popularity down so that he could defeat him for presidency, rammed a bill for the rechartering of the BUS—four years early.
        1. He felt that if Jackson signed it, he’d alienate his followers, and if he vetoed it, he’d lose the supports of the “best people” of the East.

        2. He failed to realize that the West held more power now, not the East.

      3. The recharter bill passed through Congress easily, but Jackson demolished in a scorching veto that condemned the BUS as unconstitutional (despite political foe John Marshall’s ruling that it was okay), and anti-American.

      4. The veto amplified the power of the president by ignoring the Supreme Court and aligned the West against the East.

    4. Brickbats and Bouquets for the Bank
      1. The BUS, led by Nicholas Biddle, was harsh on the volatile western “wildcat” banks that churned out unstable money, and seemed pretty autocratic and out of touch with America during its New Democracy era, and it was corrupt.
        1. Nicholas Biddle cleverly lent U.S. funds to friends, and often used the money of the BUS to bribe people, like the press.

      2. However, the bank was financially sound, reduced bank failures, issued sound notes, promoted economic expansion by making abundant credit, and was a safe depository for the funds of the Washington government.

      3. It was highly important and useful, though sometimes not necessarily pure and wholesome.

    5. “Old Hickory” Wallops Clay in 1832
      1. Jackson’s supporters again raised the hickory pole while Clay’s men detracted Jackson’s dueling, gambling, cockfighting, and fast living.

      2. However, a new third party, the Anti-Masonic Party, made its entrance for the first time.
        1. Opposed to the fearsome secrecy of the Masonic order, it was energized by the mysterious murder of someone who threatened to expose the Freemason’s secrets.

        2. While sharing Jacksonian ideals, they were against Jackson, a Mason.

        3. Also, they were supported by churches hoping to pass religious reform.

      3. Also for the first time, national conventions were held to nominate candidates.

      4. Clay had the money and the “support” of the press, but the poor people voted too, and Jackson won handily, handing Clay his third loss in three tries.

    6. Badgering Biddle’s Bank
      1. Hoping to kill the BUS, Jackson now began to withdraw federal funds from the bank, so as to drain it of its wealth; in reaction, Biddle began to call for unnecessary loans, personally causing a mini panic.

      2. Jackson won, and in 1836, the Bus breathed its last breaths, but because it had been the only source of sure credit in the United States, hard times fell upon the West once the BUS died, since the wildcat banks were very unreliable.

    7. Transplanting the Tribes
      1. By 1830, the U.S. population stood at 13 million, and as states emerged, the Indians were stranded.

      2. Federal policy officially was to acquire land from the Indians through formal treaties, but too many times, they were tricked.

      3. Many people respected the Indians, though, and tried to Christianize them.
        1. a. i.e. the Society for Propagating the Gospel Among Indians (est. 1787).

      4. Some Indians violently resisted, but the Cherokees were among the few that tried to adopt the Americans ways, adopting a system of settled agriculture, devising an alphabet, legislating legal code in 1808, and adopting a written constitution in 1827.

      5. The Cherokees, the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and the Seminoles were known as the “Five Civilized Tribes.”

      6. However, in 1828, Congress declared the Cherokee tribal council illegal, and asserted its own jurisdiction over Indian lands and affairs, and even though the Cherokees appealed to and won in the Supreme Court, Jackson refused to recognize the decision.

      7. Jackson, though, still harbored some sentiment of Indians, and proposed that they be bodily transferred west of the Mississippi, where they could preserve the culture, and in 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, in which Indians were moved to Oklahoma.
        1. Thousands of Indians died on the “Trail of Tears” after being uprooted from their sacred lands that had been theirs for centuries.

        2. Also, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1836 deal with Indians.

      8. In 1832, in Illinois and Wisconsin, the Sauk and Fox tribes revolted but were crushed.

      9. From 1835 to 1842, the Seminoles waged guerrilla warfare against the U.S., but were broken after their leader, Osceola, was seized; some fled deeper in Florida; others moved to Okla.

    8. The Lone Star of Texas Flickers
        /
      1. Americans continued to covet Texas, and in 1823, after Mexico had gained independence from Spain, Stephen Austin had made an understanding agreement with the Mexican government to bring about 300 families into a huge tract of granted land to settle and eventually become Mexicanized; these stipulations were largely ignored.

      2. The Texans (among them Davy Crockett and James Bowie) resented the “foreign” government, but they were led by Sam Houston, a man whose wife had left him.

      3. In 1830, Mexico freed its slaves and prohibited them in Texas, much to the anger of citizens.

      4. In 1833, Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to clear up differences and was jailed for 8 mo.

      5. In 1835, dictator Santa Anna started to raise an army to suppress the Texans; the next year, they declared their independence.

      6. After armed conflict and slaughters at the Alamo and at Goliad, Texan war cries rallied citizens, volunteers, and soldiers, and the turning point came after Sam Houston led his army for 37 days eastward, then turned on the Mexicans, taking advantage of their siesta hour, wiping them out, and capturing Santa Anna.
        1. The treaty he was forced to sign was later negated by him on grounds that the treaty was extorted under duress.

    9. Texas: An International Conflict.
      1. Texas was supported in their war by the United States, but Jackson was hesitant to formally recognize Texas as an independent nation until he had secured Martin Van Buren as his successor, but after he succeeded, Jackson did indeed recognize Texas on his last day before he left office, in 1837.

      2. Many Texans wanted to become part of the Union, but the slavery issue blocked this.

      3. The end was an unsettled predicament in which Texans feared the return of Santa Anna.

    10. The Birth of the Whigs and the Election of 1836
      1. The Jacksonians were beginning to drop the “Republican” out of their party name and were now going by the name of Democrats.

      2. Their opposition coalesced into the Whigs, a group united only by their opposition to Jackson and, at first, led by Clay and John C. Calhoun.

      3. As the election of 1836 neared, the Whigs planned to put so many candidates (favorite sons) that no one would get a full majority; the leading “favorite son” was William H. Harrison.

      4. Jackson rigged the election, and his favorite, Martin Van Buren, was elected president despite promising to follow in Jackson’s footsteps.
        1. The Jacksonians supported him half-heartedly.

      5. Jackson’s legacy: he bolstered the power of the presidency and the executive branch; united the Democratic party; proved that the people could be trusted with the vote; and showed the courage that won votes, but he also inflicted massive damage on the nation’s financial system by killing the BUS.

    11. Big Woes for the “Little Magician”
      1. Van Buren was the first president to have been born in America, but he lacked the support of many Democrats and Jackson’s popularity.

      2. A rebellion in Canada in 1837 threatened to plunge America into war, and Van Buren also inherited the depression caused by Jackson’s BUS killing.

    12. Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasury
      1. The panic of 1837 was caused by the “wildcat banks” loans, the overspeculation, the “Bank War,” and the Specie Circular.

      2. Failures of wheat crops caused by the Hessian fly also worsened the situation, and the failure of two large British Banks in 1836 had already started the panic going.

      3. Hundreds of banks fell, including some of Jackson’s “pet banks,” banks that had received the money that Jackson had withdrawn from the BUS to kill it.

      4. The Whigs proposed expansion of bank credit, higher tariffs, and subsidies for internal improvements, but Van Buren spurned such ideas.

      5. Instead, he proposed the “Divorce Bill” (separating the bank from the government and storing money in some of the vaults of the larger American cities, thus keeping the money safe but also unavailable) that advocated the independent treasury, and in 1840, it was passed.
        1. The next year, the victorious Whigs repealed it, but in 1846, it was brought back; it finally merged with the Federal Reserve System in the next century.

    13. “Tippecanoe” Versus “Little Van”
      1. In 1840, William Harrison was nominated due to his being issueless and enemyless, with John Tyler as his running mate.

      2. He had only been popular from Tippecanoe (1811) and the Battle of the Thames (1813).

      3. A stupid Democratic editor also helped Harrison’s cause when he called the candidate a poor old farmer with hard cider and inadvertently made him look like many poor Westerners.

    14. The Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840
      1. With slogans of “Tippecanoe and Tyler too,” the Whigs advocated this “poor man’s president” idea and replied, to such questions of the bank, internal improvements, and the tariff, with answers of “log cabin,” “hard cider,” and “Harrison is a poor man.”

      2. The popular election was close, but Harrison blew Van Buren away in the Electoral College.

      3. Basically, the election was a protest against the hard times of the era.

    15. The Two-Party System Emerges
      1. The Democrats had so successfully absorbed the Federalist ideas before that a true two party system had never emerged—until now.

      2. The Democrats
        1. Glorified the liberty of the individual.

        2. Clung to states’ rights and federal restraint in social and economic affairs.

        3. Mostly more humble, poorer folk.

      3. The Whigs
        1. Trumpeted the natural harmony of society and the value of community.

        2. Berated leaders whose appeals and self-interest fostered conflict among individuals.

        3. Favored a renewed national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements, public schools, and moral reforms.

        4. Mostly more aristocratic and wealthier.

      4. Things in Common
        1. Based on the people, with “catchall” phrases for popularity.

        2. Both also commanded loyalties from all kinds of people.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Forging the national Economy

    1. The Westward Movement
      1. USn marched quickly toward west( very hard w/ disease & loneliness)

      2. Frontier people were individualistic, superstitious & ill-informed

    2. Shaping the Western Landscape
      1. westward movement molded environment
        1. tobacco exhausted land *& moved on, but “Kentucky blue grass” thrived

      2. ecological imperialism
        1. rapped beavers, sea otters, and Bison to manufacture for East

      3. spirit of nationalism led to appreciation of American wilderness
        1. Catlin pushed for national park & achieved it w/ Yellowstone in 1872

    3. The March of the Millions
      1. mid-1800s, pop cont’d to double every 25 years

      2. 1860-orginial 13 states now has 33 states; pop 4th in the world(Russ, Fra, Austria)

      3. urban growth cont’d explosively
        1. 1790-only New York & Philadelphia had >20,000 people, but 1860, 43 had brought bad sanitation --> sewage system & pipe-in water

      4. high birthrate had accounted for pop growth, but near 1850s, millions of Irish, German came
        1. bec. surplus pop. in Euro but not all came to US 25/60 million

        2. appealing of US(land, freedom from church, aristocracy, 3 meat meals a day)

        3. intro of transoceanic steamship(reduce traveling to 12 days, death rate high not as bad)

    4. The Emerald Isle Moves West(1830s-1960s-2 million)
      1. Irish potato famine in mid-1840s led to death of 2million & many flee to US
        1. “Black Forties”—mainly came to big city-Boston, esp New York(biggest Irish city)

        2. illiterate, discriminated by Old USn, received lowest of job(railroad building)

        3. hated by Protestants bec. catholic

        4. USn hated Irish(NINA); Irish hated competition w/ blacks for job

        5. Ancient Order of Hibernians(serve to aid Irish)

        6. gradual property owning (grand success), children edu. Cut short to buy land attracted to politics, filled police dept.

        7. politician tried to appeal to Irish by yelling at London

    5. The German Forty-Eighters
      1. 1 million poured in bet 1830s-1860s bec. crop failures & loose of rev of 1848 toward liberalism
        1. liberals such as Carl Schurz contributed to elevation of US politic

        2. had more $ than Irish so bought land in west esp. in Wisconsin

        3. votes crucial so wooed by US politicians but not as potent bec. spread out

        4. contributed to US culture (Christmas tree); isolationism

        5. urged public education & freedom(enemies of slavery)

        6. resentment from Old bec. group & aloof; brought beers to US

    6. Flare-ups of Antiforeignism
      1. “nativists” prejudiced newcomers in jobs, poli, religion

      2. catholic became major relig group bec. immigration of 1840s, 50s & set out to build catholic school

      3. nativist feared that Catholicism build on Protestantism (popish idols) so formed “Order of star-spangled Banner”
        1. met in secrecy-“Know-Nothing” party

        2. fought for restriction on immigration, naturalization & deportation of alien paupers

        3. wrote fiction books about corruption of churches

        4. mass violence, ex. Philadelphia 1844-burned churches, schools, people killed

        5. made America pluralistic society w/ diversity

        6. no longer hated bec. crucial to eco expansion & more availability of jobs

    7. The March of Mechanization
      1. Industrial revolution spread to US & US destined to be an industrial giant bec.
        1. land was cheap, labor scare, $ for investment plentiful, raw materials not discovered

        2. lacked consumer for factory-scale manufacturing

        3. British long-estab. factory was competition

        4. kept textile to own monopoly(forbade travel of crafts men & export of machine)

      2. US remained very rural to farming

    8. Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine
      1. Samuel Slater – “Father of the Factory System”
        1. learned machinery when working in British Factory--> escaped to US, aided by Moses Brown--> build 1st cotton thread spinner in US (1791)

      2. Eli Whitney build a cotton gin (50 times more effective than hand picking cotton)
        1. cotton eco now profitable, saved the South to King Cotton

        2. south flourished & expanded cotton kingdom toward west

        3. north factories manufactured, esp. New England (w/ poor soil, dense labor, access to sea, river for water power)

    9. Marvels in Manufacturing
      1. embargo of war of 1812 encouraged home manufacture

      2. w/ peace of Ghent, British poured in surplus in cheap $, forcing close of American factory

      3. congress passed Tariff of 1816 to protect US eco

      4. Eli Whitney introduce machine made replaceable parts (on muskets)-1850
        1. base of assembly line (flourished North); cotton gin flourished south

      5. Elias Howe & Issac Singer (1846) made sewing machine(foundation of clothing industry)

      6. Decades of 1860 had 28,000 patents while 1800 only had 306

      7. Principle of limited liability(can’t loose more than invested) stimulate eco

      8. Laws of “free incorporation” (1848)-no need to apply for charter from legislature to start corp.

      9. Samuel Morse’s telegraph connected business world-“What hath god wrought?”

    10. Workers and “Wage Slaves”
      1. factory system led to impersonal relations

      2. benefit went to factory owner, labors were long, wages low, meals bad, no union

      3. child labor heavy; ½ of force child labors

      4. adult working condition improved in 1820s & 30s w/ mass vote to workers
        1. 10hour day, higher $, tolerable condition, public edu, ban of imprisonment for debt

        2. 1840s presi. Buren estab. 10 hour day

        3. many stroked but lost bec. employers import more workers (so hated immigrants)

      5. union formed in 1830s but hit by panic of 1837
        1. case of Commonwealth vs. Hunt in supreme court of Massa (1842)
          1. legalized union on peaceful & honorable protest

    11. Women and the Economy
      1. women were toiled in factory under bad conditions(scare of pop)

      2. opportunities rare & women mainly in nursing, domestic service, teaching

      3. women usu worked before marriage, after marry-house wives (made more decisions in family)

      4. arrange marriage died down; marriage w/ love tied family closer

      5. family grew smaller(ave. 6); fertility rate dropped sharply (“domestic feminism”

      6. child-centered w/ less children & discipline not physically

      7. charc of family: small, affectionate, child-centered, small arena for talented women

    12. Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields
      1. trans-Allegheny region (Ohio-Indiana-Illinois)became nation’s breadbasket
        1. planted corns & raised hogs (known as “porkopolis” of the west”

      2. inventions that boomed agriculture
        1. John Deere-steel plow that cut through hard soil & can be pulled by horses

        2. Cyrus McCormick-mechanical mower-reaper

      3. led to large-scale production & cash crops

      4. produced more than south; product flow N to S in rivers, not E & W-need transportation rev,

    13. Highways and Steamboats
      1. improvements in transportation needed for raw material transport

      2. Lancaster turnpike-hard road from Philadelphia & Lancaster; brought eco expansion to west

      3. Federal gov. construct Cumberland Road(Maryland -Illinois)(1811-1852 )w/ state & federal $

      4. Robert Fulton invents steam engine(Steam boats)-1807
        1. increa US trade bec. no concern for weather & water current

        2. contributed to dev. of S & W eco

    14. “Clinton’s Big Ditch” in New York
      1. Clinton’s Big Ditch-Erie Canal bet. Great Lake & Hudson River(1817-1825)
        1. shorten expense & time of transportation & cities grew along the side, $ of food reduced

        2. farmers unable to compete in east went to west; changes in food

    15. Pioneer Railroad Promoters
      1. 1st railroad in US(1828); by 1860-30,000 mi. railroad tracks in US(3/4 at north)

      2. railroad 1st opposed bec. financier afraid to loose $ from Erie canal & also cause fire to houses

      3. trains were badly constructed (brakes bad) & gauge of traveling varied

    16. The Transport Web Binds the Union
      1. steamboat allowed reverse transport of S to E to bind them together

      2. more canals led to more trade w/ East than South by the west

      3. New York became the Queen port of the country--> goods distributed

      4. Principle of divided labor-each region specialize in own eco activity
        1. S-cotton to New Eng.; W-grain & livestock for E & Euro; E-machines, textiles for s &W

      5. S thought missi linked them to other states; but overlooked 2 N states are eco-interconnected

      6. Transformed home-once center of eco but now refugee of home

    17. Wealth and Poverty
      1. widen the gap bet. Rich & poor

      2. city w/ greatest extreme
        1. unskilled workers were “drifters”-town to town for jobs (1/2 of industrial pop)-forgotten

        2. social mobility existed but not in proportion, rags-to-rich were rare

      3. standard of living did raise, wage rose too (helped diffuse potential class conflict)

    18. Cables, Clippers, and Pony Riders
      1. foreign export
        1. cotton account for ½ of exports

        2. after repeal of Corn Law of 1846, wheat became imp role in trade w/ Eng.

      2. American imported more than exported (substantial debt to foreign creditors)

      3. 1858-Cyrus Field laid Cable bet. US & Euro(but died in 3 weeks); better one in 1866

      4. American vessels laid by embargoes, panics; naval made little progress
        1. gold age of naval came in 1840s, 50s –Mckay build clipper ships (fast, long)
          1. tea trade w/ British & carried many to CA

          2. crushed by British’s iron tramp steamers

        2. speedy communication-roads from Missouri to CA, Pony Express

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture (1790-1860)

    1. Reviving Religion
      1. Church attendance were regular in 1850(3/4 pop)

      2. Many relied on Deism (reason rather revelation); rejected original sin, denied Christ’s divinity but believed in supreme being that created universe

      3. Puritans of the past now-Unitarian faith(New Eng.)
        1. god existed in only 1 person not in orthodox trinity; stressed goodness of human nature

        2. belief n free will & salvation through good work; pictured God as loving father

        3. appealed to intellectuals w/ rationalism & optimism

      4. liberalism in relig started in 1800
        1. tidal wave of spiritual fervor that result prison, church reform, temperance cause, women’s movement, abolish slavery

        2. spread to mass through huge “camp meetings”

        3. E went to W to Christianize Indians

        4. Methodists & Baptist stressed personal conversion, demo in church affairs, emotionalism

        5. Peter Cartwright-best known of “circuit riders”

        6. Charles Grandison Finney were greatest of revival preachers

        7. led massive revivals in Rochester & New York

    2. Denominational Diversity
      1. revival furthered fragmentation of religious faith
        1. New York w/ Puritans preaching “hellfire” known as “Burned-out District”
          1. Millerites(Adventists)-Christ return to earth on Oct 22,1844 (didn’t come)

      2. widen lines bet. classes & region(like 1st)
        1. conservatives, propertied-Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Congregationalists, Unitarians

        2. less learned of S & E-Methodists, Baptists

      3. Religious further split w/ issue on slavery (Methodist, Presbyterians split)

    3. A Desert Zion in Utah
      1. Joseph Smith(1830) came up(NY) w. Mormon & Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
        1. antagonism toward Mormons for polygamy, drilling militia, voting as a unit

        2. Smith died but succeeded by Brigham Young who led followers to Utah
          1. grew quickly by 1850s by birth & immigration from Euro

        3. federal gov. marched to Utah when Young became govnr. But no bloodshed
          1. polygamy prevented Utah entrance to US till 1896

    4. Free School for a Free People
      1. Tax-supported primary school was opposed bec, relate to pauperism & used by poor

      2. Gradually support bec. “brats” might grow up to be rabbles w. voting rights

      3. Free pub edu, triumphed in 1825 w/ vote power in Jackson elect
        1. ill taught & ill trained teachers
          1. Horace Mann fought for better school

        2. too expensive for many community; blacks exempt from edu.

      4. imp people-Noah Webster(dictionary); (Ohioan William H. McGuffey-Mcguffey’s readers)

    5. Higher Goals for Higher Learning
      1. 2nd great awakening led to building of small schools in S & W (mainly for pride)
        1. mainly on Latin, Greek, Math, moral philosophy (boredom)

      2. 1st state supported uni. in N. Carolina by Jefferson (dedication freedom from relig., poli)

      3. women thought to be bad if too educated

      4. Emma Willard-estab Tory Female Seminary (1821) &(Mount holyoke Seminary (1837)

      5. Libraries, public lectures, magazines flourished

    6. An Age of Reform
      1. reformers vs. tobacco, alcohol, profanity, transit of mail on Sabbath, women’s rights, polygamy, medicines

      2. optimistic for a perfect society (women imp. in reforms)
        1. naïve & ignored problems of factory

        2. fought for no imprison for debt (poor lock in jail for less than $1)-gradually abolished

        3. criminal codes soften & reformatories added

        4. mentally insane treated badly (ex. Dorothea Dix fought-classic petition of 1843)

        5. agitation for peace(American Peace Society-1828)-William Ladd (had some impact till civil & Crimean war)

    7. Demon Rum-The “Old Deluder”
      1. drunkenness were widely spread

      2. American Temperance Society formed at Boston (1826)-“Cold Water Army”(children), sign pledges, pamphlets (anti-alcohol tract-10 nights in a Barroom and What I Saw There-Arthur)

      3. Vs. Demon Drink adopt 2 major line attack
        1. stressed temperance(individual will to resist)

        2. legislature-removed temptation-Neal S Dow “Father of Prohibition”
          1. sponsored Maine Law of 1851-prohibited make, sale liquor(follow by others)

    8. Women in Revolt
      1. women stayed home, w/o voting rights, (19th century)-better than Euro

      2. many women avoided marriage all together

      3. gender diff sharply w/ raising eco role
        1. women weak phy. & emotionally but fined for teaching

        2. men strong but crude if not guided by women

      4. home center of women(even in reformer Catharine Beecher) but many felt not enough

      5. joined abolishing of slavery, touched by reform

      6. women’s movement led by Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony(Suzy Bs), Elizabeth Candy Staton, Elizabeth Blackwell (1st female medical graduate), Margaret Fuller, Grimke sisters (anti-slavery), Amelia bloomer (semi-short skirts)

      7. Women’s Rights Convention (1848)-Seneca Falls-NY
        1. Declaration of Sentiments-spirit of Decla of Inde- “all Men & Women are created equal”

        2. demanded ballot for women

        3. launched modern women’s rights movement

      8. temperately eclipsed by slavery but conditions improved

    9. Wilderness Utopias
      1. Robert Owen founded New Harmony (1825)--> confusion

      2. Brook Farm-Massa(1841)-20 intellectuals committed to Transcendentalism (lasted till 46)

      3. Oneida Community-practiced free love, birth control, eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring

      4. Shakers-communistic community (led by Mother Ann Lee)-1770 (can’t marry so extinct)

    10. The Dawn of Scientific Achievement
      1. early American interested in practical science than pure
        1. Jefferson & the plow

        2. Nathaniel bowditch-practical navigation & oceanographer

        3. Matthew maury-ocean winds, currents

      2. writers concerned basic science

      3. most influential US scientists
        1. Benjamin Silliman(1779-1864)-pioneer in chemist, geologist (taught in Yale)

        2. Louis Agassiz(1807-1873)-served at Harvard, insist on original research

        3. Asa Gray (1810-1888)Harvard-Columbus of botany

        4. John Audubon(1785-1851)painted birds

      4. medicine in US primitive, bleeding used for cure; smallpox, yellow fever kill many

      5. life expectancy low

      6. self-prescribed patent medicine common (often harmful)

      7. surgery tied people down

    11. Artistic Achievement
      1. Us imitated Euro on styles

      2. 1820-50 was Greek revival (inde from turk)--> later gothic forms

      3. Thomas Jefferson most ablest architect of generation (Montecello & Uni of Virginia)

      4. Artists view bec. no leisure time; suffered from Puritan prejudice of art as sinful waste

      5. Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828)-painted Washington & competed w/ Eng artists Wilson Peale(1741-1827)painted 60 portraits of Washington John Trumbull(1756-1843)-captured rev. war in paint

      6. During nationalism upsurge after war of 1812-US painters portrayed human landscapes & romanticism

      7. Music shaking off bec. puritans frowned on non-relig singing
        1. “darky” tunes popular-Stephen Foster-“Old Folk at Home”(most famous)

    12. The Blossoming of a National Literature
      1. reading plagiarized from Eng

      2. poured literature to practical outlet (ex. Federalist, Common Sense(Paine),Ben Franklin’s autobiography)

      3. literature revived after war of inde & esp after war of 1812

      4. Knickerbocker group in NY
        1. Washington Irving(1783-1859)-1st USn int’l recog- The Sketch Book)

        2. James Fenimore Cooper(1789-1851)-1st USn novelist-leatherstocking tales(pop in Euro)

        3. William Cullen Bryant(1794-1878)-Thanatopsis(1st highly quality poems in US)

    13. Trumpeters of Transcendentalism
      1. literature dawn in 2nd quarter of 19th century w/ transcendentalist movement (1830)
        1. vs. Locke (knowledge from reason); truth not by observation alone but w/ inner light

        2. ndividualism, black or white

        3. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)-popular bec. ideal reflected US
          1. lectured Phi Beta Kappa Address “The American Scholar”

          2. urged US writers throw off Euro tradition

          3. most influential as practical philosopher (stressed self-gov, reliance, etc.)

        4. Henry David Thoreau(1817-1862)-condemned slavery : Wladen: Or life in the Woods
          1. On the Duty of Civil Disobedience-further idealistic thought

        5. walth Whitman(1819-1892)-Leaves of Grass(poems) “Poet Laureate of Demo”

    14. Glowing Literary Lights(not associated w/ transcendentalism)
      1. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow(1807-1882)-wrote poems popular in Euro “Evangeline”

      2. John Greenleaf Whittier(1807-1892)-poem cried vs. injustice, intolerance, inhumanity (social influence

      3. James Russell Lowell (1819-1891)-political satirist-Biglow Papers

      4. Oliver Wendell Holmes(1809-1894)-The last Leaf

      5. Women writers
        1. Louisa May Alcott(1832-1888)-massa(w/ transcendentalism)-Little Women

        2. Emily Dickinson-theme of nature in poems

      6. Southern literary figure-William Gillmore Simms (1806-1870)-“the cooper of the south”(many books-life in frontier, south in rev war)

    15. Literary Individualists and Dissenters
      1. Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849)-“The Raven”
        1. invented modern detective novel

        2. fascinated by ghosts-reflect morbid sensibility (more prized by Euro)

      2. reflection Calvinist obsession on original sin & struggle bet. good & evil
        1. Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864)-The Scarlet Letter (psychological effect on sin)

        2. Herman Melvile (1819-1891)-Moby Dick-bet. good & evil told in whale captain

    16. Portrayers of the Past(historians)
      1. George Bancroft(1800-1891)-found naval academy-published US history book
        1. “Father of American History”

      2. Wiliam H. Prescott-pub conquest of Mexico, Peru

      3. Francis Parkman-pub struggle bet. France & Eng in colonial of N. America

      4. Historians All from New Eng bec. had most books (anti-south bias; antipathy w. slavery)

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

    1. “Cotton’s Is King!”
      1. Before the 1793 invention of Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, slavery was a dying business, since the South was burdened with depressed prices, unmarketable goods, and over-cropped lands.
        1. After the gin was invented, growing cotton became wildly profitable and easier, and more slaves were needed.

      2. The North also transported the cotton to England and the rest of Europe, so they were in part responsible for the slave trade as well.

      3. The South produced more than half the world’s supply of cotton, and held and advantage over countries like England, an industrial giant, which needed cotton to make cloth, etc…

      4. The South believed that since England was so dependent on them that, if civil war was to ever break out, England would support the South that it so heavily depended on.

    2. The Planter “Aristocracy”
      1. In 1850, only 1733 families owned more tan 100 slaves each, and they were the wealthy aristocracy of the South, with big houses and huge plantations.

      2. The Southern aristocrats widened the gap between the rich and the poor and hampered public-funded education by sending their children to private schools.
        1. Also, a favorite author among them was Sir Walter Scott, author of Ivan Hoe, who helped them idealize a feudal society with them as the kings and queens and the slaves as their subjects.

      3. The plantation system shaped the lives of southern women.
        1. Mistresses of the house commanded a sizable household of mostly female slaves who cooked, sewed, cared for the children, and washed things.

        2. Mistresses could be kind or cruel, but all of them did at one point or another abuse their slaves to some degree; there was no “perfect mistress.”

    3. Slaves of the Slave System
      1. Cotton production spoiled the earth, and even though profits were quick and high, land was ruined, and cotton producers were always in need of new land.

      2. The economic structure of the South became increasingly monopolistic because as land ran out, smaller farmers sold their land to the large estate owners.

      3. Also, the temptation to overspeculate in land and in slaves caused many planters to plunge deep into debt.
        1. Slaves were valuable, but they were also a gamble, since they might run away or be killed by disease.

      4. The dominance of King Cotton likewise led to a one-crop economy whose price level was at the mercy of world conditions.

      5. Southerners resented the Northerners growing fat (getting rich) at their expense while they were dependent on the North for clothing, other food, and manufactured goods.

      6. The South repelled immigrants from Europe, who went to the North, making it richer.

    4. The White Majority
      1. Beneath the aristocracy were the whites that owned one or two or a small family of slaves; they worked hard on the riled with their slaves and the only difference between them and their northern neighbors was that there were slaves living with them.

      2. Beneath these people were the slaveless whites that raised corn and hogs, sneered at the rich cotton “snobocracy” and lived simply and poorly.
        1. Some of the poorest were known as “poor white trash” and “hillbillies” and were described as listless, shiftless, and misshapen.

        2. It is now known that these people weren’t lazy, just sick, suffering from malnutrition and parasites like hookworm.

      3. Even the slaveless whites defended the slavery system because they all hoped to own a slave or two some day, and they could take perverse pleasure in knowing that, no matter how bad they were, they always “outranked” Blacks.

      4. Mountain whites, those who lived isolated in the wilderness under Spartan frontier conditions, hated white aristocrats and Blacks, and they were key in crippling the Southern secessionists during the Civil War.

    5. Free Blacks: Slaves Without Masters
      1. By 1860, free Blacks in the South numbered about 250,000.

      2. In the upper South, these Blacks were descended from those freed by the idealism of the Revolutionary War (“all men were created equal”).

      3. In the deep South, they were usually mulattoes (Black mother, White father who was usually a master) freed when their masters died.

      4. Many owned property; a few owned slaves themselves.

      5. Free Blacks were prohibited from working in certain occupations and forbidden from testifying against whites in court; and as examples of what slaves could be, Whites resented them.

      6. In the North, free Blacks were also unpopular, as several states denied their entrance, most denied them the right to vote and most barred them from public schools.

      7. Northern Blacks were especially hated by the Irish, with whom they competed for jobs.

      8. Antiblack feeling was stronger in the North, where people liked the race but not the individual, than in the South, were people liked the individual but not the race.

    6. Plantation Slavery
      1. Although slave importation was banned in 1808, smuggling of them continued due to their high demand and despite death sentences to smugglers

      2. However, the slave increase (4 million by 1860) was mostly due to their natural reproduction.

      3. Slaves were an investment, and thus were treated better and more kindly and were spared the most dangerous jobs, like putting a roof on a house, draining a swamp, or blasting caves.
        1. Usually, Irishmen were used to do that sort of work.

      4. Slavery also created majorities or near-ones in the Deep South, and the states of South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana accounted for half of all slaves in the South.

      5. Breeding slaves was not encouraged, but thousands of slaves were “sold down the river” to toil as field-gang workers, and women who gave birth to many children were prized.
        1. Some were promised freedom after ten children born.

      6. Slave auctions were brutal, with slaves being inspected like animals and families often mercilessly separated; Harriet Beecher Stowe seized the emotional power of his scene in her Uncle Tom’s Cabin.

    7. Life Under the Lash
      1. Slave life varied from place to place, but for slaves everywhere, life meant hard work, no civil or political rights, and whipping if orders weren’t followed.

      2. Laws that tried to protect slaves were difficult to enforce.

      3. Lash beatings weren’t tthat common, since a master could lower the value of his slave if he whipped him too much.

      4. Forced separation of spouses, parents and children seem to have been more common in the upper South, among smaller plantations.

      5. Still, most slaves were raised in stable two-parent households and continuity of family identity across generations was evidenced in the widespread practice of naming children for grandparents or adopting the surname of a forebear’s master.

      6. In contrast to the White planters, Africans avoided marriage of first cousins.

      7. African also mixed Christian religion with their own native religion, and often, they sang Christian hymns as signals and codes for news of possible freedom; many of them sang songs that emphasize bondage (“Let my people go.”)

    8. The Burdens of Bondage
      1. Slaves had no dignity, were illiterate, and had no chance of achieving the “American dream.”

      2. They also devised countless ways to make trouble without getting punished to badly.
        1. They worked as slowly as they could without getting lashed.

        2. They stole food and sabotaged expensive equipment.

        3. Occasionally, they poisoned their masters’ food.

      3. Rebellions, such as the 1800 insurrection by a slave named Gabriel in Richmond, Virginia, and the 1822 Charleston rebellion led by Denmark Vesey, and the 1831 revolt semiliterate preacher Nat Turner, were never successful.

      4. Whites became paranoid of Black revolts, and they had to degrade themselves, along with their victims, as noted by distinguished Black leader Booker T. Washington.

    9. Early Abolitionism
      1. In 1817, the American Colonization Society was founded for the purpose of transporting Blacks back to Africa, and in 1822, the Republic of Liberia was founded for Blacks to live.

      2. Most Blacks had no wish to be transplanted into a strange civilization after having been partially Americanized.

      3. By 1860, virtually all slaves were not Africans, but native-born African-Americans.

      4. In the 1830s, abolitionism really took off, with the Second Great Awakening and other things providing support.

      5. Theodore Dwight Weld was among those who were inflamed against slavery.

      6. Inspired by Charles Grandison Finney, Weld preached against slavery and even wrote a pamphlet, American Slavery As It Is.

    10. Radical Abolitionism
      1. On January 1st, 1831, William Lloyd Garrison published the first edition of The Liberator triggering a 30-year war of words and in a sense firing one of the first shots of the Civil War.

      2. Other dedicated abolitionists rallied around Garrison, such as Wendell Phillips, a Boston patrician known as “abolition’s golden trumpet” who refused to eat cane sugar or were cotton cloth, since both were made by slaves.

      3. David Walker, a Black abolitionist, wrote Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World in 1829 and advocated a bloody end to white supremacy.

      4. Sojourner Truth, a freed Black woman who fought for black emancipation and women’s rights, and Martin Delaney, one of the few people who seriously reconsidered Black relocation to Africa, also fought for Black rights.

      5. The greatest Black abolitionist was an escaped black, Frederick Douglass, who was a great speaker and fought for the Black cause despite being beaten and harassed.
        1. His autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, depicted his remarkable struggle and his origins, as well as (duh) his life.

        2. While Garrison seemed more concerned with his own righteousness, Douglass increasingly looked to politics to solve the slavery problem.

        3. He and others backed the Liberty Party in 1840, the Free Soil Party in 1848, and the Republican Party in the 1850s.

      6. In the end, many abolitionists supported war as the price for emancipation.

    11. The South Lashes Back
      1. In the South, abolitionist efforts increasingly came under attack and fire.

      2. Southerners began to organize a campaign talking about slavery’s positive good, conveniently forgetting about how their previous doubts about “peculiar institution’s” morality.

      3. Southern slave supporters pointed out how masters taught their slaves religion, made them civilized, treated them well, and gave them “happy” lives.

      4. They also noted the lot of northern free Blacks, now were persecuted and harassed, as opposed to southern Black slaves, who were treated well, given meals, and cared for in old age.

      5. In 1836, Southern House members passed a “gag resolution” requiring all antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate, arousing the ire of northerners like John Quincy Adams.

      6. Southerners also resented the flood of propaganda in the form of pamphlets, drawings, etc…

    12. The Abolitionist Impact in the North
      1. For a long time, abolitionists like the extreme Garrisonians were unpopular, since many had been raised to believe the values of the slavery compromises in the Constitution.
        1. Also, his secessionist talks contrasted against Webster’s cries for union.

      2. The South owed the North $300 million by the late 1850s, and northern factories depended on southern cotton to make goods.

      3. Many abolitionists’ speeches provoked violence and mob outbursts in the North, such as the 1834 trashing of Lewis Tappan’s New York House.

      4. In 1835, Garrison miraculously escaped a mob that dragged him around the streets of Boston.

      5. Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy of Alton, Illinois, who impugned the chastity of Catholic women, had his printing press destroyed four times and was killed by a mob in 1837; he became an abolitionist martyr.

      6. Yet by the 1850s, abolitionist outcries had been an impact on northern minds and were beginning to sway more and more toward their side.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy 1841 – 1848

    1. The Accession of “Tyler Too”

      1. The Whig leaders, namely Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, had planned to control newly elected President William H. Harrison, but their plans hit a snag when he contracted pneumonia and died—only four weeks after he came to the White House.

      2. The new president was John Tyler, a Virginian gentleman who was a lone wolf.

        1. He did not agree with the Whig party, since they were pro-bank and pro-protective tariff and pro-internal improvements, but he was not.

    2. John Tyler: A President Without a Party

      1. After their victory, the Whigs unveiled their platform for America:

        1. Financial reform would come in the form of a law ending the independent treasury system; Tyler agreeably signed it.

        2. A new bill for a new U.S. Bank was on the table, but Clay didn’t try hard enough to conciliate with Tyler and get it passed, and it was vetoed.

      2. Whig extremists now started to call Tyler “his accidency.”

        1. His entire cabinet resigned, except for Webster.

      3. Also, Tyler vetoed a proposed Whig tariff.

      4. The Whigs redrafted and revised the tariff, taking out the dollar-distribution scheme and pushing down the rates to about the moderately protective level of 1832 (32%), and Tyler, realizing that a tariff was needed, reluctantly signed it.

    3. A War of Words with England.

      1. At this time, anti-British sentiment was high because the pro-British Federalists had died out, there had been two wars with Britain, and the British travelers in America scoffed at the “uncivilized” Americans.

      2. American and British magazines ripped each other’s countries, but fortunately, this war was only of words and not of blood.

      3. In the 1800s, America with its expensive canals and railroads was a borrowing nation while Britain was the one that lent money, but when the Panic of 1837 broke out, the Englishmen who lost money assailed their rash American borrowers.

      4. In 1837, a small rebellion in Canada broke out, and American furnished arms and supplies.

      5. Also in 1837, an American steamer, the Caroline, was attacked in New York and set on fire by a British force

      6. Tensions were high afterwards, but later calmed; then in 1841, British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to some 130 revolting slaves who had captured the ship Creole.

    4. Manipulating the Maine Maps

      1. Maine had claimed territory on its northern and eastern border that was also claimed by England, and there were actually small skirmishes in the area, but luckily, in 1842 Britain sent Lord Ashburton to negotiate with Daniel Webster, and after talks, the two agreed to what is now called the Ashburton-Webster Treaty, which gave Britain their desired Halifax-Quebec route for a road while America go more land north of Maine as well as a readjustment of the U.S.-Canadian border which later yielded the priceless Mesabi iron ore of Minnesota.

    5. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

      1. Ever since it had declared independence in 1836, Texas had built up reinforcements because it had no idea if or when Mexico would attack again to reclaim her “province in revolt,” so it made treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium.

      2. America could not just boldly annex Texas without a war, and overseas, Britain wanted an independent Texas to check American expansionism—plus, Texas could be good for cotton.

    6. The Belated Texas Nuptials

      1. James K. Polk and his expansionist ideas won the election of 1844, and the following year, Texas was formally invited to become the 28th state of the Union.

      2. Mexico complained that Americans had despoiled it of Texas, which was partly true, but as it turned out, Mexico would not have been able to reconquer their lost province anyway.

    7. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

      1. Oregon was a great place, stretching from the northern tip of California to the 54° 40’ line.

      2. Once claimed by Russia, Spain, England, and the U.S., now, only the latter two claimed it; England had good reasons for its claims north of the Columbia River, since it was populated by British and by the Hudson’s Bay Company.

      3. However, Americans had strong claims south of the Columbia River (named after his ship by Robert Gray when he discovered the river), since they populated it much more.

      4. The Oregon Trail, an over 2000-mile trail across America, was a common route to Oregon during the early 1840s.

    8. A Mandate (?) for Manifest Destiny

      1. In 1844, the two candidates for presidency were Henry Clay, the popular Whig who had been defeated twice before, and a dark-horse candidate, James K. Polk, who had been picked because the Democrats couldn’t agree on anyone else.

      2. Polk, having been Speaker of the House for four years and governor of Tennessee for two terms, was not stranger to politics, was called “Young Hickory,” and was sponsored by former president Andrew Jackson.

      3. He and the Democrats advocated “Manifest Destiny,” a concept that stated that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent and get as much land as possible.

      4. On the issue of Texas, Clay tried to say two things at once, and thus, it cost him, since he lost the election (170 to 105 in the Electoral; 1,338,464 to 1,300,097 in the popular) by 5000 votes in New York.

    9. Polk the Purposeful

      1. One of Polk’s acts was to lower the tariff, and his secretary of the treasury, Robert J. Walker, did so, lowering the tariff from 32% to 25% despite complaints by the industrialists.

        1. Despite warnings of doom, the new tariff was followed by good times.

      2. He also restored the independent treasury in 1846 and wanted to acquire California and settle the Oregon dispute.

      3. While the Democrats had promoted acquiring all of Oregon during their campaign, after the annexation of Texas, the Southern Democrats didn’t much care anymore.

      4. Luckily, the British proposed a treaty that would separate British and American claims at the 49th parallel (excluding Vancouver), a proposal that Polk threw to the Senate, which accepted.

      5. Those angry with the deal cried, “Why all of Texas but not all of Oregon?”

    10. Misunderstandings with Mexico

      1. Polk wanted California, but this was difficult due to strained U.S.-Mexican relations.

        1. After the annexation of Texas, Mexico had recalled its foreign minister, and before, it had been forced to default on its payments of $3 million to the U.S.

        2. Also, when Texas claimed its southern boundary to be the Rio Grande and not the Nueces River, Polk felt that he had to defend Texas and did so.

      2. . The U.S. then sent John Slidell to Mexico City as an envoy instructed to buy California for $25 million, however, once he arrived, the Mexican government, pressured by its angry people, refused to see him, thus “snubbing” him.

    11. American Blood on American (?) Soil

      1. A frustrated Polk now forced a showdown, and on Jan. 13, 1846, he ordered 4000 men under Zachary Taylor to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, provocatively near Mexican troops.

      2. As events would have it, on April 25, 1846, news of Mexican troops crossing the Rio Grande and killing of wounding 16 Americans came to Washington, and Polk pushed for a declaration of war

        1. A group of politicians, though, wanted to know where exactly was the spot of the fighting; among them was Abraham “Spotty” Lincoln.

      3. Pushed by Polk, Congress declared war, and so began the Mexican-American War.

    12. The Mastering of Mexico

      1. Polk hoped that once American had beaten Mexico enough, he could get California and end the war, and the recently dethroned Santa Anna told the U.S. that if he could return to Mexico, he would take over the government, end the war, and give California to the U.S. He lied.

      2. In the Southwest, U.S. operations led by Stephen W. Kearny (led 1700 troops from Leavenworth to Santa Fe) and John C. Fremont (leader of the Bear Flag Revolt in California) were successful.

      3. “Old Rough and Ready” Zachary Taylor, a general, he fought into Mexico, reaching Buena Vista, and repelled 20,000 Mexicans with only 5000 men, instantly becoming a hero.

      4. General Winfield Scott led American troops into Mexico City.

    13. Fighting Mexico for Peace

      1. Polk sent Nicholas Trist to negotiate an armistice with Mexico at a cost of $10,000 (Santa Anna took the bribe and then used it for his defenses, haha).

      2. Afterwards, Trist was recalled, but he refused to leave and negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2nd, 1848, which gave to America all Mexican territory from Texas to California that was north of the Rio Grande, and the U.S. only had to pay $15 million to Mexico for it.

      3. In America, there were people clamoring an end to the war (the Whigs) and those who wanted all of Mexico (but the leaders of the South like John C. Calhoun realized the political nightmare that would cause and decided not to be so greedy), so Polk speedily passed the bill to the Senate, which approved it, 38 to 14.

      4. Polk had originally planned to pay $25 million just for California, but he only paid $18,250,000; some people say that American paid even that much because it felt guilty for having bullied Mexico into a war it couldn’t win.

    14. Profit and Loss in Mexico

      1. In the war, America only had 13,000 dead soldiers, most taken by disease, and the war was a great practice for the Civil War, giving men like Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant invaluable battle experience.

      2. Outside countries now respected America more, since it had made no major blunders during the war and had proven its fighting prowess.

      3. However, it also paved the way to the Civil War by attaining more land that could be disputed over slavery.

      4. David Wilmot of Pennsylvania introduced his Wilmot Proviso (and amendment), which stated that slavery should never exist in any of the territories that would be taken from Mexico; the amendment was passed twice by the House but never got passed the Senate.

      5. Bitter Mexicans, resentful of the land that was taken from them, land that halved their country’s size, took small satisfaction when the same land caused disputes that led to the Civil War, a fate called Santa Anna’s revenge.
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 18: Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy 1841 – 184842.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle 1848 – 1854

    1. The Popular Sovereignty Panacea

      1. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo ended the Mexican-American War, but it started a whole new debate about the extension of slavery, with Northerners rallying around the Wilmot Proviso; however, the Southerners shot it down.

      2. Before, the two national parties, the Democrats and the Whigs had strong support from all over the nation; now, that was in jeopardy.

      3. In 1848, Polk, due to tremendous overworking and chronic diarrhea, did not seek a second term, and the Democrats nominated General Lewis Cass, a veteran of the War of 1812, a senator and diplomat of wide experience and considerable ability, and the originator of popular sovereignty, the idea that issues should be decided upon by the people (specifically, it applied to slavery, stating that the people in the territories should decide to legalize it or not.

        1. It was good because it was a compromise between the extremes of the North and the South, and it stuck with the idea of self-determination, but it could spread slavery.

    2. Political Triumphs for General Taylor

      1. The Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista, a man with no political experience, but a popular man, and they avoided all picky issues in his campaign.

      2. Disgusted antislavery Northerners organized the Free Soil Party, a party committed against the extension of slavery in the territories and one that also advocated federal aid for internal improvements and urged free government homesteads for settlers.

        1. This party appealed to people angry over the half-acquisition of Oregon, people who didn’t like Blacks in the new territory, a well as “conscience Whigs” who condemned slavery on moral grounds.

        2. The Free Soilers nominated Martin Van Buren

      3. Neither major party talked about the slavery issue, but Taylor won narrowly.

    3. “Californy Gold”

      1. In 1848, gold was discovered in California, and thousands of men flooded into the state, thus blowing the lid off of the slavery issue.

      2. Most people didn’t “strike it rich,” but there were many lawless men and women.

      3. As a result, California (privately encouraged by the president) drafted a constitution and then applied for statehood, thus bypassing the usual territorial stage and avoiding becoming a slave state.

    4. Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad.

      1. In 1850, the South was very well off, with a Southerner as president (Taylor), a majority in the cabinet and on the Supreme Court, and equality in the Senate; plus, its 15 states could veto any proposed amendment that would outlaw slavery, yet it was worried.

      2. The balance of 15 free states and 15 slave states was in danger with the admission of free California (which would indeed destroy the equilibrium forever) and other states might follow California as free states.

      3. The South was also agitated about Texas’ claims on disputed territory and the prospect of no slavery in Washington D.C., thus putting a piece of non-slavery land right in the middle of slave-holding Virginia and Maryland.

      4. Finally the Underground Railroad, a secret organization that took runaway states north to Canada, was taking more and more slaves from the South.

        1. Harriet Tubman freed more than 300 slaves during 19 trips to the South.

      5. The South was also demanded a stricter fugitive slave law.

    5. Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

      1. In 1850, Congress was confronted with catastrophe in 1850, with California demanding admission as a free state.

      2. Thus, the three giants met together for the last time to engineer a compromise.

        1. Henry Clay, now 73 years old, urged concession from both the North and the South (the North for a fugitive slave law, the South for others) and was seconded by Stephen Douglas, the “Little Giant” and a fine senator.

        2. John C. Calhoun, dying of tuberculosis, pleaded for slavery to be left alone, for the return of runaway slaves, the restoration of the rights of the South as a minority, and the return for political balance.

        3. Daniel Webster proclaimed that the new land could not hold slaves anyway, since it couldn’t cultivate cotton, etc… and his Seventh of March speech helped the North into compromise.

      3. As a result of the popular speech, though, Webster was also proclaimed a traitor to the North, since he had called for the ignorance of the slavery subject.

    6. Deadlock and Danger on Capitol Hill

      1. A new group of politicians, the Young Guard, seemed more interested in purifying the Union rather than patching it up.

      2. William H. Seward, a young senator from New York, was flatly against concession and hated slavery, but he didn’t seem to realize that the Union was built on compromise, and he said that Christian legislators must adhere to a “higher law” and not allow slavery to exist; this might have cost him the 1860 presidential election.

      3. President Taylor also appeared to have fallen under the influence of the “higher law,” vetoing every compromise sent to him by Congress.

    7. Breaking the Congressional Logjam

      1. Then, in 1850, Zachary Taylor suddenly died of an acute intestinal disorder, and portly Millard Fillmore took over the reigns.

        1. Impressed by arguments of conciliation, he signed a series of agreements that came to be known as the Compromise of 1850.

        2. Clay, Webster, and Douglas orated on behalf of the compromise for the North, but the South hated it; fortunately, they finally accepted it after much debate.

    8. Balancing the Compromise Scales

      1. The North got the better deal in the Compromise of 1850:

        1. California was admitted as a free state, permanently tipping the balance.

        2. The Utah and New Mexico Territories could decide, with popular sovereignty, over slavery.

        3. Texas lost its disputed territory to New Mexico and (now) Oklahoma but was paid $10 million.

        4. The District of Columbia could not have slave trade, but slavery was still legal.

        5. A new Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was drastic, and it stated that (1) fleeing slaves couldn’t testify on their own behalf, (2) the federal commissioner who handled the case got $5 if the slave was free and $10 if not, and (3) people who were ordered to help catch slaves had to do so, even if they didn’t want to.

      2. Inflamed Northerners pledged not to follow the new law, and the Underground Railroad stepped up its timetable.

      3. It turns out that the new Fugitive Slave Law was a blunder on behalf of the South, since it inflamed both sides, but a civil war didn’t occur, and this was better for the North, since with each moment, it was growing ahead of the South in population and wealth—in crops, factories, foundries, ships, and railroads.

    9. Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

      1. In 1852, the Democrats, unable to agree, finally nominated dark horse Franklin Pierce, a man who was unknown and enemyless.

      2. The Whigs nominated “Old Fuss and Feathers” Winfield Scott, the old veteran of the War of 1812 and the Mexican-American War.

      3. Both parties boasted about the Compromise of 1850, though the Democrats did more.

      4. The Whigs were hopelessly split, and thus, Pierce won in a landslide; the death of the Whigs ended the national political arguments and gave rise to sectional political alignments.

    10. President Pierce the Expansionist

      1. Pierce tried to be another Polk, and he impressed followers by reciting his inaugural address from memory, but his cabinet was filled with Southerners like Jefferson Davis and he was prepared to be a Southerner’s tool

      2. In July of 1856, a brazen American adventurer, William Walker, grabbed control in Nicaragua and proclaimed himself president, then legalized slavery, but a coalition of Latin American states overthrew him.

      3. Over on the Pacific, America was ready to open up Asia, and it opened up Japan when Commodore Matthew C. Perry steamed into the harbor of Tokyo in 1854.

    11. Coveted Cuba: Pearl of the Antilles

      1. America wanted Cuba, but Spain wouldn’t sell it to the U.S. at any price, so after two bad attempts to take Cuba failed and after Spain captured the American steamer Black Warrior on a technicality, three U.S. foreign ministers met in Ostend, Belgium and drew up the Ostend Manifesto which stated that the U.S. was to offer $120 million to Spain for Cuba, and if it refused and Spain’s ownership of Cuba continued to endanger the U.S., then America would be justified in seizing the island.

      2. Northerners were outraged once this “secret” document was leaked, and the South could not get Cuba (and obtain another slave state).

      3. Also, since the North wanted Canada and the South did not, the North failed in obtaining Canada (sectional interests cancelled each other out).

    12. Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase

      1. Though the U.S. owned California and Oregon, getting was very difficult, since the sea routes were too long and the wagon route over land was dangerous, so the only real feasible solution lay in a transcontinental railroad.

      2. The Southerners wanted a route through the South, but best one would go through Mexico, so Secretary of War Jefferson Davis arranged to have James Gadsden appointed minister to Mexico.

        1. Finding Santa Anna in power again, he bought the Gadsden Purchase for $10 million, and despite clamor about the “rip-off,” Congress passed the sale.

      3. The South now appeared to have control of the location of the transcontinental railroad, but the North said that if organization of territories was the problem, then Nebraska should be organized.

    13. Douglas’s Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

      1. To do this, Senator Stephen Douglas proposed (now called) the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which would let slavery in Kansas and Nebraska be decided upon by popular sovereignty.

        1. The problem was that the Missouri Compromise had banned this, so the act would have to repeal it.

        2. Southerners had not thought of Kansas as a possible slave state, and thus backed the bill, but Northerners rallied against it.

        3. Nevertheless, Douglass rammed the bill through Congress, and it was passed.

    14. Congress Legislates a Civil War

      1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act directly wrecked the Compromise of 1820 and indirectly wrecked the Compromise of 1850.

      2. Northerners no longer enforced the Fugitive Slave Law at all, and Southerners were still angry.

      3. The Democratic Party was hopelessly split into two, and after 1856, it would not have a president elected for 28 years.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Drifting Toward Disunion 1854 – 1861

    1. Stowe and Helper: Literary Incendiaries

      1. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stow published Uncle Tom’s Cabin, a popular book that awakened the passions of the North toward the evils of slavery.

      2. The book sold millions of copies, and overseas, British people were charmed by it.

        1. The book helped Britain stay out of the Civil War because its people, who had read the book and had now denounced slavery, wouldn’t allow intervention on behalf of the South.

      3. Another book, The Impending Crisis of the South, was written by Hinton R. Helper, a non-aristocratic white North Carolinian who tried to prove, by an array of stats, that the non-slave-holding Southern whites were really the ones most hurt by slavery.

        1. Published in the North, this book and Uncle Tom’s Cabin were both banned in the South but widely read in the North.

    2. The North-South Contest for Kansas

      1. Northerners began to pour into Kansas, and Southerners were outraged, since they had supported the Compromise of 1850 under the impression that Kansas would become slave.

      2. Thus, on election day in 1855, hordes of Southerners from Missouri flooded the polls and elected Kansas to be a slave state; free soilers unable to stomach this set up their own government in Topeka.

        1. Thus, confused Kansans had to chose between two governments: one illegal (in Topeka) and the other fraudulent (in Shawnee).

      3. In 1856, a group of proslavery raiders shot up and burned part of Lawrence, thus starting violence.

    3. Kansas in Convulsion

      1. John Brown, a crazy man (literally), led a band of followers to Pottawatomie Creek in May of 1856 and hacked to death five presumable proslaveryites.

        1. This brutal violence surprised even the most ardent abolitionists and brought swift retaliation from proslaveryites.

      2. By 1857, Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood, and those for slavery devised the Lecompton Constitution, which provided that the people were only allowed to vote for the constitution “with slavery” or “without slavery.”

        1. If the constitution was passed “without slavery,” then those slaveholders already in the state would still be protected.

        2. Angry free soilers boycotted the polls and Kansas approved the constitution with slavery.

      3. In Washington, James Buchanan had succeeded Franklin Pierce, but like the former prez, Buchanan was more towards the South, and firmly supported the Lecompton Constitution.

      4. Senator Stephen Douglas, refusing to have this fraudulency, threw away his Southern support when he fought for a fair election, and the result was the Lecompton Constitution voted on as a whole.

      5. Thus, the Democratic Party was hopelessly divided, ending the last remaining national party for years to come (the Whigs were dead and the Republicans were sectional).

    4. “Bully” Brooks and His Bludgeon

      1. “Bleeding Kansas” was an issue that spilled into Congress: Senator Charles Sumner was a vocal antislaveryite, and his blistering speeches condemned all slavery supporters.

      2. Congressman Preston S. Brooks decided that since he couldn’t challenge Sumner to a duel, he’d beat the senator with a cane like a dog, which is just what he did until his cane broke; nearby senators did nothing but watched, and Brooks was cheered on by the South.

      3. However, the incident touched off fireworks, as Sumner’s “The Crime Against Kansas” speech was reprinted by the thousands, and it put Brooks and the South in the wrong.

    5. “Old Buck” versus “The Pathfinder”

      1. In 1856, the Democrats had chosen James Buchanan, someone untainted by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and a person with lots of political experience, to be their nomination for presidency against Republican John C. Fremont, a fighter in the Mexican-American War.

      2. Another party, the American Party, also called the “Know-Nothing Party” because of its secrecy, was organized by “nativists,” old-stock Protestants, who nominated Millard Fillmore.

        1. These people were anti-Catholic and anti-foreign and also included old Whigs.

      3. The campaign was full of mudslinging, which allegations of scandal and conspiracy.

      4. Fremont was hurt by the rumor that he was a Roman-Catholic.

    6. The Electoral Fruits of 1856

      1. Buchanan won because there were doubts about Fremont’s honesty, capacity, and sound judgment.

      2. Perhaps it was better that Buchanan won, since Fremont was not as strong as Lincoln, and in 1856, many people were still apathetic about slavery, and the South could have seceded more easily.

    7. The Dred Scot Bombshell

      1. On March 6, 1857, the Dred Scot decision was handed down by the Supreme Court.

        1. Dred Scot had been a slave whose master had taken him north into free territory, where he had lived for many years. After his master’s death, he sued for his freedom from his new master, claiming that he had been in free territory. The Missouri Supreme Court agreed, freeing him, but his new master appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which overruled the decision.

      2. Chief Justice Taney said that no slave could be a citizen of the U.S. in his justification

      3. The case inflamed millions of abolitionists against slavery and even though who didn’t care against it.

        1. In effect, he ruled that the Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional: Congress had no right to ban slavery from the territories.

      4. Northerners complained; Southerners were inflamed by northern defiance, and more tension built.

    8. The Financial Crash of 1857

      1. Psychologically, the Panic of 1857 was the worst of the 19th century, though it really wasn’t as bad as the Panic of 1837.

      2. The panic was caused by inflation and overgrowth of grain and nowhere to export it.

      3. The North was especially hard hit, but the South rode it out with flying colors, seemingly proving that cotton was king and raising their egos.

      4. Also, in 1860, Congress passed a homestead act that would provide 160 acres of land at a cheap price for those who were less fortunate, but it was vetoed by Buchanan.

        1. This plan, though, was opposed by the northeast, which had long been unfriendly to extension of land and had feared that it would drain its population even more, and the south, which knew that it would provide an easy way for more free soilers to fill the territories.

      5. The panic also brought calls for a higher tariff rate, which had been lowered to about 20% only months before.

    9. An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges

      1. In 1858, Senator Stephen Douglas’ term was about to expire, and against him was Republican Abraham Lincoln, an ugly fellow who had risen up the political ladder slowly but was a good lawyer and a pretty decent debater.

    10. The Great Debate: Lincoln versus Douglas

      1. Lincoln rashly challenged Douglas, the nation’s most devastating debater, to a series of seven debates, which the senator accepted, and despite expectations of failure, Lincoln held his own.

      2. The most famous debate came at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln brought this scenario: if the people had a territory voted slavery down, would they be right, despite the Supreme Court saying that they could not do so?

        1. Douglas replied with his “Freeport Doctrine,” which said that no matter how the Supreme Court ruled, slavery would stay down if the people voted it down; the people had the power.

      3. Douglas won, but more people voted for Abe, so he won the moral victory.

    11. John Brown: Murderer or Martyr?

      1. John Brown now had a plan to invade the South, seize its arms, call up on the slaves to rise up and revolt, and take over the South and free it of slaves, but in his raid of Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, the slaves didn’t revolt, and he was captured and convicted of treason and sentenced to death.

      2. Brown, though insane, was not stupid, and he portrayed himself as a martyr against slavery, and when he was hung, he instantly became a martyr for abolitionists; northerners rallied around his memory.

      3. The South was happy, but abolitionists were infuriated by his execution (they conveniently forgot about his violent past)

    12. The Disruption of the Democrats

      1. After failing to nominate a candidate in Charleston, South Carolina, the Democrats split into North and South, and at Baltimore, the Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas for president while the Southern Democrats chose John C. Breckinridge.

      2. Meanwhile, the “Know-Nothings” chose John Bell of Tennessee.

    13. A Rail-Splitter Splits the Union

      1. The Republicans, sensing victory against their split opponents, nominating Abraham Lincoln, not William Seward.

      2. Their platform had an appeal to every important non-southern group: for free soilers it proposed non-extension of slavery; for northern manufacturers, a protective tariff; for the immigrants, no abridgement of rights; for the West, internal improvements at federal expense; and for the farmers, free homesteads.

      3. Southerners threatened that Lincolns election would result in Southern secession.

      4. Lincoln wasn’t an outright abolitionist, since as late as February 1865, he had still favored cash compensation for free slaves.

      5. Abe Lincoln won despite not even being on the ballot in the South.

    14. The Electoral Upheaval of 1860

      1. Lincoln won with only 40% of the popular vote, and had the Democratic Party been more organized and energetic, they might have won.

      2. The Republicans did not control the House or the Senate, and the South still had a five to four majority in the Supreme Court, but the South still decided to secede.

    15. The Secessionist Exodus

      1. South Carolina had threatened to secede if Lincoln was elected president, and now it went good on its word, seceding in December of 1860.

        1. Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed in the next six weeks.

      2. The seven seceders met in Montgomery, Alabama in February of 1861 and created the Confederate ,b>States of America, and they chose Jefferson Davis as president.

      3. President Buchanan did nothing to force the confederacy back into the Union, partly because the Union troops were needed in the West and because the North was still apathetic toward secession; they felt that it was better that the South had seceded.

    16. The Collapse of Compromise

      1. In an attempt at compromise (again), James Henry Crittenden of Kentucky proposed the Crittenden amendments, which would ban slavery north of the 36°30’ line and would leave the issue in territories south of the line up to the people; also, existing slavery south of the line would be protected.

      2. Lincoln opposed the compromise, which might have worked, because his party had preached against the extension of slavery, and he had to stick to principle.

      3. It also seems that Buchanan couldn’t have saved the Union no matter what he could have done.

    17. Farewell to Union

      1. The seceding states did so because they feared that their rights as a slaveholding minority were being threatened, and were alarmed at the growing power of the Republicans, plus, they believed that they would be unopposed despite what the Northerners claimed.

      2. The South also hoped to develop its own banking and shipping, and to prosper.

      3. Besides, in 1776, the 13 colonies had seceded from Britain and had won; now the South could do the same thing.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - Girding for War: The North and South 1861 – 1865

    1. President of the Disunited States of America
      1. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president, having slipped into Washington D.C. to thwart assassins, and in his inaugural address, he stated that there would be no conflict unless the South provoked it.
        1. He stated that geographically, the United States could not be split (true).
      2. A split U.S. brought up questions about the sharing of the national debt and the allocation of federal territories.
      3. A split U.S. also pleased the European countries, since the U.S. was the only major display of democracy in the Western Hemisphere, and with a split U.S. the Monroe Doctrine could be broken as well.
    2. South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter
      1. Most of the forts in the South had relinquished their power to the Confederacy, but Fort Sumter was among the few that didn’t, and since its supplies were running out against a besieging South Carolinian army, Lincoln had a problem of how to deal with the situation.
      2. Lincoln intelligently chose to send supplies to the fort, and he told the South Carolinian governor that the ship to the fort only held provisions, not reinforcements.
      3. However, to the South, provisions were reinforcements, and on April 12, 1861, cannons were fired onto the fort; after 34 hours of non-lethal firing, the fort surrendered.
      4. Northerners were inflamed by the South’s actions, and Lincoln now called on 75,000 volunteers; so many came that they had to be turned away.
      5. On April 19 and 27, Lincoln also called a blockade that was leaky at first but soon clamped down tight.
      6. The South, feeling that Lincoln was now waging an aggressive war, was joined by four of the Border States: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.
      7. The capital of the Confederacy was moved from Montgomery to Richmond.
    3. Brother’s Blood and Border Blood
      1. The remaining Border States were crucial for both sides, as they would have almost doubled the manufacturing capacity of the South and increased its supply of horses and mules by half.
      2. Thus, to retain them, Lincoln used moral persuasion…and methods of dubious legality:
        1. In Maryland, he declared martial law in order to retain a state that would isolate Washington D.C. within Confederacy territory if it went to the South and also sent troops to western Virginia and Missouri.
      3. At the beginning, in order to hold the remaining Border States, Lincoln repeated said that the war was to save the Union, not free the slaves, since a war for the slaves would have lost the Border States
      4. Most of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) sided with the South, although parts of the Cherokee and most of the Plains Indians were pro-North.
      5. The war was one of brother vs. brother, with the mountain men of (now) West Virginia sending some 50,000 men to the Union.
    4. The Balance of Forces
      1. The South, at the beginning of the war, did have many advantages:
        1. It only had to fight to a draw to win, since all it had to do was keep the North from invading and taking over all of its territory.
        2. It had the most talented officers, including Robert E. Lee and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, and most of the Southerners had been trained to fight in the harsh South since they were children, as opposed to the tame Northerners.
      2. However, the South was handicapped by a shortage of factories and manufacturing plants, but during the war, those developed in the South.
      3. Still, as the war dragged on, the South found itself with a shortage of shoes, uniforms, blankets, clothing, and food, which didn’t reach soldiers due to supply problems.
      4. However, the North had a huge economy, much more men available to fight, and it controlled the sea, though its officers weren’t as well trained as some in the South.
      5. As the war dragged on, Northern strengths beat Southern advantages.
    5. Dethroning King Cotton
      1. The South was depending on foreign intervention to win the war, but didn’t get it.
      2. While the European countries wanted the Union to be split, their people had were pro-North and anti-slavery, and sensing that this was could eliminate slavery once and for all, they would not allow any intervention by their nations on behalf of the South.
      3. Still, the war would produce a shortage of cotton, which would draw England et al into the war, right? Wrong.
        1. In the pre-war years, cotton production had been immense, and thus, England and France had huge surpluses of cotton.
        2. As the North won Southern territory, it sent cotton and food over to Europe.
        3. India and Egypt upped their cotton production to offset the hike in the price of cotton.
      4. So, King Wheat and King Corn (of the North) beat King Cotton, since Europe needed the food much more than it needed the cotton.
    6. The Decisiveness of Diplomacy
      1. The South still hoped for foreign intervention, and it almost got it on a few occasions.
      2. Late in 1861, a Union warship stopped the British mail steamer the Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe.
        1. Britain was outraged at the upstart Americans and threatened war, but luckily, Lincoln released the prisoners and tensions cool. “One war at a time,” he said.
        2. British-build sea vessels that went to the Confederacy were also a problem.
          1. In 1862, the Alabama escaped to the Portuguese Azores, took on weapons and crew from Britain, but never sailed into a Confederate base, thus using a loophole to help the South.
      3. Charles Francis Adams persuaded Britain not to build any more ships for the Confederacy, since they might someday be used against England.
    7. Foreign Flare-Ups
      1. Britain also had two Laird rams—two Confederate warships that could destroy wooden Union ships and wreck havoc on the North, but after the threat of war by the U.S., Britain backed down and used those ships for its Royal Navy.
      2. Near Canada, Confederate agents plotted (and sometimes succeeded) to burn down American cities, and as a result, there were several mini-armies (raised mostly by British-hating Irish-Americans) sent to Canada.
      3. Napoleon III of France also installed a puppet government in Mexico City, putting in the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, but after the war, the U.S. threatened violence, and Napoleon left Maximilian to doom at the hands of the Mexican firing squad.
    8. President Davis versus President Lincoln
      1. The Problem with the South was that it gave states the ability to secede in the future, and getting Southern states to send troops to help other states was always difficult to do.
      2. Jefferson Davis was never really popular and overworked himself.
      3. Lincoln, though with his problems, had the benefit of leading an established government and grew patient and relaxed as the war dragged on.
    9. Limitations on Wartime Liberties
      1. Abe Lincoln did do some tyrannical acts during his term as president, such as illegally proclaiming a blockade, proclaiming acts without Congressional consent, and sending in troops to the Border States, but he justified his actions by saying that such acts weren’t permanent, and he had to do those things in order to preserve the Union.
      2. Such actions included the advancement of $2 million to three private citizens for war purposes, the suspension of habeas corpus so that anti-Unionists could be arrested, and the intimidation of voters in the Border States.
      3. The Confederacy’s states’ refusal to sacrifice some states’ rights led to the handicapping of the South, and perhaps to its ultimate downfall.
    10. Volunteers and Draftees: North and South
      1. At first, there were a lot of volunteers, but after enthusiasm slacked off, Congress passed its first conscription law ever (the draft), one that angered the poor because rich men could hire a substitute instead of entering the war just by paying $300 to Congress.
        1. As a result, many riots broke out, such as one in New York City.
      2. Volunteers manned more than 90% of the Union army, and as volunteers became scarce, money was offered to them in return for service; still, there were many deserters.
      3. The South had to resort to a draft nearly a year before the North, and it also had its privileges for the rich, since those who owned or oversaw 20 slaves or more were exempt from the draft.
    11. The Economic Stresses of War
      1. The North passed the Morril Tariff Act, increasing tariff rates by about 5 to 10%, but war soon drove those rates even higher.
      2. The Washington Treasury also issued green-backed paper money totaling nearly $450 million, but this money was very unstable and sank to as low as 39 cents per gold dollar.
      3. The federal Treasury also netted $2,621,916,786 in the sale of bonds.
      4. The National Banking System was a landmark of the war, created to establish a standard bank-note currency, and banks that joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money.
        1. The National Banking Act was the first step toward a unified national banking network since 1836, when the Bank of the United States (BUS) was killed by Andrew Jackson.
      5. In the South, runaway inflation plagued the Confederates, and overall, in the South inflation went up to 9000%, as opposed to just 80% in the North.
    12. The North’s Economic Boom
      1. The North actually emerged from the Civil War more prosperous than before, since new factories had been formed; a millionaire class was born for the first time in history.
      2. However, many Union suppliers used shoddy equipment in their supplies, such as using cardboard as the soles of shoes, etc…
      3. Sizes for clothing were invented, and the reaper helped feed millions.
      4. In 1859, a discovery of petroleum oil sent people to Pennsylvania.
      5. Women gained new advances in the war, taking the jobs left behind by men going off to battle, and other women posed as men and became soldiers with their husbands.
      6. Clara Burton and Dorothea Dix helped transform nursing from a lowly service to a respected profession, and in the South, Sally Tompkins ran a Richmond infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers and was awarded the rank of Captain by Jefferson Davis.
    13. A Crushed Cotton Kingdom
      1. The South was ruined by the war, as transportation collapsed and supplies of everything became scarce, and by the end of the war, the South claimed only 12% of the national wealth as opposed to 30% before the war, and it’s per capita income was now 2/5 that of Northerners, as opposed to 2/3 of Northerners before the war.
      2. Still, many women were resourceful and spirited, but the South just couldn’t win.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Furnace of the Civil War 1861 – 1865

    1. Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”

      1. When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness.

      2. On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit.

        1. The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as Congressmen gathered in picnics.

        2. However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray.

      3. The Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would not be a short, easy war.

    2. “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

      1. Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops but also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance.

      2. Finally, he decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond, called the Peninsula Campaign, taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to the Richmond.

        1. At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days’ Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862.

        2. The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation.

      3. The Union strategy now turned to total war:

        1. Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade.

        2. Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations.

        3. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River.

        4. Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas.

        5. Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia.

        6. Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission.

    3. The War at Sea

      1. The Union blockade started leakily at first, but it clamped down later.

      2. Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since Britain herself often used blockades in her wars.

      3. Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union navy also seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate destination” [to the South] as their reasons; the British relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they did in World War I).

      4. The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to fight the Merrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from the North.

    4. The Pivotal Point: Antietam

      1. In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.]

      2. After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win, hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South.

        1. At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan.

      3. McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans and were able to stop the Southerners at Antietam on September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of the Civil War.

        1. Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day, since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded.

        2. Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which didn’t actually free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January 1, 1863.

        3. Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to save the slaves a well.

    5. A Proclamation without Emancipation

      1. The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yet-conquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered territories were not liberated; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he could.

      2. The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted.

      3. However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of its purposes: the undermine the labor of the South.

      4. Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to have a slave insurrection.

    6. Blacks Battle Bondage

      1. At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union army.

      2. Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and in one case at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were massacred.

        1. Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!”

      3. Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs when Union armies conquered territory that included the plantations that they worked on.

    7. Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg

      1. After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for sideburns) took over the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862.

      2. “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his girls, aka prostitutes) was badly beaten at Chancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men mistakenly shot him during dusk, and he died.

      3. Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G. Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.”

        1. In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George Pickett led a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge up a hill that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates.

        2. A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address.

    8. The War in the West

      1. Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a mediocre West Point graduate who drank a lot and also fought under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.”

      2. Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then lost a hard battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border.

      3. In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans.

      4. At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi River.

      5. The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for foreign intervention was lost.

    9. Sherman Scorches Georgia

      1. After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing his famous “march to the sea” at Savannah.

        1. His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging “total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields, and destroying everything.

    10. The Politics of War

      1. The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War was created in 1861 was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble.

      2. The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas, as “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace Democrats” did not.

        1. Copperheads were those who totally against the war, and denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his “nigger war.”

        2. The most famous of the copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham, who harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to Ohio illegally but was not further punished, and also inspired the story “The Man without a Country.”

    11. The Election of 1864

      1. In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan.

        1. The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign was once again full of mudslinging, etc…

        2. Near Election Day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln killed his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21.

          1. The popular vote was closer: 2,206,938-1,803,787.

    12. Grant Outlasts Lee

      1. Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford to lose many men while Lee could not.

        1. In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men.

        2. At Cold Harbor, Union soldiers with papers pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses rushed the fort, and over 7000 died in a few minutes.

        3. The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but Ulysses stayed.

      2. Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burning it, and cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over.

    13. The Martyrdom of Lincoln

      1. On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth and died shortly.

      2. Before his death, few people had suspected his greatness, but his sudden and dramatic death erased his shortcomings and made people remember him for his good things.

      3. The South cheered Lincoln’s death at first, but later, his death proved to be worse than if he had lived, because he would have almost certainly treated the South much better than they were actually treated during Reconstruction.

    14. The Aftermath of the Nightmare.

      1. The Civil War cost 600,000 men, $15 billion, and wasted the cream of the American crop.

      2. However it gave America a supreme test of its existence, and the U.S. survived, proving its strength and further increasing its growing power and reputation; plus, slavery was also destroyed, which was great.

      3. It paved the way for the United States’ fulfillment of its destiny as the dominant republic of the Western Hemisphere—and later, the world.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction 1865 – 1877

    1. The Problems of Peace

      1. After the war, there were many questions over what to do with the free Blacks, how to reintegrate the Southern states into the Union, what to do with Jefferson Davis, and who would be in charge of Reconstruction.

      2. The Southern way of life was ruined, as crops and farms were destroyed, the slaves were now free, and the cities were bombed out, but still, some Southerners remained defiant.

    2. Freedmen Define Freedom

      1. At first, the freed Blacks faced a confusing situation, as many slave owners re-enslaved their slaves over and over again after Union troops left.

        1. Other planters resisted emancipation through legal means, citing that emancipation wasn’t valid until local or state courts declared it.

        2. Some slaves loyally stuck to their owners while others let out their pen-up bitterness in their freedom, pillaging their former masters’ land, property, and even whipping them.

      2. Eventually, even resisting plantation owners had to give up their slaves, and afterwards tens of thousands of Blacks took to the roads to find new work or look for lost loved ones.

      3. The church became to the focus of the Black community life in the years following the war.

      4. Emancipation also meant education for Blacks, but despite all the gains Blacks made, they still faced severe discrimination and would have to wait a century before attaining their rights.

    3. The Freedman’s Bureau

      1. In order to train the unskilled and unlettered freed Blacks, the Freedman’s Bureau was set up on March 3, 1865; Union General Oliver O. Howard headed it.

      2. The bureau taught about 200,000 Blacks how to read, since most former slaves wanted to narrow the literary gap between them and Whites and also read the word of God.

      3. However, it wasn’t as effective as it could have been, as evidenced by the further discrimination of Blacks, and it expired in 1872 after much criticism by racist Whites.

    4. Johnson: The Tailor President

      1. Andrew Johnson came from very poor and humble beginnings, and he served in Congress for many years (he was the only Confederate Congressman not to leave Congress when the rest of the South seceded).

      2. Feared for his reputation of having a short temper and being a great fighter, but he was a dogmatic champion of states’ rights and the Constitution, and he was a Tennessean who never earned the trust of the North and never regained the confidence of the South.

    5. Presidential Reconstruction

      1. Since Abraham Lincoln believed that the South had never legally withdrawn from the Union, restoration was to be relatively simple: the southern states could be reintegrated into the Union if and when they had 10% of its voters pledge an oath to the Union and also acknowledge the emancipation of the slaves; it was called the Ten Percent Plan.

      2. The Radical Republicans feared that such a lenient plan would allow the Southerners to re-enslave the newly freed Blacks again, so they rammed the Wade-Davis Bill, a bill that required 50% of the states’ voters to take oaths of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation than the 10% Plan, through Congress.

        1. However, Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill by letting it expire, and the 10% Plan stayed.

      3. It became clear that there were now two types of Republicans: the moderates, who shared the same views as Lincoln and the radicals, who believed the South should be harshly punished.

      4. When Andrew Johnson took power, the radicals thought that he would do what they wanted, but he soon proved them wrong by basically taking Lincoln’s policy and issuing his own Reconstruction proclamation: certain leading Confederates were disfranchised, the Confederate debt was repudiated, and states had to ratify the 13th Amendment.

    6. The Baleful Black Codes

      1. In order to control the freed Blacks, many Southern states passed Black Codes, laws aimed at keeping the Black population in submission; some were harsh, others were not as harsh.

        1. Blacks who “jumped” their labor contracts, or walked off their jobs, were subject to penalties and fines, and their wages were generally kept very low.

        2. The codes forbade Blacks from serving on a jury and some even barred Blacks from renting or leasing land, and Blacks could be punished for “idleness” by being subjected to working on a chain gang.

      2. Making a mockery out of the newly won freedom of the Blacks, the Black Codes made many abolitionists wonder if the price of the Civil War was worth it, since Blacks were hardly better after the war than before the war.

    7. Congressional Reconstruction

      1. In December, 1865, when many of the Southern states came to be reintegrated into the Union, among them were former Confederates and Democrats, and most Republicans were disgusted to see their former enemies on hand to reclaim seats in Congress.

      2. During the war, without the Democrats, the Republicans had passed legislation that had favored the North, such as the Morrill Tariff, the Pacific Railroad Act, and the Homestead Act, so now, many Republicans didn’t want to give the power that they had gained in the war.

      3. Northerners now realized that the South would be stronger politically than before, since now, Blacks counted for a whole person instead of just 3/5 of one, and Republicans also feared that the Northern and Southern Democrats would join and take over Congress and the White House and institute their Black Codes over the nation, defeating all that the Civil War gained.

      4. On December 6, 1865, President Johnson declared that the South had satisfied all of the conditions needed, and that the Union was now restored.

    8. Johnson Clashes with Congress

      1. Johnson repeatedly vetoed Republican-passed bills, such as a bill extending the life of the Freedman’s Bureau, and he also vetoed the Civil Rights Bill, which conferred on blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes.

      2. As Republicans gained control of Congress, they overrode Johnson’s vetoes by passing the bills over his veto through a 2/3 majority.

      3. In the 14th Amendment, the Republicans sought to instill the same ideas of the Civil Rights Bill: (1) All Blacks were American citizens, (2) If a state denied citizenship to Blacks, then it’s representatives in the Electoral College were lowered, (3) Former Confederates could not hold federal or state office, and (4) The federal debt was guaranteed while the Confederate one was repudiated.

      4. The radicals were disappointed that Blacks weren’t given the right to vote, but all Republicans agreed that states wouldn’t be accepted back into the Union unless they ratified the 14th Amendment.

    9. Swinging ‘Round the Circle with Johnson

      1. In 1866, Republicans would not allow Reconstruction to be carried on without the 14th Amendment, and as election time approached, Johnson wanted to lower the amount of Republicans in Congress, so he began a series of ‘Round the Circle speeches.

      2. However, as he was heckled by the audience, he hurled back insults, gave “give ‘em hell” speeches, and generally denounced the radicals, and in the process, he gave Republicans more men in Congress than they had before—the opposite of his original intention.

    10. Republican Principles and Programs

      1. Now, the Republicans had a veto-proof Congress and nearly unlimited control over Reconstruction, but moderates and radicals still couldn’t agree.

        1. In the Senate, the leader of the radicals was Charles Sumner, long since recovered from his caning, and in the House, the radical leader was Thaddeus Stevens, an old, sour man who was an unswerving friend of the Blacks.

      2. The radicals wanted to keep the South out of the Union as long as possible and totally change its economy, and the moderates a quicker Reconstruction, and what happened was a compromise between the two extremes.

    11. Reconstruction by Sword

      1. The Reconstruction Act of March 2, 1867 divided the South into five military zones, temporarily disfranchised tens of thousands of former Confederates, and laid down new guidelines for the readmission of states (Johnson had announced the Union restored, but Congress had not yet formally agreed on this).

        1. All states had to approve the 14th Amendment, making all Blacks citizens.

        2. All states had to guarantee full suffrage of all male former slaves.

      2. The 15th Amendment, passed by Congress in 1869, gave Blacks their right to vote.

      3. In the case Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, if there were civil courts available.

      4. By 1870, all of the states had complied with the standards of Reconstruction, and in 1877, the last of the states were given their home rule back, and Reconstruction ended.

    12. No Women Voters

      1. Women suffrage advocates were disappointed by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, since they didn’t give women full suffrage.

        1. After all, women had gathered petitions and had helped Blacks gain their rights.

        2. Frederick Douglass believed in the women’s movement but believed that it was now “the Negro’s hour.”

      2. As a result, women advocates like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony campaigned against the 14th and 15th Amendments—Amendments that inserted the word male into the Constitution for the first time ever.

    13. The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

      1. Blacks began to organize politically, and their main vehicle was the Union League.

        1. It became a network of political clubs that educated members in their civic duties and campaigned for Republican candidates, and later even built Black churches and schools, represented Black grievances, and recruited militias to protect Blacks.

      2. Black women attended the parades and rallies of Black communities.

      3. Black men also began to hold political offices, as men like Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce served in Congress (they represented Mississippi).

      4. Southern Whites hated seeing their former slaves now ranking above them, and they also hated “scalawags,” Southerners who were accused of plundering Southern treasuries and selling out the Southerners, and “carpetbaggers,” Northerners accused of sleazily seeking power and profit in a now-desolate South.

      5. Note that Southern governments were somewhat corrupted during these times.

    14. The Ku Klux Klan

      1. Extremely racist Whites who hated the Blacks founded the “Invisible Empire of the South,” or Ku Klux Klan, in Tennessee in 1866—an organization that scared Blacks into not voting or not seeking jobs, etc… and often resorted to violence against the Blacks in addition to terror.

      2. This illegal group undermined much of what abolitionists sought to do.

    15. Johnson Walks the Impeachment Plank

      1. Radicals were angry with President Johnson, and they decided to try to get rid of him.

      2. In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which provided that the president had to secure the consent of the Senate before removing his appointees once they had been approved by the Senate (one reason was to keep Edwin M. Stanton, a Republican spy, in office).

      3. However, when Johnson dismissed Stanton early in 1868, the Republicans impeached him.

    16. A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

      1. Johnson was not allowed to testify by his lawyers, who argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and Johnson was acting under the Constitution, not the law.

      2. On May 16, 1868, Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single vote, as seven Republican senators with consciences voted “not-guilty” (interestingly, those seven never secured a political office against afterwards).

      3. Die-hard radicals were infuriated by the acquittal, but many politicians feared establishing a precedence of removing the president through impeachment.

    17. The Purchase of Alaska

      1. In 1867, Secretary of State William H. Seward bought Alaska from Russia to the United States for $7.2 million, but most of the public jeered his act as “Seward’s Folly.”

        1. Only later, when oil and gold were discovered, did Alaska prove to be a huge bargain.

    18. The Heritage of Reconstruction

      1. Many Southerners regarded Reconstruction as worse than the war itself, as they resented the upending of their social and racial system.

      2. The Republicans, though with good intentions, failed to improve the South, and the fate of Blacks would remain bad for almost another century before the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s secured Black privileges.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - Politics in the Gilded Age 1869 – 1889

    1. The “Bloody Shirt” Elects Grant

      1. The Republicans nominated Civil War General Ulysses S. Grant, who was a great soldier but had no political experience.

        1. The Democrats could only denounce military Reconstruction but couldn’t agree on anything else, and thus, were unorganized.

      2. The Republicans got Grant elected (barely) by “waving the bloody shirt,” or reliving his war victories, and used his popularity to elect him, though his popular vote was only ahead of rival Horatio Seymour, the Democratic candidate who didn’t accept a redemption-of-greenbacks-for-maximum-value platform, and thus doomed his party.

      3. However, due to the still-close nature of the election, Republicans could not take future victories for granted.

    2. The Era of Good Stealings

      1. Despite the Civil War, population still mushroomed, due to incoming immigration, but during this time, politics became very corrupted.

        1. Railroad promoters cheated gullible customers.

        2. Stock-market investors were a cinder in the public eye.

        3. Too many judges and legislators put their power up for hire.

      2. Two notorious millionaires were Jim Fisk and Jay Gould.

        1. In 1869, the pair concocted a plot to corner the gold market that would only work if the treasury stopped selling gold, so they worked on President Grant directly and through his brother-in-law, but their plan failed when the treasury sold gold.

      3. The infamous Tweed ring of NYC, headed by “Boss” Tweed, employed bribery, graft, and fake elections to cheat the city of as much as $200 million.

        1. Tweed was finally caught when The New York Times secured evidence of his misdeeds, and Tweed, despite being defended by future presidential candidate Samuel J. Tilden, was convicted and imprisoned.

    3. A Carnival of Corruption

      1. Grant, an easy-going fellow, apparently failed to see the corruption going on, even though many of his friends wanted offices and his cabinet was totally corrupt (except for Secretary of State Hamilton Fish), and his in-laws, the Dent family, were especially terrible.

      2. The Credit Mobilier, a railroad construction company that paid itself huge sums of money for small railroad construction, tarred Grant.

        1. A New York newspaper finally busted it, and two members of Congress were formally censured (the company had given some of its stock to Congressmen) and the Vice President himself was shown to have accepted 20 shares of stock.

      3. In 1875, the public learned that the Whiskey Ring had robbed the Treasury of millions of dollars, and when Grant’s own private secretary was shown to be one of the criminals, Grant retracted his earlier statement of “Let no guilty man escape.”

        1. Later, in 1876, Secretary of War William Belknap was shown to have pocketed some $24,000 by selling junk to Indians.

    4. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872

      1. By 1872, a power wave of disgust at Grant’s administration was building, despite the worst of the scandals not having been revealed yet, and reformers organized the Liberal Republican Party and nominated the dogmatic Horace Greeley.

        1. The Democratic Party also supported Greeley, even though he had blasted them repeatedly in his newspaper (the New York Tribune), but he pleased them because he called for a clasping of hands between the North and South and an end to Reconstruction.

      2. The campaign was filled with more mudslinging (as usual), as Greeley was called an atheist, a communist, a vegetarian, and a signer of Jefferson Davis’s bail bond (that part was true) while Grant was called an ignoramus, a drunkard, and a swindler.

        1. Still, Grant crushed Greeley in the Electoral and in the popular vote was well.

      3. In 1872, the Republican Congress passed a general amnesty act that removed political disabilities from all but some five hundred former Confederate leaders.

    5. Depression and Demands for Inflation

      1. In 1873, a paralyzing panic broke out, caused by too many railroads and factories being formed than existing markets could bear and the over-loaning of banks to those projects.

        1. It first started with the failure of the New York banking firm Jay Cooke & Company, which was headed by the rich Jay Cooke (duh), a financier of the Civil War.

      2. Before, the greenbacks that had been issued in the Civil War were being recalled, but now, during the panic, the “cheap-money” supporters wanted it back.

      3. However, supporters of hard-money (actually gold and silver) persuaded Grant to veto a bill that would print more paper money, and the Resumption Act of 1875 pledged the government to further withdraw greenbacks and made all further redemption of paper money in gold at face value, starting in 1879.

      4. Debtors now cried that silver was under-valued (another call for inflation), but Grant refused coin more silver dollars, which had been stopped in 1873, and besides, new silver discoveries in the later 1870s shot the price of silver way down.

        1. Grant’s name remained fused to sound money, though not sound government.

        2. As greenbacks regained their value, few greenback holders bothered to exchange their more convenient bills for gold when Redemption Day came in 1879.

      5. In 1878, the Bland-Allison Act instructed the Treasury to buy and coin between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month.

      6. The Republican hard-money policy, unfortunately for it, led to the election of a Democratic House of Representatives in 1874 and spawned the Greenback Labor Party in 1878.

    6. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

      1. The Gilded Age, a term coined by Mark Twain, was filled with corruption and presidential election squeakers, and even though Democrats and Republicans had similar ideas on economic issues, they disagreed.

        1. Republicans traced their lineage to Puritanism.

        2. Democrats were more like Lutherans and Roman Catholics.

      2. Democrats had strong support in the South.

      3. Republicans had strong votes in the North and the West, and from the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization made up of former Union veterans.

      4. In the 1870s and the 1880s, Republican infighting was led by rivals Roscoe Conkling and James G. Blaine, who bickered and deadlocked their party.

    7. The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876

      1. Grant almost ran for a third term before the House derailed that proposal, so the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes, dubbed the “Great Unknown” because no one knew much about him, while the Democrats ran Samuel Tilden.

        1. The election was very close, with Tilden getting 184 votes out of a needed 185 in the Electoral College, but votes in four states, Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, and part of Oregon, were unsure and disputed.

        2. The disputed states had sent in two sets of returns, one Democrat, one Republican.

    8. The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction

      1. The Electoral Count Act, passed in 1877, set up an electoral commission that consisted of 15 men selected from the Senate the House, and the Supreme Court, which would count the votes (the 15th man was to be an independent, David Davis, but at the last moment, he resigned).

      2. In February of 1877, the Senate and the House met to settle the dispute, and eventually, Hayes became president as a part of the rest of the Compromise of 1877: he could become president if he agreed to remove troops from the remaining two Southern states where Union troops remained (Louisiana and South Carolina), and also, a bill would subsidize the Texas and Pacific Rail-line.

        1. Not all of the promises were kept, but the deal held on long enough to get Hayes elected as president.

      3. The Compromise of 1877 abandoned the Blacks in the South by withdrawing troops, and their last attempt at protection of Black rights was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which was mostly declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the 1883 case Civil Rights Cases.

      4. As Reconstruction ended, Whites once again discriminated against Blacks, forcing them into low-wage labor and restricting their rights.

      5. In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled, in the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson, that “separate but equal” facilities were constitutional.

    9. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

      1. In 1877, the presidents of the nation’s four largest railroads decided to cut wages by 10%, and workers struck back, stopping work, and when President Hayes sent troops to stop this, violence erupted, and more than 100 people died in the several weeks of chaos.

      2. The failure of the railroad strike showed the weakness of the labor movement, but this was partly caused by friction between races, especially between the Irish and the Chinese.

      3. In San Francisco, Irish-born Denis Kearney incited his followers to terrorize the Chinese.

      4. In 1879, Congress passed a bill severely restricting the influx of Chinese immigrants (most of whom were males who had come to California to work on the railroads), but Hayes vetoed the bill on grounds that it violated an existing treaty with China.

        1. After Hayes left office, the Chinese Exclusion Act, passed in 1882, was passed, barring any Chinese from entering the United States.

    10. “Cold Water” Gets Cold Shoulder

      1. Hayes entering office accused of securing the presidency through fraud, and his declaration of being a single-termer probably saved his reputation, since he wouldn’t have been renominated.

    11. The Garfield Interlude

      1. In 1880, the Republicans nominated James A. Garfield, a man from Ohio who had risen the rank of major general in the Civil War, and as his running mate, a notorious Stalwart (supporter of Roscoe Conkling) was chosen: Chester A. Arthur of New York.

      2. The Democrats chose Winfield S. Hancock, a Civil War general who appealed to the South due to his fair treatment of it during Reconstruction and a veteran who had been wounded at Gettysburg, and thus appealed to veterans.

      3. The campaign once again avoided touchy issues, and Garfield squeaked by in the popular vote (the Electoral count was better: 214 to 155).

        1. Garfield was a good person, but he hated to hurt people’s feelings and say “no.”

      4. Garfield named James G. Blaine to the position of Secretary of the State, and he did other anti-Stalwart acts, but on September 19, 1881, Garfield died after having been shot in the head by a crazy but disappointed office seeker, Charles J. Guiteau, who, after being capture, used an early version of the “insanity defense” to avoid conviction (he was hung anyway).

    12. Chester Arthur Takes Command

      1. Chester Arthur didn’t seem to be fit for the presidency, but he surprised many by giving the cold shoulder to Stalwarts, his chief supporters, and by calling for reform, a call heeded by the Republican party as it began to show newly found enthusiasm for reform.

      2. The Pendleton Act of 1883, the so-called Magna Cart of civil-service reform, prohibited financial assessments on jobholders, including lowly scrubwomen, and established a merit system of making appointments to office on the basis of aptitude rather than “pull.”

        1. It also set up a Civil Service Commission, charged with administering open competitive serve, and offices not “classified” by the president remained the fought-over footballs of politics.

        2. Luckily, Arthur cooperated, and by 1884, he had classified nearly 10% of all federal offices, or nearly 14,000 of them.

      3. The Pendleton Act partially divided politics from patronage, but it drove politicians into “marriages of convenience” with business leaders.

    13. The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

      1. James G. Blaine became the Republican candidate, but some Republican reformers, unable to stomach this, switched to the Democratic Party and were called Mugwumps.

      2. The Democrats chose Grover Cleveland as their candidate but received a shock when it was revealed that he might have been the father of an illegitimate child.

        1. The campaign of 1884 was filled with perhaps the lowest mudslinging in history.

        2. The contest depended on how New York chose, but unfortunately, one idiotic Republican insulted the race, faith, and patriotism of New York’s heavy Irish population, and as a result, New York voted for Cleveland; that was the difference.

    14. “Old Grover” Takes Over

      1. Portly Grover Cleveland was the first Democratic president since James Buchanan, and as a supporter of laissez-faire, he delighted business owners and bankers.

      2. Cleveland named two former Confederates to his cabinet, and at first tried to adhere to the merit system (but eventually gave in to his party and fired almost 2/3 of the 120,000 federal employees), but he had his problems.

        1. Military pensions plagued Cleveland; these bills were given to Civil War veterans to help them, but they were used fraudulently to give money to all sorts of people.

        2. However, Cleveland showed that he was ready to take on the corrupt distributors of military pensions when he vetoed a bill that would add several hundred thousand new people on the pension list.

    15. Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff

      1. By 1881, the Treasury had a surplus of $145 million, most of it having come from the high tariff, and there was lots of clamor for lowering the tariff, though big industrialists opposed it.

      2. Cleveland wasn’t really interested in the subject at first, but as he researched it, he became inclined towards lowering the tariff, so in late 1887, Cleveland openly tossed the appeal for lower tariffs into the lap of Congress.

        1. Democrats were upset at the obstinacy of their chief while Republicans gloated at his apparently reckless act.

    16. Harrison Ousts Cleveland in 1888

      1. With no other choice, the Democrats renominated Cleveland, and Republicans chose Benjamin Harrison, the grandson of William H. Harrison, as their candidate.

      2. More “waving the bloody shirt” occurred, and more of Cleveland’s private life was revealed, but what caused Cleveland to lose was when a British diplomat announced that a vote for Cleveland was like a vote for England; this ired the Irish voters, and it helped Harrison win.

      3. Cleveland wasn’t a great president, but compared to those around him, he was excellent.

      4. One reason to why the best men were no longer in politics is because by that time, politics was full of corruption, and no one in his right mind wanted to associate with such filth and dirt.

      5. Cleveland also passed the Dawes Act (to control the Indians) and the Interstate Commerce Act (designed to curb railroads), both of which were passed in 1887.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - Industry Comes of Age 1865 – 1900

    1. The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse

      1. After the Civil War, railroad production grew enormously, from 35,000 mi. of track laid in 1865 to a whopping 192,556 mi. of track laid in 1900.

        1. Congress gave land to railroad companies totally 155,504,994 acres.

        2. For railroad routes, companies were allowed alternate mile-square sections in checkerboard fashion, but until companies determined which part of the land was the best to use for railroad building, all of the land was withheld from all other users.

          1. Grover Cleveland stopped this in 1887.

        3. Railroads gave land their value; towns where railroads ran became sprawling cities while those skipped by RR’s sank into ghost towns, so obviously, towns wanted railroads in them.

    2. Spanning the Continent with Rails

      1. Deadlock over where to build a transcontinental railroad was broken after the South seceded, and in 1862, Congress commissioned the Union Pacific Railroad to begin westward from Omaha, Nebraska, to gold-rich California.

        1. The company received huge sums of money and land to build its tracks, but corruption also plagued it, as the insiders of the Credit Mobilier reaped $23 million in profits.

        2. Many Irishmen, who might lay as much as 10 miles a day, laid the railroads.

        3. When Indians attacked, trying to save their land, the Irish dropped their picks and seized their rifles, and scores of workers and Indians died during construction.

      2. Over in California, the Central Pacific Railroad was in charge of extending the railroad westward, an it was backed by the Big Four: including Leland Stanford, the ex-governor of California who had useful political connections, and Collis P. Huntington, a adept lobbyist.

        1. The Central Pacific used Chinese workers, and received the same incentives as the Union Pacific, but it had to drill through the hard rock of the Sierra Nevada.

      3. In 1869, the transcontinental rail line was completed near Ogden, Utah; in all, the Union Pacific built 1086 mi. of track, compared to 689 mi. by the Central Pacific.

    3. Binding the Country with Railroad Ties

      1. Before 1900, four other transcontinental railroads were built:

        1. The Northern Pacific Railroad stretched from Lake Superior to the Puget Sound and was finished in 1883.

        2. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe stretched through the Southwest deserts and was completed the following year, in 1884.

        3. The Southern Pacific (completed in 1884) went from New Orleans to San Francisco.

        4. The Great Northern ran from Duluth to Seattle and was the creation of James J. Hill, probably the greatest railroad builder of all.

      2. However, many pioneers over-invested on land, and the banks that supported them often failed and went bankrupt when the land wasn’t worth as much as initially thought.

    4. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

      1. Older eastern railroads, like the New York Central, headed by Cornelius Vanderbilt, often financed the successful western railroads.

      2. Advancement in railroad building included the steel rail, which was stronger and more enduring than the iron rail, the Westinghouse air brake, which increased safety, the Pullman Palace Cars, which were luxurious, and telegraphs, double-racking, and block signals.

        1. Nevertheless, train accidents were common, as well as death.

    5. Revolution by Railways

      1. Railroads stitched the nation together, generated a huge market and lots of jobs, helped the rapid industrialization of America, and stimulated mining and agriculture in the West by bringing people and supplies to and from the areas were such work occurred.

      2. Railroads helped people settle in the previously harsh Great Plains.

      3. Due to railroads, the creation of four national time zones occurred on November 18, 1883, instead of each city having its own time zone (that was confusing to railroad operators).

      4. Railroads were also the makers of millionaires and the millionaire class.

    6. Wrongdoing in Railroading

      1. Railroads were not without corruption, as shown by the Credit Mobilier.

      2. Jay Gould made millions embezzling stocks from the Erie, Kansas Pacific, the Union Pacific, and the Texas and Pacific railroad companies.

      3. One method of cheap moneymaking was called “stock watering,” in which railroad companies grossly over-inflated the worth of their stock and sold them at huge profits.

      4. Railroad owners abused the public, bribed judges and legislatures, employed arm-twisting lobbyists, elected their own to political office, and used free passes to gain favor in the press.

      5. As time passed, though, railroad giants entered into defensive alliances to show profits, and began the first of what would be called trusts, although at that time they were called “pools.”

    7. Government Bridles the Iron Horse

      1. People were aware of such injustice, but were slow to combat it.

      2. The Grange was formed by farmers to combat such corruption, and many state efforts to stop the railroad monopoly occurred, but they were stopped when the Supreme Court issued its ruling in the Wabash case, in which it ruled that states could not regulate interstate commerce.

      3. The Interstate Commerce Act, passed in 1887, banned rebates and pools and required the railroads to publish their rates openly (so as not to cheat customers), and also forbade unfair discrimination against shippers and banned charging more for a short haul than for a long one.

        1. It also set up the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to enforce this.

      4. The act was not a victory against corporate wealth, as people like Richard Olney, a shrewd corporate lawyer, noted that they could use the act to their advantage, but it did represent the first attempt by Congress to regulate businesses for society’s interest.

    8. Miracles of Mechanization

      1. In 1860, the U.S. was the 4th largest manufacturer in the world, but by 1894, it was #1, why?

        1. Now-abundant liquid capital.

        2. Fully exploited natural resources (like coal, oil, and iron, the iron from the Minnesota-Lake Superior region which yielded the rich iron deposits of the Mesabi Range).

        3. Massive immigration made labor cheap.

        4. American ingenuity played a vital role, as such inventions like mass production (from Eli Whitney) were being refined and perfected.

          1. Popular inventions included the cash register, the stock ticker, the typewriter, the refrigerator car, the electric dynamo, and the electric railway, which displaced animal-drawn cars.

      2. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and a new age was launched.

      3. Thomas Edison, the “Wizard of Menlo Park,” was the most versatile inventor, who, while best known for his electric light bulb, also cranked out scores of other inventions.

    9. The Trust Titan Emerges

      1. Industry giants used various ways to eliminate competition and maximize profits.

        1. Andrew Carnegie used a method called “vertical integration,” which meant that he controlled all aspects of an industry (in his case, he mined the iron, transported it, refined it, and turned it into steel, controlling all parts of the process).

        2. John D. Rockefeller, master of “horizontal integration,” and a giant among bankers, simply allied with competitors to monopolize a given market.

          1. He used this method to form Standard Oil and control the oil industry by forcing weaker competitors to go bankrupt.

      2. These men became known for their trusts, giant, monopolistic corporations.

      3. Rockefeller also placed his own men on the boards of directors of other rival competitors, a process called “interlocking directorates.”

    10. The Supremacy of Steel

      1. In Lincoln’s day, steel was very scarce and expensive, but by 1900, Americans produced as much steel as England and Germany combined.

      2. This was due to an invention that made steel-making cheaper and much more effective: the Bessemer process, which was named after an English inventor even though an American, William Kelly, had discovered it first:

        1. Cold air blown on red-hot iron burned carbon deposits and purified it.

        2. America was one of the few nations that had a lot of coal for fuel, iron for smelting, and other essential ingredients for steel making, and thus, quickly became #1.

    11. Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel

      1. Andrew Carnegie started off as a poor boy in a bad job, but by working hard, assuming responsibility, and charming influential people, he worked his way up to wealth.

      2. He started in the Pittsburgh area, but he was not a man who like trusts; still, but 1900, he was producing ¼ of the nation’s Bessemer steel, and getting $25 million a year.

      3. J. Pierpont Morgan, having already made a fortune in the banking industry and in Wall Street, was ready to step into the steel tubing industry, but Carnegie threatened to ruin him, so after some tense negotiation, Morgan bought Carnegie’s entire business of $400 million (this was before income tax), but Carnegie, fearing ridicule for possessing so much money, spent the rest of his life donating $350 million of it to charity, pensions, and libraries.

        1. Meanwhile, Morgan took Carnegie’s holdings, added others, and launched the United States Steel Corporation in 1901, a company that became the first billion-dollar corporation (it was capitalized at $1.4 billion) in the world.

    12. Rockefeller Grows an American Beauty Rose

      1. In 1859, a man named Drake first used oil to get money, and by the 1870s, kerosene, a type of oil, was used to light lamps all over the nation.

      2. However, by 1885, 250,000 of Edison’s electric light bulbs were in use, and the electric industry soon rendered kerosene obsolete, just as kerosene had made whale oil obsolete.

      3. Oil, however, had its profits from the gasoline-burning internal combustion engine.

      4. John D. Rockefeller, ruthless and merciless, organized the Standard Oil Company of Ohio in 1882 (five years earlier, he had already controlled 95% of all the oil refineries in the country).

      5. Rockefeller crushed weaker competitors—part of the natural process according to him—but his company did produce superior oil at a cheaper price.

      6. Other trusts, which also generally made better products at cheaper prices, emerged, such as the meat industry of Gustavus F. Swift and Philip Armour.

    13. The Gospel of Wealth

      1. Many of the newly rich had worked from poverty to wealth, and thus felt that some people in the world were destined to become rich and then help society with their money.

      2. The Reverend Russell Conwell of Philadelphia became rich by delivering his lecture, “Acres of Diamonds” thousands of times, and in it he preached that poor people made themselves poor and rich people made themselves rich; everything was because of one’s actions only.

      3. Corporate lawyers used the 14th Amendment to defend trusts, the judges agreed, saying that corporations were “big people” entitled to their property, and plutocracy ruled.

    14. Government Tackles the Trust Evil

      1. In 1890, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was signed into law; it forbade combinations in restraint of trade, without any distinction between “good” and “bad” trusts.

        1. It proved effective because it couldn’t be enforced.

        2. Not until 1914 was it properly enforced and those prosecuted for violating the law were actually punished.

    15. The South in the Age of Industry

      1. The South remained agrarian despite all the industrial advances, though James Buchanan Duke developed a huge cigarette industry in the form of the American Tobacco Company and made many donations to what is now Duke University.

      2. Men like Henry W. Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution urged the South to industrialize.

      3. However, many northern companies set rates to keep the South from gaining any competitive edge whatsoever, with examples including the rich deposits and iron and coal near Birmingham, Alabama, and the textile mills of the South.

      4. However, cheap labor led to the creation of many jobs, and despite poor wages, many white Southerners saw employment as a blessing.

    16. The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America

      1. As the Industrial Revolution spread in American, the standard of living rose, immigrant swarmed to the U.S., and early Jeffersonian ideals about the dominance of agriculture fell.

      2. Women, who had swarmed to factories and had been encouraged by recent inventions, found new opportunities, and the “Gibson Girl,” created by Charles Dana Gibson, became the romantic ideal of the age.

        1. However, many women never achieved this, and instead toiled in hard work because they had to do so in order to earn money.

      3. A nation of farmers was becoming a nation of wage earners, but the fear of unemployment was never far, and the illness of a breadwinner (main wage owner) in a family was disastrous.

      4. Strong pressures in foreign trade developed as the tireless industrial machine threatened to flood the domestic market.

    17. In Unions There Is Strength

      1. With the inflow of immigrants providing a labor force that could work for low wages and in poor environments, the workers who wanted to improve their conditions found that they could not, since their bosses could easily hire the unemployed to take their places.

      2. Corporations had many weapons against strikers, such as hiring strikebreakers or asking the courts to order strikers to stop striking, and if they continued, to bring in troops; other methods included “lockouts” to starve strikers into submission, and often, workers had to sign “ironclad oaths” or “yellow dog contracts” which banned them from joining unions.

        1. Workers could be “blacklisted,” or put on a list and denied privileges elsewhere.

      3. The middle-class, annoyed by the recurrent strikes, grow deaf to the worker’s outcry.

      4. The view was that people like Carnegie and Rockefeller had battled and worked hard to get to the top, and workers could do the same if they “really” wanted to improve their situations.

    18. Labor Limps Along

      1. The Civil War had put a premium on labor, which helped labor unions grow.

      2. The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, represented a giant boot stride by workers and attracted an impressive total of 600,000 members but it only lasted six years.

        1. However, it excluded Chinese and didn’t really try to get Blacks and women to join.

        2. It worked for the arbitration of industrial disputes and the eight-hour workday, and won the latter for government workers, but the depression of 1873 knocked it out.

      3. A new organization, the Knights of Labor, was begun in 1869 and continued secretly until 1881, and this organization was similar to the National Labor Union.

        1. It only barred liquor dealers, professional gamblers, lawyers, bankers, and stockbrokers, and they only campaigned for economic and social reform.

        2. Led by Terence V. Powderly, the Knights won a number of strikes for the eight-hour day, and when they staged a successful strike against Jay Gould’s Wabash Railroad in 1885, membership mushroomed to ¾ of a million workers.

    19. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

      1. However, the Knights became involved in a number of May Day strikes of which half failed.

      2. In Chicago, home to about 80,000 Knights and a few hundred anarchists that advocated a violent overthrow of the American government, tensions had been building, and on May 4, 1886, Chicago police were advancing on a meeting that had been called to protest brutalities by authorities when a dynamite bomb was thrown, killing or injuring several dozen people.

        1. Eight anarchists were rounded up, but no one could prove that they had any association with the bombing, but since they had preached incendiary doctrines, the jury sentenced five of them to death on account of conspiracy and gave the other three stiff prison terms.

      3. In 1892, John P. Altgeld, a German-born Democrat was elected governor of Illinois and pardoned the three survivors after studying the case extensively.

        1. He received violent verbal abuse for that and was defeated during re-election.

      4. The Haymarket Square Bomb forever associated the Knights of Labor with anarchists and lowered their popularity and effectiveness; membership declined, and those that remained fused with other labor unions.

    20. The AF of L to the Fore

      1. In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor.

        1. It consisted of an association of self-governing national unions, each of which kept its independence, with the AF of L unifying overall strategy.

      2. Gompers demanded a fairer share for labor.

        1. All he wanted was “more,” and he sought better wages, hours, and working conditions, but he was not concerned with sweet by-and-by.

      3. The AF of L established itself on solid but narrow foundations, since it tried to speak for all workers but fell far short of that.

        1. Composed of skilled laborers, it was willing to let unskilled laborers fend for themselves, but critic called it “the labor trust.”

      4. From 1881 to 1900, there were over 23,000 strikes involving 6,610,000 workers with a total loss to both employers and employees of about $450 million.

        1. Perhaps the greatest weakness of labor unions was that they only embraced a small minority—3%—of all workers.

      5. However, by 1900, the public was starting to concede the rights of workers and beginning to give them some or most of what they wanted.

        1. In 1894, Labor Day was made a legal holiday.

      6. A few owners were beginning to realize that losing money to fight labor strikes was useless, though most owners still dogmatically fought labor unions.

      7. If the age of big business had dawned, the age of big labor was still some distance over the horizon.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - America Moves to the City 1865 – 1900

    1. The Urban Frontier

      1. From 1870 to 1900, the American population doubled, and the population in the cities tripled.

      2. Cities grew up and out, with such famed architects as Louis Sullivan working on and perfecting skyscrapers (first appearing in Chicago in 1885).

        1. The city grew from a small compact one that people could walk through to get around to a huge metropolis that required commuting in electric trolleys.

        2. Electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones made city life more alluring.

      3. Department stores like Macy’s (in New York) and Marshall Field’s (in Chicago) provided urban working-class jobs and also attracted urban middle-class shoppers.

        1. Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie told of a woman’s escapades in the big city and made cities dazzling and attractive.

        2. However, the move to city produced lots of trash, because while farmers always reused everything or fed “trash” to animals, city dwellers, with their mail-order houses like Sears and Montgomery Ward, which made things cheap and easy to buy, could simply throw away the things that they didn’t like anymore.

      4. In cities, criminals flourished, and impure water, uncollected garbage, unwashed bodies, and droppings made cities smelly and unsanitary.

        1. Worst of all were the slums, which were crammed with people.

        2. The so-called “dumbbell tenements” were the worst since they were dark, cramped, had little sanitation or ventilation, and were terrible.

      5. To escape, the wealthy of the city-dwellers fled to suburbs.

    2. The New Immigration

      1. Until the 1880s, most of the immigrants had come from the British Isles and western Europe (Germany and Scandinavia) and were quite literate and accustomed to some type of representative government, but afterwards, this shifted to the Baltic and Slavic people of southeastern Europe, who were basically the opposite.

        1. While the southeastern Europeans accounted for only 19% of immigrants to the U.S. in 1880, by the early 1900s, they were over 60%!

    3. Southern Europe Uprooted

      1. Many Europeans came to America because there was no room in Europe, nor was there much employment, since industrialization had eliminated many jobs.

        1. America was also often praised to Europeans, as people boasted of eating everyday and having freedom and much opportunity.

        2. Profit-seeking Americans also perhaps exaggerated the benefits of America to Europeans, so that they could get cheap labor and more money.

      2. However, it should be noted that many immigrants to America stayed for a short period of time and then returned to America, and even those that remained (including persecuted Jews, who propagated in New York) tried very hard to retain their own culture and customs.

        1. However, the children of the immigrants sometimes rejected this Old World culture and plunged completely into American life.

    4. Reactions to the New Immigration

      1. The federal government did little to help immigrants assimilate into American society, so immigrants were often controlled by powerful “bosses” (such as New York’s Boss Tweed) who provided jobs and shelter in return for political support at the polls (= corruption).

      2. Gradually, though, the nation’s conscience awoke to the plight of the slums, and people like Walter Rauschenbusch and Washington Gladden began preaching the “social gospel,” insisting that churches tackle the burning social issues of the day.

      3. Among the people who were deeply dedicated to uplifting the urban masses was Jane Addams, who founded Hull House in 1889 to teach children and adults the skills and knowledge that they would need to survive and succeed in America.

        1. She eventually won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, but her pacifism was looked down upon by groups such as the Daughters of the American Revolution, who revoked her membership.

        2. Other such settlement houses like Hull House included Lillian Wald’s Henry Street Settlement in New York, which opened its doors in 1893.

        3. Settlement houses became centers for women’s activism and reform, as females such as Florence Kelley fought for protection of women workers and against child labor.

      4. The new cities also gave women (mostly single women, since working mothers and wives was considered bad) opportunities to earn money and support themselves better.

    5. Narrowing the Welcome Mat

      1. The “nativism” and antiforeignism of the 1840s and 50s came back in the 1880s, as the Germans and western Europeans looked down upon the new Slavs and Baltics, fearing that mixing of blood would ruin the fairer Anglo-Saxon races and create inferior offspring.

        1. The “native” Americans blamed immigrants for the degradation of the urban government; these new bigots had forgotten how they had been scorned when they had arrived in America a few decades before.

        2. Trade unionists hated them for their willingness to work for super low wages and for bringing in dangerous doctrines like socialism and communism to the U.S.

      2. Anti-foreign organizations like the American Protective Association (APA) arose to go against new immigrants, and labor leaders were quick to try to stop new immigration, since immigrants were frequently used as strikebreakers.

      3. Finally, in 1882, Congress passed the first restrictive law against immigration, which banned paupers, criminals, and convicts from coming here.

      4. In 1885, another law was passed banning the importation of foreign workers under usually substandard contracts.

      5. Literacy tests for immigrants were proposed, but were resisted until they finally passed in 1917, but the 1882 immigration law also barred the Chinese from coming.

      6. In 1886, the Statue of Liberty arrived from France—a gift from the French to America.

    6. Churches Confront the Urban Challenge

      1. Since churches had mostly failed to take any stands and rally against the urban poverty, plight, and suffering, many people began to question the ambition of the churches, and began to worry that Satan was winning the battle of good and evil.

        1. The emphasis on material gains worried many.

      2. A new generation of urban revivalists stepped in, including people like Dwight Lyman Moody, a man who proclaimed the gospel of kindness and forgiveness and adapted the old-time religion to the facts of city life.

        1. The Moody Bible Institute was founded in Chicago in 1889 and continued working well after his 1899 death.

      3. Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were also gaining much by the new immigration.

        1. Cardinal Gibbons was popular with Roman Catholics and Protestants, as he preached American unity.

        2. By 1890, Americans could choose from 150 religions, including the new Salvation Army, which tried to help the poor and unfortunate.

      4. The Church of Christ, Scientist (Christian Science), founded by Mary Baker Eddy, preached that Christianity heals sickness.

      5. YMCA’s and YWCA’s also sprouted.

    7. Darwin Disrupts the Churches

      1. In 1859, Charles Darwin published his On the Origin of Species, which set forth the new doctrine of evolutionism and attracted the ire and fury of fundamentalists.

        1. “Modernists” took a step from the fundamentalists and refused to believe that the Bible was completely accurate and factual.

      2. Colonel Robert G. Ingersoll was one who denounced creationism, as he had been widely persuaded by the theory of evolution, even though other people put together their own interpretations and basically combined the two theories.

    8. The Lust for Learning

      1. A new trend began in the creation of more public schools and the provision of free textbooks funded by taxpayers.

        1. By 1900, there were 6,000 high schools in America; kindergartens also multiplied.

      2. Catholic schools also grew in popularity and in number.

      3. To partially help adults who couldn’t go to school, the Chautauqua movement, a successor to the lyceums, was launched in 1874, and it included public lectures to many people by famous writers and extensive at-home studies.

      4. Americans began to develop a faith in formal education as a solution to poverty.

    9. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

      1. The South, war-torn and super poor, lagged far behind in education, especially for Blacks, so Booker T. Washington, an ex-slave came to help, starting by heading a black normal and industrial school in Tuskegee, Alabama, and teaching the students their useful skills and trades.

        1. However, he avoided the issue of social equality; he believed in Blacks helping themselves first before gaining more rights.

      2. One of Washington’s students was George Washington Carver, who later discovered hundreds of new uses for peanuts, sweet potatoes, and soybeans.

      3. However, W.E.B. Du Bois, the first Black to get a Ph.D. from Harvard University, demanded complete equality for Blacks and action now, and he also founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.

        1. Many of Du Bois’s differences with Washington reflected the contrasting life experiences of southern and northern Blacks.

    10. The Hallowed Halls of Ivy

      1. Colleges and universities sprouted after the Civil War, and colleges for women, such as Vassar, were gaining ground.

        1. Also, colleges to both genders also grew, especially in the Midwest, and Black colleges also were established, such as Howard University in Washington D.C., Atlanta University, and Hampton Institute in Virginia.

      2. The Morrill Act of 1862 had provided a generous grant of the public lands to the states for support of education and was extended by the Hatch Act of 1887, which provided federal funds for the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection with the land-grant colleges.

      3. Private donations also went toward the establishment of colleges, including Cornell, Leland Stanford Junior, and the University of Chicago, which was funded by John D. Rockefeller.

      4. John Hopkins University maintained the nation’s first high-grade graduate school.

    11. The March of the Mind

      1. The elective system of college was gaining popularity, and it took off especially after Dr. Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard.

      2. Medical schools and science were prospering after the Civil War.

        1. Discoveries by Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister improved medical science and health.

        2. The brilliant but sickly William James helped establish the discipline of behavioral psychology, and his books Principles of Psychology (1890), The Will to Believe (1897), and Varieties of Religious Experience (1902).

          1. His greatest work was Pragmatism (1907), which preached what he believed in: pragmatism (everything has a purpose).

    12. The Appeal of the Press

      1. Libraries such as the Library of Congress also opened across America, bringing literature into people’s homes.

      2. With the invention of the Linotype in 1885, the press more than kept pace, but competition sparked a new brand of journalism called “yellow journalism,” in which newspapers reported on wild and fantastic stories that often were false or quite exaggerated: sex, scandal, and other human-interest stories.

      3. Two new journalistic tycoons emerged: Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (San Francisco Examiner, et al.).

      4. Luckily, the strengthening of the Associated Press, which had been established in the 1840s, helped to offset some of the bad journalism.

    13. Apostles of Reform

      1. Magazines like Harper’s, the Atlantic Monthly, and Scribner’s Monthly partially satisfied the public appetite for good reading, but perhaps the most influential of all was the New York Nation, launched in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, a merciless critic.

      2. Another enduring journalist-author was Henry George, who wrote Progress and Poverty, which undertook to solve the association of poverty with progress.

        1. It was he who came up with the idea of the graduated income tax.

      3. Edward Bellamy published Looking Backward in 1888, in which he criticized the social injustices of the day and pictured a utopian government that had nationalized big business to serve the public good.

    14. Postwar Writing

      1. After the war, Americans devoured “dime-novels” which depicted the wild West and other romantic adventure settings.

        1. The king of dime novelists was Harland F. Halsey, who made 650 of these novels.

        2. General Lewis Wallace wrote Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, which combated the ideas and beliefs of Darwinism and Darwinists.

      2. Horatio Alger was even more popular, since his books told that virtue, honesty, and industry were rewarded by success, wealth, and honor.

      3. Walt Whitman was one of the old writers who still remained active, publishing revisions of his hardy perennial: Leaves of Grass.

      4. Emily Dickinson was a famed hermit of a poet whose poems were published after her death.

      5. Other lesser poets included Sidney Lanier, who was oppressed by poverty and ill health.

    15. Literary Landmarks

      1. Other famous writers:

        1. Kate Chopin, who wrote about adultery, suicide, and women’s ambitions in The Awakening.

        2. Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) wrote many books, including The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (controversial due to its language and subjects), The Gilded Age (hence the term given to the era of corruption after the Civil War) and The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County.

        3. Bret Harte wrote California gold rush stories.

        4. William Dean Howells became editor in chief of the Atlantic Monthly and wrote about ordinary people and sometimes-controversial social themes.

        5. Stephen Crane wrote about the seamy underside of life in urban, industrial America (prostitutes, etc...) in such books like Maggie: Girl of the Street.

          1. He also wrote The Red Bad of Courage, a tale about a Civil War soldier.

        6. Henry James wrote Daisy Miller and Portrait of a Lady, often making women his central characters in his novels and exploring their personalities.

        7. Jack London wrote about the wild unexplored regions of wilderness in The Call of the Wild and The Iron Heel.

        8. Frank Norris’s The Octopus exposed the corruption of the railroads.

        9. Paul Laurence Dunbar and Charles W. Chesnutt, two Black writers, used Black dialect and folklore in their poems and stores, respectively.

    16. The New Morality

      1. Victoria Woodhull proclaimed free love, and together with her sister, Tennessee Claflin, she wrote Woodhull and Claflin’s Weekly, which shocked readers with exposés of affairs, etc…

      2. Anthony Comstock waged a lifelong war on the “immoral.”

      3. The “new morality” reflected sexual freedom in the increase of birth control, divorces, and frank discussion of sexual topics.

    17. Families and Women in the City

      1. Urban life was stressful on families, who often were separated, and everyone had to work—even children as young as ten years old.

        1. While on farms, more children meant more people to harvest and help, in the cities, more children meant more mouths to feed and a greater chance of poverty.

      2. In 1898, Charlotte Perkins Gilman published Women and Economics, a classic of feminist literature, in which she called for women to abandon their dependent status and contribute to the larger life of the community through productive involvement in the economy.

        1. She also advocated day-care centers and centralized nurseries and kitchens.

      3. Feminists also rallied toward suffrage, forming the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1890, an organization led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the woman who organized the first women’s rights convention in 1848, and Susan B. Anthony.

      4. By 1900, a new generation of women activists were present, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, who stressed the desirability of giving women the vote if they were to continue to discharge their traditional duties and homemakers in the increasingly public world of the city.

        1. The Wyoming Territory was the first to offer women unrestricted suffrage in 1869.

        2. The General Federation of Women’s Clubs also encouraged women’s suffrage.

      5. Ida B. Wells rallied toward better treatment for Blacks as well and formed the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

    18. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

      1. Concern over the popularity (and dangers) of alcohol was also present, marked by the formation of the National Prohibition Party in 1869.

        1. Other organizations like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union also rallied against alcohol, calling for a national prohibition of the beverage.

          1. Leaders included Frances E. Willard and Carrie A. Nation.

        2. The Anti-Saloon League was formed in 1893.

      2. The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was formed in 1866 to discourage the mistreatment of livestock, and the American Red Cross, formed by Clara Burton, a Civil War nurse, was formed in 1881.

    19. Artistic Triumphs

      1. Art was suppressed during the early and mid 1800s and failed to really take flight in America, forcing such men as James Whistler and John Singer Sargent to go to Europe to learn art.

      2. Mary Cassatt painted sensitive portraits of women and children, while George Inness became America’s leading landscapist.

      3. Thomas Eakins was a great realist painter, while Winslow Homer was perhaps the most famous and the greatest of all.

      4. Great sculptors included Augustus Saint-Gaudens, who made the Robert Gould Saw memorial, located in Boston, in 1897.

      5. Music reached new heights with the erection of opera houses and the emergence of jazz.

      6. Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, which allowed the reproduction of sounds that could be heard by listeners.

      7. Henry H. Richardson was another fine architect whose “Richardsonian” architecture was famed around the country.

        1. The Columbian Exposition in 1893 displayed many architectural triumphs.

    20. The Business of Amusement

      1. In entertainment, Phineas T. Barnum and James A. Bailey teamed in 1881 to stage the “Greatest Show on Earth” (now the Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey Circus).

      2. “Wild West” shows, like those of “Buffalo Bill” Cody (and the markswoman Annie Oakley) were ever-popular, and baseball and football became popular as well.

      3. Wrestling gained popularity and respectability.

      4. In 1891, James Naismith invented basketball.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution 1865 – 1890

    1. Indians Embattled in the West

      1. After the Civil War, the Great West was still relatively untamed, wild, full of Indians, bison, and wildlife, and sparsely populated by a few Mormons and Mexicans.

      2. As the White settlers began to populate the Great West, the Indians, caught in the middle, were increasingly turned against each other, infected with White man’s diseases, and stuck battling to hunt the few remaining bison that were still around.

        1. The Sioux, displaced by Chippewas from the their ancestral lands at the headwaters of the Mississippi in the late 1700s, expanded at the expense of the Crows, Kiowas, and Pawnees, and justified their actions through the excuse that White men had done the same thing to them.

          1. The Indians had become great riders and fighters ever since the Spanish introduced the horse to them.

        2. The federal government tried to pacify the Indians by signing treaties at Fort Laramie in 1851 and Fort Atkinson in 1853 with the chiefs of the tribes, but the U.S. failed to understand that such “tribes” and “chiefs” didn’t exist in Indian culture, and that in most cases, Native Americans didn’t recognize authorities outside of their families.

        3. In the 1860s, the U.S. government intensified its effort into herding Indians into still smaller and smaller reservations (like the Dakota Territory).

          1. Indians were often promised that they wouldn’t be bothered further after moving out of their ancestral lands, and often, Indian agents were corrupt and pawned off shoddy food and products to their own fellow Indians.

          2. White men often disregarded treaties, though, and they often “ripped off” Indians.

        4. In frustration, many Native American tribes attack Whites, and slew of skirmishes from 1868 to 1890 called the “Indian Wars” made up the bitterness of the Indians.

          1. Many times, though, the Indians were better equipped than the federal troops sent to quell their revolts.

          2. Generals Sherman, Sheridan, and Custer all battled Indians.

    2. Receding Native Population

      1. Violence reigned supreme in Indian-White Man relations.

        1. In 1864, at Sand Creek, Colorado, Colonel J.M. Chivington’s militia massacred some four hundred Indians in cold blood—Indians who had thought they had been promised immunity and Indians who were peaceful and harmless.

        2. In 1866, a Sioux war party ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman’s command of 81 soldiers and civilians who were constructing the Bozeman Trail to the Montana goldfields, leaving no survivors.

          1. This massacre was one of the few Indian victories, as another treaty at Fort Laramie was signed two years later.

      2. Colonel Custer found gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota, and hordes of gold-seekers invaded the Sioux reservation in search for gold, causing the Sioux to go on the warpath, completely decimating Custer’s Seventh Calvary at Little Big Horn in the process.

        1. The reinforcements that arrived later brutally hunted down the Indians who had attacked, including their leader, Sitting Bull (he escaped).

      3. The Nez Percé Indians also revolted when gold seekers made the government shrink their reservation by 90%, and after a long tortuous battle, Chief Joseph finally surrendered his band after a long trek across the Continental Divide toward Canada.

      4. The most difficult to subdue were the Apache tribes of Arizona and New Mexico, led by Geronimo, but even they finally surrendered after being pushed to Mexico, and afterwards, they became successful farmers.

      5. The Indians were so easily tamed due to the railroad, which shot through the heart of the West, the White man’s diseases, and the extermination of the buffalo.

    3. Bellowing Herds of Bison

      1. In the early days, tens of millions of Bison dotted the American prairie, and by the end of the Civil War, there were still 15 million buffalo grazing, but it was the eruption of the railroad that really started the buffalo massacre.

        1. Many people killed buffalo for their meat, their skins, or their tongues, but many people either killed the bison for sport or killed them, took one small part of their bodies (like the tongue) and just left the rest of the carcass to rot (what a waste!).

      2. By 1885, fewer than 1000 buffalo were left, and the species was in danger of extinction, mostly in Yellowstone National Park.

    4. The End of the Trail

      1. Sympathy for the Indians finally materialized in the 1880s, helped in part by Helen Hunt Jackson’s novels, A Century of Dishonor and Ramona.

        1. Humanitarians wanted to kindly help Indians “walk the White man’s road” while the hard-liners stuck to their “kill ‘em all” beliefs, and no one cared much for the traditional Indian heritage and culture.

      2. Often, zealous White missionaries would force Indians to convert, and in 1884, they helped urge the government to outlaw the sacred Sun Dance.

        1. At the Battle of Wounded Knee, the “Ghost Dance,” as it was called by the Whites, as brutally stamped out by U.S. troops, who killed women and kids too.

      3. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 dissolved the legal entities of all tribes, but if the Indians behaved the way Whites wanted them to behave, they could receive full U.S. citizenship in 25 years (full citizenship to all Indians was granted in 1924).

        1. Reservation land not allotted to Indians under the act was sold to railroads,

        2. In 1879, the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania was founded to teach Native American children how to behave like White man, completely erasing their culture.

        3. The Dawes Act struck forcefully at the Indians, and by 1900 they had lost half the land than they had held 20 years before, but under this plan, which would outline U.S. policy toward Indians until the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act, helped the Indian population rebound and grow.

    5. Mining: From Dishpan to Ore Breaker

      1. Gold was discovered in California in the late 1840s, and in 1858, the same happened at Pike’s Peak in Colorado, but within a month or two, it was all out.

      2. The Comstock Lode in Nevada was discovered in 1859, and a fantastic amount of gold and silver worth more than $340 million was mined.

      3. Smaller “lucky strikes” also drew money-lovers to Montana, Idaho, and other western states, and anarchy seemed to rule, but in the end, what was left were usually ghost towns.

      4. After the surface gold was found, ore-breaking machinery was brought in to break the gold-bearing quartz (very expensive to do).

      5. Women found new rights in the new lands, gaining suffrage in Wyoming (1869), Utah (1870), Colorado (1893) and Idaho (1896).

      6. Mining also added to the folklore and American literature (Bret Harte & Mark Twain).

    6. Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive

      1. The problem of marketing meat profitably to the public market was solved by the new transcontinental railroads, where cattle could now be shipped bodily to the stockyards, and under “beef barons” like the Swifts and Armours.

        1. The meat-packaging industry thus sprang up.

      2. The “Long Drive” now emerged to become a spectacular feeder of the slaughterhouses, as Texas cowboys herded cattle across desolate land to railroad terminals.

        1. Dodge City, Abilene, Ogallala, and Cheyenne became favorite stopovers.

          1. At Abilene, Marshal James B. Hickok maintained order.

      3. The railroads made the cattle herding business prosper, but it also destroyed it, for the railroads also brought sheepherders and homesteaders who built barbed-wire fences that were too numerous to be cut through by the cowboys.

        1. Also, blizzards in the winter of 1886-87 left dazed cattle starving and freezing.

      4. Breeders learned to fence their ranches and organize (i.e. the Wyoming Stock-Growers’ Association).

        1. The legends of the cowboys were made here at this time but were soon forgotten.

    7. Free Land for Free Families

      1. The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed folks to get as much as 160 acres of land in return for living on it for five years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee of about $30.00, or allowed folks to get land after only six month’s residence for $1.25 an acre.

        1. Before, the U.S. government had sold land for revenue, but now, it was giving it away!!!

        2. This act led half a million families to buy land and settle out West, but it often turned out to be a cruel hoax because in the dry Great Plains, 160 acres was rarely enough for a family to earn a living and survive, and often, families were forced to give up their homesteads before the five years were up, since droughts, bad land, and lack of necessities forced them out.

        3. However, fraud was spawned by the Homestead Act, since almost ten times as much land ended up in the hands of land-grabbing promoters than in real farmers, and often these cheats would not even live on the land, but say that they erected a “twelve by fourteen” dwelling—which later turned out to be twelve by fourteen inches!!!

    8. Taming Western Deserts

      1. Railroads such as the Northern Pacific helped develop the agricultural West, a place where, after the tough, horse-trodden lands had been watered and dug up, proved to be surprisingly fertile.

      2. Due to higher wheat prices resulting from crop failures around the world, more people rashly pushed further west, past the 100th meridian, to grow wheat.

        1. Here, as warned by geologist John Wesley Powell, so little rain fell that successful farming could only be attained by massive irrigation.

        2. To counteract the lack of water (and a six year drought in the 1880s), farmers developed the technique of “dry farming,” or using shallow cultivation methods to plant and farm, but over time, this method created a finely pulverized surface soil that contributed to the notorious “Dust Bowl” several decades later.

      3. A Russian species of wheat—tough and resistant to drought—was brought in and grew all over the Great Plains, while other plants were chosen in favor of corn.

      4. Huge federally financed irrigation projects soon caused the Great American Desert to bloom, and dams that tamed the Missouri and Columbia Rivers helped water the land.

    9. The Far West Comes of Age

      1. The Great West experienced a population surge, as many people moved onto the frontier.

      2. New states like Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming were admitted into the Union.

        1. Not until 1896 was Utah allowed into the Union, and by the 20th century, only Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona remained as territories.

      3. In Oklahoma, the U.S. government made available land that had formerly belonged to the Native Americans, and thousands of “sooners” jumped the boundary line and illegally went into Oklahoma, often forcing U.S. troops to evict them.

        1. On April 22, 1889, Oklahoma was legally opened, and 18 years later, in 1907, Oklahoma became the “Sooner State.”

      4. In 1890, for the first time, the U.S. census announced that a frontier was no longer discernible.

      5. The “closing” of the frontier inspired the Turner Thesis, which stated that America needed a frontier.

      6. At first, the public didn’t seem to notice that there was no longer a frontier, but later, they began to realize that the land was not infinite, and concern led to the first national park being opened: Yellowstone, founded in 1872, followed by Yosemite and Sequoia (1890).

    10. The Folding Frontier

      1. The frontier was a state of mind and a symbol of opportunity.

      2. The “safety valve theory” stated that the frontier was like a safety valve for folks who, when it became too crowded in their area, could simply pack up and leave, moving West.

        1. Actually, few city-dwellers left the cities for the West, since they didn’t know how to farm; the West increasingly became less and less a land of opportunity for farms, but still was good for hard laborers and ranchers.

        2. Still, free acreage did lure a host of immigrant farmers to the West—farmers that probably wouldn’t have come to the West had the land not been cheap—and the lure of the West may have led to city employers raising wages to keep workers in the cities!

      3. It seems that the cities, not the West, were the safety valves, as busted farmers and fortune seekers made Chicago and San Francisco into large cities.

      4. Of hundreds of years, Americans had expanded west, and it was in the trans-Mississippi west that the Indians made their last stand, where Anglo culture collided with Hispanic culture, and where America faced Asia.

      5. The life that we live today is one that those pioneers dreamed of, and the life that they lived is one that we can only dream.

    11. The Farm Becomes a Factory

      1. Farmers were now increasingly producing single “cash” crops, since they could then concentrate their efforts, make profits, and buy manufactured goods from mail order, such as the Aaron Montgomery Ward catalogue (first sent in 1872).

      2. Large-scale farmers tried banking, railroading, and manufacturing, but new inventions in farming, such as a steam engine that could pull behind it the plow, seeder, and harrow, the new twine binder, and the combined reaper-thresher sped up harvesting and lowered the number of people needed to farm.

        1. Farmers, though, were inclined to blame banks and railroads for their losses rather than their own shortcomings.

      3. The mechanization of agriculture led to enormous farms, such as those in the Minnesota-North Dakota area and the Central Valley of California.

        1. Henry George described the state as a country of plantations and estates.

        2. California vegetables and fruits, raised by ill-paid Mexican workers, made handsome profits when sold to the East.

    12. Deflation Dooms the Debtor

      1. In the 1880s, when world markets rebounded, produced more crops, and forced prices down, the farmers in America were the ones that found ruin.

      2. Paying back debts was especially hard in this deflation-filled time during which there was simply not enough money to go around for everyone.

      3. Farmers operated year after year on losses and lived off their fat as best they could, but thousands of homesteads fell to mortgages and foreclosures during this time, and farm tenancy rather than farm ownership was increasing.

      4. The fall of the farmers in the late 1800s was similar to the fall of the South and its “King Cotton” during the Civil War: depending solely on one crop was good in good times but disastrous during less prosperous times.

    13. Unhappy Farmers

      1. In the late 1880s and early 1890s, droughts, grasshopper plagues, and searing heat waves made the toiling farmers miserable and poor.

      2. City, state, and federal governments added to this by gouging the farmers, ripping them off by making them pay painful taxes when they could least afford to do so.

      3. The railroads (by fixing freight prices), the middlemen (by taking huge cuts in profits), and the various harvester, barbed wire, and fertilizer trusts all harassed farmers.

      4. In 1890, one half of the U.S. population still consisted of farmers, but they were hopelessly disorganized.

    14. The Farmers Take Their Stand

      1. In the Greenback movement after the Civil War, agrarian unrest had flared forth as well.

      2. In 1867, the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, better known as The Grange, was founded by Oliver H. Kelley to improve the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities.

        1. Eventually, it spread to claim over 800,000 members in 1875, and the Grange changed its goals to include the improvement of the collective plight of the farmer.

        2. The Grangers found most success in the upper Mississippi Valley, and eventually, they managed to get Congress to pass a set of regulations known as the Granger Laws, but afterwards, their influence faded.

      3. The Greenback Labor Party also attracted farmers, and in 1878, the Greenback Laborites polled over a million votes and elected 14 members of Congress.

        1. In 1880, the Greenbackers ran General James B. Weaver, a Civil War general, but he only polled 3% of the popular vote.

    15. Prelude to Populism

      1. The Farmers’ Alliance, founded in the late 1870s, was another coalition of farmers seeking to overthrow the chains from the banks and railroads that bound them.

        1. However, its programs only aimed at those who owned their own land, thereby ignoring the tenant farmers, and it purposefully excluded Blacks.

        2. The White Alliance members agreed on the nationalization of railroads, the abolition of national banks, a graduated income tax, and a new federal subtreasury for farmers.

      2. Populists were led by Ignatius Donnelly from Minnesota and Mary Elizabeth Lease, both of whom spoke eloquently and attacked those that hurt farmers (banks, RR’s, etc…).

      3. The Alliance was still not to be brushed aside, and in the coming decade, they would combine into a new People’s Party (the Populist Party) to launch a new attack on the northeastern citadels of power.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - The Revolt of the Debtor 1889 – 1900

    1. The Republicans Return Under Harrison

      1. New president Benjamin Harrison was inaugurated on a rainy March 4, 1889.

        1. He was brusque and abrupt, but also honest and earnest.

      2. After four years out of the White House, the Republicans were eager to return to power, especially those seeking political rewards.

        1. James G. Blaine became the secretary of state.

        2. Theodore Roosevelt was named to the Civil Service Commission.

      3. However, the Republicans had troubles, for they only had three more members than was necessary for a quorum, and Democrats could simply not answer to the roll and easily keep Congress from working.

      4. The new Speaker of the House, Thomas B. Reed, was a large, tall man, a masterful debater, and very critical and quick man.

        1. To solve the problem of reaching quorum in Congress, Reed counted the Democrats who were present but didn’t answer to the roll call, and after three days of such chaos, he finally prevailed, opening the 51st, or “Billion Dollar” Congress—one that legislated a lot of expensive projects, etc…

    2. Political Gravy for All

      1. Harrison, a former Civil War general, appointed a Civil War amputee as commissioner of pensions, and that man practically used up the federal surplus to give out pensions.

        1. The Pension Act of 1890 gave pensions to all Union Civil War veterans who had served at least 90 days in the army and could not do manual labor now.

        2. Thus, from 1891 to 1895, the bill for pensions rose from $81 million to $135 million.

          1. This gained the Republican support of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), whose members were grateful to the GOP (Grand Old Party) for its handouts.

      2. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act, passed in 1890, was a pioneering but weak law that tried to deter the new corporations and monopolies that existed.

      3. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 appealed to those who had hated the old Bland-Allison Law of 1878 because it allowed the Treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver monthly and pay for it in notes redeemable in silver OR gold

      4. The McKinley Tariff Bill of 1890 boosted rates up to 48.4%—the highest level yet.

        1. The farmers lost the most from this tariff, as tin peddlers in the Midwest dishonestly cited rising prices due to Republicans; as a result, in the election of 1890, Democratic seats in the House rose to 235, while Republicans only had 88 representatives.

        2. Nine members of the Farmers’ Alliance, an organization of southern and western farms, were also elected to the House of Representatives.

    3. The Populist Challenge of 1892

      1. In 1892, the Democrats nominated conservative Grover Cleveland while Republicans went with unpopular Harrison, but the splash was made by a new third party: the People’s Party (aka Populist Party).

        1. The Populists, made up mainly of the Farmers’ Alliance (and other groups), demanded free and unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one, a graduated income tax, and government ownership of the telephone, telegraph, and railroads—all to combat injustice.

        2. They also wanted direct elections of U.S. Senators, a one-term limit on the presidency, and the use of the initiative and referendum to allow citizens to propose and review legislation—all in the true spirit of Democracy.

      2. A rash of strikes in the summer of ’92 also brought concerns that disgruntled workers could join the Populist Party.

        1. At Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead steel plant near Pittsburgh, a strike resulted in violence that killed ten and wounded sixty, and the eventual calling of U.S. troops to break the strike and its union backer.

        2. Silver miners striking in Idaho’s Coeur d’Alene District were also broken.

      3. Impressively, the Populist party did get over a million votes and 22 Electoral votes, but these came all from the Midwest (farmer country).

        1. The South was unwilling to support the Populists because of race: one million Black farmers in the Colored Farmers’ National Alliance, along with other Blacks, were targets of Populist outreach.

        2. Populist leaders like Georgia’s Tom Watson reached out to the Black community, but racist Whites stunted Populist support in the South.

      4. The Blacks were the real losers in the Election of 1892, for upon seeing that African-Americans were trying to show their political power, Southern Whites passed literacy tests, poll taxes, and the infamous “grandfather clause,” which stated that no Black could not vote unless his forbear had voted in 1860 (none had).

        1. Severe Jim Crow laws were also passed in many Southern states, and it would not be for another half century until Blacks finally became a political force.

        2. Even Tom Watson became a racist himself following 1892, and after 1896, the Populist party lapsed into vile racism and Black disfranchisement.

    4. “Old Grover” Cleveland Again

      1. Grover Cleveland won, but no sooner than he had stepped into the presidency did the Depression of 1893 break out; it was the first such panic in the new urban and industrial age, and it caused much outrage and hardships.

      2. About 8000 American business houses collapsed in six months, and dozens of railroad lines went into the hands of receivers.

        1. Now Cleveland had a deficit, for the Treasury had to issue gold for the notes that it had paid in the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, and according to law, those notes had to be reissued, thus causing a steady drain on gold in the Treasury—the level alarmingly dropped below $100 million at one point!

      3. Meanwhile, Grover Cleveland had developed a malignant growth under the roof of his mouth, and it had to be secretly removed in a surgery that took place aboard his private yacht; had he died, Adlai E. Stevenson, a “soft money” (paper money) man, would have caused massive chaos with inflation.

      4. Also, 33 year-old William Jennings Bryan was advocating “free silver,” and gaining support for his beliefs, but an angry Cleveland used his executive power to break the filibuster in the Senate—thus alienating the silver-supporting Democrats.

    5. Gold Shortages and Job Shortages

      1. Finally, the U.S. repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, but this only partially stopped the problem, and by 1894, the gold reserve sank to only $41 million!

        1. The U.S. was in danger of going off the gold standard, sinking into financial turmoil, and ruining its international trade.

      2. Finally, Cleveland turned to J.P. Morgan, the “banker’s banker,” who agreed to have Wall Street loan the government $65 million in gold, obtain half of the gold from abroad, and take the needed steps to dam up the leaky Treasury.

        1. This caused an outrage, for silverites saw only corruption and badness in Cleveland’s dealings with the “evil ‘Jupiter’” Morgan.

      3. Meanwhile, the unemployed, led by men like “General” Jacob S. Coxey, a wealthy Ohio quarry owner, demonstrated for much-needed help.

        1. He and his “Commonweal Army” of Coxeyites marched to Washington D.C., but upon reaching there, he and his “lieutenants” were arrested for walking on the grass, while the other people accounted for lots of disorder and pillage.

    6. Cleveland Crushes the Pullman Strike

      1. In Chicago, the infamous Pullman Strike, led by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, was a violent flare-up but just one of the many that occurred.

        1. The Pullman Palace Car Company had been hit hard by the depression had been forced to cut wages about one-third.

        2. In the opinion of Illinois governor John Peter Atgeld, who had pardoned the Haymarket Riot anarchists the year before, the riot was serious but not out of hand.

        3. However, Attorney General Richard Olney felt that the strikers were interfering with U.S. mail delivery to Chicago, and he ordered federal troops to crush the strike…leading to controversy.

      2. Labor unions began to think that employers and even the U.S. government were out to shut the unions down, and were incensed.

    7. Democratic Tariff Tinkering

      1. The Democrats took to revising the existing tariff into one that would follow their campaign promises by providing moderate protection and adequate revenue.

        1. This new bill even included a tax of 2% on $4000+ incomes.

        2. However, upon reaching the Senate, the opposition of big business forced the Wilson-Gorman Bill to be amended 630 times, including a scandalous insertion of $20 million a year to itself by the sugar trust.

        3. Thus, this bill fell quite short of providing a low tariff, though it was lowered down to 41.3% on dutiable goods.

        4. In 1895, though, the Supreme Court struck down the graduated income tax portion—the most popular one—of the Wilson-Gorman Bill.

      2. As a result of the unpopular tariff, the Democrats lost a LOT of seats in the House in 1894, and the Republicans regained control.

      3. Discontented debtors were turning to free silver as a cure-all, as such pamphlets as Coin’s Financial School, written by William Hope Harvey, influenced many toward the free silver cause.

    8. McKinley: Hanna’s Fair-Haired Boy

      1. The leading Republican candidate in 1896 was William McKinley, a respectable and friendly former Civil War major who had served many years in Congress representing his native Ohio.

      2. McKinley was the making of another Ohioan, Marcus Alonzo Hanna, who financially and politically supported the candidate through his political years.

      3. McKinley was a conservative in business, preferring to leaves things alone, and his platform was for the gold standard, even though he personally was not.

        1. His platform also called for a gold-silver bimetallism—provided that all the other nations in the world did the same, which was not bound to happen.

    9. Bryan: Silverite Messiah

      1. The Democrats were in disarray, unable to come up with a candidate, until William Jennings Bryan, the “Boy Orator of the Platte,” came “to their rescue.”

      2. At the 1896 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Bryan delivered a movingly passionate speech in favor of free silver, and his Cross of Gold Speech created a sensation and got him nominated for the Democratic ticket the next day.

        1. The Democratic ticket called for unlimited coinage of silver with the ratio of 16 silver ounces worth as much as one ounce of gold.

        2. Democrats who would not stand for this left their party!

        3. Some Democrats charged that the Democrats had stolen the Populist ideas, and during the Election of 1896, it was essentially the “Demo-Pop” party.

    10. Hanna Leads the “Gold Bugs”

      1. Hanna thought that he could make the tariff the heart of the campaign issue, but Bryan turned the tables, making silver the key issue.

        1. Free silver seemed to be a religion, with Bryan the “savior” of all free silverites.

        2. Essentially, Bryan was cutting in half the value of people’s earnings and savings with his free silver idea, and this worried the eastern conservatives.

      2. With the public afraid of Bryan’s radical ideas, Hanna campaigned vigorously and amassed a sizeable amount of money for the Republicans to use in the election.

        1. As a result, many Democrats accused Hanna of “buying” the election, since the Democrats only had $1 million for their campaign, as opposed to the Republican $16 million.

    11. Appealing to the Pocketbook Vote

      1. Hanna launched a full-force attack against free silver, sending many speakers out onto the stump to appeal to the public in person, but few people could really understand what all the hoopla was about, and even they disagreed.

        1. It was mostly shouting and little thinking.

      2. A sharp rise in wheat prices near the end of the campaign quelled much of the farmers’ anger against the Republicans, and most people voted for McKinley due to fear of Bryan and his “dangerous, crazy, radical ideas.”

    12. Class Conflict: Plowholders versus Bondholders

      1. McKinley won decisively, getting 271 Electoral votes, mostly from the populous East and upper Midwest, as opposed to Bryan’s 176, mostly from the South and the West.

      2. This election was perhaps the most important since those involving Abraham Lincoln, for it was the first to seemingly pit the privileged against the underprivileged, and it resulted in a victory for big business and big cities.

      3. The Middle Class preserved their comfortable way of life while the Republicans seized control of the White House of 16 more years.

    13. Republican Standpattism Enthroned

      1. When McKinley took office in 1897, he was calm and conservative, working well with his party and avoiding major confrontations.

      2. The Dingley Tariff Bill was passed to replace the Wilson-Gorman law and raise more revenue, raising the tariff level to 46.5 percent!

    14. Inflation without Silver

      1. Just as McKinley came to power, prosperity was returning as the Depression of 1893 was running its course, and the Republicans took credit for this event.

      2. The Gold Standard Act was not passed until 1900, when many silverites had left Congress, but it provided that paper currency was to be redeemable in full in gold.

      3. A stable expansion of currency was clearly desired in America, since money was tight at the time, but free silver was a poor method of obtaining that.

      4. Inflation occurred when new gold was discovered in Alaska, Canada, and South Africa, and when science perfect a cheap cyanide process for extracting gold from low-grade ore.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - The Path of Empire 1890 – 1899

    1. Imperialist Stirrings
      1. From the end of the Civil War to the 1880s, the United States was very isolationist, but in the 1890s, due to rising exports, manufacturing capability, power, and wealth, it began to expand onto the world stage, using overseas markets to send its goods.
        1. The “yellow press” of Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst also influenced overseas expansion, as did missionaries inspired by Reverend Josiah Strong’s Our Country: It’s Possible Future and Its Present Crisis.
        2. People were interpreting Darwin’s theory of survival of the fittest to mean that the United States was the fittest and needed to take over other nations to improve them.
          1. Such events already were happening, as Europeans carved up Africa and China at this time.
      2. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan’s 1890 book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, argued that every successful nation had a great navy, starting a naval race among the great powers.
      3. James G. Blaine pushed his “Big Sister” policy, which sought better relations with Latin America, and in 1889, he presided over the first Pan-American Conference, held in Washington D.C.
      4. However, in other diplomatic affairs, America and Germany almost went to war over the Samoan Islands (over which could build a naval base there), while Italy and America almost fought due to the lynching of 11 Italians in New Orleans, and the U.S. and Chile almost went to war after the deaths of two American sailors at Valparaiso in 1892.
        1. The new aggressive mood was also shown by the U.S.-Canadian argument over seal hunting near the Pribilof Islands off the coast of Alaska.
    2. Monroe’s Doctrine and the Venezuelan Squall
      1. British Guiana and Venezuela had been disputing their border for many years, but when gold was discovered, the situation worsened.
        1. Thus, the U.S., under President Grover Cleveland, sent a note written by Secretary of State Richard Olney to Britain informing them that the British actions were trespassing the Monroe Doctrine and that the U.S. controlled things in the Americas.
        2. The British replied four months later saying that the Monroe Doctrine didn’t exist.
      2. Uproar resulted, and the two nations almost went to war, but after second thoughts by both sides, the issue was settled with the British getting most of the land that they had wanted in the beginning.
        1. Britain didn’t want to fight because of the damage to its merchant trade that could result, as well as the vulnerability of Canada; plus, after the Dutch Boers of South Africa captured 600 British, Germany’s Kaiser Wilhem cabled his congratulations, sending British anger to Germany, not to America.
        2. The result was that the Monroe Doctrine was strengthened, the Latin American nations appreciated the U.S. effort to protect them, and Britain sought better relations with the U.S. afterwards, since it had many enemies in Europe.
    3. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear
      1. From the 1820s, when the first U.S. missionaries came, the United States had always liked the Hawaiian Islands.
        1. Treaties signed in 1875 and 1887 guaranteed commercial trade and U.S. rights to priceless Pearl Harbor, while Hawaiian sugar was very profitable, but in 1890, the McKinley Tariff raised the prices on this sugar, raisin its price.
        2. Americans felt that the best way to offset this was to annex Hawaii—a move opposed by its Queen Liliuokalani—but in 1893, desperate Americans revolted.
      2. They succeeded, and Hawaii seemed ready for annexation, but Grover Cleveland became president again, investigated the coup, found it to be wrong, and delayed the annexation of Hawaii until he basically left office.
        1. Cleveland was bombarded for stopping “Manifest Destiny,” but his actions proved to be honorable for him and America.
    4. Cubans Rise in Revolt
      1. In 1895, Cuba revolted against Spain, citing years of misrule, and the Cubans torched their sugar cane fields in hopes that such destruction would either make Spain leave or America interfere (the American tariff of 1894 had raised prices on it anyway).
        1. Sure enough, America supported Cuba, and the situation worsened when Spanish General Weyler came to Cuba to crush the revolt and ended up putting many civilians into concentration camps that were terrible and killed many.
        2. The American public clamored for action, but Cleveland would do nothing.
    5. The Mystery of the Maine Explosion
      1. The yellow presses competed against each other to come up with more sensational stories, and Hearst even sent artist Frederick Remington to draw pictures of often-fictional atrocities
        1. Example, he drew Spanish officials brutally stripping and searching an American woman, when in reality, Spanish women, not men, did such acts.
      2. Then, suddenly, on February 9, 1898, a letter written by Spanish minister to Washington, Dupuy de Lôme, which totally ridiculed president McKinley was published by Hearst.
      3. On February 15th of that year, the U.S. battleship Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 260 officers and men.
        1. America was war-mad, and Spain was about to be crushed.
      4. Actually, what really happened was that an accidental explosion had basically blown up the ship—a similar conclusion to what Spanish investigators suggested—but America ignored them.
    6. McKinley Unleashes the Dogs of War
      1. The American public wanted war, but McKinley privately didn’t like war or the violence, since he had been a Civil War major; in addition, Mark Hanna and Wall Street didn’t want war because it would upset business.
      2. However, on April 11, 1898, the President sent his war message to Congress anyway, since: war with Spain seemed inevitable, America had to defend Democracy, opposing a war could split the Republican Party and America.
      3. Congress also adopted the Teller Amendment, which proclaimed that when the U.S. had overthrown Spanish misrule, it would give the Cubans their freedom.
    7. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila
      1. On paper, at least, the Spanish had the advantage over the U.S., since it had more troops and a supposedly better army, as well as younger (less senile) generals.
      2. Navy Secretary John D. Long and his assistant secretary, Theodore Roosevelt had modernized the U.S. navy, making it sleek and sharp.
        1. On February 25, 1898, Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey, commanding the American Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong, and told him to take over the Philippines.
        2. Dewey did so brilliantly, completely taking over the islands from the Spanish.
    8. Unexpected Imperialistic Plums
      1. Dewey had naval control, but he could not storm the islands and its fortresses, so he had to wait for reinforcements, but meanwhile, other nations were moving their ships into Manila Harbor do protect their men.
        1. The German navy defied American blockade regulations, and Dewey threatened the navy commander with war, but luckily, this episode blew over, due in part to the British assistance of America.
      2. Finally, on August 13, 1898, American troops arrived and captured Manila, collaborating with Filipino insurgents, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, to overthrow the Spanish rulers.
      3. On July 7, 1898, the U.S. annexed Hawaii (so that it could use the islands to support Dewey, supposedly), and Hawaii received full territorial status in 1900.
    9. The Confused Invasion of Cuba
      1. The Spanish sent warships to Cuba, panicking Americans on the Eastern seaboard, and the fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, found refuge in Santiago harbor, Cuba.
        1. Then, it was promptly blockaded by a better American force.
      2. American ground troops, led by fat General William R. Shafter, were ill-prepared for combat in the tropical environment (i.e. they had woolen long underwear).
      3. The “Rough Riders,” a regiment of volunteers led by Theodore Roosevelt and Colonel Leonard Wood, rushed to Cuba and battled at El Caney San Juan Hill.
        1. TR had lots of fun.
    10. Curtains for Spain in America
      1. Admiral Cervera was finally ordered to fight the American fleet, and his fleet was destroyed.
      2. On land, the American army, commanded by General Nelson A. Miles, met little resistance as they took over Puerto Rico.
      3. Soon afterwards, on August 12, 1898, Spain signed an armistice.
      4. Note that if the Spaniards had held out for a few more months, they might have won, for the American army was plagued with dysentery, typhoid, and yellow fever.
        1. Finally, TR wrote a “round-robin” letter demanded that the U.S. government take the troops out before they all died.
    11. McKinley Heeds Duty, Destiny, and Dollars
      1. In negotiations in Paris, America got Guam and Puerto Rico and freed Cuba, but the Philippines were a tough problem, since America couldn’t honorably give it back to Spain after decades of misrule, but the U.S. couldn’t just take it like an imperialistic nation.
      2. Finally, McKinley decided to keep the Philippines, even though they had been taken one day after the end of the war, but he did so because of popular public opinion, not to mention the urging of his wife, an invalid.
        1. The U.S. paid $20 million for the islands.
    12. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire
      1. Upon the U.S. taking of the Philippines, uproar broke out, since until now, the United States had mostly acquired territory from the American continent, and even with Alaska, Hawaii, and the other scattered islands, there weren’t many people living there.
      2. The Anti-Imperialist League sprang into being, firmly opposed to this new imperialism of America, and its members included Mark Twain, William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.
        1. Even the Filipinos wanted freedom, and denying that to them was un-American.
      3. However, expansionists cried that the Philippines could become another Hong Kong.
        1. British writer Rudyard Kipling wrote about “The White Man’s Burden,” urging America to keep the Philippines and “civilize them.”
      4. In the Senate, the treaty almost was not passed, but finally, William Jennings Bryan argued for its passage, saying that the sooner the treaty was passed, the sooner the U.S. could get rid of the Philippines; the treaty passed by ONE VOTE.
    13. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba
      1. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government, and in 1917, Congress granted Puerto Ricans full American citizenship.
        1. U.S. help also transformed Puerto Rico and worked wonders in sanitation, transportation, beauty, and education.
      2. In the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court barely ruled that the Constitution did not have full authority on how to deal with the islands (Cuba and Puerto Rico), essentially letting Congress do whatever it wanted with them.
      3. America could not improve Cuba that much, other than getting rid of yellow fever with the help of General Leonard Wood and Dr. Walter Reed.
      4. In 1902, the U.S. did indeed walk away from Cuba, but it also encouraged Cuba to write and pass the Platt Amendment, which became their constitution.
        1. This said that the U.S. could intervene and restore order in case of anarchy, that the U.S. could trade freely with Cuba, and that the U.S. could get two bays for naval bases, notably Guantanamo Bay.
    14. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres
      1. The Spanish-American War lasted only 113 days and affirmed America’s presence as a world power.
      2. However, America’s actions after the war made its German rival jealous and its Latin American neighbors suspicious.
      3. Finally, one of the happiest results of the war was the closing of the bloody chasm between the U.S. North and South, which had been formed in the Civil War.
        1. General Joseph Wheeler was given a command in Cuba.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - America on the World State 1899 – 1909

    1. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines
      1. The Filipinos had assumed that they would receive freedom after the Spanish-American War, but when they didn’t they revolted against the U.S.
        1. The insurrection began on February 4, 1899, and was led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who took his troops into guerrilla warfare after open combat proved to be useless.
        2. Stories of atrocities abounded, but finally, the rebellion was broken in 1901 when U.S. soldier invaded Aguinaldo’s headquarters and captured him.
      2. President McKinley formed a Philippine Commission in 1899 to deal with the Filipinos, and in its second year, the organization was headed by amiable William H. Taft, who developed a strong attachment for the Filipinos, calling them his “little brown brothers.”
      3. The Americans tried to assimilate the Filipinos, but the islanders resisted; they finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.
    2. John Hay Defends China (and U.S. Interests)
      1. Following its defeat by Japan in 1894-94, China had been carved into spheres of influence by the European powers.
      2. American were alarmed, as churches worried about their missionary strongholds while businesses feared that they would not be able to export their products to China.
      3. Finally, Secretary of State John Hay dispatched his famous Open Door note, which urged the European nations to keep fair competition open to all nations willing and wanting to participate.
        1. All the powers already holding spots of China were squirmish, and only Italy, which had no sphere of influence of its own, accepted unconditionally.
        2. Russia didn’t accept at all, but the others did, on certain conditions, and thus, China was “saved” from being carved up.
    3. Hinging the Open Door in China
      1. In 1900, a super-patriotic group known as the “Boxers” revolted and took over the capital of China, Beijing, taking all foreigners hostage, including diplomats.
      2. After a multi-national force broke the rebellion, the powers made China by $333 million for damages, of which the U.S. eventually received $18 million.
      3. Fearing that the European powers would carve China up for good, now, John Hay officially asked that China not be carved.
    4. Kicking “Teddy” Roosevelt Upstairs
      1. McKinley was the easy choice to be president in 1900, and Republican Party leaders wanted to get rid of burdensome maverick Teddy Roosevelt, so they cooked up a scheme to kick him into the vice presidency, a traditional political graveyard.
        1. TR received a unanimous vote for VP, except for his own.
      2. The Democrats could only decide on William Jennings Bryan (rather, he decided for them that he would be the candidate).
    5. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?
      1. Just like four years before, it was McKinley sitting on his front porch and Bryan actively and personally campaigning, but Theodore Roosevelt’s active campaigning took a lot of the momentum away from Bryan’s.
      2. Bryan’s supporters concentrated on imperialism—a bad move, considering that Americans were tired of the subject, while McKinley’s supporters claimed that “Bryanism,” not imperialism, was the problem, and that if Bryan became president, he would shake up the prosperity that was in America at the time; McKinley won easily.
    6. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick
      1. Six months later, a deranged murderer shot and killed William McKinley, making Theodore Roosevelt the youngest president ever at age 42.
        1. TR promised to carry out McKinley’s policies.
      2. Theodore Roosevelt was a big-chested man with a short temper, large glasses, and a stubborn mentality that always thought he was right.
        1. Born into a rich family and graduated from Harvard, he was highly energetic and spirited, and his motto was “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” or basically, “Let your actions do the talking.”
        2. Roosevelt rapidly developed into a master politician, and a maverick uncontrollable by party machines, and he believed that a president should lead, which would explain the precedents that he would set during his term, becoming the “first modern president.”
    7. Columbia Blocks the Canal
      1. TR had traveled to Europe and knew more about foreign affairs than most of his predecessors, and one foreign affair that he knew needed to be dealt with was the creation of a canal through the Central American isthmus.
        1. During the Spanish-American War, the battleship Oregon had been forced to steam all the way around the tip of South America to join the fleet in Cuba.
        2. Such a waterway would also make defense of the recent island acquisitions easier (i.e. Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaii).
      2. However, the 1850 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain had forbade the construction by either country of a canal in the Americas without the other’s consent and help, but that statement was nullified in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty.
      3. A Nicaraguan route was one possible place for a canal, but it was opposed by the old French Canal Company that was eager to salvage something from their costly failure at Panama (in other words, make a Panama canal).
        1. Their leader was Philippe Bunau-Varilla.
      4. The U.S. finally chose Panama after Mount Pelée erupted and killed 30,000 people.
      5. The U.S. negotiated a deal that would buy a 6-mile-wide strip of land in Panama for $10 million and a $250,000 annual payment, but this treaty was retracted by the Columbian government, which owned Panama.
        1. TR was obviously incensed, since he wanted construction of the canal to begin before the 1904 campaign.
    8. Uncle Sam Creates a Puppet Panama
      1. On November 3, 1903, another revolution in Panama began with the killing of a Chinese civilian and a donkey, and when Columbia tried to stop it, the U.S., citing an 1846 treaty with Columbia, wouldn’t let the Columbian fleet through.
      2. Panama was thus recognized by the U.S., and fifteen days later, Bunau-Varilla, the Panamanian minister despite his French nationality, signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty that give a widened (6x10 mi.) Panamanian zone to the U.S. for $15 mil.
      3. TR didn’t actively plot to tear Panama away from Columbia, but it sure seemed like it to the public, and to Latin America, and his actions in this incident suffered a political black eye.
    9. IX. Completing the Canal and Appeasing Columbia
      1. In 1904, construction began on the Panama Canal, but at first problems with land slides and sanitation occurred.
        1. Colonel George Washington Coethals finally organized the workers while Colonel William C. Gorgas exterminated yellow fever.
        2. When TR visited Panama in 1906, he was the first U.S. president to leave America for foreign soil.
        3. The canal was finally finished and opened in 1914, at a cost of $400 million.
    10. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine
      1. Latin American nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were having a hard time paying their debts to their European debtors, so Britain and Germany decided to send a bit of force to South America to make the Latinos pay.
      2. TR feared that if European powers interfered in the Americas to collect debts, they might then stay in Latin America, a blatant violation of the Monroe Doctrine, so he issued his Roosevelt Corollary, which stated that in future cases of debt problems, the U.S. would take over and pay off the debts, thus keeping the Europeans on the other side of the Atlantic.
        1. In effect, no one could bully Latin America except the U.S.
        2. However, this corollary didn’t bear too well with Latin America, whose countries once again felt that Uncle Sam was being overbearing.
          1. When U.S. Marines landed in Cuba to bring back order to the island in 1906, this seemed like an extension of the “Bad Neighbor” policy.
    11. Roosevelt on the World Stage
      1. In 1904, Japan attacked Russia, since Russia had been in Manchuria, and proceeded to administer a series of humiliating victories until the Japanese began to run short on men.
        1. Therefore, they approached Theodore Roosevelt to facilitate a peace treaty.
        2. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905, both sides met, and though both were stubborn (Japanese wanted all of the strategic island of Sakhalin while the Russians disagreed), in the end, TR negotiated a deal in which Japan got half of Sakhalin but no indemnity for its losses.
      2. For this and his mediation of North African disputes in 1906 through an international conference at Algeciras, Spain, TR received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906.
      3. However, due to the Russo-Japanese incident, America lost two allies in Russia and Japan, neither of which felt that it had received its fair share of winnings.
    12. Japanese Laborers in California
      1. After the war, many Japanese immigrants poured into California, and fears of a “yellow flood” arose again.
      2. The showdown came in 1906 after the San Francisco earthquake when the city decreed that due to lack of space, Japanese children should attend a special school.
        1. Instantly, this became an international issue, but TR settled it eventually.
        2. S.F. would not displace students while Japan would keep its laborers in Japan.
      3. To impress the Japanese, Roosevelt sent his entire battleship fleet around the world for a tour, and it received tremendous salutes in Latin America, New Zealand, Hawaii, Australia, and Japan, helping relieve tensions.
      4. The Root-Takahira Agreement pledged the U.S. and Japan to respect each other’s territorial possessions in the Pacific and to uphold the Open Note in China.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt 1901 – 1912

    1. Progressive Roots
      1. In the beginning of the 1900s, America had 76 million people, mostly in good condition, but before the first decade of the 20th century, the U.S. would be struck by a movement by people known as the progressives, who fought against monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.
        1. The purpose of the Progressive Movement was to use the government as an agency of human welfare.
      2. The Progressives had their roots in the Greenback Labor Party of the 1870s and 1880s and the Populist Party of the 1890s.
      3. In 1894, Henry Demarest Lloyd exposed the corruption of the monopoly of the Standard Oil Company with his book Wealth Against Commonwealth, while Thorstein Veblen criticized the new rich (those who made money from the trusts) in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).
      4. Other exposers of the corruption of trusts, or muckrakers, as Theodore Roosevelt called them, were Jacob A. Riis, writer of How the Other Half Lives, a book about the New York slums, and novelist Theodore Dreiser, who wrote The Financier and The Titan.
      5. Socialists and feminists gained strength, and with people like Jane Addams and Lillian Wald, women entered the Progressive fight.
    2. Raking Muck with the Muckrakers
      1. Beginning about 1902, a group of aggressive ten- and fifteen-cent popular magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Collier’s, and Everybody’s, began flinging the dirt about the trusts.
      2. Despite criticism, reformer-writers ranged far and wide to lay bare the muck on the back of American society.
        1. In 1902, Lincoln Steffens launched a series of articles in McClure’s entitled “The Shame of the Cities,” in which he unmasked the corrupt alliance between big business and the government.
        2. Ida M. Tarbell launched a devastating exposé against Standard Oil.
      3. These writers exposed the mean trust, the “money trust,” the railroad barons, and the corrupt amassing of American fortunes, this last part done by Thomas W. Lawson.
      4. David G. Phillips charged that 75 of the 90 U.S. Senators did not represent the people but actually the railroads and trusts.
      5. Ray Stannard Baker’s Following the Color Line was about the illiteracy of Blacks.
      6. John Spargo’s The Bitter Cry of the Children exposed child labor.
      7. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley exposed the frauds that sold potent patent medicines by experimenting on himself.
      8. The muckrakers sincerely believed that the cure to the ill so of American democracy was more democracy.
    3. Political Progressivism
      1. Progressives were mostly middle-class citizens who felt squeezed by both the big trusts above and the restless immigrant hordes working for cheap labor that came from below.
      2. The Progressives favored the “initiative” so that voters could directly propose legislation, the “referendum” so that the people could vote on laws that affected them, and the “recall” to take bad officials off from their positions.
      3. Progressives also desired to expose graft, use a secret ballot to counteract the effects of party bosses, and have direct election of U.S. senators to curb corruption.
        1. Finally, in 1913, the 17th Amendment provided for direct election of senators.
      4. Females also campaigned for woman’s suffrage, but that did not come…yet.
    4. Progressivism in the Cities and States
      1. Progressive cities either used expert-staffed commissions to manage urban affairs or the city-manager system, which was designed to take politics out of municipal administration.
      2. Urban reformers tackled “slumlords,” juvenile delinquency, and wide-open prostitution.
      3. In Wisconsin, Governor Robert M. La Follette wrestled control from the trusts and returned power to the people, becoming a Progressive leader in the process.
        1. Other states also took to regulate railroads and trusts, such as Oregon and California, which was led by Governor Hiram W. Johnson.
        2. Charles Evans Hughes, governor of New York, gained fame by investigating the malpractices of gas and insurance companies.
    5. Battling Social Ills
      1. Progressives also made major improvements in the fight against child labor, especially after a 1911 fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in NYC burned up 146 workers, mostly young women.
        1. The landmark case of Muller vs. Oregon (1908) found attorney Louis D. Brandeis persuading the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws that protected women workers.
        2. On the other hand, the case of Lochner vs. New York invalidated a New York law establishing a ten-hour day for bakers.
        3. Yet, in 1917, the Court upheld a similar law for factory workers.
      2. Alcohol also came under the attack of Progressives, as prohibitionist organizations like the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, founded by Frances E. Willard, (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League were formed.
        1. Finally, in 1919, the 18th Amendment prohibited the sale and drinking of alcohol.
    6. TR’s Square Deal for Labor
      1. The Progressivism spirit touched President Roosevelt, and his “Square Deal” embraced the three Cs: control of the corporations, consumer protection, and the conservation of the United States’ natural resources.
      2. In 1902, a strike broke out in the anthracite coalmines of Pennsylvania, and some 140,000 workers demanded a 20% pay increase and the reduction of the workday to nine hours.
        1. Finally, after the owners refused to negotiate and the lack of coal was getting to the freezing schools, hospitals, and factories during that winter, TR threatened to seize the mines and operate them with federal troops if he had to in order to keep it open and the coal coming to the people.
        2. As a result, the workers got a 10% pay increase and a 9-hour workday, but their union was not officially recognized as a bargaining agent.
      3. In 1903, the Department of Commerce and Labor was formed, a part of which was the Bureau of Corporations, which was allowed to probe businesses engaged in interstate commerce; it was highly useful in “trust-busting.”
    7. TR Corrals the Corporations
      1. The 1887-formed Interstate Commerce Commission had proven to be inadequate, so in 1903, Congress passed the Elkins Act, which heavily fined RR’s that gave rebates and the shippers that accepted them.
      2. The Hepburn Act restricted the free passes of railroads.
      3. TR decided that there were “good trusts” and “bad trusts,” and set out to control the “bad trusts,” such as the Northern Securities Company, which was organized by J.P. Morgan and James J. Hill.
        1. In 1904, the Supreme Court upheld TR’s antitrust suit and ordered Northern Securities to dissolve, a decision that angered Wall Street but helped TR’s image.
      4. TR did crack down on over 40 trusts, and he helped dissolve he beef, sugar, fertilizer, and harvesters trusts, but in reality, he wasn’t as big of a trustbuster as he has been portrayed.
        1. He had no wish to take down the “good trusts,” but the trusts that did fall under TR’s big stick fell symbolically, so that other trusts would reform themselves.
      5. TR’s successor, William Howard Taft, crushed more trusts than TR, and in one incident, when Taft tried to crack down on U.S. Steel, a company that had personally allowed by TR to absorb the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, the reaction from TR was hot!
    8. Caring of the Consumer
      1. In 1906, significant improvements in the meat industry were passed, such as the Meat Inspection Act, which decreed that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection from corral to can.
        1. Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle enlightened the American public to the horrors of the meatpacking industry, thus helping to force changes.
      2. The Pure Food and Drug Act tried to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals.
        1. Another reason for new acts was to make sure European markets could trust American beef and other meat.
    9. Earth Control
      1. Americans were vainly wasting their natural resources, and the first conservation act, the Desert Land Act of 1877, didn’t help much.
        1. More successful was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, which authorized the president to set aside land to be protected as national parks.
          1. Under this statute, some 46 million acres of forest were rescued.
      2. Roosevelt, a sportsman in addition to all the other things he was, realized the values of conservation, and persuaded by other conservationists like Gifford Pinchot, head of the federal Division of Forestry, he helped initiate massive conservation projects.
        1. The Newlands Act of 1902 initiated irrigation projects for the western states while the giant Roosevelt Dam, built on the Arizona River, was dedicated in 1911.
      3. By 1900, only a quarter of the nation’s natural timberlands remained, so he set aside 125 million acres, establishing perhaps his most enduring achievement as president.
      4. Concern about the disappearance of the national frontier led to the success of such books like Jack London’s Call of the Wild and the establishment of the Boy Scouts of America and the Sierra Club, a member of which was naturalist John Muir.
      5. In 1913, San Francisco received permission to build a dam in Hetch Hetchy Valley, a part of Yosemite National Park, causing much controversy.
        1. Roosevelt’s conservation deal meant working with the big loggers and resource users, not the small, independent ones.
    10. The “Roosevelt Panic” of 1907
      1. TR had widespread popularity (the “Teddy” bear), but conservatives branded him as a dangerous rattlesnake, unpredictable in his Progressive moves.
      2. However, in 1904, TR announced that he would not seek presidency in 1908, since he would have, in effect, served two terms by then, thus defanging his power.
      3. In 1907, a short but sharp panic on Wall Street placed TR at the center of its blame, with conservatives criticizing him, but he lashed back, and besides all, the panic died down.
      4. In 1908, congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act, which authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral.
        1. This would lead to the momentous Federal Reserve Act of 1913.
    11. The Rough Rider Thunders Out
      1. In the 1908 campaign, TR chose William Taft as his “successor,” hoping that the corpulent man would continue his policies, and Taft easily defeated William Jennings Bryan; a surprise came from Socialist Eugene V. Debs, who garnered 420,793 votes.
      2. TR left the presidency to go on a lion hunt, survived, and returned, still with much energy.
        1. He had established many precedents and had helped ensure that the new trusts would fit capitalism and have healthy adult lives helping the American people.
      3. TR protected against socialism, was a great conservationist, expanded the powers of the presidency, shaped the progressive movement, launched the Square Deal, a precursor to the New Deal that would come later, and opened American eyes to the fact that America shared the world with other nations, so it couldn’t be isolationist.
    12. Taft: A Round Peg in a Square Hole
      1. William Taft was a mild progressive, quite jovial, quite fat, and passive, but he was also sensitive to criticism and not as liberal as Roosevelt.
    13. The Dollar Goes Abroad as Diplomat
      1. Taft urged Americans to invest abroad, in a policy called “Dollar Diplomacy,” which called for Wall Street bankers to sluice their surplus dollars into foreign areas of strategic concern to the U.S., especially in the Far East and in the regions critical to the security of the Panama Canal, or otherwise, rival powers like Germany might weaken U.S. trade.
      2. In 1909, perceiving a threat to the monopolistic Russian and Japanese control of the Manchurian Railway, Taft had Secretary of State Philander C. Knox propose that a group of American and foreign bankers buy the railroads and turn them over to China.
      3. Taft also pumped U.S. dollars into Honduras and Haiti, whose economies were stagnant, while in Cuba, the same Honduras, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua, American forces were brought in to restore order after unrest.
    14. Taft the Trustbuster
      1. In his four years of office, Taft brought 90 suits against trusts.
      2. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company.
      3. After Taft tried to break apart U.S. Steel, he increasingly became TR’s antagonist.
    15. Taft Splits the Republican Party
      1. To lower the tariff and fulfill a campaign promise, Taft and the House passed a moderately reductive bill, but the Senate, led by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, tacked on lots of upward revisions, and thus, when the Payne-Aldrich Bill passed, it betrayed Taft’s promised, incurred the wrath of his party (drawn mostly from the Midwest), and outraged many people.
        1. Taft even called it “the best bill that the Republican Party ever passed.
      2. While Taft did establish the Bureau of Mines to control mineral resources, his participation in the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel of 1910, in which Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development and was criticized by Pinchot, who was then fired by Taft.
      3. In the spring of 1910, the Republican Party was split between the Progressives and the Old Guard that Taft supported, and Democrats emerged with a landslide in the House.
        1. Socialist Victor L. Berger was elected from Milwaukee.
    16. The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture
      1. In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed, with La Follette as its leader, but in February 1912, TR began dropping hints that he wouldn’t mind being nominated by the Republicans, his reason being that he had meant no third consecutive term, not third term overall.
      2. Rejected by the Taft supporters of the Republicans, TR became a candidate on the Progressive ticket, shoving La Follette aside.
      3. In the Election of 1912, it would be Theodore Roosevelt versus William H. Taft versus the Democratic candidate, whoever that was to be… :)
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad 1912 – 1916

    1. The Emergence of Dr. Thomas Woodrow Wilson
      1. With the Republican Party split wide open, the Democrats sensed that they could win the presidency for the first time in 16 years.
        1. One possible candidate was Dr. Woodrow Wilson, a once-mild conservative but now militant progressive who had been the president of Princeton University, governor of New Jersey (where he didn’t permit himself to be controlled by the bosses, and had attacked trusts and passed liberal measures.
        2. In 1912, in Baltimore, the Democrats nominated Wilson on the 46th ballot after William Jennings Bryan swung his support over to Wilson’s side.
          1. The Democratic ticket would run under a platform called “New Freedom,” which would include many progressive reforms.
    2. The “Bull Moose” Campaign of 1912
      1. At the Progressive convention, Jane Addams put Theodore Roosevelt’s name on the nomination, and as TR spoke, he ignited an almost-religious spirit in the crowd.
        1. TR got the Progressive nomination, and entering the campaign, TR said that he felt “as strong as a bull moose,” making that animal the unofficial Progressive symbol.
      2. Republican William Taft and TR tore into each other, as the former friends now ripped every aspect of each other’s platforms and personalities.
      3. Meanwhile, TR’s New Nationalism and Wilson’s New Freedom became the key issues.
        1. Roosevelt’s New Nationalism was inspired by Herbert Croly’s The Promise of American Life (1910), and it stated that the government should control the bad trusts, leaving the good trusts alone and free to operate.
          1. TR also campaigned for woman suffrage and a broad program of social welfare, such as minimum-wage laws and “socialistic” social insurance.
        2. Wilson’s New Freedom favored small enterprise, desired to break up all trusts—not just the bad ones—and basically shunned social-welfare proposals.
      4. The campaign was stopped when Roosevelt was shot in the chest in Milwaukee, but he delivered his speech anyway, was rushed to the hospital, and recovered in two weeks.
    3. Woodrow Wilson: Minority President
      1. Woodrow Wilson easily won with 435 Electoral votes, while TR had 88 and Taft only had 8, but the Democrat did not receive the majority of the popular vote (only 41%)!
      2. Socialist Eugene V. Debs racked up over 900,000 popular votes, while the combined popular totals of TR and Taft exceeded Wilson!!!
        1. Had the Republican Party not been split in 1910, it still could have won!
      3. William Taft would later become the only U.S. president to be appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as well, when he did so in 1921.
    4. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics
      1. Woodrow Wilson was a sympathizer with the South, a fine orator, a sincere and morally appealing politician, and a very intelligent man.
        1. He was also cold, personality-wise, austere, intolerant of stupidity, and very idealistic.
      2. When convinced he was right, Wilson would break before he would bend, unlike TR.
    5. Wilson Tackles the Tariff
      1. Wilson stepped into the presidency already knowing that he was going to tackle the “triple wall of privilege”: the tariff, the banks, and the trusts.
      2. To tackle the tariff, Wilson successfully helped in the passing of the Underwood Tariff of 1913, which substantially reduced import fees and enacted a graduated income tax (under the approval of the recent 16th Amendment).
    6. Wilson Battles the Bankers
      1. The nation’s financial structure, as created under the Civil War National Banking Act had proven to be glaringly ineffective, as shown by the Panic of 1907, so Wilson had Congress authorize an investigation to fix this.
        1. The investigation, headed by Senator Aldrich, in effect recommended a third Bank of the United States.
        2. Democrats heeded the findings of a House committee chaired by Congressman Arsene Pujo, which traced the tentacles of the “money monster” into the hidden vaults of American banking and business.
        3. Louis D Brandeis’s Other People’s Money and How the Banker’s Use It (1914) furthermore showed the problems of American finances at the time.
      2. In June 1913, Woodrow Wilson appeared before a special joint session of Congress and pleaded for a sweeping reform of the banking system.
        1. The result was the epochal 1913 Federal Reserve Act, which created the new Federal Reserve Board, which oversaw a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank, and had the power to issue paper money (“Federal Reserve Notes”).
    7. The President Tames the Trusts
      1. In 1914, Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act, which empowered a presidentially appointed position to investigate the activities of trusts and stop unfair trade practices such as unlawful competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, & bribery.
      2. The 1914 Clayton Anti-Trust Act lengthened the Sherman Anti-Trust Act’s list of practices that were objectionable, exempted labor unions from being called trusts (as they had been called by the Supreme Court under the Sherman Act), and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing by labor union members.
    8. Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide
      1. After tackling the triple wall of privilege and leading progressive victory after victory, Wilson proceeded with further reforms, such as the Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916, which made credit available to farmers at low rates of interest, and the Warehouse Act of 1916, which permitted loans on the security of staple crops—both Populist ideas.
      2. The La Follette Seamen’s Act of 1915 required good treatment of America’s sailors, but it sent merchant freight rates soaring as a result of the cost of maintain sailor health.
      3. The Workingmen’s Compensation Act of 1916 granted assistance of federal civil-service employees during periods of instability but was invalidated by the Supreme Court.
      4. The 1916 Adamson Act established an eight-hour workday with overtime pay.
      5. Wilson even nominated Louis Brandeis to the Supreme Court—making him the first Jew ever in that position—but stopped short of helping out Blacks in their civil rights fight.
      6. Wilson appeased the business by appointing a few conservatives to the Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Trade Commission, but he used most of his energies for progressive support.
    9. New Directions in Foreign Policy
      1. Wilson, unlike his two previous predecessors, didn’t pursue an aggressive foreign policy, as he stopped “dollar diplomacy,” persuaded Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act of 1912 (which let American shippers not pay tolls for using the canal), and even led to American bankers’ pulling out of a six-nation, Taft-engineered loan to China.
      2. Wilson signed the Jones Act in 1916, which granted full territorial status to the Philippines and promised independence as soon as a stable government could be established.
        1. The Filipinos finally got their independence on July 4, 1946.
      3. When California banned Japanese ownership of land, Wilson sent Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan to plead with legislators, and tensions cooled.
      4. When disorder broke out in Haiti in 1915, Wilson sent American marines, and in 1916, he sent marines to quell violence in the Dominican Republic.
      5. In 1917, Wilson bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark.
    10. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico
      1. Mexico had been exploited for decades by U.S. investors in oil, railroads, and mines, but the Mexican people were tremendously poor, and in 1913, they revolted, installed full-blooded Indian General Victorian Huerta to the presidency.
        1. This led to a massive immigration of Mexicans to America, mostly to the Southwest.
      2. The rebels were very violent and threatened Americans living in Mexico, but Woodrow Wilson would not intervene to protect American lives.
        1. Neither would he recognize Huerta’s regime, even though other countries did.
        2. On the other hand, he let American munitions flow to Huerta’s rivals, Venustiano Carranza and Francisco (“Pancho”) Villa.
      3. After a small party of American sailors were arrested in Tampico, Mexico, in 1914, Wilson threatened to use force, and even ordered the navy to take over Vera Cruz, drawing protest from Huerta and Carranza.
        1. Finally, the ABC powers—Argentina, Brazil, and Chile—mediated the situation, and Huerta fell from power and was succeeded by Carranza, who resented Wilson’s acts.
      4. Meanwhile, “Pancho” Villa, combination bandit/freedom fighter, murdered 16 Americans in January 1916 in Mexico and then killed 19 more a month later in New Mexico.
        1. Wilson sent General John J. Pershing to capture Villa, and he penetrated deep into Mexico, clashed with Carranza’s and Villa’s different forces, but didn’t take Villa.
    11. Thunder Across the Sea
      1. In 1914, a Serbian patriot killed the Austria-Hungarian heir to the throne, and Austria declared war on Serbia, which was supported by Russia, who declared war on Austria-Hungary and Germany, which declared war on Russia and France, then invaded neutral Belgium, and pulled Britain into the war igniting World War I.
      2. Americans were thankful that the Atlantic Ocean separated the warring Europeans from America, and that the U.S. didn’t have to go into war…at least not yet…
    12. A Precarious Neutrality
      1. Wilson, whose wife had recently died, issued a neutrality proclamation and was promptly wooed by both the Allies and the German-Austrian-Hungarian powers.
      2. The Germans and Austro-Hungarians counted on their relatives in America for support, but the U.S. was mostly anti-German from the outset, as Kaiser Wilhem II made for a perfect autocrat to hate.
      3. German and Austro-Hungarian agents in America further tarnished the Central Powers’ image when they resorted to violence in American factories and ports, and when one such agent left his briefcase in a New York elevator, its contents were found to contain plans for sabotage.
    13. America Earns Blood Money
      1. Just as WWI began, America was in a business recession, but the was, along with American trade (fiercely protested by the Central Powers that were technically free to trade with the U.S. but were prohibited from doing so by the British navy which controlled the sea lanes) with the Allies and Wall Street financing of the war by J.P. Morgan et al, pulled the U.S. out of it.
      2. So, Germany announced submarine warfare around the British Isles, warning the U.S. that it would not try to attack neutral ships but that mistakes would probably occur.
        1. Wilson thus warned that Germany would be held to “strict accountability” for any attacks on American ships.
        2. German subs, or U-boats, sank many ships, including the Lusitania, a British passenger liner that was carrying arms and munitions as well.
          1. The attack killed 1198 lives, including 128 Americans.
          2. The Germans had issued fliers warning Americans of the ship’s possible torpedoing by German subs before its voyage.
      3. America clamored for war in punishment for the outrage, but Wilson kept the U.S. out of it by use of a series of strong notes to the German warlords.
        1. Event this was too much for Bryan, who resigned rather than go to war.
        2. After the German sank the Arabic in August 1915, killing two Americans and numerous other passengers, Germany finally agreed not to sink unarmed ships without warning.
      4. After Germany seemed to break that pledge by sinking the Sussex, it issued the Sussex pledge, which agreed not to sink passenger ships or merchant vessels without warning, so long as the U.S. could get the British to stop their blockade.
        1. Wilson couldn’t do this, so his victory was a precarious one.
    14. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916
      1. In 1916, Republicans chose Charles Evans Hughes, who made different pledges and said different things depending on where he was, leading to his being nicknamed “Charles Evasive Hughes.”
      2. The Democratic ticket, with Wilson at its head again, went under the slogan “He kept us out of war,” and warned that electing Hughes would be leading America into World War I.
        1. Ironically, Wilson would lead America into war in 1917.
        2. Actually, even Wilson knew of the dangers of such a slogan, as American neutrality was rapidly sinking, and war was going to be inevitable.
      3. Wilson barely beat Hughes, with a vote of 277 to 254, with the final result dependent on results from California, and even though Wilson didn’t specifically promise to keep America out of war, enough people felt that he did to vote for him.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - The War to End War 1917 – 1918

    1. War by Act of Germany
      1. On January 22, 1917, Woodrow Wilson made one final, futile attempt to avert war, delivering a moving address that declared that only “peace without victory” would be lasting.
        1. Germany responded by shocking the world, announcing that it would not be engaging in unrestricted warfare, which meant that its U-boats would now be firing on armed and unarmed ships in the war zone.
      2. Wilson asked Congress for the authority to arm merchant ships, but a band of Midwestern senators tried to block this measure.
      3. Then, the Zimmerman note was intercepted and published on March 1, 1917.
        1. Written by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman, it secretly proposed an alliance between Germany and Mexico, and if the Central Powers won, Mexico could recover Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona from the U.S.
      4. The Germans also began to make good on their threats, sinking numerous ships, while in Russia, a revolution toppled the tsarist regime.
      5. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked for Congress to declare war, which it did four days later; Wilson had lost his gamble.
    2. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned
      1. Many people still didn’t want to enter into war, for America had prided itself in isolationism for decades, and now, Wilson was entangling America in a distant war.
        1. Six senators and 50 representatives, including the first Congresswoman, Jeanette Ranking, voted against war.
      2. To gain enthusiasm for the war, Wilson came up with the idea of America entering the war to “make the world safe for democracy.”
        1. This idealistic motto worked brilliantly, but with the new American zeal came the loss of Wilson’s earlier motto, “peace without victory.”
    3. Fourteen Potent Wilsonian Points
      1. On January 8, 1917, Wilson delivered his Fourteen Points Address to Congress.
      2. The Fourteen Points were a set of idealistic goals for peace:
        1. No more secret treaties.
        2. Freedom of the seas was to be maintained.
        3. A removal of economic barriers among nations.
        4. Reduction f armament burdens.
        5. Adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of natives and colonizers.
        6. Other points included: “self-determination,” or independence for oppressed minority groups, and a League of Nations, an international organization that would keep the peace and settle world disputes.
    4. Creel Manipulates Minds
      1. The Committee on Public Information, headed by George Creel, was created to “sell” the war to those people who were against it and gain support for it.
        1. The Creel organization sent out an army of 75,000 men to deliver speeches in favor of the war, showered millions of pamphlets containing the most potent “Wilsonisms” upon the world, splashed posters and billboards that had emotional appeals, and showed anti-German movies like The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin.
      2. There were also patriotic songs, but Creel did err in that he oversold some of the ideals, and result would be disastrous disillusionment.
    5. Enforcing Loyalty and Stiffing Dissent
      1. Germans in America were surprisingly loyal to the U.S., but nevertheless, many Germans were blamed for espionage activities, and a few were tarred, feathered, and beaten.
      2. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 showed American fears/paranoia about Germans and other perceived threat.
        1. Antiwar Socialists and the members of the radical union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) were often prosecuted, including Socialist Eugene V. Debs and IWW leader William D. Haywood, who were arrested, convicted, and sent to prison.
        2. Fortunately, after the war, there were presidential pardons (from Warren G. Harding), but a few people still sat in jail into the 1930s.
    6. The Nation’s Factories Go to War
      1. America was very unprepared for war, though Wilson had created the Council of National Defense to study problems with any mobilization and had launched a shipbuilding program.
        1. America’s army was only the 15th largest in the world.
      2. In trying to mobilize for war, no one knew how much America could produce, and traditional laissez-faire economics still provided resistance to government control of the economy.
        1. In march 1918, Wilson named Bernard Baruch to head the War Industries Board, but this group never had much power and was disbanded soon after the armistice.
    7. The War, Workers, and Women
      1. Congress imposed a rule that made any unemployed man available to go into the war, which discouraged strikes, and laborers sweated in producing munitions.
      2. The National War Labor Board, headed by former president William H. Taft, settled any possible labor difficulties that might hamper the war efforts.
      3. Fortunately, Samuel Gompers’s American Federation of Labor (AF of L), which represented skilled laborers, loyally supported the war, and by war’s end, its membership more than doubled to over 3 million.
      4. Yet, there were still labor problems, as price inflation threatened to eclipse wage gains, and over 6000 strikes broke out during the war, the greatest occurring in 1919, when 250,000 steelworkers walked off the job.
        1. But the steel owners brought in 30,000 African-Americans to break the strike, and in the end, the strike collapsed, hurting the labor cause for more than a decade.
      5. During the war, Blacks immigrated to the North to find more jobs, and did, but the appearance of Blacks in formerly all-White towns did spark violence, such as in Chicago and St. Louis.
        1. Blacks were also often brought in as strikebreakers.
      6. Women also found more opportunities in the workplace, since the men were gone to war.
        1. This gained support for women’s suffrage, which was finally achieved with the 20th Amendment, passed in 1920.
      7. Although a Women’s Bureau did appear after the war to protect female workers, most women gave up their jobs at war’s end, and Congress even affirmed its support of women in their traditional roles in the home with the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921, which federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.
    8. Forging a War Economy
      1. Mobilization relied more on passion and emotion then laws.
      2. Herbert Hoover was chosen to head the Food Administration, since he had organized a hugely successful voluntary food drive for the people of Belgium
        1. He spurned ration cards in favor of voluntary meatless Tuesdays and wheatless Wednesdays, suing posters, billboards, and other media to whip up a patriotic spirit which encouraged people to voluntarily sacrifice some of their own goods for the war.
        2. After all, America had to feed itself and its European allies.
      3. Hoover’s voluntary approach worked beautifully, as citizens grew gardens on street corners to help the farmers, people observed “heatless Mondays,” “lightless nights,” and “gasless Sundays” in accordance with the Fuel Administration, and the farmers increased food production by one-fourth.
      4. The wave of self-sacrifice also sped up the drive against alcohol, culminating with the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the sale, distribution, or consumption of alcohol.
      5. Money was raised through the sale of war bonds, four great Liberty Loan drives, and increased taxes.
      6. Still, the government sometimes flexed its power, such as when it took over the RR’s in 1917.
    9. Making Plowboys into Doughboys
      1. European Allies finally confessed to the U.S. that not only were they running out of money to pay for their loans from America but also that they were running out of men, and that America would have to raise a train an army to send over to Europe, or the Allies would collapse.
      2. This could only be solved with a draft, which Wilson opposed but finally supported as a disagreeable but temporary necessity.
        1. The draft bill ran into heated opposition in Congress but was grudgingly passed.
        2. Unlike earlier wars, there was no way for one to buy one’s way out of being drafted.
      3. Luckily, patriotic men and women lined up on draft day, disproving ominous predictions of bloodshed by the opposers of the draft.
        1. Within a few months, the army had grown to 4 million men and women.
        2. African-Americans were allowed in the army, but they were usually assigned to non-combat duty; also, training was so rushed that many troops didn’t know how to even use rifles, much less bayonets, but were sent to Europe anyway!
    10. Fighting in France—Belatedly
      1. After the Bolsheviks seized control of Russia, they withdrew the nation from the war, freeing up thousands of German troops to fight on the Western Front.
      2. German predictions of American tardiness proved to be rather accurate, as America took one year before it sent a force to Europe and also had transportation problems.
      3. Nevertheless, American doughboys slowly poured into Europe, and U.S. troops helped in an Allied invasion of Russia at Archangel to prevent munitions from falling into German hands.
        1. 10,000 troops were sent to Siberia as part of an Allied expedition whose purpose was to prevent munitions from falling into the hands of Japan, rescue some 45,000 trapped Czechoslovak troops, and prevent Bolshevik forces from snatching military supplies.
        2. Bolsheviks resented this interference, which it felt was America’s way of suppressing its infant communist revolution.
    11. America Helps Hammer the “Hun”
      1. In the spring of 1918, one commander, the French Marshal Foch, for the first time, led the Allies and just before the Germans were about to invade Paris and knock out France, American reinforcements arrived and pushed the Germans back.
      2. In the Second Battle of the Marne, Allies pushed Germany back some more, marking a German withdrawal that was never again effectively reversed.
      3. The Americans, demanding their own army instead of just supporting the British and French, finally got General John J. Pershing to lead a front.
      4. The Meuse-Argonne offensive cut German railroad lines and took 120,000 casualties.
        1. Alvin C. York became a hero when he single-handedly killed 20 Germans and captured 132 more; ironically, he had been in an antiwar sect beforehand.
      5. Finally, the Germans were exhausted and ready to surrender, for they were being deserted, the British blockade was starving them, and the Allied blows just kept coming.
        1. It was a good thing, too, because American victories were using up resources too fast.
        2. Also, pamphlets containing seductive Wilsonian promises rained down on Germany, in part persuading them to give up.
    12. The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany
      1. At 11:00 of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918, the Germans laid down their arms after overthrowing their Kaiser in hopes that they could get a peace based on the Fourteen Points.
      2. It was the prospect of endless American troops, rather than the American military performance, that had demoralized the Germans.
    13. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus
      1. At the end of the war, Wilson was at the height of his popularity, but when he appealed for voters to give a Democratic victory in 1918, but American voters instead gave Republicans a narrow majority, and Wilson went to Paris as the only leader of the Allies not commanding a majority at home.
      2. When Wilson decided to go to Europe personally to oversee peace proceedings, Republicans were outraged, thinking that this was all just for flamboyant show.
        1. When he didn’t include a single Republican, not even Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, a very intelligent man who used to be the “scholar in politics” until Wilson came along and was therefore jealous and spiteful of Wilson, the Republicans got even more mad.
    14. An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris
      1. At the Paris Conference in 1919, the Big Four—Italy, led by Vittorio Orlando, France, led by Georges Clemenceau, Britain, led by David Lloyd George, and the U.S., led by Wilson—basically dictated the terms of the treaty.
        1. Wilson successfully got all of the colonies of the losers to be put into the hands of his dream, the League of Nations, but they would be given to various countries of the League, which would be trustees.
        2. This was basically colonialism thinly disguised.
      2. Wilson also managed to get his League of Nations accepted by the other powers and nations.
    15. Hammering Out the Treaty
      1. However, at home in America, the Republicans proclaimed that they would not pass the treaty, since to them, the League of Nations was either over-powerful or useless.
        1. Led by Henry Cabot Lodge, William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, these senators were bitterly opposed to the League.
      2. Upon seeing Wilson’s lack of support, the other European nations had stronger bargaining chips, as France demanded the Rhineland and Saar Valley (but didn’t receive it; instead, the League of Nations got the Saar Basin for 15 years and then let it vote to determine its fate) and Italy demanded Fiume, a valuable seaport inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs.
        1. The Italians went home after Wilson tried to appeal to the Italian people while France received a promise that the U.S. and Great Britain would aid France in case of another German invasion.
      3. Japan also wanted the valuable Shantung peninsula and the German islands in the Pacific, and Wilson opposed, but when the Japanese threatened to walk out, Wilson compromised again and let Japan keep Germany’s economic holdings in Shantung, outraging the Chinese.
    16. The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War
      1. The Treaty of Versailles was forced upon Germany under the threat that if it didn’t sign the treaty, war would resume, and when the Germans saw all that Wilson had compromised to get his League of Nations, they cried betrayal, because the treaty did not contain much of the Fourteen Points like the Germans had hoped it would.
      2. Wilson was not happy with the treaty, sensing that it was inadequate, and his popularity was down, but he did make a difference in that his going to Paris prevented the treaty from being purely imperialistic.
    17. The Domestic Parade of Prejudice
      1. Returning to America, Wilson was met with fierce opposition, as Hun-haters felt that the treaty wasn’t harsh enough while the Irish denounced the League
      2. The “hyphenated” Americans all felt that the treaty had not been fair to their home country.
    18. Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919)
      1. When Wilson returned to America, at the time, Senator Lodge had no hope to defeat the treaty, so he delayed, reading the entire 264-page treaty aloud in the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, held hearings for people discontent with the treaty to voice their feelings, and basically stalled, bogging the treaty down.
      2. Wilson decided to take a tour to gain support for the treaty, but trailing him like bloodhounds were Senators Borah and Johnson, two of the “irreconcilables,” who verbally attacked him.
      3. However, in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast regions, reception was much warmer, and the high point came at Pueblo, Colorado, where he pleaded that the League was the only hope for peace in the future.
        1. That night, he collapsed form physical and nervous exhaustion, and several days later, a stroke paralyzed half of his body.
    19. Wilson Rejects the Lodge Reservations
      1. Lodge now came up with fourteen “reservations” to the Treaty of Versailles, which sought to safeguard American sovereignty.
        1. Congress was especially concerned with Article X, which morally bound the U.S. to aid any member of the League of Nations that was victimized by aggression, for Congress wanted to preserve its war-declaring power.
      2. Wilson hated Lodge, and with though he was willing to accept similar Democratic reservations and changes, he would not do so from Lodge, and thus, he ordered his Democratic supporters to vote against the treaty with the Lodge reservations attached.
        1. On November 19, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated by a vote of 55 to 39.
    20. Defeat Through Deadlock
      1. About four-fifths of the senators actually didn’t mind the treaty, but unless the Senate approved the pact with the Lodge reservations tacked on, it would fail completely.
      2. Brought up for a vote again, on March 19, 1920, the treaty failed again, due in part to Wilson’s telling of Democrats to vote against the treaty…again.
        1. Wilson’s feud with Lodge, U.S. isolationism, tradition, and disillusionment all contributed to the failure of the treaty, but Wilson must share the blame as well, since he stubbornly went for “all or nothing,” and received nothing.
    21. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920
      1. Wilson had proposed to take the treaty to the people with a national referendum, but that would have been impossible.
      2. In 1920, the Republican Party was back together, thanks in part to Teddy Roosevelt’s death in 1919, and it devised a clever platform that would appeal to pro-League and anti-League factions of the party, and they chose Warren G. Harding as their candidate in the “smoke-filled room,” with Calvin Coolidge as the vice presidential candidate.
      3. The Democrats chose James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt as VP, and they also supported a League of Nations, but not necessarily the League of Nations.
      4. Warren G. Harding was swept into power
    22. The Betrayal of Great Expectations
      1. U.S. isolationism doomed the Treaty of Versailles and indirectly led to World War II, because France, without an ally, built up a large military force, and Germany, suspicious and fearful, began to illegally do the same.
      2. The suffering of Germany and the disorder of the time was used by Adolf Hitler to seize power in Germany, build up popularity, and drag Europe into war.
      3. It was the U.S.’s responsibility to take charge as the most powerful nation in the world after World War I, but it retreated into isolationism, and let the rest of the world do whatever it wanted in the hopes that the U.S. would not be dragged into another war, but ironically, it was such actions that eventually led the U.S. into WWII.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - American Life in the ‘Roaring Twenties 1919 – 1929

    1. Insulating America from the Radical Virus
      1. After World War I, America turned inward, away from the world, and denounced “radical” foreign ideas and “un-American” lifestyles.
      2. The “red scare” of 1919-20 resulted in Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer (“Fighting Quaker”) using a series of raids to round up and arrest about 6000 suspected Communists.
      3. In December of 1919, 249 alleged alien radicals were deported on the Buford.
      4. The red scare severely cut back on free speech for a period, since the hysteria caused many people to want to eliminate any Communists.
        1. Some states made it illegal to merely advocate the violent overthrow of government for social change.
        2. In 1921, Nicola Sacco, a shoe-factory worker, and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, a fish peddler, were convicted of murdering a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard; in that case, the jury and judge were prejudiced in some degree because the two were Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers.
          1. In this time period, anti-foreignism was high as well.
          2. Liberals and radicals rallied around the two men, but they died anyway.
    2. Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK
      1. The new Ku Klux Klan was anti-foreign, anti-Catholic, anti-black, anti-Jewish, anti-pacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, anti-revolutionist, anti-bootlegger, anti-gambling, anti-adultery, and anti-birth control.
      2. At its peak in the 1920s, it claimed 5 million members, mostly from the South, but it also featured a reign of hooded horror.
      3. It was stopped not by the exposure of its horrible intolerance but by its money fraud!
    3. Stemming the Foreign Flood
      1. In 1920-21, some 800,000 Europeans (mostly from the southeastern regions) came to the U.S., and to quell the fears of the “100% Americans,” Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, in which newcomers from Europe were restricted at any year to a quota, which was set at 3% of the people of their nationality who lived in the U.S. in 1910.
        1. This really favored the Slavs and the southeaster Europeans.
      2. This was then replaced by the Immigration Act of 1924, which cut the quota down to 2% and the origins base was shifted to that of 1890, when few southeaster Europeans lived in America.
        1. This act also slammed the door against Japanese immigrants.
        2. By 1931, for the first time in history, more people left America than came here.
      3. The immigrant tide was now cut off, but those that were in America struggled to adapt.
        1. Labor unions in particular had difficulty in organizing because of the differences in race, culture, and nationality.
    4. The Prohibition “Experiment”
      1. The 18th Amendment (and later, the Volstead Act) prohibited the sale of alcohol, but this law never was effectively enforced because so many people violated it.
      2. Actually, most people thought that Prohibition was here to stay, and this was especially popular in the Midwest and the South.
      3. Prohibition was particularly supported by women and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, but it also posed problems from countries that produced alcohol and tried to ship them to the U.S. (illegally, of course).
      4. In actuality, bank savings did increase, and absenteeism in industry did go down.
    5. The Golden Age of Gangsterism
      1. Prohibition led to the rise of gangs that competed to distribute liquor.
      2. In the gang wars of Chicago in the 1920s, about 500 people were murdered, but captured criminals were rare, and convictions even rarer, since gangsters often provided false alibis for each other.
        1. The most famous of these gangsters was “Scarface” Al Capone, who was finally caught for (get this) tax evasion.
      3. Gangs moved into other activities as well: prostitution, gambling, and narcotics, and by 1930, their annual profit was $12 – 18 billion!
        1. In 1932, gangsters kidnapped the baby son of Charles Lindbergh, shocking the nation, and this event led Congress to the so-called Lindbergh Law, which allowed the death penalty to certain cases of interstate abduction.
    6. Monkey Business in Tennessee
      1. Education made strides behind the progressive ideas of John Dewey, a professor at Columbia University who set forth principles of “learning by doing” and believed that “education for life” should be the primary goal of school.
        1. Now, schools were no longer prisons.
        2. States also increasingly putting minimum ages for teens to stay in school.
      2. A massive health care program launched by the Rockefeller Foundation practically eliminated hookworm in the South.
      3. Evolutionists were also clashing against creationists, and the prime example of this was the Scopes Trial, where John T. Scopes, a teacher high school teacher of Dayton, Tennessee, was charged with teaching evolution.
        1. William Jennings Bryan was among those who were against him, but the one-time “boy orator” was made to sound foolish and childish by expert attorney Clarence Darrow, and five days after the end of the trial, Bryan died.
        2. The trial proved to be inconclusive.
      4. Increasing numbers of Christians were starting to reconcile their differences between religion and the findings of modern science, as evidenced in the new Churches of Christ (est. 1906).
    7. The Mass-Consumption Economy
      1. Prosperity took off in the “Roaring 20s,” despite the recession of 1920-21, and it was helped by the tax policies of Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellons, which favored the rapid expansion of capital investment.
      2. Henry Ford perfected the assembly-line production to where this famous Rouge River Plant was producing a finished automobile every ten seconds.
      3. The automobile now provided more freedom, more luxury, and more privacy.
      4. A new medium arose as well: advertising, which used persuasion, ploy, seduction, and sex appeal to sell merchandise.
        1. In 1925, Bruce Barton’s bestseller The Man Nobody Knows claimed that Jesus Christ was the perfect salesman and that all advertisers should study his techniques.
      5. Sports was buoyed by people like home-run hero George Herman (“Babe”) Ruth and boxers Jack Dempsey and Georges Carpentier.
    8. Putting America on Rubber Tires
      1. Americans adapted, rather than invented, the gasoline engine.
      2. People like Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds (famous for Oldsmobile) developed the infant auto industry.
      3. Early cars stalled and weren’t too reliable, but eventually, cars like the Ford Model T became cheap and easy to own.
        1. In 1929, when the bull market collapsed, 26 million motor vehicles were registered in the United States, or 1 car per 4.9 Americans.
    9. The Advent of the Gasoline Age
      1. The automobile spurred 6 million people to new jobs and took over the railroad as king of transportation.
        1. New roads were constructed, the gasoline industry boomed, and America’s standard of living rose greatly.
        2. Cars were luxuries at first, but they rapidly became necessities.
        3. The less-attractive states lost population at an alarming rate .
        4. However, accidents killed lots of people, and by 1951, 1,000,000 people had died by the car—more than the total of Americans lost to all its previous wars combined.
      2. Cars brought adventure, excitement, and pleasure.
    10. Humans Develop Wings
      1. On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright flew the first airplane for 12 seconds over a distance of 120 feet.
      2. Aviation slowly got off the ground, and they were used a bit in World War I, but afterwards, they really took off (pun not intended) when they became used for mail and more functions.
        1. The first transcontinental airmail route was established form New York to San Francisco in 1920.
        2. At first, there were many accidents and crashes, but later, safety improved.
      3. Charles Lindbergh became the first person ever to fly across the Atlantic Ocean when he did it in his Spirit of St. Louis, going from New York to Paris.
    11. The Radio Revolution
      1. In the 1890s, Guglielmo Marconi had already invented wireless telegraphy and his invention was used for long distance communication in the Great War.
      2. Then, in November of 1920, the first voice-carrying radio station began broadcasting when KDKA (in Pittsburgh) told of President Warren G. Harding’s landslide victory.
      3. While the automobile lured Americans away from home, the radio lured them back, as millions tuned in to hear favorites like “Amos ‘n’ Andy” and listen to the “Eveready Hour.”
      4. Sports were further stimulated while politicians had to adjust their speaking techniques to support the new medium, and music could finally be heard electronically.
    12. Hollywood’s Filmland Fantasies
      1. Thomas Edison was one of those who invented the movie, but in 1903, the real birth of the movie came with The Great Train Robbery.
        1. A first full-length feature was D.W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation, which glorified the KKK of the Reconstruction era.
      2. Hollywood, California, quickly became a hot spot for movie production, due to its favorable climate and landscape.
        1. The first movies featured nudity and heavy-lidded female vampires called “vamps” until a shocked public forced codes of censorship to be placed on them.
      3. Propaganda movies of World War II would really boost the popularity of movies.
      4. Critics, though, did bemoan the vulgarization of popular tastes wrought by radio and movies.
        1. These new mediums led to the loss of old family traditions, like the telling of an old story by a grandparent.
    13. The Dynamic Decade
      1. For the first time, most Americans lived in urban areas, not the countryside.
      2. The birth-control movement was led by fiery Margaret Sanger, and the National Women’s Party began in 1923 to campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
      3. The Fundamentalists of old religion even lost ground to the new Modernists, who liked to think that God was a “good guy” and the universe was a nice place.
      4. A new fad that shocked many conservative older folk (who labeled it as full of erotic suggestions and totally inappropriate) arrived, and the youths who practiced it were called “flappers.”
        1. They danced new dances like the “Charleston” and dressed more provocatively.
        2. Sigmund Freud said that sexual repression was responsible for most of society’s ills, and that pleasure and health demanded sexual gratification and liberation.
      5. Jazz was the music of “flappers,” and Blacks like Handy, “Jelly Roll” Morton, and Joseph King Oliver gave birth to it.
      6. Black pride spawned such great leaders as Langston Hughes (famous for The Weary Blues, which appeared in 1926) and Marcus Garvey (founder of the United Negro Improvement Association and inspiration for the Nation of Islam).
    14. Literary Liberation
      1. By the dawn of the 1920s, many of the old writers (Henry James, Henry Adams, and William Dean Howells) had died, and those that survived, like Edith Wharton and Willa Cather were popular (well, some of them were).
      2. Many of the new writers, though, hailed from different backgrounds (not Protestant New Englanders).
        1. H.L. Mencken, the “Bad Boy of Baltimore,” found fault in lots of things in America.
          1. He wrote the monthly American Mercury.
        2. F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote This Side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby, both of which captured the society of the time as it was.
        3. Theodore Dreiser wrote An American Tragedy and dealt with the same theme of the glamour and cruelty of an achievement-oriented society.
        4. Ernest Hemingway wrote The Sun Also Rises, and Farewell to Arms.
        5. Sherwood Anderson wrote Winesburg, Ohio, and wrote about small-town life.
        6. Sinclair Lewis disparaged small-town America in his Main Street and Babbitt.
        7. William Faulkner’s Soldier’s Pay, The Sound and the Fury, and As I Lay Dying all were very famous.
      3. Poetry also was innovative, as Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot were two great poets.
      4. Eugene O’Neill was an actor in plays like Strange Interlude, and he came from New York.
      5. Other famous writers included Claude McKay and Zora Neale Hurston.
      6. Architecture also made its marks with the designs of Frank Lloyd Wright.
        1. The Empire State Building debuted in 1931.
    15. Wall Street’s Big Bull Market
      1. There was much overspeculation in the 1920s, especially on Florida home properties (until a hurricane took care of that), and even during times of prosperity, many, many banks failed each year.
        1. The whole system was built on fragile credit.
        2. The stock market made headline news.
      2. Secretary of the Treasury Mellon reduced the amount of taxes that rich people had to pay, thus thrusting the burden onto the middle class.
        1. He reduced the national debt, though, but he has been accused of indirectly encouraging the Bull Market.
      3. Whatever the case, the prosperities of the 1920s was setting up the crash that would lead to the poverty and suffering of the 1930s.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 35 - The Politics of Boom and Bust 1920 – 1932

    1. The Republican “Old Guard” Returns
      1. Newly elected President Warren G. Harding was tall, handsome, and popular, but he had a mediocre mind and he did not like to hurt people’s feelings.
        1. Neither could he detect the corruption of his cabinet.
      2. His cabinet did have some good officials, though, such as Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, who was masterful, imperious, incisive, and brilliant, Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, and Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon.
      3. However, people like Senator Albert B. Fall of New Mexico, a scheming anti-conservationist, became secretary of the interior, and Harry M. Daugherty took over reigns as attorney general.
        1. These two became the worst of the scandalous cabinet members.
    2. GOP Reaction at the Throttle
      1. A good man but a weak one, Harding was the perfect front for old-fashioned politicians to set up a McKinley style old order back onto the U.S.
        1. It hoped to improve on laissez-faire, and one of the examples of this was the Supreme Court, where Harding appointed four of the nine justices, including William H. Taft, former president of the United States.
      2. In the early 1920s, the Supreme Court killed a federal child-labor law.
        1. In the case of Adkins vs. Children’s Hospital, the court reversed its ruling in the Muller vs. Oregon case by invalidating a minimum wage law for women.
      3. Under Harding, corporations could expand again, and anti-trust laws were not as enforced or downright ignored.
      4. Men sympathetic to railroads headed the Interstate Commerce Commission.
    3. The Aftermath of the War
      1. Wartime government controls disappeared (i.e. the dismantling of the War Industries Board) and Washington returned control of railroads to private hands by the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920.
      2. The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the Shipping Board, which controlled about 1500 vessels, to get rid of a lot of ships at bargain prices, thus reducing the navy.
      3. Labor lost much of its power, as a strike was ruthlessly broken in 1919, and the Railway Labor Board ordered a wage cut of 12% in 1922.
        1. Labor membership shrank by 30% from 1920 to 1930.
      4. In 1921, the Veterans’ Bureau was created to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehabilitation for the disabled.
        1. Many veterans wanted the monetary compensation promised to them for their services in the war.
        2. The Adjusted Compensation Act gave every former soldier a paid-up insurance policy due in twenty years, and was passed by Congress twice (the second time to override president Calvin Coolidge’s veto).
    4. America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens
      1. Since America had never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, it was still technically at war with Germany, so in July of 1921, it passed a simple joint resolution ending the war.
      2. The U.S. did not cooperate much with the League of Nations, but eventually, “unofficial observers” did participate in conferences.
      3. In the Middle East, Secretary Hughes secured for American oil companies the right to share in the exploitation of the oil riches there.
      4. Disarmament was another problem for Harding, who had to watch the actions of Japan and Britain for any possible hostile activities.
    5. Ship-Scrapping at the Washington Conference
      1. The Washington “Disarmament” Conference of 1921-22 resulted in a plan in which a 5:5:3 ratio of ships that could be held by the U.S., Britain, and Japan (in that order) was proposed by Hughes, surprising many delegates (the Soviet Union, which was not recognized by the U.S., was not invited and did not attend).
      2. The Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922 embodied Hughes’s ideas on ship ratios, but only after Japanese received compensation.
      3. A Four-Power Treaty, which bound Britain, Japan, France, and the U.S. to preserve the status quo in the Pacific, replaced the 20-year-old Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
      4. The Nine-Power Treaty of 1922 kept the open door open in China.
      5. However, despite all this apparent action, there were no limits placed on small ships, and Congress only approved the Four-Power Treaty on the condition that the U.S. was not bound, thus effectively rendering that treaty useless.
      6. Frank B. Kellogg, Calvin Coolidge’s Secretary of State, won the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the Kellog-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris), which said that all nations that signed would no longer use war as offensive means.
    6. Hiking the Tariff Higher
      1. Businessmen did not want Europe flooding American markets with cheap goods after the war, so Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law, which raised the tariff from 27% to 35%.
        1. Presidents Harding and Coolidge were much more prone to increasing tariffs than decreasing them.
      2. However, this presented a problem: Europe needed to sell goods to the U.S. in order to get the money to pay back its debts, and when it could not sell, it could not repay.
    7. The Stench of Scandal
      1. However, scandal rocked the Harding administration in 1923 when Charles R. Forbes was caught with his hand in the till and resigned as the head of the Veterans’ Bureau.
        1. He and his accomplices looted the government for over $200 million.
      2. The Teapot Dome Scandal was the most shocking of all.
        1. Albert B. Fall leased land in Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California, to oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny, but not until Fall had received a “loan” (actually a bribe) of $100,000 form Doheny and about three times that amount from Sinclair.
      3. There were reports as to the underhanded doings of Attorney General Daugherty, in which he was accused of the illegal sale of pardons and liquor permits.
      4. President Harding, however, died in San Francisco on August 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis, and he didn’t have to live through much of the uproar of the scandal.
    8. Calvin Coolidge: A Yankee in the White House
      1. New president Calvin Coolidge was serious and never spoke more than he needed to.
      2. A very morally clean person, he was not touched by the Harding scandals, and he proved to be a bright figure in the Republican Party.
    9. Frustrated Farmers
      1. World War I had given the farmers much prosperity, as they had produced much food for the soldiers.
        1. New technology in farming, such as the gasoline-engine tractor, had increased farm production dramatically.
      2. However, after the war, these products weren’t needed, and the farmers fell into poverty.
      3. Farmers looked for relief, and the Capper-Volstead Act, which exempted farmers’ marketing cooperatives from antitrust prosecution, and the McNary-Haugen Bill, which sought to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them aboard, helped a little.
        1. However, Coolidge vetoed the second bill…twice.
    10. A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924
      1. Coolidge was chosen by the Republicans again, while Democrats nominated John W. Davis after 102 ballots in Madison Square Garden.
        1. The Democrats also voted by one vote NOT to condemn the Ku Klux Klan.
      2. Senator Robert La Follette led Progressive Party as the third party candidate.
        1. He gained the endorsement of the American Federation of Labor and the shrinking Socialist Party, and he actually received 5 million votes.
        2. However, Calvin Coolidge easily won the election.
    11. Foreign-Policy Flounderings
      1. Isolationism continued to reign in the Coolidge era, as the Senate did not allow America to adhere to the World Court, the judicial part of the League of Nations.
      2. In the Caribbean and Latin America, U.S. troops were withdrawn from the Dominican Republic in 1924 but remained in Haiti from 1914 to 1934.
        1. Coolidge took out troops from Nicaragua in 1925, and then sent them back the next year, and in 1926, he defused a situation with Mexico where the Mexicans were claiming sovereignty over oil resources.
        2. However, Latin Americans began to resent the American dominance of them.
      3. The European debt to America also proved tricky.
    12. Unraveling the Debt Knot
      1. Because America demanded that Britain and France pay their debts, those two nations put huge reparation payments on Germany, which then, to pay them, printed out lots of paper money that cause inflation to soar.
        1. At one point in October of 1923, a loaf of bread cost 480 million marks.
      2. Finally, in 1924, Charles Dawes engineered the Dawes Plan, which rescheduled German reparations payments and gave the way for further American private loans to Germany.
        1. Essentially, the payments were a huge circle, with American never really gaining any money or repaid in genuine.
        2. Also, the U.S. gained bitter enemies in France and Britain who were angry over America’s apparent greed and careless nature for others.
    13. The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928
      1. In 1928, Calvin Coolidge said, “I do not choose to run,” and his logical successor immediately became economics genius Herbert Hoover.
        1. Hoover was opposed by New York governor Alfred E. Smith, a man who was blanketed by scandal (he drank during a Prohibitionist era and was a Roman Catholic).
      2. Radio turned out to be an important factor in the campaign, and Hoover’s personality sparkled on this new medium (compared to Smith, who sounded stupid and boyish).
      3. Hoover had never been elected to public office before, but he had made his way up from poverty to prosperity, and believed that other people could do so as well.
      4. There was, once again, below-the-belt hitting on both sides, as the campaign took an ugly turn, but Hoover triumphed in a landslide, with 444 Electoral votes to Smith’s 87.
    14. President Hoover’s First Moves
      1. Hoover’s Agricultural Marketing Act, passed in June of 1929, was designed to help the farmers help themselves, and it set up a Federal Farm Board to help the farmers.
        1. In 1930, the Farm Board created the Grain Stabilization Corporation and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation to bolster sagging prices by buying surpluses.
      2. The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 raised the tariff to an unbelievable 60%!!!
      3. Foreigners hated this tariff that reversed a promising worldwide trend toward reasonable tariffs and widened the yawning trade gaps.
    15. The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties
      1. Herbert confidently predicted an end to poverty very soon, but on October 29, 1929, a devastating crash caused by overspeculation and overly high stock prices built only upon non-existent credit struck the nation.
        1. Losses, even in blue-chip securities, were unbelievable, as by the end of 1929, stockholders had lost over $40 million in paper values (more than the cost of World War I)!!!
        2. By the end of 1930, 4 million Americans were jobless, and two years later, that number shot up to 12 million.
        3. Over 5000 banks collapsed in the first three years of the Great Depression.
        4. Lines formed at soup kitchens and at homeless shelters.
    16. Hooked on the Horn of Plenty
      1. The Great Depression might have been caused by an overabundance of farm products and factory products; the nation’s capacity to produce goods had clearly outrun its capacity to consume or pay for them.
      2. Also, an over-expansion of credit created unsound faith in money, and many bought too much to pay.
      3. Britain and France, which had never fully recovered from World War I, worsened.
      4. In 1930, a terrible drought scorched the Mississippi Valley and thousands of farms were sold to pay for debts.
      5. By 1930, the depression was a national crisis, and hard-working workers had nowhere to work; thus, people turned bitter and also turned on Hoover.
        1. Villages of shanties and ragged shacks were called Hoovervilles and were inhabited by the people who had lost their jobs.
    17. Rugged Times for Rugged Individualists
      1. Hoover unfairly received the brunt of the blame for the Great Depression, but he did pass measures that made the depression less severe than it could have been.
        1. Critics noted that he could feed millions in Belgium (after World War I) but not millions at home in America.
      2. He did not believe in government tampering of the economic machine, and he felt that depressions like this were simply parts of the natural economic process.
        1. However, by the end of his term, he had started to take steps for the government to help the people
    18. Herbert Hoover: Pioneer for the New Deal
      1. Finally, Hoover voted to withdraw $2.25 billion to start projects to alleviate the suffering of the depression.
        1. The Hoover Dam of the Colorado River was one such project.
      2. The Muscle Shoals Bill, which was designed to dam the Tennessee River and was ultimately embraced by the Tennessee Valley Authority, was vetoed by Hoover.
      3. Early in 1932, Congress, responding to Hoover’s appeal, established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which became a government lending bank.
        1. However, giant corporations were the ones that benefited most from this, and the RFC was another one of the targets of Hoover’s critics.
      4. In 1932, Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injection Act, which outlawed anti-union contracts and forbade the federal courts to issue injunctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing.
      5. Remember that in past depressions, the American public was often forced to “sweat it out,” not wait for government help.
    19. Routing the Bonus Army in Washington
      1. Many veterans which had not been paid their compensation marched to Washington, D.C. to demand their entire bonus/
        1. The “Bonus Expeditionary Force” erected unsanitary camps and shacks in vacant lots, creating health hazards and annoyance.
        2. Riots followed after troops came in to intervene (after Congress tried to pass a bonus bill but failed), and many people died.
        3. Hoover falsely charged that the force was led by riffraff and reds, and the American opinion turned even more against him.
    20. Japanese Militarists Attack China
      1. In September 1931, Japan, alleging provocation, invaded Manchuria and shut the Open Door.
      2. Peaceful peoples were stunned, as this was a flagrant violation of the League of Nations covenant, and a meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, was arranged.
      3. An American actually attended, but instead of driving Japan out of China, the meeting drove Japan out of the League, thus weakening it further.
      4. Secretary of State Henry Stimson did indicate that the U.S. probably would not interfere with a League of Nations embargo on Japan, but he was later restrained from taking action.
        1. Since the U.S. did no effective thing, the Japanese bombed Shanghai in 1932, and even then, outraged Americans didn’t do much to change the Japanese minds.
    21. Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy
      1. Hoover was deeply interested in relations south of the border, and during his term, U.S. relations with Latin America and the Caribbean improved greatly.
        1. Since the U.S. had less money to spend, it was unable to dominate Latin America as much, and later, Franklin D. Roosevelt would build upon these policies.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 36 - The Great Depression and the New Deal 1933 – 1938

    1. FDR: A Politician in a Wheelchair
      1. In 1932, voters still had not seen any improvement, and wanted a new president.
      2. President Herbert Hoover was nominated again without much vigor and true enthusiasm, and he campaigned saying that his policies prevented the Great Depression from being worse than it was.
      3. The Democrats nominated Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a tall, handsome man who was the fifth cousin of famous Theodore Roosevelt and had followed in his footsteps.
        1. FDR was suave and conciliatory while TR was pugnacious and confrontational.
        2. FDR was stricken with polio in 1921, and during this time, his wife, Eleanor, became his political partner.
          1. Eleanor was to become the most active First Lady ever.
        3. Franklin also lost a friend in 1932 when he and Al Smith both sought the Democratic nomination.
    2. Presidential Hopefuls of 1932
      1. In the campaign, Roosevelt seized the opportunity to prove that he was not an invalid, and his campaign also featured an attack on Hoover’s spending (ironically, he would spend even more during his term).
      2. The Democrats found expression in the airy tune “Happy Days Are Here Again,” and clearly, the Democrats had the advantage in this race.
    3. The Humiliation of Hoover in 1932
      1. Hoover had been swept into the presidential office in 1928, but in 1932, he was swept out with equal force, as he was defeated 472 to 59.
      2. Noteworthy was the transition of Blacks from the Republican to the Democratic Party.
      3. During the lame-duck period, Hoover tried to initiate some of Roosevelt’s plans but was met by stubbornness and resistance.
      4. Hooverites would later accuse FDR of letting the depression worsen so that he could emerge an even more shining savior.
    4. FDR and the Three R’s: Relief, Recovery, and Reform
      1. On Inauguration Day, FDR asserted, “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
      2. He called for a nationwide banking holiday to eliminate paranoid bank withdrawals, and then commenced on his Three R’s.
      3. The Democratic-controlled Congress was willing to do as FDR said, and the first 100 days of FDR’s administration were filled with more legislative activity than ever before.
        1. Many of the New Deal Reforms had been adopted by European nations a decade before.
    5. Roosevelt Tackles Money and Banking
      1. The Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933 as passed first.
      2. Then, Roosevelt settled down for the first of his thirty famous “Fireside Chats.”
      3. The “Hundred Days Congress” passed the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act, that provided the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured individual deposits up to $5000, thereby eliminating the epidemic of bank failure and restoring faith to banks.
      4. FDR then took the nation off of the gold standard and achieved controlled inflation by ordering Congress to buy gold at increasingly higher prices.
        1. In February 1934, he announced that the U.S. would pay foreign gold at a rate of one ounce of gold per very $35 due.
    6. Creating Jobs for the Jobless
      1. Roosevelt had no qualms about using federal money to assist the unemployed, so he created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which provided employment in fresh-air government camps for about 3 million uniformed young men.
        1. They reforested areas, became fire fighters, drained swamps, and controlled floods.
        2. However, critics accused FDR of militarizing the youths and acting as dictator
      2. The Federal Emergency Relief Act looked for immediate relief rather than long-term alleviation, and its Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was headed by the zealous Harry L. Hopkins.
      3. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) made available many millions of dollars to help farmers meet their mortgages.
      4. The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) refinanced mortgages on non-farm homes and bolted down the loyalties of middle class, Democratic homeowners.
      5. The Civil Works Administration (CWA) was established late in 1933, and it was designed to provide purely temporary jobs during the winter emergency.
        1. Many of its tasks were rather frivolous and were designed for the sole purpose of making jobs.
      6. One FDR opponent was Father Charles Coughlin, a Catholic priest in Michigan who disliked the New Deal and voiced his opinions on radio.
      7. Senator Huey P. Long of Louisiana was popular for his “Share the Wealth” program, where every family was to receive $5000, allegedly from the rich.
        1. His chief lieutenant was former clergyman Gerald L. K. Smith.
        2. He was later shot by a deranged medical doctor in 1935.
      8. Dr. Francis E. Townsend of California attracted the trusting support of perhaps 5 million “senior citizens” with his fantastic plan of each senior receiving $200 month, provided that all of it would be spent within the month.
      9. Congress also authorized the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935, which put $11 million on thousands of public buildings, bridges, and hard-surfaced roads and gave 9 million people jobs in its eight year existence.
        1. It also found part-time jobs for needy high school and college students and for actors, musicians, and writers.
        2. John Steinbeck counted dogs in his California county.
    7. A Helping Hand for Industry and Labor
      1. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), by far the most complicated of the programs, was designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed.
        1. There were maximum hours of labor, minimum wages, and more rights for labor union members, including the right to choose their own representatives in bargaining.
        2. The Philadelphia Eagles were named after this act, which received much support and patriotism, but eventually, it was shot down by the Supreme Court.
          1. Besides too much was expected of labor, industry, and the public.
      2. The Public Works Administration also intended both for industrial recovery and for unemployment relief.
        1. Headed by Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, it aimed at long-range recovery by spending over $4 billion on some 34,000 projects that included public buildings, highways, and parkways (i.e. the Grand Coulee Dam of the Columbia River).
      3. One of the Hundred Days Congress’s earliest acts was to legalize light wine and beer with an alcoholic content of 3.2% or less and also levied a $5 tax on every barrel manufactured.
        1. Prohibition was officially repealed with the 21st Amendment.
    8. Paying Farmers Not to Farm
      1. To help the farmers, which had been suffering ever since the end of World War I, Congress established the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, which paid farmers to reduce their crop acreage and would eliminate price-depressing surpluses.
        1. However, it got off to a rocky start when it killed lots of pigs for not good reason, and paying farmers not to farm actually increased unemployment.
        2. The Supreme Court killed it in 1936.
      2. The New Deal Congress also passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, which paid farmers to plant soil-conserving plants like soybeans or to let their land lie fallow.
      3. The Second Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 was a more comprehensive substitute that continued conservation payments but was accepted by the Supreme Court.
    9. Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards
      1. After the drought of 1933, furious winds whipped up dust into the air, turning parts of Missouri, Texas, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma into the Dust Bowl and forcing many farmers to migrate west to California (ala The Grapes of Wrath).
        1. The dust was very hazardous to the health and to living, creating further misery.
      2. The Fazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act, passed in 1934, made possible a suspension of mortgage foreclosure for five years, but it was voided in 1935 by the Supreme Court.
      3. In 1935, FDR set up the Resettlement Administration, charged with the task of removing near-farmless farmers to better land.
      4. Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier sought to reverse the forced-assimilation policies in place since the Dawes Act of 1887.
        1. He promoted the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (the Indian “New Deal”), which encouraged tribes to preserve their culture and traditions.
        2. Not all Indians liked it; 77 tribes refused to organize under its provisions (200 did).
    10. Battling Bankers and Big Business
      1. The Federal Securities Act (“Truth in Securities Act”) required promoters to transmit to the investor sworn information regarding the soundness of their stocks and bonds.
      2. The Securities and Exchange Commission was designed as a watchdog administrative agency, and stock markets henceforth were to operate more as trading marts than as casinos.
      3. In 1932, Chicagoan Samuel Insull’s multi-billion dollar financial empire had crashed, and such cases as his resulted in the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935.
    11. The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River
      1. The sprawling electric-power industry attracted the fire of New Deal reformers.
        1. New Dealers accused it of gouging the public with excessive rates.
      2. Thus, the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) sought to discover exactly how much money it took to produce electricity and then keep rates reasonable.
        1. It constructed dams on the Tennessee River and helped the 2.5 million extremely poor citizens of the area improve their lives and their conditions.
        2. Hydroelectric power of Tennessee would give rise to that of the West.
    12. Housing Reform and Social Security
      1. To speed recovery and better homes, FDR set up the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) in 1934 to stimulate the building industry through small loans to householders.
        1. It was one of the few “alphabetical” agencies to outlast the age of Roosevelt.
      2. Congress bolstered the program in 1937 by authorizing the U.S. Housing Authority (USHA), designed to lend money to states or communities for low-cost construction.
        1. This was the first time in American history that slum areas stopped growing.
      3. The Social Security Act of 1935 was the greatest victory for New Dealers, since it created pension and insurance for the old-aged, the blind, the physically handicapped, delinquent children, and other dependents by taxing employees and employers.
        1. Republican attacked this bitterly.
    13. A New Deal for Unskilled Labor
      1. A rash of walkouts occurred in the summer of 1934, and after the NRA was axed, the Wagner Act (aka National Labor Relations Act) of 1935 took its place.
        1. Under the encouragement of a highly sympathetic National Labor Relations Board, unskilled laborers began to organize themselves into effective unions, one of which was John L. Lewis, the boss of the United Mine Workers who also succeeded in forming the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) within the ranks of the AF of L in 1935.
        2. The CIO later left the AF of L and won a victory against General Motors.
    14. Roosevelt’s “Coddling” of Labor
      1. The CIO also won a victory against the United States Steel Company, but smaller steel companies struck back, resulting in such incidences as the Memorial Day Massacre of 1937 at the plant of the Republic Steel Company of South Chicago in which police fired upon workers, leaving scores killed or injured.
      2. In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act (Wages and Hours Bill) was passed, setting up minimum wage and maximum hours standards and forbidding children under the age of sixteen from working.
      3. Roosevelt enjoyed immense support from the labor unions.
      4. In 1938, the CIO broke completely with the AF of L and renamed itself the Congress of Industrial Organizations (the new CIO).
    15. Landon Challenges “the Champ” in 1936
      1. The Republicans nominated Kansas Governor Alfred M. Landon to run against FDR.
        1. Landon was weak on the radio and weaker in personal campaigning, and while he criticized FDR’s spending, he also favored enough of FDR’s New Deal to be ridiculed by the Democrats as an unsure idiot.
      2. In 1934, the American Liberty League had been formed by conservative Democrats and wealthy Republicans to fight “socialistic” New Deal schemes.
      3. Roosevelt won in a super huge landslide, getting 523 Electoral votes to Landon’s 8.
      4. FDR won primarily because he appealed to the “forgotten man,” whom he never forgot.
    16. Nine Old Men on the Supreme Bench
      1. The 20th Amendment had cut the lame-duck period down to six weeks, so FDR began his second term on January 20, 1937, instead of on March 4.
      2. He controlled Congress, but the Supreme Court kept on blocking his programs, so he proposed a shocking plan that would add a member to the Supreme Court for every existing member over the age of 70, for a maximum possible total of 15 total members.
        1. For once, Congress voted against him because it did not want to lose its power.
      3. Roosevelt was ripped for trying to be a dictator.
    17. The Court Changes Course
      1. FDR’s “court-packing scheme” failed, but he did get some of the justices to start to vote his way, including Owen J. Roberts, formerly regarded as a conservative.
      2. So, FDR did obtain his purpose of getting the Supreme Court to vote his way.
      3. However, his failure of the court-packing scheme also showed how Americans still did not wish to tamper with the sacred justice system.
    18. The Twilight of the New Deal
      1. During Roosevelt’s first term, the depression did not disappear, and unemployment, down from 25%, was still at 15%.
        1. In 1937, the economy took another (brief) downturn when the “Roosevelt recession,” caused by government policies, occurred.
        2. Finally, FDR embraced the policies of British economist John Maynard Keynes.
      2. In 1937, he announced a bold program to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending.
      3. In 1939, Congress relented to FDR’s pressure and passed the Reorganization Act, which gave him limited powers for administrative reforms, including the key new Executive Office in the White House.
      4. The Hatch Act of 1939 barred federal administrative officials, except the highest policy-making officers from active political campaigning and soliciting.
    19. New Deal or Raw Deal?
      1. Foes of the New Deal condemned its waste, citing that nothing had been accomplished.
      2. Critics were shocked by the “try anything” attitude of FDR, who had increased the federal debt from $19.487 million in 1932 to $40.440 million in 1939.
      3. It took World War II, though, to really lower unemployment, but the war also created a heavier debt than before.
    20. FDR’s Balance Sheet
      1. New Dealers claimed that the New Deal had alleviated the worst of the Great Depression.
      2. FDR also deflected popular resentments against business and may have saved the American system of free enterprise, yet business tycoons hated him.
      3. He provided bold reform without revolution.
      4. Later, he would guide the nation through a titanic war in which the democracy of the world would be at stake.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 37 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War 1933 – 1941

    1. The London Conference
      1. The 1933 London Conference of the summer of 1933 was composed of 66 nations that came together to try to make a worldwide solution to the Great Depression.
        1. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt at first agreed to send Secretary of State Cordell Hull but withdrew that agreement and scolded the other nations for trying to stabilize currencies.
        2. As a result, the conference adjourned accomplishing nothing, furthermore strengthening extreme nationalism.
    2. Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians
      1. With hard times, Americans were eager to do away with their liabilities to the Philippine Islands, and American sugar producers wanted to get rid of the Filipino sugar makers due to competition.
      2. In 1934, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act, stating that the Philippines would receive their independence after 12 years of economic and political tutelage, in 1946.
        1. Army bases were relinquished but naval bases were kept.
      3. Americans were freeing themselves of a liability, creeping into further isolationism, while militarists in Japan began to see that they could take over the Pacific easily without U.S. interference or resistance.
      4. In 1933, FDR finally formally recognized the Soviet Union, hoping that the U.S. could trade with the USSR and that the Soviets would discourage German and Japanese aggression.
    3. Becoming a Good Neighbor
      1. In terms of its relations with Latin America, the U.S. wanted to be a “good neighbor,” showing that it was content as a regional power, not a world one.
      2. In 1933, FDR renounced armed intervention in Latin America at the Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, and the following year, U.S. marines left Haiti.
      3. U.S. also lifted troops from Panama, but when Mexican forces seized Yankee oil properties, FDR found himself urged to take drastic action.
        1. However, he resisted and worked out a peaceful deal.
        2. His “good neighbor” policy was a great success, improving the U.S. image in Latin American eyes.
    4. Secretary Hull’s Reciprocal Trade Agreement
      1. Secretary of State Hull believed that trade was a two-way street, and he had a part in Congress’s passing of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934, which activated low-tariff policies while aiming at relief and recovery by lifting American trade.
        1. This act whittled down the most objectionable schedules of the Hawley-Soot law by amending them, lowering rates by as much as half, provided that the other country would do the same for the United States.
      2. The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act reversed the traditional high-tariff policy that had damaged America before and paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that was implemented after World War II.
    5. Impulses Toward Storm-Center Isolationism
      1. After World War I, many dictatorships sprang up, including Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Adolph Hitler of Germany.
        1. Of the three, Hitler was the most dangerous, because he was a great orator and persuader who led the German people to believe his “big lie,” making them think that he could lead the country back to greatness and out of this time of poverty and depression.
      2. In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.
      3. Japan slowly began gaining strength, refusing to cooperate with the world and quickly arming itself by ending the Washington Naval Treaty in 1934 and walking out of the London Conference.
      4. In 1935, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, conquering it, but the League of Nations failed to take effective action against the aggressors.
      5. America continued to hide behind the shell of isolationism, believing that everything would stay good if the U.S. wasn’t drawn into any international embroilments.
        1. The 1934 Johnson Debt Default Act forbade any countries that still owed the U.S. money from borrowing any more cash.
      6. In 1936, a group of Princeton University students began to agitate for a bonus to be paid to the Veterans of Future Wars (VFWs) while the perspective front-liners were still alive.
    6. Congress Legislates Neutrality
      1. The 1934 Nye Committee was formed to investigate whether or not munitions manufacturers were pro-war for the sole purpose of making more money and profits, as the press blamed such producers for dragging America into the First World War.
      2. To prevent America from being sucked into war, Congress passed Neutrality Acts in 1935-37, acts which stated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect: no American could legally sail on a belligerent ship or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent.
        1. The flaw with these acts was that they were designed to prevent America from being pulled into a war like World War I, but World War II would prove to be different.
    7. America Dooms Loyalist Spain
      1. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Spanish rebels led by the Fascist General Francisco Franco rose up against the leftist-leaning republican government.
        1. In order to stay out of the war, the U.S. put an embargo on both the loyalist government, which was supported by the USSR, and the rebels, which were aided by Hitler and Mussolini.
        2. The U.S. just stood by while Franco smothered the democratic government, letting a fellow democracy die just to stay out of war, and it also failed to build up its fleet, since most people believed that huge fleets led to huge wars.
          1. It was not until 1938 that Congress passed a billion-dollar naval construction act, but then it was too little too late.
    8. Appeasing Japan and Germany
      1. In 1937, Japan essentially invaded China, but FDR didn’t call this combat “a war,” thus allowing the Chinese to still get arms from the U.S., and in Chicago of that year, he merely verbally chastised the aggressors, calling for “a quarantine” of Japan (through economic embargoes, perhaps); this was his famous “Quarantine Speech.”
        1. However, this speech angered many isolationists, and FDR backed down a little from any more direct actions.
      2. In December 1937, the Japanese bombed and sank the American gunboat, the Panay, but then made the necessary apologies, “saving” America from entering into war against it.
        1. To vent their frustration, the Japanese resorted to humiliating White civilians in China through slappings and strippings.
      3. Meanwhile, Hitler was growing bolder and bolder after being allowed to introduce mandatory military service in Germany, take over the German Rhineland, persecute and exterminate about six million Jews, and occupy Austria—all because the European powers were appeasing him.
        1. They hoped that each conquest of Germany would be the last.
      4. However, Hitler didn’t stop, and at the September 9138 Munich Conference, the Allies agreed to let Hitler have Sudentenland of neighboring Czechoslovakia, but six months later, in 1939, Hitler pulled the last straw and took over all of Czechoslovakia.
    9. Hitler’s Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality
      1. On August 23, 1939, the USSR shocked the world by signing a nonaggression treaty with Germany.
        1. Now, it seemed that Germany could engulf all of Europe, especially without having to worry about fight a two-front war in case war occurred.
      2. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, and France and Britain finally declared war against Germany, but America refused to enter the war, its citizens not wanting to be “suckers” again.
        1. They were anti-Hitler and anti-Nazi and wanted Britain and France to win, but they would not permit themselves to be dragged into fighting and bloodshed.
      3. European powers needed American supplies, but the previous Neutrality Acts forbade the sale of arms to nations in war, so a new Neutrality Act of 1939 allowed European nations to buy war materials, but only on a “cash-and-carry” basis, which meant that they’d have to provide their own ships and pay for the arms in cash.
        1. Since the British and French controlled the seas, the Germans couldn’t buy arms from America—as it was intended.
    10. Aftermath of the Fall of France
      1. After the fall of Poland, Hitler positioned his forces to attack France, leading to a lull in the war (so that men could move) that was pierced only by the Soviet Union’s attack and conquering of Finland, despite $30 million from the U.S. (for nonmilitary reasons).
      2. Then, in 1940, the “phony war” ended when Hitler overran Denmark and Norway, and then took over the Netherlands and Belgium.
        1. Blitzing without stop or mercy, he then forced a paralyzing blow toward France, which was forced to surrender by late June of that year.
        2. The fall of France was shocking, because now, all that stood between Hitler and the world was Britain: if the English lost, Hitler would have all of Europe to operate, and he might take over the Americas as well.
      3. Finally, Roosevelt moved and called for the nation to massively build up its armed forces, with expenses totaling more than $37 million, and he also had Congress pass the first peacetime draft in U.S. history on September 6, 1940.
        1. 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves would be trained.
      4. At the Havana Conference, the U.S. warned Germany that it could not take over orphan colonies in the Americas, as such action wouldn’t be tolerated.
    11. Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940)
      1. Now, with Britain the only power fighting against Germany, FDR had to decide whether to remain totally neutral or to help Britain.
        1. Hitler launched air attacks against the British in August 1940 and prepared an invasion scheduled to start a month later, but the tenacious defense of the British Royal Air Force stopped that.
      2. Those who supported helping Britain formed the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, while those for isolationism (including Charles A. Lindbergh)were in the America First Committee, and both groups campaigned and advertised for their respective positions.
      3. Britain was in dire need for destroyers, and on September 2, 1940, FDR boldly moved to transfer 50 old-model, four-funnel destroyers left over from WWI, and in return, the British promised to give the U.S. eight valuable defensive base sites stretching from Newfoundland to South America.
        1. These would stay in American ownership for 99 years.
        2. Obviously, this caused controversy, but FDR had begun to stop playing the silly old games of isolationism and was slowly starting to step out into the spotlight.
    12. FDR Shatters the Two-Term Tradition (1940)
      1. At first, it was thought that Robert A. Taft of Ohio or Thomas E. Dewey would be the Republican candidate, but a colorful and magnetic newcomer who went from a nobody to a candidate in a matter of weeks, Wendell L. Willkie, became the Republican against Democratic candidate…Franklin D. Roosevelt, who waited until the last moment to challenge the two-term tradition.
        1. Democrats felt that FDR was the only man qualified to be president, especially in so grave of a situation as was going on.
      2. Willkie and FDR weren’t really different in the realm of foreign affairs, but Willkie hit hard with his attacks on the third term
      3. Still, FDR won because voters felt that, should war come, FDR was the best man to lead America.
    13. Congress Passes the Landmark Lend-Lease Law
      1. Britain was running out of money, but Roosevelt didn’t want all the hassles that came with calling back debts, so he came up with the idea of a lend-lease program in which the arms and ships, etc… that the U.S. lent to the nations that needed them would be returned when they were no longer needed.
        1. Senator Taft retorted that in this case, though, the U.S. wouldn’t want them back because it would be like lending chewing gum that was chewed, then taking it back.
      2. The lend-lease bill was argued over heatedly in Congress, but it passed, and by war’s end, America had sent about $50 billion worth of arms and equipment.
        1. The lend-lease act was basically the abandonment of the neutrality policy, and Hitler recognized this.
        2. Before, German submarines had avoided attacking U.S. ships, but after the passage, they started to fire upon U.S. ships as well, such as the May 21, 1941 torpedoing of the Robin Moor.
    14. Hitler’s Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter
      1. On June 22, 1941, Hitler attacked Russia, because ever since the signing of the nonaggression pact, neither Stalin nor Hitler had trusted each other, and both had been plotting to double-cross each other.
        1. Hitler assumed his invincible troops would crush the inferior Soviet soldiers, but the valor of the Red army, U.S. aid to the USSR (through lend-lease), and an early and bitter winter stranded the German force at Moscow and shifted the tide against Germany.
      2. The Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941, and the resort was the eight-point Atlantic Charter, which was suggestive of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
        1. There would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the natives.
        2. The charter also affirmed the right for people to choose their rulers (i.e. no dictators).
        3. It declared disarmament and a peace of security, as well as a new League of Nations.
      3. Critics charged that “neutral America” was interfering, ignoring that America was no longer neutral.
    15. U.S. Destroyers and Hitler’s U-Boats Clash
      1. To ensure that arms sent to Britain would reach there, FDR finally agreed that a convoy would have to escort them, but only as far as Iceland, as Britain would take over from there.
      2. There were clashes, as U.S. destroyers like the Greer, the Kearny, and the Reuben James were attacked by the Germans.
      3. By mid-November 1941, Congress annulled the now-useless Neutrality Act of 1939.
    16. Heading for the Surprise Assault at Pearl Harbor
      1. Japan was still embroiled in war with China, but win America suddenly imposed embargoes on key supplies on Japan in 1940, the imperialistic nation had now choice but to either back off of China or attack the U.S.; they chose the latter, obviously.
      2. The American had broken the Japanese code and knew that they would declare war soon, but the U.S. could not attack, so based on what the Japanese supposedly planned, most Americans thought that the Japanese would attack British Malaya or the Philippines.
      3. However, the paralyzing blow struck Pearl Harbor, as on December 7, 1941, Japanese air bombers suddenly attacked the naval base located there (where almost the entire U.S. fleet was located), wiping out many battleships and killing or wounding 3000 men.
      4. The next day, the one after “a date which will live in infamy” (FDR), the U.S. declared war on Japan, and on December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.
    17. America’s Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent
      1. Up until the day of the Pearl Harbor attack, most Americans still wanted to stay out of war, but afterwards the event sparked such passion that in completely inflamed Americans into wanting to go into war.
      2. This had been long in coming, as the U.S. had wanted to stay out of war but had still supported Britain more and more, and the U.S. had been against the Japanese aggression but had failed to take a firm stand on either side.
      3. Finally, people decided that appeasement didn’t work against “iron wolves,” and that only full war was needed to keep the world safe for democracy and against anarchy and dictatorship.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 38 - America in World War II 1941 – 1945

    1. The Allies Trade Space for Time
      1. When Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, millions of infuriated Americans, especially on the west coast, instantly changed their views from isolationist to avengist.
      2. However, America, led by the wise Franklin D. Roosevelt, resisted such pressures, instead taking a “get Germany first” approach to the war, for if Germany were to defeat Britain before the Allies could beat Japan, there would be no stopping Hitler and his men.
        1. In the mean time, just enough troops would be sent to fight Japan to keep it in check.
      3. America had the hardship of preparing for war, since it had been in isolation for the preceding decades, and the test would be whether or not it could mobilize quickly enough to stop Germany and save the world for democracy (again).
    2. The Shock of War
      1. After the attack at Pearl Harbor, national unity was strong as steel, and the few Hitler supporters in America faded away.
      2. Most of America’s ethnic groups assimilated even faster due to WWII, since in the decades before the war, few immigrants had been allowed into America.
        1. Unfortunately, on the Pacific coast, 110,000 Japanese-Americans were taken from their homes and herded into relocation camps, where their properties and freedoms were taken away from them.
        2. The 1944 case of Korematsu vs. U.S. affirmed the constitutionality of this terrible act.
          1. It took more than 40 years later before the U.S. admitted fault and began to make $20,000 reparations to camp survivors.
      3. With the war, many New Deal programs were wiped out, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and the National Youth Administration.
      4. WWII was no idealistic crusade, as most Americans didn’t even know what the Atlantic Charter (declaration of U.S. into the war and to fight Germany first, and Japan second) was!
    3. Building the War Machine
      1. Massive military orders (over $100 billion in 1942 alone) ended the Great Depression by creating demand for jobs and production.
      2. Shipbuilder Henry J. Kaiser was dubbed “Sir Lauchalot” because his methods of ship assembly churned out one ship ever 14 days!
      3. The War Production Board halted manufacture of nonessential items such as passenger cars, and when the Japanese seized vital rubber supplies in British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, the U.S. imposed a national speed limit and gasoline rationing to save tires.
      4. Farmers rolled out more food, but the new sudden spurt in production made prices soar—a problem that was finally solved by the regulation of it by the Office of Price Administration.
      5. While labor unions pledged not to strike during the war, some did anyway.
        1. The United Mine Workers was one such group and was led by John L. Lewis.
        2. In June 1943, Congress passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act, which let the federal government seize and operate industries threatened by or under strikes.
        3. Fortunately, strikes accounted for less than 1% of total working hours of the U.S. wartime laboring force.
    4. Manpower and Womanpower
      1. The armed forces had nearly 15 million men and 216,000 women, and some of these “women in arms” included the WAACS (army), the WAVES (navy), and SPARS (coast guard).
      2. Because of the national draft that plucked men (and women) from their homes and into the military, there weren’t enough workers, so the Bracero Program brought Mexican workers to America to work.
      3. With the men in the military, women took up jobs in the workplace, symbolized by “Rosie the Riveter,” and upon war’s end, they did not return to their homes as in World War I.
        1. It must be noted that the female revolution into the work force was not as great as commonly exaggerated, since in other nations, more women were pressed into factories, etc… than in America, and at the end of the war, 2/3 of the women did return home; the servicemen that came home to them helped produce a baby boom that is still being felt today.
    5. Wartime Migrations
      1. The war also forced many people to move to new places, and many young folks went to and saw new cities far from home.
      2. F.D.R. used the war as an excuse to pump lots of money into the stagnant South to revitalize it, helping to start the blossoming of the “Sunbelt.”
        1. Still, some 1.6 million blacks left the South for better places, and explosive tensions developed over black housing, employment, and segregation facilities.
        2. A. Philip Randolph, leader of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, threatened a “Negro March to Washington” in 1941 to get better rights and treatment.
      3. The president also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to discourage racism and oppression in the workplace, and while Blacks in the army still suffered degrading discrimination (i.e. separate blood banks), they still used the war as a rallying cry against dictators abroad and racism at home—overall gaining power and strength.
        1. Membership to the NAACP passed the half-million mark, and a new organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), was founded in 1942.
      4. In 1944, the mechanical cotton picker made the need for muscle nonexistent, so blacks that used to pick cotton could now leave, since they were no longer needed.
        1. They left the South and took up residence in urban areas.
      5. Native Americans also left their reservations during the war, finding work in the cities or joining the army.
        1. Some 25,000 Native Americans were in the army, and the Navajo and Comanches were “code talkers,” relaying military orders in the own language—a “code” that was never broken by the Axis Powers.
      6. Such sudden “rubbing of the races” did spark riots and cause tension, such as the 1943 attack on some Mexican-American navy men in Los Angeles and the Detroit race riot (occurring in the same year) that killed 25 blacks and 9 whites.
    6. Holding the Home Front
      1. America was the only country to emerge after the war relatively unscathed, and in fact, it was better off after the war than before.
        1. The gross national product more than doubled, as did corporate profits.
        2. In fact, when the war ended and price controls were lifted, inflation shot up.
      2. It was the plethora of spending during WWII that lifted America from its Great Depression.
        1. The wartime bill amounted to more than $330 billion—more than the combined costs of all the previous American wars together.
        2. While income tax was expanded to make four times as many people pay as before, most of the payments were borrowed, making the national debt soar from $49 billion to $259 billion (war cost as much as $10 million per hour at one point).
    7. The Rising Sun in the Pacific
      1. The Japanese overran the lands that they descended upon, winning more land with less losses than ever before and conquering Guam, Wake, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma (in the process cutting the famed Burma Road), the Dutch East Indies, and even pushed into China.
      2. When the Japanese took over the Philippines, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur had to sneak out of the place, but he vowed to return to liberate the islands; he went to Australia.
      3. After the fighters in the Philippines surrendered, they were forced to make the infamous 85-mile Bataan death march.
        1. On May 6, 1942, the island fortress of Corregidor, in Manila Harbor, surrendered.
    8. Japans High Tide at Midway
      1. Japanese onrush was finally checked in the Coral Sea, where American and Australian forces check them, and when the Japanese tried to seize Midway Island, they were forced back by U.S. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz during fierce fighting from June 3-6, 1942.
        1. Admiral Raymond A. Spruance also helped maneuver the fleet around to win, and this victory marked the turning point in the war in the Pacific.
        2. No longer would the Japanese take any more land, as the U.S. began a process called “island hopping,” where the Allies would bypass heavily fortified islands, take over neighboring islands, and starve the resistant forces to death with lack of supplies and constant bombing saturation, to push back the Japanese.
      2. Also, the Japanese had taken over some islands in the Alaskan chain, the Aleutians.
    9. American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo
      1. Americans won at Guadalcanal in August 1942 and then got New Guinea by August 1944.
      2. By island hopping, the U.S. also retook the Aleutian Islands of Attu and Kiska in August of 1943, and in November of that year, “bloody Tarawa” and Makin, members of the Gilbert Islands, fell to the Allies.
      3. In January and February of 1944, the Marshall Islands fell to the U.S.
      4. The assault on the Marianas (including Guam) began on June 19, 1944, and with superior planes such as the “Hellcat” fighter jet and a U.S. victory the next day in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the U.S. rolled on, taking the islands and beginning around-the-clock bombing raids over Tokyo and other parts of mainland Japan.
    10. The Allied Halting of Hitler
      1. The U.S. also at first had trouble against Germany, as its U-boats proved very effective, but the breaking of the Germans’ “enigma” code helped pinpoint those subs better.
        1. It wasn’t until war’s end that the true threat of the German submarines was known, as it was discovered that Hitler had been about to unleash a new U-boat that could remain underwater indefinitely and cruise at 17 knots underwater.
      2. In May 1942, the British launched a massive raid on Cologne, France, and in August, the U.S. air force joined them.
        1. The Germans, led by the “Desert Fox” Marshall Edwin Rommel, were driven to Egypt, dangerously close to the Suez Canal, but late in October 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery defeated him at El Alamein, west of Cairo.
      3. On the Soviet front, the Russians launched a new, blistering counteroffensive, regaining about 2/3 of the land they had lost before a year later.
    11. The North African Second Front
      1. The Soviets had begged the Allie to open up a second front against Hitler, since Soviet forces were dying by the millions (20 million by war’s end), and the Americans were eager to comply, but the British, remembering WWI, were reluctant.
        1. Instead of a frontal European assault, the British devised an invasion through North Africa, so that the Allies could cut Hitler’s forces through the “soft underbelly” of the Mediterranean Sea.
      2. Thus, a secret attack was coordinated and executed by the Dwight D. Eisenhower-led troops, as they defeated the French troops, but upon meeting the real German soldiers, Americans were set back at Kasserine Pass.
        1. This campaign wasn’t really successful, but important lessons were learned.
    12. The Rough Road to Rome
      1. At the Casablanca Conference, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met and agreed on the term of “unconditional surrender.”
      2. The Allies found bitter resistance in Italy, as Sicily fell in August 1943 after bitter resistance.
        1. Italian dictator Mussolini was deposed, and a new government was set up.
          1. Two years later, he and his mistress were lynched and killed.
        2. Germany didn’t leave Italy, though, and for many months, more fighting and stalemates occurred, especially at Monte Cassino, where Germans were holed up.
      3. The Allies finally took Rome on June 4, 1944, and it wasn’t until May 2, 1945, that Axis troops in Italy finally surrendered.
      4. Though long and tiring, the Italian invasion did open up Europe, divert some of Hitler’s men from the Soviet front, and get Italy to fall.
    13. Eisenhower’s D-Day Invasion of France
      1. At the Tehran Conference, the Big Three (Wilson, Churchill, and Josef Stalin, leader of Russia) met and agreed that the Soviets and Allies would launch simultaneous attacks.
      2. The Allies began for a gigantic cross-channel invasion, and command of the whole operation was entrusted to General Eisenhower.
        1. Meanwhile, MacArthur received a fake army to use as a ruse to Germany.
      3. The place to take was French Normandy, and on June 6, 1944, D-Day began, and after heavy resistance, Allied troops, some led by General George S. Patton, finally clawed their way onto land, across the jungle, and deeper into France.
        1. With the help of the “French underground,” Paris was freed in August 1944.
    14. FDR: The Fourth-Termite of 1944
      1. Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, a young, liberal governor of New York, and paired him with isolationist John W. Bricker of Ohio.
      2. FDR was the Democratic lock, but because of his age, the vice presidential candidate was carefully chosen to be Harry S. Truman, who won over Henry A. Wallace—an ill-balanced and unpredictable liberal.
    15. Roosevelt Defeats Dewey
      1. Dewey went on a rampaging campaign offensive while FDR, stuck with WWII problems, could not go out much, so the new Political Action Committee of the CIO, which was organized to get around the law banning direct use of union funds for political purposes.
      2. In the end, Roosevelt stomped over Dewey, 432 to 99, the fourth term thing wasn’t even that big of a deal, since the precedence had already been broken three years before.
      3. FDR won because the war was going well, and people wanted to stick with him.
    16. The Last Days of Hitler
      1. On the run and losing, Hitler concentrated his forces and threw them in the Ardennes forest on December 16, 1944, starting the Battle of “the Bulge” and nearly succeeding in his gamble, but the ten-day penetration was finally stopped by the 101st Airborne Division that had stood firm at the vital bastion of Bastogne, which was commanded by Brigadier General A.C. McAuliffe.
      2. In March 1945, the Americans reached the Rhine River of Germany, and then pushed toward the river Elbe, and from there, joining Soviet troops, they marched toward Berlin.
      3. Upon entering Germany, the Allies were horrified to find the concentration camps where millions of Jews and other undesirables had been slaughtered in genocide.
        1. Adolph Hitler, knowing that he had lost, committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945.
      4. Meanwhile, in America, FDR died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage on April 12, 1945.
      5. May 7, 1945 was the date of the official German surrender, and the next day was officially proclaimed V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day).
    17. Japan Dies Hard
      1. American submarines were ruining Japans fleet, and attacks such as the March 9-10, 1945, firebomb raid on Tokyo that killed over 83,000 people were wearing Japan out.
      2. On October 20, 1944, General MacArthur finally “returned” to the Philippines.
        1. However, he didn’t retake Manila until March 1945.
      3. The last great naval battle at Leyte Gulf was lost by Japan, terminating its sea power status.
      4. In March 1945, Iwo Jima was captured; this 25-day assault left over 4000 Americans dead.
      5. Okinawa was won after fighting from April to June of 1945, and was captured at the cost of 50,000 American lives.
      6. Japanese “kamikaze” pilots, for the sake of their god-emperor, sank many ships.
    18. Atomic Awfulness
      1. At the Potsdam Conference, the Allies issued an ultimatum: surrender or be destroyed.
      2. The first atomic bomb had been tested on July 16, 1945, near Alamogordo, New Mexico, and when Japan refused to surrender, Americans dropped A-bombs onto Hiroshima (on August 6, 1945), killing 180,000 and Nagasaki (on August 9, 1945), killing 80,000.
      3. On August 8, 1945, the Soviets declared war on Japan, just as promised, and two days later, on August 10, Japan sued for peace on one condition: that the emperor Hirohito be allowed to remain on the Japanese throne.
        1. Despite the “unconditional surrender” clause, the Allies accepted.
      4. The formal end came on September 2, 1945, on the battleship Missouri.
    19. The Allies Triumphant
      1. America suffered 1 million casualties, but the number killed by disease and infections was very low, thanks to new miracle drugs like penicillin, but otherwise had suffered little losses (two Japanese attacks on California and Oregon that were rather harmless).
      2. This was America’s best-fought war, despite the fact that the U.S. began preparing later than usual.
        1. This was partly thanks to the excellent U.S. generals and admirals, and the leaders.
      3. Industry also rose to the challenge, putting out a phenomenal amount of goods, proving Hermann Goering, a Nazi leader who had scorned America’s lack of manufacturing skills, wrong.
      4. We won!!!
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 39 - The Cold War Begins 1945 – 1952

    1. Postwar Economic Anxieties
      1. The Americans cheered the end of World War II in 1945, but many worried that with the war over, the U.S. would sink back into another Great Depression.
        1. Upon war’s end, inflation shot up with the release of price controls while gross national product sank, and labor strikes swept the nation.
      2. To get even with labor, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, which outlawed “closed” shop, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required that union leaders take non-Communist oaths.
      3. Labor tried to organize in the South and West with “Operation Dixie,” but this proved frustrating and unsuccessful.
      4. To forestall an economic downturn, the Democratic administration sold war factories and other government installations to private businesses cheaply, passed the Employment Act of 1946, which made it government policy to “promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power,” and created the Council of Economic Advisors to provide the president with data to make that policy a reality.
        1. It also passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, better known as the GI Bill of Rights, which allowed all servicemen to have free college education once they returned from the war.
    2. The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970
      1. Then, in the late 1940s and into the 1960s, the economy began to boom tremendously, and folks who had felt the sting of the Great Depression now wanted to bathe in the prosperity.
        1. The middle class more than doubled while people now wanted two cars in every garage; over 90% of American families owned a television.
      2. Women also reaped the benefits of the postwar economy, growing in the American work force while giving up their former roles as housewives.
      3. However, much of the prosperity of the 50s and 60s rested on colossal military projects.
        1. Massive appropriations for the Korean War, defense spending, industries like aerospace, plastics, and electronics, and research and development all were such projects.
      4. Even though this new affluence did not touch everyone, it did touch many.
      5. Cheap energy paralleled the popularity of automobiles, and spidery grids of electrical cables carried the power of oil, gas, coal, and falling water into homes and factories alike.
      6. Workers upped their output tremendously, as did farmers, due to new technology in fertilizers, etc… in fact, the farming population shrank while production soared.
    3. The Smiling Sunbelt
      1. With so many people on the move, families were being strained, which explained the success of Dr. Benjamin Spock’s The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1945).
      2. Immigration also led to the growth of a fifteen-state region in the southern half of the U.S. known as the Sunbelt, which dramatically increased in population.
        1. In fact, in the 1950s, California overtook New York as the most populous state.
      3. Immigrants came to the Sunbelt for more opportunities, such as in California’s electronics industry of the aerospace complexes of Texas and Florida.
        1. Federal dollars poured into the Sunbelt (some $125 million), and power grew there as well, as ever since 1964, every U.S. president has come from that region.
        2. Sunbelters were redrawing the political map, taking the economic and political power out of the North and Northeast.
    4. The Rush to the Suburbs
      1. Whites in cities fled to the suburbs, encouraged by federal agencies such as the Federal Housing Authority and the Veteran’s Administration, whose loan guarantees made it cheaper to live in the suburbs than in cramped city apartments
        1. By 1960, one out of ever four Americans lived in the suburbs.
      2. Innovators like the Levitt brothers, with their monotonous but cheap housing plans, built thousands of houses in single projects, and the “White flight” left the cities full of the poor and the African-Americans.
        1. Federal agencies aggravated this by often refusing to make loans to Blacks due to the “risk factor” involved with this.
    5. The Postwar Baby Boom
      1. After the war, many soldiers returned to their sweethearts and married them, then had babies, creating a “Baby Boom” that is still being felt today.
      2. As the children grew up collectively, they put strains on respective markets, such as manufacturers of baby products in the 1940s and 50s, teenage clothing designers in the 60s, and the job market in the 70s and 80s.
      3. In the future, they will place enormous strains on the Social Security system.
    6. Truman: the “Gutty” Man from Missouri
      1. Presiding after World War II was Harry S. Truman, who had come to power after Franklin Roosevelt had died from a massive brain hemorrhage.
        1. The first president in a long time without a college education, Truman at firs approached his burdens with humility, but he gradually evolved into a confident, cocky politician.
        2. His cabinet was made up of the old “Missouri gang,” which composed of Truman’s friends from when he was a senator from Missouri.
        3. Often, Truman would stick to a wrong decision just to prove his decisiveness and power of command.
      2. However, even if he was small on the small things, he was big on the big things, taking responsibility very seriously and working very hard.
    7. Yalta: Bargain or Betrayal?
      1. A final conference of the Big Three had taken place at Yalta in February 1945, where Soviet leader Joseph Stalin pledged that Poland should have a representative government with free elections, as would Bulgaria and Romania, but he broke those promises.
      2. At Yalta, the Soviet Union had agreed to attack Japan three months after the fall of Germany, but by the time the Soviets entered the Pacific war, the U.S. was about to win anyway, and now, it seemed that the USSR had entered to the sake of taking some spoils.
        1. The Soviet Union was also granted control of the Manchurian railroads and received special privileges to Dairen and Port Arthur.
      3. Critics of FDR charged that he sold China’s Chiang Kai-shek down the river, while supporters claimed that the Soviets could have taken more of China had they wished, and that the Yalta agreements had actually limited the Soviet Union.
    8. The United States and the Soviet Union
      1. With the USA and the USSR as the only world superpowers after WWII, trouble seemed imminent, for the U.S. had waited until 1933, to recognize the USSR; the U.S. and Britain had delayed to open up a second front during World War II; the U.S. and Britain had frozen the Soviets out of developing nuclear arms; and the U.S. had withdrawn its vital lend-lease program from the USSR in 1945 and spurned Moscow’s plea for a $6 billion reconstructive loan while approving a similar $3.75 one to Berlin.
      2. Stalin wanted a protect sphere around western Russian, for twice earlier in the century, Russia had been attacked from that way, and that mean taking nations like Poland under its control.
      3. Even though both the USA and the USSR were recent newcomers to the world stage, very advanced, and had been isolationist before the 20th century, now, they found themselves in a political stare down that would turn into the Cold War and last for four and a half decades.
    9. Shaping the Postwar World
      1. However, the U.S. did manage to establish structures that were part of FDR’s open world.
        1. Meeting at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, the Western Allies established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating the currency exchange rates.
      2. The United Nations opened on April 25, 1945.
        1. The member nations drew up a charter similar to that of the old League of Nations, formed a Security Council to be headed by five permanent powers (China, USSR, Britain, France, and USA) that had veto powers, and was set up in NYC.
        2. The Senate overwhelmingly approved the UN by a vote of 89 to 2.
      3. The UN kept peace in Kashmir and other trouble spots, created the new Jewish state of Israel, formed such groups as UNESCO (U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), and WHO (World Health Organization), bringing benefits to people all over the globe.
      4. However, when U.S. delegate Bernard Baruch called in 1946 for a UN agency free from great power veto that could investigate all nuclear facilities and weapons, the USSR rejected the proposal, since it didn’t want to give up its veto power and was opposed to “capitalist spies” snooping around in the Soviet Union.
    10. The Problem of Germany
      1. The Nuremberg Trials of 1945-46 severely punished 22 top culprits of the Holocaust.
      2. America knew that an economically healthy Germany was indispensable to the recovery of all of Europe, but Russia, fearing another blitzkrieg, wanted huge reparations from Germany.
      3. Germany, like Austria, was divided into four occupational zones controlled by the Allied Powers minus China, but as the U.S. began proposing the idea of a united Germany, and as the Western nations prevented Stalin from getting his reparations from their parts of Germany, it became obvious that Germany would remain indefinitely divided.
        1. In 1948, when the USSR choked off all air and railway access to Berlin, located deep in East Germany, they thought that such an act would starve the Allies out, since Berlin itself as divided into four zones as well.
      4. However, the Allies organized a massive airlift to feed the people of Berlin, and in May 1949, the Soviets stopped their blockade of Berlin.
    11. Crystallizing the Cold War
      1. When, in 1946, Stalin used his troops to aid a rebel movement in Iran, Truman protested, and the Soviet backed down.
      2. Truman soon adopted the “containment policy,” crafted by Soviet specialist George F. Kennan, which stated that firm containment of Soviet expansion would halt Communist power.
      3. On March 12, 1947, Truman requested what would come to be called the Truman Doctrine: $400 million to help Greece and Turkey from falling into Communist power.
        1. So basically, the doctrine said that the U.S. would aid any power fighting Communist aggression, an idea later criticized because the U.S. would often give money to dictators “fighting communism.”
      4. In Western Europe, France, Italy, and Germany were still in terrible shape, so Truman, with the help of Secretary of State George C. Marshall, implemented the Marshall Plan, a miraculous recovery effort that had Western Europe up and prosperous in no time.
        1. This helped in the forming of the European Community (EC).
        2. The plan sent $12.5 billion over four years to 16 cooperating nations to aid in recovery, and at first, Congress didn’t want to comply, especially when this sum was added to the $2 billion the U.S. was already giving to European relief as part of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA).
        3. However, a Soviet-sponsored coup that toppled the government of Czechoslovakia finally awakened the Congressmen to their senses, and they passed the plan.
      5. Truman also recognized Israel on its birthday, May 14, 1948, despite heavy Arab opposition and despite the fact that those same Arabs controlled oil supplies in the Middle East.
    12. America Begins to Rearm
      1. The 1947 National Security Act created the Department of Defense, which was housed in the Pentagon and headed by a new cabinet position, the secretary of defense, under which served civilian secretaries of the army, navy, and air force.
      2. The National Security Act also formed the National Security Council (NSC) to advice the president on security matters and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government’s foreign fact-gathering (spying?).
      3. The “Voice of America,” a radio broadcast, began beaming in 1948, while Congress resurrected the military draft, (Selective Service System), which redefined many young people’s career choices and persuaded them to go to college.
      4. In 1948, the U.S. joined Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which considered an attack on one member an attack on all, despite the U.S.’s traditionally not involving itself in entangling alliances.
        1. In response, the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact, its own alliance system.
        2. NATO’s membership grew to fourteen with the 1952 admissions of Greece and Turkey, and then to 15 when West Germany joined in 1955.
    13. Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia
      1. General Douglas MacArthur, head of reconstruction in Japan, tried the top Japanese war criminals, dictated a constitution that was adopted in 1946, and democratized Japan.
      2. However, in China, the communist forces, led by Mao Zedong, defeated the nationalist forces, led by Chiang Kai-shek, who then fled to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1949.
        1. With this defeat, one-quarter of the world population (500,000 people) plunged under the Communist flag.
        2. Critics of Truman assailed that he did not support the nationalists enough, but Chiang Kai-shek never had the support of the people to begin with.
      3. Then, in September of 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had exploded their first atomic bomb—three years before experts thought was possible, thus eliminating the U.S. monopoly on nuclear weapons.
        1. The U.S. exploded the hydrogen bomb in 1952, and the Soviets followed suit a year later; thus began the dangerous arms race of the Cold War.
    14. Ferreting Out Alleged Communists
      1. An anti-red chase was in full cry in the U.S. with the forming of the Loyalty Review Board, which investigated more than 3 million federal employees.
        1. The attorney general also drew up a list of 90 organizations that were potentially not loyal to the U.S., and none was given the opportunity to defend itself.
      2. In 1949, 11 communists were brought to a New York jury for violating the Smith Act of 1940, which had been the first peacetime anti-sedition law since 1798.
        1. They were convicted, sent to prison, and their conviction was upheld by the 1951 case Dennis vs. United States.
      3. The House of Representatives had, in 1938 established the Committee on Un-American Activities (“HUAC”) to investigate “subversion,” and in 1948, committee member Richard M. Nixon prosecuted Algier Hiss.
      4. In February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy burst upon the scene, charging that there were scores of unknown communists in the State Department.
        1. He couldn’t prove it, and many American began to fear that this red chase was going too far; after all, how could there be freedom of speech if saying communist ideas got one arrested?
        2. Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill, which let the president arrest and detain suspicious people during an “internal security emergency.”
      5. The Soviet success of developing nuclear bombs so easily was probably due to spies, and in 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were brought to trial, convicted, and executed.
        1. Their sensational trial, electrocution, and sympathy for their two children began to sober America zeal in red hunting.
    15. Democratic Divisions in 1948
      1. Republicans won control of the House in 1946 and then nominated Thomas E. Dewey to the 1948 ticket, while Democrats were forced to choose Truman again when war-hero Dwight D. Eisenhower refused to be chosen.
        1. Truman’s nomination split the Democratic Party, as Southern Democrats (“Dixiecrats”) nominated Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina on a State’s Rights Party ticket.
        2. Former vice president Henry A. Wallace also threw his hat into the ring, getting nominated by the new Progressive Party.
      2. With the Democrats totally disorganized, Dewey seemed destined for a super-easy victory, and on Election Night, the Chicago Tribune even ran an early edition proclaiming “DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN,” but Truman shockingly won, getting 303 Electoral votes to Dewey’s 189, and to make things better, the Democrats won control of Congress again.
      3. Truman received critical support from farmers, workers, and blacks.
      4. Truman then called for a new program called “Point Four,” which called for financial support of poor, underdeveloped lands and keep underprivileged peoples from becoming communists.
      5. At home, Truman outlined a sweeping “Fair Deal” program, which called for improved housing, full employment, a higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, new Tennessee Valley Administrations, and an extension of Social Security.
        1. However, the only successes came in raising the minimum wage, providing for public housing in the Housing Act of 1949, and extending old-age insurance to more beneficiaries with the Social Security Act of 1950.
    16. The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950)
      1. When Russian and American forces withdrew from Korea, they had left the place full of weapons and with rival regimes (communist North and democratic South).
      2. Then, on June 25, 1950, North Korean forces suddenly invaded South Korean, taking the South Koreans by surprise and pushing them dangerously south toward Pusan.
        1. Truman sprang to action, remembering that the League of Nations had failed from inactivity, and ordered U.S. military spending to be quadrupled, as wanted from National Security Council Memorandum Number 68, or NSC-68.
          1. This document was key because it reflected the almost limitless possibility that pervaded American society.
      3. Truman also used a Soviet absence from the UN to label North Korea as an aggressor and send UN troops to fight against the aggressors.
        1. He also ordered General MacArthur’s Japan-based troops to Korea.
    17. Military Seesaw in Korea
      1. General MacArthur landed a brilliant invasion behind enemy forces on September 15, 1950, and drove the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel, towards China and the Yalu River.
        1. An overconfident MacArthur boasted that he’d “have the boys home by Christmas,” but in November 1950, Chinese volunteers flooded across the border and pushed the South Koreans back to the 38th parallel.
      2. MacArthur, humiliated, wanted to blockade China and bomb Manchuria, but Truman didn’t want to enlarge the war beyond necessity, but when the angry general began to publicly criticize President Truman, Harry had not choice but to remove him from command on grounds of insubordination.
        1. MacArthur returned to cheers while Truman was scorned as a “pig,” an “imbecile,” an appeaser to Communist Russian and China, and a “Judas.”
        2. In July 1951, truce discussions began but immediately snagged over the issue of prisoner exchange.
          1. Talks dragged on for two more years as men continued to die.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 40 - The Eisenhower Era 1952 – 1960

    1. The Advent of Eisenhower

      1. In 1952, the Democrats chose Adlai E. Stevenson, the witty governor of Illinois, while Republicans rejected isolationist Robert A. Taft and instead chose World War II hero Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for president and anticommunist Richard M. Nixon to be his running mate.

      2. Grandfatherly Eisenhower was a war hero and liked by everyone, so he left the rough part of campaigning to Nixon, who attacked Stevenson as soft against Communists, corrupt, and weak in the Korean situation.

        1. Nixon then almost got caught with a secretly financed “slush fund,” but to save his political career, he delivered his famous, touching “Checkers Speech,” in which he talked about his family and specifically mentioned his cocker spaniel.

      3. The “Checkers speech” showed the awesome power of television, since Nixon had pleaded on national TV, and even later, “Ike,” as Eisenhower was called, agreed to go into studio and answer some brief “questions,” which were later spliced in and edited to make it look like Eisenhower had answered questions from a live audience, when he didn’t.

        1. This showed the power that TV would have in the upcoming decades, allowing lone wolves to appeal directly to the American people instead of being influenced by party machines or leaders.

      4. Ike won easily (442 to 89), and true to his campaign promise, he flew to Korea to help move along peace negotiations…and failed…but seven months later, after Ike threatened to use nuclear weapons, an armistice was finally signed (but was later violated often).

      5. 54,000 Americans had died, and tens of billions of dollars had been wasted in the effort, but American’s took a little comfort in knowing that Communism had been “contained.”

    2. “Ike” Takes Command

      1. Eisenhower had been an excellent commander and leader who was able to make cooperation possible between anyone, so he seemed to be a perfect leader for Americans weary of two decades of depression, war, and nuclear standoff.

        1. He served that aspect of his job well, but he could have used his popularity to champion civil rights more than he actually did.

      2. The success of brutal anticommunist “crusader” Joseph R. McCarthy was quite alarming, for after he had charged onto the national scene by charging that Secretary of State Dean Acheson was knowingly employing 205 Communist Party members (a claim he never proved, not even for one person), he ruthlessly sought to prosecute and persecute suspected Communists, often targeting innocent people and destroying families and lives.

        1. Eisenhower privately loathed McCarthy, but the president did little to stop the anti-red, since it appeared that most Americans supported his actions, but his zeal led him to purge important Asian experts in the State Department, men who could have advised a better course of action in Vietnam.

          1. He even denounced General George Marshall, former army chief of staff during World War II!

        2. Finally, in 1954, when he attacked the army, he went too far and was exposed for the liar and drunk that he was; three years later, he died unwept and unsung.

    3. Desegregating the South

      1. Blacks in the South were bound by the severe Jim Crow laws, and were segregated in every aspect of society, from schools to restrooms to restaurants and beyond.

        1. Only about 20% of the eligible Blacks could vote, due to intimidation, discrimination, poll taxes, and other schemes meant to keep Black suffrage down.

      2. Where the law proved sufficient to enforce such oppression, vigilante justice in the form of lynchings did the job, and the White murderers were rarely caught and convicted.

      3. In his 1944 novel, An American Dilemma, Swedish scholar Gunnar Myrdal had exposed the hypocrisy of American life, noting how while “every man [was] created equal,” Blacks were certainly treated worse than Whites.

        1. Even though Jackie Robinson had cracked the racial barrier by signing with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, the nation’s conscience still paid little attention to the suffering of Blacks, thus prolonging their pain.

      4. However, with organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, such rulings as the 1950 case of Sweatt vs. Painter, where the Supreme Court ruled that separate professional schools for Blacks failed to meet the test of equality, such protestors as Rosa Parks, who in December 1955, refused to give up a bus seat in the “Whites only” section, and pacifist leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr., who believed in peaceful methods of civil rights protests, Blacks were making their suffering and discrimination known to the public.

    4. Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution

      1. After he heard about the 1946 lynchings of Black soldiers seeking rights for which they fought overseas, Truman immediately sought to improve Black rights by desegregating the armed forces, but Eisenhower failed to continue this trend by failing to pass laws.

        1. Only the judicial branch was left to improve Black civil rights.

      2. Earl Warren, appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, shocked his conservative backers by actively assailing Black injustice and ruling in favor of African-Americans.

        1. The 1954 landmark case of Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, reversed the previous 1896 ruling of Plessy vs. Ferguson by saying that “separate but equal” facilities were inherently unequal, thus ending segregation.

        2. However, while the Border States usually obeyed this new ruling, states in the Deep South did everything they could to delay it and disobey it, diverting funds to private schools, signing and “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” that promised not to desegregate, and physically preventing Blacks to integrate.

          1. Ten years after the ruling, fewer than 2% of eligible Black students sat in the same classrooms as whites.

    5. Crisis at Little Rock

      1. Eisenhower refused to issue a statement acknowledging the Supreme Court’s ruling, and he even privately complained about this new end to segregation, but in September 1957, when Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas, mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine Black students from enrolling in Little Rock’s Central High School, Ike sent troop sot escort the children to their classes.

        1. That year, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the Reconstruction days, an act that set up a permanent Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights.

      2. Meanwhile, Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which aimed to mobilize the vast power of Black churches on behalf of Black rights—a shrewd strategy, since churches were a huge source of Black power.

      3. On February 1, 1960, four Black college freshmen launched a “sit-in” movement in Greensboro, North Carolina, demanding service at a whites-only Woolworth’s lunch counter, thus sparking the sit-in movement.

      4. In April 1960, southern Black students formed the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC, to give more focus and force to their civil rights efforts.

    6. Eisenhower Republicanism at Home

      1. Eisenhower came into the White House pledging a policy of “dynamic conservatism,” which stated that he would be liberal with people but conservative with their money.

      2. Ike decreased government spending by decreasing military spending, trying to transfer control of offshore oil fields to the states, and trying to curb the TVA’s by setting up a private company to take their places.

        1. His secretary of health, education, and welfare condemned free distribution of the Salk anti-polio vaccine.

        2. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson tackled with agriculture issues, but despite government purchase of surplus grain, which it stored in giant silos costing Americans $2 million a day, farmers didn’t see prosperity.

      3. Eisenhower also cracked down on illegal Mexican immigration that cut down on the success of the bracero program by rounding up 1 million Mexicans and returning them to their native country in 1954.

        1. With Indians, though, Ike proposed ending the FDR-style treatment toward Indians and reverting to a Dawes Severalty Act-style policy toward Native Americans, but due to protest and resistance, this was disbanded.

      4. However, Eisenhower kept many of the New Deal programs, since some, like Social Security and unemployment insurance, simply had to stay.

        1. However, he did do some of the New Deal programs better, such as his backing of the Interstate Highway Act, which built 42,000 miles of interstate freeways.

      5. Still, Eisenhower only balanced the budget three times in his eight years of office, and in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in U.S. history.

        1. Still, critics said that he was economically timid, blaming the president for the sharp economic downturn of 1957-58.

      6. Also, the AF of L merged with the CIO to end 20 years of bitter division in labor unions.

    7. A New Look in Foreign Policy

      1. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles stated that the policy of containment was not enough and that the U.S. was going to push back Communism and liberate the peoples under it while toning down defense spending by building a fleet of superbombers called Strategic Air Command, which could drop massive nuclear bombs in any retaliation.

      2. Ike tried to thaw the Cold War by appealing for peace to new Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the 1955 Geneva Conference, but the Soviet leader rejected such proposals, along with one for “open skies.”

      3. However, hypocritically, when the Hungarians revolted against the USSR and appealed to the US for help, America did nothing, earning the scorn of bitter freedom fighters.

    8. The Vietnam Nightmare

      1. In Vietnam, freedom fighter Ho Chi Minh had tried to encourage Woodrow Wilson to help the Vietnamese against the French, but as Ho Chi became increasingly Communist, the U.S. began to fight it.

      2. In March 1954, when the French became trapped at Dienbienphu, Eisenhower’s aides wanted to bomb the Viet Minh guerilla forces, but Ike held back, fearing plunging the U.S. into another Asian war so soon after Korea, and after the Vietnamese won, Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel, supposedly temporarily.

        1. Ho Chi Minh was supposed to allow free elections, but soon, Vietnam became clearly split between a Communist north and a pro-Western south.

      3. Secretary Dulles created the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization to emulate NATO, but this provided little help.

    9. A False Lull in Europe

      1. In 1955, the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact to counteract NATO, but the Cold War did seem to be thawing a bit, as Eisenhower pressed for reduction of arms, and the Soviets were surprisingly cooperative, and Khrushchev publicly denounced Stalin’s brutality.

      2. However, in 1956, when the Hungarians revolted against the USSR, the Soviets crushed them with brutality and massive bloodshed.

        1. The U.S. did change some of its immigration laws to let 30,000 Hungarians into American as immigrants.

    10. Menaces in the Middle East

      1. In 1953, to protect oil supplies in the Middle East, the CIA engineered a coup in Iran that installed the youthful shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, as ruler of the nation, protecting the oil for the time being but earning the wrath of Arabs that would be repaid in the 70s.

      2. The Suez crisis was far messier: President Gamal Abdel Nasser, of Egypt, needed money to build a dam in the upper Nile and flirted openly with the Soviet side as well as the U.S. and Britain, and upon seeing this blatant Communist association, Secretary of State Dulles dramatically withdrew his offer, thus forcing Nasser to nationalize the dam.

        1. Late in October 1956, Britain, France, and Israel suddenly attacked Egypt, thinking that the U.S. would supply them with needed oil, as had been the case in WWII, but Eisenhower did not, and the attackers had to withdraw.

        2. The Suez crisis marked the last time the U.S. could brandish its “oil weapon.”

      3. In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela joined to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC.

    11. The Voters Still Like “Ike” in 1956

      1. In 1956, Eisenhower again ran against Stevenson and won easily by a landslide.

      2. The GOP called itself the “party of peace” while the Democrats assaulted Ike’s health, since he had had a heart attack in 1955 and a major abdominal operation in ’56.

        1. However, the Democrats did win the House and Senate.

    12. Round Two for “Ike”

      1. After Secretary of State Dulles died of cancer in 1959 and presidential assistant Sherman Adams was forced to leave under a cloud of scandal due to bribery charges, Eisenhower, without his two most trusted and most helpful aides, was forced to govern more.

      2. A drastic labor-reform bill in 1959 grew from recurrent strikes in critical industries.

      3. Teamster chief “Dave” Beck was sent to prison for embezzlement, and his successor, James R. Hoffa’s appointment got the Teamsters expelled out of the AF of L-CIO.

        1. Hoffa was later jailed for jury tampering and then disappeared in prison, allegedly murdered by some gangsters that he had crossed.

      4. The 1959 Landrum-Griffin Act was designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and prevent bullying tactics.

        1. Anti-laborites forced into the bill bans against “secondary boycotts” and certain types of picketing.

    13. The Race with the Soviets to Space

      1. On October 4, 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik I into space, and a month later, they sent Sputnik II out of the Earth as well, thus totally demoralizing Americans, because this seemed to prove Communist superiority.

        1. Plus, the Soviets might fire missiles at the U.S. from space.

      2. Critics charged that Truman had not spent enough money on missile programs while America had used its science for other things, like television.

      3. Four months after Sputnik I, the U.S. sent its own satellite (weighing only 2.5 lbs) into space, but the apparent U.S. lack of technology sent concerns over U.S. education, since American children seemed to be learning less advanced information than Soviet kids.

        1. The 1958 National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) gave $887 million in loads to needy college students and grants for the improvement of schools.

    14. The Continuing Cold War

      1. Humanity-minded scientists called for an end to atmospheric nuclear testing, lest future generations be deformed and mutated.

        1. Beginning October 1958, Washington did halt “dirty” testing, as did the USSR, but attempts to regularize such suspensions were unsuccessful.

      2. However, in 1959, Khrushchev was invited by Ike to America for talks, and when he arrived in New York, he immediately talked about disarmament but gave no means of how to do it.

        1. Later, at Camp David, talks did show upward signs, as the Soviet premier said that his ultimatum for the evacuation of Berlin would be extended indefinitely.

      3. However, at the Paris conference, Khrushchev came in angry that the U.S. had flown a spy plane over Soviet territory (the plane had been shot down and Eisenhower had taken personal responsibility), and tensions immediately tightened again.

    15. Cuba’s Castroism Spells Communism

      1. Latin American nations resented the United States’ giving billions of dollars to Europe compared to millions to Latin America, and the U.S.’s constant intervention (Guatemala, 1954), as well as its support of cold dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.

      2. In 1959, in Cuba, Fidel Castro overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio Batista, promptly denounced the Yankee imperialists, and began to take U.S. properties for a land-distribution program, and when the U.S. cut off heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro confiscated more American property.

        1. In 1961 America broke diplomatic relations with Cuba.

      3. Khrushchev threatened to launch missiles at the U.S. if it attacked Cuba; meanwhile, America induced the Organization of American States to condemn communism in the Americas.

        1. Finally, Eisenhower proposed a “Marshall Plan” for Latin America, which gave $500 million to the area, but many Latin American felt that it was too little too late.

    16. Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency

      1. The Republicans chose Richard Nixon, gifted party leader to some, ruthless opportunist to others, in 1960 with Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate; while John F. Kennedy surprisingly won for the Democrats and had Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate.

    17. The Presidential Issues of 1960

      1. Kennedy was attacked because he was the first Catholic presidential candidate ever, but defended himself and encouraged Catholics to vote for him, and if he lost votes from the South due to his religion, he got them back from the North due to the bitter Catholics there.

        1. In four nationally televised debates, JFK held his own and looked more charismatic, perhaps helping him to win the election by a comfortable margin, becoming the youngest president elected (but not served) ever.

    18. An Old General Fades Away

      1. Eisenhower had his critics, but he was appreciated more and more for ending one war and keeping the U.S. out of others.

      2. Even though the 1951-passed 22nd Amendment had limited him to two terms as president, Ike displayed more vigor and controlled Congress more during his second term.

      3. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states to join the Union.

      4. Perhaps Eisenhower’s greatest weakness was his ignorance of social problems of the time, preferring to smile them away rather than deal with them, even though he was no bigot.

    19. Changing Economic Patterns

      1. The economy really sprouted during the 50s, and the invention of the transistor exploded the electronics field, especially in computers, helping such companies as International Business Machines (IBM) expand and prosper.

      2. Aerospace industries progressed, as the Boeing company made the first passenger-jet airplane (adapted from the superbombers of the Strategic Air Command), the 707.

      3. In 1956, “white-collar” workers outnumbered “blue collar” workers for the first time, meaning that the industrial era was passing on.

        1. As this occurred, labor unions also labored, since most of their members were industrial workers.

        2. Women appeared more and more in the workplace, despite the stereotypical role of women as housewives that was being portrayed on TV shows such as “Ozzie and Harriet” and “Leave It to Beaver.”

          1. More than 40 million new jobs were created.

      4. Women’s expansion into the workplace shocked some, but really wasn’t surprising if one observed the trends in history, and now, they were both housewives and workers.

        1. Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique was a best-seller and a classic of modern feminine protest literature.

    20. Consumer Culture in the Fifties

      1. The fifties saw the first Diner’s Club cards, the opening of McDonald’s, the debut of Disneyland, and an explosion in the number of television stations in the country.

      2. Advertisers used television to sell products while “televangelists” like Billy Graham, Oral Roberts, and Fulton J. Sheen used TV to preach the gospel and encourage religion.

      3. Sports shifted west, as the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants moved to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, in 1958.

      4. Elvis Presley, a white singer of the new “rock and roll” who made girls swoon with his fleshy face, pointing lips, and antic, sexually suggestive gyrations, redefined popular music.

        1. Elvis died from drugs in 1977, at age 42.

      5. Traditionalists were shocked by Elvis’s shockingly open sexuality, and Marilyn Monroe (in her Playboy magazine spread) continued in the redefinition of the new sensuous sexuality.

        1. Critics, such as David Riesman in The Lonely Crowd, William H. Whyte, Jr. in The Organization Man, and Sloan Wilson in The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit, lamented this new consumerist style.

        2. Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith questioned the relation between private wealth and public good in The Affluent Society.

          1. Daniel Bell found further such paradoxes, as did C. Wright Mills.

    21. The Life of the Mind in Postwar America

      1. Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea and John Steinbeck’s East of Eden and Travels with Charlie showed that prewar writers could still be successful, but new writers, who, except for Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead and James Jones’s From Here to Eternity, spurned realism, were successful as well.

      2. Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 and Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.’s Slaughterhouse-Five crackled with fantastic and psychedelic prose, satiring the suffering of the war.

      3. Authors and books that explored problems created by the new mobility and affluence of American life: John Updike’s Rabbit, Run and Couples; John Cheever’s The Wapshot Chronicle and The Wapshot Scandal; Louis Auchincloss’s books, Gore Vidal’s Myra Breckinridge.

      4. The poetry of Ezra Pound, Wallace Stevens, William Carlos Williams, Theodore Roethke, Robert Lowell (For the Union Dead), Sylvia Plath (Ariel and The Bell-Jar), Anne Sexton, and John Berryman reflected the twisted emotions of the war, but some poets were troubled in their own minds as well, often committing suicide or living miserable lives.

      5. Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof were two plays that searched for American values, as were Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman and The Crucible.

      6. Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun portrayed African-American life while Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? revealed the underside of middle class life.

      7. Books by black authors such as Richard Wright, Ralph Ellison, and James Baldwin made best-seller’s lists; Black playwrights like LeRoi Jones made powerful plays (The Dutchman).

      8. The South had literary artists like William Faulkner, Walker Percy, and Eudora Welty.

      9. Jewish authors also had famous books, such as J.D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 41 - The Stormy Sixties 1960 – 1968

    1. Kennedy’s “New Frontier” Spirit

      1. In 1960, young, energetic John F. Kennedy was elected to president of the United States—the youngest man ever elected to that office.

      2. The 1960s would bring a sexual revolution, a civil rights revolutions, the emergence of a “youth culture,” a devastating war in Vietnam, and the beginnings of a feminist revolution.

      3. JFK delivered a stirring inaugural address, and he also assembled a very young cabinet, including his brother, Robert Kennedy, as attorney general.

        1. Robert Kennedy tried to recast the priorities of the FBI, but was resisted by J. Edgar Hoover.

        2. Business whiz Robert S. McNamara took over the Defense Department.

      4. Early on, JFK proposed the Peace Corps, an army of idealist and mostly youthful volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped countries.

      5. Graduated from Harvard, JFK was very vibrant and charming to everyone.

    2. The New Frontier at Home

      1. Kennedy’s social program was known as the New Frontier, but conservative Democrats and Republicans threatened to kill many of its reforms.

        1. JFK did expand the House Rules Committee, but his program didn’t expand quickly, as medical and education bills remained stalled in Congress.

        2. JFK also had to keep a lid on inflation and maintain a good economy.

        3. However, almost immediately into his term, steel management announced great price increases, igniting the fury of the president, but JFK also earned fiery attacks by big business on the New Frontier.

      2. Kennedy’s tax-cut bill chose to stimulate the economy through price-cutting.

      3. Kennedy also promoted a project to land Americans on the moon, though apathetic Americans often ridiculed this.

    3. Rumblings in Europe

      1. JFK met Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and was threatened, but didn’t back down.

      2. In August of the 1961, the Soviets began building the Berlin Wall to separate East and West Germany.

      3. Western Europe, though, was now prospering after help from the super-successful Marshal Plan.

        1. America had also encouraged a Common Market, which later became the European Union (EU).

        2. The so-called Kennedy Round of tariff negotiations eased trade between Europe and the U.S.

      4. Unfortunately, French leader Charles de Gaulle was one who was suspicious of the U.S., and he rejected British application into the Common Market.

    4. Foreign Flare-Ups and “Flexible Responses”

      1. There were many world problems at this time:

        1. The African Congo got its independence from Belgium in 1960 and then erupted into violence, but the United Nations sent a peacekeeping force.

        2. Laos, freed of its French overlords in 1954, was being threatened by Communism, but at the Geneva conference of 1962, peace was shakily imposed.

        3. Defense Secretary McNamara pushed a strategy of “flexible response,” which developed an array of military options that could match the gravity of whatever crises came to hand.

          1. One of these was the Green Berets, aka the Special Forces.

    5. Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

      1. The American-backed Diem government had shakily and corruptly ruled Vietnam since 1954, but it was threatened by the Communist Viet Cong movement led by Ho Chi Minh.

      2. JFK slowly sent more and more U.S. troops to Vietnam to “maintain order,” but they usually fought and died, despite the fact that it was “Vietnam’s war.”

    6. Cuban Confrontations

      1. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress was dubbed the Marshall Plan for Latin America, and it aimed to close the rich-poor gap in Latin American and thus stem Communism.

        1. However, too many Latin Americans felt that it was too little too late.

      2. Kennedy also backed a U.S.-aided invasion of Cuba by rebels, but when the Bay of Pigs Invasion occurred, on April 17, 1961, it was a disaster, as Kennedy did not bring in the air support, and the revolt failed.

        1. This event pushed recently imposed Cuban leader Fidel Castro closer to the Communist camp.

      3. Then, in 1962, U.S. spy planes recorded missile installations in Cuba. It was later revealed that these were, in fact, nuclear missiles aimed at America.

        1. The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted 13 nerve-racking days and put the U.S., the U.S.S.R., and the world at the brink of nuclear war, but in the end, Khrushchev blinked, backed off, looked very weak, and lost his power soon afterwards.

        2. The Soviets agreed to remove their missiles if the U.S. vowed to never invade Cuba again; the U.S. also removed their own Russia-aimed nuclear missiles in Turkey.

        3. There was also a direct phone call line (the “hot line”) installed between Washington D.C. and Moscow, in case of any crisis.

        4. In June, 1963, Kennedy spoke, urging better feelings toward the Soviets and beginning the modest policy of détente, or relaxed defense.

    7. The Struggle for Civil Rights

      1. While Kennedy had campaigned a lot to appeal to Black voters, when it came time to help them, he was hesitant and seemingly unwilling, taking much time to act.

      2. In the 1960s, groups of Freedom Riders fanned out to try to end segregation, but White mobs often reacted violently towards them.

      3. Slowly but surely, Kennedy urged civil rights along, encouraging the establishment of the SNCC, a Voter Education Project to register the South’s Blacks.

      4. Some places desegregated painlessly, but others were volcanoes.

        1. 29 year-old James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but White students didn’t let him, so Kennedy had to send some 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.

      5. In spring of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. launched a peaceful campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama, but police and authorities responded viciously, often using extremely high-pressured water hoses to “hose down” the sit-in strikers.

        1. The entire American public watched in horror as the Black protesters were treated with such contempt, since the actions were shown on national TV.

        2. Later, on June 11, 1963, JFK made a speech urging immediate action towards this “moral issue” in a passionate plea.

      6. Still, more violence followed, as in September 1963, a bomb exploded in a Birmingham church, killing four Black girls who had just finished their church lesson.

    8. The Killing of Kennedy

      1. On November 22, 1963, while riding down a street in Dallas, Texas, JFK was shot and killed, allegedly by Lee Harvey Oswald, who was himself shot by self-proclaimed avenger Jack Ruby, and there was much controversy and scandal and conspiracy in the assassination.

      2. Lyndon B. Johnson became the new president of the United States as only the fourth president to succeed an assassinated president.

      3. It was only after Kennedy’s death that America realized what a charismatic, energetic, and vibrant president they had lost.

    9. The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

      1. Lyndon Johnson had been a senator in the 1940s and 50s, and his idol was Franklin D. Roosevelt, and he could manipulate Congress very well (through his in-your-face “Johnson treatment”); also, he was very vain and egotistical.

      2. As a president, LBJ went from conservative to liberal, helping pass a Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned all racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, including theaters, hospitals, and restaurants.

        1. Also created was the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was aimed at eliminating discriminatory hiring.

      3. Johnson’s program was dubbed the “Great Society”, and it reflected its New Deal inspirations.

        1. Public support for the program was aroused by Michael Harrington’s The Other America, which revealed that over 20% of American suffered in poverty.

    10. Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

      1. In 1964, LBJ was opposed by Republican Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, who attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security system, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and the Great Society.

      2. However, Johnson used the Tonkin Gulf Incident, in which North Vietnamese ships had allegedly fired on American ships, to attack (at least partially) Vietnam, and he also got approved the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, which gave him a virtual blank check on what he could do in affairs in Vietnam.

      3. But on Election Day, Johnson won a huge landslide over Goldwater to stay president.

    11. The Great Society Congress

      1. Johnson’s win was also coupled by sweeping Democratic wins that enabled him to pass his Great Society programs.

      2. Congress doubled the appropriation on the Office of Economic Opportunity to $2 billion and granted more than $1 billion to refurbish Appalachia, which had been stagnating.

      3. Johnson also created the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), headed by Robert C. Weaver, the first Black cabinet secretary in the United States’ history.

      4. LBJ also wanted aid to education, medical care for the elderly and indigent, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill.

        1. Johnson gave money to students, not schools, thus avoiding the separation of church and state by not technically giving money to Christian schools.

        2. In 1965, new programs called Medicare and Medicaid were installed, which have certain rights to the elderly in terms of medicine and health maintenance.

        3. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the “national origin” quota and doubled the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. annually, to 290,000.

      5. An antipoverty program called Project Head Start improved the performance of the underprivileged in education.

    12. The Black Revolution Explodes

      1. Johnson’s Voting Rights Act of 1965 attacked racial discrimination at the polls.

      2. The 24th Amendment eliminated poll taxes, and in the “freedom summer” of 1964, both Blacks and White students joined to combat discrimination and racism.

        1. However, in June of 1964, a Black and two White civil rights workers were found murdered, and 21 White Mississippians were arrested for the murders, but the all-White jury refused to convict the suspects.

        2. Also, an integrated “Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party” was denied its seat.

      3. Early in 1965, Martin Luther King, Jr. resumed a voter-registration campaign in Selma, Alabama, but was assaulted with tear gas by state troopers.

        1. LBJ’s response the stunned American people sped more reform.

    13. Black Power

      1. 1965 began a time of violent Black protests, such as the one in the Watts are of the LA, as Black leaders mocking Martin Luther King, Jr. like Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little), who was inspired by the Nation of Islam and its founder, Elijah Muhammed, urged action now, even if it required violence, but he was killed in 1965.

      2. The Black Panther openly brandished weapons in Oakland, California.

      3. Trinidad-born Stokey Carmichael led the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee urged an abandonment of peaceful demonstrations.

      4. Black power became a rallying cry by Blacks seeking more rights, but just as they were getting them, more riots broke out, and nervous Whites threatened with retaliation.

      5. Tragically, on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated.

        1. Quietly, though, thousands of Blacks registered to vote and went into integrated classrooms, and they slowly built themselves into a political power group.

    14. Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

      1. Johnson sent men to put down a supposedly Communist coup in the Dominican Republic and was denounced as over-anxious and too hyper.

      2. In Vietnam, though, he slowly sent more and more U.S. men to fight the war, and the South Vietnamese became spectators in their own war. Meanwhile, more and more Americans died.

      3. By 1968, he had sent more than half a million troops to Asia, and was pouring in $30 billion annually, yet the end was nowhere in sight.

    15. Vietnam Vexations

      1. America was floundering in Vietnam and was being condemned for its actions there, and French leader Charles de Gaulle also ordered NATO off French soil in 1966.

      2. In the Six-Day War, Israel stunned the world by defeating Egypt (and its Soviet backers) and gaining new territory in the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank of the Jordan River, including Jerusalem.

      3. Meanwhile, numerous protests in America went against the Vietnam War and the draft.

        1. Opposition was headed by the influential Senate Committee of Foreign Relations, headed by Senator William Fullbright of Arkansas.

        2. “Doves” (peace lovers) and “war hawks” (war supporters) clashed.

      4. Both sides (the U.S. and North Vietnam) did try to have intervals in bombings, but they merely used those as excuses to funnel more troops into the area.

      5. Johnson also ordered the CIA to spy on domestic antiwar activists, and he encouraged the FBI to use its counterintelligence program (“Cointelpro”) against the peace movement.

      6. More and more, America was trapped in the awful Vietnam War, and it couldn’t get out, thus feeding more and more hatred and resentment to the American public.

    16. Vietnam Topples Johnson

      1. Johnson was personally suffering at the American casualties, as he wept as he signed condolence letters and even prayed with Catholic monks in a nearby church—at night, secretly, and the fact that North Vietnam had almost taken over Saigon in a blistering offensive during Tet, the Vietnamese new year, didn’t help either.

      2. Johnson also saw a challenge for the Democratic ticket from Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, and the nation, as well as the Democratic Party, was starting to be split by Vietnam.

        1. LBJ refused to sign an order for more troops to Vietnam.

      3. Then, on March 31, 1968, Johnson declared that he would stop sending in troops to Vietnam and that he would not run in 1968, shocking America.

    17. The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968

      1. On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was shot fatally, and the Democratic ticket went to Hubert Humphrey, Johnson’s “heir.”

      2. The Republicans responded with Richard Nixon, paired with Spiro Agnew, and there was also a third-party candidate: George C. Wallace, former governor of Alabama, a racist who wanted to bomb the Vietnamese to death (what a radical!).

    18. Victory for Nixon

      1. Nixon won a nail-biter, and Wallace didn’t do that badly either, though worse than expected.

      2. A minority president, he owed his presidency to protests over the war, the unfair draft, crime, and rioting.

    19. The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson

      1. Poor Lyndon Johnson returned to his Texas ranch and died there in 1973.

      2. He had committed American into Vietnam with noble intentions, and he really wasn’t a bad guy, but he was stuck in a time when he was damned if he did and damned if he didn’t.

    20. The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s

      1. In the 60s, the youth of America experimented with sex, drugs, and defiance.

      2. They protested a lot against conventional wisdom and beliefs.

      3. Such poets like Allen Ginsberg and novelists like Jack Kerouac voiced these opinions.

      4. Movies like Rebel without a Cause also showed this belief.

      5. At the UC Berkeley, in 1964, a so-called Free Speech Movement began.

        1. Kids tried drugs, “did their own thing” in new institutions, and rejected patriotism.

      6. In 1948, Indiana University “sexologist” Dr. Alfred Kinsey had published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, and had followed that book five years later with a female version, and his findings about the incidence of premarital sex and adultery were very controversial.

        1. He also estimated that 10% of all American males were gay.

        2. The Manhattan Society, founded in LA in 1951, pioneered gay rights.

      7. Students for a Democratic Society, once against war, later spawned an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen.

      8. The upheavals of the 1960s can largely be attributed to the three P’s: the youthful population bulge, the protest against racism and the Vietnam War, and the apparent permanence of prosperity, but as the 1970s rolled around, this prosperity gave way to stagnation.

      9. However, the “counterculture” of the youths of the 1960s did significantly weaken existing values, ideas, and beliefs.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 42 - The Stalemated Seventies 1968 – 1980

    1. The Economy Stagnates in the 1970s
      1. After the flurry of economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. economy stagnated in the 1970s, in which not one year of that decade had a growth rate that even matched a year of the preceding two decades.
        1. Part of it was caused by more women and teens in the work force who typically had less skill and made less money than males, while deteriorating machinery and U.S. regulations also limited growth.
      2. Former President Lyndon B. Johnson’s spending on the Vietnam War and on his Great Society program also depleted the U.S. treasury, and this caused too much money in people’s hands and too little products to buy.
      3. Also, since the U.S. did not continue advancing, they were caught by the Japanese and the Germans in industries that the U.S. once dominated: steel, automobiles, consumer electronics.
    2. Nixon “Vietnamizes” the War
      1. Upon taking office, President Richard Nixon urged American’s to stop tearing each other apart cooperate.
        1. He was very skilled in foreign affairs, and to cope with the Vietnam dilemma, he used a policy called “Vietnamization” in which 540,000 American troops would be pulled out of the Southeast Asian nation.
        2. The South Vietnamese would slowly fight their own war, and the U.S. would only supply arms and money; this was called the Nixon Doctrine.
      2. While outwardly seeming to appease, Nixon divided America into his supporters and opponents.
      3. The war was fought generally by the least privileged Americans, since college students and critically skilled civilians were exempt, and there were also reports of dissension in the army.
        1. Soldiers slogged through grimy mud and jungle, trusting nothing and almost paranoid.
      4. The My Lai Massacre of 1968, in which American troops had brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, also led to more opposition to the war.
      5. In 1970, Nixon ordered an attack on Cambodia, Vietnam’s neighbor.
    3. Cambodianizing the Vietnam War
      1. North Vietnamese had been using Cambodia as a springboard for funneling troops and arms, and on April 29, 1970, Nixon suddenly ordered U.S. troops to invade Cambodia to stop this.
      2. Much uproar was caused, as riots occurred at Kent State University and at Jackson State College.
        1. Two months later, Nixon withdrew U.S. troops from Cambodia.
      3. The Cambodian incident even more split the “hawks” and the “doves” (war vs. peace).
      4. The U.S. Senate repealed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, and in 1971, the 26th Amendment, lowering the voting age to eighteen, was also passed.
      5. In June 1971, The New York Times published a top-secret Pentagon study of America’s involvement of the Vietnam War—papers that had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, former Pentagon official—which exposed all the deceit used by the Kennedy and Johnson administrations.
    4. Nixon’s Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow
      1. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union were clashing over their own interpretations of Marxism, and Nixon seized this as a chance for the U.S. to relax tensions.
      2. He sent national security adviser Dr. Henry A. Kissinger to China to encourage better relations, a mission in which he succeeded, even though he used to be a big anti-Communist.
        1. He made the historic journey to China in February of 1972.
      3. Nixon then traveled to Moscow in May 1972, and the Soviets, wanting foodstuffs and alarmed over the possibility of a U.S.-China alliance against the U.S.S.R., made deals with America in which the U.S. would sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals, thus ushering in an era of détente, or relaxed tensions.
      4. The ABM Treaty (anti-ballistic missile treaty) and the SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) also lessened tension, but the U.S. also went ahead with its new MIRV (Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry Vehicles) missiles, which could overcome any defense by overwhelming it with a plethora of missiles; therefore, the U.S.S.R. did the same.
        1. Result: more MIRV missiles on both sides.
      5. However, Nixon’s détente policy did work, at least a little.
    5. A New Team on the Supreme Bench
      1. When Earl Warren was appointed as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, he headed many controversial but important decisions:
        1. Griswold vs. Connecticut (1965) struck down a state law that banned the use of contraceptives, even by married couples, but creating a “right to privacy.”
        2. Gideon vs. Wainwright (1963) said that all criminals were entitled to legal counsel, even if they were too poor to afford it.
        3. Esobendo (1964) and Miranda (1966) were two cases in which the Supreme Court ruled that the accused could now remain silent.
        4. Engel vs. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township vs. Schempp (1963) were two cases that led to the Court ruling against required prayers and having the Bible in public schools, basing the judgment on the First Amendment, which separated church and state.
      2. Following its ruling against segregation in the case Brown vs. Board of Education, the Court backed up its ruling with other rulings:
        1. Reynolds vs. Sims (1964) ruled that the state legislatures, both upper and lower houses, would have to be reapportioned according to the human population, irrespective of cows.
      3. Trying to end this liberalism, Nixon put Warren E. Burger to replace the retiring Earl Warren in 1969, and this succeeded; by the end of 1971, the Supreme Court had four new members that Nixon had appointed.
    6. Nixon on the Home Front
      1. Nixon also expanded Great Society programs by increasing appropriations for Medicare and Medicaid, as well as Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), and created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which gave benefits to the indigent aged, blind, and disabled, and he raised Social Security.
      2. Nixon’s so-called Philadelphia Plan of 1969 required construction-trade unions working on the federal pay roll to establish “goals and timetables” for Black employees.
        1. This plan changed “affirmative action” to mean preferable treatment on groups, not individuals, and the Supreme Court’s decision on Griggs vs. Duke Power Co. (1971) supported this.
        2. However, whites protested to “reverse discrimination” (hiring of minorities for fear of repercussions if too many whites are hired).
      3. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was also created to help nature, as well as OSHA, or the Occupational health and Safety Administration.
      4. In 1962, Rachel Carson had boosted the environmental movement with her book Silent Spring, which exposed the disastrous effects of pesticides, and in 1950, LA had already had an Air Pollution Control Office.
      5. The Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973 both aimed to protect and preserve the environment and made notable progress.
      6. Worried about inflation, Nixon also imposed a 90-day wage freeze and then took the nation off the gold standard, thus ending the “Bretton Woods” system of international currency stabilization, which had functioned for more than a quarter of a century after WWII.
    7. The Nixon Landslide of 1972
      1. In 1972, the North Vietnamese attacked again, surprisingly, and Nixon ordered massive retaliatory air attacks, which ground the Vietnamese offense to a stop when neither China nor Russia stepped in to help, thanks to Nixon’s shrew diplomacy.
      2. Nixon was opposed by George McGovern in 1972, who promised to end the war within 90 days after the election and also appealed to teens and women, but his running mate, Thomas Eagleton was found to have undergone psychiatric care before, and Nixon won in a landslide.
    8. Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table
      1. In keeping with Kessinger’s promise of peace being near, Nixon then went on a bombing rampage that eventually drove the North Vietnamese to the bargaining table to agree to a cease-fire, which occurred on January 23, 1973
        1. This little peace was little more than a barely-disguised American retreat.
      2. The U.S. would withdraw its remaining 27,000 troops and get back 560 prisoners of war.
    9. Watergate Woes
      1. On June 17, 1972, five men working for the Republican Committee for the Re-election of the President were caught breaking into the Watergate Hotel and fixing some bugs of the room.
        1. What followed was a huge scandal in which many prominent administrators resigned.
        2. It also provoked the improper of illegal use of the FBI and the CIA.
        3. Lengthy hearings proceeded, headed by Senator Sam Erving, and John Dean III testified about all the corruption, illegal activities, and scandal that took place.
    10. The Great Tape Controversy
      1. Then, it was found that there were tapes that had recorded conversations that could solve all the mystery in this case, but Nixon, who had explicitly denied participation in this Watergate Scandal earlier to the American people, refused to give them to Congress.
      2. Also, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign in 1973 due to tax evasion.
      3. Thus, in accordance with the new 25th Amendment, Nixon submitted a name to Congress to approve as the new vice president; that man was Gerald Ford.
      4. Then came the “Saturday Night Massacre” (Oct. 20, 1973), in which Archibald Cox, special prosecutor of the case who had issued a subpoena of the tapes, was fired and the attorney general and deputy general resigned because they didn’t want to fire Cox.
    11. The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act
      1. It was then discovered that there had been secret bombing raids in North Vietnamese forces in Cambodia that had occurred since March of 1969, despite federal assurances to the U.S. public that Cambodia’s neutrality was being respected.
        1. The public now wondered what kind of a government was there if it couldn’t be trusted.
      2. Finally, Nixon ended this bombing in June 1973.
      3. However, soon, Cambodia was taken over by the cruel Pol Pot, who committed genocide by killing over 2 million people over a span of a few years.
      4. The War Powers Act of November 1973 required the president to report all committance of U.S. troops to foreign exchanges within 48 hours.
      5. There was also a “New Isolationism” that discouraged U.S. troops in other countries, but Nixon fended off all efforts at this.
    12. The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis
      1. After the U.S. backed Israel in its war against Syria and Egypt, which had been trying to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War, the Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, which strictly limited oil in the U.S. and caused a crisis.
        1. A speed limit of 55 MPH was imposed, and the oil pipeline in Alaska was approved in 1974 despite environmentalists’ cries, and other types of energy were pursued.
        2. Since 1948, the U.S. had been importing more oil than it exported, and oil production had gone down since 1970; thus marked the end of the era of cheap energy.
      2. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) lifted the embargo in 1974, and then quadrupled the price of oil.
    13. The Unmaking of a President
      1. On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon had to give all tapes to Congress.
        1. Those than had already been given showed Nixon cursing and swearing. Bad.
      2. Late in July 1974, the House approved its first article of impeachment for obstruction of the administration of justice.
      3. On August 5, 1974, Nixon finally released the three tapes that held the most damaging information—the same three tapes that had been “missing.”
      4. On August 8 of the same year, he resigned, realizing that he would be convicted if impeached, and with resignation, at least he could still keep the privileges of a president.
        1. Lesson: the Constitution works.
    14. The First Unelected President
      1. Gerald Ford was the first unelected president ever, since his name had been submitted by Nixon as a VP candidate. All the other VP’s that had ascended to presidency had at least been supported as running mates of the president that had been elected.
      2. He was also seen as a stupid jock of a president, and his popularity and respect further sank when he issued a full pardon of Nixon, thus setting off accusations of a “buddy deal.”
      3. In July 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki accords, which recognized Soviet boundaries and kind of helped the situation.
      4. Critics charged that détente was making the U.S. lose grain and technology while gaining nothing from the Soviets.
    15. Defeat in Vietnam
      1. Disastrously for Ford, South Vietnam fell in 1975, and American troops had to be evacuated, the last on April 29, 1975, thus ending the Vietnam War.
      2. America seemed to have lost the war, and it also lost a LOT of respect.
    16. The Bicentennial Campaign and the Carter Victory
      1. In 1976, Jimmy Carter barely squeezed by Gerald Ford (297 to 240), promising to never lie to the American public, and he also had Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress.
      2. In 1978, Carter got an $18 billion tax cut for America, but the economy soon continued sinking.
      3. Despite an early spurt of popularity, Carter soon screwed it up.
    17. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy
      1. Carter was a champion for human rights, and in Rhodesia, (later Zimbabwe) and South Africa, he championed for black rights and privileges.
      2. On September 17, 1978, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel signed some accords at Camp David.
        1. Mediated by Carter after relations had strained, this was a great success.
        2. Israel agreed to withdraw from territory gained in the 1967 war while Egypt would respect Israel’s territories.
      3. In Africa, though, lots of Communist revolutions took place—not all successful, but disheartening and threatening still.
      4. Carter also pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000 and resumed full diplomatic relations with China in 1979.
    18. Carter Tackles the Ailing Economy
      1. Inflation had been steadily going up, and by 1979, it was at a huge 13%, and Americans would learn that they could no longer hide behind their ocean moats and live happily.
      2. Carter diagnosed America’s problems as stemming primarily from the nation’s costly dependence on foreign oil, which was true.
      3. He called for legislation to improve energy conservation, but the American people, who had already forgotten about the long gas lines of 1973, didn’t like this.
    19. Carter’s Energy Woes
      1. In, in 1979, Iran’s shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, who had been installed by America in 1953 and had ruled his land as a dictator, was overthrown and succeeded by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
        1. Iranian fundamentalists were VERY against Western customs, and Iran stopped exporting oil; OPEC also seized to hike up oil prices, thus causing another oil crisis.
      2. In July 1979, he retreated to Camp David and met with hundreds of leaders of various things to advise and counsel him, then came back on July 15, 1979 and chastised the American people for their obsession of material woes (“If it’s cold, turn down the thermostat and put on a sweater.”) and stunned the nation.
        1. Then a few days later, he fired four cabinet secretaries and tightened the circle around his Georgian advisors even more tightly.
    20. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio
      1. Carter signed the SALT II agreements with Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, but the U.S. senate wouldn’t ratify it.
      2. Then, on November 4, 1979, a bunch of anti-American Muslim militants stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took the people inside hostage, demanding that the U.S. return the exiled shah who had arrived in the U.S. two weeks earlier for cancer treatments.
      3. Then, in December 27, 1979, the U.S.S.R. invaded Afghanistan, which later turned into their version of Vietnam.
        1. However, at the moment, they threatened precious oil supplies.
      4. Carter put an embargo on the Soviet Union and boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow.
        1. He also proposed a “Rapid Deployment Force” that could respond to crises anywhere in the world in a quick manner.
    21. The Iranian Hostage Humiliation
      1. The American hostages languished in cruel captivity while night TV news reports showed Iranian mobs burning the American flag and spitting on effigies of Uncle Same.
      2. At first Carter tried economic sanctions, but that didn’t work.
      3. Later, he tried a daring commando rescue mission, but that had to be aborted, and when two military aircraft collided, eight of the would-be rescuers were killed.
        1. How humiliating for the U.S. to blunder so publicly like so!
      4. The stalemate hostage situation dragged on for most of Carter’s term, and was never released until January 20, 1981—the inauguration day of Ronald Reagan.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 43 - The Resurgence of Conservatism 1980 – 1996

    1. The Triumph of Conservatism

      1. President Jimmy Carter’s administration seemed to be befuddled and bungling, since it could not control the rampant double-digit inflation or handle foreign affairs and would not remove regulatory controls from major industries such as airlines.

        1. Late in 1979, Edward Kennedy (“Ted”) declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for 1980, but he was hurt by his suspicious 1969 accident in which a young female passenger drowned.

      2. As the Democrats duked it out, the Republicans chose conservative and former actor Ronald Reagan, signaling the return of conservatism, since the average American was older than that during the stormy sixties and was more likely to favor the right.

        1. New groups that spearheaded the “new right” movement included Moral Majority and other conservative Christian groups.

      3. Race was a burning issue, and in the 1974 Milliken vs. Bradley case, the Supreme Court ruled that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines.

        1. This reinforced the “white flight” that pitted the poorest whites and blacks against each other, often with explosively violent results.

      4. Affirmative action was another burning issue, but some whites used this to argue “reverse discrimination” and gain advantages that way.

        1. The Bakke case of 1978 saw the Supreme Court barely rule that Allan Bakke had not been admitted into U.C. Davis because the university preferred minority races only and ordered the college to admit Bakke.

      5. The Supreme Court’s only black justice, Thurgood Marshall, warned that the denial of racial preferences might sweep away the progress gained by the civil rights movement.

    2. The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980

      1. Ronald Reagan was a man whose values had been formed before the turbulent sixties, and in a style resembling his early political hero, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Reagan adopted a stance that depicted “big government” as bad, federal intervention in local affairs as condemnable, and favoritism for minorities as negative.

        1. He drew on the ideas of a group called the “neoconservatives,” a group that included Norman Podhortz, editor of Commentary magazine, and Irving Kristol, editor of Public Interest, two men who championed free-market capitalism.

      2. Reagan had grown up in an impoverished family, become a B-movie actor in Hollywood I the 1940s, become president of the Screen Actors Guild, purged suspected “reds” in the McCarthy era, acted as spokesperson for General Electric, and become Californian governor.

      3. Reagan’s photogenic personality and good looks on televised debates, as well as his attacks on President Carter’s problems, helped him win the election of 1980 by a landslide (489 – 49).

        1. Also, Republicans regained control of the Senate.

      4. Carter’s farewell address talked of toning down the nuclear arms race, human rights, and protecting the environment (one of his last acts in office was to sign a bill protecting 100 million acres of Alaskan land for a wildlife preserve.

    3. The Reagan Revolution

      1. Reagan’s inauguration day coincided with the release by the Iranians of their hostages, and Reagan also assembled a cabinet of the “best and brightest,” including Secretary of the Interior James Watt, a controversial man with little regard to the environment.

        1. Watt tried to hobble the Environmental Protection Agency and permit oil drilling in scenic places, but finally had to resign after telling an insulting ethnic joke in public.

      2. For over two decades, the government budget had slowly and steadily risen, much to the disturbance of the tax-paying public, and by the 80s, the public was tired of the New Deal and the Great Society and ready to slash bills, just as Reagan proposed.

      3. His federal budget had cuts of some $35 billion, and he even wooed some Southern Democrats to abandon their own party and follow him, but on March 30, 1981, the president was shot and wounded, but he recovered in only twelve days, showing his devotion to physical fitness despite his age (near 70) and gaining massive sympathy and support.

    4. The Battle of the Budget

      1. Reagan’s budget cost $695 million, and the vast majority of budget cuts fell upon social programs, not on defense, but there were also sweeping tax cuts of 25% over three years.

        1. The president appeared on national TV pleading for passage of the new tax-cut bill, and bolstered by “boll weevils,” or Democrats who defected to the Republican side, Congress passed it.

        2. The bill used “supply side” economics to lower individual taxes, almost eliminate federal estate taxes, and create new tax-free savings plans for small investors.

      2. However, this theory backfired as the nation slid into its worst recession since the Great Depression, with unemployment reaching nearly 11% in 1982 and several banks failing.

        1. Critics (Democrats) yapped that Reagan’s programs and tax cuts had caused this mayhem, but in reality, it had been Carter’s “tight money” policies that had led to the recession, and Reagan and his advisors sat out the storm, waiting for a recovery that seemed to come in 1983.

      3. However, during the 1980s, income gaps widened between the rich and poor for the first time in the 20th century (this was mirrored by the emergence of “yuppies”), and it was massive military spending (a $100 billion annual deficit in 1982 and nearly $200 million annual deficits in the later years) that upped the American dollar (as well as the trade deficit, which reached a record $152 billion in 1987) and made America the world’s biggest borrowers.

    5. Reagan Renews the Cold War

      1. Reagan took a denunciative stance against the USSR, especially when they continued to invade Afghanistan, and his plan to defeat the Soviets was to wage a super-expensive arms race that would eventually force the Soviets into bankruptcy and render them powerless.

        1. He began this with his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), popularly known as Star Wars, which proposed a system of lasers that could fire from space and destroy any nuclear weapons fired by Moscow before they hit America—a system that many experts considered impossible as well as upsetting to the “balance of terror” (don’t fire for fear of retaliation) that had kept nuclear war from being unleashed all these years.

      2. Late in 1981, the Soviets clamped down on Poland’s massive union called “Solidarity” and received economic sanctions from the U.S.

        1. The deaths of three different aging Soviet oligarchs from 1982-85 and the breaking of all arms-control negotiations in 1983 further complicated dealing with the Soviets.

    6. Troubles Abroad

      1. Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 to destroy guerilla bases, and the next year, Reagan sent U.S. forces as part of an international peace-keeping force, but when a suicide bomber crashed a bomb-filled truck into U.S. army barracks on October 23, 1983, killing over 200 marines, Reagan had to withdraw troops, though he miraculously suffered no political damage.

        1. Afterwards, he became known as the “Teflon president,” to which nothing harmful would stick.

      2. Reagan accused Nicaraguan “Sandinistas,” a group of leftists that had taken over the Nicaraguan government, of turning the country into a forward base from which Communist forces could invade and conquer all of Latin America.

        1. He also accused them of helping revolutionary forces in El Salvador, where violence had reigned since 1979, and then helped “contra” rebels in Nicaragua.

        2. In October 1983, Reagan sent troops to Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought Marxists to power, to crush the rebels, which happened.

    7. Round Two for Reagan

      1. Reagan was opposed by Democrat Walter Mondale and VP candidate Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman to appear on a major-party presidential ticket, but won handily.

      2. Foreign policy issues dominated Reagan’s second term, one that saw the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev, a personable, energetic leader who announced two new Soviet policies: glasnost, or “openness,” which aimed to introduce free speech and political liberty to the Soviet Union, and perestroika, or “restructuring,” which meant that the Soviets would adopt free-market economies similar to those in the West.

      3. At a summit meeting at Geneva in 1985, Gorbachev introduced the idea of ceasing the deployment of intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF); at a second one at Reykjavik, Iceland, in November 1985, there was stalemate; but at the third one in Washington D.C., the treaty was finally signed, banning all INF’s from Europe.

        1. The final one at Moscow saw Reagan warmly praising the Soviet chief for trying to end the Cold War.

      4. Also, Reagan supported Corazon Aquino’s ousting of Filipino dictator, Ferdinand Marcos, ordered a lightning raid on Libya in 1986 in retaliation for Libya’s state-sponsored terrorist attacks, and began escorting oil tankers through the Persian Gulf during the Iran-Iraq War.

    8. The Iran-Contra Imbroglio

      1. In November 1986, it was revealed that a year before, American diplomats had secretly arranged arms sales to Iranian diplomats in return for the release of American hostages (at least one was) and had used that money to aid Nicaraguan contra rebels.

        1. This brazenly violated the congressional ban on helping Nicaraguan rebels, not to mention Reagan’s personal vow not to negotiate with terrorists.

        2. An investigation concluded that even if Reagan had no knowledge of such events, as he claimed, he should have, and this scandal not only cast a dark cloud over Reagan’s foreign policy success but also brought out a picture of Reagan as a senile old man who slept through important cabinet meetings.

          1. Still, Reagan remained ever popular.

    9. Reagan’s Economic Legacy

      1. Supply-side economics claimed that cutting taxes would actually increase government revenue, but instead, during his eight years in office, Reagan accumulated a $2 trillion debt—more than all his presidential predecessors combined.

        1. Much of the debt was financed by foreign bankers like the Japanese, ensuring that future Americans would have to work harder or have lower standards of living to pay off such debts for the United States.

      2. Reagan did triumph in containing the welfare state by incurring debts so large that future spending would be difficult, thus prevent any more welfare programs from being enacted successfully.

      3. Another trend of “Reaganomics” was the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor.

    10. Culture Wars

      1. Reagan used the courts as his instrument against affirmative action and abortion, and by 1988, the year he left office, he had appointed a near-majority of all sitting federal judges.

        1. Included among those were three conservative-minded judges, one of which was Sandra Day O’Connor, a brilliant Stanford Law School graduate and the first female Supreme Court justice in American history.

      2. In a 1984 case involving Memphis firefighters, the Court ruled that union rules about job seniority could outweigh affirmative-action concerns.

      3. In Ward’s Cove Packing vs. Arizona and Martin vs. Wilks, the Court ruled made it more difficult to prove that an employer practice discrimination in hiring and made it easier for white males to argue that they were victims of reverse-discrimination.

      4. The 1973 case of Roe vs. Wade had basically legalized abortion, but the 1989 case of Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services seriously compromised protection of abortion rights.

        1. In Planned Parenthood vs. Casey (1992), the Court ruled that states couldn’t restrict access to abortion as long as they didn’t place an “undue burden” on the woman.

    11. Referendum on Reaganism in 1988

      1. Democrats got back the Senate in 1986 and sought to harm Reagan with the Iran-Contra scandal and unethical behavior that tainted an oddly large number of Reagan’s cabinet.

        1. They even rejected Robert Bork, Reagan’s ultraconservative choice to fill an empty space on the Supreme Court.

      2. The federal budget and the international trade deficit continued to soar while falling oil prices hurt housing values in the Southwest and damaged savings-and-loans institutions, forcing Reagan to order a $500 million rescue operation for the S&L institutions.

        1. On October 19, 1987, the stock market fell 508 points, sparking fears of the end of the money culture, but this was premature.

      3. In 1988, Gary Hart tried to get the Democratic nomination but had to drop out due to a sexual misconduct charge while Jesse Jackson assembled a “rainbow coalition” in hopes of becoming president, but the Democrats finally chose Michael Dukakis, who lost badly to Republican candidate and Reagan’s vice president George Bush, 112 to 426.

    12. George Bush and the End of the Cold War

      1. Bush had been born into a rich family, but he was committed to public service and vowed to sculpt “a kindler, gentler America.”

      2. In 1989, it seemed that Democracy was reviving in previously Communist hot-spots:

        1. In China, thousands of democratic-seeking students protested in Tiananmen Square but were brutally crushed by Chinese tanks and armed forces.

        2. In Eastern Europe, Communist regimes fell in Poland (which saw Solidarity rise again), Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania.

          1. Soon afterwards, the Berlin Wall came tumbling down.

      3. In 1990, Boris Yeltsin stopped a military coup that tried to dislodge Gorbachev, then took over Russia when the Soviet Union fell and disintegrated into the Commonwealth of Independent States, of which Russia was the largest member, thus ending the Cold War.

        1. This shocked experts who had predicted that the Cold War could only end violently.

      4. Problems remained, for who would take over the USSR’s nuclear stockpiles or its seat in the UN Security Council (eventually, Russia did).

      5. In 1993, Bush signed the START II accord with Yeltsin, pledging both nations to reduce their long-range nuclear arsenals by two-thirds within ten years.

        1. Trouble was still present when the Chechnyen minority in Russia tried to declare independence and was resisted by Russia; that incident hasn’t been resolved yet.

      6. Europe found itself quite unstable when the economically weak former communist countries re-integrated with it.

      7. America now had no rival to guard against, and it was possible that it would revert back to its isolationist policies; also, military spending had soaked up so much money that upon the end of the Cold War, the Pentagon closed 34 military bases, canceled a $52 billion order for a navy attack plane, and forced scores of Californian defense plants to shut their doors.

      8. However, in 1990, South Africa freed Nelson Mandela, then elected him president four years later; free elections removed the Sandinistas in Nicaragua in 1990, and in 1992, peace came to Ecuador at last.

    13. The Persian Gulf Crisis

      1. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait with 100,000 men, hoping to annex it as a 19th province and use its oil fields to replenish debts incurred during the Iraq-Iran War, a war which oddly saw the U.S. supporting Hussein despite his bad reputation.

      2. Saddam attacked swiftly, but the UN responded just as swiftly, placing economic embargoes on the aggressor and preparing for military punishment.

    14. Fighting “Operation Desert Storm”

      1. Some 539,000 U.S. military force members joined 270,000 troops from 28 other countries to attack Iraq in a war, which began on January 12, 1991, when Congress declared it.

        1. On January 16, the U.S. and U.N. unleashed a hellish air war against Iraq for 37 days.

        2. Iraq responded by launching several ultimately ineffective “scud” missiles at Saudi Arabia and Israel, but it had far darker strategies available, such as biological and chemical weapons and strong desert fortifications with oil-filled moats that could be lit afire if the enemy got to close.

      2. American General Norman Schwarzkopf took nothing for granted, strategizing to suffocate Iraqis with an onslaught of air bombing raids and then rush them with troops.

        1. On February 23, “Operation Desert Storm” began with an overwhelming land attack that lasted four days, saw really little casualties, and ended with Saddam’s surrender.

        2. American cheered the war’s rapid end and well-fought duration, relieved that this had not turned into another Vietnam, but Saddam Hussein had failed to be dislodged and was left to menace the world another day.

      3. The U.S. found itself even more deeply ensnared in the region’s web of mortal hatreds.

    15. Bush on the Home Front

      1. President Bush’s 1990 American with Disabilities Act was a landmark law that banned discrimination against citizens with disabilities.

      2. Bush also signed major water projects bill in 1992 and agreed to sign a watered-down civil rights bill in 1991.

      3. In 1991, Bush proposed Clarence Thomas to fill in the vacant seat left by retiring Thurgood Marshall, but this choice was opposed by the NAACP and the National Organization for Women (NOW), since Thomas was supposedly pro-abortion.

        1. In early October 1991, Anita Hill charged Thomas with sexual harassment, and even though Thomas was still selected to be on the Court, Hill’s case publicized sexual harassment and tightened tolerance of it (Oregon’s Senator Robert Packwood had to step down in 1995 after a case of sexual harassment).

        2. A gender gap arose between women in both parties.

      4. In 1992, the economy stalled, and Bush was forced to break an explicit campaign promise and add $133 billion worth of new taxes to try to curb the $250 billion annual budget.

        1. When it was revealed that many House members had written bad checks from a private House “bank,” public confidence lessened even more.

      5. The 27th Amendment banned congressional pay raises from taking effect until an election had seated a new session of Congress, an idea first proposed by James Madison in 1789.

    16. Bill Clinton: the First Baby-Boomer President

      1. In 1992, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton as their candidate (despite accusations of womanizing and draft evasion) and Albert Gore, Jr. as his running mate.

      2. The Democrats tried a new approach, promoting growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies while campaigning to stimulate the economy.

      3. The Republicans dwelt on “family values” and selected Bush for another round and J Danforth Quayle as his running mate.

      4. Third party candidate Ross Perot added color to the election by getting 19,237,247 votes in the election (no Electoral votes, though), but Clinton won, 370 to 168 in the Electoral College.

        1. Democrats also got control of both the House and the Senate.

      5. Congress and the presidential cabinet were filled with minorities and more women, including the first female attorney general ever, Janet Reno, Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg in the Supreme Court

    17. A False Start for Reform

      1. Upon entering office, Clinton called for accepting homosexuals in the armed forces but finally had to settle for a “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy that unofficially accepted gays and lesbians.

      2. Clinton also appointed his wife, Hillary, to revamp the nation’s health and medical care system, and when it was revealed in October 1993, critics blasted it as cumbersome, confusing, and stupid, thus suddenly making Hillary Rodham Clinton a liability when before, she had been a full, equal political partner of her husband.

      3. By 1996, Clinton had shrunk the federal deficit to its lowest level in a decade, and in 1993, he passed a gun-control law called the Brady Bill, named after presidential aide James Brady, who had been wounded in President Reagan’s attempted assassination,.

        1. In July, 1994, Clinton persuaded Congress to pass a $30 billion anticrime bill.

      4. During the decade, a radical Muslim group bombed the World Trade Center in New York, killing six, a terrorist, Timothy McVeigh, had bombed the federal building in Oklahoma in 1995, taking 169 lives, and a fiery standoff at Waco, Texas, between the government and the Branch Davidians ended in a huge fire that killed men, women, and children.

      5. By this time, few Americans trusted the government, the reverse of the WWII generation.

    18. The Politics of Distrust

      1. In 1994, Newt Gingrich led Republicans on a sweeping attack of Clinton’s liberal failures with a conservative “Contract with America,” and that year, Republicans won all incumbent seats as well as eight more seats in the Senate and 53 more seats in the House, where Gingrich became the new Speaker of the House.

      2. However, the Republicans went too far, imposing federal laws that put new obligations on state and local governments without providing new revenues and forcing Clinton to sign a welfare-reform bill that made deep cuts in welfare grants.

        1. Clinton tried to fight back, but gradually, the American public grew tired of Republican conservatism, such as Gingrich’s suggestion of sending children of welfare families to orphanages, and of its incompetence, such as the 1995 shut down of Congress due to a lack of a sufficient budget package.

      3. In 1996, Clinton ran against Republican Bob Dole and won, 379 to 159, and Ross Perot again finished a sorry third.

    19. Problems Abroad

      1. Clinton sent troops to Somalia (where some were killed), withdrew them, and also meddled in Northern Ireland to no good effect, but after denouncing China’s abuses of human rights and threatening to punish China before he became president, Clinton as president discovered that trade with China was too important to waste over human rights.

      2. Clinton committed American troops to NAT to keep the peace in the former Yugoslavia and sent 20,000 troops to return Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti.

      3. He resolutely supported the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) that made a free-trade zone surrounding Mexico, Canada, and the U.S., then helped form the World Trade Organization, the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and also provided $20 billion to Mexico in 1995 to help its faltering economy.

      4. Clinton also presided over historic reconciliation meeting in 1993 between Israel’s Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Yasir Arafat at the White House, but two years later, Rabin was assassinated, thus ending hopes for peace in the Middle East.

    20. A Sea of Troubles

      1. The end of the Cold War left the U.S. groping for a diplomatic formula to replace anti-Communism and revealed misconduct by the CIA and the FBI.

      2. Political reporter Joe Klein wrote Primary Colors, mirroring some of Clinton’s personal life/womanizing, while Clinton ran into trouble with his failed real estate investment in the Whitewater Land Corporation.

        1. In 1993, Vincent Foster, Jr. apparently committed suicide, perhaps overstressed at having to (perhaps immorally) manage Clinton’s legal and financial affairs.

      3. As Clinton began his second term, the first by a Democratic president since FDR, he had Republican majorities in both houses of Congress going against him.

      4. What would happen next?
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The American Pageant, 10th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the American Pageant, 10th edition textbook. These American Pageant notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings, 33,000 B.C.-A.D. 1769

     225 Million Years Ago - Pangaea started to break apart.

    10 Million Years Ago   - North America was shaped by nature - Canadian Shield

    2 Million Years Ago     - Great Ice Age

    35,000 Years Ago         - The oceans were glaciers and the sea level dropped, leaving an isthmus connecting Asia

               and North America.  The Bering Isthmus was crossed by people going into North America.

    10,000 Years Ago         - Ice started to retreat and melt, raising the sea levels and covering up the Bering Isthmus.

     

    Evidence suggests that early people may have come to the Americas in crude boats, or across the Bering Isthmus.

     

    Europeans Enter Africa

    People of Europe were able to reach sub-Saharan Africa around 1450 when the Portuguese invented the caravel, a ship that should sail into the wind.  This ship allowed sailors to sail back up the western coast of Africa and back to Europe.

    The Portuguese set up trading posts along the African beaches trading with slaves and gold, trading habits that were originally done by the Arabs and Africans.  The Portuguese shipped the slaves back to Spain and Portugal where they worked on the sugar plantations.

     

    When Worlds Collide

    Possibly 3/5 of the crops cultivated around the world today originated in the Americas.

    Within 50 years of the Spanish arrival in Hispaniola, the Taino natives decreased from 1 million people to 200 people due to diseases brought by the Spanish. 

    In centuries following Columbus's landing in the Americas, as much as 90% of the Indians had died due to the diseases.

     

    The Spanish Conquistadores

    In the 1500's, Spain became the dominant exploring and colonizing power. 

    The Spanish conquerors came to the Americas in the service of God as well as in search of gold and glory.

    Due to the gold and silver deposits found in the New World, the European economy was transformed.

    The islands of the Caribbean Sea served as offshore bases for the staging of the Spanish invasion of the mainland Americas.

    By the 1530s in Mexico and the 1550s in Peru, colorless colonial administrators had replaced the conquistadores.

    Some of the conquistadores wed Indian women and had children.  These offspring were known as mestizos and formed a cultural and biological bridge between Latin America's European and Indian races.

     

    The Conquest of Mexico

    In about 1519, Hernan Cortes set sail from Cuba with men and horses.  Along the way, he picked up two translators - A Spanish prisoner of Mayan-speaking Indians, and an Indian slave named Malinche.

    The Spaniards arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital with the intention of stealing all of the gold and other riches; they were amazed by the beauty of the capitol.

    On June 30, 1520, the Aztecs attacked the Spanish because of the Spaniards' lust for riches.  The Spanish countered, though, and took over the capital and the rest of the Aztec empire on August 13, 1521.

    Due to the rule of the Spanish, the Indian population in Mexico went from 20 million to 2 million in less than a century.

     

    The Spread of Spanish America

    In 1565, the Spanish built a fortress at St. Augustine, Florida to protect the sea-lanes to the Caribbean.

    In 1680, after the Spanish captured an area known today as New Mexico in 1609, the natives launched a rebellion known as Popes Rebellion.  The natives burned down churches and killed priests.  They rebuilt a kiva, or ceremonial religious chamber, on the ruins of the Spanish plaza at Santa Fe.

    The misdeeds of the Spanish in the New World led to the birth of the "Black Legend."  This false concept stated that the conquerors just tortured and killed the Indians, stole their gold, infected them with smallpox, and left little but misery behind.

     

    Chronology

     

    33,000-8,000 B.C. - First humans cross into Americas from Asia.

    5,000 B.C.             - Corn is developed as a stable crop in highland Mexico.

    4,000 B.C.             - First civilized societies develop in the Middle East.

    1,200 B.C.             - Corn planting reaches present-day American Southwest.

    1,000 A.D.             - Norse voyagers discover and briefly settle in northeastern North America.                                                                     

        Corn cultivation reaches Midwest and southeastern Atlantic seaboard.

    1,100 A.D.             - Height of Mississippian settlement at Cahokia.

    1,100-1,300 A.D.   - Christian crusades arouse European interest in the East.

    1295                       - Marco Polo returns to Europe.

    Late 1400s             - Spain becomes united.

    1488                       - Diaz rounds southern tip of Africa.

    1492                       - Columbus lands in the Bahamas.

    1494                       - Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal.

    1498                       - Da Gama reaches India.  Cabot explores northeastern coast of North                                                                              

         America for England.

    1513                       - Balboa claims all lands touched by the Pacific Ocean for Spain.

    1513, 1521             - Ponce de Leon explores Florida.

    1519-1521              - Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain.

    1522                       - Magellan's vessel completes circumnavigation of the world.

    1524                       - Verrazano explores eastern seaboard of North America for France.

    1532                       - Pizarro crushes Incas.

    1534                       - Cartier journeys up the St. Lawrence River.

    1539-1542              - De Soto explores the Southeast and discovers the Mississippi River.

    1540-1542              - Cabrillo explores present-day Southwest.

    1542                       - Cabrillo explores California coast for Spain.

    1565                       - Spanish build fortress at St. Augustine.

    Late 1500s              - Iroquois Confederacy founded, according to Iroquois legend.

    1598-1609              - Spanish under Onate conquer pueblo peoples of Rio Grande valley.

    1609                       - Spanish found New Mexico.

    1680s                     - French exploration down Mississippi River under La Salle.

    1769                       - Serra founds first California mission, at San Diego.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

    The Spanish were at Santa Fe in 1610.

    The French were at Quebec in 1608.

    The English were at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607.

     

    England's Imperial Stirrings

    King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s, launching the English Protestant Reformation, and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain.

     

    Elizabeth Energizes England

    In 1580, Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe, plundering and returning with his ship loaded with Spanish booty.  He had a profit of about 4,600%. 

    When the English fleet defeated the Spanish Armada, Spain's empirical dreams and fighting spirit had been weakened - helping to ensure the English's naval dominance over the North Atlantic.

     

    England on the Eve of an Empire

    Because an economic depression hit England in the later part of the 1500s and many people were left without homes, the stage was set for the establishment of an English beachhead in North America.

     

    England Plants the Jamestown Seedling

    In 1606, a joint-stock company, known as the Virginia Company of London, received a charter from King James I of England for a settlement in the New World.  The company landed in Jamestown on May 24, 1607.

    In 1608, Captain John Smith took over the town and forced the settlers into line.

    By 1609, of the 400 settlers who came to Virginia, only 60 survived the "starving winter" of 1609-1610.

     

    Cultural Clash in the Chesapeake

    Lord De La Warr reached Jamestown in 1610 with supplies and military.  He started the First Anglo-Powhatan War. 

    The Indians were again defeated in the Second Anglo-Powhatan War in 1644.

    By 1685, the English considered the Powhatan people to be extinct.

     

    Virginia: Child of Tobacco

    John Rolfe married Pocahontas in 1614, ending the First Anglo-Powhatan War.

    In 1619, self-government was made in Virginia.  The London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as the House of Burgesses. 

    King James I didn't trust the House of Burgesses and so in 1624, he made Virginia a colony of England, directly under his control.

     

    Maryland: Catholic Haven

    Maryland was formed in 1634 by Lord Baltimore.

    Maryland was made for a refuge for the Catholics to escape the wrath of the Protestant English government.

    The Act of Toleration, which was passed in 1649 by the local representative group in Maryland, granted toleration to all Christians.

     

    The West Indies: Way Station to mainland America

    By the mid-17th Century, England had secured its claim to several West Indian Islands. 

    Sugar was, by far, the major crop on the Indian Islands.

    To support the massive sugar crops, millions of African slaves were imported.  By 1700, the number of black slaves to white settlers in the English West Indies by nearly 4 to 1.  In order to control the large number of slaves, theBarbados Slave Code of 1661 denied even the most fundamental rights to slaves.

     

    Colonizing the Carolinas

    Civil war plagued England in the 1640s. 

    In 1707, the Savannah Indians decided to end their alliance with the Carolinians and migrate to the back country of Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new colony founded by Quakers under William Penn promised better relations.  Almost all of the Indians were killed in raids before they could depart - in 1710.

    Rice became the primary export of the Carolinas.

     

    Chronology

    1558                        - Elizabeth I becomes queen of England

    1565-1590               - English crush Irish uprising

    1577                        - Drake circumnavigates the globe

    1585                        - Raleigh founds Roanoke colony

    1588                        - England defeats Spanish Armada

    1603                        - James I becomes king of England

    1604                        - Spain and England sign peace treaty

    1607                        - Virginia colony founded at Jamestown

    1612                        - Rolfe perfects tobacco culture in Virginia

    1614                        - First Anglo-Powhatan War ends

    1619                        - First Africans arrive in Jamestown.  Virginia House of Burgesses established

    1624                        - Virginia becomes a royal colony

    1634                        - Maryland colony founded

    1640s                      - Large-scale slave-labor system established in English West Indies

    1644                        - Second Anglo-Powhatan War

    1649                        - Act of Toleration in Maryland.  Charles I beheaded; Cromwell rules England

    1660                        - Charles II restored to English throne

    1661                        - Barbados slave code adopted

    1670                        - Carolina colony created

    1711-1713               - Tuscarora War in North Carolina

    1712                        - North Carolina formally separates from South Carolina

    1715-1716               - Yamasee War in South Carolina

    1733                        - Georgia colony founded

     

    The Thirteen Original Colonies

     

    Name Founded By Year

    Virginia

    London Co.

    1607

    New Hampshire

    John Mason and Others

    1623

    Massachusetts

    Plymouth

    Maine

    Puritans

    Separatists

    F. Gorges

    1628

    1620

    1623

    Maryland

    Lord Baltimore

    1634

    Connecticut

    New Haven

    Mass. Emigrants

    Mass. Emigrants

    1635

    1638

    Rhode Island

    R. Williams

    1636

    Delaware

    Swedes

    1638

    N. Carolina

    Virginians

    1653

    New York

    Dutch

    Dutch of York

    1613

    1664

    New Jersey

    Berkeley and Carteret

    1664

    Carolina

    Eight Nobles

    1670

    Pennsylvania

    William Penn

    1681

    Georgia

    Oglethorpe and others

    1733

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

     The Protestant Reformation Produces Puritanism

    German friar Martin Luther denounced the authority of the priests and popes when he nailed his protests against Catholic doctrines to the door of Wittenberg's cathedral in 1517.  He declared that the Bible alone was the source of God's words.  He started the "Protestant Reformation."

    John Calvin of Geneva elaborated Martin Luther's ideas.  He spelled out his basic doctrine in Latin in 1536, entitled Institutes of the Christian Religion.  These ideas formed Calvinism. 

    When King Henry VIII broke his ties with the Roman Catholic Church in the 1530s, he formed the Protestant Church.  There were a few people who wanted to see the process of taking Catholicism out of England occur more quickly.  These people were called Puritans.

    A tiny group of Puritans, called Separatists, broke away from the Church of England.  Fearing that his subjects would defy him both as their political leader and spiritual leader, King James I, the head of state of England and head of the church from 1603-1625, threatened to harass the more bothersome the Separatists out of the land.

     

    The Pilgrims End Their Pilgrimage at Plymouth

    Losing their identity as English, a group of Separatists in Holland came to America in search for religious freedom.  The group settled outside the domain of the Virginia Company and, without legal permission, settled in Plymouth Bayin 1620.

    Captain Myles Standish- prominent among the non-belongers of the Mayflower who came to Plymouth Bay; an Indian fighter and negotiator.

    Before disembarking from the Mayflower, the Pilgrim leaders drew up and signed the Mayflower Compact.  This was a simple agreement to form a crude government and to submit to the will of the majority under the regulations agreed upon.  It was signed by 41 adult males.  It was the first attempt at a government in America.

    In the Pilgrims' first winter of 1620-1621, only 44 of the 102 survived.

    In 1621, there was the first Thanksgiving Day in New England.

    William Bradford- elected 30 times as governor of the Pilgrims in the annual elections; a self-taught scholar who read Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Dutch; Pilgrim leader.

     

    The Bay Colony Bible Commonwealth

    Charles I dismissed Parliament in 1629 and sanctioned the anti-Puritan persecutions of the reactionary Archbishop William Laud.

    In 1629, an energetic group of non-Separatist Puritans, fearing for their faith and for England's future, secured a royal charter to form the Massachusetts Bay Company.  (Massachusetts Bay Colony) 

    During the Great Migration of the 1630s, about 70,000 refugees left England for America.  Most of them were attracted to the warm and fertile West Indies, especially the sugar-rich island of Barbados.

    John Winthrop- the Bay Colony's first governor - served for 19 years.

     

    Building the Bay Colony

    Governor Winthrop of the Bay Colony did not like Democracy. 

    The freemen annually elected the governor and his assistants and a representative assembly called the General Court.

    Visible Saints was another name for the Puritans.

    John Cotton- a very devoted Puritan.

    Michael Wigglesworth wrote the poem, "The Day of Doom," in 1662.

     

    Trouble in the Bible Commonwealth

    Anne Hutchinson- an intelligent woman who challenged the Puritan orthodoxy; was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of her challenges to the Church.

    Roger Williams- popular Salem minister who also challenged the Church; an extreme Separatist; was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

     

    The Rhode Island "Sewer"

    Roger Williams fled to the Rhode Island area in 1636.  There, he established religious freedom for all kinds of people.

     

    New England Spreads Out

    Hartford and Connecticut were founded in 1635.  An energetic group of Boston Puritans poured into the Hartford area lead by Reverend Thomas Hooker.  (Colony)

    In 1639, the settlers of the new Connecticut River colony drafted a document known as the Fundamental Orders.  It was basically a constitution.

    New Haven was established in 1638.

    Part of Maine was purchased by Massachusetts Bay in 1677 from the Sir Ferdinando Gorges heirs.

    In 1641, New Hampshire was absorbed by the greedy Massachusetts Bay.  The king took it back and made New Hampshire a royal colony in 1679.

     

    Puritans versus Indians

    The Wampanoag chieftain, Massasoit, signed a treaty with the Plymouth Pilgrims in 1621.  The Wampanoag helped the Pilgrims have the first Thanksgiving in that same year.

    In 1637, hostilities exploded between the English settlers and the powerful Pequot tribe.  The English militiamen and their Narragansett Indian allies annihilated the Pequot tribe.

    In 1675, Massasoit's son, Metacom (also nicknamed King Philip by the English) launched a series of attacks and raids against the colonists' towns.  The war ended in 1676.

     

    Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence

    In 1643, 4 colonies banded together to form the New England Confederation.  It was made to defend against foes or potential foes.  The confederation consisted of only Puritan colonies - two Massachusetts colonies (the Bay Colonyand small Plymouth) and two Connecticut colonies (New Haven and the scattered valley settlements).

    Each colony had 2 votes, regardless of size.

    As a slap at the Massachusetts Bay Colony, King Charles II gave rival Connecticut in 1662 a sea-to-sea charter grant, which legalized the squatter settlements.

    In 1663, the outcasts in Rhode Island received a new charter, which gave kingly sanction to the most religiously tolerant government yet devised in America.

    In 1684, the Massachusetts Bay Colony's charter was revoked by London authorities.

     

    Andros Promotes the First American Revolution

    In 1686, the Dominion of New England was created by royal authority.  Unlike the homegrown New England Confederation, it was imposed from London.  It embraced all of New England until in 1688 when it was expanded to New York and East and West Jersey.

    The leader of the Dominion of New England was Sir Edmund Andros - an able English military man.  He established headquarters in Puritanical Boston.

    Andros stopped the town meetings; laid heavy restrictions on the courts, the press, and schools; and revoked all land titles.

    In 1688-1689, the people of old England engineered the Glorious (or Bloodless) Revolution.  They dethroned Catholic James II and enthroned the Protestant rulers of the Netherlands, the Dutch-born William III and his English wife,Mary, daughter of James II.

    In 1691, Massachusetts was made a royal colony.

    There was unrest in New York and Maryland from 1689-1691, until newly appointed royal governors restored a semblance of order.

     

    Old Netherlands at New Netherland

    Late in the 16th Century, the Netherlands fought for and won its independence from Catholic Spain with the help of England.

    In the 17th Century, the Dutch (the Netherlands) became a power.  Golden Age.  It fought 3 great Anglo-Dutch naval battles.  The Dutch Republic became a leading colonial power, with by far its greatest activity in the East Indies. 

    The Dutch East India Company was nearly a state within a state and at one time supported an army of 10,000 men and a fleet of 190 ships, 40 of them men-of-war.

    This company hired an English explorer, Henry Hudson, to seek great riches.  He sailed into the Delaware Bay and New York Bay in 1609 and then ascended the Hudson River.  He filed a Dutch claim to a wooded and watered area.  TheDutch West India Company was less powerful than the Dutch East India Company, and was based in the Caribbean.  It was more interested in raiding than trading. 

    In 1628, in raided a fleet of Spanish treasure ships and stole $15 million.

    The company established outposts in Africa and Brazil.

    In 1623-1624, the Dutch West India Company established New Netherland in the Hudson River area.  It was made for its quick-profit fur trade.  The company also purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for worthless trinkets. The island encompassed 22,000 acres.

    New Amsterdam, later New York City, was a company town.  The Quakers were savagely abused.

     

    Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors

    New England was hostile to the growth of its Dutch neighbor, and the people of Connecticut finally ejected intruding Hollanders from their verdant valley.  3 of the 4 member colonies of the New England Confederation were eager to wipe out New Netherland with military force.  Massachusetts, providing most of the troops, rejected this.

    From 1638-1655, the Swedish trespassed on Dutch preserves by planting the anemic colony of New Sweden on the Delaware River.

    The Golden Age for Sweden was during and following the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648, in which its brilliant King Gustavus Adolphus had carried the torch for Protestantism.

    Resenting the Swedish intrusion, the Dutch dispatched a small military expedition in 1655.  It was led by the able of the directors-general, Peter Stuyvesant, who had lost a leg while soldiering in the West Indies and was dubbed "Father Wooden Leg" by the Indians.  The main fort fell after a bloodless siege, whereupon Swedish rule came to an abrupt end.

     

    Dutch Residues in New York

    In 1664, the Dutch were forced to surrender their territory (New Netherland) to the English when a strong English squadron appeared off the coast of New Amsterdam.  New Amsterdam was named New York, after the Duke of York.

     

    Penn's Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania

    A group of dissenters, commonly known as Quakers, arose in England in the mid-1600s.  Officially, they were known as the Religious Society of Friends.

    Quakers were especially offensive to the authorities, both religious and civil.  They refused to support the Church of England with taxes.

    William Penn was attracted to the Quaker faith in 1660.  In 1681, he managed to secure from King Charles II an immense grant of fertile land, in consideration of a monetary debt owed to his deceased father by the crown.  The king called the area Pennsylvania. 

     

    Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors

    The Quakers treated the Indians very well.  Many immigrants came to Pennsylvania seeking religious freedom.

    "Blue Laws" prevented "ungodly revelers" from staging plays, playing cards, dice, games, and excessive hilarity.

    By 1700, Pennsylvania surpassed all but Massachusetts and Virginia as the most populous and wealthy colony.

    William Penn was never fully liked by his colonists because of his friendly relations with James II.  He was arrested for treason thrice and thrown into prison.

    In 1664, New Netherland, a territory along the Hudson River, was taken by the English and granted to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. This grant that was given to Carteret and Berkeley divided the region into East and West New Jersey, respectively.

    Berkeley sold West New Jersey in 1674 to a William Penn and his group of Quakers, who set up a sanctuary before Pennsylvania was launched.

    In 1681 (the same year that Penn was given the region of Pennsylvania from King Charles II), William Penn and his Quakers purchased East New Jersey from Carteret's widow.

    In 1702, the proprieters of East and West New Jersey voluntarily surrendered their governmental powers over the region to the royal crown after confusion began to arise over the large number of landowners and growing resentment of authority. England combined the two territories (East and West New Jersey) into one colony in 1702.

     

    The Middle Way in the Middle Colonies

    The middle colonies New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, were known as the "bread colonies" because of their heavy exports of grain.

    These colonies were more ethnically mixed than any of the other colonies.  The people were given more religious tolerance than in any other colonies.

    Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1706. He moved to Philadelphia at the age of 17.

     

    The Stuart Dynasty in England

    Name, Reign                                                                                          Relation to America

    James I, 1603-1625

    VA., Plymouth founded; Separatists persecuted

    Charles I, 1625-1649

    Civil Wars, 1642-1649; Mass., MD formed

    Interregnum, 1649-1660

    Commonwealth; Protectorate (Oliver Cromwell)

    Charles II, 1660-1685

    The Restoration; Carolina, Pa., N.Y. founded; Conn. chartered

    James II, 1685-1688

    Catholic trend; Glorious Revolution, 1688

    William and Mary, 1689-1702

    (Mary died in 1694)

    King William's War, 1689-1697

     

    Chronology

    1571                        - Martin Luther begins Protestant Reformation

    1536                        - John Calvin of Geneva publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion

    1620                        - Pilgrims sail on the Mayflower to Plymouth Bay

    1624                        - Dutch found New Netherland

    1629                        - Charles I dismisses Parliament and persecutes Puritans

    1630                        - Puritans found Massachusetts Bay Colony

    1635-1636               - Roger Williams convicted of heresy and founds Rhode Island colony

    1635-1638               - Connecticut and New Haven colonies founded

    1637                        - Pequot War

    1638                        - Anne Hutchinson banished from Massachusetts colony

    1639                        - Connecticut's Fundamental Orders drafted

    1642-1648               - English Civil War

    1643                        - New England Confederation formed

    1655                        - New Netherland conquers New Sweden

    1664                        - England seizes New Netherland from Dutch, East and West Jersey colonies    founded

    1675-1676               - King Philip's War

    1681                        - William Penn founds Pennsylvania colony

    1686                        - Royal authority creates Dominion of New England

    1688-1689               - Glorious Revolution overthrows Stuarts and Dominion of New England

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - American Life in the 17th Century

     The Unhealthy Chesapeake

    Half the people born in early Virginia and Maryland did not survive to celebrate their 20th birthday.

    At the beginning of the 18th Century, Virginia was the most populous colony with 59,000 people.  Maryland was the 3rd largest, after Massachusetts, with 30,000.

     

    The Tobacco Economy

    By the 1630s, 1.5 million pounds of tobacco were being shipped out of the Chesapeake Bay every year and almost 40 million by the end of the century.

    Because of the massive amounts of tobacco crops planted by families, "indentured servants" were brought in from England to work on the farms.  In exchange for working, they received transatlantic passage and eventual "freedom dues", including a few barrels of corn, a suit of clothes, and possibly a small piece of land.

    Virginia and Maryland employed the "headright" system to encourage the importation of servant workers.  Under its terms, whoever paid the passage of a laborer received the right to acquire 50 acres of land.

    Chesapeake planters brought some 100,000 indentured servants to the region by 1700.  These "white slaves" represented more than 3/4 of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th Century.

     

    Frustrated Freemen and Bacon's Rebellion

    In 1676, about 1,000 Virginians broke out of control - led by a 29-year-old planter, Nathaniel Bacon.  They fiercely resented Virginia's Governor William Berkeley for his friendly policies towards the Indians.  When Berkeley refused to retaliate for a series of savage Indian attacks on frontier settlements (due to his monopolization of the fur trading with them), the crowd took matters into their own hands.  The crowd murderously attacked Indians and chased Berkeley from Jamestown, Virginia.  They torched the capitol.

    As the civil war in Virginia continued, Bacon suddenly died from disease.  Berkeley took advantage of this and crushed the uprising, hanging more than 20 rebels.  Charles II complained of the penalties dealt by Berkeley.

    Due to the rebellions and tensions started by Bacon, lordly planters looked for other, less troublesome laborers to work their tobacco plantations.  They soon looked to Africa.

     

    Colonial Slavery

    Africans had been brought to Jamestown as early as 1619, but as late as 1670, they numbered only about 2,000 in Virginia-only about 7% of the total population of the South.

    In the 1680s, the wages in England rose, therefore decreasing the number of indentured servants coming to America.  By the mid-1680s, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies' new arrivals. 

    In 1698, the Royal African Company, first chartered in 1672, lost its monopoly on carrying slaves to the colonies.  Due to this, many Americans, including many Rhode Islanders, rushed to cash in on the slave trade.  (Eventually, Rhode Island became the first state t abolish slavery.) 

    Blacks accounted for half the population of Virginia by 1750.  In South Carolina, they outnumbered whites 2:1.

    Most of the slaves came from the west coast of Africa, especially stretching from present-day Senegal to Angola.

    Beginning in Virginia in 1662, statues appeared that formally decreed the iron conditions of slavery for blacks.  These earliest "slave codes" made blacks and their children the property of the white masters for life.

     

    Africans in America

    By about 1720, the proportion of females in the Chesapeake area soon began to rise, making it possible for family life.

    On the Sea Islands off South Carolina's coast, blacks evolved a language, Gullah.  It blended English with several African languages, including Yoruba, Ibo, and Hausa.

    In New York City in 1712, a slave revolt cost the lives of 12 whites and caused the execution of 21 blacks.

    In 1739 in South Carolina along the Stono River, a revolt exploded.  The rebels tried to march to Spanish Florida but were stopped by a local militia.

     

    Southern Society

    Just before the Revolutionary War, 70% of the leaders of the Virginia legislature came from families established in Virginia before 1690.

    Social Scale-

    Great Planters-owned gangs of slaves and vast domains of land; ruled the region's economy and monopolized political power.

    Small Farmers-largest social group; tilled their own modest plots and may have owned one or two slaves.

    Landless Whites-many were former indentured servants.

    Black Slaves

     

    The New England Family

    In contrast with the Chesapeake, the New Englanders tended to migrate in families as opposed to single individuals.

    Family came first with New Englanders.

    There were low premarital pregnancy rates, in contrast with the Chesapeake.

    Because southern men frequently died young, leaving widows with small children to support, the southern colonies generally allowed married women to retain separate title their property and gave widows the right to inherit their husband's estates.  But in New England, Puritan lawmakers worried that recognizing women's separate property rights would undercut the unity of married persons by acknowledging conflicting interests between husband and wife.  When a man died, the Church inherited the property, not the wife.

    New England women usually gave up their property rights when they married.  In contrast to old England, the laws of New England made secure provisions for the property of widows and even extended important protections to women with marriage.

    Above all, the laws of Puritan New England sought to defend the integrity of marriages.

     

    Life in the New England Towns

    Massachusetts was at the front of the colonies attempting to abolish black slavery.

    New towns were legally chartered by the colonial authorities, and the distribution of land was entrusted to proprietors.  Every family received several parcels of land.

    Towns of more than 50 families had to have an elementary school. 

    Just 8 years after Massachusetts was formed, the colony established Harvard College, in 1636.  Virginia established its first college, William and Mary, in 1693.

    Puritans ran their own churches, and democracy in Congregational Church government led logically to democracy in political government.

     

    The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials

    About the middle of the 17th century, a new form of sermon began to be heard from Puritan pulpits - the "jeremiad."

    Troubled ministers in 1662 announced a new formula for church membership, the Half-Way Covenant.  This new arrangement modified the covenant, or the agreement between the church and its adherents, to admit to baptism-but not "full communion"-the unconverted children of existing members.  This move upped the churches' memberships.  This boost in membership was just what the money-stricken church needed.

    A group of adolescent girls in Salem, Massachusetts, claimed to have been bewitched by certain older women.  A witch hunt ensued, leading to the legal lynching of 20 women in 1692.

    In 1693, the witchcraft hysteria ended when the governor of Massachusetts prohibited any further trials and pardoned those already convicted.  In 1713, the Massachusetts legislature annulled the "conviction" of the "witches" and made reparation to their heirs.

     

    The New England Way of Life

    The soil of New England was stony and hard to plant with. 

    There was less diversity in New England than in the South because European immigrants did not want to come to a place where there was bad soil.  The summers in New England were very hot and the winters very cold.

    The Native Americans recognized their right to USE the land, but the concept of OWNING was unknown.

    The people of New England became experts at shipbuilding and commerce due to the timber found in the dense forests.  They also fished for cod off the coasts.

    The combination of Calvinism, soil, and climate in New England made for energy, purposefulness, sternness, stubbornness, self-reliance, and resourcefulness.

     

    The Early Settlers' Days and Ways

    Women, slave or free, on southern plantations or northern farms, wove, cooked, cleaned, and care for children.  Men cleared land; fenced, planted, and cropped the land; cut firewood; and butchered livestock as needed.

    Resentment against upper-class pretensions helped to spark outbursts like Bacon's Rebellion of 1676 in Virginia and the uprising of Maryland's Protestants toward the end of the 17th century.  In New York, animosity between lordly landholders and aspiring merchants fueled Leisler's Rebellion, an ill-starred and bloody insurgence that rocked New York City from 1689-1691.

    In 1651, Massachusetts prohibited poorer folk from "wearing gold or silver lace," and in 18th century Virginia, a tailor was fined and jailed for arranging to race his horse-"a sport only for gentlemen." 

     

    Estimated Slave Imports to the New World, 1601-1810

      17th Century


    18th Century


    Total


    Percent

    Spanish American
    292,500


    598,600


    871,000


    11.7

    Brazil
    560,000


    1,891,400


    2,451,400 


    33

    British Caribbean
    263,700


    1,401,000


    1,664,700


    22.5

    Dutch Caribbean
    40,000


    460,000


    500,000  


    6.7

    French Caribbean
    155,800


    1,348,400


    1,504,200 


    20.3

    Danish Caribbean
    4,000


    24,000 


    28,000


    0.4

    British North America and future United States
    10,000 


    390,000


    400,000  


    5.4

    TOTAL
    X


    X


    7,419,300


    100

     

    Chronology

    1619                        - First Africans arrive in Virginia

    1636                        - Harvard College founded

    1662                        - Half-Way Covenant for Congregational Church membership established

    1670                        - Virginia assembly disfranchises landless freeman

    1676                        - Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia

    1680s                      - Mass expansion of slavery in colonies

    1689-1691               - Leisler's Rebellion in New York

    1692                        - Salem witch trials in Massachusetts

    1693                        - College of William and Mary founded

    1698                        - Royal African Company slave trade monopoly ended

    1712                        - New York City slave revolt

    1739                        - South Carolina slave revolt

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

     Conquest by the Cradle

    In 1775, the most populous colonies were Virginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Maryland.

    About 90% of people lived in rural areas.

     

    A Mingling of the Races

    Colonial America was a melting pot.

    Germans were 6% of the total population in 1775.  Many Germans settled in Pennsylvania, fleeing religious persecution, economic oppression, and the ravages of war.

    Scots-Irish were 7% of the population in 1775.  They were lawless individuals.

    By the mid 18th century, a chain of Scots-Irish settlements lay scattered along the "great wagon road" which hugged the eastern Appalachian foothills from Pennsylvania to Georgia.

    The Scots-Irish led the armed march of the Paxton Boys in Philadelphia in 1764, protesting the Quaker oligarchy's lenient policy toward the Indians, and a few years later, spearheaded the Regulator movement in North Carolina, a small but nasty insurrection against eastern domination of the colony's affairs.

    About 5% of the multicolored colonial population consisted of other European groups- French Huguenots, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss, and Scots Highlanders.

     

    The Structure of Colonial Society

    By the mid 1700s, the richest 10% of Bostonians and Philadelphians owned 2/3 of the taxable wealth in their cities.

    By 1750, Boston contained a large number of homeless poor, who were compelled to wear a large red "P" on their clothing.

    In all the colonies the ranks of the lower classes were further swelled by the continuing stream of indentured servants.

    The black slaves were the lowest in society.

     

    Clerics, Physicians, and Jurists

    Most honored of the professions was the Christian ministry.

    Most physicians were poorly trained and not highly esteemed.  The first medical school came in 1765.

    Epidemics were a constant nightmare.  A crude form of inoculation was introduced in 1721.  Powdered dried toad was a favorite prescription for smallpox.  Diphtheria was also a killer, especially of young people. 

     

    Workday America

    Agriculture was the leading industry, involving about 90% of the people.  The staple crop in Maryland and Virginia was tobacco.  The fertile middle (bread) colonies produced large quantities of grain. 

    Fishing was not nearly as prevalent as agriculture, but it was rewarding.

    Trade was popular in the New England group- New York and Pennsylvania.

    Manufacturing in the colonies was of only secondary importance. 

    Lumbering was perhaps the most important manufacturing activity.  By 1770, about 400 vessels were splashing down the ways each year, and about 1/3 of the British merchant marine was American built.

    As early as the 1730s, fast-breeding Americans demanded more and more British products-yet the slow growing British population early reached the saturation point for absorbing imports from America.  This trade imbalance prompted the Americans to look for foreign markets to get money to pay for British products.

    There was much trade with the West Indies.

    In 1773, bowing to pressure from British West Indian planters, Parliament passed the Molasses Act, aimed at crushing North American trade with the French West Indies.  The colonists got around this by smuggling.

     

    Horsepower and Sailpower

    The roadways in the colonies were in terrible condition.

    An intercolonial postal system was established by the mid-1700s.

     

    Dominant Denominations

    Two established, or tax-supported, churches were conspicuous in 1775: the Anglican and the Congregational. 

    The Church of England, Anglicans, became the official faith in Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and a part of New York.  The College of William and Mary was founded in 1693 to train a better class of clerics for the Anglican Church.

    The Congregational Church had grown out of the Puritan Church, and was formally established in all the New England colonies except independent minded Rhode Island.  Presbyterianism was never made official in any of the colonies.

    Religious toleration had made tremendous strides in America.  There were fewer Catholics in America; hence anti-Catholic laws were less severe and less strictly enforced.  In general, people could worship or not worship as they pleased.

     

    The Great Awakening

    A few churches grudgingly said that spiritual conversion was not necessary for church membership.

    Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch theologian who preached that individual free will, not divine decree, determined a person's eternal fate.

    The Great Awakening exploded in the 1730s and 1740s.  The Awakening was started in Northampton, Massachusetts, by Jonathan Edwards.  He said that through faith in God, not through doing good works, could one attain eternal salvation.  He had an alive-style of preaching.

    George Whitefield gave America a different kind of enthusiastic type of preaching.  The old lights, orthodox clergymen, were skeptical of the new ways of preaching.  New lights, on the other hand, defended the Awakening for its role in revitalizing American religion.

    The Awakening had an emphasis on direct, emotive spirituality and seriously undermined the older clergy.  It started many new denominations and greatly increased the numbers and the competitiveness of American churches.

     

    Schools and Colleges

    Puritan New England was more interested in education than any other section.  Dominated by the Congregational Church, it stressed the need for Bible reading by the individual worshiper.

    College education was regarded very highly in New England.

    9 local colleges were established during the colonial era.

     

    A Provincial Culture

    The red-bricked Georgian style was introduced in 1720.

    Art, architecture were popular in the colonies.

    Science was behind the old world.  Ben Franklin was considered the only first-rank scientist in the New World.

     

    Pioneer Presses

    A celebrated legal case in 1734-1735 involved John Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer.  He was charged with printing things that assailed the corrupt royal governor of New York.  The jury voted him not guilty to the surprise of the judge and many people.  This paved the way for freedom of the press.

     

    The Great Game of Politics

    By 1775, 8 of the colonies had royal governors, who were appointed by the king.  3-Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware- were under proprietors who themselves chose the governors.  2-Connecticut and Rhode Island- elected their own governors under self-governing characters.

    Nearly every colony used a two house legislative body.  The upper house, or council, was appointed by the crown in the royal colonies and the proprietor in the proprietary colonies.  The lower house, as the popular branch, was elected by the people.

    Lord Cornbury: made governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702.  He was a drunkard, a spendthrift, and a bad person.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

     France Finds a Foothold in Canada

    In 1598, the Edict of Nantes was issued by the crown of France.  It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics.

    In 1608, France established Quebec.  (Catholic)  The leading figure was Samuel de Champlain, an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title "Father of New France".

    The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king.  The people did not elect any representative assemblies.

     

    New France Sets Out

    New France contained one valuable resource - beaver. 

    French Catholic missionaries, notably the Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers.

    Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in 1701 to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley.

    Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana.

    In order to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana.  The French founded New Orleans in 1718.

    Illinois became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there.

     

    The Clash of Empires

    The earliest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists as King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713).  Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain.

    The wars ended in 1713 with peace terms signed at Utrecht.  France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay.  The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America.

    The War of Jenkins's Ear started in 1739 between the British and Spaniards.  This small battle became a war and became known as King Georges's War in America.  It ended in 1748 with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders.

     

    George Washington Inaugurates War with France

    In 1754, George Washington was sent to Ohio Country to secure the land of the Virginians who had secured legal rights to 500,000 acres.  His 150 Virginia militia killed the French leader, causing French reinforcements to come.  The Virginians were forced to surrender on July 4, 1754.

    In 1755, the British uprooted the French Acadians fearing a stab in the back, and scattered them as far as Louisiana.

     

    Global War and Colonial Disunity

    The French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) started in 1754.  It was fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the ocean.

    In Europe, the principal adversaries were Britain and Prussia on one side and France, Spain, Austria, and Russia on the other.  The French wasted so many troops in Europe that they were unable to put enough forces into America.

    The Albany Congress met in 1754.  Only 7 of 13 colony delegates showed up.  It attempted to unite all of the colonies but the plan was hated by individual colonists and the London regime. 

     

    Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath

    General Braddock set out in 1755 with 2,000 men to capture Fort Duquesne.  His force was slaughtered by the much smaller French and Indian army.  (Braddock's Blunder)  Due to this loss of troops, the whole frontier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina was left open to attack.  George Washington, with only 300 men, tried to defend the area.

    In 1756, the British launched a full-scale invasion of Canada.

     

    Pitt's Palms of Victory

    In 1757, William Pitt became the foremost leader in the London government.  He was known as the "Great Commoner."  He attacked and captured Louisbourg in 1758.

    To lead the attack in the Battle of Quebec in 1759, Pitt chose James Wolfe.  The two opposing armies faced each other on the Plains of Abraham, the British under Wolfe and the French under Marquis de Montcalm.

    Montreal fell in 1760.  The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended the battle and threw the French power off the continent of North America.

     

    Restless Colonists

    Intercolonial disunity had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and the resentment of the crude back-country settlers against the aristocrats.

     

    Americans: A People of Destiny

    In 1763, Ottawa chief, Pontiac, led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country.  His warriors captured Detroit in the spring of that year and overran all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians.

    The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians.

    London government issued the Proclamation of 1763.  It prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians.  (The Appalachian land was acquired after the British beat the Indians).  It was made to prevent another bloody eruption between the settlers and Indians.  Many colonists disregarded it.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

     The Deep Roots of Revolution

    Two ideas in particular had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid 18th century: 

    1.  Republicanism- a just society in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good.  Both the stability of society and the authority of government thus depended on the virtue of the citizenry-its capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage.

    2.  "Radical Whigs", a group of British political commentators, made attacks on the use of patronage and bribes by the king's ministers.  They warned citizens to be on guard for possible corruption.

     

    Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances

    Georgia was the only colony to be formed by Britain.

    The Navigation Law of 1650 stated that all goods flowing to and from the colonies could only be transported in British vessels.  It was aimed to hurt rival Dutch shippers.

     

    The Stamp Tax Uproar

    Due to the French and Indian War, Britain had a very large debt.

    In 1763, Prime Minister George Grenville ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the Navigation Laws.  He also secured from Parliament the Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for England.  The Sugar Act increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies.

    The Quartering Act of 1765 required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops.

    In 1765, George Grenville imposed a stamp tax on the colonies to raise revenues to support the new military force.  This stamp tax, known as the Stamp Act, mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax.

     

    Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act

    The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 brought together in New York City 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies.  The members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and requested the king and Parliament to repeal the hated legislation.  The meeting's ripples began to erode sectional suspicions (suspicions between the colonies), for it had brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies.  It was one step towardsintercolonial unity.

    Nonimportation agreements (agreements made to not import British goods) were a stride toward unionism.

    The Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty took the law into their own hands by enforcing the nonimportation agreements.

    The Stamp Act was repealed by Parliament in 1766.

    Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, reaffirming its right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.

     

    The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre

    In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts.  They put a light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea.

    British officials, faced with a breakdown of law and order, landed 2 regiments of troops in the colonies in 1768.

    On March 5, 1770, a crowd of 60 townspeople attacked 10 redcoats and the redcoats opened fired on the civilians, killing/wounding 11 of them.  The massacre was known as the Boston Massacre.

     

    The Seditious Committees of Correspondence

    Lord North was forced to persuade Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties.

    Samuel Adams- master propagandist and engineer of rebellion; formed the first local committee of correspondence in Massachusetts in 1772 (Sons of Liberty).

    Committees of Correspondance were created by the American colonies in order to maintain communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution when communication between the colonies became essential.
    In March of 1773, the Virginia House of Burgesses, the lower house of the Colony of Virginia, proposed that each colonial legislature appoint a standing committee for intercolonial correspondance. Within just a year, nearly all of the colonies had joined.

     

    Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere

    In 1773, the British East India Company was overstocked with 17 million pounds of unsold tea.  If the company collapsed, the London government would lose much money.  Therefore, the London government gave the company a full monopoly of the tea sell in America. 

    Fearing that it was trick to pay more taxes on tea, the Americans rejected the tea.  When the ships arrived in the Boston harbor, the governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson, forced the citizens to allow the ships to unload their tea.

     


    On December 16, 1773, a band of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea.  (Boston Tea Party)

     

    Parliament Passes the "Intolerable Acts"

    In 1774, Parliament punished the people of Massachusetts for their actions in the Boston Tea Party.  Parliament passed laws, known as the Intolerable Acts, which restricted colonists' rights.  The laws made restrictions on town meetings, and stated that enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty would be sent to Britain for trial (where it was assumed they would be acquitted of their charges).  One such law was the Boston Port Act.  It closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. 

    The Quebec Act was also passed in 1774, but was not apart of the Intolerable Acts.  It gave Catholic French Canadians religious freedom and restored the French form of civil law; this law nullified many of the Western claims of the coast colonies by extending the boundaries of the province of Quebec to the Ohio River on the south and to the Mississippi River on the west.

     

    The Continental Congress and Bloodshed

    In 1774, the 1st Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in order to redress colonial grievances over the Intolerable Acts.  The 13 colonies, excluding Georgia, sent 55 men to the convention.  (The 1st Continental Congress was not a legislative body, rather a consultative body, and convention rather than a congress.)

    After 7 weeks of deliberation, the 1st Continental Congress drew up several papers.  The papers included a Declaration of Rights and solemn appeals to other British-American colonies, to the king, and to the British people. 

    The creation of The Association was the most important outcome of the Congress.  It called for a complete boycott of British goods; nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.

    In April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to Lexington.  They were to seize provisions of colonial gunpowder and to capture the "rebel" ringleaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock.  At Lexington, 8 Americans were shot and killed.  This incident was labeled as the "Lexington Massacre."  When the British went on to Concord, they were met with American resistance and there were over 300 casualties and 70 deaths.  Because of this, the British had a war, rather than a rebellion on their hands.

     

    Imperial Strength and Weaknesses

    The population of Britain was over 3 times as large as the population of America.  Britain also had a much greater economic wealth and naval power.

    Unfortunately for the British, though, there was rebellion brewing in Ireland, and France, bitter from its recent defeat, was waiting for an opportunity to attack Britain.  Britain was therefore forced to divert much of its military power and concentration away from the Americas. 

    Britain's army in America had to operate under numerous difficulties; provisions were short and soldiers were treated brutally.

     

    American Pluses and Minuses

    Marquis de Lafayette- French who was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19; the "French Gamecock"; his services were invaluable in securing further aid from France.

    The Articles of Confederation was adopted in 1781.  It was the first written constitution adopted by colonists.

    Due to the lack of metallic money in America, Continental Congress was forced to print "Continental" paper money.  Within a short time, this money depreciated significantly and individual states were forced to print their own paper money.

     

    A Thin Line of Heroes

    At Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American men went without food for 3 days in the winter of 1777-1778.

    Baron von Steuben- German who helped to whip the America fighters into shape for fighting the British.

    Lord Dunmore- royal (British) governor of Virginia.  In 1775, he issued a proclamation promising freedom for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army. "Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment"

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

     Congress Drafts George Washington

    The Second Continental Congress selected George Washington to head the army besieging Boston.

     

    Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings

    From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were both affirming their loyalty to the king by sincerely voicing their desire to patch up difficulties while at the same time raising armies and killing redcoats.

    In May 1775, a tiny American force under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the British garrisons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point.  There, a store of gunpowder and artillery was secured. 

    In June 1775, the colonists captured Bunker Hill.  The British took it back with a large number of soldiers.

    In July 1775, the Second Continental Congress adopted the "Olive Branch Petition", which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop further hostilities.  The petition was rejected by the king.  With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power.

    In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion.  He then hired German Hessians to bring order to the colonies.

     

    The Abortive Conquest of Canada

    In October 1775, the British burned Falmouth (Portland), Maine.  In the same month, colonists made an attack on Canada in hopes that it would close it off as a possible source for a British striking point.  The attack failed when General Richard Montgomery was killed.

    In January 1776, the British set fire to Norfolk. 

     

    Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense

    The Americans continued to deny any intention of independence because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous.

    Thomas Paine released a pamphlet called Common Sense in 1776.  It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence. 

     

    Paine and the Idea of "Republicanism"

    Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a republic, where power flowed from the people themselves.

     

    Jefferson's Explanation of Independence

    On July 2, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia's resolution of declaring independence was passed.  It was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies.

    Thomas Jefferson was appointed to draft up the Declaration of Independence.  The Declaration of Independence was formally approved by Congress on July 4, 1776.  It was an explanation of everything the king had done to the Americans.

     

    Patriots and Loyalists

    During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called "Tories" and the Patriots were called "Whigs." 

    Tory: "a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched."

    The Loyalists made up 16% of the American population.  Many people of education and wealth remained loyal  to England.  Loyalists were most numerous where the Anglican church was strongest.  The Loyalists were well entrenched in New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.  They were least numerous in New England.

    The Patriots were numerous where Presbyterianism and Congregationalism flourished-mostly in New England.

     

    The Loyalist Exodus

    Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were treated relatively mild.  After, though, they were hanged, imprisoned, and roughly handled.

    They Loyalists were forced to leave because the Patriots had to eliminate their weaknesses.

     

    General Washington at Bay

    The British concentrated New York City as a base of operation due to the fact that Boston was evacuated in March 1776.

    In 1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the Battle of Long Island.  Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island.

    General William Howe was General Washington's adversary.

    On December 26, 1776, Washington surprised and captured 1,000 Hessians who were sleeping.

     

    Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion

    London officials had an intricate scheme for capturing the vital Hudson River valley in 1777.  It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause.  The main invading force, lead by General Burgoyne, would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada.  General Howe's troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany.  The 3rd force was commanded by colonel Barry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley.

    General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga on October 17, 1777 to American general Horatio Gates (Burgoyne's Blunder).  This win made it possible for the urgently needed foreign aid from France. (Turning point in war.)

     

    Strange French Bedfellows

    After the shooting at Lexington in April 1775, French secretly provided arms to the Americans.

    The British offered the Americans home rule after the Battle of Saratoga.  The French didn't want Britain to regain its colonies for fear that Britain would seize the sugar rich French West Indies.  In order to stop this, the French made an open alliance with the Americans in 1778, offering all the British did with the exception of independence.

     

    The Colonial War Becomes a World War

    Spain and Holland became allies against Britain in 1779.

    The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City.

     

    Blow and Counterblow

    General Benedict Arnold turned traitor against the Americans in 1780.

    General Nathaniel Greene succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina.

     

    The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

    The Treaty of Fort Stanwix- (1784) the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation; signed with the Iroquois.

    George Rogers Clark- conceived the idea of capturing the British of the wild Illinois country in 1778-1779.

    John Paul Jones is known as the father of the navy.  He employed the tactic of privateering.

    Privateering- when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted manpower from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few.

     

    Yorktown and the Final Curtain

    From 1780-1781, the U.S. government fell nearly bankrupt.

    British General Cornwallis fell back to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements.  This time in war was one of the few times when British naval superiority had been lacking.  Admiral de Grasse offered to join the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea.  George Washington, along with Rochambeau's army, and Admiral de Grasse cornered Cornwallis.  He was forced to surrender on October 19, 1781.

     

    Peace at Paris

    In 1782, a Whig ministry replaced the Tory regime of Lord North.

    Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783:

                    British formally recognized the independence of the United States. 

                    Florida is given to Spain.

    Britain granted generous boundaries, stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south.

                    Yankees were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland.

                    The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted.

    Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored.   The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection.

    Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated the peace terms with Britain.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

     The Pursuit of Equality

    The Continental Army officers formed an exclusive hereditary order called the Society of the Cincinnati.

    Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom- created in 1786 by Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers; stated that religion should not be imposed on anybody and that each person decided his/her own faith.

    The Philadelphia Quakers in 1775 founded the first anti-slavery society.

    The 1st Continental Congress called for the complete abolition of the slave trade in 1774.  Several northern states went further and either abolished slavery altogether or provided the gradual emancipation of slaves.  No states south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery.

     

    Constitution Making in the States

    The 2nd Continental Congress called upon the colonies in 1776 to draft new constitutions.  Massachusetts called a special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted the final draft to the people.

    As written documents, the state constitutions were intended to represent a fundamental law, superior to the short-lived impulses of ordinary legislation.

    In the Revolutionary era, the capitals of New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were all moved westward.

     

    Economic Crosscurrents

    Economic democracy preceded political democracy.

    Due to the independence from Britain, the United States had to make everything on its own which it no longer imported from Britain. 

    Many Americans were poor because the economy was so bad.

     

    Creating a Confederation

    Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation.  The finished product was the Articles of Confederation.  It was adopted by Congress in 1777 and it convinced France that America had a genuine government in the making.  The Articles of Confederation wasn't ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781.

     

    The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution

    The 13 colonies were joined together for joint action in dealing with common problems such as foreign affairs.

    Congress had 2 major handicaps: It had no power to regulate commerce, and this loophole left the states free to establish conflictingly laws regarding tariffs and navigation.  Congress couldn't enforce its tax collection program.  The states were NOT required to pay the government taxes, they were merely asked.

     

    Landmarks in Land Laws

    Land Ordinance of 1785- stated that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt.

    Northwest Ordinance of 1787- a uniform national land policy; created the Northwest Territories and gave the land to the government, the land could then be purchased by individuals; when a territory had 60,000 people, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the 13 other states.

     

    The World's Ugly Duckling

    Britain declined to make any commercial treaty with the colonies or to repeal its Navigation Laws.  Lord Sheffield argued in his pamphlet that Britain could win back America's trade.

    The British remained in the Americas where they maintained their fur trade with the Indians.  The American states did not honor the treaty of peace in regard to debts and Loyalists.  The British stayed primarily to keep the Indians on the side of the British so to defend against future attacks on Canada by the Americans.

    Spain was openly unfriendly to the Americans.  It closed off the Mississippi river to commerce in 1784.

     

    The Horrid Specter of Anarchy

    Shay's Rebellion- in western Massachusetts in 1786; when impoverished back-country farmers, who were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies, attempted to enforce their demands of cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of property takeovers; led by Captain Daniel Shays.  The uprising was crushed but it left fear in the propertied class of mobs.

     

    A Convention of "Demigods"

    In 1786, Virginia called for a convention at Annapolis, Maryland.  There, Alexander Hamilton saved the convention from collapsing - delegates from only 5 states showed up.  He called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with just commerce, but to fix then entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. 
    Alexander Hamilton was an advocate of a super-powerful central government.

    On May 25, 1787, 55 representatives from all of the states except for Rhode Island were sent to Philadelphia to talk of the government in the future of the country.  (Constitutional Convention)  George Washington was elected as the leader.

     

    Patriots in Philadelphia

    The delegates hoped to save the revolutionary idealism and make it into a strong political structure.

     

    Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises

    Some of the delegates decided they would scrap the old Articles of Confederation, contradicting instructions from Congress to revise it.

    The "large-state plan" was proposed by Virginia and was first pushed forward as the framework of the Constitution.  It said that the arrangement in Congress should be based upon a state's population.

    New Jersey presented the "small-state plan."  It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population.

    The "Great Compromise" of the convention was hammered out and finally agreed upon.  It called for representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation in the Senate.  Each state would have 2 senators.  The new Constitution also called for a President.  Because of arguments over if the slaves would count towards the general population of the state, the "three-fifths compromise" was created.  The new Constitution also called for the end of the slave trade by the end of 1807.  All new state constitutions except Georgia's forbade overseas slave trade.

    Rhode Island was not present at the Constitutional Convention.

     

    Safeguards for Conservatism

    The members of the Constitutional Convention agreed economically-demanded sound money and the protection of private property; and politically-favored a stronger government with 3 branches and with checks and balances among them.

     

    The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists

    The Anti-federalists were led by Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee.  The followers consisted of states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers - in general, the poorest class.

    Federalists were led by George Washington and Benjamin Franklin.  Most of the Federalists lived in the settled areas along the seaboard.  Overall, they were wealthier than the Anti-federalists, more educated, and better organized.  They also controlled the press.

     

    The Great Debate in the States

    Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire were the first 9 states to sign the Constitution.  Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island were the only states to not sign it.  (4 Laggard States)

     

    The Four Laggard States

    Virginia, New York, and North Carolina all ratified the Constitution before it was put into effect.  Rhode Island was the last state to ratify it and it did so only after the new government had been in operation for a few months.

    These 4 states did not ratify the Constitution because they wanted to but because they had to.  They could not safely exist outside the fold.

     

    A Conservative Triumph

    The architects of the Constitution contented that every branch-executive, judiciary, and legislative-effectively represented the people.

    By imbedding the principle of self-rule in a self-limiting system of checks and balances among these 3 branches, the Constitution settled the conflicting doctrines of liberty and order.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

    Washington for President

    George Washington was unanimously elected as President by the Electoral College in 1789.  He took the oath of office on April 30, 1789.  He established the cabinet.

    At first, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and Secretary of War Henry Knox served under Washington.

     

    Bill of Rights

    James Madison wrote the Bill of Rights and got them passed by Congress in 1791.

    The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general.

    John Jay became the first Chief Justice.

     

    Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit

    In order to create a thriving federal government, Alexander Hamilton set out to create a plan to shape the policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups.  These wealthier groups would then gratefully lend their money and political support to the government.  The wealth in the government would then trickle down through society.

    In this plan, Hamilton persuaded Congress to fund the entire national debt at par, meaning that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest.  This would strengthen the national credit by creating public confidence in the small Treasury department. 

    He then convinced Congress to take on the states' debts, which would create confidence in the government by the states.  States with large debts, like Massachusetts, were delighted with Hamilton's proposal, but states with small debts, like Virginia, did not want the government to assume state debts.  Virginia did, however, want the forthcoming federal district, the District of Columbia, which would bring commerce and prestige.  So Virginia made a deal with the government:  the government would assume state debts if the District of Columbia was placed on the Potomac River.  The deal was passed by Congress in 1790.

     

    Customs, Duties, and Excise Taxes

    One of Hamilton's objectives was to keep a national debt, believing that the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal stake in the success of the government.

    In this objective, he expected tariff revenues to pay interest on the huge debt and run the government. 

    The first tariff law, which imposed a low tax of 8% on the value of imports, was passed by Congress in 1789.  Its purpose was to create revenue and to create a small protective wall around small industries.

    He passed additional internal revenue and, in 1791, convinced Congress to pass an excise tax on a few domestic items, notably whiskey.

     

    Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank

    Alexander Hamilton proposed a Bank of the United States that could print paper money and thus provide a stable national currency.  The national bank would also be place where the Treasury could deposit monies.

    Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed the Bank stating it was unconstitutional.  He felt that the states had the right to manage their own money.  Most of the opposition came from the south and most of the support came from the north.

    Hamilton prevailed and the 1st Bank of the United States was created in 1791.  Its charter lasted for 20 years and was located in Philadelphia.

     

     

    Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania

    The Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania in 1794 was lead by distillers who strongly opposed the 1791 excise tax on whiskey.  The rebellion was ended when President Washington sent in federal troops.  Although the troops faced no opposition, a strong message was sent by the government stating that it would enforce the law.

     

    The Emergence of Political Parties

    Political parties had not existed in America when George Washington took office. 

    What was once a personal feud between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton had developed into a full-blown and bitter political rivalry.

    In the 1790s, Jefferson and Madison organized their opposition to the Hamiltonian program but confined it to Congress.  In due time, this organized opposition grew and the two-party system emerged.

     

    The Impact of the French Rebellion

    When Washington's first administration had ended in 1793, a formation of two political groups had ensued:  Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans and Hamilton Federalists.

    The French Revolution started in 1789.  It began peacefully but entered a violent phase when France declared war on Austria in 1792.  Things started to get worse when King Louis XVI was beheaded in 1793, the church was attacked, and the head-rolling Reign of Terror was begun. 

    At first, the Federalists supported the revolution but that view suddenly changed when the attitude of the revolution changed.

     

    Washington's Neutrality Proclamation

    Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans wanted to get into the French and British War to fight for France.  The Federalists were opposed.

    Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 stating the country's neutrality from the Britain-France war.  He was backed by Hamilton.

     

    Embroilments with Britain

    For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U.S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783.  The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans.

    The Jeffersonians felt that American should again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties.  The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain.

     

    Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell

    In a last attempt to avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London in 1794 to negotiate.  Opposed by Democratic-Republicans, Jay hammered out a treaty, Jay's Treaty, in which the British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U.S. soil and pay for damages for the seizures of American ships.  Britain stopped short of pledging anything about future maritime seizures or about supplying arms to Indians.  The treaty also called for the U.S. to continue to pay the debts owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary War accounts.

    Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U.S.  In Pinckney's Treaty of 1795 with Spain, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the large disputed territory north of Florida.

    In his Farewell Address to the nation, Washington urged against permanent alliances.  He left office in 1797.

     

    John Adams Becomes President

    John Adams beat Thomas Jefferson to become to the 2nd President in 1797.

    Hamilton became the leader of the Federalist Party, known as the "High Federalists."

     

    Unofficial Fighting with France

    France was upset with Jay's Treaty and it started capturing American merchant ships.  President John Adams sent John Marshall to France to negotiate in 1797.  Hoping the meet Talleyrand, the French foreign minister, Adams's envoy was secretly approached by 3 go-betweens, later referred to as X, Y, and Z (Mme de Villette, Jean Conrad Hottinguer, and Lucien Hauteral).  The French spokesmen demanded a bribe of $250,000 just to talk to Talleyrand.  Angered by the intolerable terms, Marshall and the envoy returned to the U.S.

    Infuriated with the XYZ Affair, America began preparations for war:  the Navy Department was created; the three-ship navy was expanded; the United States Marine Corps was reestablished.

     

    Adams Puts Patriotism Above Party

    Because France did not want another enemy, it said that if the Americans sent another negotiator minister, then he would be received with proper respect.

    Napoleon Bonaparte was the dictator of France.

    Eager to free his hands of a potential enemy, the dictator of France, Napoleon Bonaparte, signed the Convention of 1800 with American representative John Jay.  It annulled the peace treaty between France and America and called for France to pay the damage claims of American shippers.

     

    The Federalist Witch Hunt

    In order to decrease the number of pro-Jeffersonians, the Federalist Congress passed a series of oppressive laws aimed at "aliens", or foreigners who came to America and supported Jefferson. 

    These Alien Laws raised the residence requirements for aliens who desired to become citizens from 5 years to 14 years.  They also stated that the President could deport or jail foreigners in times of peace or hostilities.

    The Sedition Act stated that anyone who impeded the policies of the government or falsely defamed its officials would be liable to a heavy fine and imprisonment.

     

    The Virginia (Madison) and Kentucky (Jefferson) Resolutions

    Jefferson's Kentucky resolution and Madison's Virginia resolution concluded that the states had the right to refuse laws created by the government.  Virtually no other state followed the two states' resolutions.

     

    Federalists versus Democratic-Republicans

    Hamilton Federalists supported a strong central government; they believed that the government should support private enterprise, not interfere with it; and they supported the British.

    Jeffersonian anti-Federalists demanded a weak central government and supported states' rights.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic

     Federalist and Republican Mudslingers

    Thomas Jefferson became the victim of one of America's first "whispering campaigns."  The Federalists accused him of having an affair with one of his slaves.

     

    The Jeffersonian "Revolution of 1800"

    Thomas Jefferson beat John Adams to win the election of 1800 by a majority of 73 to 65 electoral votes.

     

    Jeffersonian Restraint

    Jefferson quickly pardoned the prisoners of the Sedition Acts.  The Naturalization Law of 1802 reduced the requirement of 14 years of residence to the previous 5 years.

    Jefferson also did away with the excise tax.                                                   

    Albert Gallatin- Secretary of Treasury to Jefferson; believed that a national debt wasn't a blessing; he reduced the national debt with a strict economy.

     

    The "Dead Clutch" of the Judiciary

    Judiciary Act of 1801- passed by the expiring Federalist Congress; created 16 new federal judgeships and other judicial offices.  The new Republican-Democratic Congress quickly repealed the act and kicked out the 16 newly seated judges.  One Federalist judge, Chief Justice John Marshall, was not removed.  He served under presidents including Jefferson and others for 34 years.  He shaped the American legal tradition more than any other person.

    James Madison was the new Secretary of State.

    Marbury vs. Madison (1803) - James Madison, the new secretary of state, had cut judge Marbury's salary; Marbury sued James Madison for his pay; Marbury ended up getting his pay but the decision showed that the Supreme Court had the final authority in determining the meaning of the Constitution.

    Samuel Chase- supreme court justice of whom the Democratic-Republican Congress tried to remove in retaliation of the John Marshall's decision regarding Marbury; was not removed due to a lack of votes in the Senate.

     

    Jefferson, a Reluctant Warrior

    Jefferson preferred to make the military smaller.

    Jefferson was forced to bend his thoughts of not using military force when the leader of Tripoli informally declared war on the United States.  Jefferson sent the new navy to Tripoli and after 4 years of fighting, a deal was reached.  The U.S. paid Tripoli $60,000 for the release of captured Americans.

     

    The Louisiana Godsend

    Napoleon Bonaparte convinced the king of Spain to give Louisiana land area to France in 1800.

    Not wanting to fight Napoleon and France in western America, Jefferson sent James Monroe to join Robert Livingston in Paris in 1803 to buy as much land as he could for $10 million. 

    Napoleon decided to sell all of Louisiana and abandon his dream of a New World Empire for 2 reasons:         

    He failed in his efforts to re-conquer the island of Santo Domingo, for which Louisiana was to serve as a source of foodstuffs.

    Because Britain controlled the seas, Napoleon didn't want Britain to take over Louisiana.  So he wanted the money from the Americans.  He also hoped the new land for America would help to thwart the ambitions of the British king in the New World.

    Robert Livingston- along with James Monroe, negotiated in Paris for the Louisiana land area; signed a treaty on April 30, 1803 ceding Louisiana to the United States for $15 million.  The Americans had signed 3 treaties and gotten much land to the west of the Mississippi.  820,000 square miles at 3 cents/acre.

    Jefferson sent his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and William Clark to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase.                        

     

    The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

    Aaron Burr- Jefferson's first-term vice president; after being dropped from Jefferson's cabinet, he joined a group of extremist Federalists who plotted the secession of New England and New York; Alexander Hamilton uncovered the plot.  Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel and Hamilton accepted.  Hamilton refused to shoot and he was shot and killed by Burr.

    General James Wilkinson- the corrupt military governor of Louisiana Territory; made an allegiance with Burr to separate the western part of the United States from the East and expand their new confederacy with invasions of Spanish-controlled Mexico and Florida; betrayed Burr when he learned that Jefferson knew of the plot; Burr was acquitted of the charges of treason by James Madison and he fled to Europe.                                

     

    America: A Nutcrackered Neutral

    Jefferson was reelected in 1804, capturing 162 electoral votes, while his Federalist opponent (Charles Pinckney) only received 14 votes.

    England was the power of the seas, and France had the power of land.

    England issued a series of Orders in Council in 1806.  They closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping.  The French ordered the seizure of all merchant ships that entered British ports.

     

    The Hated Embargo

    In 1807, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act.  It banned the exportation of any goods to any countries.  With the act, Jefferson planned to force France and England, who both depended on American trade, to respect America and its citizens, who had been killed and captured by both countries.  The embargo significantly hurt the profits of U.S. merchants and was consequently hated by Americans.

    The act was repealed in 1809 and a substitute act was enacted: The Non-Intercourse Act.  It opened up trade to every country except France and Britain.

    The embargo failed because Jefferson overestimated the dependence of the 2 countries on America's trade.  Britain and France were not as reliant on America as Jefferson had hoped.  Britain was able to trade with the Latin American republics and France had enough land in Europe to support itself.

     

    Madison's Gamble

    James Madison became president on March 4, 1809.

    Congress issued Macon's Bill No. 2.  It reopened American trade with the entire world.  Napoleon convinced James Madison to give Britain 3 months to lift its Orders in Council.  Madison did, but Britain chose not to lift its Orders in Council, and Madison had to reenact the United States's trade embargo, but this time just against Britain. 

    Macon's Bill No. 2 led to the War of 1812.

     

    Tecumseh and the Prophet

    Twelfth Congress- met in 1811; the "war hawks" wanted to go to war with the British and wanted to eliminate the Indian threats to pioneers.

    Tecumseh- Shawnee, along with his brother, unified many Indian tribes in a last ditch battle with the settlers; allied with the British.

    Tenskwatawa- "the Prophet"; Shawnee, along with his brother, unified many Indian tribes in a last ditch battle with the settlers; allied with the British.

    William Henry Harrison- governor of the Indiana territory; defeated the Shawnee at the Battle of Tippecanoe.

     

    Mr. Madison's War

    On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress to declare war on the British and it agreed.

    The Democratic-Republicans who supported the war ("war hawks") felt that the country had to assert American rights to the world.  They wanted to invade Canada, the Indians' stronghold, because the Indians were being armed by the British to attack the settlers.

    The Federalists were opposed because they supported Britain.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

     On to Canada over Land and Lakes


    The Americans tried to invade Canada from Detroit, Niagara, and Lake Champlain.  All were beaten back by the Canadians.

    The Americans then attacked by sea and were more successful. 

    Oliver Hazard Perry- captured a British fleet in Lake Erie. 

    General Harrison's army overtook the British at Detroit and Fort Malden in the Battle of the Thames in October 1813.

    Thomas Macdonough- naval officer who forced the invading British army near Plattsburgh to retreat on September 11, 1814; he saved the upper New York from conquest.

     

    Washington Burned and New Orleans Defended

    Andrew Jackson defended New Orleans.

    Francis Scott Key- American prisoner aboard a British ship who watched the British fleet bombard Fort McHenry; wrote the "Star Spangled Banner."

    Washington burned in 1814.

     

    The Treaty of Ghent

    Tsar Alexander I of Russia called the Americans and British to come to peace because he didn't want his British ally to lose strength in the Americas and let Napoleon take over Europe.  The Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814 in Ghent, Belgium, was an armistice.  John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay went to Ghent for the signing.  Both sides stopped fighting and conquered territory was restored. 

     

    Federalist Grievances and the Hartford Convention

    Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island met in 1814 in Hartford, Connecticut for a secret meeting to discuss their disgust of the war and to redress their grievances.  The Hartford Convention's final report demanded:

    Financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade from embargos.

    Constitutional amendments requiring a 2/3 vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared.

    The abolition of slavery.

    That a President could only serve 1 term.

    The abolition of the 3/5 clause.

    The prohibition of the election of 2 successive Presidents from the same state.

    The Hartford resolutions marked the death of the Federalist party.  The party nominated their last presidential candidate in 1816.

     

    The Second War for American Independence

    The War of 1812 showed other nations around the world that America would defend its beliefs.  The most impressive by-product of the War of 1812 was heightened nationalism.

    The army and navy were expanded and the Bank of the United States was revived by Congress in 1816.                                                        

    "The American System"

    Congress instituted the 1st protective tariff, the Tariff of 1816, primarily for protection.  British companies were trying to make American factories die off by selling their British goods for much less than the American factories.  The tariff placed a 20-25% tax on the value of dutiable imports.  Over time, the tax price continued to rise, creating problems of no competition between companies.

    Due to nationalism, Henry Clay developed a plan for a profitable home market.  It was called the American System.  It had 3 main parts:

    A strong banking system, to provide easy and abundant credit.

    A protective tariff, behind which eastern manufacturing would flourish.

    A network of roads and canals.

    President Madison vetoed the bill to give states aid for infrastructure, deeming it unconstitutional.  The Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans were strongly opposed to building federally-funded roads because they felt that such outlets would further drain away population and create competing states beyond the mountains.

     

    The So-Called Era of Good Feelings

    The Federalists ran a candidate for the presidential for the last time in 1816.  James Monroe won the election.

    The time during the administrations of President Monroe was known as the "Era of Good Feelings" because the 2 political parties were getting along.

     

    The Panic of 1819 and the Curse of Hard Times

    The Panic of 1819 was the first financial panic since President Washington took office.  The main cause was the over-speculation in frontier lands. 

    The Bank of the United States became a financial devil to western farmers because it foreclosed many farms.

     

    Growing Pains of the West

    Between 1791 and 1819, 9 states from the West had joined the United States.  People moved out west because of cheap land.

    The Land Act of 1820 authorized a buyer to purchase 80 virgin acres at a minimum of $1.25 an acre.  The West also demanded cheap transportation and cheap money.

     

    Slavery and the Sectional Balance

    The House of Representatives slowed the plans of the Missourians of becoming a state by passing the Tallmadge Amendment.  It called for no more slaves to be brought into Missouri and called for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there.  The amendment was later defeated by the slave states in Congress.

     

    The Uneasy Missouri Compromise

    Henry Clay introduced the compromise that decided whether or not Missouri would be admitted as a slave state.  Congress decided to admit Missouri as a slave state in 1820.  But, Maine, which was apart of Massachusetts, was to be admitted as a separate, free state.  Therefore, there were 12 slave states and 12 free states.

    The Missouri Compromise by Congress forbade slavery in the remaining territories in the Louisiana Territory north of the line of 36° 30', except for Missouri.

    James Monroe was elected again as President in 1820.

     

    John Marshall and Judicial Nationalism

    McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819) involved an attempt by the state of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on the Bank's notes.  John Marshall declared the U.S. Bank constitutional by invoking the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied powers.  He strengthened federal authority and slapped at state infringements when he denied the right of Maryland to tax the Bank.

    Cohens vs. Virginia (1821) involved the Cohens appealing to the Supreme Court for being found guilty of illegally selling lottery tickets by the state of Virginia.  Virginia won and the conviction was withheld.

    Gibbons vs. Ogden (1824) grew out of an attempt by the state of New York to grant to a private concern a monopoly of waterborne commerce between New York and New Jersey.  (Meaning that no other company could use the waterway.)  New York lost.                      

     

    Judicial Dikes Against Democratic Excesses

    Fletcher vs. Peck (1810) Georgia legislature granted 35 million acres to private speculators; the next legislature cancelled the bribery-induced transaction.  John Marshall let the state give the acres to the private speculators calling it a contract and constitutional. The decision protected property rights against popular pressures. 

    Dartmouth College vs. Woodward (1819) Dartmouth College was given a charter by King George III but New Hampshire wanted to take it away.  John Marshall ruled in favor of the college.

    Daniel Webster- "Expounding Father"; served in both the House and Senate.

     

    Sharing Oregon and Acquiring Florida                                

    John Quincy Adams- Secretary of State to James Monroe.

    The Treaty of 1818 permitted the Americans to share the Newfoundland fisheries with the Canadians and provided for a 10-year joint occupation of the Oregon Country without a surrender of the rights or claims of either America or Britain.

    With the many revolutions taking place in South America, Spain was forced to take many of its troops out of Florida.  General Andrew Jackson went into Florida saying he would punish the Indians and recapture the runaways who were hiding away in Spanish Florida.  He did this, but captured St. Marks and Pensacola, the 2 most important Spanish posts in the area. 

    The Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded Florida, as well as Spanish claims to Oregon in exchange for America's abandonment of claims to Texas.

     

    The Menace of Monarchy in America

    After Napoleon's fall from power in 1815, the Europeans wanted to completely eliminate democracy.

    George Canning- British foreign secretary; asked the American minister in London if the United States would band together with the British in a joint declaration renouncing any interest in acquiring Latin American territory, and specifically warning the European dictators to keep their harsh hands off the Latin American republics.

     

    Monroe and His Doctrine

    Secretary Adams thought the British feared that the Americans would one day seize Spanish territory in the Americas; jeopardizing Britain's possessions in the Caribbean.

    Monroe Doctrine (1823) - President Monroe, in his annual address to Congress, stated a stern warning to the European powers.  Its two basic features were non-colonization and nonintervention.

                    Monroe stated that the era of colonization in the Americas was over.

    Monroe also warned against foreign intervention.  He warned Britain to stay out of the Western Hemisphere, and stated that the United States would not intervene in foreign wars.

     

    Monroe's Doctrine Appraised

    The Europeans powers were offended by the Monroe Doctrine; in a big part because of America's soft military strength.

    President Monroe was more concerned with the security of America when he issued the Monroe Doctrine.  He had basically warned the Old World power to stay away.  The Doctrine thrived off nationalism.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Rise of a Mass Democracy

     The "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824

    There were 4 main "Republican" candidates in the election of 1824:  Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William Crawford, and Henry Clay.

    No candidate won the majority of the electoral votes, so, according to the Constitution, the House of Representatives had to choose the winner.  Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House, was thus eliminated although he did have much say in who became president.  Clay convinced the House to elect John Quincy Adams as president.  Adams agreed to make Clay the Secretary of State for getting him into office.  Much of the public felt that a "corrupt bargain" had taken place because Andrew Jackson had received the popular vote. 

     

    A Yankee Misfit in the White House

    John Quincy Adams was a strong nationalist and he supported the building of national roads and canals.  He also supported education.

     

    Going "Whole Hog" for Jackson in 1828

    Before the election of 1824, two parties had formed: National Republicans and Democratic-Republicans.  Adams and Clay were the figures of the National Republicans and Jackson was with the Democratic-Republicans.

    Andrew Jackson beat Adams to win the election of 1828.  The majority of his support came from the South, while Adams's support came from the North.

     

    "Old Hickory" as President

    Jackson was the first president from the West and 2nd without a college education.

     

    The Spoils System

    When the Democrats rose to power in the White House, they replaced most of the people in offices with their own people (the common man).  These people were illiterate and incompetent.  This system of rewarding political supporters with jobs in the government was known as the "spoils system."

     

    The Tricky "Tariff of Abominations"

    In 1824, Congress increased the general tariff significantly. 

    The Tariff of 1828- called the "Black Tariff" or the "Tariff of Abominations"; also called the "Yankee Tariff".  It was hated by Southerners because it was an extremely high tariff and they felt it discriminated against them.  The South was having economic struggles and the tariff was a scapegoat.

    In 1822, Denmark Vesey led a slave rebellion in Charleston, South Carolina.

    The South Carolina Exposition, made by John C. Calhoun, was published in 1828.  It was a pamphlet that denounced the Tariff of 1828 as unjust and unconstitutional.                             

     

    "Nullies" in the South

    In an attempt to meet the South's demands, Congress passed the Tariff of 1832, a slightly lower tariff compared to the Tariff of 1828.  It fell short of the South's demands.

    The state legislature of South Carolina called for the Columbia Convention.  The delegates of the convention called for the tariff to be void within South Carolina.  The convention threatened to take South Carolina out of the Union if the government attempted to collect the customs duties by force.

    Henry Clay introduced the Tariff of 1833.  It called for the gradual reduction of the Tariff of 1832 by about 10% over 8 years.  By 1842, the rates would be back at the level of 1816. 

    The compromise Tariff of 1833 ended the dispute over the Tariff of 1832 between the South and the White House.  The compromise was supported by South Carolina but not much by the other states of the South.

     

    The Trail of Tears

    Jackson's Democrats were committed to western expansion, but such expansion meant confrontation with the Indians who inhabited the land east of the Mississippi.

    The Society for Propagating the Gospel Among Indians was founded in 1787 in order to Christianize Indians.

    The five civilized tribes were the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles.  President Jackson wanted to move the Indians so the white men could expand. 

    In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act.  It moved more than 100,000 Indians living east of the Mississippi to reservations west of the Mississippi.  The five "civilized" tribes were hardest hit. 

    Black Hawk, who led Sauk and Fox braves from Illinois and Wisconsin, resisted the eviction.

    The Seminoles in Florida retreated to the Everglades, fighting for several years until they retreated deeper into the Everglades.

     

    The Bank War

    President Andrew Jackson despised the Bank of the United States because he felt it was very monopolistic.

    The Bank of the United States was a private institution, accountable not to the people, but to its elite circle of investors.  The bank minted gold and silver coins.  Nicholas Biddle, the president of the Bank of the United States, held an immense and possibly unconstitutional amount of power over the nation's financial affairs.

    The Bank War erupted in 1832 when Daniel Webster and Henry Clay presented Congress with a bill to renew the Bank's charter.  Clay pushed to renew the charter in 1832 to make it an issue for the election of that year.  He felt that if Jackson signed off on it, then Jackson would alienate the people of the West who hated the Bank.  If Jackson vetoed it, then he would alienate the wealthy class of the East who supported the Bank.  Clay did not account for the fact that the wealthy class was now a minority.  Jackson vetoed the bill calling the Bank unconstitutional. 

    The veto showed that Jackson felt that the Executive Branch had more power than the Judicial Branch in determining the Constitutionality of the Bank of the United States.

     

    "Old Hickory" Wallops Clay in 1833

    A third party entered the election in the election of 1832: The Anti-Masonic party.  The party opposed the Masonic Order, which was perceived by some as people of privilege and monopoly.  Although Jackson was against monopolies, he was a Mason himself; therefore the Anti-Masons were an anti-Jackson party.  It gained support from evangelical Protestant groups.

    The Jacksonians were opposed to all government meddling in social and economic life.

    Andrew Jackson was reelected in the election of 1832.

     

    Burying Biddle's Bank

    The Bank of the United States's charter expired in 1836.  Jackson wanted to make sure that the Bank would be exterminated. 

    In 1833, 3 years before the Bank's charter ran out, Jackson decided to remove federal deposits from its vaults.  Jackson proposed depositing no more funds in the bank and he gradually shrunk existing deposits by using the funds to pay for day-to-day expenditures of the government.

    The death of the Bank of the United States left a financial vacuum in the American economy.  Surplus federal funds were placed in several dozen state banks that were political supportive of Jackson.

    Smaller, wildcat banks in the west had begun to issue their own currency.  But this "wildcat" currency was extremely unreliable because its value was based upon the value of the bank it was issued from.  In 1836, "wildcat" currencyhad become so unreliable that Jackson told the Treasury to issue a Specie Circular- a decree that required all public lands to be purchased with metallic money.  This drastic step contributed greatly to the financial panic of 1837.

     

    The Birth of the Whigs

    The Whigs were conservatives who supported government programs, reforms, and public schools.  They called for internal improvements like canals, railroads, and telegraph lines.

    The Whigs claimed to be defenders of the common man and declared the Democrats the party of corruption.

     

    The Election of 1836

    Martin Van Buren was Andrew Jackson's choice as his successor in the election of 1836.  General William Henry Harrison was one of the Whig's many presidential nominees.  The Whigs did not win because they did not united behind just one candidate.

     

    Depression Doldrums and the Independent Treasury

    The basic cause of the panic of 1837 was the rampant speculation prompted by a get-rich scheme.  Gamblers in western lands were doing a "land-office business" on borrowed capital.  The speculative craze spread to canals, roads, railroads, and slaves.  Jacksonian finance also helped to cause the panic.  In 1836, the failure of two British banks caused the British investors to call in foreign loans.  These loans were the beginnings of the panic.

    The panic of 1837 caused many banks to collapse, commodity prices to drop, sales of public to fall, and the loss of jobs.

    Van Buren proposed the Divorce Bill.  Not passed by Congress, it called for the dividing of the government and banking altogether. 

    The Independent Treasury Bill was passed in 1840.  An independent treasury would be established and government funds would be locked in vaults. 

     

    Gone to Texas

    Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1823.  Mexico gave a huge chunk of land to Stephen Austin who would bring families into Texas.

    The Texans had many differences with the Mexicans.  Mexicans were against slavery, while the Texans supported it. 

    Santa Anna- president of Mexico who, in 1835, wiped out all local rights and started to raise army to suppress the upstart Texans.

     

    The Lone Star Rebellion

    Texas declared its independence in 1836.  Sam Houston- commander in chief for Texas.

    General Houston forced Santa Anna to sign a treaty in 1836 after Houston had captured Santa Anna in the Battle of San Jacinto.

    The Texans wanted to become a state in the United States but the northerners did not want them to because of the issue of slavery.  Admitting Texas would mean one more slave state.

     

    Log Cabins and Hard Cider of 1840

    William Henry Harrison defeated Van Buren to win the election of 1840 for the Whigs.  The Whig's campaign included pictures of log cabins and cider.

     

    Politics for the People

    There were 2 major changes in politics after the Era of Good Feelings: 

    1.        Politicians who were too clean, too well dressed, too grammatical, and too intellectual were not liked. Aristocracy was not liked by the American people.  The common man was moving to the center of the national political stage.

     

    The Two-Party System

    2.        There was a formation of a two-party system.  The two parties consisted of the Democrats and the Whigs (the National Republican Party had died out).  Jacksonian Democrats glorified the liberty of the individual.  They supported states' rights and federal restraint in social and economic affairs.  The Whigs supported the natural harmony of society and the value of community.  They favored a renewed national bank, protective tariffs, internal improvements, public schools, and moral reforms, such as the prohibition of liquor and the abolition of slavery.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy

     The Westward Movement

    The life as a pioneer was very grim.  Pioneers were stricken with disease and loneliness.

     

    Shaping the Western Landscape

    Fur trapping was a large industry in the Rocky Mountain area.  Each summer, fur trappers would trade beaver pelts for manufactured goods from the East.

    George Caitlin- painter and student of Native American life who was among the first Americans to advocate the preservation of nature; proposed the idea of a national park.

     

    The March of Millions

    By the mid-1800s, the population was doubling every 25 years.  By 1860, there were 33 states and the U.S. was the 4th most populous country in the western world.

    The new population and larger cities brought about disease and decreased living standards.                            

    In the 1840s and 1850s, more European immigrants came to the Americas because Europe seemed to be running out of room.                                   

     

    The Emerald Isle Moves West

    In the 1840s, the "Black Forties," many Irish came to America because of the massive rot that came upon the potato crops, inducing a famine.  Most of the Irish were Roman-Catholic.  They were politically powerful because they bonded together as one large voting body.  The Irish did not possess many goods.  They came to America and were hated by native workers of factories.  The Irish hated the blacks with whom they rioted.  They also hated the British.

     

    The German Forty-Eighters

    Between 1830 and 1860, many Germans came to America because of crop failures and other hardships.

    Unlike the Irish, the Germans possessed a modest amount of material goods. 

    The Germans were more educated than the Americans and were opposed to slavery.

     

    Flare-ups of Antiforeignism

    The massive immigration of the Europeans to America inflamed the prejudices of American nativists.  The Roman Catholics created an entirely separate Catholic educational system to avoid the American Protestant educational system.

    Many people died in riots and attacks between the two religions.

     

    The March of Mechanization

    In 1750, steam was used a major way to take the place of human labor.  With it came the Industrial Revolution in England.

    It took a while for America to embrace the machine because virgin soil in America was cheap and peasants preferred to grow crops as opposed to working in factories.  Because of this, labor was scarce and hard to find until the immigrants came to America in the 1840s.  There was also not a lot of money for investment in America and consumers were scarce.  The large British factories also had a monopoly on the textile industry.

     

    Whitney Ends the Fiber Famine

    Samuel Slater- "Father of the Factory System" in America; escaped Britain with the memorized plans for the textile machinery; put into operation the first spinning cotton thread in 1791.

    Eli Whitney- built the first cotton gin in 1793.

    The cotton gin was much more effective at separating the cotton seed from the cotton fiber than using slaves.  It affected not only America, but the rest of the world.  Because of the cotton gin, the South's production of cotton greatly increased and the demand for cotton revived the demand for slavery.

    New England was favored as the industrial center because it had poor soil for farming; it had a dense population for labor; shipping brought in capital; and seaports made the import of raw materials and the export of the finished products easy.


    Marvels in Manufacturing

    The War of 1812 prompted a boom of American factories and the use of American products as opposed to British imports. 

    The surplus in American manufacturing dropped following the Treaty of Ghent in 1815.  The British manufacturers sold their products to Americans at very low prices.  Congress passed the Tariff of 1816 in order to protect the American manufacturers. 

    In 1798, Eli Whitney came up with the idea of machines making each part of the musket so that every part of the musket would be the same.  The principle of interchangeable parts caught on by 1850 and it became the basis for mass-production.

    Elias Howe- invented the sewing machine in 1846.

    The sewing machine gave a boost to northern industrialization.  It became the foundation of the ready-made clothing industry.

    Laws of "free incorporation"- first passed in New York in 1848; meant that businessmen could create corporations without applying for individual charters from the legislature.

    Samuel F. B. Morse- invented the telegraph.

     

    Workers and "Wage Slaves"

    Impersonal relationships replaced the personal relationships that were once held between workers.

    Factory workers were forbidden by law to form labor unions to raise wages.  In the 1820s, many children were used as laborers in factories.  With Jacksonian democracy came the rights of the laboring man to vote.

    President Van Buren established the ten-hour work day in 1840.

    Commonwealth vs. Hunt- Supreme Court ruling said that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies, provided that their methods were honorable and peaceful.

     

    Women and the Economy

    Farm women and girls had an important place in the pre-industrial economy, spinning yarn, weaving cloth, and making candles, soap, butter, and cheese. 

    Women were forbidden to form unions and they had few opportunities to share dissatisfactions over their harsh working conditions.

    Catharine Beecher- urged women to enter the teaching profession.

    The vast majority of working women were single.

    During the Industrial Revolution, families were small, affectionate, and child-centered, which provided a special place for women.

     

    Western Farmers Reap a Revolution in the Fields

    The trans-Allegheny region became the nation's breadbasket.

    Liquor and hogs became the early western farmer's staple market items.

    John Deere- produced a steel plow in 1837 which broke through the thick soil of the West.

     

    Highways and Steamboats

    Lancaster Turnpike- hard-surfaced highway that ran from Philadelphia to Lancaster; drivers had to pay a toll to use it.

    In 1811, the federal government began to construct the National Road, or Cumberland Road.  It went from Cumberland, in western Maryland, to Illinois.  Its construction was halted during the War of 1812, but the road was completed in 1852.

    Robert Fulton- installed a steam engine and created the first steamboat.

    The steamboat played a vital role in the opening of the West and South.  It played a vital role in binding the West and South.

     

    "Clinton's Big Ditch" in New York

    Governor DeWitt Clinton- governor of New York who lead the building of the Erie Canal that connected the Great Lakes with the Hudson River in 1825; the canal lowered shipping prices and decreased passenger transit time.

     

    The Iron Horse

    The most significant contribution to the development of such an economy was the railroad.  The first one appeared in 1828.

    Railroads were at first opposed because of safety flaws and they took away money from the Erie Canal investors.

     

    Cables (Telegraphs), Clippers, and Pony Riders

    In the 1840s and 1850s, Yankee navel yards began to produce new crafts called clipper ships.  These ships sacrificed cargo room for speed and were able to transport small amounts of goods in short amounts of time.  These ships faded away after steam boats were made better and able to carry more goods and, hence, become more profitable.

    The Pony Express was established in 1860 to carry mail from St. Joseph, Missouri to Sacramento, California.  The mail service collapsed after 18 months due to lack of profit.

     

    The Transport Web Binds the Union

    The desire of the East to move west stimulated the "transportation revolution." 

    The South raised cotton for export to New England and Britain.  The West grew grain and livestock to feed factory workers in the East and in Europe.  The East made machines and textiles for the South and the West.  All of these products were transported using the railroad; the railroad linked America.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

     Reviving Religion

    Thomas Paine promoted the doctrines of Deism.  Deists relied on science rather than the Bible and they denied the divinity of Christ.  They did believe in a Supreme Being who had created a universe and endowed human beings with a capacity for moral behavior.

    Unitarianism spun off of Deism.  Unitarians believed that God existed in only one person.  It appealed to mostly intellectuals.

    The Second Great Awakening came in 1800.  Women were a large part of it.

    Peter Cartwright- a revivalist, traveling preacher who converted thousands to Christianity.

    Charles Grandison Finney- one of the greatest revivalist preachers.

     

    Denominational Diversity

    Many preachers preached in Western New York where the Puritans settled.

    The Second Great Awakening widened the lines between the classes and regions.  The more prosperous and conservative denominations in the East were little touched by revivalism, and Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Unitarians continued to rise mostly from the wealthier, better-educated levels of society.

    The issue of slavery split the churches apart.

     

    A Desert Zion in Utah

    Joseph Smith- formed the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) in 1830 when he deciphered the Book of Mormon from some golden plates given to him by an angel; led the Mormons to Illinois.

    After Joseph Smith was killed 1844, Brigham Young led the Mormons to Utah to avoid persecution.

     

    Free Schools for a Free People

    Tax-supported public education came about between 1825 -1850.  Americans eventually saw they had to educate their children because the children were the future.  The teachers of the schools were mostly men and did not know how to teach.  There were not very many schools in the U.S. because of their high costs to communities.

    Horace Mann- campaigned effectively for a better schooling system.

     

    Higher Goals for Higher Learning

    The first state-supported universities showed up in the South in 1795.

    The University of Virginia was founded by Thomas Jefferson.

    Women's schools at the secondary level came in the 1820s because of Emma Willard.

     

    An Age of Reform

    States gradually abolished debtors' prisons due to public demand.  Criminal codes in the states were being softened.  The number of capital offenses was being reduced.  The idea that prisons should reform as well as punish arose.

    Dorothy Dix- traveled the country, visiting different asylums; released a report on insanity and asylums; her protests resulted in improved conditions for the mentally ill.

    In 1828, the American Peace Society was formed.  It was led by William Ladd. 

     

    Demon Rum - The "Old Deluder"

    The problem of drinking was found in women, clergymen, and members of Congress.  The American Temperance Society was formed in 1826.  Its crusaders persuaded drinkers to stop drinking. 

    The problem of drinking tore down the family structure.

    Neal S. Dow- thought that alcohol should be removed by legislation; "Father of Prohibition"; supported the Maine Law of 1851 which banned the manufacture and sale of liquor in Maine.  (The country banned the sale of alcohol with the 18th amendment in 1918.)

     

    Women in Revolt

    In the early 19th century, the role of women was to stay at home and be subordinate to her husband.  Women could not vote and when married, she could not retain her property.  Women actually started to avoid marriage.

    Gender differences were emphasized in the 19th century because the market economy was separating women and men into distinct economic roles.

    Feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York in a Woman's Rights Convention in 1848 to rewrite the Declaration of Independence to include women.

     

    Wilderness Utopians

    Robert Owen- founded in 1825 a communal society in order to seek human betterment.

    All utopias failed.

     

    The Dawn of Scientific Achievement

    Americans were more interested in practical gadgets than in pure science.  Americans invented practical gadgets, but as far as basic science was concerned, Americans borrowed and adapted the findings of Europeans.

    Medicine in America was still primitive by modern standards.  In the early 1840s, several American doctors and dentists successfully used laughing gas and ether as anesthetics.

     

    Artistic Achievements

    Between 1820 and 1850, a Greek revival in architecture came to America.  Most of the ideas of art and painting were taken from Europe.

    "Dixie" was the battle hymn of the Confederates and was written in 1859.

     

    The Blossoming of a National Literature

    Most of the reading material in America was imported or taken from British sources.

    Following the War of Independence and the War of 1812, American literature received a boost from the wave of nationalism.

    Washington Irving- the first American to win international recognition as a literary figure.

    James Fenimore Cooper- the first American novelist to gain world fame.

     

    Trumpeters of Transcendentalism

    The transcendentalist movement of the 1830s resulted from a liberalizing of the Puritan theology.  It also owed to foreign influences.  The transcendentalists rejected the theory that all knowledge comes to the mind through the senses.  Truth, rather, transcends the senses and can't be found just by observation.  Associated traits included self-reliance, self-culture, and self-discipline.

    Ralph Waldo Emerson- transcendentalist poet and philosopher; urged American writers to forget European traditions and write about American interests.

    Henry David Thoreau- transcendentalist who believed that one should reduce his bodily wants so as to gain time for a pursuit of truth through study and meditation. 

    Glowing Literary Lights

    Not all poets and writers of the time were transcendentalists.

    Henry Wadsworth Longfellow- one of the most famous poets to come from America wrote for the refined class; was adopted by the less-cultured class.

     

    Literary Individuals and Dissenters

    Edgar Allan Poe- wrote with a pessimistic tone, not like the literature at the time.

    Herman Melville- writer of the novel Moby Dick. 

     

    Portrayers of the Past

    A distinguished group of American historians was emerging at the same time that other international writers were coming about.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

     Slavery was dying out, but the invention of the cotton gin prompted the plantation owners to keep their slaves as they now produced a high profit harvesting cotton.

     

    "Cotton is King!"

    The South controlled Britain because 75% of Britain's cotton came from the South.

     

    The Planter "Aristocracy"

    The antebellum South was more of an oligarchy-a government ran by a few.  The government was heavily affected by the planter aristocracy.  The dominance of aristocracy in the South widened the gap between the rich and poor because the aristocrats made all the decisions in their favor in government.

    The Southern plantation wife commanded the female slaves.

     

    Slaves of the Slave System

    The economic structure in the South became increasingly monopolistic.  The plantation system was very financially unstable.  The temptation to over-speculate (no profit w/material held) in land and slaves caused many planters to plunge into debt.

     

    The White Majority

    The less wealthy slave owners were below the wealthy slaves owners.  The smaller slave owners didn't own a majority of the slaves, but they made up a majority of the masters.  Next came the large number of whites (3/4 of South white population) who didn't own slaves.  These whites were a support of slavery because they wanted to eventually own a slave or two and achieve the "American dream" of moving up socially in society.  The less prosperous nonslave-holding whites were known as "poor white trash" and "hillbillies."  Next came the mountain whites who lived in the valley of the Appalachian range.  Civilization hadn't reached them yet, and they supported Abraham Lincoln's Union party.

     

    Free Blacks:  Slaves Without Masters

    Many free blacks settled in New Orleans. 

    In the South, the free blacks were prohibited from having certain jobs and forbidden from testifying against whites in court.  They were known as the "3rd Race." 

    In the North, the free blacks as individuals were hated more than in the South. 

    White southerners liked the black as an individual, but hated the race.  The white northerner professed to like the race, but disliked the individual.

     

    Plantation Slavery

    Because the price of "black ivory" (slaves) was so high, slaves were smuggled into the South despite the importation of African slaves into American ended in 1808.  Most slaves were the offspring of slaves already in America.

    Planters regarded slaves as major investments.

     

    Life Under the Lash

    "Black Belt"- region where most slaves were concentrated; stretched from South Carolina and Georgia into Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana.

    Blacks managed to sustain family life in slavery. 

    Blacks molded their own distinctive religious forms from a mixture of Christian and African elements.

     

    The Burdens of Bondage

    Slaves were not permitted to read because reading brought ideas and ideas brought discontent.

    Slavery in the South was known as the "peculiar institution."

     

    Early Abolitionism

    American Colonization Society- founded in 1817; focused on transporting the blacks back to Africa.

    Republic of Liberia- founded in 1822 as a place for former slaves.

    The Second Great Awakening inflamed the hearts of many abolitionists against the sin of slavery.

    Theodore Dwight Weld- abolitionist who spoke against slavery; wrote the pamphlet American Slavery As It Is (1839) which made arguments against slavery; went to Lane Theological Seminary.

     

    Radical Abolitionism

    William Lloyd Garrison- wrote a militantly anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator; publicly burned a copy of the Constitution.

    Sojourner Truth- freed black woman who fought for black emancipation and women's rights.

    Frederick Douglass- lectured widely for abolitionism; looked to politics to end slavery.

     

    The South Lashes Back

    In 1832, states were moving to make the emancipation of any kind illegal.  This nullification crisis of 1832 caused the voice of white southern abolitionism to be silenced.

    The Southerners argued that slavery was supported by the Bible.

    The Gag Resolution required all anti-slavery appeals to be tabled without debate in the House of Representatives.

    In 1835, the government ordered the southern postmasters to destroy abolitionist material due to anti-abolitionist mobbing and rioting at a postal office in Charleston, South Carolina.

     

    The Abolitionist Impact in the North

    Abolitionists were, for a long time, unpopular in many parts of the North.  The southern planters owed much money to the northern bankers-should the Union dissolve, the debts would be lost.  New England textile mills were fed with cotton raised by the slaves-if slavery was abolished, then the vital supply would be cut off and there would be unemployment.

    "Free soilers" opposed extending slavery to the western territories.


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

     The Accession of "Tyler Too"

    Both Whigs, Daniel Webster, as secretary of state, and Henry Clay, the king of the Whigs and their ablest spokesman in the Senate, were set to control the Presidency.  Before Henry Harrison's first term, he contracted pneumonia.  Only 4 weeks into the term, he died.  This hampered Webster and Clay plan.

    John Tyler- Vice President to Henry Harrison; successor as President following Harrison's death; "Tyler too"; a Democrat at heart and contradicted many of the Whig Party ideas; vetoes Banks of United States; lowered tariff.

     

    John Tyler:  A President without a Party

    When the Whig Party came to power in the presidency, many changes came about.  The first one was financial reform.  The independent treasury system was ended.  A bill for a "Fiscal Bank," which would establish a new Bank of the United States went through Congress, but President Tyler vetoed it.  The Whigs presented a "Fiscal Corporation" but the president again vetoed it.

    President Tyler was rejected by his former Whig Party.

    Tyler signed the Tariff of 1842 which was a protective Whig tariff.

     

    A War of Words in Britain

    During the 19th Century, there was much hatred of Britain.  This sparked the "Third War with England."  This war was only fought with paper broadsides.

    In 1837, there was a small rebellion in Canada.  It failed because it was supported by few Canadians and it could not enforce unpopular laws in the face of popular opposition.

    In 1837, the American ship, the Caroline, was sunk by a British force.  Washington officials made ineffective protests against the attack.  In 1841, British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to 130 Virginia slaves who had rebelled and captured the American ship Creole.

     

    Manipulating the Maine Maps

    In 1842, the British wanted to build a road westward from the seaport of Halifax to Quebec, running through disputed territory.  The London Foreign Office sent Lord Ashburton to Washington to settle the dispute.  He and Daniel Webster negotiated and gave the Americans 7,000mi2 of the 12,000mi2 of land in dispute.

     

    The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

    In the 8 years since 1836, Mexico considered Texas as a province in revolt and refused to recognize Texas's independence. Mexico threatened war if the America protected Texas.

    Texas made treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium.  Britain wanted to have relations with Texas because Britain could try to make Texas tear America apart.  Britain wanted Texas as an independent ally.

     

    The Belated Texas Nuptials

    Texas became a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844.  The Democrats were pro-expansion and were for annexing Texas.

    President Tyler signed a resolution in 1845 that invited Texas to become the 28th state in America.

     

    Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

    Four nations claimed Oregon Country at one time: Spain, Russia, Britain, and the United States.  Spain dropped out of America with the Florida Treaty of 1819 and Russia dropped out with the treaties of 1824 and 1825.

    Britain controlled the portion north of the Columbia River.  By 1846, about 5,000 Americans settled south of the Columbia River.  The British had a lesser population but it did not want to give up its claims to the Columbia River.  The disputed territory in Oregon Country became an issue in the election of 1844.

     

    A Mandate for Manifest Destiny

    In the election of 1844, the Whig party chose Henry Clay, and the Democrats chose James K. Polk. James K. Polk was the Speaker of the House of Representatives for four years and governor of Tennessee for two terms. He beat Henry Clay to win the election of 1844; "Young Hickory"; said he would protect Texas; he avoided the issue of slavery.

    In the 1840s and 1850s, many Americans felt that God had "manifestly" destined the American people to spread their democratic institutions over the entire continent and over South America as well.

    Democrats strongly supported the idea of Manifest Destiny.

    Henry Clay straddled the issue whether or not to annex Texas.

     

    Polk the Purposeful

    Polk had four main goals for his presidency -

    1.  A lower tariff. 

    Robert J. Walker- Secretary of Treasury to James Polk; devised the Walker Tariff of 1846, a tariff-for-revenue bill that reduced the rates of the Tariff of 1842 from 32% to 25%.

    2.  The second goal of Polk was to restore the independent treasury, which the Whigs dropped in 1841 because the Whigs won the presidency.

    3./4.  The third and fourth goals of Polk were the acquisition of California and the settlement of the Oregon dispute without violence.  Britain presented Polk with the Oregon Country up to 490.  The offer was approved and a reasonable compromise was reached without a shot fired.

     

    Misunderstandings with Mexico

    The population of California in 1845 consisted of Spanish-Mexicans and Indians. 

    Polk wanted to buy California (The Bear Flag Republic) from Mexico but relations with Mexico were poor due to the annexation of Texas.

    John Slidell- due to rumors of Britain preparing to buy California, was sent to Mexico City in 1845 by Polk to buy California for $25 million-the offer was rejected.

     

    American Blood on American Soil

    On January 13, 1846, Polk ordered 4,000 men under General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande.  On May 9, 1846, Polk asked Congress to declare war on Mexico of the basis of unpaid claims and Slidell's rejection of the purchasing of California.  Rather, Mexican troops attacked American troops that night and war was declared.

     

    The Mastering of Mexico

    Polk wanted California, not war.  But when the war came, he hoped that America could pull out with California.

    Generals in Mexican-American War:

                   General Stephen W. Kearny- led 1,700 troops to Santa Fe.

                   General Zachary Taylor- won many victories including a great victory over a large Mexican force at Buena Vista ; future President

                   General Winfield Scott- succeeded in battling his way up to Mexico City by September 1847; 1st choice of President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union army in the Civil War.


    Fighting Mexico for Peace

    Nicholas P. Trist- chief clear of the State Department; signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848.

    The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo gave Texas to America and yielded the area stretching westward to Oregon and the ocean, including California, for a cost of $15 million.  Southerners realized that the South would do well not to want all of Mexico because Mexico was anti-slavery.  The treaty was opposed by those who wanted all of Mexico and those who wanted none of it.

     

    Profit and Loss in Mexico

    The Mexican War provided field experience for the officers destined to become generals in the Civil War, including Captain Robert E. Lee and Lieutenant Ulysses S. Grant. 

    The Mexican War brought about the conflict of slavery between the states. 

    David Wilmot- proposed the amendment that stated that the territory from Mexico should remain slave-free.  This Wilmot Amendment never passed the Senate because the Southern members did not want to be robbed of possible slave states to arise in the future from the land gain in the Treaty of Guadalupe.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

     The Popular Sovereignty Panacea

    Popular sovereignty meant that the sovereign people of a territory should determine the statues of slavery.   It was popular with politicians because it was a comfortable compromise between the abolitionists and the slaver-holders.

    At the Democratic National Convention at Baltimore, the Democrats chose General Lewis Cass, a veteran of the war of 1812, as their candidate for presidency.  Cass supported slavery.

     

    Political Triumphs for General Taylor

    The Whigs, who met in Philadelphia, chose Zachary Taylor as their candidate for presidency.  Taylor did not have an official stance on slavery, but he did own many slaves.  Henry Clay had not been chosen because he had too many enemies.

    The Free Soil Party emerged.  It was formed by antislavery men of the North, who didn't trust Cass or Taylor.  They supported federal aid for internal improvements.  They argued that with slavery, wage labor would wither away and with it, the chance for the American worker to own property.

    Zachary Taylor won the election of 1848 (sworn into office in 1849).

     

    "Californy Gold"

    In 1848, gold was discovered in California.  The rush of people in search of gold in California brought much violence and disease that the small government in California couldn't handle.  Needing protection, the Californians bypassed the territorial stage of a state, drafted their own Constitution (excluding slavery) in 1849, and applied to Congress for admission into the Union. 

    The southerners objected to California's admission as a free state because it would be upset the balance of free and slave states in the Senate.

     

    Sectional Balance and the Underground Railroad

    Harriet Tubman- conductor of the Underground Railroad who rescued hundreds of slaves.

    In 1850, southerners were demanding a new and strict fugitive-slave law.  (The old fugitive-slave law passed by Congress in 1793 was very weak.)  The slave owners rested their argument on the Constitution, which protected slavery.

     

    Twilight of the Senatorial Giants

    The congressional debate of 1850 was called to address the possible admission of California to the Union and threats of secession by southerners.  Known as the "immortal trio," Henry Clay, John Calhoun, and Daniel Webster spoke at the forum.

    Henry Clay, the "Great Pacificator," proposed a series of compromises.  He suggested that the North enact a stricter fugitive-slave law. 

    John Calhoun, the "Great Nullifier," proposed to leave slavery alone, return runaway slaves, give the South its rights as a minority, and restore the political balance.  His view was that two presidents would be elected, one from the South and one from the North, each yielding one veto.

    Daniel Webster proposed that all reasonable compromises should be made with the South and that a new fugitive-slave law be formed.  Although, he was against slavery and he supported Wilmot Proviso, because he felt that cotton could not grow in the territories gained from the Mexican-American War.

     

    Deadlock and Danger on Capital Hill

    William H. Seward- senator of New York; antislavery and argued that God's moral law was higher than the Constitution.

    President Zachary Taylor seemed bent on vetoing any compromise between the North and South that went through Congress.

     

    Breaking the Congressional Logjam

    In 1850, President Taylor died suddenly and Vice President Millard Fillmore took the presidency.  President Fillmore signed a series of compromises.

    During this time period, a second Era of Good Feelings came about.  Talk of succession subsided and the Northerners and Southerners were determined that the compromises would end the issue of slavery.

     

    Balancing the Compromise Scales

    Within the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state and the territories of New Mexico and Utah were open to slavery on the basis of popular sovereignty.  Thus, the Senate was unbalanced in favor of the North. 

    The Fugitive-Slave Law of 1850, the Bloodhound Bill, said that fleeing slaves could not testify on their own behalf and they were denied a jury trial.  Northerners who aided slaves trying to escape were subject to fines and jail time.  This was the one Southern gain from the Compromise of 1850.

    The events in the 1850s caused the Northerners to resist succession.

     

    Defeat and Doom for the Whigs

    In the Democratic Convention of 1852 in Baltimore, the Democrats chose Franklin Pierce as their candidate for presidency.  He supported the finality of everything, including the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Law.

    Meeting in Baltimore, the Whigs chose Winfield Scott as their candidate for presidency.  He also praised the Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Law.

    The votes for the Whig party were split between Northern Whigs, who hated the party's platform but accepted the candidate, and Southern Whigs, who supported the platform but not the candidate.

    Franklin Pierce won the election of 1852.  The election of 1852 marked the end of the Whig party.  It died on the issue of the Fugitive-Slave Law.  The Whig party had upheld the ideal of the Union through their electoral strength in the South.

     

    President Pierce the Expansionist

    The victory of the Mexican War stimulated the spirit of Manifest Destiny.  Americans were looking ahead to possible canal routes and to the islands near them, notably Spain's Cuba.

    Americans lusted for territory after the Compromise of 1850.

    William Walker installed himself as the President of Nicaragua in July 1856.  He legalized slavery, but was overthrown by surrounding Central American countries and killed in 1860.

    Nicaragua was the world's leading marine and commercial power.  The British, fearing the Americans would monopolize the trade arteries there, secured a foothold in Greytown. 

    The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty said that neither America nor Britain would fortify or secure exclusive control over any isthmian waterway (waterway between two bodies of land).

    In 1854, Japan was persuaded to sign a treaty that started the trade of America with Japan.

     

    Coveted Cuba:  Pearl of the Antilles

    Cuba was prized by Southerners who saw it as the most desirable slave territory available.  They felt future states arising from it would eventually restore the balance in the Senate.

    President Polk had offered $100 million to buy from Spain, but Spain refused.  In 1850-1851, two expeditions full of Southern men descended upon Cuba, with the hopes of taking it over.

    Spanish officials in Cuba seized an American ship, the Black Warrior, in 1854.  It was now time for President Pierce to provoke a war with Spain and take Cuba.

    The secretary of state instructed the American ministers in Spain, England, and France to prepare confidential recommendations for the acquisition of Cuba.  This document was known as the Ostend Manifesto.  It stated that if Spain didn't allow America to buy Cuba for $120 million, then America would attack Cuba on grounds that Spain's continued ownership of Cuba endangered American interests.  The document eventually leaked out and the Northerners foiled the President's slave-driven plan.

     

    Pacific Railroad Promoters and the Gadsden Purchase

    With the acquisition of California and Oregon, the transcontinental railroad was proposed.  The question was where to have the railroad begin-the North or the South. 

    Secretary of War Jefferson Davis had James Gadsden buy an area of Mexico from Santa Anna for which the railroad would pass.  Gadsden negotiated a treaty in 1853 and the Gadsden Purchase area was ceded to the United States for $10 million. 

    The railroad ran from California to Houston, Texas.

     

    Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Scheme

    Stephen A. Douglas- longed to break the North-South deadlock over westward expansion; proposed the Territory of Nebraska be sliced into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska.  Their status on slavery would be decided by popular sovereignty.  Kansas would be presumed to be a slave state, while Nebraska would be a free state.

    This Kansas-Nebraska Act ran into the problem of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which forbade slavery in the proposed Nebraska Territory.  Douglas was forced to propose the repealing of the Missouri Compromise.  President Pierce fully supported the Kansas-Nebraska Bill.

     

    Congress Legislates a Civil War

    The Kansas-Nebraska act wrecked two compromises: the Compromise of 1820 which the act repealed; and the Compromise of 1850, which northern opinion repealed indirectly.

    The Democratic Party was shattered by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. 

    The Republican Party was formed in the Mid-West and it had moral protests against the gains of slavery.  It included Whigs, Democrats, Free-Soilers, Know-Nothings, and other foes of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  The Southerners hated the Republican Party.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion

     The Kansas Territory erupted in violence in 1855 between proslavery and antislavery arguments.  In 1857, the Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision invalidated the Missouri Compromise of 1820.

     

    Stowe and Helper:  Literary Incendiaries

    Harriet Beecher Stowe, who was white, published Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 as an attempt to show the North the horrors of slavery.  The novel was published abroad, including France and Britain.  It helped to start the Civil War and to end it.

    Hinton R. Helper, a non-aristocrat from North Carolina, wrote The Impending Crisis of the South in 1857.  Hated by both slavery and blacks, it attempted to use statistics to prove indirectly that the non-slaveholding whites were the ones who suffered the most from slavery.

     

    The North-South Contest for Kansas

    Most of the people who came into Kansas were just westward-moving pioneers.  A minority of the people moving to Kansas was financed by groups of northern abolitionists who wanted to see Kansas a free state.  The New England Emigrant Aid Company was one of these groups.

    In 1855, the day that the first territorial legislatures were to be elected, many pro-slavery people came in from slave- state Missouri to vote, enacting pro-slavery officials.  The slavery supporters set up their own government at Shawnee Mission.  The free-soilers then set up their own government in Topeka, giving the Kansas territory two governments.  (Kansas and Nebraska territories were to have popular sovereignty in choosing slavery according to the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  Nebraska was so far north that its future as a free state was never in question.) 

    In 1856, the Civil War in Kansas started when a group of pro-slavery riders burned down a part of the free-soil town of Lawrence.

     

    Kansas in Convulsion

    John Brown- fanatical abolitionist who, in May of 1856 in response to the pro-slavery events in Lawrence, hacked to death 5 presumed pro-slavery men at Pottawatomie Creek.

    Civil War flared up in Kansas in 1856, and continued until in merged with the nation's Civil War of 1861-1865.

    In 1857, Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood.  Its citizens were going to vote again on whether or not to have slavery in the state of Kansas.  In order to keep the free-soilers from creating a free state, the pro-slavery politicians created the Lecompton Constitution.  The document stated that the people were not allowed to vote for or against the constitution as a whole, rather, they could vote on whether the constitution would be "with slavery" or "without slavery."  If slavery was voted against, then one of the provisions in the constitution would protect those who already owned slaves in Kansas.  Many free-soilers boycotted voting, so the pro-slaveryites voted, approving the constitution to include slavery.

    James Buchanan, a democrat, succeeded Pierce as the President of the United States.  He had a strong southern influence and approved of the Lecompton Constitution.  Senator Stephen Douglas was strongly opposed to the document and he campaigned against it.  Eventually, a compromise was reached that enabled the people of Kansas to vote on the Lecompton Constitution, itself.  It was revoked by the free-soil voters, but Kansas remained a territory until 1861, when the southern states seceded from the Union.

    President Buchanan divided the powerful Democratic Party by enraging the Douglas Democrats of the North.  He divided the only remaining national party and with it, the Union.

     

    "Bully" Brooks and His Bludgeon

    In 1856, abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts made an intense speech condemning pro-slavery men, also insulting South Carolina and state representative, Preston Brooks.  In response to this, Brooks, on May 22, 1856, beat Sumner with a cane to unconsciousness. 

    The speech made by Sumner was applauded in the North, angering the South.

    The clash between Sumner and Butler showed how violent and impassioned the Northerners and Southerners were for their cause.

     

    "Old Buck" Versus "The Pathfinder"

    Meeting in Cincinnati, the Democrats chose James Buchanan as their presidential candidate to run in the election of 1856 because he wasn't influenced by the Kansas-Nebraska Act as Pierce and Douglas had been.  The Democratic platform campaigned for popular sovereignty.

    Meeting in Philadelphia, the Republicans chose Captain John C. Fremont because he was also not influenced by the Kansas-Nebraska Act.  The Republican platform campaigned against the extension of slavery.

    The American Party, also called the Know-Nothing Party, was formed by Protestants who were alarmed by the increase of immigrants from Ireland and Germany.  They chose former president Millard Fillmore as their candidate for theelection of 1856.

     

    The Electoral Fruits of 1856

    James Buchanan won the election of 1856. 

    It was quite possibly a good thing that the Republican Party did not win the election, because some southerners said the election of a Republican president would mean war, forcing them to secede.

    This election was a small victory for the Republican Party because the party was just 2 years old, yet putting up a fight for the Democrats.

     

    The Dred Scott Bombshell

    Dread Scott, a slave who had lived with his master (residence in Missouri) for 5 years in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory, sued for his freedom on the basis of his long residence on free soil.  The Supreme Court ruled that because a slave was private property, he could be taken into any territory and legally held there in slavery.  The Fifth Amendment forbade Congress from depriving people of their property without the due process of law.  The Court went further and stated that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional and that Congress had no power to ban slavery from the territories, no matter what the territorial legislatures themselves wanted.

    This victory delighted Southerners, while it infuriated Northerners and supporters of popular sovereignty.

     

    The Financial Crash of 1857

    The panic of 1857 broke out due to California gold inflating the currency and over-speculation in land and railroads.  The North was the hardest hit, while the South, with its cotton, continued to flourish.  

    Northerners came up with the idea of the government giving 160-acre plots of farming land to pioneers for free.  Two groups opposed the idea:  Eastern industrialists feared that the free land would drain its supply of workers and the South feared that the West would fill up with free-soilers who would form anti-slavery states, unbalancing the Senate even more.  Congress passed a homestead act in 1860, making public lands available at $0.25/acre, but it was vetoed by President Buchanan.

    The Tariff of 1857 lowered duties to about 20%.  The North blamed it for causing the panic, because they felt they needed higher duties for more protection.  This gave the Republicans two economic issues for the election of 1860:  protection for the unprotected and farms for the farmless.

     

    An Illinois Rail-Splitter Emerges

    In Illinois's senatorial election of 1858, the Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln to run against Democrat Stephen Douglas.  Lincoln served in the Illinois legislature as a Whig politician and he served one term in Congress.

     

    The Great Debate:  Lincoln versus Douglas

    Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of seven debates that were arranged from August to October 1858.

    The most famous debate came at Freeport, Illinois.  Lincoln asked Douglas, "What if the people of a territory should vote down slavery?"  The Supreme Court in the Dred Scott decision had decreed that the people could not.  Douglas's reply to him became known as the "Freeport Doctrine."  Douglas argued that no matter how the Supreme Court ruled, slavery would stay down if the people voted it down.  Laws to protect slavery would have to be voted on by the territorial legislatures.

    Douglas won the senatorial election, but Lincoln won the popular vote. 

     

    John Brown:  Murderer or Martyr?

    Abolitionist John Brown's scheme was to invade the South secretly with a handful of followers, call upon the slaves to rise, give the slaves weapons, and establish a black free state as a sanctuary.

    In October 1859, he seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry.  Because many of his supporters failed to show up, he was caught and sent to death by hanging.  When Brown died, he lived on as a martyr to the abolitionist cause.

    The Disruption of the Democrats

    For the election of 1860, the Democrats met in Charleston, South Carolina to choose their candidate.  The northern wing of the party wanted to nominate Stephen Douglas, but the southern "fire-eaters" saw him as a traitor for his unpopular opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and unpopular Freeport Doctrine reply.  After the delegates from most of the cotton states walked out, the Democrats met again in Baltimore to elect a candidate.  This time, Douglas was elected, despite the fact that the southerners again walked out.

    The southern Democrats met in Baltimore to choose their own Democratic presidential candidate.  They chose vice-president John C. Breckenridge.  The platform favored the extension of slavery into the territories and the annexation of slave-populated Cuba.

    The Constitutional Union Party was formed by former Whigs and Know-Nothings.  They nominated John Bell as their presidential candidate.

     

    A Rail-Splitter Splits the Union

    The Republican Party met in Chicago and nominated Abraham Lincoln as their presidential candidate.

    The Republican platform had an appeal to nearly every part of the nation.  For the free-soilers, non-extension of slavery; for the northern manufacturers, a protective tariff; for the immigrants, no abridgment of rights; for the Northwest, a Pacific railroad; for the West, internal improvements at federal expense; and for the farmers, free homesteads (plots of land) from the public domain.

    The Southerners said that if Abraham Lincoln was elected as President, the Union would split.

     

    The Electoral Upheaval of 1860

    Abraham Lincoln won the election of 1860, but he did not win with the popular vote.  60% of the nation voted for another candidate.  10 southern states didn't even allow Lincoln to appear on the ballot.

    South Carolina was happy at the outcome of the election because it now had a reason to secede.

    Even though the Republicans won the presidential election, they did not control the House of Representatives, the Senate, or the Supreme Court.

     

    The Secessionist Exodus

    In December 1860, South Carolina's legislature met in Charleston and voted unanimously to secede.  6 other states joined South Carolina:  Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 

    The 7 seceders met at Montgomery, Alabama in February 1861 and created a government known as the Confederate States of America.  The states chose Jefferson Davis, a recent member of the U.S. Senate from Mississippi, as President.

    During this time of secession, Buchanan was still President for Lincoln was not sworn in until 1861.  President Buchanan did not hold the seceders in the Union by force because he was surrounded by southern advisors and he could find no authority in the Constitution to stop them with force.  One important reason was that the tiny army of 15,000 men of the Union was needed to control the Indians of the West.

     

    The Collapse of Compromise

    The Crittenden amendments to the Constitution were designed to appease the South.  They said that slavery in the territories was to be prohibited north of 360 30', but south of that line was to be given federal protection in all territories existing or herby acquired.  Basically, states north of the line could come into the Union with or without slavery, depending on what they chose, but below that line, there would always be slavery.  President Lincoln rejected the amendments.

     

    Farewell to the Union

    The southern states seceded fearing that the Republican Party would threaten their rights to own slaves.

    Many southerners felt that their secession would be unopposed by the North.  They assumed that the northern manufacturers and bankers, dependent upon southern cotton and markets, wouldn't dare cut off the South.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South

    The Menace of Secession

    President Abraham Lincoln declared that secession was impractical because the North and South were not geographically divided.  He also stated that with secession, new controversies would arise, including the national debt, federal territories, and the fugitive-slave issue.

     

    South Carolina Assails Fort Sumter

    When President Lincoln was elected, there were only two significant forts in the South that flew the Union's flag.  Fort Sumter, in the Charleston harbor, needed supplies in order to support its men.  Therefore, Lincoln adopted amiddle-of-the-road solution.  He told the South that the North was sending provisions to the fort, not supplies for reinforcement.  Taking the move by Lincoln as an act of aggression, the South Carolinians fired upon Fort Sumter onApril 12, 1861. 

    Virginia, Arkansas, and Tennessee all seceded after the attack on Fort Sumter.  The 11 seceded states were known as the "submissionists."

    Lincoln now had a reason for an armed response, and he called upon the Union states to supply militiamen.

     

    Brothers' Blood and Border Blood

    Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, and West Virginia were the Border States.  They were the only slave states that hadn't seceded from the Union.  The Border States contained the Ohio River, a vital necessity for both the North and the South.

    The official statement that Lincoln made for war was to fight to preserve the Union, not to end slavery.

    The Five Civilized Tribes (Native American) (Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles) sided with the Confederacy.  These tribes were allowed to send delegates to the Confederacy congress.  Most of the Plains Indians sided with the Union.

     

    The Balance of Forces

    The South had the advantage of fighting defensively on its own land and it did not have to win in order to preserve the Confederacy-it just had to fight to a draw. 

    Abraham Lincoln offered Robert E. Lee command of the Northern army, but Lee turned the job down deciding to fight for his home state of Virginia.  Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson was Lee's chief lieutenant.

    There were not a lot of factories in the South, but the South was able to seize federal weapons from the Union.

    The North held ¾ of the nation's wealth, and ¾ of the nation's railroad system.  It also had nearly twice as large of a population of the South as more and more immigrants arrived in the North from Europe.

     

    Dethroning King Cotton

    The South counted on foreign intervention to win the war.

    The common people of Britain supported the North, hoping to extinguish slavery.  Britain restrained its own and French ironclads from breaking the Union blockade. 

    The British manufacturers depended upon cotton from the South, but before the war from 1857 to 1860, a surplus of cotton had developed in Britain, allowing it to function without purchasing cotton from the South.  In 1861, the cotton supply ran out and many British factory workers were laid off.  As Union armies penetrated the South, they sent cotton to Britain.  King Wheat and King Corn, which were produced great quantities in the North, proved to be more powerful than King Cotton.  Therefore, Britain wasn't able to break the blockade to gain cotton, because if it had, it would have lost the granary from the North.

     

    The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

    The Trent affair occurred in late 1861.  A Union warship stopped a British mail steamer, the Trent, and removed 2 Confederate diplomats who were heading to Europe.  Britain started to send troops to Canada in retaliation, but the situation was ended when President Lincoln freed the Confederate prisoners.

    Britain shipyards were unknowingly producing Confederate commerce-raiders.  The British ships left their ports unarmed, picked up arms elsewhere, and captured Union ships.  One notable ship was the Alabama.

     

    Foreign Flare-Ups

    In 1863, two Confederate warships were being constructed in the British shipyard of John Laid and Sons.  Their large iron rams would have destroyed the Union blockade.  To avoid infuriating the North, the London government bought the ships for the Royal Navy.

    The British established the Dominion of Canada in 1867.  It was partly designed to strengthen the Canadians against the possible vengeance of the United States. 

    Emperor Napoleon III of France dispatched a French army to occupy Mexico City in 1863.  He installed Maximilian as emperor of Mexico City.  The actions of Napoleon were in direct violation of the Monroe Doctrine.  Napoleon was counting on the Union not retaliating due to its weakness.  When the Civil War ended in 1865, Napoleon was forced to abandon Maximilian and Mexico City.

     

    President Davis versus President Lincoln

    The one defect of the South was that its own states could secede.  Some state troops refused to serve outside their borders.

    President Jefferson Davis of the Confederacy often had disputes with his own congress.  Davis's task as President proved to be beyond his powers.  Lincoln and the North enjoyed a long-established government that was financially stable and fully recognized at home and abroad.

     

    Limitations on Wartime Liberties

    Due to the fact that Congress was not in session when the war broke out, President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade, increased the size of the Federal army, directed the secretary of the Treasury to advance $2 million without appropriation or security to 3 private citizens for military purposes, and suspended the habeas corpus (stated that a citizen could not be held without the due process of a trial) - all of which were required to be approved by Congress.

     

    Volunteers and Draftees:  North and South

    Due to lack of volunteers, Congress passed in 1863 a federal draft law.  Men who were called in the draft could pay $300 in order to buy a replacement. The Confederacy also passed a draft law.

     

    The Economic Stresses of War

    The North increased tariffs and excise taxes to financially support the war.  It also created the first income tax. 

    In early 1861, after enough anti-protection Southern members had seceded, Congress passed the Morrill Tariff Act.  It was a high protective tariff that increased duties 5%-10%.  The increases were designed to raise additional revenue and provide more protection for the prosperous manufacturers.  A protective tariff became identified with the Republican Party.

    The Washington Treasury issued green-backed paper money.  The greenbacks were backed by the nation's fluctuating gold supply.  Hence, the value of the greenback was constantly changing.

    In 1863, Congress authorized the National Banking System.  It was designed to stimulate the sale of government bonds and to establish a standard bank-note currency.  Banks who joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money backed by the bonds.

    The Confederate government was forced to print blue-backed paper money that was subject to "runaway inflation."

     

    The North's Economic Boom

    Newly invented laborsaving machinery enabled the North to expand economically.  Mechanical reapers (farm machines used to harvest grain) allowed for men to leave the farms for the war and provided grain that contributed to Northern profits.

    The discovery of petroleum in Pennsylvania in 1859 led to a rush of people known as the "Fifty-Niners."

    The Civil War opened up many jobs for women that were originally occupied by men.

     

    A Crashed Cotton Kingdom

    The North's blockade severely hampered the South's economy.  Transportation in the South collapsed during the Civil War.  Cotton capitalism had lost out to industrial capitalism.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Furnace of Civil War

     Bull Run Ends the "Ninety-Day War"

    President Abraham Lincoln concluded that an attack on a smaller Confederate force at Bull Run would be worth trying.  If successful, the victory would show the superiority of Union arms and might eventually lead to the capture ofCharleston. 

    On July 21, 1861, the Union and Confederate forces met.  A Union victory was thought to be for sure, as evident when spectators showed up.  The Confederates won as "Stonewall" Jackson held his line of Confederate soldiers until reinforcements arrived. 

     

    "Tardy George" McClellan and the Peninsular Campaign

    In 1861, General George B. McClellan was given command of the Army of the Potomac. 

    Starting the Peninsula Campaign, McClellan's army launched a waterborne attack in the spring of 1862 and captured Yorktown.  He came within sight of Richmond and attacked "Stonewall" Jackson.  General Robert E. Lee launched a counterattack against the Union forces-the Seven Days' Battles-from June 26 to July 2, 1862 and drove McClellan's forces back to the sea.

    The Northern military plan had 6 components:    1. Slowly suffocate the South by blockading its coasts.

     2. Liberate the slaves and undermine the very economic foundation of the South.

     3. Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River.

     4. Dismember the Confederacy by sending troops through Georgia and the Carolinas.

                                                                                         5. Capture its capital at Richmond.

     6. Try everywhere to engage the enemy's main strength and grind it into submission.

     

    The War at Sea

    The Northern sea blockades were concentrated at the principal ports.

    Blockade was the chief offensive weapon of Britain.  Britain did not want to tie its hands in a future war with the U.S. by insisting that Lincoln maintain impossibly high blockading standards.

    In order to combat the strong blockades, ships were developed to run through them.  Some fast ships had the capability of running through blockades in order to make profits transporting cotton.  These ships were able to break the blockades up until the latter part of the war when blockades were strengthened.

    In 1862, the Confederates created the Merrimack, renamed the Virginia.  It was an old U.S. wooden ship that was plated with metal armor.  It was a great threat to the Northern blockades because it had the ability to crush through the wooden ships. 

    On March 9, 1862, the Union ironclad, the Monitor, and the Confederate Merrimack met and fought to a standstill.

     

    The Pivotal Point:  Antietam

    After General Lee crushed McClellan's forces in Richmond, Lee moved northward.  In the Second Battle of Bull Run (August 29-30, 1862), General Lee defeated General Pope's Union forces. 

    As Lee moved into Maryland, he met McClellan's forces again at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862.  McClellan managed to halt Lee's forces after his forces discovered Lee's battle plans.  Although not a victory, the Union stopped the Confederate march northward.

    Antietam provided Lincoln with the military backing to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 23, 1862.  On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued a final proclamation.  Lincoln now made the Civil War a war to end slavery because he declared that "the rebels could not experiment for 10 years trying to destroy the government and if they fail still come back into the Union unhurt."

    The Confiscation Act of 1862 punished "traitors" by declaring their slaves property of war who shall be free.

     

    A Proclamation without Emancipation

    The Emancipation Proclamation called for the freeing of all slaves, although it did not actually free them.  Lincoln did not even enforce the freeing of slaves in the Border States for fear that they, too, would secede.  The proclamation fundamentally changed the nature of the war because it effectively removed any chance of a negotiated settlement between the North and the South.

    The Emancipation Proclamation caused an outcry to rise from the South who said that Lincoln was trying to stir up slave rebellion.

    The North now had a much stronger moral cause.  It had to preserve the Union and free the slaves.

     

    Blacks Battle Bondage

    After the Emancipation Proclamation and as manpower ran low, blacks were allowed to enlist in the Union army.  Towards the end of the war, the Confederacy allowed blacks to enlist, but by then it was too late.

     

    Lee's Last Lunge at Gettysburg

    After Antietam, Lincoln replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac with General A. E. Burnside.  But due to Burnside's massive defeat at Fredericksburg, Virginia on December 13, 1862, he was replaced by Hooker.  During the battle at Chancellorsville, Virginia on May 2-4, 1863, Hooker was badly beaten, but not before Jackson was mortally wounded.  Hooker was replaced by General George G. Meade.

    As Lee moved his Confederate force to the north again (this time to Pennsylvania), he was met by Meade's force at Gettysburg on July 1-3, 1863.  The failure of General George Pickett's charge enabled the Union to win the battle.  President Jefferson Davis was planning to deliver negotiators to the Washington D.C. with the Confederate victory at Gettysburg.  Since the Union won the battle instead, Lincoln did not allow the negotiators to come.

     

    The War in the West

    Ulysses S. Grant became a colonel in the Union volunteer army.  His first victory was when he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February 1862.  He then moved to capture the junction of the main Confederate north-south and east-west railroads in the Mississippi Valley at Corinth.  His plan was foiled when he was defeated by a Confederate force at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6-7, 1862.

    General Grant was given command of the Union forces attacking Vicksburg.  The city fell and surrendered on July 4, 1863.

    Due to back-to-back Union military victories at the Battle of Gettysburg and the Battle of Vicksburg, all Confederate hopes for foreign help were lost.

     

    Sherman Scorches Georgia

    General Grant won the battle at Chattanooga, and the state of Tennessee was cleared of Confederates.  Grant was made general in chief due to this win.

    The invasion of Georgia was left up to General William Tecumseh Sherman.  He captured Atlanta in September of 1864 and burned it in November.  He destroyed rail lines and burned buildings.  He continued on through Georgia, with the main purposes of destroying supplies destined for the Confederate army and to weaken the morale of the men at the front by waging war on their homes.  Sherman captured Savannah on December 22, 1864.  He moved up throughSouth Carolina, capturing and burning Columbia on February 17, 1865.

     

    The Politics of War

    Critics in President Lincoln's own party were led by secretary of the Treasury, Salmon Chase. 

    The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War, formed in late 1861, was dominated by radical Republicans who resented the expansion of presidential power in wartime and who pressed Lincoln on emancipation.

    After Stephen A. Douglas, the leader of the Democratic Party in the North, died, the party split between those who supported Lincoln (War Democrats) and those who didn't (Peace Democrats).

    Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham was a prominent member in a group called the Copperheads, which were radical Peace Democrats.  Vallandigham was banished from the North to the South by Lincoln but he later returned after the war had ended.

     

    The Election of 1864

    Fearing defeat, the Republicans joined with the War Democrats to form the Union Party in the election of 1864.  Lincoln's running-mate was Andrew Johnson, a local War Democrat.

    The Democrats, including the Copperheads, nominated General McClellan was their presidential candidate.

    The Northern Democrats lost the election of 1864.  This was one of the most crushing losses suffered by the South.  The removal of Lincoln was the last hope for a Confederate victory.

     

    Grant Outlasts Lee

    President Lincoln chose General Grant to lead the assault on the Confederate capital of Richmond.  Grant had 100,000 men and engaged Lee in a series of battles in the Wilderness of Virginia (Wilderness Campaign). 

    On June 3, 1864, Grant ordered the frontal assault on Cold Harbor.  Thousands of Union soldiers were killed within a matter of minutes, but Grant's strategy of losing two men and killing one Confederate worked.  He captured Richmond and cornered Lee.  On April 9, 1865, Lee was forced to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia (a significant portion of the Confederate army) at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia, effectively ending the Civil War.

     

    The Martyrdom of Lincoln

    On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot and killed at Ford's Theater by John Wilkes Booth.  Andrew Johnson took over as President.

     

    The Aftermath of the Nightmare

    The Civil War claimed over 600,000 lives and cost over $15 billion.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction

    The Problems of Peace

    All rebel (Confederate) leaders were pardoned by President Johnson in 1868.

     

    Freedmen Define Freedom

    Emancipation took effect unevenly in different parts of the conquered Confederacy.  Some slaves resisted the liberating Union armies due to their loyalty to their masters. 

    The church became the focus of black community life in the years following emancipation.  Blacks formed their own churches pastured by their own ministers.  Education also arose for the blacks due to the emancipation proclamation.  Blacks now had the opportunity to learn to read and write. 

     

    The Freedmen's Bureau

    Because many freedmen (those who were freed from slavery) were unskilled, unlettered, without property or money, and with little knowledge of how to survive as free people, Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau on March 3,1865.  It was intended to provide clothing, medical care, food, and education to both freedmen and white refugees.  Union general Oliver O. Howard led the bureau.  The bureau's greatest success was teaching blacks to read.  Because it was despised by the President and by Southerners, the Freedmen's Bureau expired in 1872.

     

    Johnson:  The Tailor President

    Andrew Johnson was elected to Congress and refused to secede with his own state of Tennessee. 

    Johnson was made Vice Democrat to Lincoln's Union Party in 1864 in order to gain support from the War Democrats and other pro-Southern elements.  Johnson was a strong supporter of state's rights and of the Constitution.  He was a Southerner who did not understand the North and a Democrat who had not been accepted by the Republicans.

     

    Presidential Reconstruction

    In 1863, Lincoln stated his "10 percent" Reconstruction plan which stated that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when 10% of its voters in the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to abide by emancipation.  Then a formal state government would be constructed within the state, and the state would be re-admitted into the Union.

    Due to Republican fears over the restoration of planter aristocracy and the possible re-enslavement of blacks, Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864.  It required that 50% of a state's voters take the oath of allegiance and it demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation.  President Lincoln refused to sign the bill.

    The disagreement between the President and Congress revealed differences in Republicans and two factions arose:  a majority that agreed with Lincoln and believed that the seceded states should be restored to the Union as quickly as possible, and a radical minority that felt the South should suffer greatly before its re-admittance - this minority wanted the South's social structure to be uprooted, the planters to be punished, and the newly-emancipated blacks protected by federal power.

    President Johnson issued his own Reconstruction plan on May 29, 1865.  It called for special state conventions which were required to:  repeal the decrees of secession, repudiate all Confederate debts, and ratify the slave-freeing 13thAmendment.

     

    The Baleful Black Codes

    The Black Codes was a series of laws designed to regulate the affairs of the emancipated slaves.  Mississippi passed the first such law in November 1865. 

    The Black Codes aimed to ensure a stable and subservient labor force. 

    Blacks were forced to continue to work the plantations after their emancipation due to the system of "sharecropping."  Plantation owners would rent out pieces of their land to blacks and make the cost of rent higher than the return the land produced.  The renters of the land were bound by contract to continue to work the land until debts were repaid to the plantation owner.  Unable to repay the debts, blacks began to "jump" their contracts. 

    The codes imposed harsh penalties on blacks who "jumped" their labor contracts, some of which usually forced the blacks to work for the same employer for one year.  The codes also sought to restore the pre-emancipation system of race relations.  The codes forbade a black to serve on a jury or to vote.  The Black Codes mocked the idea of freedom and imposed terrible hardships on the blacks who were struggling against mistreatment and poverty to make their way as free people.

    The Republicans were strongly opposed to the Black Codes.

     

    Congressional Reconstruction

    In December 1865, Southern states represented themselves in Congress with former Confederate generals and colonels.  This infuriated the Republicans who were apprehensive about embracing their Confederate enemies in Congress. 

    The Republicans had enjoyed their supreme rule in Congress during the time of the Civil War, but now there would be an opposing party.  This time, the South would have much more control in Congress due to the fact that slaves were now counted as a whole person, not just 3/5; giving the South a larger population.  Republicans feared that the South would take control of Congress.  

    On December 4, 1865, Republicans shut the door in the face of the newly-elected Southern delegates.

    President Johnson announced on December 6, 1865 that the Southern states had met his conditions and that the Union was now restored - this statement angered the Republicans. 

     

    Johnson Clashes with Congress

    The clash between President Johnson and Congress erupted in February 1866 when the president vetoed a bill extending the life of the controversial Freedmen's Bureau (later re-passed).  Congress (controlled by the Republicans) passed the Civil Rights Bill in March 1866, which gave blacks the privilege of American citizenship and struck at the Black Codes. 

    Fearing that the Southerners might someday repeal the hated Civil Rights Law, Congress passed the 14th Amendment in 1866.  The amendment:  1- gave civil rights, including citizenship, to the freedmen; 2- reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks on the ballot; 3- disqualified from federal and state offices former Confederates who, as federal officeholders, had once sworn to support the Constitution of the United States; and 4- guaranteed the federal debt, while the Union assumed all Confederate debts.

    Congress began to develop into the dominant role in controlling the government.

    All Republicans agreed that no state should be welcomed back into the Union without ratifying the 14th Amendment.

     

    Swinging 'Round the Circle with Johnson

    As President Johnson went on a tour of giving speeches denouncing the radical Republicans in Congress, his reputation dropped.

    Over 2/3 of the ballots cast in the congressional elections of 1866 had gone to the Republicans.

     

    Republicans Principles and Programs

    Charles Sumner led the Republican radicals in the Senate for black freedom and racial equality.  Thaddeus Stevens led the radicals in the House of Representatives. 

    The moderate Republicans, the majority in Congress, preferred policies that restrained the states from cutting citizens' rights, rather than policies that directly involved the federal government in individual lives.

     

    Reconstruction by the Sword

    On March 2, 1867, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act.  It divided the South into 5 military districts, each commanded by a union general and policed by Union soldiers.  It also required that states wishing to be re-admitted into the Union had to ratify the 14th Amendment, and that states' constitutions had to allow former adult male slaves to vote.  The moderate Republican goal was to create voters in Southern states that would vote those states back into the Union and thus free the federal government from direct responsibility for the protection of black rights.

    The 15th Amendment was passed by Congress in 1869.  It granted black men the right to vote.

    Military Reconstruction of the South took control of certain functions of the president, who was commander in chief, and set up a martial regime.

    In 1877, the last federal arms were removed from Southern politics and the Democratic South was made.

     

    No Women Voters

    Feminists were angered that the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments gave rights to black males, but not to women.

     

    The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

    After gaining the right to vote from the 15th Amendment, blacks began to organize politically.  They were strong participators in the Union League, originally a pro-Union organization.  Freedmen turned the Union League into a network of political clubs that educated members and campaigned for Republican candidates.  The League also took up building black churches and schools, representing black grievances before local employers and government, and recruiting militias to protect black communities from white retaliation.

    From 1868-1876, blacks began to hold major offices in government (senator, congressmen).

    "Scalawags" were Southerners who were accused of plundering the treasuries of the Southern states through their political influence in the radical governments.

    "Carpetbaggers" were sleazy Northerners who had come to the South to seek power and profit.

     

    The Ku Klux Klan

    The "Invisible Empire of the South", otherwise known as the Ku Klux Klan, was founded in Tennessee in 1866.  It was formed by disgruntled white Southerners who were angered by the success of black legislators.  The group worked through intimidation.

    Congress passed the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871 in response to the murders the Klan had committed.  They enabled Federal troops to stop the atrocities of the Ku Klux Klan.  The Acts came too late, though, after the intimidation of the Klan had already been accomplished.

     

    Johnson Walk the Impeachment Plank

    Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867.  It required the president to secure the consent of the Senate before he could remove his cabinet members once they had been approved by the Senate.  Its purpose was to keep the secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, in the president's cabinet.  When Johnson dismissed Stanton in 1868, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors."

     

    A Not-Guilty Verdict for Johnson

    The House of Representatives prosecuted the president, while the Senate served as the court to try Johnson on the impeachment charges.

    President Johnson argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and that he had fired Stanton in order to bring a case before the Supreme Court so the Court could rule on the Act's constitutionality.

    On May 16, 1868, the Senate voted the president "not guilty" by a margin of one vote.  The radical Republicans failed to gain the necessary 2/3 majority vote in the Senate to remove the president.

    Fears of creating a poor precedent and opposition to abusing the checks and balances system caused Senators to vote "not guilty."  These Senators also considered his presidential replacement, Ben Wade.  Wade was disliked by many for his economic policies.

     

    The Purchase of Alaska

    In 1867, Secretary of State William Seward signed a treaty with Russia that gave Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million. 

    Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. because it felt that it was over-expanded in North America.  Russia also wanted to strengthen the United States as a barrier against its enemy, Britain. 

    Although the American people were concentrated on Reconstruction and anti-expansion, they supported the purchase of Alaska because they did not want to offend the Russians, who had helped them during the Civil War.

     

    The Heritage of Reconstruction

    Many white Southerners felt that Reconstruction was more of a painful process that the war itself.

    The Republican Party wanted to protect the freed slaves and to promote the fortunes of the Republican Party.  In doing this, though, it extinguished itself in the South for nearly 100 years.

    Despite good intentions by the Republicans, the Old South was in many ways more resurrected than reconstructed.

    Thaddeus Stevens had a radical program of drastic economic reforms and heftier protection of political rights.  This program was never enacted.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

     The "Bloody Shirt" Elects Grant

    The Republicans nominated General Grant for the presidency in 1868.  The Republican Party supported the continuation of the Reconstruction of the South, while Grant stood on the platform of "just having peace."

    The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour.

    Grant won the election of 1868.

     

    The Era of Good Stealings

    Jim Fisk and Jay Gould devised a plot to drastically raise the price of the gold market in 1869.  On "Black Friday," September 24, 1869, the two bought a large amount of gold, planning to sell it for a profit.  In order to lower the high price of gold, the Treasury was forced to sell gold from its reserves.

     "Boss" Tweed employed bribery, graft, and fraudulent elections to milk New York of as much as $200 million.  (Tweed Ring)  Tweed was eventually put into prison.

     

    A Carnival of Corruption

    In addition to members of the general public being corrupt, members of the federal government also participated in unethical actions.

    The Credit Mobilier scandal erupted in 1872 when Union Pacific Railroad insiders formed the Credit Mobilier construction company and then hired themselves at inflated prices to build the railroad line, earning high dividends.  When it was found out that government officials were paid stay quiet about the illicit business, some officials were censured.

     

    The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872

    In response to disgust of the political corruption in Washington and of military Reconstruction, the Liberal Republican Party was formed in 1872.

    The Liberal Republican Party met in Cincinnati and chose Horace Greeley as their presidential candidate for the election of 1872.  The Democratic Party also chose Greeley as their candidate.  The Republican Party continued to put its support behind President Grant.  Grant won the election of 1872.

    The Liberal Republicans caused the Republican Congress to pass a general amnesty act in 1872; removing political disabilities from most of the former Confederate leaders.  Congress also reduced high Civil War tariffs and gave mild civil-service reform to the Grant administration.

     

    Depression, Deflation, and Inflation

    Over-speculating was the primary cause to the panic of 1873; too much expansion had taken place.  Too many people had taken out loans of which they were unable to pay back due to lack of profit from where they had invested their money.

    Due to popular mistrust of illegitimate dealings in the government, inflation soon depreciated the value of the greenback. Supported by advocates of hard money (coin money), the Resumption Act of 1875 required the government to continue to withdraw greenbacks from circulation and to redeem all paper currency in gold at face value beginning in 1879.

    The coinage of silver dollars was stopped by Congress in 1873 when silver miners began to stop selling their silver to the federal mints - miners could receive more money for the silver elsewhere.

    The Treasury began to accumulate gold stocks against the appointed day for the continuation of metallic money payments.  This policy, along with the reduction of greenbacks, was known as "contraction." 

    When the Redemption Day came in 1879 for holders of greenbacks to redeem the greenbacks for gold, few did; the greenback's value had actually increased due to its reduction in circulation.

    The Republican hard-money policy had a political backlash and helped to elect a Democratic House of Representatives in 1874.

     

    Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age

    Throughout most of the Gilded Age (a name given to the 30 years after the Civil War era by Mark Twain) the political parties in government had balanced out.

    Few significant economic issues separated the Democrats and the Republicans. 

    Republican voters tended to stress strict codes of personal morality and believed that the government should play a role in regulating the economic and the moral affairs of society.  They were found in the Midwest and Northeast.  Many Republican votes came from the Grand Army of the Republic, a politically active fraternal organization of many Union veterans of the Civil War.

    Democrats were immigrant Lutherans and Roman Catholics who believed in toleration of differences in an imperfect world.  They also opposed the government imposing a single moral standard on the entire society.  Democrats were found in the South and in the northern industrial cities.

    A "Stalwart" faction led by Roscoe Conkling supported the system of swapping civil-servant jobs for votes.  (Giving someone a job if they vote for a specific party/cause.  "Spoils system")  Opposed to the Stalwarts were the Half-Breeds, led by James G. Blaine.  The main disagreement between the two groups was over who would give the jobs to the people who voted in their favor.

     

    The Hayes-Tilden Standoff, 1876

    Congress passed a resolution that reminded the country, and Grant, of the two-term tradition for presidency after Grant was speculating about running for a 3rd term.

    The Republicans chose Rutherford B. Hayes as their presidential candidate for the election of 1876.  The Democrats chose Samuel J. Tilden.

    In the election, Tilden won the popular vote, but was 1 vote shy from winning in the Electoral College.  The determining electoral votes would come from three states, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida who had each sent two sets of ballots to Congress, one with the Democrats victorious and the other with the Republicans victorious; there was no winner in these states.

    It was necessary to find the true political party winner of the states, although it was unknown who would judge the winner of the states because the president of the Senate was a Republican and the Speaker of the House was a Democrat.

     

    The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction

    The Electoral Count Act (Compromise of 1877), passed by Congress in 1877, set up an electoral commission consisting of 15 men selected from the Senate, the House of Representatives, and the Supreme Court.  It was made to determine which party would win the election.  The committee finally determined, without opening the ballots from the 3 disputed states, that the Republicans had been victorious in the disputed ballots from the three states, giving the Republicans the presidency.

    The Democrats were outraged at the outcome, but agreed that Republican Hayes could take office if he withdrew the federal troops from Louisiana and South Carolina.

    With the Hayes-Tilden deal, the Republican Party abandoned its commitment to racial equality.

    The Civil Rights Act of 1875 supposedly guaranteed equal accommodations in public places and prohibited racial discrimination in jury selection.  The Supreme Court ended up ruling most of the Act unconstitutional, declaring that the 14th Amendment only prohibited government violations of civil rights, not the denial of civil rights by individuals.

     

    The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South

    As Reconstruction had ended in the South, white Democrats resumed their political power in the South and began to exercise their discrimination upon blacks.

    Blacks were forced into sharecropping and tenant farming.  Through the "crop-lien" system, small farmers who rented out land from the plantation owners were kept in perpetual debt and forced to continue to work for the owners.

    Eventually, state-level legal codes of segregation known as Jim Crow laws were enacted.  The Southern states also enacted literacy requirements, voter-registration laws, and poll taxes to ensure the denial of voting for the South's black population.

    The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the South's segregation in the case of Plessy vs.  Ferguson (1896), declaring that separate but equal facilities for blacks were legal under the 14th Amendment.

     

    Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes

    Following the panic of 1873 and the resulting depression, railroad workers went on strike after their wages were cut by President Hayes.  The strike failed, exposing the weakness of the labor movement.

    Masses of immigrants came to United States in hopes of finding riches, but many were dismayed when they found none.  They either returned home or remained in America and faced extraordinary hardships.

    People of the West Coast attributed declining wages and economic troubles to the hated Chinese workers.  To appease them, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, halting Chinese immigration into America.

     

    Garfield and Arthur

    Because President Hayes was despised by his own Republican Party, James A. Garfield was chosen as the presidential candidate for the election of 1880.  His vice-president was Chester A. Arthur, a former Stalwart.  The Democrats chose Civil War hero, Winfield Scott. 

    Garfield won the election of 1880, but was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau at a Washington railroad station.  Guiteau, claiming to be a Stalwart, shot the president claiming that the Conklingites would now get all the good jobs now that Chester Arthur was President.

    The death of Garfield shocked politicians into reforming the spoils system.  The reform was supported by President Arthur, shocking his critics.  The Pendleton Act of 1883 made campaign contributions from federal employees illegal, and it established the Civil Service Commission to make appointments to federal jobs on the basis of competitive examination.  It was basically made to stop political corruption.  The civil-service reform forced politicians to gain support and funds from big-business leaders.

     

    The Blaine-Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884

    The Republicans chose James G. Blaine as their presidential candidate for the election of 1884.  The Democrats chose Grover Cleveland.  Grover Cleveland was a very honest and admirable man.  Cleveland won the election of 1884.

     

    "Old Grover" Takes Over

    Questions were raised about whether Cleveland and the Democratic Party, "the party of disunion," could be trusted to govern the Union.

    Cleveland replaced thousands of federal employees with Democrats.

    Cleveland summed up his political philosophy when he vetoed a bill in 1887 to provide seeds for drought-ravaged Texas farmers, stating that the government should not support the people.

    The Grand Army of the Republic lobbied hundreds of unreasonable military pension bills through Congress, but Cleveland vetoed many of the bills.

     

    Cleveland Battles for a Lower Tariff

    The growing surplus of money in the Treasury coming from the high tariff, which was made to raise revenues for the military during the Civil War, caused President Cleveland to propose lowering of the tariff in order to bring lower prices to consumers.  The lower tariff, introduced to Congress in 1887 and supported by Cleveland, tremendously hurt the nation's factories and the overall economy.  Cleveland lost support because of the tariff.

    The Republicans chose Benjamin Harrison as their presidential candidate for the 1888 election.  During the election, the first major issue between the two parties had arisen:  tariffs.  Cleveland won the popular vote, but Harrison still won the election.

     

    The Billion-Dollar Congress

    When the Democrats were prepared to stop all House business, the Speaker of the House, Thomas B. Reed, took control and intimidated the House to his imperious will.  The Billion-Dollar Congress, named for its lavish spendings, gave pensions to Civil War veterans, increased government purchases on silver, and passed the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890. 

    The McKinley Tariff Act raised tariffs yet again and brought more troubles to farmers.  Farmers were forced to buy expensive products from American manufacturers while selling their own products into the highly competitive world markets.

    The Tariff Act caused the Republican Party to lose public support and become discredited.  In the congressional elections of 1890, the Republicans lost their majority in Congress.

     

    The Drumbeat of Discontent

    The People's Party, or "Populists," formed from frustrated farmers in the agricultural belts of the West and South.  The Populists demanded inflation through free and unlimited coinage of silver.  They also called for a graduated income tax; government ownership of the railroads, telegraph, and telephone; the direct election of U.S. senators; a one-term limit on the presidency; the adoption of the initiative and referendum to allow citizens to shape legislation more directly; a shorter workday; and immigration restriction.

    The Populists nominated General James B. Weaver for the presidential election of 1892.

    In 1892, a series of violent worker strikes swept through the nation.

    The Populist Party fell far short of winning the election.  One of the main reasons was that the party supported and reached out to the black community.  Its leaders, such as Thomas Edward Watson, felt that a black man had every right to vote.  The Populist Party counted on many blacks votes from the South.  Unfortunately, many Southern blacks were denied the right to vote due to literacy tests.  The Southern whites voted against the party due the party's equal rights views toward blacks.

     

    Cleveland and Depression

    Grover Cleveland again ran for the presidency in the election of 1892 and won, beating out the divided Populist Party and the discredited Republican Party.

    The panic of 1893 was the worst economic downturn for the United States during the 19th Century.  It was caused by overbuilding and over-speculation, labor disorders, and the ongoing agricultural depression.

    The Treasury was required to issue legal tender notes for the silver bullion that it had purchased.  Owners of the paper currency would then present it for gold, and by law the notes had to be reissued.  This process depleted the gold reserve in the Treasury to less than $100 million. 

    The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 was created by the administration of Benjamin Harrison in order to increase the amount of silver in circulation.  The drastic rise in silver caused the American people to believe that the less expensive silver was going to replace gold as the main form of currency.  The American people therefore began to withdraw their assets in gold, depleting the Treasury's gold supply.  Cleveland was forced to repeal the Sherman Silver Act Purchase in 1893.

    Cleveland turned to J.P. Morgan to lend $65 million in gold in order to increase the Treasury's reserve.

     

    Cleveland Breeds a Backlash

    The Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 lowered tariffs and contained a 2% tax on incomes over $4,000.  The Supreme Court ruled income taxes unconstitutional in 1895.

    The Wilson-Gorman Tariff caused the Democrats to lose positions in Congress, giving the Republicans an advantage.

    Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Harrison, and Cleveland were known as the "forgettable presidents."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age

     The Iron Colt Becomes an Iron Horse

    Due to the expansion of the country, many new railroads were built.  Congress began to advance liberal money loans to 2 favored cross-continent companies in 1862 in response to the fact that transcontinental railroad construction was so costly and risky.

    Growing railroads took up more land than they were allotted because their land grants were given over a broad path through the proposed route.  The railroad owners would then choose the route to build on.  President Grover Cleveland ended the land dispute in 1887 when he opened up all the unclaimed public portions of the grants to the public.

     

    Spanning the Continent with Rails

    The Union Pacific Railroad was commissioned by Congress in 1862 to build a transcontinental railroad starting in Omaha, Nebraska.

    Many railroad workers, including Irish "Paddies", were forced to pick up their rifles and fight when Indians attempted to defend their lands.

    Rail-lying at the California end of the railroad was taken up by the Central Pacific Railroad.  The 4 chief financial backers of the enterprise (the Big Four) included Leland Stanford and Collis P. Huntington.  They operated through 2 construction companies.

    The Union Pacific Railroad and the Central Pacific Railroad companies both received monetary aid from the government.

    The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, increasing trade with Asia and opening up the West for expansion. 

     

    Binding the Continent with Railroad Ties

    There was a total of 5 transcontinental railroads built:  The Northern Pacific Railroad, running from Lake Superior to Puget Sound, was completed in 1883; the Atchison, running from Topeka to California, was completed in 1884; theSouthern Pacific, stretching from New Orleans to San Francisco, was also completed in 1884; and the Great Northern, running from Duluth to Seattle, was completed in 1893 by James J. Hill.

     

    Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization

    The railroad was Cornelius Vanderbilt's enterprise.

    2 significant improvements benefited the railroads; the steel rail and a standard gauge of track width.  Steel rails were much stronger and safer than the traditional iron rails.

     

    Revolution by Railways

    The railroad stimulated the industrialization of the country in the post-Civil War years.  It created an enormous domestic market for American raw materials and manufactured goods.  Railroad companies also stimulated immigration. 

    At this time, every town in the United States had its own local time.  In order to keep schedules and avoid wrecks, the major rail lines stated, on November 18, 1883, that the continent would be divided into 4 times zones - most towns accepted the new time method.

     

    Wrongdoing in Railroading

    With great wealth and prosperity came much corruption. 

    In order to increase the weight of cows, "stock watering" was employed.  It entailed forcing a cow to bloat itself with water before it was weighed for sale.  This technique enabled railroad stock promoters to inflate their claims about a given line's assets and profitability and sell stocks and bonds in excess of the railroad's actual value.

    Railroaders, feeling they were above the law, abused the public by bribing judges and legislatures.

    Railroad kings were manipulators of a huge natural monopoly and exercised too much direct control over the lives of people.

    Many rail barons granted rebates or kickbacks (bribes) to powerful shippers in return for steady traffic.

    Railroad companies combined with other companies in order to protect their profits.  "Pools", agreements to divide the business in a given area and share the profits, were the earliest form of combinations.

     

    Government Bridles the Iron Horse

    With the onset of the depression of the 1870s, came protests from farmers against railroaders who ran the farmers into bankruptcy. 

    Many Midwestern legislatures tried to regulate the railroad monopoly, but in 1886, the Supreme Court ruled in the Wabash case that individual states had no power to regulate interstate commerce.

    In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act.  It prohibited rebates and pools, required the railroads to publish their rates openly, forbade unfair discrimination against shippers, and outlawed charging more for a short trip than for a long one over the same line.  It also created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to administer and enforce the new legislation.  The new laws provided an orderly forum where competing business interests could resolve their conflicts in peaceful ways.  The laws tended to stabilize the existing railroad business.

     

    Miracles of Mechanization

    The telephone was created in 1876 by Alexander Graham Bell.  This invention revolutionized the way Americans communicated.  Thomas Alva Edison invented numerous devices; the most well-known is his perfection of the electriclight bulb in 1879.

     

    The Trust Titan Emerges

    Tycoons like Andrew Carnegie, the steel king; John D. Rockefeller, the oil baron; and J. Pierpont Morgan, the bankers' banker, circumvented their competition.  Carnegie used the tactic of "vertical integration" to combine all phases of manufacturing into one organization.  He and his business controlled every aspect of production, from mining to marketing.  His goal was to improve efficiency.

    "Horizontal integration" entailed allying with competitors to monopolize a given market.  This tactic of creating trusts was used by Rockefeller.

     

    The Supremacy of Steel

    Steel was "king" during the industrialization era.  Nearly every aspect of society used it. 

    The United States soon outdistanced all foreign competitors and was producing 1/3 of the world's steel supply.  The Bessemer process allowed for the price of steel to drop dramatically and for its production to be done with relative ease.  The process involved blowing cold air on red-hot iron in order to ignite the carbon and eliminate impurities.

     

    Carnegie and Other Sultans of Steel

    Andrew Carnegie was not a monopolist and actually disliked monopolistic trusts.  He entered the steel business in the Pittsburgh area and created an organization with about 40 "Pittsburg millionaires."  By 1900, he was producing ¼ of the nation's Bessemer steel. 

    J. P. Morgan's financed the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks.

    In 1900, Carnegie was eager to sell his holdings of his company.  At that time, Morgan was starting to manufacture steel pipe tubing.  Carnegie threatened to ruin his rival (Morgan) by invading the same business if Morgan did not buy him out.  Finally Morgan agreed to buy out Carnegie for $400 million. 

    Morgan expanded his industrial empire and created the United States Steel Corporation in 1901.  It was America's first billion-dollar corporation.

    Carnegie dedicated the rest of his life to donating the rest of his money to charities.

     

    Rockefeller Grows an American Beauty Rose

    Kerosene was the first major product of the oil industry.  But, the invention of the light bulb rendered kerosene obsolete.

    By 1900, the gasoline-burning internal combustion engine had beaten out its rivals as the primary means of automobile propulsion.  The birth of the automobile gave a great lift to the oil industry.

    John D. Rockefeller organized the Standard Oil Company of Ohio in 1870, attempting to eliminate the middlemen and knock out his competitors.  By 1877, he controlled 95% of all the oil refineries in the nation.

    Rockefeller grew to such a great power by eliminating his competitors. 

    Other trusts grew in addition to the oil American Beauty of oil.  These included the sugar trust, the tobacco trust, the leather trust, and the harvester trust.

     

    The Gospel of Wealth

    The wealthy proclaimed that they were justified by God to have so much wealth.  They claimed that God gave them their money or they were a product of natural selection.

    Plutocracy, government controlled by the wealthy, took control of the Constitution.  The clause that gave Congress sole jurisdiction over the interstate commerce was a bonus for the monopolists; they used their lawyers to thwart controls by state legislatures.  Large trusts also sought safety behind the 14th Amendment, arguing that corporations were actually legal "people."

     

    Government Tackles the Evil Trust

    Hailing to public demand, Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890.  The Act forbade combinations in restraint of trade without any distinction between "good" trusts and "bad" trusts.  The law proved ineffective because it contained legal loopholes and it made all large trusts suffer, not just bad ones.

     

    The South in the Age of Industry

    Throughout the industrial strive in the North, the South produced a smaller percentage of the nation's manufactured goods.  Southern agriculture received a boost in the 1880s when machine-made cigarettes replaced earlier methods of producing cigarettes.  This caused tobacco consumption to shoot up.

     James Buchanan Duke took advantage of the growing tobacco business and formed the American Tobacco Company in 1890.

    Numerous obstacles lay in the path of southern industrialization.  Northern-dominated railroad companies charged lower rates on manufactured goods moving southward from the North, but higher rates when raw materials were shipped from the South to the North.

    The "Pittsburgh plus" pricing system was economic discrimination against the South in the steel industry.  Rich deposits of coal and iron ore were discovered in Birmingham, Alabama.  The steel lords of Pittsburgh brought pressure to bear on the compliant railroads.  As a result, Birmingham steel was charged a fictional fee, no matter where it was shipped.

    The South strived in manufacturing cotton textiles.  By 1880, northern capital had created cotton mills in the South.  Those who worked the cotton mills were in perpetual debt and were paid extremely low wages.

     

    The Impact of the New Industrial Revolution on America

    During the decades after the Civil War, economic miracles increased the standard of living in the United States.  The industry of agriculture declined to manufacturing.

    Women were most affected by the new industrial age.  Women found jobs as inventions arose; the typewriter and the telephone switchboard gave women new economic and social opportunities. 

    The nation of farmers and independent producers was becoming a nation of wage earners.  By the beginning of the 1900s, the vast majority of the nation's population earned wages.

     

    In Unions There Is Strength

    Due to the rise in wage-earners in factories, the owners of the factories did not have any relationship with their employees.

    New machines displaced employees but in the long run, more jobs were created than destroyed.

    Factory workers eventually began to go on strike, complaining of their wages.  Corporations sometimes compelled their workers to sign "ironclad oaths" or "yellow-dog contracts" saying that the workers would not join a labor union.

    Some corporations even owned the "company town," increasing the prices of basic living so that the company could gain wealth.

    The middle-class public grew tired of constant strikes, knowing that American wages were of the highest in the world.

     

    Labor Limps Along

    The Civil War, which put a premium on human labor, gave a boost to labor unions. 

    The National Labor Union, organized in 1866, lasted 6 years and attracted 600,000 members.  Black workers also formed their own Colored National Labor Union.  The Colored National Labor Union's support for the Republican Party and racism of white unionists prevented it and the National Labor Union from working together.

    After the National Labor Union pretty much died out in 1877, the Knights of Labor took over. 

    Led by Terence V. Powderly, the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor was formed in 1869 as a secret society and remained secret until 1881.  It sought to include all workers in one big union and campaigned for economic and social reform, including and codes for safety and health.

     

    Unhorsing the Knights of Labor

    On May 4, 1886 in Haymarket Square, Chicago police advanced on a meeting called to protest alleged brutalities by authorities.  A dynamite bomb was thrown and killed dozens of people.  8 anarchists were tried and convicted; 5 were sentenced to death while the other 3 were sent to jail.  In 1892, the governor of Illinois, John P. Altgeld, pardoned the 3 who were in prison.

    The Knights of Labor were blamed for incident at Haymarket Square and as a result, it lost public support.  Another downfall of the Knights of Labor was that it included both skilled and unskilled workers.  When unskilled workers went on strike, they were just replaced.

    The American Federation of Labor's inclusion of only skilled worked drained the Knights of Labor of its participants.

     

    The AF of L to the Fore

    The American Federation of Labor was founded in 1886 and was led by Samuel Gompers.  The federation consisted of an association of self-governing national unions, each of which kept its own independence.  It sought for better wages, hours, and working conditions.  The federation's main weapons were the walkout and the boycott.

    The greatest weakness of organized labor was that it still embraced only a small minority of all working people.

    Labor Day was created by Congress in 1894.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City

    The Urban Frontier

    By 1890, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia all had a population greater than 1 million.

    Louis Sullivan contributed to the development of the skyscraper.  City limits were extended outward by electric trolleys.  People were attracted to the cities by amenities such as electricity, indoor plumbing, and telephones.

    Trash became a large problem in cities due to throwaway bottles, boxes, bags, and cans.

     

    The New Immigration

    The New Immigrants of the 1880s came from southern and eastern Europe.  They came from countries with little history of democratic government, where people had grown accustomed to harsh living conditions.

    Some Americans feared that the New Immigrants would not assimilate to life in their new land.  They began asking if the nation had become a melting pot or a dumping ground.

     

    Southern Europe Uprooted

    Immigrants left their native countries because Europe had no room for them.  The population of Europe nearly doubled in the century after 1800 due to abundant supplies of fish and grain from America and the widespread cultivation of Europe.

    "America fever" caught on in Europe as the United States was portrayed as a land of great opportunities.

    Persecutions of minorities in Europe sent many fleeing immigrants to the United States.  Many immigrants never intended to stay in America forever; a large number returned home with money.  Those immigrants who stayed in the United States struggled to preserve their traditional culture.

     

    Reactions to the New Immigration

    The federal government did virtually nothing to ease the assimilation of immigrants into American society. 

    Trading jobs and services for votes, a powerful boss might claim the loyalty of thousands of followers.  In return for their support at the polls, the boss provided jobs on the city's payroll, found housing for new arrivals, and helped get schools, parks, and hospitals built in immigrant neighborhoods.

    The nation's social conscience gradually awakened to the troubles of cities.  Walter Rauschenbusch and Washington Gladden were Protestant clergymen who sought to apply the lessons of Christianity to the slums and factories.

    Jane Addams established Hull House, the most prominent American settlement house.  Addams condemned war as well as poverty.  Hull House offered instruction in English, counseling to help immigrants deal with American big-city life, childcare services for working mothers, and cultural activities for neighborhood residents. 

    Lillian Wald established Henry Street Settlement in New York in 1893.

    The settlement houses became centers of women's activism and of social reform.

    Florence Kelley was a lifelong battler for the welfare of women, children, blacks, and consumers. 

    The pioneering work of Addams, Wald, and Kelley helped to create the trail that many women later followed into careers in the new profession of social work. 

    The urban frontier opened new possibilities for women.  The vast majority of working women were single due to the fact that society considered employment for wives and mothers taboo.

     

    Narrowing the Welcome Mat

    Antiforeignism, or nativism, arose in the 1880s with intensity. 

    Nativists worried that the original Anglo-Saxon population would soon be outnumbered and outvoted.  Nativists considered eastern and southern European immigrants inferior to themselves.  They blamed the immigrants for the dreadful conditions of urban government, and unionists attacked the immigrants for their willingness to work for small wages.

    Among the antiforeigner organizations formed was the American Protective Association (APA).  Created in 1887, it urged to vote against Roman Catholic candidates for office.

    Organized labor was quick to show its negative attitude towards immigrants.  Immigrants were frequently used as strike-breakers.

    In 1882, Congress passed the first restrictive law against immigrants.  It forced paupers, criminals, and convicts back to their home countries.  In 1885, Congress prohibited the importation of foreign workers under contract-usually for substandard wages.  Federal laws were later enacted that were made to keep the undesirables out of America.

    In 1882, Congress barred the Chinese completely from immigrating to the United States (Chinese Exclusion Act).

     

    Churches Confront the Urban Challenge

    Protestant churches suffered significantly from the population move to the cities, where many of their traditional doctrines and pastoral approaches seemed irrelevant.

    A new generation of urban revivalists stepped into this spreading moral vacuum.  Dwight Lyman Moody, a Protestant evangelist, proclaimed a gospel of kindness and forgiveness.  He contributed to adapting the old-time religion to the facts of city life.  The Moody Bible Institute was founded in Chicago in 1889 to carry out his work.

    Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths were gaining enormous strength from the New Immigration.

    By 1890, there were over 150 religious denominations in the United States.

    The Church of Christ, Scientist was founded in 1879 by Mary Baker Eddy who preached that the true practice of Christianity heals sickness.

     

    Darwin Disrupts the Churches

    Published in 1859 by Charles Darwin, On the Origin of the Species stated that humans had slowly evolved from lower forms of life.

    The theory of evolution cast serious doubt on the idea of religion.  Conservatives stood firmly in their beliefs of God and religion, while Modernists flatly refused to accept the Bible in its entirety.

     

    The Lust for Learning

    During this time period, public education and the idea of tax-supported elementary schools and high schools were gathering strength. 

    Teacher-training schools, called "normal schools", experienced great expansion after the Civil War.

    The New Immigration in the 1880s and 1890s brought new strength to the private Catholic parochial schools, which were fast becoming a major part of the nation's educational structure.

    Public schools excluded millions of adults.  Crowded cities generally provided better educational facilities than the old one-room rural schoolhouses.

     

    Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People

    The South lagged far behind other regions in public education, and African-Americans suffered the most.

    The leading champion of black education was ex-slave Booker T. Washington.  He taught in 1881 at the black normal and industrial school at Tuskegee, Alabama.  His self-help approach to solving the nation's racial problems was labeled "accommodationist" because it stopped short of directly challenging white supremacy.  Washington avoided the issue of social equality.

    George Washington Carver taught and researched at Tuskegee Institute in 1896.  He became an internationally famous agricultural chemist.

    Black leaders, including Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois, attacked Booker T. Washington because Washington condemned the black race to manual labor and perpetual inferiority.  Du Bois helped to form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910.

     

    The Hallowed Halls of Ivy

    Female and black colleges shot up after the Civil War.

    The Morrill Act of 1862, passed after the Southern states had seceded, provided a generous grant of the public lands to the states for support of education.

    The Hatch Act of 1887 extended the Morrill Act and provided federal funds for the establishment of agricultural experiment stations in connection with the land-grant colleges.

    Millionaires and tycoons donated generously to the educational system.

    Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, maintained the nation's first high-grade graduate school.

     

    The March of the Mind

    Due to new scientific gains, public health increased.

    William James made a large impact in psychology through his numerous writings.

     

    The Appeal of the Press

    The Library of Congress was founded in 1897 from the donations of Andrew Carnegie.  The invention of the Linotype in 1885 increased the production of texts.

    Joseph Pulitzer was a leader in the techniques of sensationalism in St. Louis. 

    William Randolph Hearst built up a chain of newspapers beginning with the San Francisco Examiner in 1887.

    The Associated Press, founded in the 1840s, was gaining strength and wealth.

     

    Apostles of Reform

    Magazines partially satisfied the public appetite for good reading. 

    Possibly the most influential journal of all was the New York Nation.  Started in 1865 by Edwin L. Godkin, it crusaded militantly for civil-service reform, honesty in government, and a moderate tariff.

    Henry George, another journalistic author, wrote the book Progress and Poverty in 1879, which attempted to solve the association of progress with poverty.  According to George, the pressure of growing population on a fixed supply of land unjustifiably pushed up property values, showering unearned profits on owners of land.  He supported a single tax.

    Edward Bellamy wrote the socialistic novel, Looking Backward, in which the year 2000 contained nationalized big business to serve the public interest.

     

    Postwar Writing

    As literacy increased, so did book reading.  "Dime novels" were short books that usually told of the wilds of the West.

    General Lewis Wallace wrote the novel, Ben Hur: A Tale of the Christ, to combat Darwinism.

    Horatio Alger was a Puritan-driven New Englander who wrote more than 100 volumes of juvenile fiction involving New York newsboys in 1866.

     

    Literary Landmarks

    In novel writing, the romantic sentiment of a youthful era was giving way to the crude human comedy and drama of the world.

    In 1899, feminist Kate Chopin wrote about adultery, suicide, and women's ambitions in The Awakening.

    Mark Twain was a journalist, humorist, satirist, and opponent of social injustice.  He recaptured the limits of realism and humor in the authentic American dialect.

    Bret Harte was also an author of the West, writing in California of gold-rush stories.

    William Dean Howells became the editor in chief of the prestigious Boston-based Atlantic Monthly.  He wrote about ordinary people and about contemporary, and sometimes controversial, social themes.

    Stephen Crane wrote about the unpleasant underside of life in urban, industrial America.

    Henry James wrote of the confrontation of innocent Americans with subtle Europeans.  His novels frequently included women as the central characters, exploring their inner reactions to complex situations with a skill that marked him as a master of psychological realism.

    By 1900, portrayals of modern-day life and social problems were the literary order of the day.

    Jack London was a famous nature writer who turned to depicting a possible fascistic revolution in The Iron Heel.

    Black writer Paul Laurence Dunbar embraced the use of black dialect and folklore to capture the richness of southern black culture. 

    Theodore Dreiser wrote with disregard for prevailing moral standards.

     

    The New Morality

    Victoria Woodhull wrote the periodical, Woodhull and Clafin's Weekly in 1872, which proclaimed her belief in free love.

    Anthony Comstock made a life-long war on the immoral.  The Comstock Law censored "immoral" material from the public.

     

    Families and Women in the City

    Urban life launched the era of divorce.  People in the cities were having fewer children because more children would mean more mouths to feed.

    Women were growing more independent in the urban environment.  Feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman called upon women to abandon their dependent status and contribute to the larger life of the community through productive involvement in the economy.

    In 1890, the National American Woman Suffrage Association was founded. 

    The re-born suffrage movement and other women's organization excluded black women.

    Ida B. Wells helped to launch the black women's club movement, which led to the establishment of the National Association of Colored Women in 1896.

     

    Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress

    Liquor consumption had increased in the days of the Civil War and had continued to flourish afterwards.

    The National Prohibition Party was formed in 1869.  The Woman's Christian Temperance Union was formed in 1874 by militant women.

    The Anti-Saloon League was sweeping new states into prohibiting alcohol, and in 1919, the national prohibition amendment (18th) was passed.

     

    Artistic Triumphs

    Music and portrait painting was gaining popularity. 

    The phonograph, invented by Thomas Edison, enabled the reproduction of music by mechanical means.

     

    The Business of Amusement

    The circus, arising to American demand for fun, emerged in the 1880s.  Baseball was also emerging as the national pastime, and in the 1870s a professional league was formed.

    The move to spectator sports was exemplified by football.

    Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution

    The Clash of Cultures on the Plains

    In the West, white soldiers spread cholera, typhoid, and smallpox to the Indians.  The whites also put pressure on the shrinking bison population by hunting and grazing their own livestock on the prairie grasses.

    The federal government tried to appease the Plains Indians by signing treaties with the "chiefs" of various "tribes" at Fort Laramie in 1851 and at Fort Atkinson in 1853.  The treaties marked the beginning of the reservation system in the West.

    "Tribes" and "chiefs" were often fictions of the white imagination, for Indians usually recognized no authority outside their own family.

    In the 1860s, the federal government herded the Indians into smaller confines, mainly the "Great Sioux reservation" in Dakota Territory, and the Indian Territory in Oklahoma.

     

    Receding Native Population

    At Sand Creek, Colorado in 1864, Colonel J. M. Chivington's militia massacred 400 Indians who apparently posed no threat.

    In 1866, a Sioux war party attempting to block construction of the Bozeman Trail to the Montana goldfields left no survivors when they ambushed Captain William J. Fetterman's command of 81 soldiers and civilians in Wyoming's Bighorn Mountains.

    In 1874, Colonel George Armstrong Custer's Seventh Cavalry set out to suppress the Indians after the Sioux attacked settlers who were searching for gold in the "Great Sioux reservation."  His cavalry was instead slaughtered.

    The Nez Percé Indians were forced to surrender and were deceived into being sent to a dusty reservation in Kansas in 1877.

    The taming of Indians was accelerated by the railroad, white men's diseases, and white men's alcohol.

     

    Bellowing Herds of Bison

    After the Civil War, over 15 million bison grazed the western plains.  By 1885, fewer than 1000 were left after the bison had been slaughtered for their tongues, hides, or for amusement.

     

    The End of the Trail

    By the 1880s, the nation began to realize the horrors it had committed upon the Indians.  Helen Hunt Jackson published A Century of Dishonor in 1881 which told of the record of government ruthlessness in dealing with the Indians.  She also wrote Ramona in 1884 which told of injustice to the California Indians.

    The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 dissolved many tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, and set up individual Indian family heads with 160 free acres.  If the Indians behaved like "good white settlers" then they would get full title to their holdings as well as citizenship.  The Dawes Act attempted to assimilate the Indians with the white men.  The Dawes Act remained the basis of the government's official Indian policy until the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934.

    In 1879, the government funded the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania.

     

    Mining:  From Dishpan to Ore Breaker

    In 1858, minerals including gold and silver were discovered in the Rockies, prompting many "fifty-niners" or "Pike's Peakers" to rush to the mountains the following year in search of the precious metals.

    "Fifty niners" also rushed to Nevada in 1859 after an abundant amount of gold and silver was discovered at Comstock Lode.

    Women gained the right to vote in Wyoming (1869), Utah (1870), Colorado (1893), and Idaho (1896), long before the women of the East.

    Frontier mining played a vital role in bringing population and wealth to the West.  The discovering of gold and silver also allowed the Treasury to resume specie payments in 1879.

     

    Beef Bonanzas and the Long Drive

    The problem of bringing cattle meat to the East from Texas was solved with the introduction of the transcontinental railroad and the newly perfected refrigerator cars.

    The "Long Drive" consisted of Texas cowboys driving herds of cattle over unfenced plains until they reached a railroad terminal to where they could be sold.  It became significantly less profitable when homesteaders and sheepherders began to put up barbed-fences by which the cattle could not cross.

    Cattle-raisers organized the Wyoming Stock-Growers' Association in order to make the cattle-raising business profitable.

     

    The Farmer's Frontier

    The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed a settler to acquire as much as 160 acres of land by living on it for 5 years, improving it, and paying a nominal fee of about $30.  Instead of public land being sold primarily for revenue, it was now being given away to encourage a rapid filling of empty spaces and to provide a stimulus to the family farm.

    The Homestead Act turned out to be a cruel hoax because the land given to the settlers usually had terrible soil and the weather included no precipitation.  Many homesteaders were forced to give their homesteads back to the government.

    After the devastating 6-year drought in the West in the 1880s had destroyed farmers' crops, "dry farming" took root on the plains.  Its methods of frequent shallow cultivation were adapted to the dry western environment, but over time it depleted and dried the soil.

    Once wheat was introduced to the West, it flourished.  Eventually federally-financed irrigation projects caused the Great American Desert to bloom.

     

    The Far West Comes of Age

    The Great West experienced tremendous population growth from the 1870s to the 1890s.  Colorado was admitted as a state in 1876 after the Pike's Peak gold rush.

    In 1889-1890, the Republican Congress, seeking more Republican electoral and congressional votes, admitted six new states:  ND, SD, MT, WA, ID, and WY.  Utah was admitted in 1896, after the Mormon Church formally banned polygamy in 1890.

    Many "sooners" illegally entered the District of Oklahoma.  On April 22, 1889, the district was opened to the public and thousands came.  In 1907, Oklahoma was admitted as the "Sooner State."

     

    The Fading Frontier

    In 1890, the superintendent of the census announced that for the first time, a frontier line was no longer evident; all the unsettled areas were now broken up by isolated bodies of settlement.

    Western migration may have actually caused urban employers to maintain wage rates high enough to discourage workers from leaving to go farm the West.

    Cities of the West began to grow as failed farmers, failed miners, and unhappy easterners sought fortune in cities.  After 1880, the area from the Rockies to the Pacific Coast was the most urbanized region in America, measured by the percentage of people living in cities.

     

    The Farm Becomes a Factory

    High prices prompted farmers to concentrate on growing single "cash" crops, such as wheat or corn, and use their profits to buy produce at the general store and manufactured goods in town.

    The speed of harvesting wheat dramatically increased in the 1870s by the invention of the twine binder and the in the 1880s by the combine.

    The mechanization of farms brought about the idea that farms were "outdoor grain factories."

     

    Deflation Dooms the Debtor

    The farmers of the West became attached to the one-crop economy - wheat or corn - and were in the same lot as the southern cotton farmers.  The price of their product was determined in a unprotected world market by the world output.

    In 1870, the lack of currency in circulation forced the price of crops to go down.  Thousands of farms had mortgages, with the mortgage rates rising ever higher. 

     

    Unhappy Farmers

    The good soil of the West was becoming poor, and floods added to the problem of erosion.  Beginning in the summer of 1887, a series of droughts forced many people to abandon their farms and towns.

    Farmers were forced to sell their low-priced products in an unprotected world market, while buying high-priced manufactured goods in a tariff-protected home market.

    Farmers were also controlled by corporations and processors.  Farmers were at the mercy of the harvester trust, the barbed-wire trust, and the fertilizer trust, all of which could control the output and raise prices to high levels.

    Even though farmers made up ½ the population in 1890, they never successfully organized to restrict production until forced to do so by the federal government 50 years later. 

     

    The Farmers Take Their Stand

    The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry (also known as the Grange), organized in 1867, was led by Oliver H. Kelley.  Kelley's first objective was to enhance the lives of isolated farmers through social, educational, and fraternal activities.

    The Grangers gradually raised their goals from individual self-improvement to improvement of the farmers' collective troubles.  They established cooperatively owned stores for consumers and cooperatively owned grain elevators and warehouses for producers.

    Some Grangers entered politics and made Grange Laws, which held the idea of public control of private business for the general welfare.  The Grangers' influence faded after courts had reversed their laws.

    The Greenback Labor Party combined the appeal of the earlier Greenbackers with a program for improving the lot of labor.

     

    Prelude to Populism

    Farmers formed the Farmers' Alliance in Texas in the late 1870s in order to break the grip of the railroads and manufacturers through cooperative buying and selling.

    The Alliance weakened itself by excluding blacks and landless tenant farmers.  The Colored Farmers' National Alliance was formed in the 1880s to attract black farmers.

    Out of the Farmers' Alliances the People's Party, also known as the Populists, emerged.  It called for nationalizing the railroads, telephones, and telegraph; instituting a graduated income tax; and creating a new federal subtreasury - a scheme to provide farmers with loans for crops stored in government-owned warehouses.  Populists also wanted the free and unlimited coinage of silver.

     

    Coxey's Army and the Pullman Strike

    The panic of 1893 strengthened the Populists' stance that farmers and laborers were being mistreated by an oppressed economic and political system.

    "General" Jacob S. Coxey set out for Washington in 1894 with a demand that the government relieve unemployment by an inflationary public works program.

    Eugene V. Debs helped to organize the American Railway Union.  The Pullman strike of 1894 was started when the Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages.  Debs was imprisoned for not ceasing the strike.

     

    Golden McKinley and Silver Bryan

    The Republican candidate for the election of 1896 was William McKinley.  Marcus Alonzo Hanna led the Republican presidential campaign.  Hanna felt that the prime function of government was to aid business.  The Republican platform supported the gold standard.

    The Democratic candidate was William Jennings Bryan.  The platform demanded inflation through the unlimited coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold; meaning that the silver in a dollar would be worth about 50 cents.

     

    Class Conflict:  Plowholders versus Bondholders

    William McKinley won the election of 1896.  Many of McKinley votes came from the East.  Many of Bryan's votes came from the debt-stricken South and the trans-Mississippi West.  The wage earners in the East voted for their jobs and had no reason to favor inflation, which was the heart of Bryan's campaign.

    McKinley's election ushered in a new character to the American political system.  Diminishing voter participation in elections, the weakening of party organizations and the fading of issues like the money question and civil-service reform came to replaced by the concern for industrial regulation and the welfare of labor.  Scholars have dubbed this new political era the period of the "fourth party system."

     

    Republican Stand-pattism Enthroned

    The Dingley Tariff Bill, passed in 1897, proposed new high tariff rates to generate enough revenue to cover the annual Treasury deficits.

    The panic of 1893 had passed and Republican politicians claimed credit for bringing prosperity to the nation.

    The Gold Standard Act of 1900 provided that paper currency be redeemed freely in gold.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Path of Empire

     Imperialist Stirrings

    As America bustled with a new sense of power generated by the strong growth in population, wealth, and productive capacity, labor violence and agrarian unrest increased.  It was felt that overseas markets might provide a safety valve to relieve these pressures.

    Reverend Josiah Strong's Our Country:  Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis inspired missionaries to travel to foreign nations.

    Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan's book of 1890, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, argued that control of the sea was the key to world dominance; it stimulated the naval race among the great powers.

    James G. Blaine published his "Big Sister" policy which aimed to rally the Latin American nations behind America's leadership and to open Latin American markets to American traders.

    The willingness of America to risk war over such distance and minor disputes with Italy, Chile, and Canada demonstrated the aggressive new national mood.

     

    Monroe's Doctrine and the Venezuelan Squall

    The area between British Guiana and Venezuela had been in dispute for over 50 years.  When gold was discovered in the contested area, the prospect of a peaceful resolution faded.

    Secretary of State to President Cleveland, Richard Olney, claimed that if Britain attempted to dominate Venezuela in the quarrel and gain more territory, then it would be violating the Monroe Doctrine.  When Britain flatly rejected the relevance of the Monroe doctrine, President Cleveland stated that the United States would fight for it.

    Although somewhat annoyed by the weaker United States, Britain chose to not to fight a war.  Britain's rich merchant marine was vulnerable to American commerce raiders, Russia and France were unfriendly, and Germany was about to challenge the British naval supremacy.

    With their eyes open to the European peril, Britain was determined to cultivate an American friendship.  The Great Rapprochement, or reconciliation, between the United States and Britain became a cornerstone of both nations' foreign policies.

     

    Spurning the Hawaiian Pear

    The first New England missionaries reached Hawaii in 1820.

    Beginning in the 1840s, the State Department began to warn other nations to keep their hands off Hawaii.  In 1887, a treaty with the native government guaranteed naval-base rights at Pearl Harbor.

    The profits of sugar cultivation in Hawaii became less profitable with the McKinley Tariff of 1890.  American planters decided that the best way to overcome the tariff would be to annex Hawaii.  Queen Liliuokalani insisted that native Hawaiian should control the islands.

    A desperate minority of whites organized a successful revolt in 1893.  The Queen was overthrown and white revolutionists gained control of Hawaii.  When a treaty to annex Hawaii was presented to the Senate, President Grover Cleveland promptly withdrew it. 

     

    Cubans Rise in Revolt

    Sugar production of Cuba became less profitable when the America passed the tariff of 1894.

    Cubans began to revolt against their Spanish captors in 1895 after the Spanish began to place Cubans in reconcentration camps and treat them very poorly.  Cuban revolutionaries began to reason that if they destroyed enough of Cuba and did enough damage, then Spain might abandon Cuba or the United States might move in and help the Cubans with their independence.

    America had a large investment as well as annual trade stake in Cuba.

    Congress passed a resolution in 1896 that recognized the belligerence of the revolted Cubans.  President Cleveland refused to budge and fight for Cuba's independence.

     

    The Mystery of the Maine Explosion

    William R. Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer led the fabricated atrocities of Cuba apart of the new "yellow journalism."  The two men caused the American people to believe that conditions in Cuba were worse then they actually were.

    Hearst's Journal published a private letter written by the Spanish minister in Washington, Dupuy de Lome in 1898.  The letter, which degraded President McKinley, forced Dupuy de Lome to resign.

    On February 15, 1898, the American ship, Maine blew up in the Havana port.  The Spanish investigators deduced that it was an accident (spontaneous combustion in one of the coal bunkers) while the American investigators claimed that Spain had sunk it.  The American people were convinced by the American investigators and war with Spain became imminent.

     

    McKinley Unleashes the Dogs of War

    American diplomats had already gained Madrid's agreement to Washington's 2 basic demands: an end to the reconstruction camps and an armistice with Cuban rebels.

    Although President McKinley did not want a war with Spain, the American people did.  He felt that the people should rule so he sent his war message to Congress on April 11, 1898.  Congress declared war and adopted the Teller Amendment.  It proclaimed to the world that when the United States had overthrown the Spanish misrule, it would give the Cubans their freedom.

     

    Dewey's May Day Victory at Manila

    The American people plunged into the war with jubilation, which seemed premature to Europeans.  The American army numbered 2,100 officers and 28,000 men compared to the 200,000 Spanish troops in Cuba.

    The readiness of the navy (ranked 5th world-wide) owed much to the navy secretary John D. Long and his assistant secretary Theodore Roosevelt.

    Roosevelt called upon Commodore George Dewey's 6-ship fleet to descend upon Spain's Philippines in the event of war.  On May 1, 1898, Dewey slipped by detection at night and attacked and destroyed the 10-ship Spanish fleet atManila.

     

    Unexpected Imperialistic Plums

    Foreign ships began to gather in the Manila harbor, protecting their nationals.  After several incidents, the potential for battles with other nations blew over.

    On August 13, 1898, American troops captured Manila.

    The victory in the Philippines prompted the idea that Hawaii was needed as a supply base for Dewey in the Philippines.  Therefore, Congress passed a joint resolution of Congress to annex Hawaii on July 7, 1898.

     

    The Confused Invasion of Cuba

    Shortly after the outbreak of the war, the Spanish government sent a fleet of warships to Cuba, led by Admiral Cervera.  He was blockaded in the Santiago harbor in Cuba by American ships.

    Leading the invasion force from the rear to drive out Cervera was General William R. Shafter.

    The "Rough Riders," apart of the invading army, was a regiment of volunteers consisting of cowboys and ex-athletes.  Commanded by Colonel Leonard Wood, the group was organized principally by Theodore Roosevelt.

    William Shafter's landing near Santiago, Cuba was made without serious opposition.

    On July 1st, fighting broke out at El Caney and San Juan Hill, up which Colonel Roosevelt and his Rough Riders charged. 

     

    Curtains for Spain in America

    Admiral Cervera's fleet was entirely destroyed on July 3, 1898 and shortly thereafter Santiago surrendered.  General Nelson A. Miles met little resistance when he took over Puerto Rico. 

    On August 12, 1898, Spain signed an armistice.

    Before the war's end, much of the American army was stricken with malaria, typhoid, and yellow fever.

     

    McKinley Heeds Duty, Destiny, and Dollars

    In late 1898, Spanish and American negotiators met in Paris to begin heated discussions.  The Americans secured Guam and Puerto Rico, but the Philippines presented President McKinley with a problem:  he didn't feel he could give the island back to Spanish misrule, and America would be turning its back upon responsibilities if it simply left the Philippines. 

    McKinley finally decided to Christianize and to civilize all of the Filipinos.  Disputes broke out with the Spanish negotiators over control of the Philippines because Manila had been captured the day after the war, and the island could not be listed among the spoils of the war.  America therefore agreed to pay Spain $20 million for the Philippines.

     

    America's Course (Curse?) of Empire

    The Anti-Imperialistic League sprang up and fought the McKinley administration's expansionist moves. 

    In the Senate, the Spanish treaty ran into such opposition that is seemed doomed to defeat.  Democratic presidential candidate for the election of 1900, William J. Bryan used his influence on Democratic senators to get the treaty approved on February 6, 1899.  Bryan argued that the sooner the treaty was passed, the sooner the Filipinos could gain their independence.

     

    Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

    By the Foraker Act of 1900, Congress gave the Puerto Ricans a limited degree of popular government and, in 1917, granted them U.S. citizenship.  The American regime in Puerto Rico worked wonders in education, sanitation, transportation, and other improvements.

    Beginning in 1901 with the Insular Cases, the Supreme Court declared that the Constitution did not extend to the Philippines and Puerto Rico. 

    The United States, honoring the Teller Amendment of 1898, withdrew from Cuba in 1902.  The U.S. forced the Cubans to write their own constitution of 1901 (the Platt Amendment).  The constitution decreed that the United States might intervene with troops in Cuba in order to restore order and to provide mutual protection.  The Cubans also promised to sell or lease needed coaling or naval stations to the U.S.

     

    New Horizons in Two Hemispheres

    Although the Spanish-American War only lasted 113 days, American prestige as a world power increased.

    One of the greatest results of the war was the bonding between the North and the South.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - America on the World Stage

     On February 4, 1899, the Filipinos erupted in rebellion against the occupying United States forces after the Senate refused to pass a bill giving the Filipinos their independence.  The insurrection was led by Emilio Aguinaldo.

     

    "Little Brown Brothers" in the Philippines

    American soldiers as well as Filipino guerillas resorted to brutal fighting tactics.

    The backbone of the Filipino rebellion was broken in 1901 when American soldiers captured Emilio Aguinaldo.

    President McKinley appointed the Philippine Commission in 1899 to set up a Filipino government.  William H. Taft, who referred to the Filipinos to "little brown brothers," led the body in 1900.  He genuinely liked the Filipinos while the American soldiers did not.

    President McKinley's plan of "benevolent assimilation" of the Filipinos was very slow and involved improving roads, sanitation, and public health.  The plan developed economic ties and set a school system with English as the 2ndlanguage.  It was ill received by the Filipinos who preferred liberty over assimilation.

     

    Hinging the Open Door in China

    Following China's defeat by Japan in 1894-1895, Russia and Germany moved into China.  The American public, fearing that Chinese markets would be monopolized by Europeans, demanded that the U.S. Government do something.  Secretary of State John Hay dispatched to all the great powers a communication known as the Open Door note.  He urged the powers to announce that in their leaseholds or spheres of influence they would respect certain Chinese rights and the ideal of fair competition.  The note asked all those who did not have thieving designs to stand up and be counted.  Italy was the only major power to accept the Open Door unconditionally and Russia was the only major power not to accept it.

    In 1900, a super-patriotic group in China known as the "Boxers" killed hundreds of foreigners.  A multinational rescue force came in and stopped the rebellion.

    After the failed rebellion, Secretary Hay declared in 1900 that the Open Door would embrace the territorial integrity of China as well as its commercial integrity.

     

    Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900?

    President McKinley was the Republican presidential nominee for the election of 1900 because he had led the country through a war, acquired rich real estate, established the gold standard, and brought prosperity to the nation.  McKinley and the Republican Party supported the gold standard and imperialism.  They proclaimed that "Bryanism" was the paramount election issue.  This meant that Bryan would destroy the nation's prosperity once he took office with his free-silver policy and other "dangerous" ideas.

    Theodore Roosevelt was nominated as the vice president after the political bosses of New York (where Roosevelt was governor) found it hard to continue their "businesses" with the headstrong governor.  They wanted Roosevelt elected as vice president so that Roosevelt would no longer pose an authority problem to the political bosses.

    William Jennings Bryan was the Democratic presidential candidate for the election.  Bryan and the Democratic Party supported the silver standard and anti-imperialism.  They proclaimed that the paramount election issue was Republican overseas imperialism.

    McKinley and the Republican Party won the election of 1900.

     

    TR:  Brandisher of the Big Stick

    In September 1901, a deranged anarchist murdered President McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt took over the presidency. 

    Roosevelt was a direct actionist in that he believed that the president should lead and keep things moving forward.  He had no real respect for the checks and balances system among the 3 branches of government.  He felt that he may take any action in the general interest that is not specifically forbidden by the laws of the Constitution.

     

    Colombia Blocks the Canal

    In order for ships to cross quickly from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, a canal had to be built across the Central American isthmus.  There were initial legal issues blocking the construction of this canal.  By the terms of theClayton-Bulwer Treaty, made with Britain in 1850, the U.S. could not gain exclusive control over a route for the canal.  But because of friendly relations with Britain, Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901, which gave the U.S. a helping hand to build the canal and rights to fortify it.

    Many Americans favored the Nicaraguan route for the canal, but Congress decided on the Panama route for the canal in June 1902 after the New Panama Canal Company dropped the price of its holdings significantly.

    Colombia stood in the way of the construction of the canal.  After a treaty to buy land for the canal had been rejected by the Colombian senate, President Roosevelt, who was eager to win the upcoming election, demanded that the canal be built without Colombia's consent.

     

    Uncle Sam Creates Puppet Panama

    On November 3, 1903, Panamanians, who feared the United States would choose the Nicaraguan route for the canal, made a successful revolution led by Bunau-Varilla.  Bunau-Varilla became the Panamanian minister to the United States and signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in Washington.  The treaty gave the U.S. control of a 10-mile zone around the proposed Panama Canal.

     

    Completing the Canal and Appeasing Colombia

    The so-called rape of Panama marked a downward lurch in U.S relations with Latin America. 

    President Roosevelt defended himself against all charges of doing anything wrong.  He claimed that Colombia had wronged the United States by not permitting itself to be benefited by the construction of the canal.

    In 1904 the construction of the Panama Canal began, and in 1914 it was completed at a cost of $400 million.

     

    TR's Perversion of Monroe's Doctrine

    Several nations of Latin America were in debt to European countries.  President Roosevelt feared that if the European nations (mainly the Germany and Britain) got their feet in the door of Latin America, then they might remain there, in violation of the Monroe Doctrine.  Roosevelt therefore created a policy known as "preventive intervention."  The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine declared that in the event of future monetary problems of Latin American countries with European countries, the U.S. could pay off the Latin American counties' debts to keep European nations out of Latin America.

    Latin American countries began to hate the Monroe Doctrine for it had become the excuse for numerous U.S. interventions in Latin America.  In actuality, President Roosevelt was the one to be blamed for the interventions.

     

    Roosevelt on the World Stage

    Japan began war with Russia in 1904 after Russia failed to withdraw troops from Manchuria and Korea.  Japan was defeating Russia in the war when Japan's supply of troops began to run low.  Japan therefore asked President Roosevelt to step in and sponsor peace negotiations.  Roosevelt agreed and in 1905 forced through an agreement in which the Japanese received no compensation for the losses and only the southern half of Sakhalin.

    Because of the treaty, friendship with Russia faded away and Japan became a rival with America in Asia.

     

    Japanese Laborers in California

    When the Japanese government lifted its ban on its citizens emigrating in 1884, thousands of Japanese were recruited to work in California.  Japanese immigrants were confronted with racist hostility by whites.

    In 1906, San Francisco's school board segregated the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students to make room for white students.  The Japanese saw this action as an insult and threatened with war. 

    President Roosevelt invited the entire San Francisco Board of Education to the White House to settle the dispute.  TR broke the deadlock and the Californians were persuaded to repeal the segregation and to accept what came to be known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement."  The Japanese agreed to stop the flow of immigrants to the United States.

    In 1908, the Root-Takahira agreement was reached with Japan.  The U.S. and Japan pledged themselves to respect each other's territorial possessions. 

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

    At the beginning of the 20th Century, the ethnically and racially mixed American people were convulsed by a reform movement.  The new crusaders, who called themselves "progressives," waged war on many evils including monopolies, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice.

     

    Progressive Roots

    Well before 1900, politicians and writers had begun to pinpoint targets for the progressive attack.  Henry Demarest Lloyd assailed the Standard Oil Company in 1894 with his book Wealth Against Commonwealth.  Jacob A. Riisshocked middle-class Americans in 1890 with How the Other Half Lives which described the dark and dirty slums of New York.

    Socialists and feminists were at the front of social justice.

     

    Raking Muck with the Muckrakers

    Popular magazines, Muckrakers, began to appear in American newsstands in 1902.  They exposed the corruption and scandal that the public loved to hate.

    In 1902, New York reporter, Lincoln Steffens launched a series of articles in McClure's titled "The Shame of the Cities" which unmasked the corrupt alliance between big business and municipal government.

    Ida M. Tarbell published a devastating but factual depiction of the Standard Oil Company.

    David G. Phillips published a series, "The Treason of the Senate" in Cosmopolitan that charged that 75 of the 90 senators did not represent the people but they rather represented railroads and trusts.

    Some of the most effective attacks of the muckrakers were directed at social evils.  The suppression of America's blacks was shown in Ray Stannard's Following the Color Line (1908).  John Spargo wrote of the abuses of child labor inThe Bitter Cry of the Children (1906).

     

    Political Progressivism

    Progressive reformers were mainly middle-class men and women.

    The progressives sought 2 goals:  to use state power to control the trusts; and to stem the socialist threat by generally improving the common person's conditions of life and labor.

    Progressives wanted to regain the power that had slipped from the hands of the people into those of the "interests."  Progressives supported direct primary elections and favored "initiative" so that voters could directly propose legislation themselves, thus bypassing the boss-sought state legislatures.  They also supported "referendum" and "recall."  Referendum would place laws on ballots for final approval by the people, and recall would enable the voters to remove faithless corrupt officials.

    As a result of pressure from the public's progressive reformers, the 17th Amendment was passed to the Constitution in 1913.  It established the direct election of U.S. senators.

     

    Progressivism in the Cities and States

    States began the march toward progressivism when they undertook to regulate railroads and trusts.  In 1901, the governor of Wisconsin and significant figure of the progressive era, Robert M. La Follette took considerable control from the corrupt corporations and returned it to the people.

    Governor of California, Hiram W. Johnson helped to break the dominant grip of the Southern Pacific Railroad on California politics in 1910.

     

    Progressive Women

    A crucial focus for women's activism was the settlement house movement.  Settlement houses exposed middle-class women to poverty, political corruption, and intolerable working and living conditions.

    Most female progressives defended their new activities as an extension of their traditional roles of wife and mother.

    Female activists worked through organizations like the Women's Trade Union League and the National Consumers League.

    Florence Kelley took control of the National Consumers League in 1899 and mobilized female consumers to pressure for laws safeguarding women and children in the workplace. 

    Caught up in the crusade, some states controlled, restricted, or abolished alcohol.

     

    TR's Square Deal for Labor

    President Roosevelt believed in the progressive reform.  He enacted a "Square Deal" program that consisted of 3 parts:  control of the corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources.

    In 1902, coal miners in Pennsylvania went on strike and demanded a 20% raise in pay and a workday decrease from 10 hours to 9 hours.  When mine spokesman, George F. Baer refused to negotiate, President Roosevelt stepped in a threatened to operate the mines with federal troops.  A deal was struck in which the miners received a 10% pay raise and an hour workday reduction.

    Congress, aware of the increasing hostilities between capital and labor, created the Department of Commerce in 1903.

     

    TR Corrals the Corporations

    Although the Interstate Commerce Commission was created in 1887, railroad barons were still able to have high shipping rates because of their ability to appeal the commission's decisions on high rates to the federal courts.

    In 1903, Congress passed the Elkins Act, which allowed for heavy fines to be placed on railroads that gave rebates and on the shippers that accepted them. (Railroad companies would offer rebates as incentives for companies to use their rail lines.)

    Congress passed the Hepburn Act of 1906, restricting free passes and expanding the Interstate Commerce Commission to extend to include express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipelines.  (Free passes:  rewards offered to companies allowing an allotted number of free shipments; given to companies to encourage future business.)

    In 1902, President Roosevelt challenged the Northern Securities Company, a railroad trust company that sought to achieve a monopoly of the railroads in the Northwest.  The Supreme Court upheld the President and the trust was forced to be dissolved.

     

    Caring for the Consumer

    After botulism was found in American meats, foreign governments threatened to ban all American meat imports.  Backed by the public, President Roosevelt passed the Meat Inspection Act of 1906.  The act stated that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection. 

    The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals.

     

    Earth Control

    The first step towards conservation came with the Desert Land Act of 1887, under which the federal government sold dry land cheaply on the condition that the purchaser would irrigate the soil within 3 years.  A more successful step was the Forest Reserve Act of 1891.  It authorized the president to set aside public forests as national parks and other reserves.  The Carey Act of 1894 distributed federal land to the states on the condition that it be irrigated and settled.

    President Roosevelt, a naturalist and rancher, convinced Congress to pass the Newlands Act of 1902, which authorized the federal government to collect money from the sale of public lands in western states and then use these funds for the development of irrigation projects.

    In 1900 Roosevelt, attempting to preserve the nation's shrinking forests, set aside 125 million acres of land in federal reserves.

    Under President Roosevelt, professional foresters and engineers developed a policy of "multiple-use resource management."  They sought to combine recreation, sustained-yield logging, watershed protection, and summer stock grazing on the same expanse of federal land.  Many westerners soon realized how to work with federal conservation programs and not resist the federal management of natural resources.

     

    The "Roosevelt Panic" of 1907

    Theodore Roosevelt was elected as president in 1904.  President Roosevelt made it known that he would not run for a 3rd term.

    A panic descended upon Wall Street in 1907.  The financial world blamed the panic on President Roosevelt for unsettling the industries with his anti-trust tactics.

    Responding to the panic of 1907, Congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act in 1908 which authorized national banks to issue emergency currency backed by various kinds of collateral.

     

    The Rough Rider Thunders Out

    For the election of 1908, the Republican Party chose William Howard Taft, secretary of war to Theodore Roosevelt.  The Democratic Party chose William Jennings Bryan.

    William Howard Taft won the election of 1908.

    In Roosevelt's term, Roosevelt attempted to protect against socialism and to protect capitalists against popular indignation.  He greatly enlarged the power and prestige of the presidential office, and he helped shape the progressive movement and beyond it, the liberal reform campaigns later in the century.  TR also opened the eyes of Americans to the fact that they shared the world with other nations.

     

    Taft:  A Round Peg in a Square Hole

    President Taft had none of the arts of a dashing political leader, such as Roosevelt, and none of Roosevelt's zest.  He generally adopted an attitude of passivity towards Congress.

     

    The Dollar Goes Abroad as a Diplomat

    Taft encouraged Wall Street bankers to invest in foreign areas of strategic interest to the United States.  New York bankers thus strengthened American defenses and foreign policies, while bringing prosperity to America.

    In China's Manchuria, Japan and Russia controlled the railroads.  President Taft saw in the Manchurian monopoly a possible strangulation of Chinese economic interests and a slamming of the Open Door policy.  In 1909, Secretary of State Philander C. Knox proposed that a group of American and foreign bankers buy the Manchurian railroads and then turn them over to China.  Both Japan and Russia flatly rejected the selling of their railroads.

     

    Taft the Trustbuster

    Taft brought 90 lawsuits against the trusts during his 4 years in office as opposed to Roosevelt who brought just 44 suits in 7 years.

    In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company, stating that it violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. 

    Also in 1911, the Courts handed down its "rule of reason"; a doctrine that stated that only those trusts that unreasonably restrained trade were illegal.

     

    Taft Splits the Republican Party

    President Taft signed the Payne-Aldrich Bill in 1909, a tariff bill that placed a high tariff on many imports.  With the signing, Taft betrayed his campaign promises of lowering the tariff.

    Taft was a strong conservationist, but in 1910, the Ballinger-Pinchot quarrel erased much of his conservationist record.  When Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development, he was criticized by chief of the Agriculture Department's Division of Forestry, Gifford Pinchot.  When Taft dismissed Pinchot, much protest arose from conservationists.

    By the spring of 1910, the reformist wing of the Republican Party was furious with Taft and the Republican Party had split.  One once supporter of Taft, Roosevelt, was now an enemy.  Taft had broken up Roosevelt's U.S. Steel Corporation, which Roosevelt had worked long and hard to form.

     

    The Taft-Roosevelt Rupture

    In 1911, the National Progressive Republican League was formed with La Follette as its leading candidate for the Republican presidential nomination.

    In February of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt, with his new views on Taft, announced that he would run again for presidency, clarifying that he said he wouldn't run for 3 consecutive terms.

    The Taft-Roosevelt explosion happened in June of 1912 when the Republican convention met in Chicago.  When it came time to vote, the Roosevelt supporters claimed fraud and in the end refused to vote.  Taft subsequently won the Republican nomination.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

     Woodrow Wilson won the governorship of New Jersey waging a reform campaign in which he attacked the predatory trusts and promised to return the state government to the people.

     

    The "Bull Moose" Campaign of 1912

    The Democrats chose Woodrow Wilson as their presidential candidate for the election of 1912.  The Democrats saw in Wilson an outstanding reformist leader of whom they felt would beat Republican Taft.  The Democrats had a strong progressive platform that called for stronger antirust laws, banking reform, and tariff reductions.

    Theodore Roosevelt ran again in the election as a 3rd party candidate.  It was unsure whether Roosevelt's New Nationalism or Wilson's New Freedom would prevail.  Both men favored a more active government role in economic and social affairs, but they disagreed over specific strategies. 

    Roosevelt's New Nationalism campaigned for stronger control of trusts, woman suffrage, and programs of social welfare. 

    Wilson's New Freedom favored small enterprise, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and unmonopolized markets.  Democrats shunned the social-welfare programs and supported the fragmentation of trusts.

    The campaign cooled down when Roosevelt was shot by a fanatic.  He eventually recovered after suspending campaigning for a couple weeks.

     

    Woodrow Wilson:  A Minority President

    Taft and Roosevelt split the Republican votes, giving Woodrow Wilson the presidency.

    Roosevelt's Progressive Party soon died out due to lack of officials elected to state and local offices.

     

    Wilson:  The Idealist in Politics

    Wilson relied on sincerity and moral appeal to attract the public.  He was extremely smart but lacked the common touch with the public.  (He didn't have people skills.)  Wilson's idealism and sense of moral righteousness made him incredibly stubborn in negotiating.

     

    Wilson Tackles the Tariff

    President Wilson called for an all-out war on what he called "the triple wall of privilege":  the tariff, the banks, and the trusts.

    Wilson called a special meeting of Congress in 1913 to address the tariff.  He convinced Congress to pass the Underwood Tariff Bill, which significantly reduced the tariff rates.  Under authority from the 16th Amendment, Congress also enacted a graduated income tax.

     

    Wilson Battles the Bankers

    The most serious problem of the National Banking Act passed during the Civil War in 1863 was the inelasticity of currency.  Banking reserves were located in New York and a handful of other large cities and could not be mobilized in times of financial stress into areas that needed money.

    In 1913, President Wilson delivered a plea to Congress for a reform of the banking system.  Congress answered and in the same year, he signed the Federal Reserve Act.  The new Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, oversaw a nationwide system of 12 regional Federal Reserve banks.  Each reserve bank was the central bank for its region.  The final authority of the Federal Reserve Board guaranteed a substantial level of public control.  The board was empowered to issue paper money, Federal Reserve Notes, backed by commercial paper.  Thus, the amount of money in circulation could be increased as needed for the requirements of business.  (More information)

     

    The President Tames the Trusts

    After Wilson's persuasion, Congress passed the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914.  This law authorized a presidentially-appointed commission to oversee industries engaged in interstate commerce, such as the meatpackers.  The commissioners were expected to crush monopolies at the source.

    The Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914 lengthened the Sherman Act's list of business practices that were deemed objectionable.  It also sought to exempt labor and agricultural organizations from anti-trust prosecution, while legalizing strikes and peaceful picketing.  Union leader Samuel Gompers praised the act.

     

    Wilsonian Progressivism at High Tide

    The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 made loans available to farmers at low rates of interest.  The Warehouse Act of 1916 authorized loans on the security of staple crops.

    The La Follette Seamen's Act of 1915 benefited sailors by requiring decent treatment and a living wage on American ships.

    President Wilson assisted the workers with the Workingmen's Compensation Act of 1916, giving assistance to federal civil-service employees during periods of disability.  Also in 1916, the president approved an act restricting childlabor on products flowing into interstate commerce.  The Adamson Act of 1916 established an 8-hour work day for all employees on trains in interstate commerce.

    Wilson nominated for the Supreme Court reformer Louis D. Brandeis, the first Jew to be a Supreme Court justice.

     

    New Directions in Foreign Policy

    President Wilson was an anti-imperialist and withdrew from aggressive foreign policy.

    He persuaded Congress in 1914 to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act of 1912, which had exempted American coastal shipping from tolls.  He also signed the Jones Act in 1916, which granted the Philippines territorial status and promised independence as soon as a stable government could be established.

    When political turmoil broke out in Haiti in 1915, Wilson dispatched marines to protect American lives and property.  In 1916, he signed a treaty with Haiti providing for U.S. supervision of finances and the police.

    In 1917, Wilson purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark.

     

    Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico

    In 1913, the Mexican revolution took an ugly turn when the president was murdered and replaced by General Victoriano Huerta.  Because of the chaos in Mexico, millions of Spanish-speaking immigrants came to America.

    At first, President Wilson refused to intervene with the war in Mexico.  But after a small party of American sailors was accidentally captured by the Mexicans, Wilson ordered the navy to seize the Mexican port of Vera Cruz.

    Just as war seemed imminent with Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile intervened and pressured Huerta to step down.

    Venustiano Carranza became the president of Mexico.  Francisco Villa, rival to President Carranza, attempted to provoke a war between Mexico and the U.S by killing Americans.  Wilson, rather, ordered General John J. Perishing to break up Villa's band of outlaws.  The invading American army was withdrawn from Mexico in 1917 as the threat of war with Germany loomed.

     

    Thunder Across the Sea

    In 1914,World War I was sparked when the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary was murdered by a Serb patriot.  An outraged Vienna government, backed by Germany, presented an ultimatum to Serbia.  Serbia, backed by Russia, refused to budge.  Russia began to mobilize its army, alarming Germany on the east, and France confronted Germany on the west.  
    Germany struck at France first and the fighting began.  The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria.  The Allies consisted of France, Britain, Russia, Japan, and Italy.

     

    A Precarious Neutrality

    President Wilson issued the neutrality proclamation at the outbreak of WWI.

    Most Americans were anti-Germany from the outset of the war.  Kaiser Wilhelm II, the leader of Germany, seemed the embodiment of arrogant autocracy.  Yet, the majority of Americans were against war.

     

    America Earns Blood Money

    American industry prospered off trade with the Allies.  Germany and the Central Powers protested American trading with the Allies, although America wasn't breaking the international neutrality laws -- Germany was free to trade with the U.S., but Britain prevented this trade by controlling the Atlantic Ocean by which Germany had to cross in order to trade with the U.S.

    In 1915, several months after Germany started to use submarines in the war, one of Germany's submarines sunk the British liner Lusitania, killing 128 Americans.

    Americans demanded war but President Wilson stood strong on his stance against war.  When Germany sunk another British liner, the Arabic, in 1915, Berlin agreed to not sink unarmed passenger ships without warning.  Germany continued to sink innocent ships as apparent when one of its submarines sank a French passenger steamer, the Sussex.  President Wilson informed the Germans that unless they renounced the inhuman practice of sinking merchant ships without warning, he would break diplomatic relations, leading to war.  Germany agreed to Wilson's ultimatum, but attached additions to their Sussex pledge:  the United States would have to persuade the Allies to modify what Berlin regarded as their illegal blockade.  Wilson accepted the Germany pledge, without accepting the "string" of additions.

     

    Wilson Wins the Reelection in 1916

    The Progressive Party and the Republican Party met in 1916 to choose their presidential candidate.  Although nominated by the Progressives, Theodore Roosevelt refused to run for president.  The Republicans chose Supreme Court justice Charles Evans Hughes.  The Republican platform condemned the Democratic tariff, assaults on the trusts, and Wilson's dealings with Mexico and Germany.

    The Democrats chose Wilson and ran an anti-war campaign.  Woodrow Wilson won the election of 1916 and was reelected to the presidency.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - The War to End War

    In January 31, 1917 Germany announced its decision to wage unrestricted submarine warfare on all ships, including American ships, in the war zone.

     

    War by Act of Germany

    German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann secretly proposed a German-Mexican alliance with the Zimmermann note.  News of the Zimmermann note leaked out to the public, infuriating Americans. 

    On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked for a declaration of war from Congress after 4 more unarmed merchant ships had been sunk.

    3 Mains Causes of War:  Zimmermann Note, Germany declares unrestricted submarine warfare, Bolshevik Revolution.

     

    Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

    President Wilson persuaded the public for war by declaring his twin goals of "a war to end war" and a crusade "to make the world safe for democracy."  He argued that America only fought to shape an international order in which democracy could flourish without fear of dictators and militarists.

    Wilson was able to get war to appeal to the American public.

     

    Wilson's Fourteen Potent Points

    Wilson delivered his Fourteen Points Address to Congress on January 8, 1918. 

    The message, though intensely idealistic in tone and primarily a peace program, had certain very practical uses as an instrument for propaganda.  It was intended to reach the people and the liberal leaders of the Central Powers as a seductive appeal for peace, in which purpose it was successful.  It was hoped that the points would provide a framework for peace discussions. The message immediately gave Wilson the position of moral leadership of the Allies and furnished him with a tremendous diplomatic weapon as long as the war persisted.

    The first 5 points and their effects were: 

    1.        A proposal to abolish secret treaties pleased liberals of all countries.

    2.        Freedom of the seas appealed to the Germans, as well as to Americans who distrusted British sea power.

    3.        A removal of economic barriers among nations was comforting to Germany, which feared postwar vengeance.

    4.        Reduction of armament burdens was gratifying to taxpayers.

    5.        An adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native people and the colonizers was reassuring to the anti-imperialists.

    The largest achievement, #14, foreshadowed the League of Nations - an international organization that Wilson dreamed would provide a system of collective security.

     

    Creel Manipulates Minds

    The Committee on Public Information was created to rally public support of war.  It was headed by George Creel.  His job was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilsonian war aims.

    The Creel organization employed thousands of workers around the world to spread war propaganda.  The entire nation was as a result swept into war fever.

     

    Enforcing Loyalty and Stifling Dissent

    There were over 8 million German-Americans; rumors began to spread of spying and sabotage.  As a result, a few German-Americans were tarred, feathered, and beaten.  A hysterical hatred of Germans and things related to Germany swept the nation.

    The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 reflected fears about Germans and antiwar Americans.  Kingpin Socialist Eugene V. Debs and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) leader William D. Haywood were convicted under the Espionage Act. 

    At this time, nearly any criticism of the government could be censored and punished.  The Supreme Court upheld these laws in Schenck v. United States (1919); it argued that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech posed a danger to the nation.

     

    The Nation's Factories Go to War

    President Wilson created a Civilian Council of National Defense to study problems of economic mobilization; increased the size of the army; and created a shipbuilding program.

    No one knew how much steel or explosive powder the country was capable of producing.  Fears of big government restricted efforts to coordinate the economy from Washington.  States' rights Democrats and businesspeople hated federal economic controls.

    In 1918, Wilson appointed Bernard Baruch to head the War Industries Board in order to impose some order on the economic confusion.  The Board never really had much control and was disbanded after the end of the war.

     

    Workers in Wartime

    Workers were discouraged from striking by the War Department's decree in 1918 that threatened any unemployed male with drafting.

    The IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) were victims of some of the worst working conditions in the country.  At the end of the war, the AF of L's (American Federation of Labor) membership had more than doubled. 

    Wartime inflation threatened to eliminate wage gains and thousands of strikes resulted. 

    In 1919, the greatest strike in American history hit the steel industry.  More than 250,000 steelworkers walked off their jobs in an attempt to force their employers to recognize their right to organize and bargain collectively.  The steel companies resisted and refused to negotiate with union representatives.  The companies brought in 30,000 African-Americans to keep the mills running.  After several deadly confrontations, the strike collapsed, marking a grave setback that crippled the union movement for over 10 years.

    Thousands of blacks were drawn to the North in wartime by the allure of war-industry employment.  The blacks served as meatpackers and strikebreakers.  Deadly disputes between whites and blacks consequently erupted.

     

    Suffering Until Suffrage

    The National Woman's party, led by Alice Paul, protested the war.

    The larger part of the suffrage movement, represented by the National American Woman Suffrage Association, supported Wilson's war.

    War mobilization gave momentum to the suffrage movement.  Impressed by women's war work, President Wilson supported women suffrage.  In 1920, The 19th Amendment was passed, giving all American women the right to vote.

    Congress passed the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921, providing federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.

    In the postwar decade, feminists continued to campaign for laws to protect women in the workplace and prohibit child labor.

     

    Forging a War Economy

    Herbert C. Hoover led the Food Administration.  Hoover rejected issuing ration cards and, to save food for export, he proclaimed wheatless Wednesdays and meatless Tuesdays, all on a voluntary basis.

    Congress restricted the use of foodstuffs for manufacturing alcoholic beverages, helping to accelerate the wave of prohibition that was sweeping the country.  In 1919, the 18th Amendment was passed, prohibiting all alcoholic drinks.

    The money-saving tactics of Hoover and other agencies such as the Fuel Administration and Treasury Department yielded about $21 billion towards the war fund.  Other funding of the war came through increased taxes and bonds.

     

    Making Plowboys into Doughboys

    Although President Wilson opposed a draft, he eventually realized that a draft was necessary to quickly raise the large army that was to be sent to France.  Through much tribulation, Congress passed the draft act in 1917.  It required the registration of all males between the ages of 18 and 45, and did not allow for a man to purchase his exemption from the draft.

    For the first time, women were allowed in the armed forces.

     

    Fighting in France-Belatedly

    In 1917, the Bolshevik Revolution in communist Russia toppled the tsar regime.  Russia pulled out of the "capitalist" war, freeing up thousands of Germans on the Russian front to fight the western front in France.  Russia pulling out allowed the U.S. fight solidly for Democracy in the war.

    A year after Congress declared war, the first American troops reached France.  They were used as replacements in the Allied armies and were generally deployed in quiet sectors with the British and French.  Shipping shortages plagued the Allies.

    American troops were also sent to Belgium, Italy, and Russia.  Americans hoped to prevent Russian munitions from falling into the hands of the Germans.

     

    America Helps Hammer the "Hun"

    In the spring of 1918, the German drive on the western front exploded.  Spearheaded by about 500,000 troops, the Germans rolled forward with terrifying momentum.  The Allied nations for the first time united under a supreme commander, French marshal Foch.

    In order to stop Germany from taking Paris and France, 30,000 American troops were sent to the French frontlines.  This was the first significant engagement of American troops in a European war.

    By July 1918, the German drive had been halted and Foch made a counteroffensive in the Second Battle of the Marne.  This engagement marked the beginning of a German withdrawal.

    The Americans, dissatisfied with simply bolstering the French and British, demanded a separate army; General John J. Pershing was assigned a front of 85 miles.  Pershing's army undertook the Meuse-Argonne offensive from September 26 to November 11, 1918.  One objective was to cut the German railroad lines feeding the western front.  Inadequate training left 10% of the Americans involved in the battle injured or killed.

    As German supplies ran low and as their allies began to desert them, defeat was in sight for Germany.

     

    The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany

    In October of 1918, the Germans were ready for peace based on the Fourteen Points.  On November 11, 1918, after the emperor of Germany had fled to Holland, Germany surrendered.

    The United States's main contributions to the victory had been foodstuffs, munitions, credits, oil, and manpower.  The Americans only fought 2 major battles, at St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne.  The prospect of endless U.S. troops, rather than America's actual military performance eventually demoralized the Germans.

     

    Wilson Steps Down from Olympus

    President Wilson had gained much world popularity as the moral leader of the war.  When he personally appealed for a Democratic victory in the congressional elections of November 1918, the plan backfired and the voters instead returned a Republican majority to Congress.

    Wilson's decision to go to Paris in person to negotiate the treaty infuriated the Republicans because no president had ever traveled to Europe.

     

    An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris

    The Paris Conference fell into the hands of an inner clique, known as the Big Four.  Wilson, having the most power, was joined by Premier Vittorio Orlando of Italy, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, and Premier Georges Clemenceau of France. 

    The Conference opened on January 18, 1919.  Wilson's ultimate goal was a world parliament known as the League of Nations.  It would contain an assembly with seats for all nations and a council to be controlled by the great powers.  In February 1919, the skeptical Old World diplomats agreed to make the League Covenant.

     

    Hammering Out the Treaty

    Republicans in America had much animosity towards the League of Nations.  The Republican Congress claimed that it would never approve the League of Nations in its existing form.  These difficulties delighted Wilson's Allied adversaries in Paris who were now in a stronger bargaining position because Wilson would have to beg them for changes in the covenant that would safeguard the Monroe Doctrine and other American interests valued to the senators.

    France settled for a compromise in which the Saar Valley would remain under the League of Nations for 15 years, and then a popular vote would determine its fate.  In exchange for dropping its demands for the Rhineland, France got the Security Treaty, in which both Britain and America pledged to come to its aid in the event of another German invasion.

    Italy demanded Fiume, a valuable seaport inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs.  The seaport went to Yugoslavia after Wilson's insisting.

    Japan demanded China's Shandong Peninsula and the German islands of the Pacific, which it had seized during the war.  After Japan threatened to walk out, Wilson accepted a compromise in which Japan kept Germany's economic holdings in Shandong and pledged to return the peninsula to China at a later date.

     

    The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

    The Treaty of Versailles was forced upon the Germans in June 1919.  The Germans were outraged with the treaty, noticing that most of the Fourteen Points were left out.

    Wilson, also not happy with the outcome of the treaty, was forced to compromise away some of his Fourteen Points in order to salvage the more precious League of Nations.

     

    The Domestic Parade of Prejudice

    Critics of the League of Nations came from all sides.  Irish-Americans, isolationists, and principled liberals all denounced the League.

     

    Wilson's Tour and Collapse (1919)

    The Republicans in Congress had no real hope of defeating the Treaty of Versailles; they hoped to rather "Americanize" or "Republicanize" it so that the Republicans could claim political credit for the changes.

    In an attempt to speed up the passing of the treaty in the Senate, President Wilson decided to go to the country in a speechmaking tour.  He would appeal over the heads of the Senate to the sovereign people.  The speeches in the Midwest did not go as well as in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific Coast.

    On his return to Washington, Wilson suffered a stroke and suffered from physical and nervous exhaustion.

     

    Defeat Through Deadlock

    Senator Lodge, a critic to the president, came up with fourteen reservations to the Treaty of Versailles.  These safeguards reserved the rights of the U.S. under the Monroe Doctrine and the Constitution and otherwise sought to protect American sovereignty.

    After the Senate rejected the Treaty twice, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated.  The Lodge-Wilson personal feud, traditionalism, isolationism, disillusionment, and partisanship all contributed to the defeat of the treaty.

     

    The "Solemn Referendum" of 1920

    Wilson proposed to settle the treaty issue in the upcoming presidential campaign of 1920 by appealing to the people for a "solemn referendum."

    The Republicans chose Senator Warren G. Harding as their presidential nominee for the election of 1920.  Their vice-presidential nominee was Governor Calvin Coolidge.  The Republican platform appealed to both pro-League and anti-League sentiment in the party.

    Democrats nominated pro-League Governor James. M. Cox as their presidential hopeful and chose Franklin D. Roosevelt as their vice-presidential nominee.

    Warren Harding won the election of 1920.  Harding's victory lead to the death of the League of Nations.

     

    The Betrayal of Great Expectations

    The Treaty of Versailles was the only one of the four peace treaties not to succeed.

    After the war, America did not embrace the role of global leader.  In the interests of its own security, the United States should have used its enormous strength to shape world-shaking events.  It instead permitted the world to drift towards yet another war.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties"

    Seeing Red

    Fear of Russia ran high even after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, which spawned a communist party in America.

    The "red scare" of 1919-1920 resulted in a nationwide crusade against those whose Americanism was suspect.  Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer was chosen to round up immigrants who were in question.

    In 1919-1920, a number of states passed criminal syndicalism laws that made the advocacy of violence to secure social change unlawful.  Traditional American ideals of free speech were restricted.

    Antiredism and antiforeignism were reflected in the criminal case of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.  The two men were convicted in 1921 of the murder of a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard.  Although given a trial, the jury and judge were prejudiced against the men because they were Italians, atheists, anarchists, and draft dodgers.  Despite criticism from liberals and radicals all over the world, the men were electrocuted in 1927.

     

    Hooded Hoodlums of the KKK

    The Ku Klux Klan (Knights of the Invisible Empire) grew quickly in the early 1920s.  The Klan was antiforeign, anti-Catholic, anti-black, anti-Jewish, antipacifist, anti-Communist, anti-internationalist, antievolutionist, antibootlegger, antigambling, antiadultery, and anti-birth control.  It was pro-Anglo-Saxon, pro-"native" American, and pro-Protestant.

    The Klan spread rapidly, especially in the Midwest and the South, claiming 5 million members.

    It collapsed in the late 1920s after a congressional investigation exposed the internal embezzling by Klan officials. 

    The KKK was an alarming manifestation of the intolerance and prejudice plaguing people anxious about the dizzying pace of social change in the 1920s.

     

    Stemming the Foreign Blood

    Isolationist Americans of the 1920s felt they had no use for immigrants.  The "New Immigration" of the 1920s caused Congress to pass the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, restricting newcomers from Europe in any given year to a definite quota, which was at 3% of the people of their nationality who had been living in the United States in 1910.

    The Immigration Act of 1924 replaced the Quota Act of 1921, cutting quotas for foreigners from 3% to 2%.  Different countries were only allowed to send an allotted number of its citizens to America every year.  Japanese were outright banned from coming to America.  Canadians and Latin Americans, whose proximity made them easy to attract for jobs when times were good and just as easy to send back home when times were not, were exempt from the act.

    The quota system caused immigration to dwindle.

    The Immigration Act of 1924 marked the end of an era of unrestricted immigration to the United States.  Many of the most recent arrivals lived in isolated enclaves with their own houses of worship, newspapers, and theaters.

     

    The Prohibition "Experiment"

    The 18th Amendment, passed in 1919, banned alcohol.  Prohibition, supported by churches and women, was one the last peculiar spasms of the progressive reform movement.  It was popular in the South, where white southerners were eager to keep stimulants out of the hands of blacks, and in the West, where alcohol was associated with crime and corruption.

    Prohibitionists were naïve in that Federal authorities had never been able to enforce a law where the majority of the people were hostile to it.  Prohibition might have started off better if there had been a larger number of enforcement officials. 

    "Speakeasies" replaced saloons.  Prohibition caused bank savings to increase and absenteeism in industry to decrease.

     

    The Golden Age of Gangsterism

    The large profits of illegal alcohol led to bribery of police.  Violent wars broke out in the big cities between rival gangs, who sought control of the booze market.

    Chicago was the most spectacular example of lawlessness.  "Scarface" Al Capone, a murderous booze distributor, began 6 years of gang warfare that generated millions of dollars.  Capone was eventually tried and convicted of income-tax evasion and sent to prison for 11 years.

    Gangsters began to move into other profitable and illicit activities:  prostitution, gambling, narcotics, and kidnapping for ransom.

    After the son of Charles A. Lindbergh was kidnapped for ransom and murdered, Congress passed the Lindbergh Law in 1932, making interstate abduction in certain circumstances a death-penalty offense.

     

    Monkey Business in Tennessee

    Education made great strides in the 1920s.  Professor John Dewey set forth the principles of "learning by doing" that formed the foundation of so-called progressive education.  He believed that "education for life" should be a primary goal of the teacher.

    Science and better health care also resulted out of the 1920s.

    Fundamentalists, old-time religionists, claimed that the teaching of Darwinism evolution was destroying faith in God and the Bible, while contributing to the moral breakdown of youth.

    In 1925, John T. Scopes was indicted in Tennessee for teaching evolution.  At the "Monkey Trial," Scopes was defended by Clarence Darrow, while former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan prosecuted him.  Scopes was found guilty and fined $100.

     

    The Mass-Consumption Economy

    WWI and Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon's tax policies brought much prosperity to the mid-1920s.

    Bruce Barton founded advertising which sought to make Americans want more and more.

    Sports became a big business in the consumer economy of the 1920s.

    Buying in credit was another new feature of the postwar economy.  Prosperity thus accumulated an overhanging cloud of debt, and the economy became increasingly vulnerable to disruptions of the credit structure.

     

    Putting America on Rubber Tires

    The automobile industrial started an industrial revolution in the 1920s.  It yielded a new industrial system based on assembly-line methods and mass-production techniques.  Detroit became the motorcar capital of the world.

    Henry Ford, father of the assembly line, created the Model T and erected an immense personal empire on the cornerstone of his mechanical genius.  By 1930, the number of Model Ts in the nation had reached 20 million.

     

    The Advent of the Gasoline Age

    The automobile industry exploded, creating millions of jobs and supporting industries.  America's standard of living rose sharply, and new industries flourished while old ones dwindled.  The petroleum business experienced an explosive development and the railroad industry was hard hit by the competition of automobiles. 

    The automobile freed up women from their dependence on men, and isolation among the sections was broken down.  It was responsible for thousands of deaths, while at the same time bringing more convenience, pleasure, and excitement into more people's lives.

     

    Humans Develop Wings

    Gasoline engines provided the power that enabled humans to fly.  On December 17, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright made their first flight, lasting 12 seconds and 120 feet.

    After the success of airplanes in WWI, private companies began to operate passenger airlines with airmail contracts.

    Charles A. Lindberg became the first man to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in 1927.  His flight energized and gave a strong boost to the new aviation industry.

     

    The Radio Revolution

    Guglielmo Marconi invented wireless telegraphy (the telegraph) in the 1890s. 

    In the 1920s, the first voice-carrying radio broadcasts reached audiences.  While automobiles were luring Americans away from the home, the radio was luring them back.  Educationally and culturally, the radio also made a significant contribution.

     

    Hollywood's Filmland Fantasies

    As early as the 1890s, the motion picture, invented by Thomas A. Edison, had gained some popularity.  The true birth of motion picture came in 1903 with the release of the first story sequence:  The Great Train Robbery.  Hollywood became the movie capital of the world.

    Motion picture was used extensively in WWI as anti-German propaganda. 

    Much of the diversity of the immigrants' cultures was lost, but the standardization of tastes and of language hastened entry into the American mainstream-and set the stage for the emergence of a working-class political coalition that would overcome the divisive ethnic differences of the past.

     

    The Dynamic Decade

    In the 1920s, the majority of Americans had shifted from rural areas to urban (city) areas. 

    Women continued to find jobs in the cities.  Margaret Sanger led a birth-control movement.  Alice Paul formed the National Women's Party in 1923 to campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution.

    The Fundamentalists lost ground to the Modernists who believed that God was a "good guy" and the universe was a friendly place.

    The 1920s witnessed an explosion in sex appeal in America.  Young women, "flappers," rolled their stockings, taped their breasts flat, and roughed their cheeks.  Women began to wear one-piece bathing suits.

    Dr. Sigmund Freud writings justified this new sexual frankness by arguing that sexual repression was responsible for a variety of nervous and emotional ills. 

    Jazz thrived in the era of the 1920s.

    Racial pride blossomed in the northern black communities.  Marcus Garvey founded the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) to promote the resettlement of blacks in Africa.  In the United States, the UNIA also sponsored stores and other businesses to keep blacks' dollars in black pockets.

     

    Cultural Liberation

    In the decade after WWI, a new generation of writers emerged.  They gave American literature new life, imaginativeness, and artistic quality.

    H.L. Mencken attacked marriage, patriotism, democracy, and prohibition in his monthly American Mercury.

    F. Scott Fitzgerald published This Side of Paradise in 1920 and The Great Gatsby in 1925.

    Earnest Hemingway was among the writers most affected by the war.  He responded to propaganda and the overblown appeal to patriotism.  He wrote of disillusioned, spiritually numb American expatriates in Europe in The Sun Also Rises (1926). 

    Sinclair Lewis wrote Main Street (1920) and Babbitt (1922).

    Sherwood Anderson wrote Winesburg, Ohio (1919).

    Architecture also became popular as materialism and functionalism increased.

     

    Wall Street's Big Bull Market

    In the 1920s, the stock market became increasingly popular.

    In Washington, little was done to curtail money management. 

    In 1921, the Republican Congress created the Bureau of the Budget in order to assist the president in preparing estimates of receipts and expenditures for submission to Congress as the annual budget.  It was designed to prevent haphazardly extravagant appropriations.

    Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon's belief was that taxes forced the rich to invest in tax-exempt securities rather than in the factories that provided prosperous payrolls.  Mellon helped create a series of tax reductions from 1921-1926 in order to help rich people.  Congress followed by abolishing the gift tax, reducing excise taxes, the surtax, the income tax, and estate taxes.  Mellon's policies shifted much of the tax burden from the wealthy to the middle-income groups.  Mellon reduced the national debt by $10 billion.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - The Politics of Boom and Bust

    The Republican "Old Guard" Returns

    Warren G. Harding was inaugurated in 1921.  He, like Grant, was unable to detect immoral people working for him.  He was also very soft in that he hated to say "no," hurting peoples' feelings.

    Charles Evans Hughes was the secretary of state.  Andrew W. Mellon, Pittsburgh's multimillionaire aluminum king, was the secretary of the Treasury.  Herbert Hoover was the secretary of commerce.

    Harding's brightest and most capable officials (above) were offset by two of the worst:  Senator Albert B. Fall, an anticonservationist who was the secretary of the interior, and Harry M. Daugherty, a big-time crook chosen to be the attorney general.

     

    GOP Reaction at the Throttle

    The newly-elected government officials almost directed the president's actions on the issue of government and business.  They wanted not only for the government to have no control over businesses but for the government to help guide businesses along the path to profits.

    In the first years of the 1920s, the Supreme Court struck down progressive legislation.  The Supreme Court ruling in Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923) declared that under the 19th Amendment, women were no longer deserving of special protection in the workplace.

    Corporations under President Harding could once again expand without worry of the antitrust laws.

    The Interstate Commerce Commission came to be dominated by men who were sympathetic to the managers of the railroads.

     

    The Aftermath of War

    Wartime government controls of the economy were quickly dismantled.  With the Esch-Cummins Transportation Act of 1920, Congress returned the railroads to private management.  Congress encouraged private ownership of the railroads and pledged the Interstate Commerce Commission to guarantee their profitability.

    The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 authorized the Shipping Board to dispose of the wartime fleet of 1500 vessels at extremely low prices.

    Under the La Follette Seaman's Act of 1915, American shipping could not thrive in competition with foreigners, who all too often provided their crews with wretched food and starvation wages.

    Labor, suddenly deprived of its wartime crutch of friendly government support, limped along poorly in the postwar decade.

    In 1921, Congress created the Veterans Bureau to operate hospitals and provide vocational rehabilitation for the disabled.  Veterans organized and formed pressure groups.  The American Legion was created in 1919 by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.  Legionnaires met to renew old hardships and let off steam.  The legion became distinguished for its militant patriotism, conservatism, and antiradicalism.  It convinced Congress in 1924 to pass the Adjusted Compensation Act, giving every former soldier a paid-up insurance policy due in 20 years.

     

    America Seeks Benefits Without Burdens

    Because of the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, the United States had technically been at war with Germany, Austria, and Hungary for 3 years after the armistice.  To finally achieve peace, Congress passed a joint resolution in July 1921 that declared the war officially over.

    Isolationism was still the idea in Washington.  President Harding hated the League of Nations and at first, refused to support the League's world health program.

    Harding could not completely turn his back on the world.  In the Middle East, a sharp rivalry had developed between America and Britain for oil-drilling rights.  Secretary Hughes eventually secured the rights for American oil companies to share the oil-rich land with Britain.

    Disarmament was one international issue that Harding eventually tackled.  Public pressure brought about the Washington "Disarmament" Conference in 1921-1922.  Invitations to the conference went out to all the major naval powers.  Secretary Hughes laid out a plan for declaring a ten-year hiatus on construction of battleships and even for scrapping some of the huge ships already built.  He proposed that the scaled-down navies of America and Britain should have the same number of battleships and aircraft carriers; the ratio being 5:5:3 (Japan's navy would be smaller than America's and Britain's).

    The Five-Power Naval Treaty of 1922 stated that the British and Americans would refrain from fortifying their Far Eastern possessions, including the Philippines.  The Japanese were not subjected to such restraints in their possessions.

    A Four-Power Treaty between Britain, Japan, France and the United States replaced the 20-year old Anglo-Japanese Treaty and preserved the status quo in the Pacific.

    The Hardingites were satisfied with the final results of disarmament of the navy although no restrictions had been placed on small warships, and the other powers churned ahead with the construction of cruisers, destroyers, and submarines.

    In the late 1920s, Americans called for the "outlaw of war."  When petitions bearing 2 million signatures reached Washington, Calvin Coolidge's secretary of state Frank. B. Kellogg signed with the French foreign minister in 1928 theKellogg-Briand Pact.  Known as the Pact of Paris, it was ratified by 62 nations.  The new parchment peace was delusory in the extreme.  Defensive wars were still permitted; causing one to wonder what scheming aggressor could not make an excuse of self-defense.  Although virtually useless if challenged, the pact accurately reflected the American mind in the 1920s.

     

    Hiking the Tariff Higher

    Because businessmen did not want Europe flooding American markets with cheap goods after the war, Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law in 1922, raising the tariff from 27% to 35%.

    Presidents Harding and Coolidge were much more prone to increasing tariffs than decreasing them; this presented a problem: Europe needed to sell goods to the U.S. in order to get the money to pay back its war debts, and when it could not sell, it could not repay.

     

    The Stench of Scandal

    In 1923, Colonel Charles R. Forbes, head of the Veterans Bureau, was caught stealing $200 million from the government, chiefly in connection with the building of veterans' hospitals.

    Most shocking of all was the Teapot Dome scandal that involved priceless naval oil reserves at Teapot Dome and Elk Hills.  In 1921, the secretary of the interior, Albert B. Fall, convinced the secretary of the navy to transfer these valuable properties to the Interior Department.  Harding indiscreetly signed the secret order.  Fall then leased the lands to oilmen Harry F. Sinclair and Edward L. Doheny, but not until he had received a bribe of $100,000.  The Teapot Dome scandal eventually leaked to the public and polluted the Washington government.

    More scandals still erupted; there were reports as to the underhanded doings of Attorney General Daugherty, in which he was accused of the illegal sale of pardons and liquor permits.  President Harding died in San Francisco onAugust 2, 1923, of pneumonia and thrombosis, not having to live through much of the uproar of the scandal.

     

    "Silent Cal" Coolidge

    Vice President Calvin Coolidge took over the presidency following Harding's death.  He was extremely shy and delivered very boring speeches.

    Coolidge sympathized with Secretary of the Treasury Mellon's efforts to reduce both taxes and debts.  He gave the Harding regime a badly needed moral fumigation.

     

    Frustrated Farmers

    Peace had brought an end to government-guaranteed high prices and to massive purchases of farm products by other nations.  Machines also threatened to plow the farmers under an avalanche of their own overabundant crops.  Because farmers were able to create more crops with more efficiency, the size of surpluses decreased prices.

    The Capper-Volstead Act exempted farmers' marketing cooperatives from anti-trust prosecution. 

    The McNary-Haugen Bill sought to keep agricultural prices high by authorizing the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad.  President Coolidge vetoed the bill twice, keeping farm prices down, and farmers' political temperatures high coming into the election of 1924.

     

    A Three-Way Race for the White House in 1924

    After being split between, urbanites and farmers, Fundamentalists and Modernists, northern liberals and southern stand-patters, and immigrants and old-stock Americans, the Democrats finally chose John W. Davis to compete withCalvin Coolidge and La Follette for the presidency.

    Senator La Follette from Wisconsin leapt forward to lead a new liberal Progressive party.  He was endorsed by the American Federation of Labor and by farmers.  The Progressive party platform called for government ownership of railroads and relief for farmers, lashed out at monopoly and antilabor injunctions, and urged a constitutional amendment to limit the Supreme Court's power to invalidate laws passed by Congress.

    Calvin Coolidge won the election of 1924.

     

    Foreign-Policy Flounderings

    In the Coolidge era, isolationism continued to reign.

    The armed interventionism in the Caribbean and Central America was the exception to the United States' isolation policies.  American troops remained in Haiti from 1914-1934, and were stationed in Nicaragua from 1926-1933.

    In 1926, the Mexican government declared its control over oil resources.  Despite American oil companies clamoring for war, Coolidge resolved the situation diplomatically.

    World War I had reversed the international financial position of the United States; it was now a creditor nation in the sum of about $16 billion.  American investors had loaned about $10 billion to the Allies in WWI, and following the war, they wanted to be paid.  The Allies, especially the French and British, protested the demand for repayment pointing out that they had lost many troops and that America should just write off the loans as war costs.

    America's postwar tariff walls made it almost impossible for the European Allied nations to sell their goods to earn the dollars to pay their debts.

     

    Unraveling the Debt Knot

    America's demand for repayment from France and Britain caused the two countries to press Germany for enormous reparations payments, totaling some $32 billion, as compensation for war-inflicted damages.  The Allies hoped to settle their debts with the United States with the money received from Germany.

    Disputes in government on whether or not war debts and reparations should have even been paid broke out.  Negotiated by Charles Dawes, the Dawes Plan of 1924 resolved this issue.  It rescheduled German reparations payments and opened the way for further American private loans to Germany.  United States bankers loaned money to Germany, Germany paid reparations to France and Britain, and the Allies paid war debts to the United States.  After the well of investors dried up in 1931, the jungle of international finance was turned into a desert.  President Herbert Hoover declared a one-year debt suspension in 1931.

    The United States never did get its money from Europe.

     

    The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, 1928

    When Calvin Coolidge chose not to run for president in the election of 1928, the Republicans chose Herbert Hoover.  Hoover was a small-town boy who worked his way through Stanford.  His experiences abroad strengthened his faith in American individualism, free enterprise, and small government.  His real power lay in his integrity, his humanitarianism, his passion for assembling the facts, his efficiency, his talents for administration, and his ability to inspire loyalty in close associates.

    The Democrats nominated Alfred E. Smith.  He was a Roman Catholic in an overwhelmingly Protestant country, and was "wet" at a time when the country was still devoted to prohibition.

    For the first time, the radio was used prominently in election campaigns.  It mostly helped Hoover's campaign.

    The combination of Catholicism, wettism, foreignism, and liberalism of Smith was too much for the southerners.  Herbert Hoover won the election of 1928 in a landslide, becoming the first Republican candidate in 52 years, except for Harding's Tennessee victory, to win a state that had seceded. 

     

    President Hoover's First Moves

    Two groups of citizens were not getting rich in the growing economy:  the unorganized wage earners and the disorganized farmers.

    The Agricultural Marketing Act, passed in 1929, was designed to help the farmers.  It set up the Federal Farm Board, which could lend money to farm organizations seeking to buy, sell, and store agricultural surpluses.

    In 1930, the Farm Board created the Grain Stabilization Corporation and the Cotton Stabilization Corporation.  Their goal was to boost falling prices by buying up surpluses.  The two agencies eventually failed.

    The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 started out as a mild tariff before 1,000 amendments were added to it.  It raised the tariff to 60%, becoming the nation's highest protective tariff during peacetime.  The tariff deepened the depression that had already begun in America and other nations, and it increased international financial chaos.

     

    The Great Crash Ends the Golden Twenties

    The catastrophic stock-market crash came in October 1929.  It was partially triggered by the British, who raised their interest rates in an effort to bring back capital lured abroad by American investments.  The British needed money; they were unable to trade with the United States due the high tariffs.

    On "Black Tuesday" of October 29, 1929, millions of stocks were sold in a panic.  By the end of 1929, two months after the initial crash, stockholders had lost $40 billion.

    As a result of the crash, millions lost their jobs and thousands of banks closed.  No other industrialized nation suffered so severe a setback as the United States.

     

    Hooked on the Horn of Plenty

    One of the main causes of the Great Depression was overproduction by both farm and factory.  The nation's ability to produce goods had outrun its capacity to consume or pay for them.  All the money was being invested in factories and other agencies of production; not enough money was going into salaries and wages.  Overexpansion of credit also contributed to the depression.

    The Great Depression continued the economic destruction of Europe, which had not yet fully recovered from WWI.

    In the 1930s, a terrible drought scorched the Mississippi Valley, causing thousands of farms to be sold.

     

    Rugged Times for Rugged Individuals

    In the beginning of the Great Depression, President Hoover believed that industry and self-reliance had made America great and that the government should play no role in the welfare of the people.  He soon realized, however, that the welfare of the people in a nationwide catastrophe was a direct concern of the government.

    Hoover developed a plan in which the government would assist the railroads, banks, and rural credit corporations in the hope that if financial health was restored at the top of the economic pyramid, then unemployment would be relieved as the prosperity trickled down.  Hoover's efforts were criticized because he gave government money to the big bankers who had allegedly started the depression.

     

    Herbert Hoover Battles the Great Depression

    President Hoover secured from Congress $2.25 billion for useful public works.  (ex. the Hoover Dam)

    Hoover was strongly opposed to all schemes that he saw as "socialistic."  He vetoed the Muscle Shoals Bill, which was designed to dam the Tennessee River and sell government-produced electricity in competition with citizens in private companies.

    In 1932, Congress established the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which was designed to provide indirect economic relief by assisting insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and state and local governments.

    Congress passed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act in 1932, outlawing antiunion contracts and fording federal courts to issue injunctions to restrain strikes, boycotts, and peaceful picketing.

     

    Routing the Bonus Army in Washington

    Veterans of WWI were among the hardest hit by the Great Depression.  A drive developed for the premature payment of the suspended bonus vetoed by Congress in 1924.

    The "Bonus Expeditionary Force" (BEF), which claimed about 20,000 people, converged on the capital in the summer of 1932, demanding the immediate payment of their entire bonus.

    After the BEF refused to leave the capital, President Hoover sent in the army to evacuate the group.  The ensuing riots and incidents brought additional public abuse of Hoover.

     

    Japanese Militarists Attack China

    In September 1931, Japanese imperialists, seeing that the Western world was bogged down in the Great Depression, invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria.  Although a direct violation of the League of Nations, the League was unable to do anything because it could not count on America's support.

    In 1932, Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson decided to only diplomatically attack the Japanese aggressors by issuing the Stimson doctrine.  It declared that the United States would not recognize any territorial acquisitions achieved by force.  Japan ignored the doctrine and moved onto Shanghai in 1932.  The violence continued without the League of Nation's intervention as WWII was born.

     

    Hoover Pioneers the Good Neighbor Policy

    President Hoover brought better relations with America's Latin American neighbors.  An advocate of international goodwill, he withdrew American troops from Latin America. 

    He had engineered the foundation of a "Good Neighbor" policy.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

    As the election of 1932 neared, unemployment and poverty brought dissent of President Hoover and a demand for a change in policy.  The Republicans nominated Herbert Hoover to run for president in the election of 1932.  The Democrats chose Franklin Delano Roosevelt.  He had been born to a wealthy New York family and served as the governor of New York.

     

    FDR:  Politician in a Wheelchair

    Franklin D. Roosevelt's wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, was to become the most active First Lady in history.  She powerfully influenced the policies of the national government, battling for the impoverished and oppressed.

    Roosevelt's commanding presence and golden speaking voice made him the premier American orator of his generation.

     

    Presidential Hopefuls of 1932

    In the Democratic campaign of 1932, Roosevelt attacked the Republican Old Deal and concentrated on preaching a New Deal for the "forgotten man."  He promised to balance the nation's budget and decrease the heavy Hooverian deficits.

    Although the campaign for the Republicans was dire, Herbert Hoover reaffirmed his faith in American free enterprise and individualism.  He predicted prosperity if the Hawley-Smoot Tariff was repealed.

     

    Hoover's Humiliation in 1932

    Franklin Roosevelt won the election of 1932 by a sweeping majority, in both the popular vote and the Electoral College.

    Beginning in the election of 1932, blacks became, notably in the urban centers of the North, a vital element of the Democratic Party.

     

    FDR and the Three R's:  Relief, Recovery, Reform

    Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated on March 4, 1933.

    On March 6-10, President Roosevelt declared a national banking holiday as a prelude to opening the banks on a sounder basis.  The Hundred Days Congress/Emergency Congress (March 9-June 16, 1933) passed a series laws in order to cope with the national emergency (The Great Depression).

    Roosevelt's New Deal programs aimed at 3 R's:  relief, recovery, reform.  Short-range goals were relief and immediate recovery, and long-range goals were permanent recovery and reform of current abuses.

    Congress gave President Roosevelt extraordinary blank-check powers:  some of the laws it passed expressly delegated legislative authority to the president.

    The New Dealers embraced such progressive ideas as unemployment insurance, old-age insurance, minimum-wage regulations, conservation and development of natural resources, and restrictions on child labor.

     

    Roosevelt Tackles Money and Banking

    The impending banking crisis caused Congress to pass the Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933.  It gave the president power to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen solvent banks.  President Roosevelt began to give "fireside chats" over the radio in order to restore public confidence of banks.

    Congress then passed the Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act, creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC).  A reform program, the FDIC insured individual bank deposits up to $5,000, ending the epidemic of bank failures.

    In order to protect the shrinking gold reserve, President Roosevelt ordered all private holdings of gold to be given to the Treasury in exchange for paper currency and then the nation to be taken off the gold standard-Congress passed laws providing for these measures.

    The goal of Roosevelt's "managed currency" was inflation, which he believed would relieve debtors' burdens and stimulate new production.  Inflation was achieved through gold buying; the Treasury purchased gold at increasing prices, increasing the dollar price of gold.  This policy increased the amount of dollars in circulation.

     

    Creating Jobs for the Jobless

    President Roosevelt had no qualms about using federal money to assist the unemployed in order to jumpstart the economy.  Congress created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which provided employment for about 3 million men in government camps.  Their work included reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage.

    Congress's first major effort to deal with the massive unemployment was to pass the Federal Emergency Relief Act.  The resulting Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was headed by Harry L. Hopkins.  Hopkins's agency granted about $3 billion to the states for direct relief payments or for wages on work projects.  Created in 1933, the Civil Works Administration (CWA), a branch of the FERA, was designed to provide temporary jobs during the winter emergency.  Thousands of unemployed were employed at leaf raking and other manual-labor jobs.

    Relief was given to the farmers with the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), making available millions of dollars to help farmers meet their mortgages.

    The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) assisted many households that had trouble paying their mortgages.

     

    A Day for Every Demagogue

    As unemployment and suffering continued, radical opponents to Roosevelt's New Deal began to arise.  Father Charles Coughlin's anti-New Deal radio broadcasts eventually became so anti-Semitic and fascistic that he was forced off the air.  Senator Huey P. Long publicized his "Share Our Wealth" program in which every family in the United States would receive $5,000.  His fascist plans ended when he was assassinated in 1935.  Dr. Francis E. Townsend attracted millions of senior citizens with his plan that each citizen over the age of 60 would receive $200 a month.

    Congress passed the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935, with the objective of employment on useful projects (i.e. the construction of buildings, roads, etc.).  Taxpayers criticized the agency for paying people to due "useless" jobs such as painting murals.

     

    A Helping Hand for Industry and Labor

    The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was designed to assist industry, labor, and the unemployed.  Individual industries, through "fair competition" codes, were forced to lower their work hours so that more people could be hired; a minimum wage was also established.  Workers were formally guaranteed the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their choosing, not through the company's choosing. 

    Although initially supported by the public, collapse of the NRA came in 1935 with the Supreme Court's Schechter decision in which it was ruled that Congress could not "delegate legislative powers" to the president and that congressional control of interstate commerce could apply to local fowl business.

    The Public Works Administration (PWA) was intended for both industrial recovery and for unemployment relief.  Headed by Harold L. Ickes, the agency spent over $4 billion on thousands of projects, including public buildings and highways.

    In order to raise federal revenue and provide a level of employment, Congress repealed prohibition with the 21st Amendment in late 1933.

     

    Paying Farmers Not to Farm

    Congress created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA).  It established "parity prices" for basic commodities.  "Parity" was the price set for a product that gave it the same real value, in purchasing power, that it had from 1909-1914.  The agency also paid farmers to reduce their crop acreage, eliminating surpluses, while at the same time increasing unemployment.

    The Supreme Court struck down the AAA in 1936, declaring its regulatory taxation provisions unconstitutional.

    The New Deal Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936.  The reduction of crop acreage was now achieved by paying farmers to plant soil-conserving crops.

    The Second Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 continued conservation payments; if farmers obeyed acreage restrictions on specific commodities, they would be eligible for parity payments.

     

    Dust Bowls and Black Blizzards

    Late in 1933, a prolonged drought struck the states of the trans-Mississippi Great Plains.  The Dust Bowl was partially caused by the cultivation of countless acres, dry-farming techniques, and mechanization.

    Sympathy towards the affected farmers came with the Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act, passed in 1934.  It made possible a suspension of mortgage foreclosures for 5 years.  It was struck down in 1935 by the Supreme Court.

    In 1935, President Roosevelt set up the Resettlement Administration, given the task of moving near-farmless farmers to better lands.

    The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 encouraged Native American tribes to establish self-government and to preserve their native crafts and traditions.  77 tribes refused to organize under the law, while hundreds did organize.

     

    Battling Bankers and Big Business

    In order to protect the public against fraud, Congress passed the "Truth in Securities Act" (Federal Securities Act), requiring promoters to transmit to the investor sworn information regarding the soundness of their stocks and bonds.

    In 1934, Congress took further steps to protect the public with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).  It was designed as a watchdog administrative agency.

     

    The TVA Harnesses the Tennessee River

    Zealous New Dealers accused the electric-power industry of gouging the public with excessive rates.

    2.5 million of America's most poverty-stricken people inhabited Muscle Shoals.  If the government constructed a dam on the Tennessee River in Muscle Shoals, it could combine the immediate advantage of putting thousands of people to work with a long-term project for reforming the power monopoly. 

    In 1933, the Hundred Days Congress created the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).  It was assigned the task of predicting how much the production and distribution of electricity would cost so that a "yardstick" could be set up to test the fairness of rates charged by private companies.

    The large project of constructing dams on the Tennessee River brought to the area full employment, the blessings of cheap electric power, low-cost housing, abundant cheap nitrates, the restoration of eroded soil, reforestation, improved navigation, and flood control.  The once-poverty-stricken area was being turned into one of the most flourishing regions in the United States.

    The conservative reaction against the "socialistic" New Deal would confine the TVA's brand of federally guided resource management and comprehensive regional development to the Tennessee Valley.

     

    Housing Reform and Social Security

    To speed recovery and better homes, President Roosevelt set up the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) in 1934.

    To strengthen the FHA, Congress created the United States Housing Authority (USHA) in 1937.  It was designed to lend money to states or communities for low-cost construction.

    The more important success of New Dealers was in the field of unemployment insurance and old-age pensions.  The Social Security Act of 1935 provided for federal-state unemployment insurance.  To provide security for old age, specified categories of retired workers were to receive regular payments from Washington.

    Republicans were strongly opposed to Social Security.  Social Security was inspired by the example of some of the more highly industrialized nations of Europe.

     In an urbanized economy, the government was now recognizing its responsibility for the welfare of its citizens.

     

    A New Deal for Unskilled Labor

    When the Supreme Court struck down the National Recovery Administration (NRA), Congress, sympathetic towards labor unions, passed the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act).  This law created a powerful National Labor Relations Board for administrative purposes and reasserted the rights of labor to engage in self-organization and to bargain collectively through representatives of its own choice.

    The stride for unskilled workers to organize was lead by John L. Lewis, boss of the United Mine Workers.  He formed the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) in 1935.  The CIO led a series of strikes including the sit-down strike at the General Motors automobile factory in 1936.

    Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act (Wages and Hours Bill) in 1938.  Industries involved in interstate commerce were to set up minimum-wage and maximum-hour levels.  Labor by children under the age of 16 was forbidden.

    In 1938, the CIO joined with the AF of L and the name "Committee for Industrial Organization" was changed to "Congress of Industrial Organizations."-led by John Lewis.  By 1940, the CIO claimed about 4 million members.

     

    Landon Challenges "the Champ" in 1936

    As the election of 1936 neared, the New Dealers had achieved considerable progress, and millions of "reliefers" were grateful to their government.

    The Republicans chose Alfred M. Landon to run against President Roosevelt.  The Republicans condemned the New Deal for its radicalism, experimentation, confusion, and "frightful waste."

    President Roosevelt was reelected as president in a lopsided victory.  FDR won primarily because he had appealed to the "forgotten man."  He had forged a powerful and enduring coalition of the South, blacks, urbanites, and the poor.

     

    Nine Old Men on the Supreme Bench

    Ratified in 1933, the 20th Amendment shortened the period from election to inauguration by 6 weeks.  FDR took the presidential oath on January 20, 1937, instead of the traditional March 4.

    Roosevelt saw his reelection as a mandate to continue the New Deal reforms.  The ultraconservative justices on the Supreme Court proved to be a threat to the New Deal as the Roosevelt administration had been thwarted 7 times in cases against the New Deal.

    With his reelection, Roosevelt felt that the American people had wanted the New Deal.  If the American way of life was to be preserved, he argued, and then the Supreme Court had to get in line with public opinion.  President Roosevelt released his plan to ask Congress to pass legislation allowing him to appoint one new justice to the Supreme Court for every member over the age of 70 who would not retire; the maximum number of justices would now be 15.  Shocking both Congress and the public, the plan received much negative feedback.

     

    The Court Changes Course

    President Roosevelt was belittled for attempting to break down the checks and balances system among the 3 branches of government.

    Justice Owen J. Roberts, formerly regarded as a conservative, began to vote liberal.  In March 1937, the Supreme Court upheld the principle of state minimum wage for women, reversing its stand on a different case a year earlier.  The Court, now sympathetic towards the New Deal, upheld the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) and the Social Security Act.

    A succession of deaths and resignations of justices enabled Roosevelt to appoint 9 justices to the Court.

    FDR aroused conservatives of both parties in Congress so that few New Deal reforms were passed after 1937.  He lost much of the political goodwill that had helped him to win the election of 1936.

     

    The Twilight of the New Deal

    In Roosevelt's first term, from 1933-1937, unemployment still ran high and recovery had been relatively slow.  In 1937, the economy took another downturn as new Social Security taxes began to cut into payrolls and as the Roosevelt administration cut back on spending out of the continuing reverence for the orthodox economic doctrine of the balanced budget.

    The New Deal had run deficits for several years, but all of them had been somewhat small and none was intended.  Roosevelt embraced the recommendations of the British economist John Maynard Keynes.  The newly-accepted "Keynesianism" economic program was to stimulate the economy by planned deficit spending.

    In 1939, Congress passed the Reorganization Act, giving President Roosevelt limited powers for administrative reforms, including the new Executive Office in the White House.

    Congress passed the Hatch Act of 1939, barring federal administrative officials from active political campaigning and soliciting.  It also forbade the use of government funds for political purposes as well as the collection of campaign contributions from people receiving relief payments.

     

    New Deal or Raw Deal?

    Foes of the New Deal charged the president of spending too much money on his programs, significantly increasing the national debt; by 1939, the national debt was at $40,440,000,000.  Lavish financial aid and relief were undermining the old virtue of initiative.

    Private enterprise was being suppressed and states' rights were being ignored.  The most damning indictment of the New Deal was that it did not end the depression; it merely administered "aspirin, sedatives, and Band-Aids."  Not until World War II was the unemployment problem solved.

     

    FDR's Balance Sheet

    New Deal supporters had pointed out that relief, not economy, had been the primary objective of their war on the depression.  Roosevelt believed that the government was morally bound to prevent mass hunger and starvation by "managing" the economy.

    FDR was a Hamiltonian in his idea of big government, but a Jeffersonian in his concern for the "forgotten man."

    New Deal Acronyms

    ACRONYM DEFINITION AAA Agricultural Adjustment Administration CCC Civilian Conservation Corps CWA Civil Works Administration FERA Federal Emergency Relief Administration FHA Federal Housing Administration FSA Farm Security Administration HOLC Home Owners Loan Corporation NRA National Recovery Administration NYA National Youth Administration PWA Public Works Administration REA Rural Electrification Administration SSA Social Security Administration TVA Tennessee Valley Authority WPA Work Projects (Progress) Administration

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 35 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

    The London Conference

    In the summer of 1933, 66 nations sent delegates to the London Economic Conference.  The delegates hoped to organize a coordinated international attack on the global depression.  They sought to stabilize the values of various nations' currencies and the rates at which they could be exchanged.

    President Roosevelt, at first, agreed to send delegates to the conference, but had second thoughts after he realized that an international agreement to maintain the value of the dollar in terms of other currencies wouldn't allow him to inflate the value of the dollar.  He declared that America wouldn't take place in the negotiations.

    Without support from the United States, the London Economic Conference fell apart.  The collapse strengthened the global trend towards nationalism, while making international cooperation increasingly difficult.

     

    Freedom for (from?) the Filipinos and Recognition for the Russians

    Increasing the nation's isolationism, President Roosevelt withdrew from Asia.  Bowing to organized labor's demands of the exclusion of low-wage Filipino workers, Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934, providing for the independence of the Philippines by 1946.  The nation did not want to have to support the Philippines if Japan attacked there.

    In 1933, Roosevelt formally recognized the Soviet Union, opening up trade and bolstering a friendly counter-weight to the possible threat of German power in Europe and Japanese power in Asia.

     

    Becoming a Good Neighbor

    President Roosevelt initiated the Good Neighbor policy, renouncing armed intervention in Latin America.  The last marines left Haiti in 1934; Cuba, under the Platt Amendment, was released from American control; and the grip onPanama was relaxed in 1936.

    When the Mexican government seized American oil properties in 1938, President Roosevelt held to his unarmed intervention policy and a settlement was eventually worked out in 1941, causing the oil companies to lose much of their original stake.

     

    Secretary Hull's Reciprocal Trade Agreements

    Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934.  Designed to lower the tariff, it aimed at both relief and recovery.  Secretary of State Hull succeeded in negotiating pacts with 21 countries by the end of 1939.  These pacts were essentially trade agreements that stated if the United States lowered its tariff, then the other country would do the same.  With the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, the president was empowered to lower existing rates by as much as 50% provided that the other country involved would do the same.

    During these years of trade agreements, U.S. foreign trade increased dramatically.  The act paved the way for the American-led free-trade international economic system that took shape after WWII.

     

    Impulses Toward Storm-Cellar Isolationism

    Joseph Stalin took control of the Communist USSR, Benito Mussolini took control of Italy in 1922, and Adolf Hitler took control of Germany.  Hitler was the most dangerous of all of them because he combined tremendous power with impulsiveness.

    In 1936, Nazi Hitler and Fascist Mussolini allied themselves in the Rome-Berlin Axis.

    Determined to find a place in the Asiatic sun, Japan terminated the Washington Naval Treaty and accelerated their construction of giant battleships.

    Mussolini, seeking power and glory in Africa, attacked Ethiopia in 1935.

    In 1934, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act, preventing the debt-dodging nations from borrowing further in the United States.  Americans maintained the isolationist mentality due to the ocean borders.

     

    Congress Legislates Neutrality

    Responding to overwhelming popular pressure, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937.  The acts stated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect.  No American could legally sail on a belligerent ship, sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent.

    The Neutrality Acts were made to keep the United States out of a conflict.  By declining to use its vast industrial strength to aid its democratic friends and defeat its totalitarian foes, the United States helped to provoke the aggressors.

     

    America Dooms Loyalist Spain

    The Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939 started when Spanish rebels, led by General Francisco Franco, rose against the left-wing Republican government in Madrid.  Aided by Mussolini and Hitler, Franco undertook to overthrow theLoyalist regime, which was assisted by the Soviet Union.

    Although it was legal for the United States to send aid to the Loyalist regime, the United States desperately wanted to stay out of war; Congress amended the existing neutrality legislation so as to apply an arms embargo to both Loyalists and rebels.

     

    Appeasing Japan and Germany

    In 1937, the Japanese militarists touched off an explosion that led to the all-out invasion of China.  President Roosevelt declined to invoke the recently passed neutrality legislation by refusing to call the "China incident" an officially declared war.  If he had, he would have cut off the trickle of munitions on which the Chinese were dependent.  The Japanese, as a result, were able to continue to buy war supplies in the United States.

    In 1937, Japanese planes sunk an American gunboat, the Panay.  Tokyo was quick to make apologies and the United States accepted.

    In 1935, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles when he introduced mandatory military service in Germany.  In 1936, he again violated the treaty when he took over the demilitarized German Rhineland.

    In March 1938, Hitler invaded Austria.  (Note:  Austria actually voted for the occupation, fully aware that if it resisted, Germany would forcefully take over Austria.)

    At a conference in Munich, Germany in September 1938, the Western European democracies, unprepared for war, betrayed Czechoslovakia to Germany when they gave away Sudetenland.  They hoped that by doing this, Hitler's greed for power would end.

    In March 1939, Hitler took control of Czechoslovakia.  (See Austria note.)

     

    Hitler's Belligerency and U.S. Neutrality

    On August 23, 1939, the Soviet Union signed a nonaggression treaty with Hitler.  The Hitler-Stalin pact meant that Germany could make war on Poland and the Western democracies without fear of retaliation from the Soviet Union.

    Hitler demanded from Poland a return of the areas taken from Germany after WWI.  After Poland failed to meet his demands, Hitler militarily invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.  Britain and France, honoring their commitments to Poland, declared war on Germany; World War II had started.

    Although Americans were strongly anti-Nazi, they were desperately determined to stay out of the war.

    The Neutrality Act of 1937 placed a arms trade embargo on Spain and extended the current embargo on Britain and France.

    Heeding to the need of France and Britain of war materials from America, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939.  It stated that the European democracies could buy American war materials as long as they would transport the munitions on their own ships after paying for them in cash.  America thus avoided loans, war debts, and the torpedoing of American arms-carriers.

    Overseas demand for war goods brought a sharp upswing from the recession of 1937-1938 and ultimately solved the decade-long unemployment crisis.

     

    The Fall of France

    The months following the collapse of Poland were known as the "phony war."

    The Soviet Union took over Finland despite Congress loaning $30 million to Finland.

    Hitler overran Denmark and Norway in April 1940, ending the "phony war."  Hitler then moved on to the Netherlands and Belgium.  By late June 1940, France was forced to surrender.

    When France surrendered, Americans realized that England was all that stood between Hitler controlling all of Europe.  Roosevelt moved with tremendous speed to call upon the nation to build huge airfleets and a two-ocean navy.  Congress approved a spending of $37 billion.  On September 6, 1940, Congress passed a conscription law; under this measure, America's first peacetime draft was initiated-provision was made for training 1.2 million troops and 800,000 reserves each year.

    With the Netherlands, Denmark, and France all fallen to German control, it was unsure what would happen to the colonies of Latin America (the New World).  At the Havana Conference of 1940, the United States agreed to share with its 20 New World neighbors the responsibility of upholding the Monroe Doctrine.

     

    Bolstering Britain with the Destroyer Deal (1940)

    After France fell to Germany in the Battle of France (June), Hitler launched a series of air attacks against Britain in August 1940.  The Battle of Britain raged in the air over the British Isles for months.  During the Battle of Britain, radio broadcasts brought the drama from London air raids directly to America homes.  Sympathy for Britain grew, but it was not yet sufficient to push the United States into war. 

    President Roosevelt faced a historic decision:  whether to hunker down in the Western Hemisphere and let the rest of the world go it alone; or to bolster Britain by all means short of war itself.

    The most powerful group of those who supported aid for Britain was the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies.  Isolationists organized the America First Committee, contending that America should concentrate what strength it had to defend its own shores.

    On September 2, 1940, President Roosevelt agreed to transfer to 50 destroyers left over from WWI to Britain.  In return, Britain agreed to hand over to the United States 8 valuable defensive base sites.  Shifting warships from a neutral United States to Britain was a flagrant violation of the neutrality obligations.

     

    FDR Shatters the Two-Term Tradition (1940)

    The Republicans chose Wendell L. Willkie to run against President Roosevelt.  Willkie's great appeal lay in his personality.  The Republican platform condemned FDR's alleged dictatorship, as well as the New Deal.  Willkie was opposed not so much to the New Deal as to its extravagances and inefficiencies.

    Roosevelt challenged the sacred two-term tradition when he decided that in such a grave crisis he owed his experienced hand to the service of his country.

    Both presidential nominees promised to stay out of the war, and both promised to strengthen the nation's defenses.

    FDR won the election of 1940; voters generally felt that should war come, the experience of FDR was needed.

     

    Congress Passes the Landmark Lend-Lease Law

    Fearing the collapse of Britain, Congress passed the Lend-Lease Bill in 1941.  Nicknamed "An Act Further to Promote the Defense of the United States," it allowed for American arms to be lent or leased to the democracies of the world that needed them.  When the war was over, the guns and tanks could be returned.  Key opponents of the bill, such as Senator Taft, criticized it, reporting that the arms would be destroyed and unable to be returned after the war.  It was praised by the FDR administration as a device that would keep the nation out of the war rather than dragging it in.  America would send a limitless supply of arms to victims of aggression, who would in turn finish the war and keep it on their side of the Atlantic.

    Lend-lease was a challenge thrown at the Axis dictators; America pledged itself to bolster those nations that were indirectly fighting it by fighting aggression.  The bill marked the abandonment of any pretense of neutrality.

    Hitler recognized the Lend-Lease Bill as an unofficial declaration of war.  Until then, Germany had avoided attacking U.S. ships.  On May 21, 1941, the Robin Moor, an unarmed American merchantman, was destroyed by a German submarine in the South Atlantic, outside the war zone.

     

    Hitler's Assault on the Soviet Union Spawns the Atlantic Charter

    Two events marked the course of WWII before the assault on Pearl Harbor:  the fall of France in June 1940, and Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941.

    Even though the two nations were bound to peace under the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, neither Hitler nor Stalin trusted one another.  Hitler decided to crush the Soviet Union, seize the oil and other resources of the Soviet Union, and then have two free hands to battle Britain.

    On June 22, 1941, Hitler launched an attack on the Soviet Union.  President Roosevelt immediately promised assistance and backed up his words by making some military supplies available.

    With the surrender of the Soviet Union a very real possibility, the Atlantic Conference was held in August 1941.  Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met and discussed common problems of the world.  The two men came up with the eight-point Atlantic Charter, outlining the aspirations of the democracies for a better world at the war's end.  The Atlantic Charter promised that there would be no territorial changes contrary to the wishes of the inhabitants; it affirmed the right of a people to choose their own form of government and to regain the governments abolished by the dictators; and it declared for disarmament and a peace of security, pending a new League of Nations.

     

    U.S. Destroyers and Hitler's U-boats Clash

    FDR made the decision to escort the shipments of arms to Britain by U.S. warships in July 1941.  In September 1941, the U.S. destroyer Greer was attacked by a U-boat, without suffering damage.  Roosevelt then proclaimed a shoot-on-sight policy.  On October 17 the destroyer Kearny was crippled by a U-boat.  Two weeks later, the destroyer Reuben James was sunk off southwestern Iceland.

    Congress voted in November 1941 to repeal the Neutrality Act of 1939, enabling merchant ships to be legally armed and enter the combat zones with munitions for Britain.

     

    Surprise Assault of Pearl Harbor

    Since September 1940, Japan had been allied with Germany.  In late 1940, Washington imposed the first of its embargoes on Japan-bound supplies.  The State Department insisted that the Japanese clear out of China, offering to renew trade relations on a limited basis.  Forced with the choice of succumbing to the Americans or continued conquest, the Japanese chose to fight.

    On "Black Sunday" December 7, 1941, Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbor, killing 2,348 people.

    On December 11, 1941, Congress declared war.

     

    America's Transformation from Bystander to Belligerent

    Pearl Harbor was not the full answer to the question of why the United States went to war.  Following the fall of France, Americans were confronted with a devil's dilemma.  They desired to stay out of the conflict, yet they did not want Britain to be knocked out.  To keep Britain from collapsing, the Roosevelt administration felt compelled to extend the unneutral aid that invited attacks from German submarines.  Americans wished to stop Japan's conquests in the Far East.  To keep Japan from expanding, Washington undertook to cut off vital Japanese supplies with embargoes that invited possible retaliation. 

    Rather than let democracy die and dictatorship rule, most Americans were determined to support a policy that might lead to war.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 36 - America in World War II

     After the bombing at Pearl Harbor, politicians in Washington D.C. adopted the strategy of "getting Germany first"; if America diverted its main strength to the Pacific, Hitler might crush both the Soviet Union and Britain.  The politicians' idea was that if Germany was knocked out first (before the Pacific engagements began), then Allied forces could be concentrated on Japan.

     

    The Allies Trade Space for Time

    America's task of WWII was far more complex and hard than during WWI.  It had to feed, clothe, and transport its forces to far away regions.  It also had to send a vast amount of food and munitions to its allies, who stretched all the way from Australia to the USSR.

     

    The Shock of War

    American Communists had denounced the Anglo-French war before Hitler attacked Stalin in 1941, but after Pearl Harbor, they clamored for war against the axis powers.

    Unlike WWI, when the patriotism of millions of immigrants was questioned, WWII actually sped the assimilation of many ethnic groups into American society.  There was almost no government witch-hunting of minority groups.  The exception to this was the 110,000 Japanese-Americans on the Pacific Coast who were herded into concentration camps.  Washington feared that they might act as saboteurs for Japan in case of invasion.  The camps deprived the Japanese-Americans of basic rights, and the internees lost hundreds of millions of dollars in property.  In the Supreme Court ruling in Korematsu v. U.S. (1944), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the concentration camps.

    Many programs of the once-popular New Deal were wiped out-including the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and the National Youth Administration.  President Roosevelt declared in 1943 that the New Deal reform era was over.

     

    Building the War Machine

    The lingering Great Depression was brought to an end with the massive military orders.  Orchestrated by the War Production Board (WPB), American factories produced an enormous amount of weaponry, such as guns and planes.  The War Production Board halted the manufacture of nonessential items such as passenger cars.  It assigned priorities for transportation and access to raw materials. 

    The government imposed a national speed limit and gasoline rationing as America's lifeline of natural rubber from British Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies was broken.

    In 1942, a sharp inflationary surge occurred as a result of full employment and scarce consumer goods.  The Office of Price Administration (OPA) eventually brought the ascending prices down. 

    The War Labor Board (WLB) imposed ceilings on wage increases.  Unhappy with the wage ceilings, labor unions called their members to go on strike.  Threats of lost production through strikes became so worrisome that Congress, in June 1943, passed the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act.  It authorized the federal government to seize and operate tied-up businesses.  Washington took control of the coal mines and, for a brief period, the railroads.  Though, the vast majority of American workers were committed to the war effort.

     

    Manpower and Womanpower

    Even with certain key categories of industrial and agricultural workers being exempt from the draft, the draft left the nation's farms and factories short of personnel.  In 1942, an agreement with Mexico brought thousands of Mexican agricultural workers, called braceros, to America to harvest the fruit and grain crops of the West.

    The armed services enlisted nearly 216,000 women in WWII.  Most commonly known were the WAACs (army), WAVES (navy), and SPARs (Coast Guard).  Millions of women also took jobs outside the house, working in the war industry.  WWII foreshadowed an eventual revolution in the roles of women in American society.

    The immediate post-war period witnessed not a permanent widening of women's employment opportunities, but a widespread rush into suburban domesticity and the mothering of the "baby boomers."

     

    Wartime Migrations

    The war churned and shifted the American population.  1.6 million blacks left the South to seek jobs in the war plants of the West and North.  Black leader A. Philip Randolph, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, threatened a massive "Negro March on Washington" in 1941 to demand equal opportunities for blacks in war jobs and in the armed forces.  As a result, Roosevelt established the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to monitor compliance with his executive order forbidding discrimination in defense industries.

    During WWII, FDR gave the South a disproportionate share of defense contracts in order to fix the economic crisis of the South.

    In 1944, the advent of the mechanical cotton picker made the Cotton South's need for cheap labor disappear.  Following the invention, millions of black tenant farmers and sharecroppers headed north.

    Some 25,000 Native Americans served in the armed forces.  Comanches in Europe and Navajos in the Pacific made such valuable contributions as "code talkers."

     

    Holding the Home Front

    Americans on the home front suffered little from the war, compared to the people of the other fighting nations.  By war's end, much of the world was in ruins, but in America, the war-stimulated economy was booming.

    The hand of government touched more American lives more intimately during the war than every before; every household felt the constraints of the rationing system.

    Following the war, the national debt rose from $49 billion in 1941 to $259 billion in 1945.  Most of the war costs were borrowed.

     

    The Rising Sun in the Pacific

    Simultaneously with the assault on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched attacks on various Far Eastern strongholds, including the American outposts of Guam, Wake, and the Philippines.

    In the Philippines, American forces, led by General MacArthur, held out against the invading Japanese force for 5 months.  The America troops surrendered on April 9, 1942.  They were treated with vicious cruelty in the 80-mile Bataan Death March to prisoner-of-war camps. 

    The island fortress of Corregidor held out until it surrendered on May 6, 1942, giving the Japanese complete control of the Philippines.

     

    Japan's High Tide at Midway

    In May 1942, a crucial naval battle was fought in the Coral Sea.  An American carrier task force, with Australian support, engaged in the first battle in which all the fighting was done by carrier-based aircraft.

    On June 3-6, 1942, a naval battle of extreme importance to both the Japanese and the Americans was fought near Midway.  Admiral Chester W. Nimitz directed a smaller but skillfully maneuvered carrier force, under Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, against the powerful invading Japanese fleet.  The Japanese retreated after losing 4 carriers.  Midway was a turning point in the Pacific war.  Combined with the Battle of Coral Sea, the U.S. success at Midway halted the powerful Japanese.

     

    American Leapfrogging Toward Tokyo

    In August 1942, American forces gained a foothold on Guadalcanal Island, the Solomon Islands, in an attempt to protect the lifeline from America to Australia through the Southwest Pacific.  After several desperate sea battles for naval control, the Japanese troops evacuated Guadalcanal in February 1943.  The casualty ratio of more than 10 to 1, Japanese to American, subsisted after the battle.

    The U.S. Navy had been "leapfrogging" the Japanese-held islands in the Pacific.  The strategy dictated that the American forces, as they drove towards Tokyo, would reduce the fortified Japanese outposts on their flank.  The new strategy of island hopping called for bypassing some of the most heavily fortified Japanese posts, capturing nearby islands, setting up airfields on them, and then neutralizing the enemy bases through heavy bombing.  The outposts would then wither and die due to deprivation of essential supplies from the homeland.  Success came to the United States as Admiral Chester Nimitz coordinated the efforts of naval, air, and ground units.

    Saipan Island, Tinian Island, and the major islands of the Marianas fell to U.S. attackers in July and August 1944.  From the Marianas, the United States' new B-29 superbombers were able to carryout round-trip bombing raids on Japan's home islands.

     

    The Allied Halting of Hitler

    Hitler had entered the war with a strong, ultramodern fleet of submarine U-Boats.  To combat these submarines, Allies used old techniques, such as escorting convoys of merchant vessels and dropping depth bombs from destroyers, which were strengthened by air patrol and the advent of radar.

    The turning point in the land-air war against Hitler came in late 1942.  In October 1942, British general Bernard Montgomery delivered a withering attack on El Alamein.  He drove the Germans, who were led by Marshal Erwin Rommel, all the way back to Tunisia.

    In September 1942, the Soviets repelled Hitler's attack on Stalingrad, capturing thousands of German soldiers.  (The turning point in the war in the Soviet Union.)

     

    A Second Front from North Africa to Rome

    Many Americans, including President Roosevelt, wanted to begin a diversionary invasion of France in 1942 or 1943.  They feared that the Soviets, unable to hold out forever against Germany, might make a separate peace as they had in 1918 and leave the Western Allies to face Germany alone.

    British military planners, fearing a possible disaster, preferred to attack Hitler through the "soft underbelly" of the Mediterranean.  The Americans eventually agreed.

    Led by American general, Dwight D. Eisenhower, an assault on French-held North Africa was launched in November 1942.  The invasion was the mightiest waterborne effort up to that time in history.  The German-Italy army was trapped in Tunisia in May 1943.

    At Casablanca, President Roosevelt met with Winston Churchill in January 1943.  The two agreed to step up the war in the Pacific, invade Sicily, increase pressure on Italy, and insist upon "unconditional surrender" of the enemy.

    After the success of Africa, Allied forces captured Sicily in August 1943.  In September 1943, Italy surrendered unconditionally and Mussolini was overthrown.  Although Italy surrendered, the Germans would not let the Allies take control of Italy.  The Germans fiercely fought the Allies and killed the Italian civilians who had surrendered.  Rome was taken on June 4, 1944.  On May 2, 1945, thousands of axis troops in Italy surrendered and became prisoners of war.  The Italian second front opened the Mediterranean and diverted some German divisions away from the Soviet and French battle lines.

     

    D-Day:  June 6, 1944

    President Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Stalin met in Teheran, Iran from November 28th to December 1st to coordinate a second front.  One of the most important achievements of the conference was the agreement on broad plans, especially those for launching Soviet attacks on Germany from the east simultaneously with the Allied assault from the west.

    Because the United States was to provide the most Allied troops for the invasion of Europe, American General Eisenhower was given command.

    French Normandy was chosen for the point for invasion due to the fact that it was less heavily defended than other parts of the European cost.  On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the enormous operation took place.  After desperate fighting, the Allies finally broke out of the German ring that enclosed the beach.  General George S. Patton led armored divisions across France extremely fast and efficiently.  Paris was liberated in August 1944.

    The first important German city to fall to the Allies was Aachen in October 1944.

     

    FDR:  The Fourth-Termite of 1944

    For the election of 1944, the Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey for the presidency and isolationist Senator, John W. Bricker for the vice presidency.

    The Democrats nominated Roosevelt for the presidency and, after dispute of trust with current vice president Henry A. Wallace, Senator Harry S Truman was chosen for the vice presidency.

     

    Roosevelt Defeats Dewey

    Roosevelt won a sweeping majority of the votes in the Electoral College and was reelected.  He won primarily because the war was going well.  Foreign policy was a decisive factor with many voters, who concluded that Roosevelt's experience was needed for making a future organization for world peace.

     

    The Last Days of Hitler

    On December 16, 1944, Hitler threw all of his forces against the thinly held American lines in the Ardennes Forest.  His objective was the Belgian port of Antwerp, key to the Allied supply operation.  The Americans were driven back, creating a deep "bulge" in the Allied line.  The 10-day penetration was halted after the 101st Airborne Division had stood firm.  Brigadier General A. C. McAuliffe led the Battle of the Bulge.

    In April 1945, General Eisenhower's troops reached the Elbe River, finding the concentration camps where the Nazis had murdered over 6 million Jews.  Not until the war's end did all of the atrocities of the "Holocaust" appear.

    The Soviets reached and captured Berlin in April 1945.  Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945.

    On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt died suddenly from a brain hemorrhage.  Harry S Truman took over the presidency.

    On May 7, 1945, the German government surrendered unconditionally.

    Japan Dies Hard

    Submarines and bombers inflicted severe damage upon Japan.

    After the conquest of New Guinea, General MacArthur returned to the Philippines, en route to Japan, with 600 ships and 250,000 troops.  In Leyte Gulf, a series of 3 battles took place from October 23-26, 1944, knocking out Japan's massive and powerful navy.  MacArthur then landed on the main Philippine island of Luzon in January 1945, capturing Manila in March 1945.  Iwo Jima, needed as a haven for damaged American bombers returning from Japan, was captured in March 1945.  The island of was needed for closer bases from which to blast and burn enemy cities and industries.  The Americans finally captured the island after fighting from April to June of 1945.  The American navy suffered heavy damage from the "kamikaze" Japanese pilots.

     

    The Atomic Bombs

    The Potsdam conference near Berlin in 1945 sounded the death of the Japanese.  At the conference, President Truman met with Stalin and the British leaders.  They issued an ultimatum to Japan:  surrender or be destroyed.

    On July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb was detonated.  With the Japanese still refusing to surrender, the first of 2 atomic bombs was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.  On August 8, Stalin invaded the Japanese defenses of Manchuria and Korea.  After the Japanese still refused to surrender, the second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9.

    On August 10, 1945, Tokyo surrendered under the condition that Hirohito be allowed to remain the emperor.  The Allies accepted this condition on August 14, 1945.  The formal end to the war came on September 2, 1945.

     

    The Allies Triumphant

    American forces suffered some 1 million casualties in WWII, while the Soviet Union suffered nearly 20 million.

    After the war, much of the world was destroyed while America was virtually left untouched. 

    The nation was better prepared for the war than any other nation because it had begun to prepare about a year and a half before the war officially began.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 37 - The Cold War Begins

    Postwar Economic Anxieties

    During the 1930s, unemployment and insecurity had pushed up the suicide rate and decreased the marriage rate.  The population growth was also declining as couples had economic troubles. 

    In the initial postwar years, the economy struggled; prices elevated 33% from 1946-1947 after the wartime price controls were removed.  An epidemic of strikes swept over the country in 1946.

    In 1947, the Republican Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act over President Truman's veto.  It outlawed the "closed" (all-union) shop, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required union leaders to take a noncommunist oath.  Taft-Hartley was just one of several obstacles that slowed the growth of organized labor in the years following WWII.

    The CIO's "Operation Dixie," aimed at unionizing southern textile workers and steelworkers, failed in 1948 to overcome lingering fears of racial mixing.

    Congress passed the Employment Act in 1946 to promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power.  It also created a 3-member Council of Economic Advisers to provide the president with the data and the recommendations to make that policy a reality.

    The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, better known as the GI Bill of Rights or the GI Bill, made generous provisions for sending the former solders to school.  By raising educational levels and stimulating the construction industry, the GI Bill powerfully nurtured the long-lived economic expansion that took hold in the late 1940s.

     

    The Long Economic Boom, 1950-1970

    In the 1950s, the American economy entered a twenty-year period of tremendous growth.  During the 1950s and 1960s, national income nearly doubled, giving Americans about 40% of the planet's wealth.  The post-World War II era transformed the lives of a majority of citizens and molded the agenda of politics and society for at least two generations.  Prosperity underwrote social mobility; it paved the war for the success of the civil rights movement; it funded new welfare programs; and it gave Americans the confidence to exercise unprecedented international leadership in the Cold War era.

    The size of the middle class doubled from pre-Great Depression days, including 60% of the population by the mid 1950s.

    The majority of new jobs created in the postwar era went to women, as the service sector of the economy dramatically outgrew the old industrial and manufacturing sectors.

     

    The Roots of Postwar Economy

    The economic upturn of 1950 was fueled by massive appropriations for the Korean War and defense spending.  The military budget helped jumpstart high-technology industries such as aerospace, plastics, and electronics.  Cheap energy also fueled the economic boom.  American and European companies controlled the flow of abundant petroleum from the expanses of the Middle East, and they kept prices low.

    Gains in productivity were enhanced the rising educational level for the work force.  By 1970, nearly 90% of the school-age population was enrolled in educational institutions.

    The work force shifted out of agriculture, which was achieving higher productivity gains as a result of new, more efficient farming equipment.

     

    The Smiling Sunbelt

    In the 30 years after WWII, an average of 30 million people changed residence every year.  Families especially felt the strain, as distance divided them. 

    The "Sunbelt", a 15-state area stretching from Virginia through Florida and Texas to Arizona and California, increased it population at a rate nearly double than that of the old industrial zones of the Northeast (the "Frostbelt").  In the 1950s, California alone accounted for 1/5 of the nation's population.  The modern pioneers came in search of jobs, better climate, and lower taxes.  The large amount of federal dollars being given to the Sunbelt states accounted for much of the Sunbelt's prosperity.  The industry region of the Ohio Valley (the "Rustbelt") was especially hit hard as a result of the loss in funds and population.

     

    The Rush to the Suburbs

    In all regions, America's modern white migrants moved from the city to the new suburbs.  The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) made home-loan guarantees, making it more economically attractive to own a home in the suburbs rather than to rent an apartment in the city.

    "White flight" to the suburbs and the migration of blacks from the South left the inner cities, especially those in the Northeast and Midwest, to become poverty-stricken.  The FHA often refused blacks home mortgages for private home purchases, thus limiting black mobility out of the inner cities.

     

    The Postwar Baby Boom

    In the decade and a half after 1945, the birth rate in the United States exploded as the "baby boom" took place.  More than 50 million babies were born by the end of the 1950s.  By 1973, the birth rates had dropped below the point necessary to maintain existing population figures.

     

    Truman:  The "Gutty" Man from Missouri

    The first president without a college education in many years, President Harry S Truman was known as "average man's average man."  He had down-home authenticity, few pretensions, rock-solid probity, and the political ability called "moxie" - the ability to face difficulty with courage.

     

    Yalta:  Bargain or Betrayal?

    February 1945, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met in Yalta to discuss the war's end.  Final plans were laid for smashing the German lines and shackling the beaten Axis enemy.  Stalin agreed that Poland, with revised boundaries, should have a representative government based on free elections-a pledge he soon broke.  Bulgaria and Romania were likewise to have free elections-a pledge also broken.  The Big Three also announced plans for fashioning a new international peacekeeping organization-the United Nations.

    The most controversial decision concerned the Far East.  With the atomic bomb not yet tested, Washington analysts expected high American casualties in the assault on Japan.  Roosevelt felt that Stalin should enter the Asian war, pin down Japanese troops in Manchuria and Korea, and lighten American losses.  But with Soviet casualties already extremely high, Stalin needed incentive to join in the Far East.  Stalin agreed to attack Japan within 3 months after the collapse of Germany.  In return, the Soviets were promised the southern half of Sakhalin Island, lost by Russia to Japan in 1905, and Japan's Kurile Islands.  The Soviet Union was also granted control over the railroads of China's Manchuria and special privileges in the two key seaports of that area, Dairen and Port Arthur.  These concessions gave Stalin control over vital industrial centers of America's weakening Chinese ally.

     

    The United States and the Soviet Union

    The United States terminated vital lend lease aid to a battered USSR in 1945 and ignored Moscow's plea for a $6 billion reconstruction loan-while approving a similar loan of $3.75 billion to Britain in 1946. 

    Different visions of the postwar world separated the two superpowers.  Stalin aimed above all to guarantee the security of the Soviet Union.  He made it clear from the outset of the war that he was determined to have friendly governments along the Soviet western border.  By maintaining a Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern and Central Europe, the USSR could protect itself and consolidate its revolutionary base as the world's leading communist country.

    These spheres of influence contradicted President FDR's Wilsonian dream of an "open world," decolonized, demilitarized, and democratized.

    Unaccustomed to their great-power roles, the Soviet Union and the United States provoked each other into a tense, 40-year standoff known as the Cold War.

     

    Shaping the Postwar World

    In 1944, the Western Allies met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire and established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to encourage world trade by regulating currency exchange rates.  They also founded the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) to promote economic growth in war-ravaged and underdeveloped areas.  Unlike after WWI, the United States took the lead in creating the important international bodies and supplied most of their funding after WWII.  The Soviets declined to participate.

    The United Nations Conference opened on April 25, 1945.  Meeting at the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House, representatives from 50 nations made the United Nations charter.  It included the Security Council, dominated by the Big Five powers (the United States, Britain, the USSR, France, and China), each of whom had the right of veto, and the Assembly, which could be controlled by smaller countries.  The Senate overwhelmingly passed the document on July 28, 1945.

    Through such arms as the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), and WHO (World Health Organization), the U.N. brought benefits to people around the world.

    In 1946, Bernard Baruch called for a U.N. agency, free from the great-power veto, with worldwide authority over atomic energy, weapons, and research.  The plan quickly fell apart as neither the United States nor the Soviet Union wanted to give up their nuclear weapons.

     

    The Problem of Germany

    At Nuremberg, Germany from 1945-1946, Nazi leaders were tried and punished for war crimes.  Punishments included hangings and long jail times.

    Beyond the Nuremberg Trials, the Allies could agree little about postwar Germany.  At first, Americans wanted to dismantle German factories and reduce the country to nothing.  The Soviets, denied of American economic assistance, were determined to rebuild their nation through reparations from Germany.  Eventually, Americans realized that a flourishing German economy was indispensable to the recovery of Europe.  The Soviets refused to realize this.

    At the end of the war, Austria and Germany had been divided into 4 military occupation zones, each assigned to one of the Big Four powers (France, Britain, America, and the USSR). 

    As the USSR spread communism to its Eastern zone in Germany and the Western Allies promoted the idea of a reunited Germany, Germany became divided.  West Germany eventually became an independent country, and East Germany became bound the Soviet Union as an independent "satellite" state, shutoff from the Western world by the "iron curtain" of the Soviet Union.

    Berlin, still occupied by the Four Big powers, was completely surrounded by the Soviet Occupation Zone.  In 1948, following controversies over German currency reform and four-power control, the Soviet Union attempted to starve the Allies out of Berlin by cutting off all rail and highway access to the city.  In May 1949, after America had flown in many supplies, the blockade was lifted. 

    In 1949, the governments of East and West Germany were established.

     

    Crystallizing the War

    In 1946, Stalin, seeking oil concessions, broke an agreement to remove his troops from Iran's northernmost province.  He used the troops to aid a rebel movement.  When Truman protested, Stalin backed down.

    In 1947, George F. Kennan formulated the "containment doctrine."  This concept stated that Russia, whether tsarist or communist, was relentlessly expansionary.  Kennan argued that the Soviet Union was also cautious, and the flow of Soviet power could be stemmed by firm and vigilant containment.

    President Truman embraced the policy in 1947 when he stated that Britain could no longer bear the financial and military burden of defending Greece against communist pressures.  If Greece fell, Turkey and the rest of the eastern Mediterranean would collapse to the Soviet Union.

    On March 12, 1947, President Truman came before Congress and requested support for the Truman Doctrine.  He declared that it must be the policy of the United States to aid any country that was resisting communist aggression.

    In 1947, France, Italy, and Germany were all suffering from the hunger and economic chaos caused in that year.  Secretary of State George C. Marshall invited the Europeans to get together and work out a joint plan for their economic recovery.  If they did so, then the United States would provide substantial financial assistance.  Marshall offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its allies, but the Soviets refused it.  Although quite expensive, legislators passed the plan after realizing that the United States had to get Europe back on its feet.  Within a few years, Europe's economy was flourishing.  The Marshall Plan led to the eventual creation of the European Community (EC).

    Access to Middle Eastern oil was crucial to the European recovery program and to the health of the U.S. economy.  Despite threats from the Arab nations to cut off the supply of oil, President Truman officially recognized the state ofIsrael on May 14, 1948.

     

    America Begins to Rearm

    The Cold War, the struggle to contain Soviet communism, was not a war, yet it was not a peace.

    In 1947, Congress passed the National Security Act, creating the Department of Defense.  The department was headed by a new cabinet officer, the secretary of defense.  Under the secretary were the civilian secretaries of the navy, the army, and the air force.  The uniformed heads of each service were brought together as the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

    The National Security Act also established the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the president on security matters and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government's foreign fact-gathering.

    In 1948, the United States joined the European pact, called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).  American participation strengthened the policy of containing the Soviet Union and provided a framework for the reintegration of Germany into the European family.  The pact pledged each signed nation to regard an attack on one as an attack on all.  The Senate passed the treaty on July 21, 1949.

    The NATO pact marked a dramatic departure from American diplomatic convention, a gigantic boost for European unification, and a significant step in the militarization of the Cold War.

     

    Reconstruction and Revolution in Asia

    General Douglas MacArthur took control of the democratization of Japan.  The Japanese people cooperated to an astonishing degree; they saw that good behavior and the adoption of democracy would speed the end of the occupation.  In 1946, a MacArthur-dictated constitution was adopted.  It renounced militarism and introduced western-style democratic government.

    From 1946-1948, top Japanese "war criminals" were tried in Tokyo.

    Although there was much success in Japan, China was another story.  In late 1949, the Chinese Nationalist government of Generalissimo Jiang Jieshi was forced to flee the country to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) when thecommunists, led by Mao Zedong, swept over the country.  The collapse of Nationalist China was a depressing loss for America and its allies in the Cold War as ¼ of the world's population fell to communism.

    In September 1949, the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb, 3 years before experts thought possible.  To stay one step ahead, Truman ordered the development of the H-bomb (Hydrogen Bomb).  The first H-bomb was exploded in 1952.  The Soviets exploded their first H-bomb in 1953, and the nuclear arms race entered a dangerously competitive cycle.

     

    Feeling Out Alleged Communists

    In 1947, President Truman launched the Loyalty Review Board to investigate the possibility of communist spies in the government.

    In 1949, 11 communists were sent to prison for violating the Smith Act of 1940 (first antisedition law since 1798) in advocating the overthrow of the American government.  The ruling was upheld in Dennis v. United States (1951).

    In 1938, the House of Representatives established the Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) to investigate "subversion."  In 1948, Congressman Richard M. Nixon led the hunt for and eventual conviction of Alger Hiss, a prominent ex-New Dealer and a distinguished member of the "eastern establishment."  Americans began to join in on the hunt for communist spies of who were thought to riddle America.

    In 1950, Truman vetoed the McCarran Internal Security Bill, which authorized the president to arrest and detain suspicious people during an "internal security emergency."  Congress overrode Truman's veto and passed the bill.

    In 1951, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted and sentenced to death for stealing American atomic bomb plans and selling them to the Soviet Union.  They were the only people in history to be sentenced to death for espionage.

     

    Democratic Divisions in 1948

    In 1948, the Republicans chose Thomas E. Dewey to run for president.  After war hero Dwight D. Eisenhower chose not to run for the presidency, the Democrats chose Truman.   Truman's nomination split the Democratic Party. Southern Democrats met and nominated Governor J. Strom Thurmond.  The new Progressive party nominated Henry A. Wallace.  Expected to lose, but not ready to give up, Truman traveled the country, giving energetic speeches.  On Election Day, Truman, although not winning the popular vote, beat Dewey and was reelected as president.  Truman's victory came from the votes of farmers, workers, and blacks.

    President Truman called for a "bold new program" ("Point Four").  The plan was to lend U.S. money and technical aid to underdeveloped lands to help them help themselves.  He wanted to spend millions to keep underprivileged people from becoming communists. 

    At home, Truman outlined a "Fair Deal" program in 1949.  It called for improved housing, full employment, a higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, new TVAs, and an extension of Social Security.  The only major successes came in raising the minimum wage, providing for public housing in the Housing Act of 1949, and extending old-age insurance to many more beneficiaries in the Social Security Act of 1950.

     

    The Korean Volcano Erupts (1950)

    When Japan collapsed in 1945, Korea had been divided up into two sections:  the Soviets controlled the north above the 38th parallel and the United States controlled south of that line.

    On June 25, 1950, the North Korean army invaded South Korea.  President Truman's National Security Council had recommended NSC-68, calling for the quadrupling of the United States' defense spending.  Truman ordered a massive military buildup, well beyond what was necessary for the Korean War.

    NSC-68 was a key document of the Cold War because it not only marked a major step in the militarization of American foreign policy, but it reflected the sense of almost limitless possibility that encompassed postwar American society.

    On June 25, 1950, President Truman obtained from the United Nations Security Council a unanimous condemnation of North Korea as an aggressor.  (The Soviet Union was not present at the meeting.)  Without Congress's approval, Truman ordered American air and naval units to be sent to support South Korea.

     

    The Military Seesaw in Korea

    On September 15, 1950, General MacArthur succeeded in pushing the North Koreans past the 38th parallel.  On November 1950, though, hordes of communist Chinese "volunteers" attacked the U.N. forces, pushing them back to the 38th parallel.

    Due to General MacArthur's insubordination and disagreement with the Joint Chiefs of Staff about increasing the size of the war, President Truman was forced to remove MacArthur from command on April 11, 1951.

    In July 1951, truce discussions dragged out over the issue of prisoner exchange.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 38 - The Eisenhower Era

    The Advent of Eisenhower

    Lacking public support for Truman, Democrats nominated Adlai E. Stevenson to run for the presidency in the election of 1952.  Republicans chose General Dwight D. Eisenhower.  Richard M. Nixon was chosen for vice-president to satisfy the anticommunist wing of the Republican Party.

    During the presidential campaign, reports of Nixon secretly tapping government funds arose.  After Eisenhower considered dropping Nixon from the ballot, Nixon went on television and stated his apologies in the "Checkers speech"-this saved his place on the ballot.

    The new technology of black-and-white television changed political campaigning.  Television often over-simplified the complicated issues of the time.

    Dwight Eisenhower won the election of 1952 by a large majority.

     

    "Ike" Takes Command

    True to his campaign promise, President Eisenhower attempted to end the Korean War.  In July 1953, after Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons, an armistice was signed, ending the Korean War.  Despite the Korean War, Korea remained divided at the 38th Parallel.

    Eisenhower's leadership style of sincerity, fairness, and optimism helped to comfort the nation after the war.

     

    The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy

    In February 1950, Republican Senator Joseph R. McCarthy made a speech accusing Secretary of State Dean Acheson of knowingly employing 205 Communist party members.  Even though the accusations later proved to be false, McCarthy gained the support of the public.  With the Republican victory in the election of 1952, his rhetoric became bolder as his accusations of communism grew.

    Though McCarthy was not the first red-hunter, he was the most ruthless, doing the most damage to American traditions of fair play and free speech.

    In 1954, McCarthy went too far and attacked the U.S. Army.  Just a few months later, he was condemned by the Senate for "conduct unbecoming a member."

     

    Desegregating the South

    All aspects of life of African Americans in the South were governed by the Jim Crow laws.  Blacks dealt with an array of separate social arrangements that kept them insulated from whites, economically inferior, and politically powerless.  Gunnar Myrdal exposed the contradiction between America's professed belief that all men are created equal and its terrible treatment of black citizens in his book An American Dilemma (1944).

    World War II had generated a new militancy and restlessness among many members of the black community.  In 1944, the Supreme Court ruled the "white primary" unconstitutional, undermining the status of the Democratic Party in the South as a white person's club. 

    In the Supreme Court case of Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Court ruled that separate professional schools for blacks failed to meet the test of equality.

    In December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white person on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama.  Her arrest sparked a yearlong black boycott of the city busses and served notice throughout the South that blacks would no longer submit meekly to the absurdities and indignities of segregation.

     

    Seeds of the Civil Rights Revolution

    Hearing of the lynching of black war veterans in 1946, President Harry S Truman commissioned a report titled "To Secure These Rights."  Truman ended segregation in federal civil service and order "equality of treatment and opportunity" in the armed forces in 1948.

    When Congress and new President Eisenhower ignored the racial issues, Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren stepped up to confront important social issues-especially civil rights for African Americans.

    In the case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unequal and thus unconstitutional.  The decision reversed the previous ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson(1896).

    States in the Deep South resisted the ruling, and more than 100 senators and congressman signed the "Declaration of Constitutional Principles" in 1956, pledging their unyielding resistance to desegregation.

     

    Crisis at Little Rock

    President Eisenhower was little inclined toward promoting integration.  He shied away from upsetting "the customs and convictions of at least two generations of Americans."  In September 1957, Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas mobilized the National Guard to prevent nine black students from enrolling in Little Rock's Central High School.  Confronted with a direct challenge to federal authority, Eisenhower sent troops to escort the children to their classes.

    In 1957, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since Reconstruction Days.  It set up a permanent Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights.

    Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957.  It aimed to mobilize the vast power of the black churches on behalf of black rights. 

    On February 1, 1960, 4 black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina demanded service at a whites-only lunch counter.  Within a week, the sit-in reached 1,000 students, spreading a wave of wade-ins, lie-ins, and pray-ins across the South demanding equal rights.  In April 1960, southern black students formed the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to give more focus and force to their efforts.

     

    Eisenhower Republicanism at Home

    When dealing with people, President Eisenhower was liberal, but when dealing with the economy and the government, he was conservative.  He strived to balance the federal budget and to guard America from socialism.  True to his small government philosophy, Eisenhower supported the transfer of control over offshore oil fields from the federal government to the states.

    In 1954, giving in to the Mexican government's worries that illegal Mexican immigration to the United States would undercut the bracero program of legally imported farmworkers, President Eisenhower rounded up a million illegal immigrants in Operation Wetback.

    Eisenhower sought to cancel the tribal preservation policies of the "Indian New Deal," in place since 1934.  He wanted to terminate the tribes as legal entities and to revert to the assimilationist goals of the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887.  The plan was dropped in 1961 after most tribes refused to be terminated.

    Eisenhower knew that he could not cancel all of the programs created in the New Deal and Fair Deal, because of the lack of public support.  He actually supported the Interstate Highway Act of 1956, which created countless jobs and sped the suburbanization of America as 42,000 miles of highways were built.

    Eisenhower only managed to balance the budget 3 times while in office, and in 1959, he incurred the biggest peacetime deficit in the history of the United States.

     

    A New Look in Foreign Policy

    In 1954, secretary of state John Foster Dulles proposed a plan in which Eisenhower would set aside the army and the navy to build up an air fleet of superbombers (called the Strategic Air Command, or SAC) equipped with nuclear bombs.  This would allow President Eisenhower to threaten countries such as the Soviet Union and China with nuclear weapons.

    At the Geneva summit conference in 1955, President Eisenhower attempted to make peace with the new Soviet Union dictator, Nikita Khrushchev, following Stalin's death.  Peace negotiations were rejected.

     

    The Vietnam Nightmare

    In the early 1950s, nationalist movements had sought to throw the French out of Indochina.  The leaders of the Indochina countries, including Vietnam leader Ho Chi Minh, became increasingly communist as America became increasingly anticommunist.  In May 1954, a French garrison was trapped in the fortress of Dienbienphu in northwestern Vietnam.  President Eisenhower decided not to intervene, wary of another war right after Korea.  Dienbienphu fell to the nationalists and the conference at Geneva halted Vietnam at the 17th parallel.  The pro-Western government in the south, led by Ngo Dinh Diem, was entrenched at Saigon as Vietnam-wide elections, which were promised by Ho Chi Minh, were never held.  President Eisenhower promised economic and military aid to the Diem regime of the south.

     

    A False Lull in Europe

    In 1955, West Germany was let into NATO.  Also in 1955, the Eastern European countries and the Soviets signed the Warsaw Pact, creating a red military counterweight to the newly-bolstered NATO forces in the West.  In May 1955, the Soviets ended the occupation of Austria.  In 1956, Hungary rose up against the Soviets attempting to win their independence.  When their request for aid from the United States was denied, they were slaughtered by the Soviet forces.  America's nuclear weapon was too big of a weapon to use on such a relatively small crisis.

     

    Menaces in the Middle East

    In 1953, in an effort to secure Iranian oil for Western countries, the CIA engineered a coup that installed Mohammed Reza Pahlevi as the dictator of Iran.

    President Nasser of Egypt was seeking funds to build a dam on the Nile River.  After associating with the communists, secretary of state Dulles pulled back U.S. monetary aid for Egypt.  As a result, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which was owned by the French and British.  In October of 1956, the Suez Crisis ensued as the French and British launched an assault on Egypt.  The two countries were forced to withdraw their troops as America refused to release emergency supplies of oil to them.

    In 1957, Congress proclaimed the Eisenhower Doctrine, pledging U.S. military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression. 

    In 1960, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, and Venezuela joined together to form the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).

     

    Round Two for Ike

    President Eisenhower was reelected in the election of 1956 as he beat his Democratic opponent, Adlai Stevenson.

    In 1959, a drastic labor-reform bill grew out of recurrent strikes in important industries and corruption in unions.  The Teamsters Union leader, "Dave" Beck was sentenced to prison for embezzlement.  When his union replaced him with James R. Hoffa, the AF of L-CIO expelled the Teamsters.  Hoffa was later jailed for jury tampering. 

    In 1959, President Eisenhower passed the Landrum-Griffin Act.  It was designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and to prevent bullying tactics.

     

    The Race with the Soviets into Space

    On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched the Sputnik I satellite into space.  In November, they launched the satellite Sputnik II, carrying a dog.  The two satellites gave credibility to the Soviet claims that superior industrial production lay through communism.

    In response, President Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

    As a result of the new technological advances in the Soviet Union, it was thought that the educational system of the Soviet Union was better than the United States'; a move to improve the American education system was taken.  In1958, the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) authorized $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the improvement of teaching sciences and languages.

     

    The Continuing Cold War

    In March and October 1958, the Soviet Union and the United States, respectively, proclaimed a suspension of nuclear testing.  In July 1958, Lebanon called for aid under the Eisenhower Doctrine as communism threatened to engulf the country.  In 1959, Soviet dictator Khrushchev appeared before the U.N. General Assembly and called for complete disarmament.  In 1960, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down in Russia, causing feelings of a possibly peaceful resolution to subside.


    Cuba's Castroism Spells Communism

    Latin Americans began to show dissent towards America as the United States seemed to neglect Latin America's economic needs for favor of Europe's.  They also despised constant American intervention - the CIA directed a coup in 1954 that overthrew a leftist government in Guatemala.

    Fidel Castro led a coup that overthrew the America-supported government of Cuba in 1959.  Annoyed with Castro's anti-American attitude and Castro seizing valuable American properties in Cuba, the United States cut off the heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar.

    Cuba's left-wing dictatorship quickly had the possibility to become a military satellite for the Soviet Union.  In August 1960, Congress authorized $500 million to prevent communism from spreading in Latin America.

     

    Kennedy Challenges Nixon for the Presidency

    The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon to run for president and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. for vice president in the election of 1960.  The Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy to run for president and Lyndon B. Johnson for vice president.

     

    The Presidential Issues of 1960

    John F. Kennedy's Catholicism aroused misgivings in the Protestant, Bible Belt South. 

    Kennedy charged that the Soviets, with their nuclear bombs and the Sputniks, had gained on America in prestige and power.  Nixon was forced to defend the dying administration and claim that America's prestige had not slipped.

    Television played a key role in the presidential election as Kennedy's personal appeal attracted many.  Kennedy won the election of 1961, gaining support in the large industrial centers where he had strong support from workers, Catholics, and African Americans.

     

    An Old General Fades Away

    America was prosperous during the Eisenhower years.  Alaska and Hawaii became states in 1959.  As a Republican president, Eisenhower had further woven the reforms of the Democratic New Deal and Fair Deal into the fabric of national life.

     

    Changing Economic Patterns

    The invention of the transistor in 1948 sparked a revolution in electronics, especially computers.  Computer giant International Business Machines (IBM) grew tremendously. 

    Aerospace industries also grew in the 1950s, thanks to Eisenhower's SAC and to an expanding passenger airline business.

    In 1956, the number of "white-collar" (no manual labor) workers exceeded the number of "blue-collar" (manual labor) workers.  Following suit, union memberships began to steadily decline. 

    The new white-collar employment opened special opportunities for women.  The baby boom during the years after World War II caused the role of women to revert to the typical role of a mother and wife.  But the majority of the clerical and service work jobs created after 1950 were filled by women.  Women's new dual role as both workers and homemakers raised urgent questions about family life and about traditional definitions of gender differences.

    Feminist Betty Friedan published in 1963 The Feminine Mystique, helping to launch the modern women's movement.  Friedan spoke to many educated women who supported her indictment of the boredom of a housewife.

     

    Consumer Culture in the Fifties

    The innovations of the credit card, fast-food, and new forms of recreation were forerunners of an emerging lifestyle of leisure and affluence.  In 1946, only 6 TV stations were broadcasting; by 1956, there were 146.  "Televangelists" like Baptist Billy Graham, and Pentecostal Holiness speaker Oral Roberts, and Roman Catholic Fulton J. Sheen took to the television airwaves to spread Christianity. 

    As the population moved west, sports teams also moved west.  Popular music was transformed during the 1950s.  Elvis Pressley created the new style known as rock and roll.

    Traditionalists were repelled by Presley as well as many of the new social movements during the 1950s.  Many critics blamed the implications of "societal deterioration" to the consumerist lifestyle.

     

    The Life of the Mind in Postwar America

    Prewar realist, Ernest Hemingway continued to write as he authored The Old Man and the Sea (1952).  John Steinbeck, another prewar writer, persisted in graphic portrayals of American society.  Over time, realistic writing fell from favor and authors tended to write about the war in fantastic prose.  John Heller's Catch-22 (1961) dealt with the improbably antics and anguish of American airmen in the wartime Mediterranean.

    The dilemmas created by the new mobility and affluence of American life were explored by John Updike and John Cheever.  Louis Auchincloss wrote about upper-class New-Yorkers.  Gore Vidal wrote a series of intriguing historical novels.

    Poetry and playwrights also flourished during the postwar era.  Books by black authors made the best-seller lists.  Led by William Faulkner, the South boasted a literary renaissance.  Especially bountiful was the harvest of books by Jewish novelists.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 39 - The Stormy Sixties

    Kennedy's "New Frontier" Spirit

    President Kennedy, the youngest president to take office, assembled one of the youngest cabinets, including his brother Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General, who planned to reform the priorities of the FBI.  Kennedy's new challenge of a "New Frontier" quickened patriotic pulses.  He proposed the Peace Corps, an army of idealistic and mostly youthful volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped countries.

     

    The New Frontier at Home

    Southern Democrats and Republicans despised the president's New Frontier plan.  Kennedy had campaigned on the theme of revitalizing the economy after the recessions of the Eisenhower years.  To do this, the president tried to curbinflation.  In 1962, he negotiated a noninflationary wage agreement with the steel industry.  When the steel industry announced significant price increases, promoting inflation, President Kennedy erupted in wrath, causing the industry to lower its prices.  Kennedy rejected the advice of those who wished greater government spending and instead chose to stimulate the economy by cutting taxes and putting more money directly into private hands.  Kennedy also proposed a multibillion-dollar plan to land an American on the moon.

     

    Rumblings in Europe

    President Kennedy met with Soviet leader Khrushchev at Vienna in June 1961.  After making numerous threats, the Soviets finally acted.  In August 1961, the Soviets began to construct the Berlin Wall, which was designed to stop the large population drain from East Germany to West Germany through Berlin.

    Western Europe was prospering after the Marshall Plan aid and the growth of the Common Market, the free-trade area later called the European Union.  Focusing on Western Europe, Kennedy secured passage of the Trade Expansion Act in 1962, authorizing tariff cuts of up to 50% to promote trade with Common Market countries.

    American policymakers were dedicated to an economically and militarily united "Atlantic Community" with the United States the dominant partner. 

    President of France, Charles de Gaulle, was suspicious of American intentions in Europe and in 1963, vetoed British application for Common Market membership, fearing that the British "special relationship" with the United States would allow the U.S. to indirectly control European affairs.

     

    Foreign Flare-ups and "Flexible Response"

    In 1960, the African Congo received its independence from Belgium and immediately exploded in violence.  The U.N. sent in troops while the United States paid for it.

    In 1954, Laos gained its independence from France and it, too erupted in violence.  Kennedy, avoiding sending troops, sought diplomatic means in the Geneva conference in 1962, which imposed a peace on Laos.

    Defense Secretary Robert McNamara pushed the strategy of "flexible response" - that is, developing an array of military options that could be precisely matched to the necessities of the crisis at hand.  President Kennedy increased spending on conventional military forces.

     

    Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

    The doctrine of "flexible response" provided a mechanism for a progressive, and possibly endless, stepping-up of the use of force (Vietnam).

    In 1961, Kennedy increased the number of "military advisors" in South Vietnam in order to help protect Diem from the communists long enough to allow him to enact basic social reforms favored by the Americans.

    In November 1963, after being fed up with U.S. economic aid being embezzled by Diem, the Kennedy encouraged a successful coup and killed Diem.

     

    Cuban Confrontations

    In 1961, President Kennedy extended the American hand of friendship to Latin America with the Alliance for Progress, called the Marshall Plan for Latin America.  A primary goal was to help the Latin American countries close the gap between the rich and the poor, and thus quiet communist agitation.  Results were disappointing as America had few positive impacts on Latin America's immense social problems.

    On April 17, 1961, 1,200 exiles landed at Cuba's Bay of Pigs.  President Kennedy was against the direct intervention of the overthrow of Fidel Castro in Cuba, failing to provide air support for the exiles.  The invasion therefore failed as the exiles were forced to surrender. 

    The Bay of Pigs blunder pushed the Cuban leader further into the Soviet embrace.  In October 1962, it was discovered that the Soviets were secretly installing nuclear missiles in Cuba.  Kennedy rejected air force proposals for a bombing strike against the missile sites.  Instead, on October 22, 1962, he ordered a naval "quarantine" of Cuba and demanded immediate removal of the weapons.  For a week, Americans waited while Soviet ships approached the patrol line established by the U.S. Navy off the island of Cuba.  On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to a compromise in which he would pull the missiles out of Cuba.  The American government also agreed to end the quarantine and not invade the island.

    In late 1963, a pact prohibiting trial nuclear explosions in the atmosphere was signed. 

    In June 1963, President Kennedy gave a speech at American University, Washington, D.C. encouraging Americans to abandon the negative views of the Soviet Union.  He tried to lay the foundations for a realistic policy of peacefulcoexistence with the Soviet Union.

     

    The Struggle for Civil Rights

    During his campaign, JFK had gained the black vote by stating that he would pass civil rights legislation.

    In 1960, groups of Freedom Riders spread out across the South to end segregation in facilities serving interstate bus passengers.  A white mob torched a Freedom Ride bus near Anniston, Alabama in May 1961.  When southern officials proved unwilling to stop the violence, federal marshals were dispatched to protect the freedom riders.

    For the most part, the Kennedy family and the King family (Martin Luther King, Jr.) had a good relationship.

    SNCC and other civil rights groups inaugurated a Voter Education Project to register the South's historically disfranchised blacks.

    In the spring of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. launched a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama, the most segregated big city in America.  Civil rights marchers were repelled by police with attack dogs and high-pressure water hoses.  In shock, President Kennedy delivered a speech to the nation on June 11, 1963 in which he dedicated himself to finding a solution to the racial problems.

    In August 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr. led 200,000 black and white demonstrators on a peaceful "March on Washington" in support of the proposed new civil rights legislation.

     

    The Killing of Kennedy

    On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was shot and killed as he was riding in an open limousine in Dallas, Texas.  The alleged gunman was Lee Harvey Oswald.  Oswald was shot and killed by self-appointed avenger, Jack Ruby. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn into office, retaining most of Kennedy's cabinet.  Kennedy was acclaimed more for the ideals he had spoken and the spirit he had kindled for the goals he had achieved.

     

    The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

    After prodding from President Johnson, Congress passed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, banning racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public.  It strengthened the federal government's power to end segregation in schools and other public places.  It also created the federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to eliminate discrimination in hiring.  Part of the act's Title VII passed with sexual clause ensuring some special attention for women.  In 1965, President Johnson issued an executive order requiring all federal contractors to take "affirmative action" against discrimination. 

    Johnson added proposals of his own to Kennedy's stalled tax bill to allow for a billion-dollar "War on Poverty."  He dubbed his domestic program the "Great Society" - a sweeping set of New Dealish economic and welfare measures aimed at transforming the American way of life.

     

    Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

    The Democrats nominated Lyndon Johnson to run for president for the election of 1964.  The Republicans chose Senator Barry Goldwater.  Goldwater attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security System, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and the Great Society.

    In August 1964 in the Gulf of Tonkin, U.S. Navy ships had been cooperating with the South Vietnamese in raids along the coast of North Vietnam.  On August 2th and August 4th, two U.S. ships were allegedly fired upon.  Johnson called the attack "unprovoked" and moved to make political gains out of the incident.  He ordered a "limited" retaliatory air raid against the North Vietnamese bases.  He also used the event to spur congressional passage of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution; lawmakers virtually gave up their war-declaring powers and handed the president a blank check to use further force in Southeast Asia.  Lyndon Johnson overwhelmingly won the election of 1964.

     

    The Great Society Congress

    Congress passed a flood of legislation, comparable to output of the Hundred Days Congress.  Escalating the War on Poverty, Congress doubled the funding of the Office of Economic Opportunity to $2 billion.  Congress also created two new cabinet offices:  the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).  The National Endowments for the Arts and the Humanities was designed to lift the level of American cultural life.

    The Big Four legislative achievements that crowned LBJ's Great Society program were:  aid to education, medical care for the elderly and poor, immigration reform, and a new voting rights bill.  Johnson gave educational aid tostudents, not schools, avoiding the issue of separation of church and state.  In 1965 came Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor.  The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the quota system that had been in place since 1921.  It also doubled the number of immigrants allowed to enter the country annually.  The sources of immigration shifted from Europe to Latin American and Asia.  Conservatives charged that the problem of poverty could not be fixed with money spent by the Great Society programs, yet the poverty rate did decline in the following decade.

     

    Battling for Black Rights

    The Civil Rights Act of 1964 gave the federal government more power to enforce school-desegregation orders and to prohibit racial discrimination in all kinds of public accommodations and employment.

    President Johnson realized the problem that few blacks were registered to vote.  The 24th Amendment, passed in 1964, abolished the poll tax in federal elections, yet blacks were still severely hampered from voting.  Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, banning literacy tests and sending federal voter registers into several southern states.

     

    Black Power

    Days after the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed, a bloody riot erupted in Watts, a black ghetto in Los Angeles.  Blacks were enraged by police brutality and burned and looted their own neighborhoods for a week.  The Watts explosion marked increasing militant confrontation in the black struggle.  Malcolm X deepened the division among black leaders.  He was first inspired by the militant clack nationalists in the Nation of Islam.  He rallied black separatism and disapproved of the "blue-eyed white devils."  In 1965, he was shot and killed by a rival Nation of Islam.

    The violence or threat of violence increased as the Black Panther party emerged, openly carrying weapons in the streets of Oakland, California.  Just as the civil rights movement had achieved its greatest legal and political triumphs, more riots erupted.  Black unemployment was nearly double than for whites.

     On April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was shot and killed by a sniper in Memphis, Tennessee.  Black voter registration eventually increased, and by the late 1960s, several hundred blacks held elected office in the Old South.

     

    Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

    In April 1965, President Johnson sent 25,000 troops to the Dominican Republic to restore order after a revolt against the military government started.  Johnson claimed, with shaky evidence, that the Dominican Republic was the target of a Castrolike coup.  He was widely condemned for his actions.

    In February 1965, Viet Cong guerrillas attacked an American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam, prompting Johnson to send retaliatory bomb raids and, for the first time, order attacking U.S. troops to land.  By the middle of March 1965, "Operation Rolling Thunder" was in full swing - regular full-scale bombing attacks against North Vietnam.

    The South Vietnamese watched as their own war became more Americanized.  Corrupt and collapsible governments fell one after another in Saigon, yet American officials continued to talk of defending a faithful democratic ally.  Pro-war hawks argued that if the United Sates were to leave Vietnam, other nations would doubt America's word and crumble to communism.  By 1968, Johnson had put more than 500,000 troops in Southeast Asia, and the annual cost for the war was exceeding $30 billion.

     

    Vietnam Vexations

    Overcommitment in Southeast Asia tied America's hands elsewhere.  
    In June 1967, after numerous military threats presented by Egypt, Israel launched a pre-emptive attack on Egypt's airforce, starting the Six-Day War. Following the war, Israel gained the territories of the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank.  Arab Palestinians and their Arab allies complained about Israel's doing, but all to no avail.

    Antiwar demonstrations increased significantly as more and more American soldiers died in the Vietnam War.  Protesters' sayings included, "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?"  Senator William Fulbright staged a series of televised hearings in 1966 and 1967 in which he convinced the public that it had been deceived about the causes and "winnability" of the war.

    When Defense Secretary McNamara expressed discomfort about the war, he was quietly removed from office.

    By early 1968, the war had become the longest and most unpopular foreign war in the nation's history.  The government failed to explain to the people what was supposed to be at stake in Vietnam.  Casualties, killed, and wounded had exceeded 100,000, and more bombs had been dropped in Vietnam than in World War II.

    In 1967, Johnson ordered the CIA to spy on domestic antiwar activists.  He also encouraged the FBI to turn its counterintelligence program, code-named "Cointelpro," against the peace movement.

     

    Vietnam Topples Johnson

    In January 1968, the Viet Cong attacked 27 key South Vietnamese cities, including Saigon.  The Tet Offensive ended in a military defeat for the VC, but it caused the American public to demand an immediate end to the war.  American military leaders responded to the attacks for a request of 200,000 more troops.  President Johnson himself now began to seriously doubt the wisdom of continuing to raise the stakes.

    Eugene McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy both entered the race for the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination.

    On March 31, 1968, President Johnson issued an address to the nation stating that he would freeze American troop levels and gradually shift more responsibility to the South Vietnamese themselves.  Bombing would also be scaled down.  He also declared that he would not be a candidate for the presidency in 1968.

     

    The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968

    On June 5, 1968, the night of the California primary, Robert Kennedy was shot and killed by an Arab immigrant resentful of the candidate's pro-Israel views.  When the Democrats met in Chicago in August 1968, angry antiwar zealots, protesting outside the convention hall, violently clashed with police.

    Hubert H. Humphrey, vice president of Johnson, won the Democratic nomination.

    The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon for president and Spiro T. Agnew for vice president.  The Republican platform called for a victory in Vietnam and a strong anticrime policy.

    The American Independent party, headed by George C. Wallace, entered the race and called for the continuation of segregation of blacks.

     

    Victory for Nixon

    Richard Nixon won the election of 1968 as Humphrey was scorched by the LBJ brand.  Nixon did not win a single major city, attesting to the continuing urban strength of the Democrats, who also won about 95% of the black vote.

     

    The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson

    No president since Lincoln had done more for civil rights than LBJ.  By 1966, the Vietnam War brought dissent to Johnson, and as war costs sucked tax dollars, Great Society programs began to wither.  LBJ was persuaded by his advisors that an easy victory in Vietnam would be achieved by massive aerial bombing and large troop commitments.  His decision to not escalate the fighting offended the "hawks," and his refusal to back off altogether provoked the "doves."

     

    The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s

    Everywhere in 1960s America, a newly negative attitude toward all kinds of authority took hold.  Disillusioned by the discovery that American society was not free of racism, sexism, imperialism, and oppression, many young people lost their morals.

    One of the first organized protests against established authority took place at the University of California at Berkeley in 1964, in the Free Speech Movement.  Leader Mario Savio condemned the impersonal university "machine."  Angered by the war in Vietnam, some middle class sons and daughters became radical political rebels.

    The 1960s also witnessed a "sexual revolution."  The introduction of the birth control pill made unwanted pregnancies easy to avoid.  By the 1960s, gay men and lesbians were increasingly emerging and demanding sexual tolerance.  The Mattachine Society, founded in 1951, was an advocate for gay rights.  Worries in the 1980s of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases finally slowed the sexual revolution.

    Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), had, by the end of the 1960s, spawned an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen.

    The upheavals of the 1960s could be largely attributed to the three Ps:  the youthful population bulge, protest against racism and the Vietnam War, and the apparent permanence of prosperity.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 40 - The Stalemated Seventies

    The Economy Stagnates in the 1970s

    Following the economic boom in America during the 1950s and 1960s, the economy of the 1970s was declining.  A large part of the decline was caused by more women and teens entering the works force; these groups typically were less skilled and made less money than males.  Deteriorating machinery and new regulations also hindered growth.  Former President Lyndon B. Johnson's lavish spending on the Vietnam War and on his Great Society also depleted the U.S. Treasury, giving citizens too much money and creating too great a demand for too few products.

    As the United States lacked advancement, countries such as Japan and Germany leaped forward in the production of steel, automobiles, and consumer electronics.

     

    Nixon "Vietnamizes" the War

    President Nixon brought to the White House his broad knowledge and thoughtful expertise in foreign affairs.  He applied himself to putting America's foreign-policy in order.  President Nixon's announced policy, called "Vietnamization," was to withdraw the 540,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam over an extended period.  The South Vietnamese, with American money, weapons, training, and advice, would then gradually take over the war. 

    The Nixon Doctrine proclaimed that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments but in the future, Asians and others would have to fight their own wars without the support of large numbers of American troops.

    On November 3, 1969, Nixon delivered a televised speech to the "silent majority," who presumably supported the war; he hoped to gain supporters.

     

    Cambodianizing the Vietnam War

    For several years, the North Vietnamese and the VC had been using Cambodia as a springboard for troops, weapons, and supplies.  On April 29, 1970, President Nixon widened the war when he ordered American forces to join with the South Vietnamese in cleaning out the enemy in officially neutral Cambodia.  The United States fell into turmoil as protests turned violent.  Nixon withdrew the troops from Cambodia on June 29, 1970, although the bitterness between the "hawks" and the "doves" increased.

    In 1971, the 26th Amendment was passed, lowering the voting age to 18.

    In the spring of 1971, mass rallies and marches erupted again all over the country as antiwar sentiment grew.

     

    Nixon's Détente with Beijing (Peking) and Moscow

    The two great communist powers, the Soviet Union and China, were clashing bitterly over their rival interpretations of Marxism.  Nixon perceived that the Chinese-Soviet tension gave the United States an opportunity to play off one antagonist against the other and to enlist the aid of both in pressuring North Vietnam into peace.

    Dr. Henry A. Kissinger reinforced Nixon's thinking.  In 1969, Kissinger had begun meeting secretly with North Vietnamese officials in Paris to negotiate an end to the war in Vietnam.

    In 1972, Nixon made a visit to China and paved the way for improved relations between the United States and Beijing.  In May 1972, Nixon traveled to Moscow, which was ready to deal.  Nixon's visits ushered in an era of détente, or relaxed tensions between the Soviet Union and China.  The great grain deal of 1972 was a 3-year arrangement by which the United States agreed to sell the Soviets at least $750 million worth of wheat, corn, and other cereals. 

    More important steps were taken to stem the dangerous race of nuclear arms.  The first major achievement, an anti-ballistic missile (AMB) treaty, limited the U.S. and the Soviet Union to two clusters of defensive missiles.  The second significant pact, known as SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), froze the numbers of long-range nuclear missiles for 5 years.

     

    A New Team on the Supreme Bench

    Earl Warren was appointed as a Justice to the Supreme Court, making many controversial rulings-

    Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) struck down a state law that banned the use of contraceptives, even by married couples, creating a "right to privacy."

    Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) ruled that all criminals were entitled to legal counsel, even if they were unable to afford it.

    Escobedo (1964) and Miranda (1966) ruled that those who were arrested had to the "right to remain silent."

    Engel v. Vitale (1962) and School District of Abington Township vs. Schempp (1963) led to the Supreme Court ruling against required prayers and having the Bible in public schools, basing the judgment on the First Amendment, which separated church and state.

    Reynolds vs. Sims (1964) ruled that the state legislatures would be required to be reapportioned according to population.

    In an attempt to end the liberal rulings, President Nixon set Warren E. Burger to replace the retiring Earl Warren in 1969.  With this a success, the Supreme Court had four new Nixon-appointed members by the end of 1971.

     

    Nixon on the Home Front

    Nixon expanded the Great Society programs by increasing funding for Medicare, Medicaid, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).  He also created the Supplemental Security Income (SSI), giving benefits to the poor aged, blind, and disabled.

    Nixon's Philadelphia Plan of 1969 required construction-trade unions working on the federal pay roll to establish "goals and timetables" for black employees.  This plan changed the definition of "affirmative action" to include preferable treatment on groups, not individuals; the Supreme Court's ruling on Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971) upheld this.  Whites protested to this decision, calling it "reverse discrimination."

    The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OHSA) were created.

    In 1962, Rachel Carson boosted the environmental movement with her book Silent Spring, which exposed the disastrous effects of pesticides.  By 1950, Los Angeles had an Air Pollution Control Office.

    The Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973 both aimed at protecting and preserving the environment.

    Worried about inflation, Nixon imposed a 90-day wage freeze and then took the nation off the gold standard, thus ending the "Bretton Woods" system of international currency stabilization, which had functioned for more than a quarter of a century after WWII.

     

    The Nixon Landslide of 1972

    In the spring of 1972, the North Vietnamese burst through the demilitarized zone separating the two Vietnams.  Nixon ordered massive bombing attacks on strategic centers, halting the North Vietnamese offensive.

    Senator George McGovern won the 1972 Democratic nomination.  He based his campaign on pulling out of Vietnam in 90 days.  President Nixon, though, won the election of 1972 in a landslide.

     

    Bombing North Vietnam to the Peace Table

    Nixon launched the heaviest assault of the war when he ordered a two-week bombing of North Vietnam in an attempt to force the North Vietnamese to the conference table.  It worked and on January 23, 1973, North Vietnamese negotiators agreed to a cease-fire agreement.  The shaky "peace" was in reality little more than a thinly disguised American retreat.

     

    Watergate Woes

    On June 17, 1972, five men working for the Republican Committee for the Re-election of the President were caught breaking into the Watergate Hotel and bugging rooms.

    Following was a great scandal in which many prominent members of the president's administration resigned.  Lengthy hearings proceeded, headed by Senator Sam Erving.  John Dean III testified of all the corruption, illegal activities, and scandal.

     

    The Great Tape Controversy

    When conversations involving the Watergate scandal were discovered on tapes, President Nixon quickly refused to hand them over to Congress, despite denying any participation in the scandal.  In 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnewwas forced to resign due to tax evasion.  In accordance with the newly-passed 25th Amendment (1967), Nixon submitted to Congress, for approval as the new vice president, Gerald Ford.

    On October 20, 1973 ("Saturday Night Massacre"), Archibald Cox, the prosecutor of the Watergate scandal case who had issued a subpoena of the tapes, was fired.  Both the attorney general and deputy general resigned because they, themselves did not want to fire Cox.

     

    The Secret Bombing of Cambodia and the War Powers Act

    Despite federal assurances to the American public that Cambodia's neutrality was being respected, it was discovered that secret bombing raids on North Vietnamese forces in Cambodia had taken place since March of 1969; this caused the public to question trust of the government.  Nixon ended the bombing in June 1973.

    However, Cambodia was soon taken over by the cruel dictator Pol Pot, who later committed genocide of over 2 million people over a span of a few years.

    In November 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act, requiring the president to report all commitments of U.S. troops to foreign exchanges within 48 hours.  A new feeling of "New Isolationism" that discouraged U.S. troops in other countries began to take hold, yet Nixon stood strong.

     

    The Arab Oil Embargo and the Energy Crisis

    Following U.S. support of Israel during Israel's war against Syria and Egypt to regain territory lost during the Six-Day War, the Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, strictly limiting oil in the United States.  A speed limit of 55 MPH was imposed, the oil pipeline in Alaska was approved in 1974 despite environmentalists' cries, and other forms of energy were researched.

    OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) lifted the embargo in 1974, yet it then quadrupled the price of oil.

     

    The Unmaking of a President

    On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that President Nixon had to submit all tapes to Congress.  Late in July 1974, the House approved its first article of impeachment for obstruction of justice.  On August 5, 1974, Nixon released the three tapes that held the most damaging information-the same three tapes that had been "missing."  On August 8 of the same year, Nixon resigned, realizing that he would be convicted if impeached, and with resignation, he could at least keep the privileges of a president.

     

    The First Unelected President

    Gerald Ford became the first unelected president; his name had been submitted by Nixon as a vice-presidential candidate.  All other previous vice presidents that had ascended to presidency had at least been supported as running mates of the president that had been elected. 

    President Ford's popularity and respect sank when he issued a full pardon of Nixon, thus setting off accusations of a "buddy deal."

    In July 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki accords, which recognized Soviet boundaries and helped to ease tensions between the two nations.

     

    Defeat in Vietnam

    Early in 1975, the North Vietnamese made their full invasion of South Vietnam.  President Ford request aid for South Vietnam, but was rejected by Congress.  South Vietnam quickly fell.  The last of Americans were evacuated on April 29, 1975.

    The United States had fought the North Vietnamese to a standstill and had then withdrawn its troops in 1973, leaving the South Vietnamese to fight their own war.  The estimated cost to America was $188 billion, with 56,000 dead and 300,000 wounded.  America had lost more than a war; it had lost face in the eyes of foreigners, lost its own self-esteem, lost confidence in its military power, and lost much of the economic strength that had made possible its global leadership after WWII.

     

    The Bicentennial Campaign and the Carter Victory

    In the election of 1976, Democrat Jimmy Carter beat Republican Gerald Ford to win the presidency.  Carter promised to never lie to the American public.

    In 1978, President Carter convinced Congress to pass an $18 billion tax cut.  Despite this, the economy continued to tumble.

    Although early in his presidency he was relatively popular, the popularity of President Carter soon dropped as world events took a turn for the worse.

     

    Carter's Humanitarian Diplomacy

    Carter championed for human rights, and in Rhodesia (known today as Zimbabwe) and South Africa, he championed for black rights.

    On September 17, 1978, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel signed peace accords at Camp David.  Mediated by Carter after relations had strained, this was a great success.  Israel agreed to withdraw from territory gained in the 1967 war as long as Egypt respected Israel's territories.

    In Africa, though, many communist revolutions were taking place; although not all were successful, the revolutions did cause disheartenment and spread fear.

    President Carter pledged to return the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000 and resume full diplomatic relations with China in 1979.

     

    Carter Tackles the Ailing Economy

    Inflation had been steadily rising, and by 1979, it was at 13%.  Americans learned that they could no longer hide behind their ocean moats and live happily.

    Carter diagnosed America's problems as stemming primarily from the nation's costly dependence on foreign oil.  He called for legislation to improve energy conservation, without much public support.

     

    Carter's Energy Woes

    In 1979, Iran's shah Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, who had been installed by America in 1953 and had ruled Iran as a dictator, was overthrown and succeeded by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. 

    Iranian fundamentalists were very opposed Western customs, and because of this, Iran stopped exporting oil; OPEC also raised oil prices, thus causing another oil crisis.

    In July 1979, Carter retreated to Camp David and met with hundreds of advisors to contemplate a solution to America's problems.  On July 15, 1979, Carter chastised the American people for their obsession of material woes ("If it's cold, turn down the thermostat and put on a sweater."), stunning the nation.  A few days later, he fired four cabinet secretaries and tightened the circle around his advisors.

     

    Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio

    In 1979, Carter signed the SALT II agreements with Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, but the U.S. senate refused to ratify it.

    On November 4, 1979, a group of anti-American Muslim militants stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took hostages, demanding that the U.S. return the exiled shah who had arrived in the U.S. two weeks earlier for cancer treatments.

    On December 27, 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, which ended up turning into the Soviet Union's own Vietnam.  Because of the invasion of Afghanistan however, the Soviet Union posed a threat to America's precious oil supplies.  President Carter placed an embargo on the Soviet Union and boycotted the Olympic Games in Moscow.  He also proposed a "Rapid Deployment Force" that could quickly respond to crises anywhere in the world.

     

    The Iranian Hostage Humiliation

    During the Iranian Hostage Crisis, the American hostages languished in cruel captivity while news reports showed images of Iranian mobs burning the American flag and spitting on effigies of Uncle Sam.  Carter first tried economic sanctions to force the release of the hostages, but this failed.  He then tried a commando rescue mission, but that had to be aborted.  When two military aircraft collided, eight of the would-be rescuers were killed.

    The stalemate hostage situation dragged on for most of Carter's term, and the hostages were never released until January 20, 1981-the inauguration day of Ronald Reagan.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 41 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

    The Triumph of Conservatism

    President Jimmy Carter's administration appeared to be stumped and faltering when it was unable to control the rampant inflation or handle foreign affairs.  It also refused to remove hampering regulatory controls from major industries such as airlines.

    Late in 1979, Edward Kennedy ("Ted") declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for the election of 1980.  His popularity sputtered and died when the suspicious 1969 accident in which a young female passenger drowned arose.

    As the Democrats ducked out, the Republicans, realizing that the average American was older and more mature than during the stormy sixties and was therefore more likely to favor the right, chose conservative and former actor Ronald Reagan, signaling the return of conservatism.  New groups that later spearheaded the "new right" movement included Moral Majority and other conservative Christian groups.

    In 1974, the Supreme Court ruled in Milliken v. Bradley that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines.  This reinforced the "white flight" that pitted the poorest whites and blacks against each other, often with explosively violent results.

    Affirmative action was another burning issue, but some whites used this to argue "reverse discrimination."  In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in University of California v. Bakke that Allan Bakke had not been admitted into U.C. because the university preferred minority races only; the Court ordered the college to admit Bakke.  The Supreme Court's only black justice, Thurgood Marshall, warned that the denial of racial preferences might sweep away the progress gained by the civil rights movement.

     

    The Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980

    Ronald Reagan backed a political philosophy that condemned federal intervention in local affairs, favoritism for minorities, and the elitism of arrogant bureaucrats.  He drew on the ideas of the "neoconservatives"-supporting free-market capitalism, questioning liberal welfare programs and affirmative-action policies, and calling for reassertion of traditional values of individualism and the centrality of family.

    Ronald Reagan won the election of 1980, beating Democratic president Jimmy Carter.

     

    The Regan Revolution

    The Iranian's released the hostages on Reagan's Inauguration Day, January 20, 1981, after 444 days of captivity.

    Reagan assembled a conservative cabinet when he took office.  Much to the dismay of environmentalists, James Watt became the secretary of the interior.

    A major goal of Reagan was to reduce the size of the government by shrinking the federal budget and cutting taxes.  He proposed a new federal budget that called for cuts of $35 billion, mostly in social programs like food stamps and federally-funded job-training centers.  On March 6, 1981, Reagan was shot.  12 days later, Reagan recovered and returned to work.

     

    The Battle of the Budget

    The second part of Reagan's economic program called for tremendous tax cuts, amounting to 25% across-the-board reductions over a period of 3 years.  In August 1981, Congress approved a set of tax reforms that lowered individual tax rates, reduced federal estate taxes, and created new tax-free saving plans for small investors.  With the combination of budgetary discipline and tax reduction, the "supply-side" economics would stimulate new investment, boost productivity, promote dramatic economic growth, and reduce the federal deficit.
    The economy slipped into its deepest recession since the 1930s as unemployment rose and banks closed.  The anti-inflationary polices that caused the recession of 1982 had actually been initiated by the Federal Reserve Board in 1979, during Carter's presidency.

    For the first time in the 20th century, income gaps widened between the rich and the poor.  Some economists located the sources of the economic upturn in the massive military expenditures.  Reagan gave the Pentagon nearly $2 trillion in the 1980s.  He plunged the government into major deficit that made the New Deal look cheap.

     

    Reagan Renews the Cold War

    Reagan's strategy for dealing with the Soviet Union was simple:  by enormously expanding U.S. military capabilities, he could threaten the Soviets with an expensive new round in the arms race.  The American economy could better bear this new financial burden than could the Soviet system.  In March 1983, Reagan announced his intention to pursue a high-technology missile-defense system called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), also known as Star Wars.  The plan called for orbiting battle satellites in space that could fire laser beams to vaporize intercontinental missile on liftoff.

    In 1983, a Korean passenger airliner was shot down when it flew into Soviet airspace.  By the end of 1983, all arms-control negotiations were broken, and the Cold War was intensified.

     

    Troubles Abroad

    In June 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon, seeking to destroy the guerrilla bases from which Palestinian fighters attacked Israel.  Reagan sent peacekeeping troops, but after a suicide bomber killed 200 marines, he withdrew the force.  In1979, Reagan sent "military advisors" to El Salvador to prop up the pro-American government.  In October 1983, he dispatched a heavy-fire-power invasion force to the island of Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and broth Marxists to power.  Overrunning the island and ousting the insurgents, American troops demonstrated Reagan's determination to assert the dominance of the United States in the Caribbean.

     

    Round Two for Reagan

    Ronald Reagan overwhelmingly won the election of 1984, beating Democrat Walter Mondale and his woman vice presidential nominee, Geraldine Ferraro.

    Foreign policy issues dominated Reagan's second term.  Mikhail Gorbachev became the chairman of the Soviet Communist party in March 1985.  Committed to radical reforms in the Soviet Union, he announced two policies, Glasnostand Perestroika, aimed at ventilating the Soviet society by introducing free speech and a measure of liberty, and reviving the Soviet economy by adopting many of the free-market practices, respectively.  The two policies required the Soviet Union to reduce the size of its military and concentrate aid on the citizens.  This necessitated an end to the Cold War.  In December 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev signed the IFN treaty, banning all intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe.  The two leaders capped their friendship in May 1988 at a final summit in Moscow.

     

    The Iran-Contra Imbroglio

    Two foreign policy problems arose to Reagan:  the continuing captivity of a number of American hostages seized by Muslim extremist groups in battered Lebanon; and the continuing grip on power of the left-wing Sandinista government in Nicaragua.  Money from the payment for arms to the Iranians was secretly diverted to the contras, who fought the Sandinista government, although it violated a congressional ban on military aid to the Nicaraguan rebels.  In November 1986, news of the secret dealings broke and ignited a firestorm of controversy.  Reagan claimed he had no idea of the illicit activities.  Criminal indictments were brought against Oliver North, Admiral John Poindexter, and Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger.  The Iran-contra affair cast a shadow over the Reagan record in foreign policy, tending to obscure the president's achievements in establishing a new relationship with the Soviets.

     

    Reagan's Economic Legacy

    Ronald Reagan had taken office vowing to stimulate the American economy by rolling back government regulations, lowering taxes, and balancing the budget.  Supply-side economic theory had promised that lower taxes would actually increase government revenue because they would stimulate the economy as a whole.  The combination of tax reduction and huge increases in military spending caused $200 billion in annual deficits.  The large deficits of the Reagan years assuredly constituted a great economic failure.  By appearing to make new social spending both practically and politically impossible for the foreseeable future, though, the economic deficits served their purpose.  They achieved Reagan's highest political objective:  the containment of the welfare state. 

    In the early 1990s, median household income actually declined.

     

    The Religious Right

    In 1979, Reverend Jerry Falwell founded a political organization called the Moral Majority.  He preached with great success against sexual permissiveness, abortion, feminism, and the spread of gay rights.  Collecting millions of dollars and members, the organization became an aggressive political advocate of conservative causes.

     

    Conservatism in the Courts

    The Supreme Court had become Reagan's principal instrument in the "cultural wars."  By the time he had left office, Reagan had appointed 3 conservative-minded judges, including Sandra Day O'Connor, the first women to become a Supreme Court Justice.  Reaganism rejected two icons of the liberal political culture:  affirmative action and abortion. 

    Affirmative Action - In two cases in 1989 (Ward's Cove Packing v. Antonia and Martin v. Wilks), the Court made it more difficult to prove that an employer practiced racial discrimination in hiring. 

    Abortion - In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Court had prohibited states from making laws that interfered with a woman's right to an abortion during the early months of pregnancy.  In Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989), the Supreme Court approved a Missouri law that imposed certain restrictions on abortion, signaling that a state could legislate in an area in which Roe had previously forbidden them to legislate.  In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Court ruled that states could restrict access to abortion as long they did not place an "undue burden" on the woman.

     

    Referendum on Reagansim in 1988

    Corruption in the government gave Democrats political opportunities.  Signs of economic trouble seemed to open more political opportunities for Democrats as the "twin towers" of deficits-the federal budget deficit and international trade deficit-continued to mount.  On "Black Monday," October 19, 1987, the stock market plunged 508 points-the largest one-day decline in history. 

    The Republicans nominated George Bush for the election of 1988.  Black candidate Jesse Jackson, a rousing speech-maker who hoped to forge a "rainbow collation" of minorities and the disadvantaged, campaigned energetically, but the Democrats chose Michael Dukakis.  Despite Reagan's recent problems in office, George Bush won the election.

     

    George Bush and the End of the Cold War

    After receiving an education at Yale and serving in World War II, George Bush had gained a fortune in the oil business in Texas.  He left the business, though, to serve in public service.  He served as a congressman and then held various posts in several Republican administrations, including ambassador to China, ambassador to the United Nations, director of the CIA, and vice president.

    In 1989, thousands of prodemocracy demonstrators protested in Tiananmen Square in China.  In June of that year, China's autocratic rulers grew angry and brutally crushed the movement.  Tanks and machine gunners killed hundreds of protestors.  World opinion condemned the bloody suppression of the prodemocracy demonstrators.

    In early 1989, the Solidarity movement in Poland toppled the communist regime.  Communist regimes also collapsed in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and Romania.  In December 1989, the Berlin Wall came down, and the two Germanies were reunited in October 1990.

    In August 1991, a military coup attempted to preserve the communist system by trying to dislodge Gorbachev from power.  With support of Boris Yelstin, the president of the Russian Republic (one of the several republics that composed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or USSR), Gorbachev foiled the plotters.  In December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president.  He had become a leader without a country as the Soviet Union dissolved into its component parts, 15 republics loosely confederated in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), with Russia the most powerful state and Yelstin the dominant leader.  The demise of the Soviet Union finished to the Cold War.

    Throughout the former Soviet Union, waves of nationalistic fervor and long-suppressed ethnic and racial hatreds were exposed.  In 1991, the Chechnyan minority tried to declare its independence from Russia.  Boris Yelstin was forced to send in Russian troops.  Ethnic warfare in other communist countries was took place as vicious "ethnic cleaning" campaigns against minorities arose.  Western Europe was now threatened by the social and economic weakness of the former communist lands.

    Now that the Soviet Union had dissolved and there was no longer a Cold War, America's economy suffered.  During the Cold War, the U.S. economy had been dependent upon defense spending.

    In 1990, the white regime in South Africa freed African leader Nelson Mandela, who had served 27 years in prison for conspiring for overthrow the government.  Four years later, he was elected as South Africa's president.  In 1990, free elections removed the leftist Sandinistas in Nicaragua from power.  In 1992, peace came to El Salvador.

     

    The Persian Gulf Crisis

    On August 2, 1990, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, seeking oil.  The United Nations Security Council condemned the invasion and on August 3, demanded the immediate withdrawal of Iraq's troops.  After Hussein refused to comply by the mandatory date of January 15, 1991, the United States spearheaded a massive international military deployment, sending 539,000 troops to the Persian Gulf region.

     

    Fighting "Operation Desert Storm"

    On January 16, 1991, the U.S. and the U.N. launched a 37-day air war against Iraq.  Allied commander, American general Norman Schwarzkopf, planned to soften the Iraqis with relentless bombing and then send in waves of ground troops and armor.  On February 23, the land war, "Operation Desert Storm," began.  Lasting only 4 days, Saddam Hussein was forced to sign a cease-fire on February 27.  The war had failed to dislodge Saddam Hussein from power.

     

    Bush on the Home Front

    President Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, prohibiting discrimination against citizens with physical or mental disabilities.  In 1992, he signed a major water projects bill that reformed the distribution of subsidized federal water in the West.  In 1990, Bush's Department of Education challenged the legality of college scholarships targeted for racial minorities.

    In 1991, Bush nominated conservative African American Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court.  Thomas's nomination was approved by the Senate despite accusations from Anita Hill that Thomas had sexually harassed her.

    By 1992, the unemployment rate had exceeded 7%, and the federal budget deficit continued to grow.

     

    Bill Clinton:  The First Baby-Boomer President

    For the election of 1992, the Democrats chose Bill Clinton as their candidate (despite accusations of womanizing and draft evasion) and Albert Gore, Jr. as his running mate.  The Democrats tried a new approach, promoting growth, strong defense, and anticrime policies, while campaigning to stimulate the economy.

    The Republicans dwelled on "family values" and selected Bush for the presidency and J. Danforth Quayle for the vice presidency.

    Third party candidate, Ross Perot entered the race and ended up winning 19,237,247 votes, although he won no Electoral votes. 

    Clinton won the election of 1992, by a count of 370 to 168 in the Electoral College.  Along with the presidency, Democrats also gained control of both the House and the Senate.

    Presidency Clinton placed in Congress and his presidential cabinet minorities and more women, including the first female attorney general, Janet Reno, Secretary of Health and Human Services, Donna Shalala, and Ruth Bader Ginsburgin the Supreme Court

     

    A False Start for Reform

    Upon entering office, Clinton called for accepting homosexuals in the armed forces, but he had to settle for a "don't ask, don't tell" policy that unofficially accepted gays and lesbians.

    Clinton appointed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, to revamp the nation's health and medical care system.  When the plan was revealed in October 1993, critics blasted it as cumbersome, confusing, and stupid.  The previous image of Hillary as an equal political partner of her husband changed to a liability.

    In 1993, Clinton passed the Brady Bill, a gun-control law named after presidential aide James Brady, who had been wounded in President Reagan's attempted assassination. 

    By 1996, Clinton had shrunk the federal deficit to its lowest levels in ten years. 

    In July 1994, Clinton convinced Congress to pass a $30 billion anticrime bill.

    On February 26, 1993, a radical Muslim group bombed the World Trade Center in New York, killing six people.  On April 19, 1993, a fiery standoff at Waco, Texas between the government and the Branch Davidian cult took place; it ended in a huge fire that killed 82 people.  On April 19, 1995, Timothy McVeigh bombed a federal building in Oklahoma, killing 169 people.  By the time all these events had taken place, few Americans trusted the government.

     

    The Politics of Distrust

    In 1994, Newt Gingrich led Republicans on a sweeping attack of Clinton's liberal failures with a conservative "Contract with America."  That year, Republicans won eight more seats in the Senate and 53 more seats in the House, where Gingrich became the new Speaker of the House.

    The Republicans, however, went too far, imposing federal laws that put new obligations on state and local governments without providing new revenues.

    Clinton tried to fight back, but the American public gradually grew tired of Republican conservatism; Gingrich's suggestion of sending children of welfare families to orphanages, and the 1995 shut down of Congress due to a lack of a sufficient budget package aided to this public disliking.

    In the election of 1996, Clinton beat Republican Bob Dole.  Ross Perot, the third party candidate, again finished third.

     

    Problems Abroad

    Clinton sent troops to Somalia, but eventually withdrew them.  He also got involved with the conflicts in Northern Ireland, but to no positive effect.  Before serving as presidency, Clinton denounced China's abuses of human rights and threatened to punish China.  However, as president, Clinton discovered that trade with China was far too important to "waste" over human rights.

    Clinton committed American troops to NATO to keep the peace in the former Yugoslavia and sent 20,000 troops to return Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power in Haiti.  He fully supported the North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA) that made a free-trade zone surrounding Mexico, Canada, and the U.S.  He then helped to form the World Trade Organization, the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).  He also provided $20 billion to Mexico in 1995 to help its faltering economy.

    Clinton presided over the 1993 reconciliation meeting between Israel's Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian Yasir Arafat at the White House.  Two years later, though, Rabin was assassinated, ending hopes for peace in the Middle East.

     

    A Sea of Troubles

    The end of the Cold War left the U.S. probing for a diplomatic formula to replace anti-Communism, revealing misconduct by the CIA and the FBI.

    Political reporter Joe Klein wrote Primary Colors, mirroring some of Clinton's personal life/womanizing.  Clinton ran into trouble with his failed real estate investment in the Whitewater Land Corporation.

    In 1993, White House councilman, Vincent Foster, Jr. apparently committed suicide, perhaps overstressed at having to (possibly immorally) manage Clinton's legal and financial affairs.

    As Clinton began his second term, the first by a Democratic president since FDR, there were Republican majorities in both houses of Congress.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 42 - The American People Face a New Century

     I. Economic Revolutions

    1. As heavy industry waned, the information age kicked into high gear.
      • Microsoft Corp. and the internet brought about the communications revolution.
      • Entrepreneurs led the way to making the Internet a 21st century mall, library, and shopping center.
      • Speed and efficiency of new communications tools threatened to wipe out other jobs.
    2. White-collar jobs in financial services and high tech engineering were being outsourced to other countries like Ireland and India.
      • Employees could thus help keep the company’s global circuits working 24 hrs. a day.
    3. Many discovered that the new high tech economy was also prone to boom or bust, just like the old economy.
      • In the Spring of 2000, the stock market began its biggest slide since WWII.
      • By 2003, the market had lost $6 trillion in value.
        • American’s pension plans shrank to 1/3 or more.
        • Recent retirees scrambled to get jobs and offset their pension losses which were tied to the stock market.
        • This showed that Americans were still scarcely immune to risk, error, scandal, and the ups-and-downs of the business cycle.
    4. Scientific research propelled the economy.
      • Researchers unlocked the secrets of molecular genetics (1950s).
        • They developed new strains of high yielding, pest/weather resistant crops.
        • They sought to cure hereditary diseases.
        • The movement started to fix genetic mutations.
      • The "Human Genome Project" established the DNA sequence of the 30 thousand human genes, helping create radical new medical therapies.
      • Breakthroughs in cloning animals raised questions about the legitimacy of cloning technology in human reproduction.
      • Stem cell research began, where zygotes or fertilized human eggs offered possible cures for Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
        • The Bush administration, and many religious groups, believed that this research was killing people in the form of a human fetus.
        • Bush said a fetus is still a human life, despite its small size, and experimenting and destroying it is therefore wrong. For this reason, he limited government funding for stem cell research.

    II. Affluence and Inequality

    1. U.S. standard of living was high compared to the rest of human kind
      • Median household income in 2002 = $42,400
    2. Americans, however, weren’t the world’s wealthiest people
    3. Rich still got richer while the poor got poorer
      • The richest 20% in 2001 raked in nearly half the nation’s income while the poorest 20% got a mere 4%
    4. The Welfare Reform Bill (1996) restricted access to social services and required able-bodied welfare recipients to find work.
      • This further weakened the financial footing of many impoverished families.
    5. Widening inequality could be measured in different ways as well
      • Chief executives roughly earned 245 times as much as the average worker
      • In 2004, over 40 million people had no medical insurance
      • 34 million (12% of population) were impoverished
    6. Causes of the widening income gap
      • The tax and fiscal policies of the Reagan and both Bush presidencies
      • Intensifying global economic competition
      • shrinkage of high-paying manufacturing jobs for semiskilled/unskilled workers
      • the decline of unions
      • the economic rewards to those of higher education
      • the growth of part time and temporary work
      • the increase of low-skilled immigrants
      • the tendency of educated, working men and woman marriages, creating households with high incomes
    7. Educational opportunities also had a way of perpetuating inequality
      • under funding of many schools in poor urban areas

    III. The Feminist Revolution

    1. Women were greatly affected by the great economic changes of the late 20th Century
    2. Over 5 decades, women steadily increased their presence in the work place
    3. By 1990s, nearly half of all workers were women
    4. Most surprising was the upsurge of employment in mothers
      • by 1990s, a majority of women with kids as young as one were working
    5. Many universities opened their doors to women (1960s):
      • Yale
      • Princeton
      • West Point
      • The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute (VMI)
    6. Despite these gains, many feminists remained frustrated
      • women still got lower wages
      • were concentrated in few low-prestige, low-paying occupations
        • For example, in 2002, on 29 % of women were lawyers or judges and 25% physicians
        • This is likely due to the fact that women would often interrupt their careers to bear and raise kids and even took a less demanding job to fulfill the traditional family roles
    7. Discrimination and a focus on kids also helped account for the “gender-gap” in elections
      • Women still voted for Democrats more than men
        • They seemed to be more willing to favor governmentt support for health and child care, education, and job equality, as well as more vigilant in protecting abortion rights—thus, Democratic voters.
    8. Mens’ lives changed in the 2000s as well
      • Some employers gave maternity leave as well as paternity leave in recognition of shared obligations of the two worker household.
      • More men shared the traditional female responsibilities such as cooking, laundry, and child care
    9. In 1993, congress passed the Family Leave Bill, mandating job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off from work for family reasons

    IV. New Families and Old

    1. The nuclear family (father, mother, children) suffered heavy blows in modern America
      • by the 1990s, one out of every two marriages ended in divorce
      • 7 times more children were affected by divorce compared to the beginning of the decade
      • Kids who commuting between parents was common
    2. Traditional families weren’t just falling apart at an alarming rate, but were also increasingly slow to form in the first place.
      • The proportion of adults living alone tripled in the 4 decades after 1950s
      • In 1990s, 1/3 of women age 25 - 29 had never married
      • Every fourth child in US was grew up in a household that lacked two parents
    3. The main result of this decline in marriage was the pauperization (impoverishing) of many women and children.
    4. Child raising, the primary reason of a family, was being pawned off to day-care centers, school, or TV (electronic babysitter)
    5. Viable families now assumed a variety of different forms
      • Kids in households were raised by a single parent, stepparent, or grandparent, and even kids with gay parents encountered a degree of acceptance that would have been unimaginable a century earlier.
      • Gay marriage was sustained as taboo by the large majority of Americans and teenage pregnancy was on a decline after the mid-1900s.
    6. Families weren’t evaporating, but were altering into much different forms.

    V. The Aging of America

    1. Old age was expected, due to the fact that Americans were living longer than ever before
      • People born in 2000 could anticipate living to an average 70 years thanks to miraculous medical advances that lengthened and strengthened lives.
    2. Longer lives meant more a greater population
      • 1 American in 8 was over 65 years of age in 2000
    3. This aging of population raised a slew of economic, social, and political questions
      • The elderly formed a potent electoral bloc that aggressively lobbied for governmentt favors and achieved real gains for senior citizens
      • The share of GNP spent on health care for people over 65 more than doubled
      • More payments to health care conceivably hurt education, thus making social and economic problems further down the road.
    4. These triumphs for senior citizens brought fiscal strains, as on Social Security
      • At the beginning of the creation of Social Security, a small majority depended on it.
      • But by now, it has increased, and now workers’ Social Security is actually being funded to the senior citizens.
        • The ratio of active workers to retirees had dropped so low, that drastic adjustments were necessary
        • Worsened further, when medical care for seniors rose out of their price range
    5. As WWII baby boomers began to retire the Unfunded Liability (the difference between what the gov’t promised to pay to the elderly and the taxes it expected to take in) was about $7 trillion, a number that might destroy US if new reforms weren’t adopted
      • Pressures mounted:
        • to persuade older Americans to work longer
        • to invest the current Social Security surplus in equalities and bonds to meet future obligations
        • to privatize a portion of the Social Security to younger people who wanted to invest some of their pay-roll taxes into individual retirement accounts

    VI. The New Immigration

    1. Newcomers continued to flow into Modern America
      • Nearly 1 million per year from 1980s up to 2000s
      • Contradicting history, Europe provided few compared to Asia/Latin America
    2. What prompted new immigration to the US?
      • New immigrants came for many of the same reasons as the old…
        • they left countries where population was increasing rapidly and…
        • where agricultural/industrial revolutions were shaking people loose of old habits of life
        • they came in search of jobs and economic opportunities
    3. Some came with skills and even professional degrees and found their way into middle-class jobs
      • However, most came with fewer skills/less education, seeking work as janitors, nannies, farm laborers, lawn cutters, or restraint workers.
    4. The southwest felt immigration the hardest, since Mexican migrants came heavily from there
      • By the turn of the century, Latinos made up nearly 1/3 of the population in California, Arizona, and Texas, and nearly 40% in New Mexico
      • Latinos succeeded in making the south west a bi-cultural region by holding onto to their culture by strength in numbers, compared to most immigrants whom had to conform. Plus, it did help to have their ‘mothering country” right next door.
    5. Some “old-stock” Americans feared about the modern America’s capacity to absorb all these immigrants.
      • The Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) attempted to choke off illegal entry by penalizing employers of the undocumented aliens and by granting amnesty of those already here.
      • Ant-immigrant sentiment flared (a lot in CA) in the wake of economic recession in the early 1990s
        • CA voters approved a ballot initiative that attempted to deny benefits, including education, to illegal immigrants (later struck down by courts)
        • State then passed another law in 1998 which put an end to bilingual teaching in state schools
    6. The fact was, that only 11.5% of foreign-born people accounted for the US population
    7. Evidence, nonetheless, still showed that US welcomed and needed immigrants
    8. The good side to it…
      • Immigrants took jobs that Americans didn’t want
      • Infusion of young immigrants and their offspring counter-balanced the overwhelming rate of an aging population

    VII. Beyond the Melting Pot

    1. Thanks to their increasing immigration and high birthrate, Latinos were becoming an increasingly important minority.
      • By 2003, the US was home to about 39 million of them
        • 26 million Chicanos, Mexican American
        • 3 million Puerto Ricans
        • 1 million Cubans
    2. Flexing political powers, Latinos elected mayors of Miami, Denver, and San Antonio
    3. After many years of struggle, the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC0, headed by Cesar Chavez, succeeded in making working conditions better for Chicano “stoop laborers” who followed the planting cycle of the American West
    4. Latino influence seemed likely to grow
      • Latinos, well organized, became the nation’s largest ethnic minority
    5. Asian Americans also made great strides.
      • By the 1980s, they were America’s fastest-growing minority and their numbers reached about 12 million by 2003.
      • Citizens of Asian ancestry were now counted among the most prosperous
        • In 2003, the average Asian household was 25% better off than that of the average white household
    6. Indians, the original Americans, numbered some 2.4 million in 2000 census.
      • Half had left their reservations to live in cities.
      • Unemployment and alcoholism had blighted reservation life
      • Many tribes took advantage of their special legal status of independence by opening up casinos on reservations to the public.
      • However, discrimination and poverty proved hard to break

    VIII. Cities and Suburbs

    1. Cities grew less safe, crime was the great scourge of urban life.
      • The rate of violent crimes raised to its peak in the drug infested 80s, but then leveled out in the 90s.
      • The number of violent crimes substantially dropped in many areas after 1995
      • None the less, murders, robberies and rapes remained common in cities and rural areas and the suburbs
    2. In mid-1990s, a swift and massive transition took place from cities to suburbs, making jobs “suburbanized.”
      • The nation’s brief “urban age” lasted for only a little less than 7 decades and with it, Americans noticed a new form of isolationism
      • Some affluent suburban neighborhoods stayed secluded, by staying locked in “gated communities”
      • By the first decade of the 21st century, big suburban rings around cities like NY, Chicago, Houston, and Washington DC had become more racially and ethically diverse
    3. Suburbs grew faster in the West and Southwest
      • Builders of roads, water mains, and schools could barely keep up with the new towns sprouting up across the landscapes
      • Newcomers came from nearby cities and from across the nation
        • A huge shift of US population was underway from East to West
        • The Great Plains hurt from the 60% decline of all counties
    4. However, some cities showed signs of renewal
      • Commercial redevelopment gained ground in cities like…
        • New York
        • Chicago
        • Los Angeles
        • Boston
        • San Francisco

    IX. Minority America

    1. Racial and ethic tensions also exacerbated the problems of American Cities
      • This was specifically evident in LA (magnet for minorities)
        • It was a 1992 case wherein a mostly white jury exonerated white cops who had been videotaped ferociously beating a black suspect.
        • The minority neighborhoods of LA erupted in anger
          • Arson and looting laid waste on every block
          • Many people were killed
          • Many blacks vented their anger towards the police/judicial system by attacking Asian shopkeepers
          • In return, Asians set up patrols to protect themselves
          • The chaos still lingers decades later
      • LA riots vividly testified to black skepticism about the US system of justice
        • Three years later, in LA, a televised showing of OJ Simpson’s murder trial fed white disillusionment w/ the state of race relations
        • after months of testimony, it looked like OJ was guilty, but was acquitted due to the fact some white cops had been shown to harbor racist sentiments
        • In a a later civil trail, another jury unanimously found Simpson liable for the “wrongful deaths” of his former wife and another victim
        • The Simpson verdicts revealed the huge gap between white and black America (whites = guilty, blacks = 1st verdict stands)
      • Blacks still felt that they were mistreated, especially in 2000 elections when they accused that they weren’t allowed to vote in Florida.
        • Said they were still facing the Jim Crow South of racial indifference
    2. US cities have always held an astonishing variety of ethnic/racial groups, but by 20th century, minorities made up the majority, making whites flee to the suburbs
      • In 2002, 52% of blacks and only 21% of whites lived in central cities
    3. The most desperate black ghettos were especially problematic
      • Blacks who benefited form the 60s Civil Rights Movement left to the suburbs with whites leaving the poorest of the poor in the old ghettos.
      • Without a middle class to help the community, the cities became plagued by unemployment and drug addiction
    4. Single women headed about 43% of black families in 2002, 3 times more than whites
      • Many single, black mothers depended on welfare to feed their kids
    5. Social Scientists made clear that education excels if the child has warm, home environment
      • It seemed clear that many fatherless, impoverished Black kids seemed plagued by educational handicaps which were difficult to overcome
    6. Some segments of Black communities did prosper after the Civil Rights Movement (50s, 60s), although they still had a long trek ahead until they got equality
      • by 2002, 33% of black families had a $50,000 income (= middle class)
      • Blacks also improved in politics
        • Number of black officials elected had risen to the 9,000 mark
        • More than 3 dozen members of congress and mayors of some big cities
        • Voter tallies showed that black votes had risen
    7. By the early 21st century, blacks had dramatically advanced into higher education
      • In 2002, 17% of Blacks over 25 had bachelor’s degree
      • The courts still preserved affirmative action in the university admissions

    X. E Pluribus Plures

    1. Controversial issues of color and culture also pervaded the realm of ideas in the late 20th
    2. Echoing early 20th Century “cultural pluralist” like Horace Kallen and Randolph Bourne, many people embraced the creed of “multiculturalism”
      • This stressed the need to preserve and primate, rather than squash racial minorities
    3. In 1970s and 80s, the catchword of philosophy was ethnic pride.
      • People wanted to still keep their identity and culture (eg Latinos and Asians)
      • The old idea of a “melting pot” turned into a colorful “salad bowl”
    4. Nation’s classrooms became the heated area for debate
      • Multiculturalists attacked traditional curriculum and advocated a greater focus on achievements of blacks, Latinos, Asians, Indians
      • In defense, critics said that studies on ethnic differences would destroy American values
      • Census Bureau further advocated the debate when in 2000 it allowed respondents to identify themselves w/ more than one of the six categories:
        • black
        • white
        • Latino
        • American Indian
        • Asian
        • Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander

    XI. The Life of the Mind

    1. Despite the mind-sapping chatter of the “boob tube,” Americans in the early 21st century read more, listened to more music, and were better educated than ever before
      • Colleges awarded some 2.5 million degrees in 2004
      • 1 in 4 25-34 year old age group was a 4 year college graduate
    2. This spurt of educated people raised the economy
    3. What Americans read said much about the state of US society
      • Some American authors, concerning the west
        • Larry McMurtry the small town West and recollected about the end of the cattle drive era in Lonesome Dove (1985)
        • Raymond Carver wrote powerful stories about the working class in the Pacific Northwest
        • Annie Dillard, Ivan Doig, and Jim Harrison re-created the frontier in the same region as Carver
        • David Guterson wrote a moving tale of interracial anxiety and affection in the WWII era in Pacific Northwest in Snow Falling on Cedars(1994)
        • Wallace Stagner produced many works that transcended their original themes like…
          • Angle of Repose (1971)
          • Crossing to Safety (1987)
        • Norman MacLean wrote two unforgettable events about his childhood in Montana, A River Runs Through It (1976) and Young Men and Fire (1992)
      • African American Authors
        • August Wilson retold the history of the blacks in 20th century w/ emphasis on the psychic cost of the northward migration
        • George Wolf explored sobering questions of black identity in his Jelly’s Last Jam (the life story of jazzman “Jelly Roll” Morton)
        • Alice Walker gave fictional voice to the experiences of black women in her hugely popular The Color Purple
        • Toni Morrison wrote a bewitching portrait of maternal affection in Beloved
        • Edward P. Jones inventively rendered the life of a slave-owning black family in his Pulitzer Prize-winning The Known World.
      • Indians got recognition, too
        • N. Scott Momaday won a Pulitzer Prize for his portrayal of Indian life in House Made of Dawn
        • James Welch wrote movingly about his Blackfoot ancestors in Fools Crow
      • Asian American authors flourished as well
        • Among them was playwright David Hwang, novelist Amy Tan, and essayist Maxine Hong Kingston
        • Gish Jen in Mona in the Promise Land guided her readers into the poignant comedy of suburban family relationships that wasn’t uncommon to 2nd-generation Asian Americans
        • Jhumpa Lahiris’ Interpreter of Maladies, explored the sometimes painful relationship between immigrant Indian parents and their American-born kids
      • Latino writers included…
        • Sandra Cisneros drew hoer own life as a Mexican American kid to evoke Latino life in the working-class Chicago in The House on Mango Street

    XII. The American Prospect

    1. American spirit pulsed with vitality in the early 21st century, but bug problems continued
      • Women still fell short of 1st class citizenship
      • US society also wanted to find ways to adapt back to the traditional family, but w/ the new realities of women’s work outside the home
      • Full equality was till an elusive dream for some races
      • Powerful foreign competitors threatened the US economic status
      • The alarmingly unequal distribution of wealth and income threatened to turn America into a society of haves and have-nots, mocking the very ideals of democracy
    2. Environmental worries clouded the countries future
      • Coal-fired electrical energy plants produced acid rain and helped greenhouse effect
      • Unsolved problem of radioactive waste disposal stopped the making of nuclear power plants
      • The planet was being drained of oil and oil spills showed the danger behind oil exploration/transportation
    3. The public looks towards alternative fuel sources in the 21st Century:
      • Solar powers and wind mills
      • methane fuel
      • electric “hybrid” cars
      • the pursuit of an affordable hydrogen fuel cell
      • Energy conservation remained another crucial, but elusive strategy
    4. The task of cleansing the earth of abundant pollutants was one urgent mission confronting the US people
    5. Another was seeking ways to resolve ethnic and cultural conflicts once erupted around the world’s end of the Cold War
    6. All at the same time more doors were opening for the US people
      • opportunities in outer space and inner-city streets
      • artist’s easel and the musician’s concert hall
      • at the inventor’s bench and the scientist’s laboratory
      • The unending quest for social justice, individual fulfillment, international peace

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    A People and a Nation, 8th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the A People and a Nation: 8th Edition Textbook. These A People and a Nation: 8th Edition Notes will help you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1088 pages
    • Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing; 8th edition (October 25, 2007)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0618951962
    • ISBN-13: 978-0618951963

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - Three Old Worlds Create a New, 1492-1600

    I.    Introduction

    Conflict between European kingdoms led to an interest in colonies and trading posts that might strengthen the emerging nations. This expansionism introduced Europeans to African and American societies that had evolved over centuries, and the cultural interaction that followed initial contacts between these civilizations profoundly influenced western history.

        II.    American Societies

    A.    Paleo-Indians
    Paleo-Indians arrived some 12,000 to 14,000 years ago and survived by hunting large game. As the prehistoric animals disappeared, however, people grew more dependent on agriculture, a change that allowed for the emergence of more sophisticated civilizations.
    B.    Importance of Agriculture
    By 9,000 years ago, the inhabitants of Central and South America began cultivating various crops, and wherever agriculture dominated the economy, complex civilizations flourished.
    C.    Mesoamerican Civilizations
    Early civilizations emerged in what is now Mexico as early as 3,000 years ago. A number of powerful and complex societies developed, including the Olmecs, the Mayas, and the Aztecs.
    D.    Mound Builders, Anasazi, and Mississippians
    Besides the empires of Mesoamerica, great civilizations arose further north including the Moundbuilders of the Ohio River region, the Anasazi people of the modern states of Arizona and New Mexico, and the Mississippian culture of the Midwestern and southeastern United States.
    E.    Aztecs
    The Aztecs moved into the Valley of Mexico in the twelfth century where they ultimately established an empire built on a warrior tradition that included human sacrifice and conquered people’s tribute.

        III.    North America in 1492

    A.    Sexual Division of Labor in North America
    The nomadic tribes assigned the task of hunting to men, while women prepared the food, made clothing, and raised children. In the agricultural tribes of the West the men farmed, but in the East women performed that task.
    B.    Social Organization
    The social organizations of the agricultural peoples of the southwest and east were similar, with extended families being defined matrilineally. The nomadic Indians of the Great Plains, by contrast, were usually related patrilineally.
    C.    War and Politics
    The Indians of North America engaged in wars with each other long before the coming of Europeans.  Indian leadership reflected a widespread democracy, but political structure, including the role of women, varied widely from tribe to tribe.
    D.    Religion
    Generally polytheistic, Indian religion was more varied than their politics.

        IV.    African Societies

    A.    West Africa (Guinea)
    Most of the enslaved Africans that came to America originated in West Africa, or Guinea. Upper Guinea had a culture that reflected contact with the Islamic Mediterranean region, while Lower Guinea remained less cosmopolitan.
    B.    Slavery in West Africa
    Slavery existed in West Africa primarily as a means of accumulating lands and wealth, but after contact with Europeans and the establishment of slave-trading posts, the internal slave trade adapted readily to meet the new demands from abroad.
    C.    Sexual Division of Labor in West Africa
    In West Africa men and women shared agricultural duties, with the men also hunting or herding while the women performed household tasks and managed local commerce. In Lower Guinea, society developed based on the “dual-sex principle.”
    D.    West African Religion
    West African religious beliefs stressed complimentary male and female roles.

        V.    European Societies

    A.    Sexual Division of Labor in Europe
    Males did most of the farming or herding; women concentrated on the household and children. Men dominated European society, relegating females to positions of inferiority.
    B.    Black Death
    Bubonic Plague first struck Europe in 1346, then struck again in the 1360s and 1370s, killing a third of the continent’s population.
    C.    Political, Economic, and Technological Change
    European leaders took advantage of the chaos resulting from the Black Plague and the Hundred Years’ War to engender nationalism as a means of consolidating power. Along with this political innovation, economic and technological changes shaped Europe in the fifteenth century.
    D.    Motives for Exploration
    Developments in Europe made possible an era of exploration designed both to gain access to markets and to spread Christianity.

        VI.    Early European Explorations

    A.    Sailing in the Mediterranean Atlantic
    European sailors learned much of navigation, winds, and currents by sailing in the Mediterranean Atlantic, a region bounded by the Canary Island, the Azores, and the Madeiras. The most important concept being sailing “around the wind” or picking up westerly breezes that allowed ships to return safely to port.
    B.    Islands of the Mediterranean Atlantic
    In the fifteenth century Europeans, particularly Portuguese and Spanish, settled the Azores, Madeiras, and Canary islands, and began plantation economies.
    C.    Portuguese Trading Posts in Africa
    The Portuguese established mutually beneficial trading posts in West Africa. Later on São Tomé, the Portuguese established sugar plantations dependent on slave labor from the African interior.
    D.    Lessons of Early Colonization
    Europeans learned that they could transplant crops and livestock successfully to new lands, that the inhabitants of these new regions could be conquered, and slave-based plantations could be profitable.

        VII.    The Voyages of Columbus, Cabot, and their Successors

    A.    Columbus’s Voyage
    Christopher Columbus sailed west in an effort to reach Asia, but he encountered the Bahamas instead a month after starting.
    B.    Columbus’s Observations
    Columbus made obvious his intentions by asking the natives about gold, pearls, and spices. He also marveled at the new plants and animals he encountered, and described how they could be exploited.
    C.    The Taíno People
    Columbus also reported that the human inhabitants he encountered would be useful as converts and as laborers.
    D.    Naming of America
    Even though Columbus died believing he had found Asia, map makers named the new region America in honor of Florentine explorer, Amerigo Vespucci.
    E.     Northern Voyages
    Because of the winds they confronted, mariners who sailed to the region that was to become the United States and Canada followed a route different from those who sailed to the south.
    F.    Norse Seafarers
    Leif Ericsson had established a short-lived settlement in modern Newfoundland in the year 1001.
    G.    John Cabot’s Explorations
    John Cabot deserves credit for the first formal exploration of the continent’s northern coast. Other mariners added to Europe’s knowledge of the Western Hemisphere.

    VIII.    Spanish Exploration and Conquest

    A.    Hernán Cortés and Malinche
    Having first arrived in the West Indies in 1504, Cortés embarked for the mainland in 1519. Malinche, one of 20 slaves given to Cortés by the Mayas, became his mistress and translator. In 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán fell to the Spaniards.
    B.    Spanish Colonization
    Spanish conquerors established a colonial system that stressed strict royal control, the predominance of male settlers, and exploitation of Americans and Africans.
    C.    Christianity in New Spain
    Franciscan and Dominican friars established a number of missions to Christianize Native Americans and to Hispanicize their culture, in which they were very successful.

        IX.    The Columbian Exchange

    A.    Smallpox and Other Diseases
    Hundreds of thousands of Native Americans died from European diseases, particularly smallpox, to which they had no immunity.
    B.    Syphilis
    Syphilis apparently traveled from America to Europe, with the first recorded case occurring in 1493.
    C.    Sugar, Horses, and Tobacco
    1.    By the 1520s, sugar was being transported from the Greater Antilles to Spain. By the 1570s the Portuguese cultivated sugar in Brazil for sale in the European market, and after 1640 sugar was produced in the English and French colonies in the Caribbean.
    2.    The introduction of horses into the Americas by the Spanish in 1493 ultimately led to changes in the subsistence cultures of North American natives.
    3.    Europeans believed that tobacco had beneficial medicinal effects.

        X.    Europeans in North America

    A.    Trade Among Indians and Europeans
    Rich fishing banks off the coast of North America attracted many Europeans to the New World. The English also developed a lucrative fur trade with the Indians.  The Indians, in turn, desired European goods.  This mutually beneficial trade arrangement not only affected Indian cultures but had serious ecological consequences as well.
    B.    Contest of Spain and England
    Geopolitical conflict with Spain led England to desire colonies in North America.
    C.    Sir Walter Raleigh’s Roanoke Colony
    Early efforts by the English to settle the region they called Virginia had disastrous results.
    D.    Thomas Harriot’s Briefe and True Report
    Harriot, a noted scientist, publicized the benefits of Virginia, including its natural resources like copper, iron, furs, grapes, and people.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - Europeans Colonize North America, 1600-1650

     I.        Introduction

    Europeans arrived in North America for a variety of reasons. The English, however, hoped to recreate the society they had left behind, with some reforms and improvements. In any case, Europeans enjoyed little success until they adapted to the alien environment and developed viable relations with Native Americans and with each other.

    II.        New Spain, New France, and New Netherland

    A.    Florida
    Spain established a fort and settlement at St. Augustine in 1565 to keep the French out of present-day Florida.
    B.    New Mexico
    Spaniards under Juan de Oñate invaded and conquered the Pueblo country, but the colony they established turned out to be poor and indefensible, but fertile ground for missionaries.
    C.    Quebec and Montreal
    By the middle of the seventeenth century, France had founded Quebec and Montreal, outposts that served as that nation’s claim to what is now Canada.
    D.    Jesuit Missions in New France
    Friars from the Society of Jesus eventually converted thousands of natives to the Catholic faith and introduced them to European culture.

    E.    New Netherland
    In 1614, the Dutch established a post near present Albany, New York. The presence of the Dutch traders helped spawn competition, and war, among the various tribes.

    III.        The Caribbean

    A.    Conflict in the Caribbean
    The Caribbean provided the area of greatest conflict between European powers, especially as the lucrative sugar industry emerged in the region.
    B.    The Importance of Sugar
    European wrangling over the Caribbean islands was motivated by a desire to establish sugar plantations to satisfy the demand of the European market.

    IV.        English Interest in Colonization

    A.    Social Change in England
    A swelling population led to geographical and social mobility, and many viewed the New World as a siphon for surplus population.
    B.    The English Reformation
    The English Reformation, which King Henry VIII initiated in 1533, set the stage for large numbers of English dissenters to leave their homeland.
    C.    Puritans
    Conflict between the Stuart monarchs and dissenters called Puritans caused thousands of settlers to leave England in the 1630s.
    D.    The First Stuart Monarchs
    James I established a new dynasty in England that was intolerant of Puritans and representative government.

    V.        The Founding of Virginia

    A.    Joint-Stock Companies
    English investors established joint-stock companies to finance early colonization projects. These forerunners of modern corporations enjoyed limited success in providing the vast long-term investment funds necessary for colonization.
    B.    Jamestown
    Great difficulties beset Jamestown, the first permanent settlement in Virginia.
    C.    The Powhatan Confederacy
    Jamestown survived largely as a result of aid from the Algonkian Indians, but problems arose between the Englishmen and members of the Powhatan Confederacy.
    D.    Algonkian and English Cultural Differences
    The Indians and the Europeans had many differing views, but the Englishmen’s attitude of cultural superiority led to the greatest problems between the two peoples.
    E.    The Cultivation of Tobacco
    Tobacco provided Virginia with a cash crop that guaranteed the colony’s survival.
    F.    Virginia Company Policies
    First under the Virginia Company, and later under James I, settlers to Virginia could claim 50 acres of land as a headright. In 1619 the Virginia Company allowed major landowners to elect representatives to an assembly called the House of Burgesses.
    G.    Indian Uprisings
    Fearful of English encroachment, Powhatan’s successor Opechancanough attacked Jamestown on March 22, 1622, killing 347, or one quarter of its inhabitants. This sparked warfare that ended only with the subjugation of the Powhatan Confederacy.
    H.    End of the Virginia Company
    James I revoked the charter of the Virginia Company in 1624, making Virginia a royal colony.

    VI.        Life in the Chesapeake

    A.    Founding of Maryland
    Maryland, founded in 1632, mirrored Virginia in many ways. One important difference set Maryland apart: the colony tolerated all Christian faiths and therefore served as a haven for Catholics.
    B.    Need for Laborers
    Tobacco cultivation required a vast need for laborers, and Virginians experimented with several solutions, including Indian and African workers.
    C.    Indentured Servant Immigrants
    Virginians met their labor needs by bringing indentured servants to the colony.
    D.    Conditions of Servitude
    Life for these migrants proved difficult, but opportunities existed for those who fulfilled their contracts.
    E.    Standard of Living
    For everyone in the Chesapeake, life was severe with material wealth in short supply.
    F.    Chesapeake Families
    The predominance of males, the economic conditions, and high mortality rates in the Chesapeake led to fewer, smaller, and shorter-lived families in Virginia and Maryland.
    G.    Chesapeake Politics
    A native-born elite with local ties and interests failed to emerge in Virginia and Maryland, leading to political instability.

    VII.        The Founding of New England

    A.    Contrasting Regional Religious Patterns
    Most immigrants to the Chesapeake were not affected by religious motives. By contrast, religion motivated many people who moved to the New England colonies.
    B.    Congregationalists and Separatists
    Puritans believed in an omnipotent God who had predestined some people for salvation and some for damnation. Congregationalists wanted to reform the Church of England, while Separatists thought the Church of England was too corrupt to be saved.
    C.    Plymouth
    Separatists, who wanted to leave the Church of England, arrived in America in 1620 and founded the settlement of Plymouth.
    D.    Pokanokets
    This branch of the Wampanoags served as allies to the Pilgrims, ensuring their success.
    E.    Massachusetts Bay Company
    When Charles I ascended to the throne in 1625 his anti-Puritan policy led thousands of Congregationalists to leave England for America.
    F.    Governor John Winthrop
    John Winthrop, first elected governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629, envisioned a communal society based on Christian charity that put the common good before the needs of the individual.
    G.    Ideal of a Covenant
    The concept of covenant permeated Puritan society. This faith in mutual consent manifested itself in the colony’s political institutions.
    H.    New England Towns
    Puritan ideas influenced land distribution in the New England colonies. Massachusetts often gave land to groups rather than to individuals, grants that led to the growth of communities rather than to large personal holdings.
    I.    Internal Migration and the Pequot War
    English migration into the Connecticut valley spawned conflict with the Pequot tribe.
    J.    John Eliot and the Praying Towns
    Puritans focused on “civilizing” Indians, but met with little success.
    K.    Puritan and Jesuit Missions Compared
    In New England, cultural assimilation remained limited, and Jesuit missions in New France enjoyed more success than did Puritan missions in New England.

    VIII.    Life in New England

    A.    New England Families
    Big families, religious intolerance, and strict morality characterized life in New England.
    B.    Impact of Religion
    Religion permeated every facet of New England life.
    C.    Roger Williams
    Roger Williams advocated Indians’ rights, separation of church and state, and religious tolerance. In 1635, he founded the town of Providence in what became Rhode Island.
    D.    Anne Hutchinson
    Anne Hutchinson emphasized the covenant of grace and direct communication with God. Her ideas threatened Puritan religious orthodoxy and traditional gender relationships.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - North American in the Atlantic World, 1640-1720

    I.    Introduction

    Between 1640 and 1720, the mainland colonies became increasingly involved in a network of trade and international contacts that led to territorial expansion and economic growth. The introduction of slavery, changing relations with England, and conflicts with their neighbors shaped this colonial development.

        II.    The Restoration Colonies

    A.    Proprietorships
    Six new proprietary colonies, known as the Restoration colonies, were founded during the reign of Charles II (1660-1685).

    B.    New York
    Charles gave his younger brother, the Duke of York, claim to the area the Dutch had previously settled as New Netherland.
    C.    The Duke’s Laws
    Proclaimed by the Duke of York in 1665, the Duke’s Laws tolerated the maintenance of Dutch legal practices and allowed each town in New York to decide which church to support with its tax revenues. However, no provision was made for a representative assembly.
    D.    Founding of New Jersey
    The Duke of York regranted much of his land to two friends, thereby limiting the geographical extent and economic growth of New York.
    E.    Pennsylvania: A Quaker Haven
    Charles II gave William Penn a grant in 1681 to repay a debt he owed Penn’s father. A leading member of the Society of Friends, William Penn sought to establish a tolerant, humane, and dynamic colony.
    F.    William Penn’s Indian Policy
    Penn attempted to treat Indians fairly, which in turn attracted many Indian immigrants to his colony. These newcomers often clashed with Europeans also attracted by Penn’s policies.
    G.    Founding of Carolina
    Charles chartered Carolina in 1663. The northern region remained linked to Virginia and developed differently than did the area around Charleston.

        III.    1670-1680: A Decade of Crisis

    A.    New France and the Iroquois
    The French claimed the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley. This expansion brought France into conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy, which exerted great influence in what became the northeastern United States. Competition for European trade sparked a series of wars in the region that lasted until 1701.
    B.    French Expansion into the Mississippi Valley
    After the French founded New Orleans in 1718, its posts along the Mississippi became the glue of empire.
    C.    Popé and the Pueblo Revolt
    Resentment over Spanish treatment led a shaman named Popé to lead a revolt among the Pueblo Indians in 1680. This uprising was the most successful Indian resistance in North America.
    D.    Spain’s North American Possessions
    By using forts and missions, Spain expanded its holdings to include California and Texas.
    E.    Population Pressures in New England
    The population increase in the New England area placed great pressure on available land.
    F.    King Philip’s War
    Concerned by the encroachment of English settlers King Philip, chief of the Pokanokets, led a bloody war in New England in 1675-1676.
    G.    Bacon’s Rebellion
    Conflict between English settlers and Indians in Virginia turned into a political struggle between Nathaniel Bacon and Governor William Berkeley.

        IV.    The Introduction of African Slavery

    A.    Labor-Supply Problems in the Chesapeake
    As fewer English men and women came to the Chesapeake as indentured servants, Chesapeake tobacco growers sought a new source of labor for their plantations.
    B.    Why African Slavery?
    Slavery had been practiced in Europe (although not in England) for centuries. European Christians also believed that enslaving heathen peoples was justifiable.
    C.    Atlantic Creoles in Societies with Slaves
    In the early English colonies, residents of African descent varied in status.  These early mainland colonies have been characterized as “societies with slaves” as opposed to “slave societies.”
    D.    The Beginnings of Mainland Slave Societies
    Mainland colonists began the large-scale importation of Africans in the 1670s, at first bringing slaves in from the Caribbean islands but eventually carrying them directly from Africa.

        V.    The Web of Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade

    A.    Atlantic Trading System
    The traffic in slaves became the linchpin of a complicated web of exchange that tied the peoples of the Atlantic world together.
    B.    New England and the Caribbean
    The sale of New England foodstuffs and wood products to Caribbean sugar planters provided New Englanders with a major source of income.
    C.    The Human Tragedy of the Slave Trade
    This voyage that transported Africans to the Americas proved particularly deadly, with high percentages of black slaves and white overseers dying in Africa or at sea.
    D.    West Africa and the Slave Trade
    West Africa experienced profound demographic changes because of the slave trade. Also, some African kings consolidated their political power as a result of the role they played in the commerce.
    E.    European Rivalries and the Slave Trade
    Europeans benefited the most from the slave trade, and their economies shifted away from trade in Asia and the Mediterranean to the Atlantic trade. Furthermore, attempts to control the slave trade caused rivalries among European nations.
    F.    Mercantilism
    England used its colonies in an attempt to become self-sufficient while maintaining a favorable balance of trade with other countries.
    G.    Navigation Acts
    Parliament sought to advance its mercantilist policies through a series of trade laws passed between 1651 and 1673. These acts, which made England the center of all trade, met with resistance in North America.
    H.    Board of Trade and Plantations
    In 1696, Parliament hoped to improve its administration over the colonies when it established the Board of Trade and Plantations.

        VI.    Enslavement in North America

    A.    Enslavement in the Chesapeake
    By 1710, Africans made up 20 percent of the population in the Chesapeake.
    B.    Impact of Slavery on the Anglo-American Chesapeake
    This concentration of slaves influenced the economic activities, demographic patterns, and social values of the region.
    C.    Enslavement in South Carolina
    The large number of slaves in South Carolina, along with similarities in the climates of West Africa and the colony, helped ensure the survival of African culture.
    D.    Rice and Indigo
    South Carolina developed a rice economy based mostly on skills brought in by enslaved Africans. Indigo, too, flourished because of knowledge bought by West Indian slaves.
    E.    Indian Enslavement in North and South Carolina
    Indians were among the many people held in slavery in both the Carolinas. Bitterness over the trade in Indian slaves caused the Tuscarora War.
    F.    Yamasee War
    The abuses associated with the trade in Indian slaves also led to the Yamasee War in South Carolina.
    G.    Slaves in Spanish North America
    Spanish authorities in Florida in 1693 offered freedom to runaway slaves who would convert to Catholicism.
    H.    Slaves in French Louisiana
    Both Africans and Indians were held as slaves in French Louisiana, but Louisiana remained a society with slaves rather than a slave society.
    I.    Enslavement in the North
    Involvement of the northern colonies in the slave trade ensured that many people of African descent lived in that region.

        VII.    Colonial Political Development, Imperial Reorganization, and the Witchcraft Crisis

    A.    Colonial Political Structures
    Each of the colonies generally had a governor, some form of council, and an assembly.  Local political institutions, such as town meetings or county courts, also developed in America.
    B.    A Tradition of Autonomy Challenged
    James II and his successors attempted to tighten the reins of government by reducing the colonies’ political autonomy.
    C.    Dominion of New England
    James II attempted to strengthen royal control over the New England colonies by creating the Dominion of New England in 1686.
    D.    Glorious Revolution in America
    News of the Glorious Revolution encouraged New Englanders to overthrow Governor Edmund Andros.
    E.    King William’s War
    A war with the French and their Algonquian allies added to New England’s problems.
    F.    The 1692 Witchcraft Crisis
    A witch hunt broke out in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692. The intense but short-lived incident reflected the social and political stresses of the day.
    G.    Accommodation to Empire
    Although the colonists resented the new imperial order, they adjusted to its demands and restrictions.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - American Society Transformed, 1720-1770

    I.    Introduction

    After 1720, the American colonies expanded to cover most of the territory between the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian Mountains. Also, the population came to include a larger number of non-English people and a variety of ethnic groups and religious sects.

        II.    Population Growth and Ethnic Diversity

    A.    Newcomers from Africa and Europe
    About 260,000 Africans arrived on the mainland during the eighteenth century, making them the largest ethnic or racial group that came to the colonies.
    B.    Scots-Irish, Germans, and Scots
    One of the largest groups of immigrants¾about 150,000¾came from Ireland and Scotland.  They were joined by about 85,000 Germans.
    C.    Maintaining Ethnic Identities
    By 1775, half of the population south of New England was of non-English stock.  Assimilation of these migrants into Anglo-American culture depended on patterns of settlement, the size of the group, and the strength of the migrants’ ties to their cultural roots. To retain power, the English elites sometimes fostered antagonism among ethnic groups. However, in the 1770s the elites realized they needed the support of non-English Americans in their rebellion against Great Britain.
       
        III.    Economic Growth and Development

    A.    Overview of the Anglo-American Economy
    Large populations made British colonies economically stable while the widely scattered people of the French and Spanish colonies left them weak and vulnerable and often dependent on foreign colonies for goods.
    B.    Growth of Consumption
    Generally, the American economy improved, leading to a better standard of living for many people. Economic stratification, on the other hand, also shaped social and economic structures.
    C.    Urban Poverty
    New immigrants usually faced fewer opportunities for advancement than had the earliest arrivals. Although rural poverty remained limited, a poor class did begin to emerge in urban areas.
    D.    New England and King George’s War
    King George’s War increased the wealth of some New Englanders, but many Bostonians suffered economically as a result of the conflict.
    E.    Prosperity of the Middle Colonies
    King George’s War spurred an economic boom in the Middle Colonies.
    F.    Change in the Chesapeake
    During the 1740s, grain crops made important inroads into the tobacco culture of the Chesapeake, causing a change in settlement patterns.
    G.    Trade and the Lower South
    The Lower South experienced several economic fluctuations.
    H.    Georgia
    Founded in 1732, Georgia served as a haven for debtors and as a garrison colony to protect England’s southernmost claims on the North American mainland.
       
        IV.    Colonial Cultures

    A.    Genteel Culture
    Well-to-do Americans formed the core of a genteel elite that constructed a culture different from that of the seventeenth century and from that of ordinary colonists in the eighteenth century.
    B.    Education
    Men from wealthy families prided themselves on their level of education and their intellectual connections to Europe.
    C.    The Enlightenment
    In the eighteenth century, Europeans’ fascination with natural law led to an emphasis on acquiring knowledge through reason. This movement¾known as the Enlightenment¾ affected American culture and politics, particularly among the elite.
    D.    Contract Theory of Government
    John Locke and other Enlightenment philosophers advanced the theory that governments were created by men and existed for the good of the people. A ruler who did not fulfill his contract with the people could be ousted from power.
    E.    Oral Cultures
    The majority of British Americans could not read, and conversation provided the primary means of communication. Consequently, the exchange of information remained slow and restricted.
    F.    Religious Rituals
    Many cultural identities grew out of public rituals, including attendance at church. These gatherings reinforced local attitudes, mores, and hierarchies.
    G.    Civic Rituals
    Important public rituals included church festivals, militia musters, and, especially in the Chesapeake, court days and political events.
    H.    Rituals of Consumption
    The growth of prosperity led to shopping and conspicuous consumption.
    I.    Importance of Tea
    Tea drinking was an important consumption ritual.
    J.    Rituals on the “Middle Ground”
    Relations with Indians led to innovative rituals, including those relating to trade, crimes, and punishment.
       
        V.    Colonial Families

    A.    Indian Families
    Pressure from European settlers forced most Indians to change their traditional marriage views and roles.
    B.    Mixed-Race Families
    Sexual liaisons occurred among European men and Indian women, producing a mixed-race population.  The offspring of mixed unions were generally accepted in New France and in the Anglo-American backcountry but were considered degraded individuals in the Spanish Borderlands.
    C.    European-American Families
    In these more stable households, men held dominion over family external affairs but women ruled the home.
    D.    African-American Families
    The shape of African-Americans’ family lives were determined by the setting in which African Americans lived.
    E.    Running Away and Other Forms of Resistance
    Since slavery existed in all of the English colonies, slaves had few options if they considered running away. The extended family helped African Americans deal with the uncertainties associated with the institution of slavery, and slave families struggled to gain some sort of autonomy.
    F.    Life in the Cities
    Urban dwellers had much more contact with the outside world than their rural counterparts, but sometimes the benefits of city life were overshadowed by epidemics.
       
        VI.    Politics: Stability and Crisis in British America

    A.    Rise of the Assemblies
    American political leaders sought to exert influence through increasingly important assemblies.
    B.    Interpretations of the Assemblies
    By the middle of the century, Americans expressed a belief in balanced government, and they viewed the assembly as the representative of the people.
    C.    Stono Rebellion
    The first in a series of colonial crises occurred with the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina in 1739, an uprising that led to stiffer laws regarding slaves.
    D.    New York Conspiracy
    News of the Stono Rebellion was one factor that led to fears in New York of a conspiracy to foment a slave insurrection.
    E.    Land Riots in New Jersey and New York
    Growing competition for good farmland resulted in a number of violent disputes in New Jersey and along the Hudson River.
    F.    Regulators in the Carolinas
    In the Carolinas, frontier people’s unhappiness with the colonial governments led to violence in the 1760s and 1770s.
       
       

    VII.    A Crisis in Religion

    A.    The First Great Awakening
    The most widespread crisis took a religious form, called the Great Awakening, that began in Massachusetts and spread throughout the colonies by the 1760s.
    B.    New England and the Great Awakening
    The Great Awakening began in New England and was furthered by the preaching of Jonathan Edwards.
    C.    George Whitefield
    George Whitefield, a Methodist minister from England, played a key role in spreading the excitement of the Great Awakening.
    D.    Impact of the Awakening
    Many congregations splintered as a result of the Awakening, but the revival also introduced a strain of egalitarianism to the colonies. The religious experience thus had vast consequences as it helped break Americans’ ties to their seventeenth-century origins.

    E.    Virginia Baptists

    These religious dissenters challenged the status quo in Virginia by condemning the lifestyle of the gentry and by preaching equality of races in the eyes of the church.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - Severing the Bonds of Empire, 1754-1774

    I.    Introduction

    An ever-widening split developed between America and England. The Seven Years’ War played an important role in events, because the absence of the French altered relations between colonials and the English. Also, Britain levied taxes to pay for the war, and resistance to those taxes brought on the movement for independence.

        II.    Renewed Warfare Among Europeans and Indians

    A.    Iroquois Neutrality
    During Queen Anne’s War and King George’s War, the Iroquois skillfully maintained their neutrality. Conflict over the region west of the Iroquois, however, touched off a war that spread from the colonies to Europe.
    B.    Albany Congress
    In response to the French threat to the west, delegates from seven colonies met in Albany, New York, in 1754. They failed to create an Iroquois alliance against the French and they could not coordinate colonial defenses.
    C.    Seven Years’ War
    William Pitt enacted policies that brought about a British victory. As a result of the Treaty of Paris, England gained Canada and Florida, and French holdings west of the Mississippi went to Spain.
    D.    American Soldiers
    The war meant that many Americans had their first prolonged contact with Englishmen, an experience that taught them that the British were haughty and disrespectful.
       
        III.    1763: A Turning Point

    A.    Neolin and Pontiac
    Angered over British policy, an Ottawa war chief named Pontiac accepted ideas expressed by the shaman Neolin and led a violent uprising against western forts and settlements. The Indians, defeated in battle at Bushy Run, Pennsylvania, negotiated a treaty in 1766.
    B.    Proclamation of 1763
    Pontiac’s war showed the English the difficulties they faced in governing their new territories, and Parliament outlawed any settlement beyond the Appalachians.
    C.    George III
    George III, a man of mediocre intelligence and mediocre education, was an erratic judge of character. He chose George Grenville as prime minister in 1763, and assigned him the task of finding a way to pay the huge debt incurred by the British government in the Seven Years’ War. Grenville believed the Americans should bear more of the cost of running the empire.
    D.    Theories of Representation
    The English believed that Parliament collectively represented the people, while Americans advocated individual representation. Americans also preferred limited government, but many Englishmen insisted on tighter controls.
    E.    Real Whigs
    Americans identified themselves with theorists opposing centralized governments.
    F.    Sugar and Currency Acts
    Many Americans believed that the Sugar and Currency Acts revealed the potential threat from the government. Still, the laws met with feeble resistance in the colonies.
       
        IV.    The Stamp Act Crisis

    A.    James Otis’s Rights of the British Colonies
    James Otis, Jr., cogently argued that Americans had to obey English laws, and many prepared reluctantly to accept the Stamp Act.
    B.    Patrick Henry and the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves
    Patrick Henry proposed a series of resolutions protesting Parliament’s policy toward the colonies. Passed in a limited form, they revealed the difficulty Americans faced in working out their relationship to Parliament.

    C.    Continuing Loyalty to Britain
    Despite the clamor and protests, most American remained loyal British subjects.
    D.    Loyal Nine
    In 1765, a Boston social club organized a demonstration against the Stamp Act that succeeded in getting Andrew Oliver to promise not to collect the tax. This victory encouraged a more violent demonstration against the governor, which met with general disapproval.
    E.    Americans’ Divergent Interests
    The colonial elite wanted effective, but controlled, protest against unpopular laws. Many people, however, felt empowered as they demonstrated, and they expressed themselves in ways that often threatened local leaders.
    F.    Sons of Liberty
    In an effort to channel resistance into an acceptable form, merchants and artisans created the Sons of Liberty to protest the Stamp Act.
    G.    Repeal of the Stamp Act
    Lord Rockingham withdrew the Stamp Act because he thought it was unwise and divisive, but to ensure the power of Parliament he also saw to passage of the Declaratory Act.
       
        V.    Resistance to the Townshend Acts

    A.    James Dickinson’s Farmer’s Letters
    In these widely published essays, Dickinson contended that Parliament could regulate trade but could not do so for the purpose of raising a revenue.
    B.    Massachusetts Assembly Dissolved
    The Massachusetts assembly responded to the Townshend Acts with a suggestion of joint protest. When representatives refused to follow Governor Francis Bernard’s order to recall the Circular Letter, he dissolved the assembly.
    C.    Daughters of Liberty
    Women took an active role in the resistance by creating the Daughters of Liberty. They also performed public rituals, such as spinning cloth and denouncing tea, as expressions of their support for the American cause.
    D.    Divided Opinion over Boycotts
    Differing economic interests led to a split in the alliance that had reacted to the Stamp Act. In response to the Townshend Duties artisans mounted successful boycotts, but their use of coercion angered many Americans.
    E.    Repeal of the Townshend Duties
    A new prime minister, Lord North, persuaded Parliament to revoke duties on trade within the empire. The Tea Tax and the other Townshend Acts remained in force, but the repeal of taxes appeared to make the laws less offensive.
       
        VI.    Confrontations in Boston

    A.    Boston Massacre
    On March 5, 1770, a group of soldiers facing an unruly crowd opened fire and killed five Bostonians. Patriot leaders used this “massacre” as effective propaganda, but they also worked to ensure a fair trial to keep the soldiers from becoming martyrs for the loyalist cause.
    B.    A British Plot?
    Patriot writers editorialized that Britain planned the political enslavement of America.
    C.    Samuel Adams
    This outspoken patriot worked to build anti-British consensus in Massachusetts.
    D.    Boston Committee of Correspondence
    When the North ministry took steps to enforce the Townshend Acts, Boston Patriots created a Committee of Correspondence to publicize the move. The Committee sought to establish a consensus that recognized the need to protect American liberties.

    VII.        Tea and Turmoil

    A.    Tea Act
    In May of 1773, Parliament approved a tea tax designed to save the East India Company from bankruptcy. Patriots feared the subtle implications of the law.
    B.    The Boston Tea Party
    In Boston, protesters “disguised” as Indians dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor.
    C.    Coercive and Quebec Acts
    Parliament responded to the Tea Party by passing four Coercive, or Intolerable, Acts to punish Boston and Massachusetts. At the same time, Parliament approved a bill that allowed the Catholic Church and French Civil Law in Quebec, while also increasing the size of that territory.
    D.    Implications of the Coercive Acts
    Americans became convinced that the British planned to deprive them of their liberty.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - A Revolution, Indeed, 1774-1783

    I.    Introduction

    The American Revolution required patriot leaders to establish a coalition in favor of independence, to gain foreign recognition, and to triumph over the British army.

        II.    Government by Congress and Committee

    A.    First Continental Congress
    The Congress had to define its grievances and define a plan of resistance. A third goal¾outlining constitutional relations with England¾proved more troublesome.
    B.    Declaration of Rights and Grievances
    Delegates declared that the colonies would obey bona fide acts of Parliament. Americans would not condone taxes in disguise, and Congress enacted a boycott of England and demanded nonexportation of American goods.
    C.    Committees of Observation
    Congress called for the creation of committees of observation and inspection to enforce its economic proposals. These committees became de facto governments.
    D.    Provincial Conventions
    By the early spring of 1775, many colonial governments collapsed in the face of patriot challenges to their authority.
       
        III.    Choosing Sides: Loyalists, African Americans, and Indians

    A.    Loyalists
    About 20 percent of Americans recognized dangers in resistance and remained loyal to England. One thing that loyalists had in common was their opposition to men who became patriot leaders.
    B.    Patriots and Neutrals
    Those who became active revolutionaries constituted about 40 percent of the population and came primarily from those who had dominated colonial society.  Another 40 percent chose to be neutral and, along with loyalists, suffered persecution at the hands of the patriots.
    C.    The Slaves’ Dilemma
    Slaves generally sought to escape their bondage by supporting the English. The fear of slave uprisings shaped events in the Caribbean and on the mainland.
    D.    Slavery and Revolutionary Fervor
    Colonies with the highest percentages of African Americans expressed the lowest support for the revolution.
    E.    Indians’ Grievances
    By 1775, Indians felt great resentment and bitterness toward Americans’ aggressive expansionism. Both the British and the Americans sought to maintain Indian neutrality rather than active participation in the war.
    F.    Indians During the Revolution
    Some Shawnee and Cherokee tribes attacked settlements, but the Indians suffered defeat. The Iroquois, like most tribes, followed policies of nonalignment.
       
        IV.    War and Independence

    A.    Battles of Lexington and Concord
    General Thomas Gage moved to confiscate weapons the patriots held. Militiamen awaiting the British at Lexington and Concord drove the troops back to Boston with heavy losses.
    B.    First Year of War
    Both sides used a year-long lull in the fighting to plan their future strategies.
    C.    British Strategy
    British leaders assumed, erroneously, that the Americans would not stand up to professional troops, that the English could fight a conventional war, and that military victory would win the war.
    D.    Second Continental Congress
    The Second Continental Congress quickly moved to establish a viable government. One of its most important decisions resulted in the Continental Army.
    E.    George Washington: A Portrait of Leadership
    George Washington, commander-in-chief of the army, had attributes essential to an American victory: moral integrity, physical stamina, and intense patriotism.
    F.    British Evacuation of Boston
    The arrival of American cannon convinced Sir William Howe to evacuate Boston.
    G.    Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
    Thomas Paine stridently attacked English mistreatment of the colonies, and he unequivocally advocated creation of an independent republic. His popular book helped many Americans accept separation from Britain.
    H.    Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of Independence
    Congress approved Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence, which contained a list of grievances against George III and a stirring statement of American political ideals.
       
        V.    The Long Struggle in the North

    A.    Loss of New York
    The American’s faced potential disaster in defending New York. Although Washington deserted the city, he managed to hold the core of the army together.
    B.    Battles in New Jersey
    British plundering of New Jersey rallied many reluctant Americans to the patriot cause and convinced Washington to strike. Victories at Trenton and Princeton cheered American spirits as the army settled in for the winter.
    C.    The American Army
    The Continental Army included white and black troops, augmented by short-term militiamen. Officers developed a powerful sense of pride and commitment to their cause.
    D.    Planning the 1777 Campaign
    General John Burgoyne planned a three-pronged invasion of New York that required close cooperation between all commanders but gave Burgoyne the glory.
    E.    Howe Takes Philadelphia
    Ignoring Burgoyne’s plan and operating independently, Howe moved against Philadelphia in 1777, but logistical delays and American resistance prevented him from gaining any real advantage when he captured the city in September.
    F.    Burgoyne’s Campaign in New York
    General John Burgoyne suffered a disastrous defeat in 1777. He hoped to divide the colonies by marching through New York, but he was forced to surrender with 6,000 men near Saratoga on October 17.
    G.    Split of the Iroquois Confederacy
    The Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777, revealed a split in the 300-year-old Iroquois Confederacy. Despite pledges of neutrality, several tribes supported the British; others fought for the Americans.
    H.    Franco-American Alliance of 1778
    The victory at Saratoga led to French recognition of American independence, and a Treaty of Alliance brought France into the war in support of the new nation.

        VI.    The Long Struggle in the South

    A.    British Victories in South Carolina
    Charleston fell in May 1780, but the English never really established control over South Carolina, and they remained vulnerable to the French navy.
    B.    Greene and the Southern Campaign
    Nathanael Greene assumed command of American forces in South Carolina, and he instituted effective policies toward the British, loyalists, and Indians.

        VII.    Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris

    A.    Surrender at Yorktown
    Lord Cornwallis led his troops into Virginia and encamped at Yorktown, where American and French operations forced him to surrender.
    B.    The Cost of Victory
    Over 25,000 American men lost their lives in the war, the South’s economy was shattered, and indebtedness soared.
    C.    Treaty of Paris
    The war ended with a treaty signed on September 3, 1783. England recognized independence, accepted the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi River, Canada, and Florida as the American boundaries, and gave up fishing rights off of Newfoundland.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - Forging a National Republic, 1776-1789

    I.    Introduction

    Americans sought to establish a republic based on the concepts of a representative government and a virtuous citizenry. Problems existed, however, because people understood the fragility of republics and they realized many problems needed resolution to ensure the survival of the nation.

    II.    Creating a Virtuous Republic

    A.    Varieties of Republicanism
    Three definitions of republicanism emerged in the United States: one based on classical political thinking, one that emphasized rational self-interest, and one that called for broad popular participation.
    B.    Virtue and the Arts
    Americans expected the republic to replace the corruption of Europe, and the fine arts reflected people’s faith in virtue.
    C.    Educational Reform
    Education served to inculcate virtue. In the North, public schools emerged, and, throughout the nation, educational opportunities for girls improved.
    D.    Judith Sargent Murray and Women’s Education
    Judith Sargent Murray argued that women and men had the same intellectual capabilities. Her contentions reflected a postrevolutionary rethinking of traditional gender roles.
    E.    Abigail Adams: “Remember the Ladies”
    Abigail Adams advocated legal reform to protect the rights of married women. Others wanted female suffrage.
    F.    Women’s Role in the Republic
    In the young republic, women assumed great responsibility for the welfare of the community. This role allowed men to pursue more individualistic goals.
       
        III.    The First Emancipation and the Growth of Racism

    A.    Emancipation and Manumission
    In the North, states outlawed slavery, but representatives favored gradual emancipation. In the South, legislators approved some reforms in the legal status of slaves, but slavery remained entrenched.
    B.    Growth of Free Black Population
    Before the Revolution, there had been few free blacks, but by 1800 nearly 108,000 of them lived in the United States. Many of the African Americans migrated to northeastern cities.
    C.    Migration to Northern Cities
    Free blacks often made their way to northern cities.
    D.    Freed People’s Churches and Associations
    Free blacks faced pervasive discrimination, leading them to create their own economic and social institutions.
    E.    Development of Racist Theory
    To defend slavery in light of the Revolutionary idea that all men were equal, southerners developed theories on the inherent inferiority of Africans and African Americans.
    F.    A Republic for White Men Only
    Some scholars believe that racism emerged in the new republic because discrimination against blacks enhanced the sense of equality for whites.
       
        IV.    Designing Republican Governments

    A.    Drafting of State Constitutions
    Reflecting their colonial experience, writers of state constitutions emphasized the limits of power.
    B.    Limits on State Government
    Framers put deliberate and clear limits on the powers of their executives.
    C.    Rewriting the State Constitutions
    In the mid-1780s, some political leaders began to embody theory of checks and balances and the primary means of controlling government power.
    D.    Articles of Confederation
    The Articles of Confederation established an unwieldy, sometimes inefficient government.

        V.    Trials of the Confederation

    A.    Inflation and Taxation
    Finances provided great difficulty for governments. Paper money retained its value until 1776 but suffered severe devaluation by the end of the war.
    B.    Inability to Regulate Commerce
    The Confederation Congress was denied the power to establish a national commercial policy.
    C.    Relations with Spain and Britain
    When Spain closed the Mississippi to American navigation, U.S. leaders failed to agree on a national reaction. Furthermore, Congress could not enforce total compliance by Great Britain with the Treaty of Paris.

        VI.    Order and Disorder in the West

    A.    Relations with the Indians
    The United States signed a series of treaties with the Indians in order to validate government claims to tribal lands. Many tribes accepted these agreements only in the face of America’s overwhelming power.
    B.    Ordinances of 1784 and 1785
    These ordinances outlined the process through which land in the Northwest Territory could be sold and formal governments organized.
    C.    Northwest Ordinance
    The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 was the most important of the three land policies passed by the Confederation Congress.
    D    War in the Old Northwest
    An Indian confederacy under Little Turtle scored major victories over American troops in 1790 and 1791. An Indian defeat at Fallen Timbers led to a treaty that opened up much of Ohio to settlement, but the accord also protected some Indian claims.

        VII.    From Crisis to the Constitution

    A.    Economic Change
    The inability of Congress to deal with economic concerns led Virginia and Maryland to call a convention to discuss trade policy.
    B.    Annapolis Convention
    A meeting in Annapolis investigated changes to the Articles of Confederation, but failed because of a lack of participation forcing a call for a new convention the following year.
    C.    Shays’s Rebellion
    This armed rebellion in Massachusetts convinced doubters that reform was necessary.
    D.    Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia
    Delegates to the Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia, were generally reform-minded property owners.
    E.    James Madison: Father of the Constitution
    James Madison gained recognition as the Father of the Constitution. Well-prepared when he arrived in Philadelphia, he set forth the fundamental concepts of checks and balances.
    F.    Virginia and New Jersey Plans
    Virginians wanted a powerful central government. The New Jersey delegation advocated a limited national authority. The convention spent much of its time reconciling these positions.
    G.    The Debates: Houses of Congress
    The issue of representation and election complicated debate over a bicameral legislature.
    H.    The Debates: Slavery and Representation
    Delegates accepted a “three-fifths clause” to define the place of slaves in regards to taxation and representation.
    I.    Constitutional Protections for Slavery
    This compromise, and other provisions, implicitly recognized the institution of slavery.
    J.    The Presidency
    Foreign affairs, the military, and federal appointments became the domain of a chief executive, the President, chosen by the electoral college.
    K.    Separation of Powers
    Separation of powers between the branches and levels of government is the essential element of the Constitution.
       
    VIII.    Opposition and Ratification

    A.    Federalists
    Ratification required the approval of special conventions in at least nine states. Those who favored the Constitution called themselves Federalists¾the opposition became Antifederalists.
    B.    Antifederalists
    Opponents of the Constitution feared the threat it posed to the states and to the people. They advocated a bill of rights to protect individual liberties.
    C.    Importance of a Bill of Rights
    Opponents of the Constitution believed the document needed guarantees of certain rights.
    D.    Ratification of the Constitution
    The arguments presented in The Federalist and the promise of a bill of rights led to ratification of the Constitution with New York’s approval on July 26, 1788.
    E.    Celebrating Ratification
    Parades in many cities to celebrate ratification of the Constitution also served as political lessons for both literate and illiterate Americans.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - The Early Republic: Conflicts at Home and Abroad, 1789-1800

    I.    Introduction

    Americans assumed that the Constitution would create consensus, but the nation still faced political, economic, and diplomatic questions that led to partisan politics during the 1790s.
       
        II.    Building a Workable Government

    A.    Tasks of the First Congress
    The First Congress had the tasks of raising money, creating a bill of rights, setting up the executive departments, and organizing the federal judiciary.
    B.    Madison and the First Congress
    James Madison persuaded Congress to adopt the Revenue Act of 1789. Madison also took the lead in presenting the constitutional amendments that came to be called the Bill of Rights.
    C.    Bill of Rights
    The states ratified ten amendments, which became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791.
    D.    Executive Branch
    Congress organized the executive branch with three main departments¾War, State, and Treasury¾and granted the President the authority to dismiss appointed officials.
    E.    Federal Judiciary
    The Judiciary Act established a Supreme Court, defined federal jurisdiction, created district and appeals courts, and allowed for appeals from state courts to federal courts.

    III.    Domestic Policy Under Washington and Hamilton

    A.    Washington’s First Steps
    Washington understood the importance his actions would have as precedents, and moved cautiously at first.
    B.    Alexander Hamilton
    Hamilton’s zeal had attracted the favor of Washington, who appointed him Secretary of the Treasury. Nationalism and cynicism shaped Hamilton’s policies.
    C.    National and State Debts
    Hamilton wanted the government to repay its debt at full value and to assume the war debts of the states.
    D.    Hamilton’s Financial Plan
    Hamilton hoped to extend the authority of the national government and gain the support of securities holders.
    E.    First Bank of the United States
    Hamilton advocated a national bank, touching off an intense constitutional debate. His brilliant defense of what became known as “broad constructionism” eventually assured creation of the bank.
    F.    Strict and Broad Constructions of the Constitution
    The actions of the Washington administration led to debates over the authority of Congress to pass laws not specifically authorized by the Constitution.
    G.    Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures
    Hamilton’s Report outlined a plan intended to encourage and protect the nation’s infant industries.  The report was rejected by Congress.
    H.    Whiskey Rebellion
    When farmers protested a federal tax on whiskey, which they distilled from their grain, Washington forcefully demonstrated the strength of the national government.

        IV.    The French Revolution and the Development of Partisan Politics

    A.    Democratic-Republicans and Federalists
    Supporters of Hamilton and Jefferson gradually divided into opposing camps.
    B.    The French Revolution
    The U.S. divided as observers welcomed republicanism to Europe but recoiled at its excesses. Commercial interests tied the U.S. to Great Britain, enemy of the revolution.
    C.    Citizen Genêt
    Disagreements over the American response to the French Revolution led to partisanship. Still, both sides agreed that the United States should remain impartial when Citizen Edmund Genêt called on President Washington.
    D.    Democratic-Republican Societies
    Democratic-Republican Societies expressed opposition to administration policies and thereby generated the first formal political dissent in the United States.

    V.    Partisan Politics and Relations with Great Britain

    A.    Jay Treaty
    In 1794, John Jay negotiated a treaty with Great Britain in an effort to resolve several differences between the two nations. The treaty faced strong opposition, but eventually won the approval of Congress.
    B.    Partisan Divisions in Congress
    Politicians in the U.S. witnessed the evolution of political parties.
    C.    Bases of Partisanship
    Democratic-Republicans, generally from the southern and middle states, tended to be optimistic, to espouse democracy, and to embrace individualism. Federalists, mostly from New England, expressed more fears for the future and tended to come from the commercial class.
    D.    Washington’s Farewell Address
    As he left office, Washington encouraged Americans to maintain commercial ties but not political relations with other nations and to avoid permanent alliances. He also expressed sorrow over factional divisions within the republic. In effect, Washington was calling on his fellow countrymen to rally behind the Federalist banner and to reject the Democratic-Republicans in the upcoming elections.
    E.    Election of 1796
    Federalist John Adams won the presidency in 1796, but the constitutional means of determining a vice president led to the election of Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican.

        VI.    John Adams and Political Dissent

    A.    XYZ Affair
    When Americans learned that French agents had demanded a bribe of American negotiators, anti-French sentiment swept the United States.
    B.    Quasi-War with France
    The U.S. fought an undeclared naval war with France, mostly in Caribbean waters.
    C.    Alien and Sedition Acts
    Federalists hoped to capitalize politically on Americans’ anger toward France by passing four laws to suppress dissent and limit the growth of the Republican Party.
    D.    Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
    Jefferson and Madison responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts by claiming that since a compact among the states created the Constitution, the states could review the constitutionality of federal actions.
    E.    Convention of 1800
    A meeting between French and American diplomats ended the Quasi-War.
    F.    Election of 1800
    In the 1800 election, electoral procedures resulted in a tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr. After 35 ballots, the lame-duck, Federalist-dominated House of Representatives finally settled the election in favor of Jefferson.

        VII.    Race Relations at the End of the Century

    A.    “Civilizing” the Indians
    The Indian Trade and Intercourse Act of 1793 was a well-intentioned plan to “civilize” Native Americans, but the plan ignored the cultural traditions of the eastern Indian peoples.
    B.    Iroquois and Cherokees
    The Cherokees adapted some of the teachings of Quaker missionaries to their own culture. Iroquois culture, due largely to the influence of Handsome Lake, adapted to European patterns to survive changed circumstances.
    C.    African Americans and Ideas of Freedom
    Like the Indians, Africans Americans adapted the dominant society’s ideas to their own circumstances.
    D.    Gabriel’s Rebellion
    Gabriel Prosser led an unsuccessful revolt in Virginia that he hoped would bring equality for African Americans.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - Defining the Nation, 1801-1823

    I.    Introduction

    Thomas Jefferson’s inauguration heralded a change from the Federalist-controlled government that had preceded. The nation’s political system became better defined and its nationalistic and international positions grew clearer over the next 15 years.
       
        II.    The Jefferson Presidency and the Marshall Court

    A.    Jefferson’s Inaugural
    In his inaugural address, Jefferson tried to heal the wounds of the 1800 campaign by appealing to the electorate as citizens with shared common beliefs.
    B.    Democratic-Republican Ascendancy
    Jefferson refused to recognize any of Adams’s late-term Federalist appointments and where possible filled government positions with loyal Democratic-Republicans. Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, cut the federal budget and moved to reduce the national debt.
    C.    War on the Judiciary
    Jefferson had Congress repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801. The Democratic-Republican Congress also impeached and removed Federal District Judge John Pickering. They could not, however, remove Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.
    D.    John Marshall
    As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall upheld federal supremacy over the states and protected the interests of commerce and capital. Under Marshall, the Court became an equal branch of the government.
    E.    Marbury v. Madison
    In this case, John Marshall ended criticism that the Supreme Court functioned as a partisan instrument. He also advanced the concept of judicial review, enhancing the independence of the judiciary.

        III.    Louisiana and Lewis and Clark

    A.    Louisiana
    Spain’s decision to deny Americans the right to store their products at New Orleans prior to transshipment to foreign markets and the subsequent transfer of the Louisiana Territory to the French, threatened the American economy.
    B.    Louisiana Purchase
    James Monroe joined Robert Livingston in France with orders to buy New Orleans. Napoleon offered all 827,000 square miles of the Territory to the United States for fifteen million dollars.
    C.    Lewis and Clark
    Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were commissioned by President Jefferson to head an exploratory expedition to the Pacific coast.
    D.    Corps of Discovery
    The Corps of Discovery was a diverse groups consisting of immigrants, Clark’s slave York, the French Canadian trader Toussaint Charbonneau and his Shoshone wife, Sacagawea. The expedition brought valuable information on the West to an expansion-minded United States.
    E.    Exploration of the West
    Zebulon Pike’s wanderings led him to tour and describe Spanish holdings.

        IV.    Political Factionalism and Jefferson’s Reelection

    A.    A New Style of Campaigning
    Popular campaigning and political organization would become an essential part of the new style of democracy. Several younger Federalists decided to emulate the political style of the Democratic-Republicans.
    B.    Grassroots Electioneering
    The new style of campaign was symbolized by political barbecues. Federalists, however, never mastered the art of campaigning.
    C.    Hamilton-Burr Duel
    In American politics in the early nineteenth century, divisiveness and personal animosities were as strong a force as ideology. And, as seen in the Hamilton-Burr duel, political disagreements sometimes erupted into violence. In the famous duel, Burr killed Hamilton. Burr then conspired to create a political empire in the Southwest. Tried for treason, he was acquitted and fled to Europe.
    D.    Jefferson’s Reelection
    Jefferson carried 15 of 17 states in the 1804 election.
    E.    Indian Resistance
    F.    The Prophet
    Before the War of 1812, Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Prophet attempted to create an Indian federation. Prophet (Lalawethika) claimed to have returned from the dead, and he encouraged Indians not to fear whites.
    G.    Tecumseh
    Prophet and Tecumseh encouraged resistance. Tecumseh turned Prophet’s religious message into a political one and traveled widely in an attempt to unify northern and southern Indians.

        V.    American Neutrality Imperiled by a World at War

    A.    Impressment of American Sailors
    Britain resorted to stopping American ships to remove deserters, although many of them had become American citizens.
    B.    Chesapeake Affair
    In 1807, the crew of the H. M. S. Leopard attacked and boarded the U.S.S. Chesapeake in American waters. The incident led many Americans to demand war, but Jefferson responded instead with “peaceable coercion.”
    C.    Embargo Act
    The Embargo of 1807 forbade virtually all exports from the United States and became extremely unpopular as the American economy collapsed.
    D.    Election of 1808
    Jefferson, emulating Washington, declined a third term leading to the contested nomination of Democratic-Republican James Madison who later won the election.
    E.    Non-Intercourse Act
    The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 resumed trade with all countries except Britain and France. In 1810, Congress substituted Macon’s Bill Number 2, which Napoleon used to trick the United States into declaring non-intercourse with Great Britain.

        VI.    Commerce and Industry

    A.    Stimulants to Industry
    After 1807 embargoes and war stimulated domestic manufacturing.
    B.    Waltham or Lowell System
    This system combined all manufacturing processes in a single location, thereby eliminating numerous problems for the textile industry. To find the people necessary to staff the mill at Waltham, inducements were offered to New England farm daughters and the managers accepted responsibility for their living conditions.
       
        VII.    The War of 1812

    A.    The Vote for War
    The War of 1812 revealed a deeply partisan Congress.
    B.    Recruiting an Army
    Payroll and supply problems hampered recruiting efforts in the West. Many Federalists considered the conflict to be “Mr. Madison’s War,” and raising an army in New England also proved difficult.
    C.    Invasion of Canada
    The British captured Fort Dearborn and turned back American troops north of Niagara and near Lake Champlain, thwarting American efforts to invade Canada.
    D.    Naval Battles
    The navy provided the only good news during the first year of the war; however, the British continued to rule the waves.
    E.    Great Lakes Campaign
    Oliver Hazard Perry’s victory gave the Americans control of Lake Erie and allowed William Henry Harrison’s forces to win the Battle of the Thames, killing Tecumseh and crushing Indian unity. However, in August 1814, the British occupied and burned Washington, D.C. In September 1814, the Americans held firm at Baltimore and Francis Scott Key wrote “The Star Spangled Banner.”
    F.    Campaign against the Creeks
    Andrew Jackson overcame problems with his own militia to defeat the Creek nation, annex most of their lands, and become a national hero.
    G.    Battle of New Orleans
    Andrew Jackson became a national hero when his troops defeated 6,000 British soldiers near New Orleans. Ironically, the battle occurred two weeks after diplomats had signed the Treaty of Ghent.
       
    VIII.    Peace and Consequences

    A.    Treaty of Ghent
    The treaty, signed on December 24, 1814, restored the status quo antebellum. European conflicts had ended, so both sides could afford to accept the accord.
    B.    Consequences of the War of 1812
    The war brought a sense of nationalism and isolationism to Americans, it destroyed Indian resistance, it exposed weaknesses in the national defense and transportation systems, it stimulated economic growth, and sealed the fate of the Federalists.
    C.    Hartford Convention
    Made up of Federalist delegates from New England, the convention that met in Hartford, Connecticut, in the winter of 1814-1815 endorsed radical changes to the constitution.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Nationalism, Expansion, and the Market Economy, 1816-1845

    I.    Introduction

    Early in the nineteenth century, Americans in increasing numbers moved inland from the seaboard. Developments in transportation, agriculture, manufacturing, and finance helped lead to a nationwide market economy.
       
        II.    Postwar Nationalism

    A.    Nationalist Program
    Congressional leadership called for government stimulation of industry, internal improvements, a national bank, and a protective tariff.
    B.    James Monroe
    Monroe was elected president in 1816 and continued Madison’s domestic program.
    C.    McCulloch v. Maryland
    John Marshall reaffirmed the power of the national government in this case regarding the Second Bank of the United States.
    D.    John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State
    John Quincy Adams served brilliantly as Secretary of State.
    E.    Adams-Onís Treaty
    The Adams- Onís Treaty called for Spain to cede Florida to the United States and defined the southwestern border of the Louisiana Territory. America assumed $5 million worth of claims against Spain and gave up claim to Texas.
    F.    Independent States in Latin America
    Between 1808 and 1822 a number of states in Latin America declared their independence from Spain. The U.S. feared that France would aid Spain by attempting to return these states to Spanish rule.
    G.    Monroe Doctrine
    The Monroe Doctrine demanded noncolonization in the hemisphere by European nations, nonintervention in the affairs of New World nations, and pledged noninterference by the United States in European affairs.
    H.    The Slavery Issue
    The slavery question resurfaced in 1819 when Missouri petitioned to enter the Union as a slave state, a more that would have pushed slavery farther northward and tilted the political balance in the Senate toward the slave states.
    I.    Missouri Compromise
    Henry Clay proposed the compromise that let Maine enter the Union as a free state and Missouri enter as a slave state.  The agreement prohibited slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of 36º 30’.

        III.    The Market Economy and Government’s Economic Role

    A.    Definition of a Market Economy
    The advent of the market economy, which encouraged specialization, meant that people could sell or purchase goods on the open market and then use the cash they received to purchase goods produced by other people.
    B.    Boom-and-Bust Cycles
    Economic growth proved uneven. Periods of contraction and deflation often countered times of prosperity.
    C.    Cause of Boom-and-Bust Cycles
    The new market economy was a direct cause of boom-and-bust cycles.
    D.    Government Economic Role
    Despite a belief in limited government, the federal government played an active role in technological and industrial growth.
    E.    Legal Foundations of Commerce
    Several Supreme Court cases provided a legal foundation for commerce and the market economy.
    F.    Corporations
    Federal and state courts encouraged the proliferation of corporations by granting limited liability to corporation owners.
    G.    Charles River Bridge Case
    The Court’s ruling in this case promoted individual enterprise and competition.
    H.    State’s Support for the Economy
    State governments surpassed the federal government in promoting the economy. Largely as a result of these efforts, the nation experienced uneven but sustained economic growth from the end of the War of 1812 to mid-century.

        IV.    Transportation Links

    A.    East-West Links
    Investments in roads, canals, and railroads caused northeastern seaboard cities to become the center of American commerce. New arteries opened east-west travel in the 1820s.
    B.    Canals
    The success of the Erie Canal sparked an explosion of canal construction. By 1840, more than 3,000 miles of canals had been built. High construction costs and a constricting economy caused an end to the canal era in the 1850s.
    C.    Railroads
    Railroad development started in the 1830s and quickly came to compete with canals. By 1850, there were more than 9,000 miles of track.
    D.    Reduction in Travel Time and Cost
    Improved transportation reduced travel time and shipping costs.

        V.    Commercial Farming

    A.    Northeastern Agriculture
    In response to problems such as soil erosion and competition from western farmers, many in the Northeast either moved west or went to work in factories. Those who stayed on their farms, however, successfully adapted to changing methods of agriculture.
    B.    Women’s Paid Labor
    The commercialization of agriculture meant that women’s earnings became essential for the survival of the family farm.
    C.    Mechanization of Agriculture
    Larger farms in the Old Northwest proved well suited to advances in agriculture. Using credit, farmers bought machinery, such as the McCormick Reaper, that increased production.
    D.    The Cotton South
    The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 led to the expansion of cotton production, making the South the world’s dominant supplier of cotton by 1825. The cotton boom caused the South to become even more dependent on slave labor.

        VI.    The Rise of Manufacturing and Commerce

    A.    American System of Manufacturing
    Americans contributed new manufacturing ideas, such as machine-made interchangeable parts and machinetools. Both innovations paved the way for the massive industrialization that occurred after the Civil War.
    B.    Textile Mills
    Textiles became the most important industry in the nation in the 1840s. The industry used machines, rather than workers, to spin yarn and weave cloth. Textile mills radically changed the face of New England.

    C.    Ready-made Clothing
    Advances in the textile industry had a profound effect on what Americans wore.
    D.    Retail Merchants
    Retail clothing stores appeared in the 1820s.
    E.    Specialization of Commerce
    Beginning with the cotton industry, commerce expanded in conjunction with manufacturing. Commercial specialization transformed brokers into powerful components of the market economy. In big cities, some traders became virtual merchant princes.
    F.    Banking and Credit Systems
    With reduced restrictions on banking after the fall of the Second Bank of the United States, numerous banks began operation. Free banking thus made credit and capital readily available, thus leading to rapid industrialization expansion.

        VII.    Workers and the Workplace

    A.    Boom and Bust in the Textile Mills
    Many teenage girls became factory workers because they wanted some degree of independence.  In the hard times from 1837 to 1842, the race for profits led to a deterioration of working conditions.
    B.    Protests
    Poor working conditions gave rise to organized protests and a concerted effort to lobby the government for labor laws.
    C.    Gender Divisions in Work
    The new market economy changed traditional gender relationships. Labor came to be defined in terms of wages rather than production. As a result, the unpaid labor of many women was devalued.
    D.    Changes in the Workplace
    The hierarchical control structure of the factory system worked to reduce independence and erode the republican virtues artisans had shared with the Revolutionary generation.
    E.    Labor Parties
    In response to changes in the workplace, some workers began to organize in an attempt to regain control of their work and their lives.
    F.    Emergence of a Labor Movement
    Although workers enjoyed some successes, such as overcoming the threat of conspiracy charges, permanent labor organizations proved difficult to maintain.
       
    VIII.    Americans on the Move

    A.    Westward Movement
    By 1850 two-thirds of Americans lived west of the Appalachians, and some five to ten percent of Americans moved each year.
    B.    The South
    After the 1820s the heart of cotton cultivation shifted from the coastal states to Alabama and the Mississippi valley.
    C.    Moves North and South
    A significant number of people moved from the Upper South to the Ohio Valley during the 1820s and 1830s. Hispanics in the Southwest continued to move north.
    D.    Land Grants and Sales
    Combining cheap land with easy credit gave farmers easy access to the western lands.
    E.    Credit
    Most economic activity in the West involved credit. Increasing land prices, speculation, and reduced incomes, however, meant that many westerners had to turn to tenancy.
    F.    Frontier Cities
    The expanding market economy led to urban growth in the West that complemented the vast westward movement. This development helped link the Northeast and the West.

        IX.    Native American Resistance and Removal

    A.    Treaty Making
    Although the federal government followed international protocol in entering into treaties with Indian leaders, treaty making was in reality simply a tactic to acquire Indian land.
    B.    Indians in the Market Economy
    As many Indian nations attempted to adjust to the market economy, they fell into a cycle of debt, land cessions, and dependency.
    C.    Shawnees
    The Shawnees typified Indian resistance. They had to move numerous times because of white encroachment, but they maintained their language and culture.
    D.    Assimilation and Education
    The government initially followed a policy of assimilating Native Americans through education and Christianity, but the pace of westward expansion continued to put Indian lands at risk.
    E.    Indian Removal as Federal Policy
    The southern tribes had maintained much of their land after the War of 1812. The government eventually forced these tribes to move to the West.
    F.    Cherokees
    The Cherokees faced removal when the state of Georgia declared sovereignty over them.
    G.    Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
    Chief John Ross successfully sued Georgia in federal court, but President Andrew Jackson ignored the decision.
    H.    Trail of Tears
    The government forced the southern Indians to move west, and nearly one-quarter of them died along the way.
    I.    Second Seminole War
    When Seminole Indians under the leadership of Osceola resisted removal, federal troops moved to subdue them. Eventually, many Seminoles migrated west, but a number of them remained in the Florida swamps.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Reform and Politics in the Age of Jackson, 1824-1845

    I.    Introduction
    The enormous transformation of the United States after the War of 1812 sparked a fervor for reform beginning in the 1830s.

    II.    From Revival to Reform

    A.    Second Great Awakening
    Religion motivated much of the social reform. The Second Great Awakening offered salvation through personal conversion to all people, regardless of theology. Revivalists also preached the doctrine of perfectibility in human society, which gave birth to many of the reform movements of the age.
    B.    Role of Women
    Women proved to be the most ardent supporters of evangelism and reform.
    C.    The Plight of Prostitutes
    McDowall’s report on prostitution in New York City caused women to revive the fight against prostitution. Women soon transformed the emotionalism of revivals into an enthusiasm for moral reform by establishing organizations such as the Female Moral Reform Society.
    D.    Temperance
    One of the earliest and strongest concerns for reform resulted in a campaign against the use of alcohol.
    E.    Temperance Societies
    Public associations against drinking led to a sharp decline in the use of alcohol.
    F.    Penitentiaries and Asylums
    Asylums and penitentiaries also came under scrutiny as reformers worked to improve these institutions.
       
        III.    Antimasonry

    A.    Morgan Affair
    William Morgan, a disillusioned Mason, published a book in 1826 exposing Masonic practice. His subsequent murder started the Antimasonry movement.
    B.    Convention System
    As Antimasons gained wider support, they organized politically, introducing the nominating convention.

        IV.    Abolitionism and the Women’s Movement

    A.    Black Abolitionists
    African Americans organized at least 50 abolitionist societies in the United States.
    B.    William Lloyd Garrison
    William Lloyd Garrison became one of the first white abolitionists to demand immediate emancipation.
    C.    Immediatists
    A number of reformers agreed with Garrison, and in their zeal they founded the American Antislavery Society.
    D.    Opposition to Abolitionists
    Many Americans responded violently to abolitionism.
    E.    Gag Rule
    In an effort to avoid answering abolitionist petitions, Congress passed the “gag rule” which automatically tabled such petitions from 1836 to 1844.
    F.    Women Abolitionists
    Women found they could take a more prominent role in the immediatist movement than in any previous reform.
    G.    Women’s Rights
    Women such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott compared their position in society to that of slaves.

        V.    Jacksonianism and Party Politics

    A.    End of the Caucus System
    Popular participation in politics led to the demise of nominating the president by Congressional caucus.
    B.    Election of 1824
    A supposed “corrupt bargain” led to the election of John Quincy Adams.
    C.    Election of 1828
    The Democratic Party became the first well-organized national political party as a result of Jackson’s leadership in this election.
    D.    Andrew Jackson
    Jackson, the first president from the West, gained his popularity from a lifetime of bold achievements.
    E.    Democrats
    The Democrats enjoyed widespread support and fostered a Jeffersonian agrarian viewpoint.
    F.    Jacksonians as Reformers
    Jacksonians considered themselves reformers by limiting the influence of government.

        VI.    Federalism at Issue: The Nullification and Bank Controversies

    A.    Tariff of Abominations
    The South opposed the Tariff of 1828 and referred to it as the Tariff of Abominations. To defend their interests against the power of the federal government, South Carolina’s political leaders used the doctrine of nullification.
    B.    Webster-Hayne Debate
    Daniel Webster of New Hampshire debated Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina in Congress on the issue of nullification in 1830.
    C.    Nullification Crisis
    When South Carolina nullified the Tariff of 1832, Jackson responded by issuing the Nullification Proclamation and by having Congress issue the Force Act. He also recommended tariff reduction, which temporarily ended the crisis.
    D.    Second Bank of the United States
    The rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States became the central issue in the 1832 election.
    E.    Jackson’s Second Term
    Jackson tried to ensure that the national bank would never be rechartered, and he deposited federal funds in “pet” state banks. Land speculation, however, soon threatened the economy.
    F.    Specie Circular
    Jackson’s “hard-money” policy that required payment in specie to buy federal lands failed to stop speculation.
    G.    Use of the Veto
    Jackson made the veto an effective tool for controlling Congress.

        VII.    The Whig Challenge and the Second Party System

    A.    Whigs and Reformers
    The Whig Party, which developed as an opposition party to President Jackson and the Democrats, sought to recharter the national bank, create an active federal government, and promote reform. Whig policies embodied the beliefs of many reformers.
    B.    Election of 1836
    In 1836 Democrat Martin Van Buren, enjoying broad-based support, won the presidency. Van Buren managed to head off the as-yet unorganized Whig opposition, but Congress had to decide the vice-presidential race.
    C.    Van Buren and Hard Times
    Just after the election of 1836, the American credit system collapsed. Van Buren’s hard money policies sent the economy spiraling downward.
    D.    William Henry Harrison and the Election of 1840
    The Whig William Henry Harrison emulated the methods of the Democrats to win the election of 1840. He died within a month of taking office, however, and John Tyler could not hold the support of Congressional Whigs.
    E.    Anglo-American Tensions
    The United States and Great Britain neared war over several issues in the late 1830s and early 1840s.

    VIII.    Manifest Destiny and Expansionism

    A.    Republic of Texas
    When Texas won independence from Mexico in 1836, many people sought annexation to the United States. The volatile slavery issue, however, prevented this action.
    B.    Oregon Fever
    In the early 1840s, thousands of settlers traveled west on the Oregon Trail.
    C.    James K. Polk and the Election of 1844
    Democrat James K. Polk won election over Henry Clay on a platform of the occupation of the entire Oregon territory and the annexation of Texas.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - People and Communities in the North and West, 1830-1860

    I.    Introduction

    Social and economic prospects in the United States brought thousands of immigrants to America’s shores between 1830 and 1860. At the same time, the expanding market economy led to numerous social changes.

        II.    Country Life

    A.    Farm Communities
    The farm village was the center of rural life. The social life of farm men and women consisted of trips to the market and meeting at such events as after-church dinners, prayer groups, and country bees. As people moved to towns and became wage earners and consumers, their daily lives were changed. Some people began to resist such changes by experimenting with cooperative rather than competitive environments.
    B.    Shakers
    The Shakers became one of the first groups of Americans to experiment with utopian communities.
    C.    Mormon Community of Saints
    The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints developed into the most successful communal group.
    D.    Brook Farm
    Brook Farm played a significant role in fostering a national literature.
    E.    Ralph Waldo Emerson
    Emerson was the prime mover of the American Renaissance and a cornerstone of the transcendental movement.

        III.    The West

    A.    Discovery of Gold
    Discovery of gold in 1848 led to the great California Gold Rush of 1849. Thousands went west to seek their fortunes, but most never found enough gold to pay their expenses.
    B.    Farming
    Since most of the gold seekers had to be fed, California experienced an agricultural boom.
    C.    Women Settlers
    Women constituted about one-seventh of the travelers on overland trails, and they found their domestic skills in high demand.

        IV.    City Life

    A.    New York City
    New York had a population of over 800,000 by 1860.
    B.    Urban Problems
    The rapid growth of nineteenth-century cities eventually forced city governments to take over public services.
    C.    Horace Mann and Public Schools
    Horace Mann helped generate widespread interest in a secular system of education.
    D.    Leisure
    Through organized social actives and associations, leisure in the city became a commodity to be purchased.
    E.    Reading
    The spread of mass education and the wide distribution of books and periodicals meant that Americans read more during their leisure time.
    F.    Theater
    The theater provided an important source of enjoyment for both men and women.
    G.    Minstrel Show
    Minstrel troupes traveled by city to city by the 1840s, but minstrel shows furthered racial divisions because of the stereotypical manner in which blacks were portrayed.
    H.    Sports
    Sports such as horse racing, boxing, and eventually baseball, became popular. City dwellers became less spontaneous, relying more on formal rules.
    I.    City Culture
    The growth of cities encouraged people to form private clubs and associations, while growing neighborhoods created distinctive youth cultures.
    J.    Urban Riots
    City dwellers often rioted, forcing many cities to establish professional police forces in response to the violence.

        V.    Extremes of Wealth

    A.    “If Not an Aristocracy”
    The egalitarian view of life in America diminished as a new aristocracy based on money and power emerged.
    B.    Urban Poverty
    Growing cities generated a large class of urban poor that resented labor competition from immigrants.
    C.    The Urban Elite
    The urban elite thrived in this period, often using inherited wealth to increase their power and riches.
    D.    The Middle Class
    A comfortable middle class existed in urban America and enjoyed the fruits of the expanding market economy. Separated from the urban elite and from the urban poor, they increasingly looked to the family and home as the core of middle-class life.

        VI.    Women, Families, and the Domestic Ideal

    A.    Supporting Families
    Many women viewed working in mills, department stores, or schools as temporary occupations before marriage. The poor, widows, and free African Americans, however, worked to support their families.
    B.    Idealizing the Family
    The family was idealized by middle-class Americans as a moral institution characterized by selflessness and cooperation. This view restricted the paying jobs deemed appropriate to middle-class women, with teaching being the one occupation that was suitable to the female role.
    C.    Decline in Family Size
    The birthrate declined, partly because in the market economy smaller families seemed more economical.
    D.    Limiting Families
    Americans employed several forms of contraception.
    E.    Single Men and Women
    Many women decided to remain single, pursue their own interests, and become independent.
       
        VII.    Immigrant Lives in America

    A.    Promotion of Immigration
    Numerous enterprises recruited immigrants to the United States, and most of the newcomers ended up in the cities.
    B.    Settling In
    Most immigrants gravitated toward cities. Scandinavians and Netherlanders generally settled in rural areas.
    C.    Immigrant Disenchantment
    Many immigrants grew dissatisfied with life in the United States, and thousands of them returned home.
    D.    Irish Immigrants
    Following the Potato Famine, more than 1 million Irish emigrants came to the United States. Most of them were Catholics who settled in the urban areas of the North.
    E.    Racial Ideas
    Non-British, non-European, non-Protestant people were often described in negative, racial terms by the white, Anglo-Saxon majority.
    F.    Anti-Catholicism
    Many people feared that emigrants subverted American values, leading to widespread anti-Catholicism and anti-Irish sentiment.
    G.    German Immigrants
    By 1854, Germans became the largest immigrant group. Most of them settled in small towns to preserve their cultural identities, but they also had major influences on cities such as Milwaukee and Cincinnati.
    H.    Hispanics
    Many Hispanics became Americans with the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, and the Gadsden Purchase. Their culture persisted, but they lost economic influence.
       
    VIII.    Free People of Color

    A.    African American Communities
    Black churches, literary societies, fraternal associations, and schools helped free blacks cope with their hardships.
    B.    Racial Exclusion and Segregation
    In the North, African Americans faced exclusion from or segregation in public places. They also suffered hiring and wage discrimination.
    C.    African American Women
    Because of their domestic skills, African American women found jobs more easily than African American men. However, they continued to bear the burden of gender stereotyping.
    D.    Black Nationalism
    Many free blacks felt frustration with the failure of abolitionism, and racial solidarity, self-help, and an interest in Africa characterized a black nationalism.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - People and Communities in a Slave Society: The South, 1830-1860

    I.    Introduction

    Between 1830 and 1860 the South developed into the world’s largest slaveholding society. Southerners¾white and black, slaveholders and nonslaveholders¾developed a culture quite different from their northern counterparts. Slavery influenced not only southern economics values, customs, and laws, but also the region’s relationship to the nation.
       
        II.    The “Peculiar” South?

    A.    South-North Similarity
    North and South were similar in geographic size. Both regions shared the experience of the American Revolution, had a common language, lived under the same Constitution, and believed in the American mission. Both regions also shared in the economic booms and busts of the nation.
    B.    South-North Dissimilarity
    North and South had different climates and growing seasons. The South emerged as an agrarian society with low population density and few of the amenities associated with urban life. The North was far ahead of the South in industrial growth.
    C.    A Southern World-View and the Proslavery Argument
    The southern world-view was one of its most peculiar characteristics. At the heart of the South’s defense of slavery was a deep and abiding racism.
    D.    A Slave Society
    By the 1830s the South had become a slave society as opposed to merely a society with slaves.
       
        III.    Free Southerners: Farmers, Planters, and Free Blacks

    A.    Yeoman Farmers
    Yeoman farmers made up the majority of the white southern population. Although a numerical majority, they did not control the political or economic direction of the South.
    B.    Yeoman Folk Culture
    Yeoman folk culture was based on family, church, and local region.
    C.    Yeoman Livelihoods
    John F. Flintoff serves as an example of a yeoman farmer who aspired to become a slave owner. Ferdinand L. Steel serves as an example of a more typical yeoman farmer. He never became a slaveowner, the family and religion remained the focus of his life.
    D.    Landless Whites
    Depending on the state, some 25 to 40 percent of white southerners owned no land.
    E.    Free Blacks
    The lives of free blacks were worse than that of yeomen and little better than that of slaves.
    F.    Free Black Communities
    In some regions the mulatto population was recognized as a distinct class, and in many southern cities free black communities formed.
    G.    Planters
    The planter class stood at the top of the social pyramid in the South.
    H.    Southern Paternalism
    Slaveholding men accepted a paternalistic ideology to justify their dominance of southern society.
    I.    Plantation Mistresses
    Women of the planter class were raised to be wives, mothers, and subordinate companions to men.
    J.    Marriage and Family
    Young white women often approached marriage and child-bearing with anxiety. Women also had to play “the ostrich game” with regard to sexual liaisons between white men and slave women.
       
        IV.    Slave Life and Labor

    A.    Slaves’ Everyday Conditions
    Although slaves usually received adequate nourishment, they had a plain and monotonous diet. They owned few clothes, and typically they lived in small, one-room cabins.
    B.    Slaves’ Work Routine
    Long hours in large work gangs characterized the slave work regime. Planters aimed to keep their hands busy all the time, but many slaves resisted overwork by slacking off whenever they could.
    C.    Violence Against Slaves
    Whippings occurred throughout the South, although generally more so on large farms than on small ones. The mental cruelty of slavery¾the hopeless sense of bondage and coercion with no hope for the future¾provided the cruelest element of the system.
    D.    Slave-Master Relationships
    Most slaves felt antagonism and hatred toward whites, feelings that bred resistance, bitterness, and distrust.
       
        V.    Slave Culture

    A.    African Cultural Survival
    African influence remained strong in the slave community, with slaves’ appearance, entertainment, and superstitions helping to provide them with a sense of their past.
    B.    Slaves’ Religion and Music
    Christianity offered slaves an important means of coping with bondage, and their faith helped them attain a sense of racial identity. Music, with its rhythm and with physical movement, became central to slaves’ religious experience.
    C.    The Slave Trade and Separation
    Family provided a central part of slaves’ existence, and they lived in the fear that members of their families might be sold to other masters.
    D.    The Black Family in Slavery
    Despite the fear of separation, slaves attempted and often succeeded in forming stable and healthy families.
       
        VI.    Slave Resistance and Rebellion

    A.    Strategies of Resistance
    Despite some examples of violent rebellions, most slaves practiced nonviolent forms of resistance, such as occasionally stealing food, negotiating for better working conditions, or temporarily running away.
    B.    Nat Turner’s Insurrection
    An educated black preacher, Nat Turner led a bloody but unsuccessful rebellion. In the aftermath of this rebellion, the state of Virginia held a legislative and public debate over the possibility of gradual emancipation.

        VII.    Harmony and Tension in a Slave Society

    A.    Slavery, Wealth, and Social Standing
    Slavery served as the basis of wealth and social standing, and the institution therefore had a profound influence on southern values and mores.
    B.    Aristocratic Values and Frontier Individualism
    The aristocratic values of lineage, privilege, pride, and refinement gained a substantial foothold among all levels of southern society. In the recently settled areas, however, frontier values of courage and self-reliance remained the norm.
    C.    Yeoman Demands for Political Reform
    In the 1820s and 1830s many small farmers worked to enact electoral and other reforms in the planter-dominated government. As a result, southern government became more democratic.
    D.    Antebellum White Class Relations
    Despite the unequal distribution of wealth, southern society suffered little class conflict.
    E.    Hardening of Class Lines
    After 1830, the gap between the classes widened. Although urban southerners suffered economic problems, planters remained relatively secure because of their control over government in the Old South.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - Slavery and America's Future: The Road to War, 1845-1861

        I.    Introduction
    Territorial expansion brought the slavery question once again to the forefront. This volatile issue gave rise to a new political party, the Republicans, and moved the nation closer to war.

        II.    The War with Mexico and Its Consequences

    A.    Oregon
    The Oregon Treaty of 1846 established the northernmost boundary of the Oregon County at the 49th parallel.
    B.    “Mr. Polk’s War”
    After failing in his attempt to buy land to the Pacific from Mexico, Polk waited for war. After Mexican cavalry struck against an American cavalry unit on the north side of the Rio Grande, Polk drafted a war message to Congress. Congress voted in favor of a declaration of war on May 13, 1846.
    C.    Foreign War and the Popular Imagination
    There were public celebrations that accompanied the declaration of war. It was seen as a fulfillment of Anglo-Saxon-Christian destiny.
    D.    Conquest
    Due to steady progress on the part of American forces, and after a daring invasion at Vera Cruz that led to the capture of Mexico City, the U.S. was victorious.
    E.    Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
    A treaty with Mexico gave the United States possession of California and the New Mexico Territory, and recognized the Rio Grande as the Texas border. The United States agreed to pay the claims of American citizens against Mexico and to give Mexico another $15 million.
    F.    “Slave Power Conspiracy”
    Many Northerners opposed the Mexican War, insisting that its causes could be found in a slaveholding oligarchy that intended to ensure the institution of slavery.
    G.    Wilmot Proviso
    Congressman David Wilmot proposed a bill that outlawed slavery in territories gained from Mexico, but his proposal failed in the Senate. The Proviso subsequently became a rallying cry for abolitionists.
    H.    The Election of 1848 and Popular Sovereignty
    Slavery in the territories emerged as the primary issue in the 1848 election. The Democrat Lewis Cass supported popular sovereignty, allowing Whig slaveholder Zachary Taylor to win the presidency with the Southern vote.
       
        III.    1850: Compromise or Armistice?

    A.    Compromise of 1850
    California’s request to enter the Union as a free state sparked the first major political conflict following the Mexican War. Although Henry Clay’s omnibus bill did not pass, each compromise measure gained congressional support.
    B.    Fugitive Slave Act
    An important facet of the compromise strengthened southerners’ ability to capture escaped slaves. Abolitionists sharply protested this law.
    C.    Uncle Tom’s Cabin
    Harriet Beecher Stowe’s book enthralled northerners by painting a portrait of the suffering of slaves, a portrayal that appalled white southerners.
    D.    The Underground Railroad
    Southerners were especially disturbed over the Underground Railroad.
    E.    Election of 1852 and the Collapse of Compromise
    Franklin Pierce’s victory gave southerners hope because he believed that each section’s rights should be defended and because he supported the Fugitive Slave Act. Those same stands appalled many northerners.

        IV.    Slavery Expansion and Collapse of the Party System

    A.    The Kansas-Nebraska Bill
    This bill, proposed by Stephen A. Douglas, exposed the complexity of popular sovereignty. Discord over the bill helped split the Whigs, and the party fell apart.
    B.    Birth of the Republican Party
    The Kansas-Nebraska Bill encouraged antislavery Whigs and Democrats, Free-Soilers, and other reformers to form the Republican Party, which grew rapidly in the North.
    C.    Know-Nothings
    The American Party, called Know-Nothings, started as an anti-immigrant party that exploited fears of foreigners.
    D.    Party Realignment and the Republicans’ Appeal
    The Republicans, Democrats, and Know-Nothings all sought to attract former Whigs. The Republicans appealed to those voters interested in internal improvements, federal land grants, higher tariffs, and the economic development of the West.
    E.    Republican Ideology
    To broaden their ideology beyond antislavery, the Republicans trumpeted “Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men.”
    F.    Southern Democrats
    Southern Democrats attracted slaveholders from among the former Whigs. The party used racial fears to keep the political alliance between yeomen and planters intact.
    G.    Bleeding Kansas
    When the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, thousands of proslavery and antislavery people poured into Kansas, leading to massive bloodshed in the territory.
       
        V.    Slavery and the Nation’s Future

    A.    Dred Scott Case
    This case ruled that blacks could not be citizens and that Congress had no power to bar slavery in the territories.
    B.    Abraham Lincoln on the Slave Power
    Lincoln stressed that slavery in the territories affected all citizens of the United States because if left unchecked slavery would soon grow into a nationwide institution.
    C.    The Lecompton Constitution
    Douglas’ stand against the Lecompton Constitution infuriated southern Democrats.
    D.    Stephen Douglas and the Freeport Doctrine
    During his 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign against Lincoln, Douglas insisted that territorial legislatures could effectively end slavery by not supporting it.

        VI.    Disunion

    A.    John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry
    Hoping to bring about a slave rebellion, Brown led a band of men in an attack on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. This act struck fear into the South.
    B.    Election of 1860
    Lincoln won this election on a sectional basis, with the southern votes split between Douglas, Breckenridge, and Bell. When Republicans refused to accept the Crittendon Compromise, southerners threatened secession.
    C.    Secession
    On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, a step that enticed other southern states to follow.
    D.    The Confederate States of America
    By February 1861, seven states had formed the Confederate States of America. Upon inauguration, Lincoln worked to uphold federal authority without war.
    E.    Fort Sumter and the Outbreak of War
    At Fort Sumter in South Carolina, the Confederates could acquiesce to Lincoln’s intent to supply the federal installation or they could attack the garrison. In April, Southerners bombarded the fort and forced its surrender.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Transforming Fire: The Civil War, 1861-1865

    I.    Introduction

    Northerners and Southerners supported the war for a variety of reasons, such as ending slavery, preserving the Union, defending states’ rights, or protecting the Confederacy. Whatever the purpose of the war, it brought tremendous change to the United States as the conflict spawned new social and racial arrangements in the nation.
       
        II.    America Goes to War, 1861-1862

    A.    First Battle of Bull Run
    Upon Lincoln’s call for volunteers to restore the Union, additional states from the upper South seceded. Southerners faced the war with an optimism that grew stronger following the Confederate victory at Bull Run.
    B.    Grand Strategy
    Union strategy¾the “Anaconda plan” called for a blockade of southern ports and the capture of the Mississippi. The Confederacy pursued an “offensive defensive” strategy¾attack when possible, otherwise prevent conquest.
    C.    Union Naval Campaign
    Early in the war Federal ships began to blockade the South, a tactic that enjoyed mixed results. Union coastal victories off South Carolina resulted in a stream of runaway slaves as planters abandoned their lands.
    D.    Grant’s Tennessee Campaign and the Battle of Shiloh
    The first great campaign of the war unfolded as Ulysses S. Grant led troops into Tennessee, capturing Fort Henry and Fort Donelson which guarded the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. The shocking casualties of the two-day Battle of Shiloh revealed the true nature of the war.
    E.    McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign
    Slow to move, McClellan finally advanced on Richmond, moving within 7 miles of the Confederate capital. Lee moved in behind Union forces, threatening Washington, D.C. The Seven Days’ Battles followed, which forced McClellan to retreat.
    F.    Confederate Offensive in Maryland and Kentucky
    Following early southern victories, President Jefferson Davis ordered his armies to engage in offensive tactics. The attempt to lure Maryland and Kentucky into the Confederacy failed.
       
        III.    War Transforms the South

    A.    The Confederacy and Centralization of Power
    In the South, the tradition of localism and states’ rights gave way to centralization as the Confederacy fought to preserve itself. When the South failed to achieve a quick victory, the Confederacy resorted to conscription.
    B.    Wartime Southern Cities and Industry
    Wartime needs led to a new bureaucracy and an emerging industrialism in the South.
    C.    Changing Roles of Women
    With men off to fight, women began to assume many of the responsibilities males had previously held.
    D.    Human Suffering, Hoarding, and Inflation
    The war caused economic dislocations in the South that resulted in great suffering for many people. The Federal blockade created shortages of important commodities in the South, while Confederate financial policies generated intense price inflation.
    E.    Inequities of the Confederate Draft
    Wealthier southerners seemed immune to many of the problems that others faced, and anger over the elite’s exemptions from conscription led to tensions in the South.
       
        IV.    Wartime Northern Economy and Society

    A.    Northern Business, Industry, and Agriculture
    The war generally spurred economic activity in the North, but the initial loss of southern markets caused some disruptions for the Union. Federal spending helped many businessmen and farmers because the government needed vast amounts of material to win the war. Fiscal policy, especially the sale of war bonds, also shaped the northern economy.
    B.    New Militancy Among Northern Workers
    Inflation and a tight job market produced problems for the working class, difficulties that led to a growing interest in trade unionism.
    C.    Government and Business Partnership
    Railroads and other companies with government contracts earned especially high profits.  New land policies and high tariffs encouraged economic activity.
    D.    Economic Nationalism
    Through the Morrill Land Grant Act Congress authorized sales of large parcels of public lands, the proceeds to be used for public universities promoting education in agriculture, engineering, and military science. The Homestead Act of 1862 offered cheap land to people who would settle the West. A national banking system was created and higher tariffs were enacted.
    E.    Expansion of Presidential Power
    The war fostered great patriotism in the North, but the conflict also led to increased power for the President.
    F.    The Union Cause
    Northerners rallied to the Union cause. While some northerners ostentatiously displayed their new wealth, others advanced more idealistic values.
    G.    Northern Women
    Northern women assumed new roles during the war.
       
        V.    The Advent of Emancipation

    A.    Lincoln and Emancipation
    Lincoln understood the political dangers of the slavery issue and at first shied away from advocating abolition. Eventually, he began suggesting that southerners gradually free their bondspersons. He also promoted a plan to colonize blacks outside the United States.
    B.    Confiscation Acts
    Radical Republicans demanded immediate emancipation. One of their first efforts to achieve it came with laws allowing the confiscation of slaves as “contraband.”
    C.    Emancipation Proclamation
    In September 1862, Lincoln announced a plan to free slaves in the Confederate states. In his proclamation of January 1, 1863, all areas in the Confederacy that were under Union control were exempted, the border states included. This ambiguous proclamation provided Lincoln with some political benefits, but by 1864 he recognized the need for a stronger stand on the slave issue and gave his support to a constitutional ban.
    D.    Who Freed the Slaves?
    Emancipation came as the result of two forces: one, Lincoln’s policy; and two, the will and courage of slaves who fled for freedom.
    E.    A Confederate Plan of Emancipation
    Jefferson Davis proposed emancipation of the slaves in exchange for military service against the Union. Southern resistance to abolition proved powerful, however, and Davis could only make a limited effort to free the slaves.

        VI.    The Soldiers’ War

    A.    Hospitals and Camp Life
    Soldiers endured unsanitary conditions, unsafe water supplies, and badly managed hospitals. In addition, they witnesses mass violence and bloodshed.
    B.    The Rifled Musket
    Development of the “minie ball” made rifles accurate to 400 yards and useful up to 1,000 yards.
    C.    The Black Soldier’s Fight for Manhood
    Thousands of blacks served with honor and distinction in the Union army, but discrimination persisted.

        VII.    1863: The Tide of Battle Turns

    A.    Battle of Chancellorsville
    On the battlefield, the southern army began the 1863 campaign with a victory at Chancellorsville, Virginia. However, the Confederate army suffered the loss of Stonewall Jackson.
    B.    Siege of Vicksburg
    This Confederate defeat divided the southern states in two and gave control of the Mississippi to the Union.
    C.    Battle of Gettysburg
    In July 1863, the Union army scored a major victory at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, inflicting heavy losses on Lee’s army.
       
    VIII.    Disunity, South and North

    A.    Disintegration of Confederate Unity
    Planters, unable to adjust to changed circumstances, increasingly opposed the Confederate government.
    B.    Food Riots in Southern Cities
    Food riots occurred in several cities in 1863. Ordinary rural southerners resisted by refusing to cooperate with conscription, tax collection, and impressments of food. Meanwhile, Davis failed to communicate with the masses.
    C.    Desertions from the Confederate Army
    As conditions at home deteriorated, many southern soldiers reacted by deserting from the army.
    D.    Southern Peace Movements
    From 1863 on, military defeats and social disruptions fueled a growing discontent with the war. For many people the solution seemed to be simply to give up on the southern cause.
    E.    Antiwar Sentiment in the North
    Opposition to the war in the North was less severe than in the South. Lincoln, unlike Davis, had the ability to stay in touch with ordinary citizens.
    F.    Peace Democrats
    Some Northerners expressed unhappiness with the war, but much of the northern discord reflected political party differences rather than support for the Confederacy.
    G.    New York City Draft Riots
    One sharp statement of northern anger over the war came in the New York City draft riots. In theory aimed at conscription, these violent demonstrations revealed powerful underlying class and racial tensions.

        IX.    1864-1865: The Final Test of Wills

    A.    Northern Diplomatic Strategy
    Lincoln understood the importance of European relations, and he worked diligently to prevent European support of the Confederacy.
    B.    Battlefield Stalemate and a Union Strategy for Victory
    Grant proposed raids into the South on a massive scale to lay waste to all resources useful to the military and to the civilian population of the Confederacy.
    C.    Atlanta
    Sherman’s occupation of Atlanta boosted northern morale and ensured Lincoln’s reelection in 1864.
    D.    Sherman’s March to the Sea
    Sherman adhered to a “burned earth” policy in his march to the sea.
    E.    Virginia’s Bloody Soil
    During the spring and summer of 1864, Grant continually hurled Union forces against Lee’s army in Virginia. Even though losses were appalling, these battles prepared the way for Union victory.
    F.    Surrender at Appomattox
    Lee could not stand up to the Union forces, leading him to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia in April 1865.
    G.    Financial Tally
    The costs of the war ranged into the billions of dollars, while the social burden to the South remains incalculable.
    H.    Death Toll
    About 600,000 Americans died, more deaths than occurred in all other American wars combined prior to Vietnam. Still, the war left unresolved the crucial issue of the place of African Americans in the United States.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - Reconstruction: An Unfinished Revolution, 1865-1877

       I.    Introduction

    The end of the Civil War brought profound changes to the United States. Reconstruction changed some things, but it did little regarding social equality and political turmoil. In the end, the government established black suffrage, but this reform proved insufficient to remake the South or to guarantee human rights.

        II.    Wartime Reconstruction

    A.    Lincoln’s 10 Percent Plan
    Lincoln planned for a swift and moderate Reconstruction process. Under his 10 Percent Plan, he proposed that as soon as 10 percent of the voting population in the 1860 election took an oath and established a government, it would be recognized.
    B.    Congress and the Wade-Davis Bill
    Responding negatively to Lincoln’s Reconstruction plan, Thaddeus Stevens advocated a “conquered province” theory and Charles Sumner advanced a “state suicide” theory. In July 1864, Congress passed the Wade-Davis bill by which the process of readmission to the Union was to be harsh and slow. Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill.
    C.    Thirteenth Amendment and the Freedmen’s Bureau
    Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment on January 31, 1865. On March 3, 1865, Congress created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands to aid southern refugees.

        III.    The Meanings of Freedom

    A.    The Feel of Freedom
    Many former slaves began to explore freedom by searching for family members or exercising their right of mobility. Others reacted more cautiously. Most settled as workers on their former farms or plantation but attempted to control the conditions of their labor.
    B.    Reunion of African American Families
    Relying on the black community in the South, thousands of former slaves began odysseys to find family members.
    C.    Blacks’ Search for Independence
    Many blacks tried to avoid contact with overbearing whites by abandoning their slave quarters and relocating their houses. Some even established all-black settlements.
    D.    African Americans’ Desire for Land
    Next to freedom, blacks wanted land most of all. Since they could not secure solid support in the North, however, few obtained their dream of independence.
    E.    The Black Embrace of Education
    Many African Americans eagerly sought an education. Federal aid and northern charity helped start thousands of schools for freedmen in the South.
    F.    Growth of Black Churches
    In an effort to gain more independence from whites, African Americans established their own churches, which became the social center of their new freedom.
    G.    Rise of the Sharecropping System
    Blacks could not get credit, and sharecropping became widespread. Owners often cheated their tenants.

        IV.    Johnson’s Reconstruction Plan

    A.    Who Was Andrew Johnson?
    Johnson was the only senator from a seceded state (Tennessee) who refused to follow his state out of the Union. At heart he was really a Jacksonian Democrat, not a Republican. He believed in limited government and was a white supremacist.
    B.    Johnson’s Leniency and Racial Views
    Johnson’s belief that black suffrage could never be imposed on a southern state by the federal government put him on a collision course with the Radical Republicans.
    C.    Johnson’s Pardon Policy
    Johnson hoped to keep prewar leaders from participating in the Reconstructed South. Nevertheless, he ended up pardoning most of them and thus restored the old elite.
    D.    Black Codes
    Johnson’s pardons upset many Republicans, but the discriminatory black codes revealed the depth of southern defiance.

        V.    The Congressional Reconstruction Plan

    A.    The Radicals
    The Radicals wanted to transform the South, and they were willing to exclude it from the Union until they had achieved their goal. By refusing to work with conservative and moderate Republicans, Johnson and the Democrats forced them to work with the Radicals.
    B.    Congress Wrests Control from Johnson
    Congress worked to extend the Freedmen’s Bureau and to pass a civil rights law counteracting the black codes. Johnson vetoed these bills, ending hopes of compromise.
    C.    The Fourteenth Amendment
    This amendment gave citizenship to freedmen, prohibited states from interfering with constitutional rights, declared the Confederate war debt null and void, barred Confederate leaders from holding state and federal office, and punished any state that restricted extension of the right to vote to black men.
    D.    The South’s and Johnson’s Defiance, 1866
    At the urging of President Johnson, all southern states except Tennessee rejected the Fourteenth Amendment. Having won overwhelmingly in the 1866 congressional elections, Republicans decided to form new southern state governments.
    E.    The Reconstruction Acts of 1867-1868
    Congress set up five military districts in the South, guaranteed freedmen the right to vote in elections for state constitutional conventions, required congressional approval of all new state constitutions, and declared that southern states must accept the Fourteenth Amendment.
    F.    The Failure of Land Redistribution
    Thaddeus Stevens failed to win approval for his plan to confiscate and redistribute land in the former Confederate states.
    G.    Constitutional Crisis
    Congress passed a number of controversial laws, including the Tenure of Office Act, by overriding presidential vetoes. Johnson proceeded to take several belligerent steps, including removal of Secretary of War Stanton.
    H.    Impeachment of President Johnson
    After Johnson removed Secretary of War Stanton, Congress impeached the president. Although acquitted in the Senate, Johnson suffered politically.
    I.    Election of 1868
    Grant, a supporter of congressional Reconstruction and of black suffrage in the South, won the 1868 presidential election.
    J.    Fifteenth Amendment
    In 1869, Radicals succeeded in passing the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited denying the right to vote based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Voting rights of women could still be denied.

        VI.    Reconstruction Politics in the South

    A.    White Resistance
    Whites in the South resisted Reconstruction. Some denied freedom to their slaves, while others prevented blacks from getting land.
    B.    Black Voters and Emergence of a Southern Republican Party
    Thanks to a large black voter turnout and restrictions on prominent Confederates, a new southern Republican Party controlled the state constitutional conventions of 1868-1870.
    C.    Triumph of Republican Governments
    Republican victory in the South meant that for the first time black citizens gained political office. Southern Republicans worked to build white support for the party.
    D.    Industrialization
    Republican governments tried to industrialize the South, but higher taxes for that purpose drew money away from education and other reforms.
    E.    Republican Policies on Racial Equality
    Economic progress remained uppermost in the minds of most southern blacks. They accepted segregated facilities in return for other opportunities.
    F.    The Myth of “Negro Rule”
    Southern Conservatives used economic and social pressure on blacks as well as inflammatory racist propaganda to undermine congressional Reconstruction.
    G.    Carpetbaggers and Scalawags
    In their propaganda, Conservatives labeled northerners seeking economic opportunity as “carpetbaggers” and white southerners who supported the Republicans as “scalawags.”
    H.    Tax Policy and Corruption as Political Wedges
    Although an increase in taxes was necessary just to maintain traditional services, Republican tax policies aroused strong opposition. The corruption with which Republicans were charged was often true.
    I.    Ku Klux Klan
    The Ku Klux Klan terrorized black leaders in an effort to curb their support for the Republicans.
    J.    Failure of Reconstruction
    A number of things brought about the collapse of the Republican regimes, forcing them out of office before they instituted social and economic reforms.

        VII.    Reconstruction Reversed

    A.    Political Implications of Klan Terrorism
    Congress passed two Enforcement Acts in 1870 and 1871 in an effort to counteract Klan violence. The laws were enforced selectively. Congressional opponents of these laws charged that Congress was infringing on states’ rights.
    B.    The Liberal Republican Revolt
    Although Grant won reelection in 1872, the revolt of the Liberal Republicans in conjunction with opposition from the Democrats reinforced Grant’s desire to avoid confrontation with white southerners.
    C.    A General Amnesty
    In 1872, Congress offered amnesty to most remaining former Confederates, and in 1875 it offered a watered-down Civil Rights Act that the Supreme Court eventually struck down.
    D.    Reconciliation and Industrial Expansion
    Both industrialization and immigration surged in the years immediately after the Civil War. Then came the Panic of 1873.
    E.    Greenbacks Versus Sound Money
    Many Americans wanted to keep “greenbacks” in circulation, but Grant, along with many Congressmen, industrialists, and financiers, supported sound money.
    F.    Judicial Retreat from Reconstruction
    Supreme Court decisions, by narrowing the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment and by denying equal rights, encouraged the northern retreat from Reconstruction.
    G.    Disputed Election of 1876 and the Compromise of 1877
    The disputed election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel Tilden resulted in the Compromise of 1877, effectively ending Reconstruction in the South.
    H.    Betrayal of Black Rights and the Exodusters
    Tens of thousands of southern African Americans felt betrayed by the election of 1876 and decided to leave the South where they could no longer hope for equal rights.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - The Development of the West, 1877-1900

    I.    Introduction

    Between 1870 and 1890, the population of the trans?Mississippi West expanded to nearly 17 million people. Nevertheless, much of the United States remained unsettled, providing Americans with the faith that they could always move on to another opportunity.
       
        II.    The Economic Activities of Native Peoples

    A.    Subsistence Cultures
    Western Indians had distinct cultures, but they all lived in subsistence economies. On the Plains, buffalo provided the basis for survival, while the southwestern tribes depended on livestock and those of the Northwest on salmon.
    B.    Slaughter of Buffalo
    White hunters slaughtered millions of buffalo, thus contributing to a complex combination of circumstances that doomed the bison and destroyed the economic and social foundations of the Plains tribes.
    C.    Decline of Salmon
    Commercial fishing in the Northwest was one of several factors that led to the decline of the salmon population.
       
        III.    The Transformation of Native Cultures

    A.    Violence
    Most of those who migrated to the West in the late nineteenth century were young males who had few qualms about using their weapons against animals or humans who got in their way.
    B.    Lack of Native Unity
    The Indians of the Southwest and Northwest were separated by some two hundred languages and dialects, making it difficult for them to unite against white intruders.
    C.    Territorial Treaties
    Most treaties that recognized Indian territory were violated.
    D.    Reservation Policy
    From the 1860s to the 1880s, the federal government pursued a policy of placing Indians on reservations.
    E.    Native Resistance
    Tribes reacted against white encroachment in a variety of ways.
    F.    Indian Wars
    Whites responded to resistance by the western Indians through the use of military force.
    G.    Reform of Indian Policy
    Several groups worked to acculturate Indians, but these organizations often tried to force Native Americans to accept middle?class values.
    H.    Dawes Severalty Act
    In 1887, Congress began making individual, rather than tribal, grants of land.
    I.    Attempts at Assimilation
    The government’s Indian policy stressed private ownership of property and education programs in boarding schools away from the reservation.
    J.    The Losing of the West
    The Dawes-Severalty Act, along with political and ecological crises, led to the decline of the western tribes.

        IV.    The Extraction of Natural Resources

    A.    Mining and Lumbering
    Unlike Indians living in subsistence economies, white Americans brought extractive economies to the West.
    B.    Women in Mining Regions
    Some frontier communities had a substantial white female population, but their independence was limited.
    C.    A Complex Population
    The West was a multiracial and multicultural society.
    D.    Significance of Race
    White settlers made race a distinguishing social characteristic in the West.
    E.    Conservation Movement
    Many Americans believed that federal land should be open to private development.
    F.    Admission of New States
    Several new western states entered the Union by 1890.
    G.    Legends of the West
    The West gave rise to legends that became part of American folk culture.
       
        V.    Irrigation and Transportation

    Rights to Water
    The English heritage of riparian rights placed restrictions on individual access to water resources. Many westerners advocated prior appropriation, which gave the original claimant control over water.
    B.    California’s Solution
    California experienced the most dramatic water?related problems. Largely arid, yet potentially productive, the state led the way in irrigation and reclamation policies.
    C.    Newlands Reclamation Act
    The reclamation law of 1902 allowed the federal government to control the use of western water.
    D.    Post-Civil War Railroad Construction
    As the result of a railroad construction boom after the Civil War, the United States contained one-third of the railroad track in the world by 1900.
    E.    Rails and Markets
    Railroads in the United States accelerated the growth of western and southern regional centers. To encourage construction, all levels of government provided bountiful subsidies to the railroad companies.
    F.    Standard Time
    Railroad construction brought technological and organizational reforms. Railroads also altered American concepts of space and time and led to a nationwide standardization of time through the establishment of time zones.
       
        VI.    Farming the Plains

    A.    Settlement of the Plains
    Hundreds of thousands of emigrants moved into the Great Plains during the 1870s and 1880s.
    B.    Hardships of Life on the Plains
    Settlers on the Plains lived in an extremely harsh climate where the terrain was inhospitable and swarms of insects could ravage entire farms.
    C.    Social Isolation
    Pioneers also faced severe social isolation, living lives of loneliness and monotony.
    D.    Mail?Order Companies and Rural Free Delivery
    Plains dwellers benefited from the advent of mail?order catalogues and the extension of federal postal service.
    E.    Mechanization of Agriculture
    After the Civil War, continued demand and high prices for farm commodities encouraged the use of machinery.
    F.    Legislative and Scientific Aids to Farmers
    Congress passed several acts designed to enhance agricultural development. Scientific innovation also helped improve farm output.
       
        VII.    The Ranching Frontier

    A.    Longhorns and the Long Drive
    The long drive¾the herding of longhorn cattle from Texas to the West and Midwest¾gave rise to romantic lore but was inefficient.
    B.    The Open?Range
    Many operators ran huge herds on unfenced public lands. These giant operations captured the imaginations of easterners, but ultimately cattle began to overrun the range.
    C.    Grazing Wars
    Use of the public land by both sheepherders and ranchers led to conflict between the two groups.
    D.    Barbed Wire
    The invention of barbed wire in 1873 gave ranchers and farmers an economical means by which to enclose their herds and fields.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Machine Age, 1877-1920

        I.    Introduction

    Industrialization increased significantly between 1877 and 1920 in the United States. This development had momentous effects on standards of living and on the nature of everyday life.
       
        II.    Technology and the Triumph of Industrialism

    A.    Birth of the Electrical Industry
    Thomas Edison founded the Edison Electric Light Company, perfected the incandescent bulb, and devised a power generation and distribution system.
    George Westinghouse
    Westinghouse’s use of alternating current made transmission of electric power over long distances cheaper than Edison’s direct current method.
    C.    Henry Ford and the Automobile Industry
    Henry Ford’s use of assembly?line methods in the automobile industry made cars more readily available.
    D.    Technology and Southern Industry
    Invention of a machine to roll cigarettes combined with the marketing techniques of James B. Duke made the American Tobacco Company a large nationwide business by 1900.
                  E.    Southern Textile Mills
    Industrialization also aided the growth of southern textile industry and led to the emergence of mill towns in the South.
    F.    Influence of New Machines
    New machines introduced in the late nineteenth century altered the economy and everyday life. Technological innovations also led to the emergence of large companies that could take advantage of economies of scale.
    G.    Frederick W. Taylor and Efficiency
    With industrialization, efficient production became crucial to profits. Frederick W. Taylor’s methods of scientific management greatly influenced American thinking.
       
        III.    Mechanization and the Changing Status of Labor

    A.    Employment of Women
    Employers cut wages by hiring more women, particularly for clerical and sales positions. Consequently, the number of women in domestic?service jobs decreased sharply.
    B.    Child Labor
    A larger number of children began working in nonagricultural jobs, performing light tasks at low wages.
    C.    Wage Work
    Many employers believed in the “iron law of wages” which allowed them to pay their workers as little as possible.
    D.    Industrial Accidents
    Repetitive tasks dulled concentration, often resulting in serious injury, and industrial accidents increased steadily.
    E.    Courts Restrict Labor Reform
    The Supreme Court overturned most hour laws, but in Muller v. Oregon, it allowed limiting women to ten?hour days, citing their health as a matter of public interest.
    F.    Railroad Strikes of 1877
    The year 1877 witnessed a violent series of strikes aimed at the railroads. Hard times precipitated the incidents, and the strikers enjoyed the sympathy of other workers.
       
        IV.    The Union Movement

    A.    Knights of Labor
    The Knights of Labor accepted all workers and advocated a harmony of interests among its members. Because the union opposed strikes, it had little bargaining power.
    B.    Haymarket Riot
    In 1886, a demonstration at Haymarket Square erupted into a riot that revived middle-class fears of unions.
    C.    American Federation of Labor
    The American Federation of Labor emerged as the major union. A craft union, the AFL pressed for shorter hours and the right to bargain collectively.
    D.    Pullman Strike
    In 1894, workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company went on strike. Grover Cleveland, to ensure mail deliveries, sent troops to put down the strike.
    E.    IWW
    Like the Knights of Labor, the IWW welcomed all workers, but it also advocated socialism and espoused the use of violence and sabotage.
    F.    Women and the Labor Movement
    Many unions denied the inclusion of women workers, leading female employees to organize their own unions.
    G.    Immigrants, African Americans, and Labor Unions
    Unions excluded most immigrant and black workers. Tensions increased when these workers served as strikebreakers.
       
        V.    Standards of Living

    A.    New Availability of Products
    Products once considered luxuries became increasingly available to middle-class Americans during the late nineteenth century.
    B.    Cost of Living
    Wage increases meant little because the cost of living rose faster than wages. Many working-class Americans could not afford the goods and services that the age offered.
    C.    Supplements to Family Income
    By sending children and women into the labor force, or by renting rooms to boarders, many families earned enough to buy newly available goods.
    D.    Higher Life Expectancy
    Technological and medical advances extended life spans during this period. Nevertheless, more people died of cancer, heart disease, murder, and automobile accidents.
       
        VI.    The Quest for Convenience

    A.    Flush Toilets
    The flush toilet, which became a standard fixture in middle-class urban homes in the 1890s, caused a shift in habits and attitudes.
    B.    Processed and Preserved Foods
    Mass-production of tin cans along with the advent of refrigerated railroad cars made available a wider variety of foods to different areas of the country.
    C.    Ready?Made Clothing
    Sewing machines led to mass-produced clothes at low costs and uniform sizes, sparking an interest in fashions.
    D.    Department and Chain Stores
    Department stores fueled consumerism. Also, the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company (A&P) became the first grocery supermarket.
    E.    Advertising
    As supply outpaced demand, advertising helped persuade large groups of people to buy a specific product. Advertisers, mostly through newspapers, were charged with creating consumers who were loyal to a particular brand.
       
        VII.    The Corporate Consolidation Movement

    A.    Role of Corporations
    Corporations provided an effective means to raise capital and many saw them as a way to break boom?and?bust cycles. Courts defined corporations as individuals and protected them under the Fourteenth Amendment.
    B.    Pools
    Consolidation swept the United States. Congress outlawed pools, one popular device, in 1887.
    C.    Trusts
    Rockefeller used a “trust” to achieve horizontal integration of the petroleum industry.
    D.    Holding Companies
    The emergence of holding companies led to vertical integration within some industries.
    E.    Financiers
    Corporate growth brought the rise of experts in financial organization. These men sold stock and borrowed from banks, driving the trading of stocks to a feverish level.
       
        VIII.    The Gospel of Wealth and its Critics

    A.    Social Darwinism
    Businessmen subscribed to Social Darwinism, turning the theory of natural selection into laissez?faire economics.
    B.    Government Assistance to Business
    Paradoxically, businessmen wanted government help in the form of subsidies, loans, and tariffs. They argued, however, against government assistance for labor.
    C.    Dissenting Voices
    Critics said that trusts and other devices interfered with the American tradition of independence and opportunity.
    D.    Utopian Economic Schemes
    Some critics, such as Henry George and Edward Bellamy, offered economic ideas aimed at the creation of a utopian society.
    E.    Antitrust Legislation
    A few state governments moved to limit monopolies, and in 1890 Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The law was vague and had little immediate effect on trusts since the courts rendered pro?business decisions.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - The Vitality and Turmoil of Urban Life, 1877-1920

    I.    Introduction

    Cities gained great importance in the 1880s, and by 1900 urbanization affected every section of the United States.
       
        II.    Industrial Growth and Transportation in the Modern City

    A.    Urban Industrial Development
    Since the cities of the late nineteenth century provided everything that factories needed, they became the main arenas for industrial growth.
    B.    Birth of the Modern City
    In the late nineteenth century the compact city of the past gave way to urban sprawl and to cities subdivided into distinct districts.
    C.    Mechanization of Mass Transportation
    Commuter railroads, cable cars, and streetcars allowed for greater mobility in urban America.
    D.    Beginnings of Urban Sprawl
    Improved transportation led city dwellers to move into outlying neighborhoods, creating urban sprawl.

        III.    Peopling the Cities: Migrants and Immigrants

    A.    How Cities Grew
    Cities could grow by annexation, by natural increase, and by migration.
    B.    Migration from the Countryside
    Many Americans migrated from rural to urban areas during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
    C.    African American and Hispanic Migration to Cities
    In the 1880s and 1890s, thousands of rural African Americans seeking better economic situations moved to cities. In the West, many Hispanics also moved from rural to urban areas.
    D.    Immigration from Other Lands
    Most urban newcomers were immigrants from Europe.
    E.    The New Immigrants
    A new wave of immigrants, from eastern and southern Europe, frightened Americans because of the emigrant’s customs, different faiths, illiteracy, and poverty.
    F.    Residential Mobility
    In addition to movement from rural to urban areas, large numbers of people not only moved from city to city but within cities as well.

        IV.    Urban Neighborhoods

    A.    Immigrant Cultures
    Immigrants’ cultures helped sustain them in their new home, and Old World institutions also helped them adapt.
    B.    Ethnic and Racial Borderlands
    Immigrants in large cities lived in multi-ethnic neighborhoods.
    C.    Ghettos
    By the early twentieth century, institutionalized racism forced African Americans to live in highly segregated ghettos.
    D.    Barrios
    In southwestern and western cities Mexicans found themselves confined in barrios.
    E.    Americanization
    Immigrants adapted their old world cultures to the realities of life in America.
    F.    Accommodation of Religion
    The influx of immigrants from 1870 to 1920 changed the United States from a mostly Protestant nation into one of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. Many Catholics and Jews supported liberalizing trends within their religions to accommodate their faiths to their new American environment.
       
        V.    Living Conditions in the Inner City

    A.    Housing
    Urban growth meant masses of people jammed into the inner cities, leading to housing shortages and unsanitary living conditions.
    B.    Housing Reform
    Reform campaigns led to some improvements in housing conditions.
    C.    Sanitation and Construction Technology
    The establishment of water purification and sewage disposal systems helped control the spread of disease. Steel-frame construction made possible the building of skyscrapers.
    D.    Urban Poverty
    The uncertainties of the business cycle meant that many families lived in poverty. Private relief agencies often acted out of the belief that poverty was caused by personal defects. However, some humanitarians began to advance the more progressive belief that people’s environments caused poverty.
    E.    Crime and Violence
    Many people feared urban crime. In all likelihood, cities did not have increased crime, but urban problems proved more conspicuous and sensational than rural crime.
       
        VI.    Promises of Mobility

    A.    Occupational Mobility
    Urban and industrial expansion allowed for occupational mobility, making many people more upwardly mobile.
    B.    Acquisition of Property
    Many people acquired property as rising wages allowed many families to make down payments on property.

        VII.    Managing the City

    A.    Role of the Police
    By the early l900s, law enforcement had the complicated role of balancing the idealistic intentions of criminal law with people’s desire for individual freedom.
    B.    The Machine
    Urban growth strained city governments and led to the rise of political machines, which in turn created bosses.
    C.    The Boss
    Bosses held their power because they knew the people’s needs, and they solved the problems of everyday life by exchanging favors for votes or money.
    D.    Urban Reform
    Business-minded reformers wanted to elect officials who would control expenses and prevent corruption.
    E.    Structural Reform in Government
    Civic reformers often supported structural changes such as the city manager and commission forms of government, and the nonpartisan, citywide election of officials.
    F.    Social Reform
    Social reform occurred at all levels of the urban society. Settlement houses fought for school nurses, building codes, public playgrounds, and labor unions.
    G.    Engineers
    Some problems required technical and professional creativity, and cities increasingly depended on engineers.

        VIII.    Family Life

    Family and Household Structures
    The vast majority of households consisted of nuclear families, although some extended families existed.
    B.    Declining Birthrates
    As infant mortality rates fell, couples had fewer children. Smaller families also improved standards of living.
    C.    Boarding
    Young people who left their families often became boarders in the cities. Many urban families took in boarders to help pay the rent.
    D.    Importance of Kinship
    Families served as the primary social institution, but some kinship obligations, such as caring for the aged, proved stifling for young immigrants.
    E.    Unmarried People
    A subculture of unmarried young people living separate from their parents emerged in urban areas. Some of the unmarried were homosexuals who formed their own gay subculture.
    F.    Change in Family Life and Functions
    Distinct social changes occurred as decreasing birthrates shortened the period of parental responsibility, and as formal education made childhood more unique. New institutions assumed tasks once performed by the family.
       
        IX.    The New Leisure and Mass Culture

    A.    Increase in Leisure Time
    A shorter work-week allowed more Americans to enjoy a variety of leisure?time diversions. As a result, a segment of the economy began providing entertainment.
    B.    Baseball
    Baseball gained great popularity. The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs was founded in 1876, and the American League emerged in 1901. In 1903, the first World Series enshrined baseball as the national pastime.
    C.    Croquet and Cycling
    Both men and women played croquet, and the game swept the nation. The popularity of bicycling grew, especially after the invention of the safety bicycle with pneumatic wheels of identical size.
    D.    Football
    Tennis and golf attracted wealthy folks, but football became widely popular. College football caused a scandal when 18 players died from game?related injuries. This, in turn, led to the founding of the organization that came to be known as the National College Athletic Association.
    E.    Circuses
    Circuses enjoyed great success as railroads increased the mobility of the shows.
    F.    Popular Drama and Musical Comedy
    Dramas with simple plots and settings captured the imaginations of the urban population. Musical comedies raised audiences’ spirits with song, humor, and dance.
    G.    Vaudeville
    Vaudeville shows gained mass appeal. Shows like the Ziegfield Follies gave the nation a new model of femininity, but some producers exploited females. African Americans found new opportunities in vaudeville.
    H.    Movies
    Shortly after 1900, moving pictures started to grow in popularity, and by 1910 motion pictures had become a distinct art form used to tell a story.
    I.    Yellow Journalism
    Yellow journalism, pioneered by people such as Joseph Pulitzer, made the news a consumer product because of growing interest in the bizarre and the sensational.
    J.    Magazines
    In this era, mass?circulation magazines appeared, telephone ownership increased, and Americans sent more mail through the United States Post Office.
    K.    Mass Culture and Americanization
    The new ways in which Americans entertained themselves in their leisure time often had a homogenizing influence by bringing different ethnic and social groups together.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Gilded Age Politics, 1877-1900

       I.    Introduction

    The transformation of the nation between 1877 and 1900 created corruption and greed that tugged at the fabric of democracy. Special interests, corruption, and control by the wealthy shaped politics. Rural discontent and a deep economic depression brought changes to the political system.
       

     II.    The Nature of Party Politics

                      A.    Cultural?Political Alignments
         Between 1875 and 1895, neither major party gained control for any sustained period. Presidential elections were    
                          extremely close, and the outcome often hinged on the votes of a few states.
    B.    Party Factions
    The Republican Party divided into the “Stalwarts,” the “Half Breeds,” and the “Mugwumps.” The Democrats tended to split into white?supremacy southerners, immigrant-stock urban machine members, and business?oriented advocates of low tariffs.
       
    III.    Politics in the Industrial Age

    A.    Civil Service Reform
    Many Americans expressed opposition to the spoils system of government appointments based on party affiliation. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1882 helped reform the civil service.
    B.    Railroad Regulation
    Railroad practices prompted reformers to demand government regulation of the indus­try. The Supreme Court eventually overturned state efforts to control railroads, leading to passage of the Interstate Commerce Act.
    C.    Tariff Policy
    Republicans supported high tariffs, but Democrats argued that the rates artificially raised prices. Nevertheless, manufacturing interests maintained control of tariff policy.
    D.    Monetary Policy
    Farmers favored the coinage of silver to increase the amount of currency in circulation. Creditors favored a limited money supply, based on a gold standard. This issue shaped political fights throughout the era.
    E.    Legislative Accomplishments
    The amount of legislation passed is surprising, and included laws strengthening the government’s influence in the national economy.
       
        IV.    The Presidency Restrengthened

    A.    Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur
    The presidents from 1877 to 1890 proved to be less forceful than their predecessors.
    B.    Cleveland and Harrison
    Grover Cleveland became the first Democratic president since James Buchanan. He used the veto extensively, promoted merit?based civil service, and urged tariff reform. Benjamin Harrison had a Republican majority in Congress, but he alienated many of his supporters. In Cleveland’s second term, the president proved unable to resolve the crises he faced.

        V.    Limits of Gilded Age Politics

    A.    Violence Against African Americans
    Black southerners endured economic and political oppression, and they often suffered the extreme violence characterized by lynching.
    B.    Disfranchisement Begins
    White politicians sought to limit African American access to the polls through such measures as the poll tax and literacy tests.
    C.    Legal Segregation
    With the decision in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the South began to institutionalize racism and segregation through the passage of Jim Crow laws.
    D.    Woman Suffrage
    The women’s suffrage movement split into two groups. The National Woman Suffrage  Association fought for suffrage on a national level, while the American Woman Suffrage Association worked on the state level.

        VI.    Agrarian Unrest and Populism

    A.    Sharecropping and Tenant Farming in the South
    In the post-Civil War period, southern agriculture was dominated by landlords who employed sharecroppers and tenants. Under the crop-lien system sharecroppers and tenants pledged their crops as collateral to gain operating capital, but often they could not repay the loans.
    B.    Hardship in the Midwest and West
    Midwestern farmers experienced falling prices for staple crops while expenses remained high. Western farmers and miners suffered due to railroad monopolies.
    C.    Grange Movement
    As agricultural prices dropped, farmers organized. Oliver H. Kelley helped start the Grange movement, but in the late 1870s its influence declined significantly.
    D.    The White Hats
    In the Southwest, Hispanics organized a group known as the White Hats to counter the movement of English-speaking ranchers into communal pastureland.
    E.    Farmers’ Alliances
    The Farmers’ Alliances constituted a genuine mass movement by 1890. Alliances sponsored political rallies, educational meetings, and cooperative marketing agreements.
    F.    Subtreasury Plan
    The Alliance proposed the subtreasury plan, in effect a federally sponsored subsidy program, to relieve shortages of cash and credit. The different Alliance groups could not unite, so they failed to bring about any change.
    G.    Rise of Populism
    In 1890, the Kansas Alliance held a “convention of the People” that formed the People’s Party. In 1892, the People’s Party, or Populists, developed a comprehensive platform addressing the needs of farmers and laborers.
       
        VII.    The Depression of the 1890s

    A.    Continuing Currency Problems
    The Panic of 1893 made the currency issue critical. Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893, and President Cleveland finally had to accept an offer of gold from J. P. Morgan to stem the run on the United States Treasury.
    B.    Effects of a New Economic System
    In the 1890s, new economic structures that emphasized consolidation emerged. Response to these new corporate institutions and the distress caused by the depression brought a call for reform.

        VIII.    Depression?Era Protests

    A.    Socialists
    With the depression of the 1890s, many workers became socialists.
    B.    Eugene V. Debs
    The Pullman Strike elevated Eugene V. Debs to a position of leadership within the socialist movement.
    C.    Coxey’s Army
    Jacob Coxey urged the government to issue unbacked paper money to stimulate spending. His “army” of unemployed workers numbered 500 when it reached Washington, D. C., on April 30, 1894. Congress refused to respond, and the police crushed the protest.
       
        IX.    Populists, the Silver Crusade, and the Election of 1896

    A.    Stifling of Biracial Political Dissent
    To stifle support for the Populists and the Alliances, southern Democrats curtailed black voting by requiring poll taxes and literacy tests.
    B.    Free Silver
    By 1896, the Populists made the free coinage of silver their primary issue. They believed that such a policy would end the privileged position of the rich.
    C.    Republican Nomination of McKinley
    William McKinley headed a Republican Party that supported the gold standard.
    D.    William Jennings Bryan
    The Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan to head their ticket for free silver. The Populists also nominated Bryan.
    E.    Election Results
    McKinley won the election in the most lopsided victory since 1872. Free silver did not provide the reform issue that would unite the masses.
    F.    The McKinley Presidency
    McKinley signed the Gold Standard Act in 1900, he oversaw an increase in the tariff, and he encouraged imperialistic ventures in Latin America and the Pacific.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Progressive Era, 1895-1920

        I.    Introduction

    The crises of the 1890s generated a broad, complex reform movement known as Progressivism that hoped to apply scientific principles and efficient management to economic, social, and political institutions. Many looked to government as the agent of change.
       
        II.    The Varied Progressive Impulse

    A.    Foreign Influences
    Organizations began to influence government policy in the 1890s, fragmenting politics and making them more issue oriented. Furthermore, ideas from Europe had an impact on Progressive reformers in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
    B.    Urban Middle-Class Reformers and Muckrakers
    The new middle class formed the vanguard of the Progressive movement. Journalists, called “muckrakers,” raised interest in reform, particularly among urban Americans. Many people, opposed to political parties and bosses, advocated initiative, referendum, and recall.
    C.    Upper?Class Reformers
    Some businessmen supported limited political and economic reform to protect themselves from radical changes. Elite women encouraged social reform.
    D.    Working?Class Reformers
    The working class pushed for labor and safety reform, and inner?city voters elected Progressive legislators.
    E.    Socialists
    Some workers who wanted substantive changes in society turned to socialism.
    F.    Opponents of Progressivism
    Many politicians and capitalists opposed Progressivism as too much government interference in the free market.

        III.    Governmental and Legislative Reform

    A.    Restructuring Government
    Most Progressives believed that government should be the guardians of the people. Although reformers first tried to eliminate corruption from government at the city level, they began to shift their attention to the state level.
    B.    Robert M. LaFollette
    Several charismatic governors used their powers to enact reform. The most forceful Progressive governor was Wisconsin’s Robert M. LaFollette.
    C.    Southern Progressivism
    Although the South led the way in Progressive political reform, racism tainted southern Progressive politics.
    D.    Labor Reform
    State laws promoting social welfare, such as limited working hours for women and age limits for children, often had greater influence than did political reforms.
    E.    Moral Reform
    Some reformers sought to create a better moral climate through movements such as an anti?liquor crusade and an attack on prostitution.
    F.    The War on Alcohol
    Reformers successfully gained a nationwide ban on the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1919.
    G.    Prostitution and White Slavery
    Reformers next attacked prostitution, and effectively criminalized it by 1915.
       
        IV.    New Ideas in Education, Law, and Religion

    A.    John Dewey and Progressive Education
    Progressive educators believed that learning should focus on real?life problems and that children should learn to use their intelligence to control their environment.
    B.    Growth of Colleges and Universities
    College enrollment expanded during this era. Much of the growth stemmed from the creation of new institutions, from the increased numbers of women attending colleges, and, in the South, from the emergence of black schools.
    C.    Progressive Legal Thought
    Progressive lawyers argued that the law should be flexible enough to reflect the needs of society. Judges imbued with laissez?faire theories opposed this view.
    D.    Public Health
    Organizations like the National Consumers League successfully brought about far-reaching reforms in the area of public health.
    E.    The Social Gospel
    Social Gospelers believed they could counter the brutality of competitive capitalism by applying Christian principles to worldly matters.

        V.    Challenges to Racial and Sexual Discrimination

    A.    Disadvantages of African Americans
    Southern African Americans suffered under repressive Jim Crow laws. African Americans in the North face job discrimination, inferior schools, and segregated housing.
    B.    Booker T. Washington and Self?Help
    Booker T. Washington encouraged African Americans to accommodate themselves to whites, at least temporarily. He believed that blacks should first acquire property and thus prove themselves worthy of other rights.
    C.    W. E .B. DuBois and the Niagara Movement
    W. E. B. DuBois opposed Washington. Believing that blacks should agitate for their rights, DuBois organized the Niagara Movement in 1905 and helped form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909.
    D.    Society of American Indians
    Native Americans formed their own reform association, the Society of American Indians. The society could not resolve conflicts between tribal loyalties and pressure for assimilation, and it folded early in the 1920s.
    E.    “The Woman Movement”
    Before 1910, those who wanted women to move out of the home and into social activities, higher education, and paid labor called themselves the “woman movement.”
    F.    Women’s Clubs
    Excluded from holding political office, women joined clubs that showed more interest in improving society than in reforming government.
    G.    Feminism
    Around 1910, many women began using a new term, “feminism,” to describe their reform efforts that stressed social justice, economic equality, and sexual freedom.
    H.    Margaret Sanger’s Crusade
    Feminists like Margaret Sanger pushed for widespread use of contraception.
    I.    Woman Suffrage
    Early advocates of women’s rights thought that only educated women should vote, but Progressive reformers wanted all women to have that right. The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the vote in national elections.

    VI.        Theodore Roosevelt and the Revival of the Presidency

    A.    Theodore Roosevelt
    Theodore Roosevelt believed that the government should direct national affairs. In economic affairs he believed that government should act as an umpire by deciding when big business was good and when it was bad.
    B.    Regulation of Trusts
    Roosevelt first turned his attentions to big business. He triumphed in 1904 when the Supreme Court dissolved the Northern Securities Company. Roosevelt also successfully pushed for regulatory legislation.
    C.    Pure Food and Drug Laws
    With the publication of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle in 1906, Roosevelt supported the Meat Inspection Act. The Pure Food and Drug Act addressed abuses in the patent-medicine industry.
    D.    Conservation
    Roosevelt used colorful action, quiet promotion, executive orders, and presidential pressure to support conservation.
    E.    Taft Administration
    William Howard Taft had to face problems with the tariff that Roosevelt had ignored. Under Taft, the progressive and conservative wings of the Republican Party drifted apart.
    F.    The Bull Moose Party
    When it became apparent that Taft’s supporters controlled the 1912 Republican convention, Roosevelt’s supporters walked out of the convention and formed the Progressive, or Bull Moose, Party. The Progressive Party nominated Roosevelt for the presidency.

        VII.    Woodrow Wilson and the Extension of Reform

    A.    New Nationalism and New Freedom
    Roosevelt’s New Nationalism sought national unity with government coordinating and regulating, not destroying, big business. Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom warned that concentrated economic power threatened liberty and insisted that monopolies should be broken up.
    B.    Wilson’s Policy on Business Regulation
    Finding it necessary to blend his New Freedom ideas with Roosevelt’s New Nationalism ideas, Wilson expanded national power over business through the Clayton Antitrust Act and the Federal Reserve Act.
    C.    Tariff and Tax Reform
    The Underwood Tariff lowered the tariff, but it created a graduated income tax. Wilson supported more reforms in 1916, especially in light of the war in Europe and the upcoming presidential election.
    D.    Election of 1916
    Republican Charles Evans Hughes ran unsuccessfully against Wilson in 1916. America’s entry into World War I shifted focus from reform because the war required cooperation between the public and private sectors.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Quest for Empire, 1865-1914

        I.    Introduction

    Between 1865 and 1914, America grew increasingly expansionist. As expansion became imperialism, the United States became involved in crises and wars around the world.
       
        II.    Imperial Promoters: The Foreign Policy Elite and Economic Expansion

    A.    Foreign Policy Elite
    An elite group of Americans shaped foreign policy.
    B.    Foreign Trade Expansion
    Foreign trade proved important in the post?Civil War economic growth. Agriculture accounted for most exports, but businessmen also sought foreign markets.

        III.    Ideology, Culture, and Empire

    A.    Race Thinking
    Supporters of expansion used theories on race as a justification. The stereotypical manner in which foreigners were portrayed in popular magazines, school textbooks, and world’s fairs reflected an ethnocentric American attitude.
    B.    Male Ethos
    U.S. leaders used gendered language to place weaker nations in the low ranks of the hierarchy of power, thus justifying U.S. hegemony.
    C.    Missionaries
    Missionaries contributed to American expansionism by spreading American religion, and influence, abroad.
    D.    The “Civilizing” Impulse
    When they intervened in other lands, Americans justified it on the grounds that the United States offered these societies the blessings of liberty and prosperity.
       
        IV.    Ambitions Abroad, 1860s?1880s

    A.    William H. Seward’s Quest for Empire
    William Seward believed that the nation would eventually establish an empire as the result of a natural process of gravitation toward the United States. To accelerate this process he favored U.S. trade expansion, a Central American canal, a transcontinental American railroad, and improved communications systems.
    B.    International Communications
    In 1866, a transatlantic cable linked the United States to Europe. This innovation made effective international communications a primary goal of American diplomacy.
    C.    Anglo-Canadian-American Relations
    Improved relations between America and England began with the Washington Treaty of 1871, and other events revealed a rapprochement between the powers.
    D.    Sino?American Troubles
    Anti-Chinese riots in the American West and Congress’ suspension of Chinese immigration caused a deterioration of relations with China.
    E.    Pan?American Conference
    The Pan?American Conference demonstrated growing U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.
    F.    Alfred T. Mahan, Navalism, and the New Navy
    Alfred T. Mahan’ s Influence of Sea Power Upon History convinced expansionists of the need for a modern navy.

        V.    Crises in the 1890s: Hawaii, Venezuela, and Cuba

    A.    Annexation of Hawai’i
    Americans overthrew Queen Lili’uokalani and asked for annexation to the U.S. in 1893. Annexation was delayed, but McKinley maneuvered it through Congress in 1898.
    B.    Venezuelan Boundary Dispute
    A border dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana led the United States to declare its right to intervene. The British accepted the American position to keep the United States friendly in light of an expansive Germany.
    C.    U.S. Interests and Revolution in Cuba
    The United States had extensive economic interests in Cuba, and cultural ties existed because nearly a hundred thousand Cubans had migrated to the United States. When a revolution against Spanish rule broke out in Cuba in 1895, rebel leader José Martí obtained funds, supplies, and support in the United States.
    D.    Sinking of the Maine
    To protect American interests in Cuba, McKinley ordered the U.S.S. Maine to Havana. In February 1898, the ship blew up, killing 266 sailors.
    E.    McKinley’s Ultimatum and War Decision
    McKinley asked for a declaration of war in order to advance the cause of humanity and to protect American interests. Congress concurred on April 19, 1898.
       
       
    VI.    The Spanish?American?Cuban?Filipino War and the Debate over Empire

    A.    Motives for War
    Complex political, economic, social, and military motives led to war.
    B.    The U.S. Military at War
    Of the 263,000 men who served in the war, most never left the United States. Thousands of black troops stationed in the South had to deal with violent racism.
    C.    Dewey in the Philippines
    The first fighting took place in May, when Admiral Dewey’s squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila.
    D.    Treaty of Paris
    In December 1898, American and Spanish negotiators agreed on terms that granted Cuban independence. America gained the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
    E.    Anti?Imperialist Arguments
    Many critics denounced imperialism as counter to American principles. Others argued that the nation could expand its markets without subjugating other countries. Labor leaders feared that imperialism was bad for American workers.
    F.    Imperialist Arguments
    Imperialists successfully answered their critics by appealing to patriotism, destiny, and commerce.

        VII.    Asian Encounters: Open Door in China, Philippine Insurrection, and Japan

    A.    Open Door Policy
    Secretary of State John Hay issued the Open Door Note in 1899, asking all nations to guarantee free trade in China. Following the Boxer Rebellion, Hay issued a second note promising to protect the integrity of China.
    B.    Philippine Insurrection and Pacification
    Emilio Aguinaldo declared an independent Philippines in 1899, starting the Philippine Insurrection that lasted until 1902.
    C.    Japanese Expansion
    As the Japanese became the dominant power in Asia, tensions between the United States and Japan increased—especially regarding China.
    D.    Anti?Japanese Bias in California
    West Coast Americans exhibited anti?Asian bias in a number of ways.

        VIII.    Latin America, Europe, and International Rivalry

    A.    Economic Hegemony in Latin America
    Latin America became a primary target of American economic expansion. Some American companies gained considerable political power in Latin America.
    B.    Cuba and the Platt Amendment
    The Platt Amendment required American approval of all Cuban treaties and assumed for the United States the right to intervene in Cuba.
    C.    Panama Canal
    After settling prior agreements with Britain and supporting a revolution against Colombia, the United States signed a treaty with Panama to build a canal.
    D.    Roosevelt Corollary
    To prevent European intervention in Latin America, Theodore Roosevelt announced a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine that led to American intervention in the region.
    E.    U.S.-Mexico Relations Under Diaz
    Porfirio Diaz invited U.S. investment in Mexico, but revolutionaries reversed the trend.
    F.    Anglo-American Rapprochement
    Rivalry with Germany caused Britain to seek friendship with the U.S. British-American trade and U.S. investment in Britain also helped secure ties between the two countries.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - Americans in the Great War, 1914-1920

    I.    Introduction

    As the war began, America declared its neutrality. When events drew the nation into the contest, Woodrow Wilson announced that the country would fight to make the world safe for democracy.
       
        II.    Precarious Neutrality

    A.    Outbreak of the First World War
    The war began following the assassination of the heir to the Austro?Hungarian throne.
    B.    Taking Sides
    Wilson sought to maintain neutrality, but objections came from German?Americans and Irish?Americans. Wilson’s administration had considerable sympathy for the Allies, providing another impediment to neutrality.
    C.    Trade and Loans
    American economic ties to the Allies, especially commercially and financially, made neutrality difficult.
    D.    Wilsonianism
    Wilson believed that the United States had become the only nation that could lead the world into a new, peaceful era. British victory seemed crucial to these principles.
    E.    British Violations of Neutral Rights
    Britain used its navy in an effort to sever all neutral trade with Germany and cripple the German economy.
    F.    The German Submarine and International Law
    German naval tactics relied on submarines. Wilson interpreted international law to insist that submarines surface before firing on ships. Germany disagreed.

        III.    Submarine Warfare and Wilson’s Decision for War

    A.    Secretary Bryan’s Resignation
    When 128 Americans died on the British passenger ship Lusitania, Wilson resisted calls for war. Still, he wanted Americans to be safe to travel on belligerent craft. When Wilson rejected Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan’s advice that Americans be prohibited from travel on belligerent ships, Bryan resigned.
    B.    Gore?McLemore Resolution
    A congressional resolution would have prohibited Americans from traveling on belligerent merchant ships, but Wilson’s pressure caused the resolution to fail.
    C.    Peace Advocates
    A strong peace movement existed in the United States because many believed that business profited from war.
    D.    Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
    In February 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. The Germans hoped to defeat Britain before American troops could enter the war.
    E.    Zimmermann Telegram and Mexican Revolution
    When British intelligence released the Zimmermann Telegram, Americans took the threat from Germany seriously because of deteriorating relations with Mexico.
    F.    War Message and War Declaration
    Wilson asked for war because of German violations of freedom of the seas and assaults on human rights. He wanted to make the world “safe for democracy.”
       
        IV.    Taking Up Arms and Winning the War

    A.    The Draft and the Soldier
    Congress passed the Selective Service Act that made all men between 20 and 30 subject to the draft. Most soldiers were draftees, in their early twenties, and poorly educated. Blacks, at the urging of the NAACP, joined in the U.S. war effort.
    B.    Indian Enlistees
    Most of the 15,000 Native Americans who served sought to escape lives of poverty and prove their patriotism.
    C.    Commission on Training Camp Activities
    A federal commission, established out of concern over saloons and brothels near training camps, coordinated efforts to provide alternative forms of entertainment.
    D.    Trench Warfare
    The nature of World War I combat was marked by a futile stalemate in the trenches.
    E.    Problem of Venereal Disease
    The high prostitution rates in France helped make venereal disease a serious problem for American troops.
    F.    AEF Battles in France
    The American Expeditionary Force remained independent from the Allied forces, but when they entered the lines they tipped the balance of the war in favor of the Allies.
    G.    Casualties
    About 16 million European soldiers and civilians died as a result of the war. Some 50,000 Americans died in battle and another 62,000 died from disease.

        V.    Mobilizing and Managing the Home Front

    A.    Business?Government Cooperation
    When the war began, government and industry had a strong partnership, with executives serving on war committees. Abuses, however, led to disbanding the committees and to the creation of the War Industries Board.
    B.    New Agencies for Economic Management
    Government agencies were created to manage the task of shifting the nation’s resources to the Allies, the AEF, and war-related production. The largest such agency was the War Industries Board which coordinated the national economy.
    C.    Economic Performance
    Despite mistakes, the mobilized economy delivered enough men and materiel to France to defeat the Central Powers.
    D.    Inflation
    Government policy of liberal credit and setting high prices contributed to wartime inflation.
    E.    Paying for the War
    The government financed one-third of the war through taxes. The other two-thirds came from loans.
    F.    Labor Unions and the War
    Labor unions like the AFL advanced their cause and the cause of their members by entering into a partnership with government. The NWLB was created in 1928 to discourage strikes and urge management to negotiate with existing unions.
    G.    Women in the Work Force
    With much of the work force in the military and with immigration interrupted, women filled many jobs. When the war ended, women lost many of the gains.
    H.    African American Migration North
    Many African Americans moved north to work in industry. This migration changed the black community; it also led northerners to vent their anger on the emigrants.
    I.    Race Riots
    Whites in northern cities reacted violently to the influx of black immigrants.
    J.    Influenza Pandemic
    An influenza pandemic engulfed the world between 1918 and 1919, killing 700,000 Americans.

        VI.    Emergence of the Civil Liberties Issue

    A.    Committee on Public Information
    Headed by journalist George Creel, the Committee on Public Information acted as a propaganda agency.
    B.    Espionage and Sedition Acts
    The Espionage and Sedition Acts gave the government wide authority to crack down on dissenters. More than 2,000 people faced prosecution under these laws.
    C.    Imprisonment of Eugene V. Debs
    Socialist Party leader Eugene Debs gave a speech extolling freedom of speech and criticizing Wilson. Federal agents arrested him; he was sentenced to ten years in prison.
    D.    Roger Baldwin and Free Speech
    This activist advanced the idea that free speech should be aggressively defended.

        VII.    The Bolshevik Revolution, Labor Strikes, and the Red Scare

    A.    Intervention in Russia against Bolsheviks
    Wilson sent 15,000 troops into Russia during the Russian Revolution. The United States also enacted an economic blockade in an effort to destroy the Bolsheviks.
    B.    Labor Strikes and the Red Scare
    More than 4,000,000 workers went out on strike in 1919, sparking a Red Scare.
    C.    Palmer Raids
    Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer staged illegal raids on meeting halls and homes of alleged Communists. Four thousand went to jail, and many were deported.

        VIII.    The Peace Conference, League Fight, and Postwar World

    A.    Obstacles to a Wilsonian Peace
    Wilson’s Fourteen Points provided a foundation for peace talks. They summarized Wilson’s international view of a stable world order based on American principles. However, in negotiating a treaty Wilson faced obstacles erected by his political enemies, by the Allies, and by himself.
    B.    Paris Peace Conference
    Wilson underestimated his task in Paris. The victors demanded reparations from Germany, and most of Wilson’s Fourteen Points failed to gain Allied support.
    C.    League of Nations and Article 10
    Wilson worked hardest on establishing the League of Nations to provide for collective security.
    D.    Critics of the Treaty
    Henry Cabot Lodge led opposition to the treaty. Wilson campaigned for ratification of the treaty, but he suffered a stroke that ended any hope for a compromise.
    E.    Senate Rejection of the Treaty and League
    The Senate rejected the Treaty of Paris and the United States refused to join the League of Nations.
    F.    Collective Security versus Unilateralism
    Americans preferred the tradition of nonalignment and chose to act unilaterally in world affairs.
    G.    Unstable International System
    The spread of Wilsonian ideals resulted in the rise of anticolonialism. Also, German resentment of the peace treaty increased the threat of international instability.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - The New Era of the 1920s

        I.    Introduction

    The 1920s witnessed a boom in consumerism, an explosion in artistic expression, and a growth in leisure time. This change came at the expense of many people and without regard for future problems.
       
        II.    Big Business Triumphant

    A.    Business Consolidation and Lobbying
    The consolidation movement that began in the late nineteenth century continued into the 1920s. Business and professional associations began to engage in “the new lobbying.”
    B.     Fate of Organized Labor
    Public opinion continued to be generally hostile toward unions. Some large corporations attempted to counter the appeal of union through what is known as welfare capitalism.
       
    III.        Politics and Government

    A.    Harding Administration
    Harding began his presidency as a reformer.
    B.    Teapot Dome
    Scandals and corruption plagued the Harding administration.
    C.    Coolidge Prosperity
    Calvin Coolidge, aided by Andrew Mellon, helped private enterprise, a stance that helped him win election in 1924.
    D.    State and Local Reform
    Interest in reform faded in the 1920s, but some innovations occurred on the state and local levels.
    E.    Indian Affairs
    During the 1920s, the government conferred citizenship on all Indians and restructured the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
    F.    Women and Politics
    After attaining suffrage, many women continued to maintain their own organizations through which they engaged in pressure-group politics. Most women, like most men, did not vote.

        IV.    Materialism Unbound

    A.    Expansion of Consumer Society
    Technological advances, modern marketing, and higher wages helped increase the number of consumers.
    B.    Effects of the Automobile
    Mass production and competition forced automobile prices down. Cars brought more independence, spurred road building, and increased oil consumption.
    C.    Advertising
    Advertising expenditures rose dramatically in the 1920s.
    D.    Radio
    As most Americans acquired a radio, it became an influential advertising and entertainment medium.

        V.    Cities, Migrants, and Suburbs

    A.    Farm-to-City Migration
    By the 1920s, over half the people of the United States lived in urban areas. Industrial jobs lured thousands of migrants to the cities. African Americans made up a significant percentage of those moving to urban areas.
    B.    Marcus Garvey
    A Jamaican immigrant, Marcus Garvey headed the Universal Negro Improvement Association, which called for black separatism, racial pride, and equal rights.
    C.    Mexican and Puerto Rican Immigrants
    During the 1920s, large numbers of immigrants from Mexico and Puerto Rico entered the United States.
    D.    Growth of the Suburbs
    Advances in transportation allowed many people to flock to the suburbs to escape the crowded cities.

    VI.    New Rhythms of Everyday Life

    A.    Family Time
    As birth rates declined, divorce rates rose, and life expectancy increased, adult Americans devoted less time to raising children.
    B.    Household Management
    Ready?made clothes, processed food, and mass?produced furniture meant Americans could spend more time on leisure activities, but housewives still worked hard.
    C.    Nutrition
    An emphasis on nutrition led to better diets. That fact coupled with improved sanitation led to increased life expectancy.
    D.    Older Americans and Retirement
    Americans enjoyed improved health in the 1920s, leading to increased numbers of retirees and the need for some minimal assistance for poor elderly people.
    E.    Social Values
    A loosening of social values in the 1920s occurred as traditional ideas of proper behavior came under criticism.
    F.    Employment for Women
    Millions of women continued to move into the work force after World War I, despite gender discrimination.
    G.    Jobs for Minority Women
    The percentage of minority women who worked for pay was double that of white women.
    E.    The New Woman
    Women experimented with new images of femininity, such as the “flapper” look. These changes marked a sharp break with the restraint of the nineteenth century.
    F.    Gay and Lesbian Culture
    An underground homosexual culture began to expand in some cities, despite general intolerance from the rest of society.

        VII.    Lines of Defense

    A.    Ku Klux Klan
    The Ku Klux Klan revived in 1915 to ensure the survival of “Native, white, Protestant supremacy.”
    B.    Immigration Quotas
    Congress responded to nativist pressure and set quotas that prevented large numbers of eastern and southern European immigrants from entering the country.
    C.    Sacco and Vanzetti Case
    Antiforeign sentiment characterized the arrest, trial, and execution of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.
    D.    Fundamentalism
    Many Americans turned to fundamentalist religious beliefs in reaction to what they perceived to be the skepticism and materialism of American society.
    E.    Scopes Trial
    In 1925, fundamentalism clashed with science when John Scopes stood trial for teaching evolution.
    F.    Revivalism
    Through the use of modern advertising techniques, revivalist preachers attracted more followers.

        VIII.    The Age of Play

    A.    Movies
    Movies became a premier American medium, and many films, especially comedies, included social commentary.
    B.    Sports Heroes
    Spectator sports boomed. People began to elevate sports personalities to heroic status.
    C.    Movie Stars
    Movie stars satisfied America’s yearning for romance and adventure.
    D.    Prohibition
    Prohibition proved successful at first, but bootleggers soon made the illicit liquor industry into a thriving business in the 1920s.
    E.    Al Capone
    Al Capone met the demand for liquor, gambling, and prostitutes, becoming the best-known gangster of the era.

        IX.    Cultural Currents

    A.    Literature of Alienation
    Disillusioned writers of the 1920s, known as the “Lost Generation,” indicted modern American society.
    B.    Harlem Renaissance
    Black artists asserted pride in their African heritage. Harlem became the Mecca for many African Americans.
    C.    Jazz
    Jazz, which grew out of the urban experience of African Americans and which blurred the line between composer and performer, influenced a generation of artists.
    D.    Experiments in Art and Music
    Innovations abounded in art, music, and architecture, making the 1920s one of the most creative eras in American history.

        X.    The Election of 1928, and the End of the New Era

    A.    Herbert Hoover
    Hoover advocated the old values of hard work along with the new ideas of associationalism.
    B.    Al Smith
    The Democrats nominated New York Governor Al Smith in 1928. A Catholic and a second?generation immigrant, he appealed to urban ethnic groups.
    C.    Hoover’s Administration
    Having won the election, Hoover began his term with high hopes and with emphasis on personal responsibility.
    D.    Stock Market Crash
    The stock market crash in 1929 led to further dumping of stock. Hoover believed the economy would stabilize, but the crash instead helped begin a devastating depression.
    E.    Declining Demand
    Overproduction prevented economic expansion, forcing producers to fire workers, which exacerbated problems.
    F.    Corporate Debt
    Oligopolies dominated American industry, and once the pyramids started to fail, corporate structures collapsed.
    G.    Speculation on the Stock Market
    Widespread speculation based on margin buying characterized the bull market. When the market crashed brokers called in loans, adding to the panic.
    H.    International Economic Troubles
    International economic conditions affected Americans, and crises abroad aggravated the deepening depression.
    I.    Drawbacks of Federal Policies
    The government bears some responsibility for the crisis because it failed to regulate or restrict wild speculation.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Great Depression and the New Deal, 1929-1941

    I.    Introduction

    The stock market crash in 1929 touched off a crisis that left 13 million Americans unemployed by the time Franklin D. Roosevelt took office. The New Deal transformed the United States, but the Great Depression ended only with outbreak of World War II.
       
        II.    Hoover and Hard Times: 1929?1933

    A.    No Food, No Home
    The deepening of the Great Depression left many Americans jobless and often homeless. Deteriorating diets left many vulnerable to disease. The crisis not only affected people in urban areas but caused great social disruption in the farm community as well.
    B.    Farmers’ Holiday Association
    The Farmers’ Holiday Association encouraged farmers to keep products off the market to drive up prices.
    C.    Bonus Expeditionary Force
    Fifteen thousand World War I veterans marched on Washington to support immediate payment of cash bonuses, but the Senate refused.
    D.    Communists and Socialists
    Communists led numerous protests against conditions in America, but they gained few supporters. Although the Socialist Party fared somewhat better, they won few election victories.
    E.    Hoover’s Response
    At first, Hoover expressed hostility at calls for direct government relief. As conditions worsened, however, he supported several federal responses to the Depression.
    F.    Reconstruction Finance Corporation
    The Reconstruction Finance Corporation aided businesses and state and local governments. The effort to stimulate the economy from the top enjoyed little success.
    G.    Hawley?Smoot Tariff
    Hoover approved a tariff increase, believing it would protect American farmers and manufacturers. Instead, the tariff further weakened the economy.
    H.    Hoover’s Traditionalism
    Hoover continued to believe in a balanced budget, and he vetoed a variety of relief bills.

        III.    Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Election of 1932

    A.    Franklin D. Roosevelt
    Franklin Roosevelt appealed to a broad spectrum of Americans, who admired the optimism that he maintained despite his paralysis from polio.
    B.    Eleanor Roosevelt
    Although shy as a young woman, Eleanor matured into a dynamic and influential advocate of social justice.
    C.    Roosevelt’s “Brain Trust”
    As Governor of New York beginning in 1928, Roosevelt responded vigorously to the Great Depression. Roosevelt and his advisers believed in government regulation of big business and in the need to create scarcity to save the economy.
    D.    1932 Election Results
    Democrats carried the election handily in 1932. Economic troubles continued during the four-month period between Roosevelt’s election in November and his inauguration in March.

    IV.       Launching the New Deal and Restoring Confidence

    A.    Launching the New Deal
    Congress convened in an emergency session, beginning the massive legislative output of the First New Deal.
    B.    First Fireside Chat
    On March 12, Roosevelt addressed the nation by radio, reassuring the people that banks were again safe.
    C.    Beer-Wine Revenue Act
    A deflationary measure, the Beer-Wine Revenue Act legalized the sale of low-alcohol wines and beers and imposed taxes on those products.
    D.    Agricultural Adjustment Act
    The AAA paid farmers to reduce production in exchange for government subsidies.
    E.    Other Relief Measures
    The CCC served as a jobs corps for young men; the Federal Emergency Relief Act extended aid to state and local governments; and the Public Works Administration was established.
    F.    National Recovery Administration
    The National Industrial Recovery Act was the industrial cornerstone for the New Deal. The wide?ranging law revealed the New Deal’s faith in national economic planning.
    G.    TVA
    The goal of the TVA was economic revitalization of the entire Tennessee River Valley.
    H.    End of the First Hundred Days
    Congress approved fifteen major laws by the time it adjourned in June 1933.
    I.    Other Legislation
    Additional legislation was passed in late 1933 and in the spring and summer of 1934, which benefited farmers, the unemployed, investors, homeowners, workers, and the environment.
    J.    Interest?Group Democracy
    The New Deal seemed to promise something for everybody. As the economy began to improve, the president enjoyed great popularity.

    V.    Opposition to the New Deal

    A.    Conservative Critics of the New Deal
    With the arrival of partial economic recovery, many businesspeople and conservatives sharply criticized the New Deal.
    B.    Farmers and Laborers
    Criticism was leveled against codes established by the NRA. The AAA also came under attack.
    C.    The Dust Bowl
    A drought and poor farming practices caused an ecological disaster in the southern plains.
    D.    Demagogic Attacks
    The most notable critics included Father Charles Coughlin, Dr. Francis E. Townsend, and Senator Huey Long.
    E.    Left?Wing Critics
    As the Depression continued, some Americans gravitated toward left?wing parties.
    F.    Supreme Court Decisions Against the New Deal
    The Supreme Court ruled against the New Deal in several cases.

        VI.    The Second New Deal and Roosevelt’s Second Term

    A.    Emergency Relief Appropriation Act
    The Emergency Relief Appropriation Act allowed the president to establish massive public works programs for the unemployed.
    B.    The New Deal’s Cultural Programs
    Cultural programs such as the Federal Theater Project and the Federal Writers Project provided employment for artists, musicians, writers, and actors.
    C.    Control of Business
    Roosevelt decided that if business would not cooperate with government it should be “cut down to size” through antitrust suits and corporate taxes.
    D.    National Labor Relations Act
    The Wagner Act granted workers the right to unionize and bargain collectively with management. It also created the NLRB.
    E.    Social Security Act
    The Social Security Act established old?age insurance for some Americans, a measure that acknowledged a greater social responsibility for the government.
    F.    Election of 1936 and the New Deal Coalition
    Roosevelt won a landslide victory over Alf Landon. The New Deal appealed to farmers, urban voters, former Socialists, unions, African Americans, and southerners.
    G.    Roosevelt’s Court?packing Plan
    Roosevelt sought to gain control over the courts, but Congress refused to accept his Judiciary Reorganization Bill.
    H.    Recession of 1937?1939
    The economy improved by 1937, but a recession ensued when Roosevelt ordered cutbacks in government spending.

        VII.    Industrial Workers and the Rise of the CIO

    A.    Rivalry Between Craft and Industrial Unions
    Craft unions and industrial unions fought bitterly over control of the labor movement.
    B.    Sit?Down Strikes
    The United Auto Workers staged a successful sit?down strike against GM, leading to wide use of the tactic.
    C.    Memorial Day Massacre
    Violence at the Republic Steel Plant exemplified the intense animosity between labor and management.

    VIII.    Mixed Progress for People of Color

    A.    Hoover and African Americans
    African Americans faced racism in the North as well as in the South. Under Hoover, the Republican Party followed discriminatory practices.
    B.    Scottsboro Trials
    In 1931, eight African Americans were convicted of rape in Alabama, even though medical evidence revealed that the female witnesses had lied.
    C.    Organized Opposition
    African American organizations emerged that actively fought for black rights.
    D.    Black Cabinet
    In an unprecedented move, Roosevelt established a group of prominent AfricanAmerican advisers.
    E.    Racism in the New Deal
    African Americans benefited from the New Deal, but the president never fully committed himself to civil rights. Some New Deal programs damaged African Americans.
    F.    March on Washington Movement
    As a protest, many African Americans, under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, threatened to march on Washington. Roosevelt responded with Executive Order No. 8802, which established the Fair Employment Practices Committee.
    G.    A New Deal for Native Americans
    New Deal legislation aided Native Americans by, among other things, reversing parts of the Dawes Severalty Act.
    H.    Depression Hardships of Mexican Americans
    The New Deal did little to help Mexican Americans.

        IX.    Women, Work, and the Great Depression

    A.    Women at Work Outside the Home
    Despite public attitudes against it, more women entered the labor force.
    B.    Job Discrimination Against Married Women
    A significant number of employers had policies against hiring married women.
    C.    Wives and Husbands Face Hard Times
    More married women entered the labor force, but this did not improve the status of women in American society.
    D.    Women in the New Deal
    The New Deal made a number of historic appointments, including the first female cabinet member. Still, the New Deal provided only limited advances for women.
       
        X.    The Election of 1940 and the Legacy of the New Deal

    A.    Wendell Wilkie
    Roosevelt ran for a historic third term in 1940, and the New Deal coalition handily defeated Wendell Wilkie.
    B.    Roosevelt and the New Deal Assessed
    Assessments of Roosevelt vary widely, but scholars agree that he profoundly transformed the presidency.
    C.    Origins of America’s Welfare System
    Under the New Deal, the federal government assumed new and far?reaching responsibilities.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - Peaceseekers and Warmakers: Americans in the World, 1920-1941

    I.    Introduction

    After World War I America assumed an independent position in the world, and most people considered themselves isolationists.

        II.    Searching for Peace and Order in the 1920s

    A.    Peace Groups
    Several peace organizations began working after World War I to ensure international stability.
    B.    Washington Conference on the Limitations of Armaments
    Nine countries met in Washington, D.C., in 1921?1922, and set arms limits in a rare example of disarmament.
    C.    Kellogg?Briand Pact
    The Kellogg?Briand Pact of 1928 renounced war. The accord had no provisions for enforcement, making it more a statement of moral preference than a diplomatic policy.

        III.    The World Economy, Cultural Expansion, and the Great Depression

    A.    U.S. Trade and Investment
    The United States underwent great economic expansion that lasted through the 1920s.
    B.    Cultural Expansion
    American culture, aided by mass production, began to influence the world.
    C.    War Debts and German Reparations
    Many European nations wanted America to cancel the tremendous war debts they owed the United States, but American leaders insisted on payment. When Germany defaulted on reparations, American investors offered loans to Germany to meet its obligation.
    D.    Tariffs and Economic Nationalism
    By the 1930s the international economy faced collapse, economic nationalism manifested itself through tariff wars.
    E.    Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act
    At the urging of Cordell Hull, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act to stimulate trade.

        IV.    United States Hegemony in Latin America

    A.    Criticisms of United States Interventionism
    Critics saw American involvement in Latin America as imperialistic. Many people feared reprisals against American?owned businesses in the region.
    B.    Good Neighbor Policy
    Roosevelt called his approach of exerting more subtle control in Latin America the “Good Neighbor Policy.” American popularity and economic influence increased throughout the hemisphere.
    C.    National Guards and Dictators
    In the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo rose through the ranks of the American-trained national guard to become dictator.  American intervention in Nicaragua ended at the urging of César Sandino, but Anastasio Somoza created a pro?American dictatorship that ruled until 1979.
    D.    Marine Occupation of Haiti
    American occupation of Haiti resulted in the exploitation of Haitians, which in turn generated bitterness toward the United States until American troops left in 1929.
    E.    Backing Batista in Cuba
    In 1933 Cubans installed Ramón Grau San Martín as president. When the Cubans seized American property, the United States helped Fulgencio Batista come to power.
    F.    Control over Puerto Rico
    The Jones Act of 1917 gave Puerto Ricans citizenship, but they had little opportunity to govern themselves. In 1952, Puerto Rico gained commonwealth status, but Puerto Ricans remain divided on statehood.
    G.    Clash with Mexican Nationalism
    In 1938 Mexico nationalized foreign?owned petroleum companies. Fearing that Mexican oil would end up in Germany or Japan, Roosevelt acquiesced to the move.
    H.    Pan?Americanism
    America’s status in Latin America improved with the promise of nonintervention at the 1936 Pan American Conference. This agreement helped ensure hemispheric unity at the onset of World War II.

        V.    Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and War in Europe

    A.    German Aggression Under Hitler
    In 1936, German troops moved into the Rhineland and Hitler formed an alliance with Italy and Japan. The Anti?Comintern Pact united Germany and Japan against Russia. Hitler convinced representatives of Britain and France to not oppose his annexation of Czechoslovakia.
    B.    Poland and the Outbreak of World War II
    Britain and France announced that they would defend Poland’s independence. When Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, they declared war on Germany.
    C.    U.S. Recognition of the Soviet Union
    American businesses profited from Soviet purchases in the early 1930s. Roosevelt recognized the Soviet Union in 1933 to improve trade and to deter Japanese aggression.

        VI.    Isolationism, Neutrality Acts, and Roosevelt’s Cautious Foreign Policy

    A.    Nye Committee Hearings
    Isolationists in the 1930s believed that American involvement in World War I had been a mistake and feared that business interests might take the nation into a war because of ties to Germany and Italy.
    B.    Neutrality Acts
    Roosevelt supported isolationism, a position reflected in the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937.
    C.    Roosevelt’s Evolving Views
    Roosevelt became increasingly troubled by the aggressive behavior of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
    D.    Repeal of the Arms Embargo
    At Roosevelt’s request, in 1939 Congress repealed the embargo and approved cash?and-carry exports of arms.

        VII.    Japan, China, and a New Order in Asia

    A.    Jiang Jieshi
    In the 1920s, Jiang Jieshi ousted Mao Zedong and won the support of the United States, which increased Japanese suspicions of Chinese?American relations.
    B.    Manchurian Crisis
    Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and the United States responded with the Stimson Doctrine of nonrecognition.
    C.    Roosevelt’s Quarantine Speech
    In October 1937, Roosevelt denounced international aggression in his “quarantine speech.”
       
    VIII.    On a Collision Course with Japan and Germany, 1939-1941

    A.    Foreign Policy Debate
    From 1939 to 1941 American interest in foreign policy issues reached an all?time high.
    B.    The Fall of France
    After France fell in 1940, isolationist sentiments in the United States declined. Roosevelt began to aid the Allies with the sale and lease of American military surpluses.
    C.    Lend?Lease Act
    The Lend?Lease Act of 1940 went into effect to help Britain avoid defeat. The United States became the “arsenal for democracy” by lending and leasing American military goods to those fighting the Axis powers.
    D.    Atlantic Charter
    In August 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, which set war aims of collective security, self-determination, economic cooperation, and freedom of the seas.
    E.    Greer Incident
    When a German U-boat fired at an American destroyer, Roosevelt used the incident to shape public opinion toward intervention in World War II.

        IX.    Why War Came: Pearl Harbor and U.S. Entry into World War II

    A.    U.S. Demands on Japan
    When Japan signed the Tripartite Pact the United States stopped selling aviation fuel and scrap metal to them. With the occupation of Indochina, America froze Japanese assets ending most trade, including oil, with Japan.
    B.    Surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor
    On December 7, 1941, the Japanese made a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This attack turned American sentiment sharply against the Japanese.
    C.    Explaining Pearl Harbor
    Roosevelt did not conspire to leave the fleet vulnerable to attack; the Japanese caught the American forces off guard because no one thought they would attack so far from home. The United States declared war on Japan, and three days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.
    D.    Clash of Systems
    The United States sought a liberal capitalist world order with all nations enjoying freedom of trade and investment. The dictators did not.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Second World War at Home and Abroad, 1941-1945

    I.    Introduction

    World War II marked a watershed in American history. The immediate challenge of defeating the enemy directly affected thousands of men and women, while the new world the war created had ramifications for millions of people.

        II.    Winning the Second World War

    A.    Second?Front Controversy
    Americans strongly supported the war, but from the beginning Allied leaders had differences. In particular, difficulties arose over how the Americans and the English would carry the war into Europe.
    B.    Teheran Conference
    This meeting managed to ease the strain and renew relations between the allies.
    C.    D?Day
    The second?front offensive began with the Allied landings at Normandy in June 1944. Less than a year later, Germany surrendered.
    D.    The War in the Pacific
    At first the war in the Pacific, largely the responsibility of the United States, did not go well.
    E.    Battle of Midway
    The Japanese enjoyed early successes, but the Battle of Midway in June 1942 was the turning point in the war.
    F.    Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa
    Facing intense fighting, American forces “island?hopped” across the Pacific, bypassing a number of strongly held Japanese islands. The Japanese and Americans engaged in especially bloody combat on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
    G.    The Atomic Bomb
    The Japanese surrendered after the United States dropped two atomic bombs on Japan.
    H.    The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb
    A variety of military, scientific, and political reasons motivated the U.S.

        III.    Mobilizing the American Home Front

    A.    Office of Price Administration
    To control inflation, this agency was given the power to fix price ceilings on commodities and control rents in defense areas.
    B.    War Production Board and War Manpower Commission
    The WPB succeeded in turning the civilian manufacturing economy into a powerhouse of military industrial might. The WMC recruited workers for the nation’s factories.
    C.    Government Incentives to Business
     Wartime policy encouraged the growth of big business.
    D.    University Research and Weapons Development
    Universities benefited from government grants to aid the war effort.
    E.    Unions and Wartime Labor Strikes
    Despite a “no?strike” agreement with the government, some workers staged walkouts during the war. Congress responded with a bill designed to place limits on labor.
    F.    Wartime Change in Agriculture
    Agriculture mechanized to replace workers.
    G.    Growth in the Federal Government
    The American economy expanded dramatically during the war. The national government also experienced remarkable growth.

        IV.    The Military Life

    A.    The Ordeal of Combat
    Americans faced the stress of combat and struggled to cope.
    B.    Homosexuals on Active Duty
    Many men and women in the armed forces who had a same-sex orientation found the freedom to act on their feelings.
    C.    Postwar Ambitions
    The interaction of people from all over the U.S. facilitated an exchange of ideas. Soldiers returned home with new skills, and many took advantage of the GI Bill of Rights.

        V.    Enemy Aliens, Conscientious Objectors, and Japanese American Internees

    A.    “An Enemy Race”
    Many in the U.S. saw the war against Japan as a struggle against the “Japanese race.” Despite anti-Japanese sentiment, Japanese?Americans fought valiantly for the United States as evidenced by the 442nd Regimental Combat Team.
    B.    Life in the Internment Camps
    The camps were bleak and demoralizing.

        VI.    Jobs and Racism on the Home Front

    A.    African Americans in Combat
    Almost a million African Americans served in the armed forces and distinguished themselves on the battlefield. However, there were a number of racist incidents during the war.
    B.    Civil Rights Movement
    Blacks, more militant and more willing to protest, waged a “Double V” campaign. CORE, which advocated nonviolent direct action, was founded.
    C.    African American War Workers
    When the government prohibited discrimination in defense jobs, thousands of blacks migrated to the North and West to find work.
    D.    Race Riots of 1943
    Racial tensions began to develop in the North. Racial warfare broke out in Detroit in June 1943.
    E.    Bracero Program
    The United States turned to Mexican laborers during the war. The “zoot-suit riot” in Los Angeles in 1943 involved attacks on young Mexican Americans.

        VII.    Women and Children in the War Effort

    A.    Women in War Production
    Women participated in war production on an unprecedented scale.
    B.    Discrimination Against Women
    Wartime needs made millions of jobs available, and many women went to work for the first time. They found that discrimination often characterized the workplace.
    C.    Children in Wartime
    The government became involved in childcare as a result of wartime pressures. Children contributed to the war effort by buying war bonds. Many also dropped out of school to go to work.
    D.    Increase in Marriage, Divorce, and Birth Rates
    During the war, the number of marriages, births, and divorces, rose markedly. The new social dynamic had long?term consequences for women.

        VIII.    The Decline of Liberalism and the Election of 1944

    A.    Wartime Liberalism
    As conservatives worked to limit or dismantle the New Deal, Republicans made gains in the election of 1942. However, in his Economic Bill of Rights Roosevelt pledged to provide jobs, food, shelter, clothing, and financial security to every American.
    B.    Roosevelt and Truman
    The President chose a loyal New Deal trooper to aid him in his reelection.
    C.    Roosevelt’s Fourth-term Victory
    In apparent ill health, Roosevelt defeated Thomas Dewey for a fourth term in 1944. Roosevelt died in April 1945, and Vice President Harry Truman became president.

        IX.    Planning for Peace

    A.    Allied Disagreement over Eastern Europe
    The Allies shared a commitment to defeating the enemy, but they also had a number of differences. The fate of Eastern Europe posed the greatest problem.
    B.    Creation of the United Nations
    In 1944, diplomats established the framework for the United Nations.
    C.    Jewish Refugees
    Six million Jews died in concentration camps during the war, but the Allies took few steps to stop the killings.
    D.    The Holocaust
    The U.S. did too little, too late, to greatly affect the Holocaust.
    E.    The Yalta Conference
    The Yalta Conference of February 1945 shaped the postwar world. As the meeting convened, each of the Allies had its own agenda. Russia wanted a friendly Poland to serve as a buffer state. The Allies agreed to accept a coalition government in Poland and to resolve disputed borders at a later date.
    F.    Potsdam Conference
    At Potsdam, Truman, who knew the United States had achieved atomic capability, showed less deference to Stalin than had Roosevelt.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - The Cold War and American Globalism, 1945-1961

    I.    Introduction

    During the 1940s and l950s, Americans shared a belief in anti-communism and in the importance of economic progress. This consensus lasted throughout the era despite growing social tensions.
       
        II.    Cold War Politics: The Truman Presidency

    A.    Postwar Job Layoffs
    The war ended earlier than anticipated, preventing the government from developing an effective reconversion plan. Consequently, unemployment jumped markedly.
    B.    Beginnings of the Postwar Economic Boom
    The economy rocketed on a 25 year boom.
    C.    Upsurges in Labor Strikes
    Falling real income led many workers to go out on strike, particularly in 1946.
    D.    Consumer Discontent
    Problems associated with lifting wartime price controls caused consumers to express discontent with Truman. However, the Republican-controlled Eightieth Congress offended many interest groups.
    E.    Truman’s Upset Victory
    Republicans expressed great confidence during the election campaign, especially since the Democrats splintered at their convention. Nevertheless, Truman won.
    F.    Korean War Discontent on the Home Front
    The Korean War sparked an inflationary spiral that led to a wage and price freeze in 1951. The war also led to an increase in draft calls and the size of the army.
    G.    Truman’s Historical Standing
    Historians now recognize Truman as one of the nation’s greatest presidents.

        III.    Consensus and Conflict: the Eisenhower Presidency

    A.    The “Consensus Mood”
    White Americans enjoyed a common optimism that the United States was the greatest nation on earth. Historians in the l950s saw conflict as an aberration, not a constant, in American history.
    B.    “Dynamic Conservatism”
    Eisenhower pursued policies friendly to business, but he also recognized that dismantling New Deal and Fair Deal programs was politically impossible.
    C.    Termination Policy for Native Americans
    Under Eisenhower, the federal government moved to limit its role in Indian affairs.
    D.    Election of 1956
    Despite a heart attack in 1955, Eisenhower successfully ran for reelection.
    E.    Eisenhower Presidency Assessed
    Eisenhower produced mixed results, but in recent years historians have judged him in a more favorable light.
    F.    The “Military?Industrial Complex”
    As he left the White House, Eisenhower warned the American people of the “military-industrial complex.”

        IV.    McCarthyism

    A.    Truman’s Loyalty Probe
    In 1947, Truman ordered loyalty investigations of millions of federal workers.
    B.    Victims of Anti?Communist Hysteria
    Film personalities, homosexuals, and others suffered anti?communist smears. Within many organizations, redbaiting was used by some to discredit the opposition.
    C.    Hiss Case
    The House Committee on Un?American Activities investigated a former State Department official, Alger Hiss, for his links to Communist spies.
    D.    McCarthy’s Attack on the State Department
    When Senator Joseph McCarthy announced that Communists controlled the State Department, he started the hysteria that became known as McCarthyism.
    E.    Eisenhower’s Reluctance to Confront McCarthy
    Eisenhower followed an indirect approach in dealing with McCarthyism.
    F.    Army?McCarthy Hearings
    McCarthy made a crucial error by accusing the Army of harboring Communists during televised Senate hearings.

        V.    The Civil Rights Movement in the 1940s and 1950s

    A.    AfricanAmericans Political “Balance of Power”
    Black migrations to the North and West led to a shift in the political composition of those regions.
    B.    President Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights
    The report of Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights shaped government policy for 20 years.
    C.    Supreme Court Decisions on Civil Rights
    African Americans benefited from court decisions in the late 1940s.
    D.    Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
    In 1954, the Supreme Court declared segregated public schools unconstitutional.
    E.    White Resistance to Civil Rights
    Eisenhower objected to a federal role in civil rights, thereby tacitly encouraging resistance to integration.
    F.    Crisis in Little Rock, Arkansas
    When Arkansas tried to block integration of a Little Rock high school, Eisenhower intervened to force compliance.
    G.    Montgomery Bus Boycott
    African Americans protested segregated public transportation in Montgomery, Alabama, by staging a massive boycott of the bus system.
    H.    Martin Luther King, Jr.
    Martin Luther King, Jr., led the bus boycott, beginning his leadership of the civil rights movement.
    I.    Sit?Ins
    In 1960, young African Americans began sit?in demonstrations that marked a shift in the movement.
    J.    Civil Rights and the 1960 Election
    Support for the Civil Rights Movement earned Kennedy the AfricanAmerican vote.

        VI.    The Postwar Booms: Babies, Business, and Bigness

    A.    The Affluent Society
    Americans’ appetites for consumer goods increased. Easy credit was the economic basis of the consumer culture that emerged.
    B.    Increased Purchasing Power
    Real per?capita income increased among Americans, creating a boom that seemed to vindicate capitalism.
    C.    Baby Boom
    The baby boom was both a cause and effect of prosperity. The highest birth rate in American history increased demand for houses and schools.
    D.    Housing Boom
    Along with the baby boom, American families became more suburbanized, creating a greater demand for houses. Low?interest GI mortgages and Federal Housing Administration mortgage insurance helped many people afford homes. Contractors erected rows of houses in record times to facilitate this housing demand.
    E.    Highway Construction
    The Highway Act of 1956 appropriated billions of dollars for the construction of a modern highway system. Federal expenditures on highways made formerly isolated rural areas accessible to average Americans, a development that hastened suburbanization and promoted uniform lifestyles across the nation.
    F.    Growth of the Suburbs
    People left cities and moved to the suburbs for a variety of reasons.
    G.    Growth of the Sunbelt
    Millions of Americans sought affluence by moving to the “Sunbelt,” the southern third of the United States. This mass migration increased the political clout of the area.
    H.    Military Spending
    Military spending also helped the postwar American economy. Defense spending produced rapid increases in the electronics and “high tech” industries.
    I.    Conglomerate Mergers
    Corporate expansion in the l950s took the form of conglomerate mergers, resulting in unprecedented concentration of industry.
    J.    Labor Merger
    The labor movement also underwent mergers of major labor organizations. Unionized blue?collar workers gained wage increases after the war, and they could lead middle?class lifestyles previously reserved for the white?collar workers.
    K.    Agribusiness
    Consolidation and improved technology also drew large investment into agriculture, which brought the decline of the traditional family farm.
    L.    Environmental Costs
    Development led to damage to the environment, but most Americans remained oblivious to the problems. Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring alerted Americans to the dangers of DDT, one of the most damaging pesticides used by Americans. The government banned DDT in 1972.

        VII.    Conformity and Consumerism

    A.    Pressures in Education
    American families became preoccupied with education, seeing success in school as a prerequisite for economic and social success. When the Soviets launched Sputnik I, education became a matter of national security.
    B.    Growth of Religion
    Membership in religious congregations grew steadily in the 1950s.
    C.    Television Togetherness
    The newest luxury item, television, transformed family life in America.
    D.    Women’s Conflicting Roles and Dilemmas
    Although women were expected to be full-time housewives, women continued to enter the labor force. Dr. Benjamin Spock’s Baby and Child Care caused mothers to feel guilty if they did not always think of their children first.
    E.    Sexuality
    Americans’ knowledge of their sexuality was not well advanced as demonstrated by the public outcry against Dr. Alfred Kinsey’s Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.
    F.    The Youth Subculture
    The music industry catered to youth, and youngsters found subtle ways to rebel against social norms. Movies were successful because of the attendance of young Americans.
    G.    Beat Generation
    Beat writers such as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg rejected many of the social mores of the period. They concentrated on freewheeling sexuality and taking drugs, influencing an entire generation in the 1960s.

    VIII.    The Other America

    A.    Women
    Because of occupational segregation, women constituted a disproportionate share of the poor. Women had little protection, and divorce, desertion, or widowhood often meant that women slipped into poverty.
    B.    The Inner Cities
    By the early 1960s, one out of every four Americans lived in poverty. Most of the poor settled in cities, and African Americans made up the bulk of the urban poor. Mexican Americans became the second?largest group of urban poor. Many of them came into the United States illegally, and they created barrios in several large cities. Native Americans were the nation’s poorest people. Accustomed to reservation life, many had great difficulty adjusting to life in the cities.
    C.    Rural Poverty
    Tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and migratory farm workers often lived in poverty.

        IX.    The Election of 1960 and the Dawning of a New Decade

    Young and charismatic, John Kennedy won the Democratic nomination in 1960. Kennedy defused the question of his Catholicism, courted the black vote, and convinced Americans that the Republicans had hurt America’s international standing.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - America at Midcentury

    I.    Introduction

    Harry Truman introduced a new era that saw the United States and the Soviet Union move toward war and back again, exhausting their power and influence in the process.

        II.    Why the Cold War Began

    A.    Decolonization
    Economic dislocation and the aftermath of disintegrating empires characterized the world after World War II.
    B.    U.S. Economic and Strategic Needs
    An expanding American economy became part of an activist postwar foreign policy. In the air age, the United States and the Soviet Union collided as each attempted to establish defensive positions.
    C.    Truman’s Get?Tough Style
    Truman had a brash and impatient style not suited to diplomacy.
    D.    Debate over Soviet Intentions and Behavior
    Critics charged that policymakers often exaggerated the Soviet threat.

        III.    Truman’s Cold War: Europe and Global Containment

    A.    Atomic Diplomacy
    The United States pursued a policy of using the atomic monopoly for leverage.
    B.    Kennan and Churchill Warn Against Soviet Power
    George F. Kennan doubted if Soviets could be trusted, and Winston Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech solidified many Americans’ fears.
    C.    Truman Doctrine
    In response to a British request for American aid against leftist insurgents in Greece and Turkey, Truman announced his commitment to stopping communism.
    D.    The “X” Article
    George Kennan wrote an influential article that argued that the United States should contain Soviet expansion.
    E.    Marshall Plan
    In 1947, the United States initiated the Marshall Plan, funneling billions of dollars into Western Europe.
    F.    National Security Act
    The National Security Act created the Department of Defense, the National Security Council, the United States Information Agency, and the Central Intelligence Agency.
    G.    Fulbright Program and Cultural Expansion
    The United States launched what amounted to a “cultural Marshall Plan.”
    H.    Recognition of Israel
    The United States quickly recognized the new state of Israel in 1948.
    I.    Berlin Blockade and Airlift
    In response to the Allied decision to unite their sections of Germany, the Soviets denied them access to Berlin. Truman responded with a massive airlift.
    J.    Point Four Program
    In 1949 Truman instituted the Point Four Program to improve food supplies, public health, housing, and private investment in Third World countries.
    K.    Founding of NATO
    The Berlin crisis and Soviet development of atomic weapons convinced the western nations to sign the North Atlantic Treaty Organization collective security accord.
    L.    NSC?68
    In April 1950, the National Security Council issued NSC? 68, a secret document asking for increased funds and a publicity campaign to gain support for the expenditures.

        IV.    Asian Acrimony: Japan, China, and Vietnam

    A.    Reconstruction of Japan
    The United States reconstructed Japan after World War II by providing it with a democratic constitution, by revitalizing its economy, and by destroying its weapons.
    B.    Communist Victory in Chinese Civil War
    Despite Jiang Jieshi’s corruption and recalcitrance, the United States continued to back him against Mao Zedong.
    C.    U.S. Nonrecognition Policy
    Mao defeated Jiang and established the People’s Republic of China. Truman did not recognize the new republic.
    D.    Vietnam’s Quest for Independence
    The Vietnamese resisted colonialism, and when French authority collapsed during World War II the Vietminh declared independence in 1945. The Cold War gave the United States several reasons to reject Vietnamese autonomy.
    E.    U.S. Aid to France In the War Against the Vietminh
    The United States bore most of the financial costs of the French war against the Vietminh.

        V.    The Korean War

    A.    Origins of the War
    The leaders of both North and South Korea sought reunification. Kim Il Sung persuaded a reluctant Stalin to approve the June 1950 invasion against South Korea.
    B.    Truman Commits U.S. Forces
    The United Nations’ Security Council voted to aid South Korea and Truman ordered American troops into the region. Truman sent troops because he believed that the Soviets had orchestrated the attack. MacArthur staged a brilliant amphibious landing behind enemy lines that forced the North Koreans to retreat.
    C.    Chinese Entry into the War
    When the Chinese sent thousands of troops into North Korea, MacArthur demanded full?scale bombing of China.
    D.    Truman’s Firing of General MacArthur
    MacArthur denounced Truman’s actions regarding China, leading the President to fire him.
    E.    Dispute over POWs
    Thousands of North Korean and Chinese prisoners did not want to go home; the United States did not return them.
    F.    Costs and Consequences of the War
    More than four million people died in this limited war. The powers of the presidency grew during the war, and the stalemated war helped elect Eisenhower.
    G.    Globalization of Containment
    Worldwide military containment became entrenched as U.S. policy causing an escalation in defense spending.

        VI.    Eisenhower, Dulles, and Unrelenting Cold War

    A.    John Foster Dulles
    Secretary of State John Foster Dulles intoned systematic and uncompromising anti-Communism. Dulles purged the State Department of many specialists, among them Asian experts whose absence adversely affected the American role in Vietnam.
    B.    Eisenhower-Dulles Policies
    “Liberation,” “massive retaliation,” and the “New Look” military became bywords of American foreign policy. Backed by increasing stockpiles of nuclear weapons, the U.S. practiced “brinkmanship.”
    C.    CIA as Foreign Policy Instrument
    The CIA put foreign leaders on its payroll, subsidized foreign labor unions, and engaged in “disinformation” campaigns. The CIA also launched covert operations to subvert governments in the Third World.
    D.    Propaganda and Cultural Infiltration
    The U.S. also allocated assets for radio broadcasts and other media.
    E.    Hydrogen Bomb, Sputnik, and Missiles
    American production of the incredibly powerful hydrogen bomb increased Soviet-American tensions. Following Soviet advances in missile technology, the United States stepped up its missile research.
    F.    Eisenhower’s Critique of Nuclear Arms
    Eisenhower expressed his uneasiness over the arms race.
    G.    Rebellion in Hungary
    When troops crushed a revolt against Soviet power in Hungary, America could do nothing to help the rebels without risking full?scale war.
    H.    U?2 Incident
    The Soviets walked out of the 1960 Paris summit when the Americans refused to apologize for U?2 spy missions.
    I.    Jinmen-Mazu Crisis
    The Formosa Resolution of 1955 allowed deployment of American forces to defend the Formosan islands, which prompted China to develop nuclear capability by 1964.
    J.    “Japanese Miracle”
    The United States rebuilt Japan as a bulwark against communist influence in Asia.

        VII.    At Odds with the Third World

    A.    Interests in the Third World
    Decolonization advanced rapidly after 1945. The Soviets and the Americans sought alliances with the new nations.
    B.    Nonaligned Movement
    Many Third World nations did not want to take sides in the Cold War and declared themselves nonaligned.
    C.    American Images of Third World Peoples
    Americans saw the Third World’s people emotional, irrational, and dependent.
    D.    Racism and Segregation as U.S. Handicaps
    American racism became an embarrassment and a liability in efforts to befriend Third World nations.
    E.    U.S. Hostility to Nationalist Revolution
    Many people believed that Third World revolutions were aimed at American allies and at American investments.
    F.    Development and Modernization
    The U.S. sought to aid developing nations in order to foster stability. The U.S. also directed propaganda toward the Third World to persuade Third World peoples to abandon radical doctrines and neutralism.
    G.    Third World Views of the United States
    People in the developing nations both envied and resented the U.S.

        VIII.    U.S.  Interventions in the Third World

    A.    CIA in Guatemala
    The CIA helped overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in Guatemala in 1951 because the United Fruit Corporation disliked his confiscation of their lands.
    B.    The Cuban Revolution and Fidel Castro
    Fidel Castro’s ouster of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba sparked a serious crisis. When Cuba moved into a closer relationship with the Soviets, Eisenhower encouraged Cuban exiles to invade their homeland.
    C.    Operation Bootstrap in Puerto Rico
    Operation Bootstrap encouraged investments in Puerto Rico from U.S. corporations.
    D.    U.S. Interests in the Middle East
    American policy in the Middle East centered on upholding Israel and protecting the region’s extensive oil holdings.
    E.    Suez Crisis
    In 1956, Egypt nationalized the British?owned Suez Canal. The Israelis, British, and French moved against Egypt, but the United States refused to support them.
    F.    Eisenhower Doctrine
    Eisenhower declared that the United States would intervene in the Middle East if any government threatened by a communist takeover asked for aid.
    G.    Dienbienphu Crisis in Vietnam
    The Vietminh surrounded French troops at Dienbienphu, forcing France to end the war.
    H.    Geneva Accords
    A peace accord divided Vietnam and set a 1956 election to unify the county, but Diem refused to hold the election.
    I.    Backing the Diem Regime in South Vietnam
    The United States backed a corrupt and repressive regime in South Vietnam.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Tumultuous Sixties

    I.    Introduction

    Each administration from 1961 to 1974 promised reforms, but violence also marked the terms of Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon.
       
        II.    Civil Rights and the New Frontier

    A.    “The Best and the Brightest”
    Kennedy surrounded himself with intellectuals with fresh ideas.
    B.    The New Frontier
    Kennedy’s program promised more than the president could deliver, especially since Congress was dominated by conservatives.
    C.    March on Washington
    Student volunteers formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and encouraged African Americans to resist segregation and register to vote. Kennedy gradually began to commit himself to first-class citizenship for blacks. In August 1963, thousands gathered at the Lincoln Memorial for a March on Washington. At this event Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered one of the most memorable speeches in American history.
    D.    The Kennedy Assassination
    Kennedy died in Dallas Texas, and crushed the hope that many held for the future. Many Americans still wonder if Lee Harvey Oswald killed Kennedy.
    E.    Kennedy in Retrospect
    Critics fault Kennedy as president, but he seemed to grow in the office and his untimely death enhanced his reputation.

        III.    The Great Society and the Triumph of Liberalism

    A.    Civil Rights Act of 1964
    At the urging of President Johnson, Congress outlawed discrimination in public accommodations and employment.
    B.    Election of 1964
    Johnson and the Democrats won a tremendous victory in 1964, paving the way for numerous domestic programs.
    C.    Voting Rights Act of 1965
    The federal government became involved in voter registration.
    D.    War on Poverty
    Johnson’s ambitious effort to destroy poverty through education and job training enjoyed mixed success.
    E.    Successes in Reducing Poverty
    Federal programs and economic expansion alleviated a number of problems the poor faced.
    F.    The Warren Court
    Under Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Supreme Court supported judicial activism and handed down a series of landmark decisions.
    G.    Civil?Rights Rulings
    The Court protected freedom of speech, of privacy, of the rights of accused criminals, and upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

        IV.    Civil Rights Disillusionment, Race Riots, and Black Power

    A.    Explosion of Black Anger
    Many black leaders advocated nonviolence, but in 1964 frustration erupted into riots in several northern cities.
    B.    Race Riots
    A bloody riot occurred in Los Angeles in 1965. In this case blacks, not whites, initiated the violence. Riots continued from 1966 to 1968. A federal committee found that white racism had led to the disturbances.
    C.    Malcolm X
    Malcolm X, a symbol of AfricanAmerican pride, was killed in 1965 for moderating his hard?line positions.
    D.    Black Power
    In 1966, Stokely Carmichael encouraged African Americans to express their identity through Black Power.

        V.    The New Left and the Counterculture

    A.    Free Speech Movement
    At the University of California at Berkeley, the Free Speech Movement indicated a new white activism.
    B.    Students for a Democratic Society and the New Left
    Students for a Democratic Society, meeting at Port Huron, Michigan, condemned racism, poverty, and the Cold War. The heterogeneous protest movement referred to itself as the New Left.
    C.    Countercultural Revolution
    Cynicism, drug use, and a contempt for many traditional values shaped the emergence of a counterculture.
    D.    Rock ‘n’ Roll
    The counterculture often found expression for their feelings in rock music.
    E.    Sexuality
    Oral contraceptives led young people to adopt more casual sexual mores.
    F.    Gay Rights Movement
    Many homosexuals became more open, and a 1969 riot in Greenwich Village marked the genesis of “Gay Power.”
    G.    Antiwar Protests
    The counterculture and the New Left both opposed the Vietnam War.

        VI.    1968: A Year of Protest, Violence, and Loss

    A.    Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
    In April 1968, James Earl Ray assassinated Martin Luther King, Jr., touching off widespread violence.
    B.    Assassination of Robert Kennedy
    In June 1968, an Arab nationalist assassinated Robert Kennedy, increasing a sense of despair in Americans.
    C.    Violence at the Democratic Convention
    In August 1968, a riot between demonstrators at the Democratic convention and the police shocked the nation.
    D.    Election of 1968
    In November 1968, Americans narrowly elected Richard Nixon over Hubert Humphrey and George Wallace.
    E.    Unraveling of the New Deal Coalition
    The Vietnam War and the Democratic Party’s support for civil rights and welfare for the poor shook apart the Democrat’s New Deal coalition.

        VII.    Rebirth of Feminism

    A.    National Organization for Women
    The need for action in advancing women’s issues led to the 1966 founding of NOW.
    B.    “Personal Politics”
    Radical feminists preferred confrontational, direct action.
    C.    Working Women’s Burdens
    For working women, the most pressing issue was sex discrimination in employment.
    D.    Women’s Educational and Professional Gains
    By 1973, female participation in professional schools rose. Ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment failed.
    E.    Roe v. Wade
    In 1973, citing a woman’s constitutional right to privacy, the Supreme Court legalized abortions.

        VIII.    Nixon and the Divided Nation

    A.    Kent State and Jackson State
    The United States invaded Cambodia in 1970, leading to huge protests and the killing of four demonstrators at Kent State University and two students at Jackson State.
    B.    Politics of Divisiveness
    The Republicans sought to discredit the Democrats as radical at best and treasonous at worst. Still the Democrats made gains in the 1970 elections.
    C.    Stagflation
    In 1971 the United States suffered relatively high inflation and unemployment, or “stagflation.” Nixon took pragmatic, liberal steps to restore the economy.
    D.    Environmental Issues
    Over Nixon’s opposition, environmentalists made gains during his first term.

        IX.    Nixon’s Reelection and Resignation

    A.    Liberal Legislative Victories
    Democrats still controlled the Congress after 1968, and they continued to enact liberal programs.
    B.    Nixon’s “Southern Strategy”
    Nixon’s “southern strategy” appealed to voters from the Sunbelt and helped Nixon defeat George McGovern.
    C.    Nixon and the Supreme Court
    Nixon managed to appoint four conservative justices to the Supreme Court.
    D.    Election of 1972
    Nixon faced very few serious challengers. In 1972 he took elaborately staged trips to China and the Soviet Union. He was also aided by the rumor planted by his aids that the Vietnam War was near its end. Nixon won a smashing victory in 1972, but the Democrats retained control of Congress.
    E.    Watergate Break?in
    During the election, Nixon henchmen burglarized the offices of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate office complex.
    F.    White House Cover?up
    In June 1972, police arrested five men for breaking into the Democratic National Headquarters. The White House began feverish efforts to destroy any link with the men.
    G.    Watergate Hearings and Investigations
    Judicial and Congressional investigations uncovered misconduct high in the Nixon administration.
    H.    Saturday Night Massacre
    When pressured for Watergate tape recordings, Nixon fired the Attorney General and a Special Prosecutor.
    I.    Agnew’s Resignation
    Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned because of income tax evasion and corruption. Gerald Ford replaced him.
    J.    Nixon’s Resignation
    Facing the prospect of impeachment on three counts, Nixon resigned as president on August 9, 1974.
    K.    Post?Watergate Restrictions on Executive Power
    The excesses of Nixon’s term led Congress to pass laws restraining presidents in foreign affairs, preventing the impounding of federal appropriations, limiting campaign funding, and ensuring access to government documents.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - Continuing Divisons and New Limits

    I.    Introduction

    Developing countries became entangled in Cold War diplomacy because both America and the Soviet Union wanted them as allies. The Third World altered the bipolar nature of the Cold War.

        II.    Kennedy’s Nation Building, Arms Buildup, and the Cuban Missile Crisis

    A.    Nation Building and Counterinsurgency
    Based on the concept of nation building, the Kennedy administration initiated aid programs to help developing nations through the early states of nationhood. The concept of counterinsurgency was the tactic used to defeat revolutionaries in Third World countries friendly to the United States.
    B.    Military Expansion
    John Kennedy vowed to improve the military, and his “flexible response” sought ways to fight any kind of war.
    C.    Berlin Wall
    Kennedy rejected Soviet demands concerning Berlin, and he vowed to defend West Berlin. The Soviets responded by building the Berlin Wall to stop the flow of Eastern Germans into the more prosperous Western zone.
    D.    Bay of Pigs Invasion
    Kennedy inherited the Bay of Pigs invasion plan, but he ordered that no Americans be directly involved. The April 1961 invasion was a disaster.
    E.    Cuban Missile Crisis
    Russia provided military assistance to Cuba and placed nuclear missiles on the island. Discovery of these missiles in 1962 sparked a frightening episode of brinkmanship.
    F.    Kennedy’s Handling of the Crisis
    Critics assert that Kennedy courted disaster in the way in which he handled the crisis.
    G.    Aftermath
    The crisis led to some easing of Soviet?American tensions. However, the Soviet pledge to catch up in the nuclear arms race increased tensions.

        III.    Johnson and Americanization of the War in Vietnam

    A.    Nuclear Proliferation Treaty
    Johnson signed a non?proliferation treaty in 1968, but Vietnam meant that Cold War tensions would continue.
    B.    Kennedy’s Legacy in Vietnam
    Kennedy sent more than 16,000 advisors to Vietnam. Diem created problems because of his oppressive policies and his persecution of Buddhists. The CIA urged South Vietnamese officers to overthrow Diem, and they murdered him in 1963.
    C.    Tonkin Gulf Incident
    Despite flimsy evidence of attacks on American ships, in 1964 Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution giving Lyndon Johnson authority to wage war on North Vietnam.
    D.    Bombing Campaigns in Laos and Vietnam
    In 1964 stepped-up bombing of Laos. After the Vietcong attacked the American airfield at Pleiku, Johnson ordered Operation Rolling Thunder against North Vietnam.
    E.    Troop Strength
    Johnson decided to increase U.S. ground forces in Vietnam in July 1965. U.S. troop strength peaked in 1969 at 543,400.

        IV.    Vietnam: Escalation, Carnage, and Protest

    A.    My Lai Massacre
    A gruesome atrocity occurred at the village of My Lai, where Americans killed some 500 civilians.
    B.    American Soldiers in Vietnam
    Many Americans in Vietnam just tried to survive their tours of duty in a brutal and inhospitable environment.
    C.    Growing Antiwar Sentiment
    Protests at home grew along with the military escalation in Vietnam, but Johnson vowed to continue the war.
    D.    McNamara’s Doubts
    McNamara became convinced that continued bombing would not win the war.
    E.    Tet Offensive
    The Vietcong and North Vietnamese offensive in 1968 ended in an American victory, but many people came to believe that the war could not be won.
    F.    Dollar/Gold Crisis
    Rampant deficit spending to finance the war caused Europeans to redeem dollars for gold, providing further pressure on the Johnson Administration to end the war.
    G.    Johnson’s Exit
    On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced a halt to the bombing of most of North Vietnam, asked Hanoi to begin negotiations to end the war, and announced that he would not run for reelection.

        V.    Nixon, Vietnamization, and the Impact of America’s Longest War

    A.    Invasion of Cambodia
    Richard Nixon announced that the United States would help those nations that helped themselves. In Southeast Asia this doctrine meant “Vietnamization” of the war by replacing Americans with South Vietnamese troops. In 1970 Nixon announced that American and South Vietnamese forces had entered Cambodia. This action sparked violent protests in the United States.
    B.    Cease?Fire Agreement
    In 1973, America and North Vietnam agreed to withdraw American troops, return POWs, account for MIAs, and recognize a role for the Vietcong in South Vietnam.
    C.    Costs of the Vietnam War
    More than 58,000 Americans and a million and a half Vietnamese died in the war. The conflict cost the United States almost 200 billion dollars, and it delayed improved relations with other nations.
    D.    Debate over the Lessons of Vietnam
    Hawks claimed the war taught that the military should be allowed a free hand; doves insisted that losing the war showed the dangers of an imperial presidency.
    E.    Vietnam Veterans
    Post?traumatic stress disorder plagued thousands of veterans, causing them fears and anxiety.

        VI.    Nixon, Kissinger, and Détente

    A.    SALT
    Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger sought détente that would recognize Soviet?American rivalry while creating cooperation through negotiations. The United States and the Soviets signed the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks treaties, which limited ABM systems for each nation to two sites and imposed a five?year freeze on the offensive missiles each side could possess.
    B.    Opening to China
    Nixon extended détente to the People’s Republic of China, and he made a historic trip there in 1972.
    C.    War in the Middle East
    When Egypt and Syria attacked Israel in 1973, OPEC stopped oil shipments in an effort to gain American support for the Arabs.
    D.    Chile
    Nixon plotted covert actions against Salvador Allende, while continuing to deny it.
    E.    Containing Radicalism in Africa
    Nixon viewed the white minority governments in Rhodesia and South Africa as bulwarks against communist inspired radicalism.
    F.    United States in the World Economy
    American interventionism reflected a dependence on raw materials from abroad and the importance of foreign investments. Threats to investments, materials, and markets made intervention appear to be a viable option.
    G.    Economic Competition with Japan
    Economic relations with Japan deteriorated as an influx of Japanese imports caused the United States to suffer from an unfavorable balance of trade.
    H.    International Environmental Issues
    In 1972 the U.S. participated in a U.N.-sponsored environmental conference in Stockholm, Sweden.

        VII.    Carter, Preventive Diplomacy, and a Reinvigorated Cold War

    A.    Carter’s Divided Administration
    Jimmy Carter suffered from indecision and from squabbles among members of his administration, hampering his attempts to advance human rights.
    B.    SALT?II
    The SALT?II Treaty further limited nuclear weapons, but the treaty stalled when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. In the Carter Doctrine, the President promised to defend the Persian Gulf militarily from any Soviet invasion.
    C.    Camp David Accords
    Jimmy Carter helped ease tensions in the Middle East by negotiating an accord between Egypt and Israel.
    D.    Iranian Hostage Crisis
    In 1979 Iranians stormed the embassy in Teheran and took a number of hostages. The United States unfroze Iranian assets and promised no further intervention in Iran in January 1981, and the hostages were released.
    E.    Panama Canal Treaties
    Carter signed treaties with Panama that turned the Canal Zone over to Panama in the year 2000 and allowed the United States to defend the Canal Zone after that time.

        VIII.    The Ups and Downs of Reagan’s World

    A.    Law of the Sea Convention
    The Reagan Doctrine announced that the United States would openly support all anti-Communist fighters. A supporter of free-market capitalism, Reagan rejected the 1982 United Nations’ Convention on the Law of the Sea, which dealt with offshore resources. Furthermore, Reagan believed an intensive military buildup would thwart the Soviet threat.
    B.    Intervention in El Salvador
    Reagan considered the revolution in El Salvador a case of communist aggression, and, citing the domino theory, he persuaded Congress to fund the government there.
    C.    Contra War in Nicaragua
    Reagan, afraid of Nicaragua as a Soviet client, worked to topple the Sandinista regime. The CIA trained rebels, mined Nicaraguan harbors, and blew up merchant ships.
    D.    Iran?Contra Scandal
    The Reagan administration sold arms to Iran and sent the profits to anti?Sandinista forces, in violation of the law.
    E.    U.S. Interests in the Middle East
    The troubled Middle East was strategically and economically important to the U.S.
    F.    Crisis in Lebanon
    Reagan sent troops to Lebanon, where a terrorist attack killed 241 American servicemen in Beirut in 1983.
    G.    South Africa
    Reagan struggled with South Africa’s racist policy of apartheid. Because of public pressure, Congress passed economic restrictions against South Africa in 1986.
    H.    Third World Indebtedness
    Indebtedness of Third World nations caused economic instability and political unrest throughout the Third World, and had an adverse economic impact on the United States
    I.    Debate over Nuclear Weapons
    Reagan’s search for nuclear superiority sparked a worldwide debate and appeals for a freeze in the nuclear arms race. Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev agreed that they should limit weapons but could not reach an accord because Reagan wanted the Strategic Defense Initiative.
    J.    Gorbachev’s Reforms
    Gorbachev worked to modernize the Soviet economy and to liberalize the political system, which eased tensions.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - Conservatism Revised

    I.    Introduction

    Economic problems during the 1970s made possible a conservative resurgence with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. Unfortunately, the Reagan years also polarized America.
       
        II.    Economic Crisis and Ford’s Response

    A.    OPEC Price Increases Fuel Inflation
    In 1973 OPEC raised the price of petroleum, which hurt consumers but added to oil companies’ profits.
    B.    Auto Industry Recession
    Americans began buying smaller, foreign?made cars, leading to a major recession for American manufacturers.
    C.    The Shifting Occupational Structure
    Deindustrialization led to layoffs. As Americans lost high?paying industrial jobs many found themselves in lower?paying service occupations.
    D.    Lagging Productivity
    Lack of capital improvements, declining educational standards, and a declining work ethic created a drop in productivity.
    E.    Easy Credit and Inflation
    Increased buying on credit in the 1970s drove prices up.
    F.    President Ford’s Response
    Ford, following the tenets of monetary policy, cut federal spending and encouraged the Federal Reserve Board to raise interest rates to banks. The nation became mired in its worst recession in 40 years.
    G.    Nuclear Power
    When OPEC lifted its embargo, incentives to find alternative fuel diminished. Despite accidents at nuclear power plants, some advocated more reliance on nuclear energy.
    H.    Gerald Ford’s Presidency
    Throughout his term, very little was accomplished.
    I.    Election of 1976
    Jimmy Carter took advantage of the reaction against Watergate to defeat Gerald Ford in 1976.

        III.    Continuing Economic Problems and the Carter Presidency

    A.    Economic Discomfort in 1980
    Unemployment and inflation produced a very high “discomfort index.”
    B.    Carter’s Flagging Popularity
    Carter’s economic policies angered liberal Democrats. The Iranian hostage crisis and OPEC price increases led to public disapproval.
    C.    Carter’s Domestic Accomplishments
    Carter took noteworthy steps in the areas of energy, transportation, and conservation policy.

        IV.    Conservative Resurgence and Reagan

    A.    Resurgence of Conservatism
    The growth of the Sunbelt, political skepticism, and a new political alignment led to a resurgence of conservatism.
    B.    A Shifting Population
    By 1980 the American population had grown older, and people continued to move to the Sunbelt.
    C.    Reagan as the Republican Candidate
    Promising to follow the tenets of “supply-side” economics, Reagan appealed to a broad range of voters and united the old right and the new right within the Republican Party.
    D.    Election of 1980
    Reagan attracted broad support, and Republicans also made gains in the Senate, House, and governors’ offices.

        V.    “Reaganomics”

    A.    Tax Cuts
    Reagan’s policies produced the largest tax cut in history.
    B.    Weakened Environmental Enforcement
    Reagan appointed opponents of regulation to important environmental posts.
    C.    Hard Times for Labor Unions
    Union negotiators had to settle for less than they were accustomed to receiving.
    D.    Falling Inflation
    Lowered interest rates, increased oil production, and continued unemployment drove down prices.
    E.    Rising Unemployment
    By 1982, unemployment reached 10.8 percent. Supply?side economics did not lift America out of recession.
    F.    Resurgence of Poverty
    Despite increased poverty, especially among minorities and families headed by women, Reagan cut welfare aid.
    G.    The Election of 1984
    An improved economy and his reputation as a strong leader helped Reagan as he faced re?election. Reagan won a landslide, taking every state except Mondale’s home state of Minnesota.

        VI.    People of Color and New Immigrants

    A.    Declining Job Opportunities for African Americans
    Many African Americans suffered severe economic dislocation as the number of blue-collar jobs declined.
    B.    African American Middle Class
    Although the number of poor African Americans increased, the black middle class was also expanding.
    C.    White Backlash
    Many white Americans expressed racial resentment over affirmative?action programs and forced school busing.
    D.    Black Anger
    African Americans felt great anger over what they perceived as a racist judiciary and administration.
    E.    Native Americans
    Native Americans, suffering a high incidence of certain diseases and high unemployment, began to become more militant.
    F.    “Red Power”: Indian Self-Determination
    In 1973 members of AIM seized 11 hostages and a trading post at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. In 1974 Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination Law.
    G.    Indian Suits for Lost Land
    Many Indians sued for compensation and protection through the Indians Claims Commission, but generally Native?Americans’ rights remain vulnerable.
    H.    Hispanic Americans
    Hispanic Americans comprise a large, and increasingly important, minority group in the United States.
    I.    Hispanic Cultural Pride
    Many Hispanics, who prefer their own culture to that of Anglo?Americans, have resisted assimilation.
    J.    New Influx of Immigrants
    The United States absorbed some 13 million immigrants from 1970 to 1990, many coming from the Third World.
    K.    Immigration Reform
    In 1986, Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act to discourage illegal immigration.

        VII.    Feminism, Anti?Feminism, and Women’s Lives

    A.    Antifeminist Movement
    “Pro-family” groups blamed feminism and the women’s movement for many of America’s social problems.
    B.    Equal Rights Amendment
    Antifeminists succeeded in stopping ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment.
    C.    Women Opponents of Reagan’s Conservatism
    Many people condemned Reagan for his programs, which they believed hurt women and children.
    D.    Increased Burdens on Women
    Recession, spiraling divorce rates, and responsibility for the home and family put economic pressure on women.

        VIII.    A Polarized People: American Society in the 1980s

    A.    Increasing Inequality
    Increased poverty caused a widening of the gap between poor and affluent Americans.
    B.    Changing Job Market
    The reliance on low?paying service jobs caused a substantial drop in many American’s standards of living.
    C.    Drugs and Violence
    Illegal drugs, particularly cocaine and “crack,” have been extremely harmful to the urban underclass.
    D.    AIDS
    Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome divided communities and led to a change in Americans’ sexual behavior.

        IX.    Economic Upturn and the Election of 1988

    A.    Mounting Fiscal Deficit
    Under President Reagan, the national deficit rose to an extraordinary level.
    B.    A Conservative Supreme Court
    Reagan appointed more conservative justices to the Supreme Court during his second term.
    C.    Iran?Contra Scandal
    Questions over the illegal sale of arms to the contras and concern with Reagan’s management style hurt the president politically.
    D.    Reagan’s Decline
    The Great Communicator took on the appearance of a tired, bumbling old man.
    E.    Continuing Economic Recovery
    Many people benefited from the six-year economic recovery.
    F.    George H. W. Bush
    After a bitter primary campaign, Vice President George Bush won the Republican nomination.
    G.    Presidential Campaign of 1988.
    The campaign was characterized by the use of clichés and negative attack ads.
    H.    Bush’s Victory in 1988
    Peace abroad and a stable economy at home helped ensure a victory for George Bush over Michael Dukakis.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - Global Bridges in the New Millenium

    I.    Introduction

    George Bush enjoyed great popularity because of his successes in international affairs, but concern over domestic problems hurt him in 1992. Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton made the economy and healthcare into issues that helped him defeat Bush and Ross Perot. Although Republicans won control of both houses of Congress in 1994, Clinton won reelection in 1996. As the economic recovery continued, Clinton continued to face political problems. He was impeached by the House for allegedly committing perjury and obstructing justice in the Monica Lewinsky affair, but he was subsequently acquitted by the Senate. With the nation prosperous and at peace, many expected Vice President Al Gore to win the presidency in 2000. Although Gore won the popular vote, returns from Florida were disputed. Ultimately, more than a month after the election, the Supreme Court halted vote recounts in Florida and gave the state and its electoral votes to George W. Bush. Thus, in the most disputed presidential election since the Hayes-Tilden contest of 1876, George W. Bush was elected president.
       
        II.    Economic and Social Anxieties: The Presidency of George H. W. Bush

    A.    Economic and Social Problems
    An economic recession began in late 1989. Social problems continued, with even the middle-class experiencing a decline in standard of living. With some 13 percent of the population having no health insurance, healthcare caused increasing anxiety.
    B.    Americans with Disabilities Act
    A 1990 act outlawed discrimination against physically or mentally challenged people.
    C.    Failed Promises
    In 1990 Bush broke his campaign promise not to raise taxes, eroding his popularity. Although he promised to be “the education president” and the “environmental president,” he failed in both areas.
    D.    Clarence Thomas Nomination
    Charges of sexual harassment against Supreme Court appointee Clarence Thomas concerned many voters, especially women.

        III.    The End of the Cold War and Global Disorder

    A.    Collapse of Communist Regimes
    East Germany repudiated Communism in 1989, and Germany reunited a year later. In 1991 the Soviet Union dissolved and Gorbachev lost power.
    B.    Why the Cold War Ended
    Both superpowers saw their well?being decline, leading to greater cooperation.
    C.    START Treaties
    America signed two Strategic Arms Reduction Talks treaties with Russia, but by 2000 START II had not been approved by the Russian parliament.
    D.    Tiananmen Square
    In 1989 Chinese officials killed untold numbers of students demanding political change. Still, the Bush administration continued to believe that America’s needs required friendly ties with China.
    E.    Peace and War in Latin America
    Latin America was a major source of immigration to the United States. As civil wars ended in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala, the U.S. accelerated the drug war by attempting to interrupt supply through interdiction.
    F.    Invasion of Panama
    Authorities had ignored Manual Noriega’s role in the drug trade because he supported American policies. In 1990, however, troops invaded Panama to arrest Noriega.
    G.    End of Apartheid in South Africa
    Partly from U.S. pressure, the white minority South African government yielded power.
    H.    Persian Gulf War
    In 1991 the United States and its allies fought a war in response to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait.
    I.    Operation Restore Hope in Somalia
    American troops entered Somalia in an effort to stabilize the nation and forestall the effects of widespread famine.

        IV.    Economic Doldrums, American Voters, and the Election of 1992

    A.    A Stagnant Economy
    The United States suffered a recession under Bush, and by 1992 the number of poor people in America reached its highest level since 1964.
    B.    Scandals in Congress
    Americans expressed growing resentment at congressional scandals and the improper use of privilege.
    C.    Bill Clinton
    Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton won the Democratic nomination. Clinton hoped to institute a new brand of liberalism, but many of his proposals seemed traditional.
    D.    Ross Perot
    Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot mounted a third?party candidacy in 1992.
    E.    Los Angeles Riots
    In 1992, the acquittal of policemen accused of beating an African American sparked a massive riot in Los Angeles. However, Bush remained inactive in dealing with the nation’s urban and racial problems.
    F.    Clinton’s Victory
    The Clinton?Gore ticket made inroads into some Republican strongholds, and the Clinton-Gore ticket won 43 percent of the popular vote in the three?way race.

        V.    Bill Clinton, Newt Gingrich, and Political Stalemate

    A.    Economic Proposals
    Clinton’s sponsored tax increases, coupled with what critics considered to be inadequate spending cuts. Tax increases, spending cuts, and economic recovery caused the federal deficit to decline some $83 billion during Clinton’s first fiscal year in office.
    B.    Legislative Successes
    Clinton did manage to lead some important legislation into law.
    C.    Supreme Court Appointments
    Clinton’s appointment of two justices to the Supreme Court during his first term meant that the Court would be less conservative.
    D.    Defeat of Healthcare Reform
    The failure to deliver on healthcare reform was Clinton’s major defeat.
    E.    A Controversial Couple
    Both Bill and Hillary Clinton found themselves in the middle of controversy.
    F.    Newt Gingrich and the Contract with America
    Republican Congressmen made a pledge to reform the nation by endorsing the “Contract with America.”
    G.    The “Republican Revolution”
    Republicans in this election scored one of the most smashing victories in America political history.

        VI.    Anger, Apathy, and the Election of 1996

    A.    Hostility to Government and Political Alienation
    The U.S. has a long history of antigovernment sentiment. In the 1990s, increasing numbers of Americans shared the three beliefs that all such antigovernment movements have had in common: government has betrayed the people, its leaders are corrupt, and the Constitution has been subverted.
    B.    Failures and Successes of the “Republican Revolution”
    Under the leadership of Newt Gingrich, Republicans in the 104th Congress angered many voters. Clinton began to position himself as the protector of federal programs and policies that the Republicans attacked.
    C.    The 1996 Election
    Clinton easily defeated his opponent, Robert Dole, but did not receive a hoped?for mandate.

        VII.    The Prospects and Perils of Hegemonic Power: Military Interventions, Peace Diplomacy, Trade, and Culture

    A.    Ethnic Wars in Former Yugoslavia
    Savage ethnic wars, as in Bosnia, replaced Cold War tensions. U.S. and NATO forces began to bomb Yugoslavia in March 1999 ultimately forcing Milosevic to withdraw his troops from Kosovo. The U.S. joined the U.N. in sending a peacekeeping force to the area.
    B.    Arab-Israeli Agreements
    In the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War, the PLO and Israel seemed more willing to settle their differences. An agreement was signed between the two in 1993 for Palestinian self-rule in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank’s Jericho. Israel and Jordan signed a peace agreement in 1994. Although terrorism continued to plague the region, Israel withdrew its troops from Hebron in 1997.
    C.    Genocide in Rwanda
    The U.S. and the U.N. responded too late to stop the genocide in Rwanda.
    D.    Pressures against Haiti and Cuba
    American troops were sent to Haiti in Operation Uphold Democracy, but they failed to revitalize the island nation and were subsequently withdrawn. Relations with Cuba continued to be strained, and passage of the Helm-Burton Act in 1996 tightened the economic embargo of Cuba.
    E.    Trade Expansion and Globalization
    The Clinton administration continued to try to keep foreign markets open to American products and to close the U.S. trade gap.
    F.    Weapons of Mass Destruction
    Although weapons proliferation continued to be a major concern, Congress rejected the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996.
    G.    Environmental and Population Crises
    Environmental problems and the continued increase in the world’s population continued to cause world disorder and political instability.
    H.    Human Rights for Women
    Despite gains, women still faced great obstacles to equality.
    I.    Globalization of American Culture
    America continued to export its culture during the 1990s, especially to former Communist countries in Eastern Europe.

    VIII.    Clinton’s Second Term: Scandal, Impeachment, and Political Survival

    A.    Whitewater Indictments and Investigation
    Clinton continued to be plagued by the Whitewater investigation
    B.    Monica Lewinsky
    Kenneth Starr widened his investigation of Clinton to include lying to a grand jury over the President’s relationship with Monica Lewinsky.
    C.    Impeachment by the House
    Based on Starr’s report, the House passed two articles of impeachment against Clinton in December 1999.
    D.    Acquittal by the Senate
    The Senate acquitted Clinton of the charges against him. Political partisanship continued to prevent passage of much-needed legislation. Republican George W. Bush and Democrat Al Gore began to position themselves for the 2000 presidential race.
    E.    Columbine

        IX.    The 2000 Elections, a New Bush, and Terrorism

    A.    Super Tuesday
    Democrat Al Gore, Jr., and Republican George W. Bush swept their parties’ primaries on Super Tuesday and went on to become the presidential candidates of their respective parties for the 2000 election.
    B.    The Polls¾A Close Race
    Although many expected Vice President Al Gore to ride the wave of prosperity and peace to victory in November 2000, by election day the Gallup poll indicated that the race was too close to call.
    C.    Florida and the Supreme Court
    Disputed election returns from Florida led to legal action, first, in the Florida Courts and then, in the United States Supreme Court. In rendering its decision in Bush v. Gore, the Supreme Court, by a 5-4 ruling, halted any further recounts in Florida. This decision gave the state and the presidential election to George W. Bush.
    D.    Early Bush Positions
    Bush’s positions pleased social conservatives, the energy industry, tax reduction advocates, and the insurance industry. President Bush was able to secure passage of a ten-year tax reduction program.
    E.    Economic Slowdown
    The economy moved toward recession by mid-2001, unemployment began to rise, and the projected budget surplus vanished
    F.    Terrorism
    The nation had been plagued by terrorist acts dating back at least two decades.
    G.    September 11 and Its Impact
    The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were comparable, in the minds of many Americans, to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The spreading of anthrax through the mails, which had caused the deaths of four people by late October, added to the nation’s woes. In response to the attacks of September 11, the government announced a war against terrorism and first conducted an air campaign against the Taliban and al-Queda forces in Afghanistan. Tom Ridge was appointed director of the Office of Homeland Security, and the government suggested that some civil liberties might have to be restricted to deal with the new crisis.
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American History: A Survey, 10th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the American History: A Survey, 10th Edition notes. These American History: A Survey notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1160 pages
    • Publisher: Mcgraw-Hill College; 10th edition (July 1999)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0073033901
    • ISBN-13: 978-0073033907

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - Transplantations and Borderlands

     1)The Early Chesapeake

    a)The Founding of Jamestown

    i)Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed, Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607

    ii)Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indians

    b)Reorganization

    i)London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to planters

    ii)Winter of 1609-1610= starving time

    iii)First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline w/ work gangs

    iv)Communal system didn’t work well, Governor Dale thought better off with personal incentive to work and private ownership

    c)Tobacco

    i)1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansion

    d)Expansion

    i)Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlers

    ii)Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of others

    iii)Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)

    iv)1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundant

    v)Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644

    vi)By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crown

    e)Exchanges of Agricultural Tech

    i)Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soil

    f)Maryland and the Calverts

    i)Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture + retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius (second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new land

    ii)1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Maryland

    iii)Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), “Act Concerning Religion” granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655

    iv)Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright system

    g)Turbulent Virginia

    i)Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indians

    ii)Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwell’s victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony

    (1)Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westward

    iii)At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led to recent settlers in “back country” to be underrepresented

    h)Bacon’s Rebellion

    i)Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in west

    ii)Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govt

    iii)Bacon’s army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenly

    iv)Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with natives, also potential for instability in colony’s large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentry—common interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing

    2)The Growth of New England

    a)Plymouth Plantation

    i)1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch society

    ii)Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would “not molest them”. William Bradford was their leader and historian

    iii)Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 “saints” (members of church) and 67 “strangers”, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Cod

    iv)Land outside of London Company’s territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to king

    v)Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur trade

    vi)William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debt

    b)The Massachusetts Bay Experiment

    i)Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.

    ii)Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. 

    iii)Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didn’t separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, “congregation church”

    iv)Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, “city upon a hill” (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a “theocracy”

    v)Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quickly

    c)Expansion of New England

    i)As more ppl arrived many didn’t accept all religious tenets of colony’s leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religious

    ii)Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold off

    iii)Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)

    iv)Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, “liberty in religious concernments”

    v)Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt

    (1)Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, 

    vi)Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)

    d)Settlers and Natives

    i)Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly extinguished by epidemics

    ii)Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops + technique, trade with Indians created fortune

    iii)Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as “heathens” and “savages’

    e)The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and Technology of Battle

    i)First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped out

    ii)Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law

    (1)for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back

    (2)1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerless

    iii)Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutch

    iv)Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower

    3)The Restoration Colonies

    a)The English Civil War

    i)Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeated

    ii)After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary ventures

    b)The Carolinas

    i)Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failed

    ii)Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order

    (1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal crop

    iii)SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation society

    iv)Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolina

    c)New Netherland, New York, and New Jersey

    i)1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New York

    ii)Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch “patrons” (large landowners”, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois ties

    iii)Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valley

    iv)Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crown

    d)The Quaker Colonies

    i)Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fell

    ii)Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylum

    iii)Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authority

    iv)Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a “holy experiment”

    (1)Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land

    (2)PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive.  1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, “lower counties” allowed own rep assembly—result was later Delaware

    4)Borderland and Middle Grounds

    a)The Caribbean Islands

    i)Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly deserted

    ii)Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch

    iii)Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers

    (1)Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumbered

    b)Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean

    i)Small white, successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt, 1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves

    (1)Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves than to protect well-being, worked them to death

    ii)Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community

    (1)Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditions

    iii)Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoples

    c)The Southwestern Borderlands

    i)In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiers

    ii)New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areas

    iii)Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborers

    iv)Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. 

    (1)Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 

    (2)North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success though

    v)Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing them

    d)The Southeast Borderlands

    i)Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas. Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span French

    ii)By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarried

    iii)Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundary

    e)The Founding of Georgia

    i)Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe, interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anew

    ii)Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Anne’s War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713

    iii)Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colony

    iv)1732 King George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholics—all to prevent revolt/conflict

    v)1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colony

    vi)Strict rules stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trustees

    vii)1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assembly

    f)Middle Grounds

    i)Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populations

    ii)In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precarious

    iii)In western borders neither side dominant, in “middle grounds” frequent conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribes

    iv)To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer gifts

    v)17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur traders

    vi)By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw force

    vii)As British and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by 19th century “middle grounds” collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption

    5)The Evolution of the British Empire

    a)The Drive for Reorganization

    i)Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excluded

    ii)Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English markets

    iii)@ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwell’’s Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies,  Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts

    (1)First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third 1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Acts

    iv)Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English needed

    b)The Dominion of New England

    i)1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colony

    ii)James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688  NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims “rights of Englishmen”, strengthened Anglican church

    c)The “Glorious Revolution”

    i)James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688 daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coup

    ii)Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + office

    iii)Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn “Leislerians” and “anti-Laslerians” dominated NY poitics for years

    iv)Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balt’s officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715  5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Church

    v)Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Society and Culture in Provincial America

     1)The Colonial Population

    a)Indentured Servitude

    i)Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at end—in reality left with nothing at all

    (1)Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselves

    ii)Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrest

    iii)1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rate

    b)Birth and Death

    i)Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number  early deaths. But growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growth

    ii)N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigration

    iii)By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growth

    c)Medicine in the Colonies

    i)17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbs

    ii)Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselves

    d)Women and families in the Chesapeake

    i)B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratio

    ii)High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whites

    e)Women and Families in New England

    i)Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young, children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearing

    ii)Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of society

    f)The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

    i)Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies- Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch

    (1)Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)

    ii)Mid 1690s Royal African Company’s monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stopped

    iii)Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force

    (1)Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of masters

    g)Changing Sources of European Immigration

    i)BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased

    (1)French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there

    2)The Colonial Economies

    a)The Southern Economy

    i)Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthy

    ii)South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white

    (1)Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in England

    iii)B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communities

    b)Northern Economic and Technological Life

    i)Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheat

    ii)Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing England

    iii)Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy supplies

    iv)Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to trade

    c)The Extent and Limits of Technology

    i)Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolation

    ii)Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce them

    d)The Rise of Colonial Commerce

    i)At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroad

    ii)Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficult

    iii)Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies, expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. 

    iv)“Triangular trade”, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goods

    v)New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goods

    vi)During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expanded

    e)The Rise of Consumerism

    i)Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goods

    ii)Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealth

    iii)Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertising

    iv)Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educated

    v)Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display

    3)Patterns of Society

    a)The Plantation

    i)Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 ppl

    ii)Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldn’t control markets, when prices fell faced ruin

    iii)Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of town

    iv)Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majority

    b)Plantation Slavery

    i)By mid-18th cent ¾ blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, ½ lived w/ 50+

    ii)In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African lore

    iii)Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run away

    iv)Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedom

    c)The Puritan Community

    i)Social unit of NE was town, “covenant” of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a “common”, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govt

    ii)English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritance

    iii)Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new town

    iv)Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.

    d)The Witchcraft Phenomenon

    i)Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690s

    ii)Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for “independent women”

    iii)Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstream

    e)Cities

    i)Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)

    ii)Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.

    iii)Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas

    4)Awakenings and Enlightenments

    a)The Pattern of Religions

    i)Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Rome

    ii)Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despair

    b)The Great Awakening

    i)Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with God

    ii)Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edward

    c)The Enlightenment

    i)Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledge

    ii)Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didn’t challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianity

    d)Education

    i)Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647 law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, women’s rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to education

    ii)Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans)  created to train ministers, William and  Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutions

    e)The Spread of Science

    i)Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. 

    ii)Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation, spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common procedure

    f)Concepts of Law and Politics

    i)Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurate

    ii)Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limited

    iii) Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Empire in Transition

     1)Loosening Ties

    a)A Tradition of Neglect

    i)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits

    ii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism

    iii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power

    b)The Colonies Divided

    i)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service

    ii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies

    2)The Struggle for the Continent

    a)New France and the Iroquois Nation

    i)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior

    ii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy 

    iii)“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships

    iv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground

    b)Anglo-French Conflicts

    i)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French

    ii)King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English

    iii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748

    iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated

    v)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender

    c)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War

    i)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. 

    (1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English

    ii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction

    iii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760

    iv)Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R

    v)War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions

    vi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs

    vii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble

    3)The New Imperialism

    a)Burdens of Empire

    i)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable

    ii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies

    iii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way

    iv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure

    (1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire

    b)The British and the Tribes

    i)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line

    (1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists

    ii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs

    iii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well

    c)The Colonial Response

    i)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing

    ii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners

    iii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies

    iv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents 

    v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers

    vi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor

    vii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems

    viii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance

    (1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed

    4)Stirrings of Revolt

    a)The Stamp Act Crisis

    i)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval

    ii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps

    iii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.

    iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological

    v)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)

    b)The Townshend Program

    i)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power

    ii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused

    iii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax

    iv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent

    v)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA

    vi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement

    vii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on tea

    c)The Boston Massacre

    i)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market

    ii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl

    iii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd

    iv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s

    d)The Philosophy of Revolt

    i)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments

    ii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked

    iii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers

    iv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community

    v)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority

    e)The Tea Excitement

    i)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas

    ii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants

    iii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed

    iv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty

    v)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”

    vi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses

    vii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion

    viii)Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance

    5)Cooperation and War

    a)New Sources of Authority

    i)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts

    ii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress

    iii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions

    (1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority

    (2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation

    (3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston

    (4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements

    (5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization

    iv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired

    b)Lexington and Concord

    i)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training “minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775

    ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army

    iii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The American Revolution

     1)The States United

    a)Defining American War Aims

    i)2nd  Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle ground

    ii)“Olive Branch Petition” conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”

    iii)Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted “Prohibitory Act” w/ naval blockade

    iv)January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruption

    b)The Decision for Independence

    i)After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish independent govt’s from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independence

    ii)Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament 

    iii)Dec. inspired French Revolution’s Dec. of the rights of Men, claimed sovereign “United States of America”, led to increased foreign aid

    c)Responses to Independence

    i)At news of Dec many rejoiced others disapproved b/c still had great loyalty to king, called themselves Loyalists but independents called them Tories

    ii)States drafted constitutions to replace loyal govts by 1781, states considered centers of authority but war required central direction

    iii)1777 Articles of Confederation passed to confirm weak, decentralized system in place. Continental Congress was main coordinator of war effort

    d)Mobilizing for War

    i)Nation needed to raise, organize, equip, and pay for army. W/o British markets shortages of materials, gunsmiths couldn’t meet demand for funs and ammunition. Most supplies captured from Brits or supplied by Eur nations

    ii)Financing problematic, Congress had no power to tax ppl + had to ask states for funds. Eventually issued paper money, led to inflation, value of money plummeted. Most farmers + merchants preferred business w/ British who could pay for goods in gold and silver. Govt forced to borrowed $ from other nations

    iii)After patriotic surge 1775 few American army volunteers. States used persuasion, force, drafts. To correct problem of states controlling army units 1775 created Continental army w/ single commander, George Washington. In new nation unsure of structure and govt, he provided the army and the ppl a symbol of stability around which they could rally, held nation together

    2)The War for Independence

    a)The First Phase: New England

    i)After Concord and Lexington American forces besieged army of General Thomas Gage in Boston, Battle of Bunker Hill fought June 1775. Heaviest British casualties of entire war occurred

    ii)By 1776 Brits concluded Boston not best place to wage war from b/c of geography and fervor. March 1776 withdrew to Halifax, Nova Scotia

    iii)In south Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists February 1776 at Moore’s Creek Bridge, NC. In north Americans invaded Canada, Patriot General Benedict Arnold + Richard Montgomery threatened Quebec in order to remove British threat and recruit Canadians. Siege failed, Canada not to become part of US

    iv)British evacuation not so much victory as changing English assumptions about war. Clear conflict not local phenomenon around Boston but larger war

    b)The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region

    i)During summer 1776 British army of 32,000 landed in New York City under William Howe. Americans rejected Howe’s offer or royal pardon, Washington’s 19,000 man army pushed backed from LI, thru NJ, to PA

    ii)Eur warfare was seasonal activity, British settled for winter in NJ leaving outpost of Hessians at Trenton. Christmas 1776 Washington attacked across Deleware

    iii)British 1777 sought to capture Philadelphia to discourage Patriots, rally Loyalists, end war quickly. Captured city September, Washington defeated at Germanton in October, went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. CC, dislodged from capital, met in York, PA

    iv)British John Burgoyne led British campaign in north, at first successful- captured supplies of Fort Ticonderoga. Defeats led Congress to remove General Philip Schuyler and replace with Horatio Gates. But series of Patriot victories followed, Burgoyne forced to withdraw to Saratoga where Gates surrounded him and forced surrender of 5,000 man army

    v)Campaign Patriot success, led to alliance btwn US and France

    vi)British failure due to William Howe abandoning northern campaign and letting Burgoyne fight alone, allowed Washington to retreat and regroup instead of finishing him, left Continental army unmolested in Valley Forge

    c)The Iroquois and the British

    i)Iroquois Confederacy declared neutrality in 1776, but Joseph and Mary Brant persuaded some tribes to support British (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga). Belived British victory would stem white movement onto tribal lands

    ii)Only 3 of 6 nations supported British(Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga split)

    d)Securing Aid From Abroad

    i)Failure of Brits to crush Continental army in mid-Atlandtic states + rebel victory at Saratoga was turning point

    ii)After Dec of Indep, US sent reps to Europe’s capitals to negotiate commercial treaties. Most promising potential Ally was France where King Louis XVI and his Count de Vergennes eager to see Britain lose part of empire

    iii)Thru covert deals French supplied Americans supplies but would not officially recognize US diplomatically. Ben Franklin went to France, after news of Saratoga in February France formally recognized US as nation. Allowed for expanded assistance- money, munitions, navy

    e)The Final Phase: The South

    i)After defeat at Saratoga and French intervention British govt put limit on commitment to conflict, tried to enlist loyalist dissidents believed to be centered in South to fight from within

    ii)British forced moved from battle to battle 1778-1781, but much less Loyalist sentiment than predicted. Some refused to rise up b/c of fear of Patriot reprisal + British attempts to free slaves in order to fight. Patriots=no threat to slavery

    iii)British had disadvantage of enemy in hostile territory, new form of combat. Segments of population previously apathetic now forced to involve themselves

    iv)In North fighting stalemate after British moved forces to New York. Benedict Arnold became traitor, scheme to betray Patriot fort at West Point was foiled

    v)In South British captured Savannah 1778, Port of Charleston 1780. Won conventional battles but harassed as they moved thru countryside by Patriot guerillas. Lord Cornwallis (Brit general for South) defeated Patriot Horatio Gates, led Washing to give command to Gen. Nathanael Greene

    vi)Battle of King’s Mountain 1780 a Patriot victory, Greene split army into small, fast contingents and refrained from open battles. British had to abandon Southern campaign after battle at Guilford Courth House, NC in 1781

    vii)Cornwalis ordered by Clinton to wait for ships at Yorktown. Washington, French Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, and Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse all coordinated army and navy to surround British on peninsula

    viii)Cornwallis surrendered October 17, 1781. Fighting over, but Brits continued to hold seaports of Savannah, Charleston, Wilmington, & New York

    f)Winning the Peace

    i)Cornwallis’s defeat let to outcry aginsnt war, Lord North resigned and Lord Shelbrune succeeded. British emissaries in France began speaking to diplomats there (Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay). Final settlement Peace of Paris signed Sept 1783 when France and Spain also agreed to end hostilities

    ii)Treaty recognized US independence, gave land from southern Canada to north boundary of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi River

    3)War and Society

    a)Loyalists and Minorities

    i)Up to 1/5 of white population Loyalists- some officeholders in imperial govt, others merchants engaged in trade tied to imperial system, others who had lived in isolation of revolutionary ideas, others expected Brits to be victors

    ii)Hounded by Patriots, harassed by legislative and judicial actions- fled to Canada or to England. Most Loyalists of average means but many were wealthy, after they left estates and social and economic leadership vacancies

    iii)Anglicans were mostly Loyalists, in colonies where it was official religion (such as MA and VA). Taxes to church halted, support from England ceased, few ministers remained. Quakers weakened b/c their pacifism unpopular

    iv)Catholic Church gained respect b/c most American Caths supported Patriot cause, French alliance brought Cath troops and ministers. Gratitude eroded hostility, after war Vatican named Father John Caroll American archbishop

    b)The War and Slavery

    i)War led to some slaves to escape due to British presence in South + their policies meant to disrupt American war effort. Revolutionary ideas introduced slaves to idea of liberty. This situation put slave dominated states like SC and Georgia to be ambivalent to revolution b/c opposed British emancipation efforts but feared revolution would foment slave rebellions

    c)Native Americans and the Revolution

    i)Patriots and Brits wanted Indians to remain neutral, and by and large they did. Some supported British b/c feared replacing ruling class whom they had developed limited trust with and who had fought against white expansion

    ii)Patriot victory weaked natvies bc increased white demand for western lands, many Americans resented Mohawk and other Indians assistance to British and wanted to treat them as conquered people

    iii)Revolution increased deep divisions and made it difficult for tribes to form common front for resistance b/c of neutral and pro-Brit alliances

    iv)After war Indian and American fighting continued w/ Indian raids against froneir whites, white militia responded with attacks into Indian territories

    d)Women’s Rights and the Women’s Roles

    i)Patriot men going off to fight eft wives, mothers, sisters in charge of farms and businesses- sometimes successful and other times not so much. In many cities and towns impoverished women class emerged

    ii)Sometimes women chose, other times forced to join camps of Patriot armies, raised morale and performed necessary tasks on cooking, nursing, cleaning. Some women ended up in combat (legendary Molly Pitcher)

    iii)After revolution certain assumptions about women questioned- some like  Abigail Adams called for modest expansion of women’s rights and protections. Others such as Judith Sargent Murray wanted equal education and rights

    iv)New era for women did not arrive, legal doctrines of English common law gave married women barely any rights, Rev did not change these legal customs

    v)Revolution encouraged ppl to reevaulate contributions of women b/c of womens participation in revolution and part general reevalutaion of American life after struggle- search for a cultural identity

    e)The War Economy

    i)No longer protection of trade by British navy, no more access to markets of the empire including Britain itself. Privateering used by Americans to pretty on Brit commerce. 

    ii)End of imperial relation in long run opened up enormous new areas of trade for nation b/c no more Brit regulations. Trade w/ Asia, South America, Caribbean

    iii)End of English imports thru prewar boycotts and war itself led to stimulation of domestic manufacturing of necessities, desire for sufficiency grew

    4)The Creation of State Governments

    a)The Assumptions of Republicanism

    i)Republicanism meant all power came from ppl, active citizenry important and could not be just a few powerful aristocrats and mass of dependent workers- idea of independent landowner was basic political ideology

    ii)Opposed Eur ideas of inherited aristocracy- talents and energies of individuals and not birth would determine role in society- equality of opportunity

    b)The First State Constitutions

    i)States decided tat constitutions had to be written b/c believed vagueness of England’s unwritten constitution produced corruption, believed power of executive had to be limited, separation of executive from legislature

    ii)Except GA and PA upper and lower chambers, property requirements for voters

    c)Revising State Governments

    i)By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they were too democratic—steps taken to limit popular power

    ii)To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet again

    iii)Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppl

    d)Toleration and Slavery

    i)New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and state

    ii)Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives

    5)The Search for A National Government

    a)The Confederation

    i)Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781

    b)Diplomatic Failures

    i)GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empire’s markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refused

    ii)Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Florida’s borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articles

    c)The Confederation and the Northwest

    i)Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of 1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schools

    ii)Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibited

    iii)S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolved

    d)Indians and the Western Lands

    i)Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement, but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indians

    ii)Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s. Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded lands

    e)Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shays

    i)Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested funds

    ii)Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederation

    iii)To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New England

    iv)Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Constitution and The New Republic

     1)Framing A New Government

    a)Advocates of Centralization

    i)Confederation had averted the danger of remote and tyrannical authority, but during 1780s powerful groups began to want a national govt capable of dealing with nation’s problems- mainly economic that affected themselves

    ii)Artisans wanted a single high national duty, merchants wanted a single, national commercial policy, people owed money wanted states to stop issuing paper money and causing inflation, land owners wanted protection from mobs

    iii)Reformers led by Alexander Hamilton called for convention. Inter-state conference on trade held in MA advised congress to call a convention to “render the constitution… adequate to the exigencies of the union” in 1786

    iv)George Washington’s support of new convention in Philadelphia 1787 gave it credibility, feared disorders like Shay’s Rebellion spreading

    b)A Divided Convention

    i)55 delegates from all but RI, mainly young, educated, and propertied

    ii)Washington chosen as presiding officer, sessions closed to public and press

    iii)VA delegation led by James Madison, had plan drafted. Edmund Randolph proposed a new nat’t govt with executive, judiciary, legislature

    iv)VA Plan called for 2 house legislature w/  lower house based on population and upper house elected by lower house

    v)Proposal opposed by Delaware, NJ, other small states. Proposal by William Paterson of NJ would reform Confederation + give it power to tax. Tabled, VA Plan remained basis for discussion

    vi)VA Plan supporters realized concessions to small states needed for agreement, conceded upper house be elected by state legislatures, each state at least 1 rep

    vii)Questions of equal rep in upper house, of slaves counted in states population but feared would be taxed if states taxed based on population

    c)Compromise

    i)In July grand committee established with Franklin as head, produced basis of “Great Compromise” where lower house would be based on populating with each slave counted as 3/5 o of a person in representation and direct taxation, in upper house each state had 2 reps- July 16, 1787 compromise accepted

    ii)Reps agreed legislature forbidden to tax exports b/c of Southern fear of interfering with cotton economy, slave trade couldn’t be stopped for 20 years

    iii)Constitution provided no definition of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights that would restrain powers of nat’l govt

    d)The Constitution of 1787

    i)James Madison created VA Plan, helped resolve question of sovereignty and of limiting power

    ii)Sovereignty at all levels, nat’l and state, came from people. States and nat’l govt both had sovereignty from ppl and therefore Constitution could distribute powers btwn federal govt and states- but Constitution was “supreme law”

    iii)Federal govt had power to tax, regulate commerce, control currency, pass laws

    iv)Leaders frightened of creating a tyrannical govt, believed small nation needed to stop corruption. Madison convinced others that large nation would produce less tyranny b/c many factions would check one from being too powerful

    v)Separation of powers + checks and balances forced branches to compete, federal structure divided power btwn states and nation

    vi)Fear of despotism, but also fear of the “mob” and “excess of democracy”, only House of Reps elected directly by ppl. 

    vii)Constitution signed on September 17, 1787

    e)Federalists and Antifederalists

    i)Delegates decided that Constitution would come into existence when 9 of 13 states had ratified it thru conventions instead of unanimous state legislature approval required by Articles

    ii)Supporters of Const well organized, supported by Washington and Franklin, called themselves Federalists. Had best political philosophers in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. Wrote Federalist Papers arguing for Const under pseudonym Publius

    iii)Antifederalists believed Const would betray principles of Revolution by establish a strong, potentially tyrannical central govt that would increase taxies, obliterate states, favor the “well born”. 

    (1)Biggest complaint was that Const lacked a bill of rights, any govt with central authority could not be trusted to protect citizens’ liberties, therefore natural rights had to be enumerated in order to be preserved

    iv) Federalists feared disorder, anarchy, power of masses, Antifederalists feared the state more than they did the ppl, feared concentrated power

    v)Delaware first to ratify, New Hampshire 9th state in June 1788. New govt could not flourish w/o participation of VA and NY. VA, NY, MA ratified on assumption that bill of rights would be added

    f)Completing the Structure

    i)First elections took place 1789, George Washington elected first president unanimously, John Adams became VP- inauguration April 30, 1789

    ii)First Congress passed bill of rights 1789, 10 ratified by states by end of 1791. Nine forbid Congress from infringing basic rights, 10th reserved powers to states unless specifically withheld from them or delegated to fed govt

    iii)Judiciary Act of 1789 created 6 member Supreme court, 13 district courts, 3 courts of appeal, Sup Court had final decision in constitutionality of state laws

    iv)Congress created departments of executive- State led by Jefferson, Treasury by Hamilton, War by Henry Knox, attorney general Edmund Randolph

    2)Federalists and Republicans

    a)Hamilton and the Federalists

    i)Federalists dominated govt for 12 years under leadership of Treasurer Alexander Hamilton (Washington supported, but avoided direct involvement)

    ii)Believed stable and effective govt required enlightened ruling class, therefore rich and powerful needed stake in its success

    iii)To do so made govt responsible for existing debt + states debts, would create new large national debt w/ continuous bonds issued to give wealthy stake

    iv)Creation of federal bank would fill absence of developed banking system, safe place for deposit of federal funds, collect taxes and pay expenses

    v)Funding of debts required new revenue to pay bonds interest, govt sales of Western land not enough. Hamilton proposed tax on alcohol distillers- heavy toll on whiskey distillers of backcountry PA, VA, NC- & tariff on imports to raise $ + stimulate growth of industry- his 1791 “Report on Manufactures

    b)Enacting the Federalist Program

    i)Few members opposed plan for funding nat’l debt, but disagreement over whether payment should be to original holders or to speculators who bought many bonds from originals during hard times of 1780s. James Madison proposed dividing btwn two. Hamilton won out and current bondholders paid

    ii)Hamilton faced stiffer opposition to fed’l assumption of state debts b/c ppl of states with few debts (such as VA) would pay taxes to service large debts of other states (like MA). Compromise w/ Virginians moved capital from Philadelphia to a southern location along Potomac R.  for VA support of bill

    iii)Bank bill most heated debate, Madison, Jefferson, Randolph, others argued Congress should exercise no powers Const did not assign it. Bill passed House and Senate, Bank of United States began operating 1791 under 20 yr charter

    iv)Passage of excise tax and tariff 1792. Whole program won support of the influential population- restored public credit, speculators, manufacturing + merchants prospered. However, small farmers (maj of pop) complained of tax burden, taxes to state, excise tax on distillation, + tariff- feeling Federalist program served interests not of ppl but of wealthy elites

    c)The Republican Opposition

    i)Framers believed organized political parties dangerous, should be avoided would lead to factions (Madison Fed Papers #10), but eventually Madison and others convinced that Hamilton and Federalists had become a majority and used their power to control appts, offices, and rewards to supporters

    ii)B/c Federalist structures thought to resemble corrupt Brit govt and menacing structure, critics felt only alternative vigorous opposition thru emergence of alternative political organization- the Republican Party

    iii)By late 1790s Republicans creating even greater apparatus of partisan influence- correspondence btwn groups, influenced state and local elections

    iv)Both groups believed represented only legitimate interest group, neither conceded right of other to exist- factionalism known as “first party system”

    v)Leaders of Repubs James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson believed in an agrarian republic w/ independent farmer-citizens tilling own soil. Didn’t oppose commerce, trade or industry, but feared cities, urban mobs, and advanced industrial economy b/c of increase of propertyless workers

    3)Establishing National Sovereignty

    a)Securing the Frontier

    i)1791 PA farmers refused to pay whiskey excise tax, Washington called militia from 3 states, Whiskey Rebellion collapsed- intimidation won allegiance

    ii)Fed govt won loyalty of frontiersmen by accept territories as new states (NC 1789, RI 1791 last of 13 colonies)- VT 1791, Kentucky 1792, Tennessee 1796

    b)Native Americans and the New Nation

    i)Clashes with natives raised question of Indians’ place of in federal structure. Constitution recognized tribes as legal entities, but not outright nations

    ii)Constitution did not address main issue of land, Indians lived within US boundaries but offered some measure of sovereignty

    c)Maintaining Neutrality

    i)In 1791 GB sent first minister to US, question of US neutrality arose in 1793 when French govt from revolution of 1789 went to war with GB

    ii)French rep to US Edmond Genet violated Neutrality Act and tried to recruit Americans to French cause- US ships as privateers, raids against Spanish

    iii)GB Royal Navy began seizing US ships trading w/ French in West Indies1794, anti-British feelings high, Hamilton concerned b/c war meant end to English imports- main revenue for financial system dependent from duties

    d)Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty

    i)Hamilton feared pro-French State Dept, had Washington send Chief Justice and Federalist John Jay to negotiate treaty with GB

    ii)Jay’s Treaty in 1794 failed to compensate Brit assaults on ships and withdrawal of Brit forces from frontier, but prevented war, established American sovereignty over Northwest, satisfactory commercial relationship

    iii)American backlash followed b/c not enough Brit promises, Republicans and some Federalists offered opposition but ultimately ratified by Senate

    iv)Jay’s treaty allowed peace to be made with Spain b/c raised fears of Brit/American alliance in North America, Pinckney’s treaty 1795 recognized US right to Mississippi, Florida border, control of Indian raids from FL

    4)The Downfall of the Federalists

    a)The Election of 1796

    i)Washington retired 1797, in “Farewell” worried over foreign influence on gov’t, including French efforts to frustrate Federalist diplomatic program

    ii)Open expression of political rivalries after Washington- Jefferson running for Republicans, Hamilton too many enemies so VP John Adams Fed candidate

    iii)Federalists could win majority of electors 1796 pres. election for Adams but factional fighting within party caused second candidate Thomas Pinckney to receive many votes- resulted in Jefferson finishing second, became VP. 

    iv)Federalists divided, strong Republicans opposition, Hamilton still lead party

    b)The Quasi War with France

    i)US relations w/ GB + Spain improved after treaties, deteriorated w/ France b/c of impressments of US ships and sailors

    ii)President Adam’s pursued reconciliation by appointing bi-partisan commission of Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry to negotiate

    iii)French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded loan and bribe, Adams turned over report of this to Congress w/ names deleted- “XYZ Affair” caused outrage at France, Federalist gained support for response

    iv)Adams asked Congress to cut off trade, 1798 created Dept of Navy (very successful capturing French ships), cooperated w/ GB

    v)France reconciled, new govt of Napoleon 1800 new commercial arrangements

    c)Repression and Protest

    i)Conflict w/ France led to Federalist majority 1798, to silence Republican opposition passed the Alien and Sedition Acts

    ii)Alien Acts restricted places obstacles for foreigners becoming citizens, Sedition Act allowed govt to prosecute libelous or treasonous activity- but definitions allowed govt to stifle any opposition—Repubs fought back

    iii)Adams cautious in implementation but still repressive, Republican leaders hoped for reversal from state legislatures 

    iv)Jefferson + Madison had VA, KY adopt resolutions arguing when govt exercised undelegated powers, its acts “void”. Used Locke’s “compact theory”: states were part of contract, fed govt had breached contract, therefore states could “nullify” the appropriate laws—only VA and KY did so

    v)By late 1790s national crisis b/c nation so politically divided

    d)The “Revolution” of 1800

    i)1800 pres election saw same candidates- Adams’ and Jefferson’s supporters showed no restraint or dignity in their assaults against other 

    ii)Crucial contest in New York where Aaron Burr (candidate for VP) mobilized Rev War veterans, the Tammany Society, to serve as Repub political machine- Repubs eventually won the state and election

    iii)In partisan atmosphere Jefferson and Burr votes tied, the previous Federalist Congress had to choose between the two in a vote (H of Reps decides when no majority), ultimately Hamilton and Federalists elected Jefferson

    iv)After election only judiciary branch still Federalist, Judiciary Act of 1801 had created many new positions which Adams had filled before leaving office

    v)Republican viewed victory as savior from tyranny, believed new era would begin where

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Jeffersonian Era

     1)The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

    a)Patterns of Education

    i)Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republic

    ii)By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay. Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor

    iii)Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant, late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training

    iv)Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans very little schooling- literacy rate very small

    v)Higher education not public, private contribution + tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education

    b)Medicine and Science

    i)Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled w/ introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments. 

    ii)Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives

    c)Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation

    i)After Eur independence ppl wanted cultural independence, literary and artistic achievements to rival those of Europe

    ii)Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Languageestablished national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created

    iii)High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature

    (1)Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes

    (2)Washington Irving wrote American fold tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle

    (3)Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism

    d)Religious Skepticism

    i)Revolution detached churches from govt + elevated liberty and reason, by 1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”

    ii)Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason.

    iii)Skepticism led to “universalism” + “unitarianism”, @ first within New England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God

    iv)Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches + denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801

    e)The Second Great Awakening

    i)Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists (founded by John Wesley) successful at combating New Light dissenters (ppl who made religion more compatible w/ rationalism)

    ii)By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy

    iii)Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God + Christ into daily life, reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety w/ belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith + works

    iv)Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order + social stability to ppl searching for identity

    v)Women particularly drawn to revivalism b/c women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for

    vi)Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom

    vii) Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake  encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture

    2)Stirrings of Industrialism

    a)Technology in America

    i)America imported technological advances from England. Brit govt attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America

    ii)American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and 

    iii)Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever. 

    iv)In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820s/30s- as N became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture

    v)His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War w/ France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products

    b)Transportation Innovations

    i)Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system

    ii)To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Eur in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade btwn Eur and Western hemisphere

    iii)Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship

    iv)Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton + Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention w/ theirClermont

    v)Turnpike era began 1792 w/ corporate construction of turnpikes, but b/c needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas

    c)The Rising Cities

    i)America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns of more than 8,000 in 1800 census—yet there were signs of change

    ii)Major US cities such as New York + Philadelphia large and complex enough to rival secondary cities of Europe

    iii)Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance, dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing

    3)Jefferson the President

    a)The Federal City and the “People’s President”

    i)French architect Pierre L’Enfant designed city on grand scale, but Washington remained little more than provincial village w/ few public buildings

    ii)Jefferson acted in spirit of democratic simplicity, made his image plain, disdain for pretension. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency

    iii)Political genius, worked as leader of his party to give Republicans in Congress direction, used appointments as political weapon. Won 1804 reelection easily

    b)Dollars and Ships

    i)Washington and Adams had increased expenditures, debt, taxation. Jefferson 1802 had Congress abolish all internal taxes leaving only land sales and customs duties, cut govt spending, halved debt

    ii) Scaled down armed forces, cut navy due to fear of limiting civil liberty + civilian govt, promoting overseas commerce instead of agriculture 

    iii)At same time established US Military Academy @ West Point 1802, built up navy after 1801 threats by pasha of Tripoli in Mediterranean following Jefferson’s end to paying ransom demanded by Barbary pirates

    c)Conflict With The Courts

    i)Judiciary remained in hands of Federalist judges, congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 eliminating judgeships Adam’s filled before leaving office 

    ii)Case of Marbury v. Madison 1803 btwn Justice of Peace William Marbury and Sec of State James Madison 

    (1)Supreme Court ruled Congress exceeded its authority in creating a statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 b/c Constitution had already defined judiciary

    (2)Court asserted that the act of Congress was void. Enlarged courts power

    iii)Chief Justice John Marshall presided over case, battled to give fed govt unity and strength, established judiciary as branch coequal w/ exec and legislature

    iv)Jefferson assaulted last Federalist stronghold, urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges. Tried to impeach justice Samuel Chase in 1805 but Republican Senate could not get 2/3 vote necessary- acquittal set precedent impeachment not purely a political weapon, above partisan disagreement

    4)Doubling the National Domain

    a)Jefferson and Napoleon

    i)After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted power in New World. Spain held areas west of Mississippi, 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso granted French this Louisiana. Also held sugar-rich West Indian islands Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo (where slave revolt led by Toussaint L’ouverture put down)

    ii)Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy- apptd pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800, disapproved of black Santo Domingo uprising 

    iii)Reconsidered position when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana and seizure of New Orleans, alarmed n 1802 when Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean going vessels (which was guaranteed in Pikcney Treaty of 1795)- this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

    iv)Westerners demanded govt reopen river, Jefferson ordered Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans, in meantime expanded military and river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

    v)Nap offered sale of whole Louisiana Territory. Plans for American empire awry b/c army decimated by yellow fever, reinforcements frozen

    b)The Louisiana Purchase

    i)Livingston and James Monroe in Paris decided to proceed with sale of whole territory even though not authorized to do so by govt, treaty signed April 1803

    ii)US paid $15 million to France, had to incorporate N.O. residents into Union

    iii)Jefferson unsure US had authority to accept offer b/c power not specifically granted in Constitution, ultimately agreed constituted as treaty power. December 1803 territory handed over from Spain to France then US

    iv)Govt organized Louisiana territory like Northwest territory w/ various territories to eventually to become states- Louisiana first, admitted 1812

    c)Lewis and Clark Explore the West

    i)Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical fats and investigate trade w/ Indians

    ii)Lewis and Clark set out 1804 from Mississippi R. in St Louis w/ Indian Sacajawea as guide, reached pacific fall 1805

    iii)Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions btwn Mississppi and Rocky Mts

    d)The Burr Conspiracy

    i)Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions, but some NE Federalists known as Essex Junto felt expansion weakened power of Federalists + region . Felt only answer secession and “Northern Confederacy”

    ii)Plan required support of NY, NJ, New England, but leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused support 

    iii)Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr (who had no prospect in own party after 1800 election deadlock) to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

    iv)Hamilton accused Burr of treason and negative remarks about character, when Burr lost election blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

    v)Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel 1804, Hamilton mortally wounded

    vi)Burr, now political outcast, fled NY for West and along with General James Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and possibly make his own empire. 1806 tried for treason, acquitted

    vii)“Conspiracy” showed perils of central govt that remained deliberately weak w/ vast tracts of nominally controlled land, state of US as stable and united nation

    5)Expansion and War

    a)Conflict on the Seas

    i)US shipping expanded to control trade btwn Eur and W. Indies 

    ii)Napoleon’s Continental system forbade ships that had docked at any point in British ports from landing on continent- Berlin (1806) + Milan (1807) Decrees

    iii) Britain’s “orders in council” required goods to continent be in ships that had at least stopped in British ports- response to Nap’s “Continental System”

    iv)American ships caught btwn countries, but England greater threat b/c greater sea power and the worse offender

    b)Impressment

    i)Brit Navy had terrible conditions, forced service called “impressments” used, many deserted when possible and joined Americans- to stop loss Brit claimed right to stop and search American merchant ships + reimpress deserters

    ii)1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: Brit fired on US ship that refused search, US Minister James Monroe protested, GB refused to renounce impressments

    c)“Peaceable Coercion”

    i)To prevent future incidents that might bring war Jefferson proposed The Embargo 1807- prohibited US ship from leaving for any foreign port

    ii)Created national depression, ship-owners + merchants of NE (mainly Federalists) hardest hit-before

    iii)James Madison, Jefferson’s Sec of State, won election of 1808 but fierce opposition- led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act- reopened trade w/ all nations except GB + France

    iv)1810 new Macon’s Bill No. 2 opened trade w/ GB + France but pres had power to prohibit commerce for belligerent behavior against neutral shipping

    v)Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere, Madison issued embargo against GB 1811 until it renounced restrictions of American shipping

    d)The “Indian Problem” and the British

    i)After dislodgement by Americans, Indians looked to Brits for protection

    ii)William Henry Harrison had been a promoter of Western expansion (Harrison Land Law 1800), named governor of Indiana 1801 by Jefferson. Offered Indians ultimatum: become farmers and assimilate or move to West of Miss. 

    iii)By 1807 tribes mainly ceding land. After Chesapeake incident, however, Brits began to renew Indian friendships to begin defense of invasion into Can

    e)Tecumseh and the Prophet

    i)The Prophet was Indian leader inspired religious revival, rejection of white culture. Attracted thousands from many tribes at Tippecanoe Creek. Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

    ii)Starting 1809 began to unite tribes of Miss. valley, 1811 traveled south to add tribes of the South to alliance

    iii)1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy. However, thru 1812 continued to attack settlers, encouraged by Brit agents—Americans believed end only thru Can. Invasion

    f)Florida and War Fever

    i)“Frontiersman” in N wanted Canada, those in S wanted to acquire Spanish Florida in order to stop Indian attacks, gain access to rivers w/ port access

    ii)1810 setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, President Madison agreed to annex territory- Spain Britain’s ally, made pretext for war

    iii)By 1812 “war harks” elected during 1810 elections eager for war- some ardent nationalists seeking territorial expansion, others defense of Republican values

    iv)Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of SC led Republicans in pressing for Canadian invasion- Madison declared war June 18, 1812

    6)The War of 1812

    a)Battles with the Tribes

    i)Americans forced to surrender Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months. On seas American frigates and privateers successful, but by 1813 Brit navy (less occupied w/ Napoleon) devoted resources and imposed blockade

    ii)US began to have success in Great Lakes- Oliver Perry beat Brits at Put-In-Bay 1813, burned capital at York. William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames- disheartened Natives of Northwest and diminished ability to defend claims

    iii)Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians @ Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, continued invasion into Florida and captured Pensacola Sept 1814

    b)Battles With the British

    i)After Nap surrendered 1814 England prepared to invade US, landed armada in Chesapeake region. Aug 1814 captured and burned Washington

    ii)Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled Brit attack in Sept. This battle is what Francis Scott Key witnessed, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

    iii)Brit also repelled in NY at Battle of Plattsburgh in Sept. January 1815 Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans- after treaty signed

    c)The Revolt of New England

    i)US failures 1812-1815 led to increased govt opposition. In NE opposition to war and Repub govt, Federalists led by Daniel Webtser led Congressional opposition. Federalists in NE dreamed of separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders and backwoodsmen

    ii)Dec 1814 convention at Hartford led to nothing b/c of news of Jackson’s smashing success at New Orleans. Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

    d)The Peace Settlement

    i)Aug 1814 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ Brit diplomats. Final treaty did little but end fighting- US dropped call to end impressments, Brit dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

    ii)Brit accepted b/c exhausted + indebted after Napoleonic conflict, US believed w/ end of Eur conflict less commercial interference would occur

    iii)Treaty of Gent signed Dec 1814, free trade agreement 1815later Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

    iv)War disastrous to Natives, lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Varieties of American Nationalism

    )A Growing Economy

    a)Banking, Currency, and Protection

    i)War of 1812 stimulated manufacturing, but after war produced chaos in shipping and banking- need for new Bank of the United States charter its expiration 1811 and not renewed, protecting new industries, transport systems

    ii)After expiration of charter state banks offered difft currencies at difft values- confusion and counterfeiting. Congress passed new charter for Bank of US 1816- its size and power essentially forced state banks to issue safer currency

    iii)Manufacturing had grown tremendously due to imports being cut off, textile industry increased exponentially btwn Embargo of 1807 and War. Factories in NE no longer family operations. Francis Lowell developed new loom 1813 in Boston Manufacturing Company- first process of both spinning and weaving

    iv)After war English ships swarmed American ports, wanted to reclaim old markets with prices below cost. 1816 Congress passed tariff to protect “infant industries” from competition aboard- farmers objected b/c paid higher price

    b)Transportation

    i)W/o transport network manufacturers couldn’t access raw materials and send finished goods to markets in US- should fed govt finance roads?

    ii)1807 Jefferson’s Sec Treasury Albert Gallatin proposed revenue from Ohio land sale go to fund National Road. Crucial Lancaster Pike built in PA- both allowed for the beginning of transport of commodities like textiles

    iii)Steam-powered shipping (advancements of Robert Fulton) expanded on rivers and Great Lakes. Steamboats on Miss. stimulated already agricultural economy of South & West b/c cost to transport products to market lowered

    iv)Despite progress of turnpikes + steamships serious gaps in trasportation. 1815 John Calhoun introduced bill to use federal funds to finance internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it in 1817 b/c believed unconstitutional

    v)Remained to state govts + private enterprise to build needed transit networks

    2)Expanding Westward

    a)The Great Migrations

    i)Westward movement affected economy, factor in Civil War, peoples thrusted together. Pop. + econ. pressures, land availability, decreased Indian resistance

    ii)Immigration and natural growth increased Eastern population, agricultural lands occupied. Slaves in S limited work opportunity. West attractive b/c War of 1812 lessened Native opposition by pushing Indians west + establishing forts on Great Lakes and Miss. R., govt “factor system” of goods to Indians

    b)White Settlers in the Old Northwest

    i)Shelters primitive, clearings in forest for crops to supplement game and domestic animals, rough existence w/ poverty and loneliness

    ii)Migrants journeyed westward in groups, some formed communities and schools, churches, other institutions. Mobility a large part of life

    iii)Farm economy based on modest seized farms w/ grain cultivation + livestock

    c)The Plantation System in the Southwest

    i)Cotton longs in Old South had lost much fertility but market continued to grow for it, Black Belt of SW lands could support thriving cotton

    ii)First arrivals small farmers, wealthier planters followed buying and clearing smaller lands. Brought w/ them slaves, eventually mansions grew up from simpler log cabins symbolizing emergence of a newly rich class

    iii)Rapid growth in NW and SW resulted in new states after War of 1812: Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819

    d)Trade and Trapping in the Far West

    i)Trade began to develop btwn western regions in US in 19th century + beyond

    ii)Mexico (controlled Texas, CA, Southwest) won independence from Spain 1821, opened territories to trade in order to grow their fortunes. US merchants such as William Becknell displaced Indian traders and inferior Mexican products lost out to new US traders- Mexico lost its markets it in own colonies

    iii)Fur traders such as Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company eventually extended to Rockies, instead of pelts from Indians increasingly trapped their own

    iv)Trappers (“mountain men”) first wedge of white movement, changed society by interacting with Indians and Mexicans. 1822 Andrew and William Ashley founded Rocky Mountain Fur Company, recruited trappers to live permanently in Rockies (Utah, New Mexico)

    v)Lives of trappers bound up with expanding market economy- relied on fur companies for credit, depended on Eastern merchants for livelihood

    e)Eastern Images of the West

    i)Ppl in East only dimly aware of trappers’ world and their reshaping of it

    ii)Explorers dispatched by US govt to chart territories. 1819/1820 Steven Long sent by War Dept to explore, wrote influential report with dismissive conclusions for future settlement (like Zebulon Pike 15 yrs before)

    3)The Era of Good Feelings

    a)The End of the First Party System

    i)James Monroe, Madison’s Sec of State, elected Republican president 1816. W/ Federalist decline faced party faced no serious opposition, after War of 1812 no serious international threat- wanted republic w/o partisan factions

    ii)For Sec of State chose New Englander and former Federalist John Quincy Adams, John Calhoun named Sec of War- Monroe took pains to include northerners, southerners, easterners, westerners, Feds and Repubs in Cabinet

    iii)After election national goodwill tour, re-elected 1820 w/o any opposition

    b)John Quincy Adams

    i)Committed nationalist, important task promotion of American expansion

    ii)US already annexed W Florida, 1817 began negotiations w/ Spanish minister Lius de Onis. Meanwhile, American commander in Florida Andrew Jackson used orders from Sec of War Calhoun to invade Florida to stop Seminole raids—known as Seminole war. Adams wanted to use as excuse to annex

    iii)Onis realized he had little choice, Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florid and lands north of 42nd parallel to US, US gave up Texas claims

    c)The Panic of 1819

    i)Panic followed period of high foreign demand for US goods, rising prices had stimulated land boom in western US. Availability for easy credit to settlers and speculators- from govt, state and wildcat banks

    ii)1819 management at Bank of US tightened credit, led to series of state bank failures, led to financial panic- those in West blamed it on bank

    iii)Depression for 6 years followed, but growth ultimately continued

    4)Sectionalism and Nationalism

    a)The Missouri Compromise

    i)Missouri applied for statehood 1819, although slavery already established NY Rep James Tallmadge’s Amendment gradual emancipation- controversial

    ii)Since beginning new states had come into Union in pairs (1 from N, 1 from S), Missouri entrance would increase power of North over South

    iii)Maine had also applied for statehood, Henry Clay threatened South would block entrance in Missouri not permitted to be a slave state

    iv)Compromise in Maine-Missouri Bill, Senator Jesse Thomas’s Amendment to ban slavery in rest of Louisiana Ter. north of MO’s 3630’ border also passed

    b)Marshall and the Court

    i)John Marshall chief justice from 1801-1835. Strengthened judicial system at expense of executive and legislature, increased fed power over states, advanced interest of propertied and commercial classes

    ii)Supported inviolability contracts in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) which held GA legislature could not repeal contract acts of previous legislature. Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions- states had given up some sovereignty by ratifying Constitution, therefore their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction

    iii)“Implied powers” of Congress upheld in McCulloch v Maryland (1819) by upholding Bank of United States, attorney Daniel Webster argued establishment legal under “necessary and proper” clause, power to tax involved “power to destroy”. States therefore could not tax now-legal Bank

    iv)Strengthened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce in Gibbons v Ogden(1824)- Fed govt gave license to Thomas Gibbons for ferry even transport btwn NY and NJ even though NY state had granted Aaron Ogden monopoly- Marshall argued that Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce + navigation “complete in itself” + could exercise to the utmost

    v)Decisions established primacy of fed govt over states in regulating economy, protected corporations + private economic institutions from local govt 

    c)The Court and the Tribes

    i)Marshall court decisions w/ Natives affirmed supremacy of US and carved out position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure

    ii)In Johnson v McIntosh (1825) Marshall described the basic right of Natives to tribal lands that preceded all other American law. Individual Americans could not buy or take land from tribes, only fed govt could do that

    iii)Worchester v Georgia (1832) invalidated law to regulate citizen access to Cherokee lands. Only fed govt had power to do that, tribes described as sovereign entities w/ exclusive authority and territorial boundaries

    iv)Marshall court did what Const had not- establish place for Indian tribes in American political system. Sovereign, but fed govt “guardian” over its “ward” 

    d)The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine

    i) US foreign policy mainly centered on Eur, but after War of 1812 Spanish Empire in decline w/ new revolutions, US developing profitable trade w/ Latin America rivaling GB as principal trading pattern

    ii)1815 US proclaimed neutrality in wars btwn Spain and rebellious colonies, 1822 President Monroe established diplomatic relations w/ 5 new nations

    iii)1823 Monroe announced policy (later known as “Monroe Doctrine”) that American continent not be considered subject of future colonization by European powers, any foreign challenge would be unfriendly

    iv)Monroe Doctrine developed b/c Americans feared Spanish allies (such as France) would aid it in retaking lost empire, fear of GB taking over Cuba

    5)The Revival of Opposition

    a)The “Corrupt Bargain”

    i)In 1824 Republican caucus nominated William Crawford of Georgia for presidency, but other candidates received nominations from state legislatures

    ii)Candidates included: Sec of State John Quincy Adams had little popular appeal, Speaker of the House Henry Clay had personal following and strong program in the “American System” to strengthen home industry and Bank, Andrew Jackson little political experience but a military hero and TN allies

    iii)Jackson received more popular and electoral votes tan other candidates but not majority, Twelfth Amendment (passed after contested 1800 election) required House of Reps to choose among top three candidates- Clay threw endorsement behind Adams b/c Jackson a political rival in West + Adams a nationalist and likely American system supporter

    iv) Adams named Clay Sec of State, Jackson’s followers enraged at seeming “corrupt bargain”- haunted Adams throughout presidency

    b)The Second President Adams

    i)Adams proposed nationalist program reminiscent of Clay’s American System but Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it. Southerners in Congress blocked delegates to international conference called by Simon Bolivar in Panama in 1826 b/c Haiti was sending black delegates

    ii)Georgia wished to remove remaining Creek and Cherokee Indians from state to gain more land for cotton planters. Adams refused to enforce treaty made btwn Indians + Georgia. Governor defied president and proceeded w/ removal

    iii)Adams supported tariff on imported goods 1828 b/c NE textile manufacturers complained of competition. To be passed concessions made to middle + west states on other tariffs—bill signed hated by all, called “tariff of abominations”

    c)Jackson Triumphant

    i)By 1828 presidential election new 2-party system had begun to emerge from divisions btwn Republicans. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism, opposing them was Democratic Republicans of Andrew Jackson who called for assault on privilege and widening of opportunity

    ii)Campaign of personal charges, Jackson’s wife Rachel accused of bigamy, she was so upset that she ultimately died- Jackson blamed opponents

    iii)Jackson won decisive but sectional victory. Adams strong in New England & mid-Atlantic. Jackson believed victory similar to Jefferson’s 1800 win

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - Jacksonian America

    1)The Rise of Mass Politics

    a)The Expanding Electorate

    i)No economic equality, but transformation of American politics to extend the right to vote to new groups. Until 1820s most states limited franchise to white landowners. Changes began in West w/ Constitutions guaranteeing right to vote to all white males- E. states did likewise in order to stop exodus of ppl

    ii)Change provoked resistance- MA conservatives wanted property requirement, state eventually required voters to be taxpayers + Gov had to own large lands

    iii)State reforms generally peaceful but in RI instability when 1840 group led by Thomas Dorr and the “People’s Party” submitted and won a new state Const. by the ppl. 1842 2 simultaneous govts, Dorr rebellion quickly failed

    iv)In S election laws favored planters and politicians from older counties, limited influence of newly settled western areas

    v)Everywhere women could not vote, no secret ballots—despite limitations numbers of voters increased faster than population 

    vi)Originally electors chosen by legislature, by 1828 popularly elected except SC

    b)The Legitimization of Party

    i)Higher levels of voter participation due to expanded electorate but also strengthening of party organization and loyalty

    ii)1820s/1830s saw permanent, institutionalized parties become desirable part of political process. Began at state level in NY w/ Martin Van Buren’s factional “Bucktails”. Party’s preservation thru favors, rewards, patronage leaders goals

    iii)Parties would check/balance one other, politicians forced 2 rep. will of the ppl

    iv)By late 1820s new idea of party spreading beyond NY, Jackson’s 1828 election seemed to legitimize new system. By 1830s national 2-party system: anti-Jackson forces called Whigs, his followers called Democrats

    c)“President of the Common Man”

    i)Democratic party embraced no uniform ideological position, committed to offer equal protection and benefits by assaulting eastern aristocracy to extend opportunity to rising classes of the W + S, preserve white-male democracy thru subjugation of African Americans and Indians

    ii)Jackson’s first targets entrenched officeholders of fed govt, wanted to simplify official duties to make office more accessible. Removed nearly 1/5 of office-holders removed b/c misuse of govt funds or corruption

    iii)Jackson’s supporters embraced “spoils system”, making right of elected officials to appt followers to office established feature of American politics

    iv)Supporters worked to transform presidential nomination system- 1832 national party convention held to replace congressional caucus, considered democratic triumph b/c power from ppl and not aristocratic caucus

    v)Spoils system and convention limited power of entrenched elites (permanent officeholders, caucus elite), but neither really transferred true power to the ppl

    2)“Our Federal Union”

    a)Calhoun and Nullification

    i)Late 1820s many in SC came to see “tariff of abominations” as responsible for stagnation of state economy (really due to exhausted farmland unable to compete with new western lands). Some considered remedy thru secession

    ii)Vice President Calhoun offered alternative in theory of nullification- idea like Madison and Jefferson’s KY + VA Resolutions of 1798-1799. Argued fed govt created by states, therefore states final arbiter (not Congress or courts) of constitutionality. Convention could be held to null and void law within state

    b)The Rise of Van Buren

    i)Apptd Sec of State 1829 by Jackson, also member of president’s of unofficial circle of allies in “Kitchen Cabinet”. After supporting Peggy Eaton in affair over acceptance into cabinet wife social circle gained favor w/ President

    ii)By 1831 Jackson had chosen Van Buren to succeed him in WH, Calhoun’s presidential dream ended

    c)The Webster-Hayne Debate

    i)January 1830 proposal to temporarily stop western land sales led SC Sen. Robert Hayne to claim slowing down W growth means for east to retain political and economic power. Hinted at uniting S + W against “tyranny”

    ii)Nationalist and Whig Sen. Daniel Webster attacked Hayne + Calhoun for challenging integrity of the Union. Debate ensued over issue of states rights vs national power

    iii)Jackson announced at Democratic Party banquet “Our Federal Union-It must be preserved”, lines drawn btwn Jackson and Calhoun

    d)The Nullification Crisis

    i)1832 tariff bill in Congress gave SC no relief from “tariff of abominations”, state convention held- voted for nullification of tariffs of 1828 & 1832, duties collection w/in state. Calhoun resigned VP became Sen., Hayne now Gov

    ii)Jackson insisted nullification treason, strengthened federal forts in SC. 1833 Pres. proposed bill to authorize use of military to see acts of Congress obeyed

    iii)No states supported SC, state itself divided. Sen Henry Clay offered compromise that tariff would be gradually lowered so that by 1842 it would be at same level as in 1816. Compromise + force bill passed March 1833

    iv)SC state convention met and repealed its nullification of the tariffs, but also nullified the force act (symbolic of null. legitimacy)

    3)The Removal of the Indians

    a)White Attitudes Toward the Tribes

    i)In 18th century many whites considered Indians “noble savages” who had inherent dignity, by 19th century more hostile attitude especially among whites in W and territories, simply “savages”

    ii)White westerners wanted removal b/c feared continued contact + expanding white settlements would lead to endless violence, & Indian lands valuable

    iii)Only fed govt had power to deal w/ Indians after Sup. Court decisions. Indians created new large political entities to deal w/ whites

    b)The Black Hawk War

    i)In Old Northwest Black Hawk War 1831-1832 to expel last of Indians there

    ii)Conflict notable for violence of white military efforts, attacked even when Chief Black Hawk was surrendering and killed Indians fleeing battle

    c)The “Five Civilized Tribes”

    i)1830s govt worried about remaining “Five Civilized Tribes” in South- successful agricultural society, Constitution forming Cherokee Nation 1827

    ii)Fed govt worked in early 19th century thru treaties to remove tribes to West and open lands to white settlement. Negotiation process unsatisfying + slow

    iii)Congress passed Removal Act 1830 to finance def negotiations w/ tribes in order to relocate them West, pressure from state govts to move as well

    iv)In GA Sup. Court decisions of Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832) seemed to protect tribal lands

    v)1835 treaty signed with minority tribe in Cherokee nation ceding all land to GA, but majority of Cherokees refused to recognize its legitimacy. Jackson sent army under General Winfield Scott to drive them westward to reservation  

    d)Trials of Tears

    i)Forced trek to “Indian Territory” began winter 1838. Thousands died before destination, dubbed “Trail of Tears”

    ii)Cherokees not alone: btwn 1830-1838 nearly all “Five Civilized Tribes” expelled from Southern states & relocated to Indian Territory created by Congress in Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. Undesirable land far from whites

    iii)Only Seminoles in Florida resisted relocation. Under pressure had agreed to cede land and move to Ind. Territory, many members of tribe moved

    (1)But 1835 minority led by chief Osceola staged uprising. Jackson sent army, conducted campaign of systematic extermination but successful guerilla warfare forced govt to abandon war in 1842

    e)The Meaning of Removal

    i)By end of 1830s almost all major Indian societies relocated to far less hospitable lands west of Mississippi on reservations surrounded by forts

    ii)White movement west impossible to have stopped, but alternative to removal could have been some form of co-existence like in NW trading posts, TX

    iii)BY mid-19th century Americans believed western lands had no pre-existing civilization. Natives could not be equal partners, were obstacles to be removed, “lacked intelligence, industry and moral habits for improvement”

    4)Jackson and the Bank War

    a)Biddle’s Institution

    i)Bank of United States in 1830s had HQ in Philadelphia, branches in 19 cities, by law only place govt could deposit its funds

    ii)Conducted private business issuing credit, bank notes used throughout country, restrained less well-managed state banks. Pres Nicholas Biddle had made bank sound + prosperous. Regardless, Jackson wanted to destroy it

    iii)Opposition came from “soft-money” faction who wanted more currency in circulation. Made up of state banks, resisted Bank of US’s efforts to restrain free issue of notes from state banks

    iv)“Hard money” faction wanted gold and silver to back currency, suspicious of expansion and speculation. Jackson supported hard-money

    v)Jackson did not favor renewal of bank charter after 1836 expiration. Biddle tried to save bank by granting financial favors to influential men, named Daniel Webster made legal counsel (gained Clay’s support). Recommended renewal bill 1832 to make bank issue in 1832 elections. 

    vi)Bill passed Congress but Jackson vetoed it, could not be overridden. In 1832 Jackson + Van Buren elected despite opposition to bank over opposition Clay

    b)The “Monster” Destroyed

    i)Jackson determined to destroy “monster” Bank quickly. To weaken it removed govt deposits (two Tres. Secretaries fired b/c feared financial destabilization, third Roget Taney complied)

    ii)When administration transferred funds from Bank to pet banks, Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates- hoped would cause financial distress and recession that would persuade Congress to recharter Bank

    iii)Financial conditions worsened winter 1833/1834, two sides blamed it on each other. Finally Biddle contracted credit too far for his own allies in the business community, began to fear his efforts to save ban threatening their own

    iv)Biddle forced to grant credit in abundance on reasonable terms, tactics ended change of re-charter. End in 1836 empowered unstable bank system

    c)The Taney Court

    i)Jackson moved against economic nationalism support of Supreme Court, after Marshall died 1835 named Roger Taney chief justice

    ii)Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837) btwn company chartered by state for toll bridge monopoly and company applying to legislature to pay for toll-free bridge. Taney ruled that govt’s goal to promote general happiness took precedence over right of contract and property, therefore state had right to amend contract o advance well-being of community

    iii)Reflected Jacksonian ideal that key to democracy expansion of economic opportunity that could not occur if corporations maintained monopolies and choked off competition from newer companies

    5)The Changing Face of American Politics

    a)Democrats and Whigs

    i)Democrats in 1830s envisioned expanding economic and political opportunity for white males, limited govt but one that removed obstacles to opportunity, defense of Union, attacking corruption, radical branch called Locofocos

    ii)Whigs favored expanding power of fed govt, industrial and commercial development, knit country into consolidated economic system, cautious westward expansion b/c feared territorial growth would produce instability, embraced industrial future and commercial and manufacturing greatness

    iii)Whigs supported by merchants and manufactures of NE, wealthy Southern planters, western commercialists. Democrats supported by smaller merchants and workingmen of NE, S planters suspicious of industry, agrarian westerners

    iv)Above all wanted to win elections: Whigs connected w/ Anti-Masons to resent “undemocratic” Freemasons (such as Jackson and Van Buren). Irish and German Catholic immigrants supported Democrats b/c aversion to commercial development, Evangelical Protestants supported Whigs

    v)Whigs led by “Great Triumvirate” of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun. 1836 election Dems united behind Jackson’s choice of Van Buren for candidate, but Whigs could not agree on single candidate. Clay, White, and William Henry Harrison ran for regional interests, defeated by Van Buren

    b)Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

    i)Van Buren elected on economic boom that reached height 1836- canals and railroads being built, easy credit, land business booming, govt revenues from sales + 1833 tariff created surpluses that allowed reduction of nat’l debt

    ii)Congress passed 1836 “distribution” act to return surplus to states, used to fund highways, railroads, canals, created economic boom

    iii)Withdrawal of fed funds strained state “pet” banks, forced to call in loans. Jackson issued “specie circular” that required payment for public land sales be in gold or silver or currency backed by them b/c feared rampant speculation

    iv)Circular produced financial panic during Van Buren’s presidency banks and business failed, food riots- largest depression in American history to that point

    v)Both parties responsible for panic- surplus redistribution a Whig measure, Jackson’s circular, but also panics in England and W. Eur that caused those investors to withdraw funds from American banks, also crop failures

    vi)Panic of 1837 led Democrats + Van Buren administration to pay price for no govt intervention. Only success of VB creation of “subtreasury system” to replace Bank of US- govt funds placed in independent treasury in Washington, no private banks could use money to fund loans and speculation

    c)The Log Cabin Campaign

    i)To win 1840 election Whigs supported only one candidate- William Henry Harrison for pres and John Tyler for VP

    ii)1840 campaign first in which “penny press” carried news of candidates to larger audience of workers and tradespeople. Whigs, although represented affluent elements of pop, presented themselves as party of the common people

    iii)Whig campaign effective at portraying the wealthy Harrison as a simple log cabin and cider man and VB as an aloof aristocrat--- Harrison won election

    d)The Frustration of the Whigs

    i)Harrison died of pneumonia 1 month after inauguration, new President Tyler was a former Democrat who refused to let Clay and Webster control policy

    ii)Pres supported bills abolishing independent treasury system and raising tariff rate, but refused Clay’s attempt to recharter Bank and vetoed internal improvement bills sponsored by Whigs. 

    iii)Whigs kicked Tyler out of party, entire cabinet resigned. Tyler and some conservative southern Whigs who supported slavery and states rights prepared to join the Democratic Party

    e)Whig Diplomacy

    i)Canada uprising caused tension leading to burning of an American steamship carrying arms and the subsequent arrest of a British citizen for burning 1837. Tension over Canada-Maine boundary led to small “Aroostook War” 1838

    ii)Finally negotiations to reduce all tensions occurred btwn Sec of State Webster and British Lord Ashburton. 1842 Webster Ashburton treaty established new Maine border, GB refused to interfere w/ American ships-- relations improved

    iii)Tyler administration established first diplomatic relations with China, Americans received same privileges as British such as “extraterritoriality” and port use

    iv)Whigs lost White House in 1844 elections

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - America’s Economic Revolution

    1)The Changing American Population

    a)The American Population, 1820-1840

    i)Population dramatically increased, began to concentrate in industrial centers of Northeast and Northwest, provided labor force for factory system

    ii)Growth b/c of improvements in public health (decrease in number and intensity of epidemics), high birth rate, lower infant mortality rates

    iii)Immigration did not contribute greatly until 1830s b/c of Eur wars & US economic problems. Immigrant boom caused by lower transport costs, increased US economic opportunity + less econ opportunity in some Eur areas

    iv)Immigrant + internal migration led to growth of cities b/c agriculture in New England less profitable (some moved West also). By 1810 NY largest city

    b)Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860

    i)By 1860 26% of free state populations lived in towns or cities

    ii)Booming agricultural economy of west led small villages and trading posts to become cities. Benefited from Mississippi R, centers of Midwest trade

    iii)By 1860 American population greater than that of GB and approaching France and Germany. Urban growth from flow of ppl from Northeast farms (competition from Eur farms + Western farms) & influx of immigrants abroad

    iv)Majority of immigrants from Ireland and Germany. German industrial revolution had caused poverty, & b/c of collapse of liberal 1848 revolution. In Ireland unpopular English rule & “potato famine” of 1845-1849 

    v)Most Irish settled in eastern cities + became unskilled laborers (had little $, many were young women- domestic/factory work in cities). Most Germans moved to Northwest, farming or business in towns (many were single men)

    c)Rise of Nativism

    i)Some native-born Americans saw opportunity in immigration. Industrialists & employers wanted cheap labor, land speculators and politicians hoped would populate west + increase demand for goods, increase influence

    ii)Some (Nativists) hostile to foreigners and immigration. Some racist, some argued newcomers socially unfit and did not have sufficient standards of civilization, workers feared low immigrant wages would steal their jobs, Protestants feared Irish Catholics & Rome, many upset b/c voted Democratic

    iii)Tension and prejudice led to secret societies to combat “alien menace”, Native American Association 1837, 1845 Native American Party, peak in 1850s with combination in Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. Wanted to ban Catholics form office, restrict naturalization, force literacy tests for voting

    iv)Secret order known as Know-Nothings turned to party politics, after 1852 election formed American Party, success in 1854 East elections, declined after

    2)Transportation, Communications, and Technology

    a)The Canal Age

    i)1790-1820s “turnpike era”, but roads not adequate for nation’s growing needs

    ii)Traffic on large rivers such as Miss. and Ohio had been mainly flat barges that could not travel upstream, by 1820s steamboats and riverboats carried western and southern crops quickly, from New Orleans ocean ships to Eastern ports

    iii)Farmers and merchants unhappy b/c more direct route could lower transport costs and product costs. By 1820s economic advantages of canals had generated boom in expanding water routes to West. Too expensive for private companies, states of Northeast constructed them

    iv)NY’s Erie Canal began July 4, 1817 to connect Hudson R and Lake Erie. Opened 1825, tolls repaid construction costs, gave NY access to Great Lakes, Chicago, growing Western markets. NY now competed with New Orleans  

    v)Water transport system expanded when Ohio + Indiana connected Lake Erie & Ohio R. Increased white settlement, but primacy of NY power + hinterland control alarmed other Atlantic cities. Most attempts limited successes or failed

    b)The Early Railroads

    i)Railroads played secondary role in 1820s/30s, but laid groundword for mid-century surge. Emerged form technological (tracks, steam-powered locomotive) and entrepreneurial innovations

    ii)In 1830s no real rial system, most lines simply connected water routes and not links to other rail systems. Some states and corporations also limited their ability to compete effectively against canals

    c)The Triumph of the Rails

    i)After 1840 rail gradually supplanted canals. 1850’s trackage tripled. Most comprehensive and efficient system in northeast, but no region untouched

    ii)Trend toward consolidation of short lines into longer lines (“trunk lines”), connected Northeast w/ Northwest, from these other railroads traveled into interior of nation. Main Northwest hub was Chicago

    iii)Lessened dependence of West on Miss. R, weakening N + S economic cnxn

    iv)Capital to finance railroads came from private investors, abroad, and local governments. Fed govt gave public land grants to railroads, states for RRs

    d)Innovations in Communications

    i)Magnetic telegraph lines along tracks aided train routing, but also allowed instant communication btwn cities, linked N and NW at exclusion of S

    ii)1844 Samuel Morse first transmitted. Low cost of construction made it ideal solution to long-distance communication. By 1860 Western Union Telegraph company had been founded linking most independent telegraph lines

    iii)In journalism Richard Hoe’s 1846 steam cylinder rotary press allowed rapid and cheap newspapers, telegraph increased news speed. 1846 Associated Press formed to promote cooperate wire transmission

    iv)NY’s major papers Horace Greeley’s Tribune, James Bennett’s Herald, Henry Raymond’s Times. In 1840s/50s journalism fed sectional discord, most major magazines and newspapers located in North. New awareness of differences

    3)Commerce and Industry

    a)The Expansion of Business, 1820-1840

    i)Business grew b/c population, transportation revolution, and new practices

    ii)Retain distribution became more efficient w/ specialty stores in cities

    iii) Individual + small merchant capitalist companies dominated, but some larger businesses gave way to corporations- combined resources of large number of shareholders. Grew 1830s b/c states passed easy incorporation laws. Limited liability meant stockholder risked only value of investment if corp failed

    iv)Great demand for capital led businesses to rely on credit, but gold and silver standards of govt led to too little $, led private banks to issue less stable notes

    v)Bank failures frequent, insecure deposits. Credit difficulty limited growth

    b)The Emergence of the Factory

    i)Before War of 1812 most manufacturing occurred in private households in small workshops. Technology and demand led to factories- began in New England textile industry, large water-driven machines increased production

    ii)1820s factory system in shoe industry, by 1830s spread throughout Northeast. By 1860 value of manufactured goods roughly equal to agricultural goods. Largest manufacturers located in the Northeast, large amt of ppl employed

    c)Advances in Technology

    i)Developed industries relatively immature, fine items came from England. But by 1840s rapid machine technology advances, sophisticated textile industry 

    ii)Manufacture of machine tools (tools used to make machinery) improved by govt supported research for military (at Springfield Armory, MA)- turret lathe and universal milling machine in early 19th century. Later precision grinder

    iii)Better machine tools allowed for wide use of interchangeable parts, new uses

    iv)Industrialization aided by new energy sources: coal replacing wood + water in factories. Allowed mills to be located away from streams, easier expansion 

    v)Technological advances due to American inventors, increasing number of patents. Included Howe-Singer sewing machine, Goodyear vulcanized rubber

    d)Innovations in Corporate Organization

    i)Merchant capitalists still prominent 1840s, their clippers were fastest sailing ships afloat at time. By mid-century merchant capitalism declining b/c British competition stealing export trade, greater profits found in manufacturing than trade. Industry grew in NE b/c this merchant class could finance factories

    ii)By 1840s corporations spreading rapidly, especially in textile industry. Ownership moving form families and individuals to many shareholders

    4)Men and Women At Work

    a)Recruiting A Native Work Force

    i)In factory system’s early years recruiting labor difficult b/c of farms and small cities. New farmlands in Midwest + new farm machinery and techniques increased food production, decreased need for labor. Transport allowed importation of food from other regions—ppl in New Eng left for factories

    ii)Some recruitment brought whole families form farm to the mill w/ parents and children, but Lowell/Waltham system enlisted young women 

    iii)Labor conditions relatively good in early years of system, better than Eur. Lowell system used young, unmarried women but had good housing + food

    iv)Even well-treated workers found transition from life on farm to in factory difficult- regimented env’t, repetitive tasks. Women had little other choice b/c barred from manual labor, unthinkable to travel in search of opportunity

    v)Competitive textile market of 1830s/40s manufactures had difficulty maintaining high standards + conditions, wages fell. Union of Factory Girls Association struck twice, but both failed. Eventually immigrants filled jobs

    b)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 boom for manufacturers- large and inexpensive labor source. Little leverage with employers, lack of skills and native prejudice led to low, intermittent wages—great poverty

    ii)Irish workers predominated 1840s textile industry, arrival led to deteriorating working conditions. Less social pressure on owners to maintain decent env’t, piece rates instead of daily wages to speed production

    iii)Factories becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, dangerous places to work, hours long, wages declining. Still however, condition better than England and Eur

    c)The Factory System and the Artisan Trade

    i)Factory system displaced skilled artisans- had been embodiment of republican independent worker. Unable to compete w/ factory-made goods for fraction of artisan’s prices. Early 19th century began to form organizations and first labor unions to protect position. 1820s/30s trade unions developed in cities

    ii)Interconnected economies of cities made national unions or federations of local unions logical. 1834 National Trade’s Union

    iii)Labor leaders struggled w/ hostile laws and courts, common law made worker combination as illegal conspiracy. Panic of 1837 also weakened movement

    d)Fighting for Control

    i)Workers at all levels in industrial economy tried to improve position by making 10-hour workday or restricting child labor. Laws changed little

    ii)1842 MA Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v Hunt that unions were legal and strikes lawful, other states gradually agreed. Unions still largely ineffective 1840s/50s

    iii)Artisans + skilled workers unions more successful 1850s, but their unions more like preindustrial guilds that restricted admission to skilled trades

    iv)Working class of 1840s/50s had only modest power- limited by numerous immigrant laborers who could replace strikers, ethnic division led to worker disunity. Industrial capitalists had great economic, political and social power

    5)Patterns of Industrial Society

    a)The Rich and the Poor

    i)Commercial +industrial growth raised average income of Americans, but wealth distributed unequally – for slaves, Indians, landless farmers, many unskilled workers little change. Small % of families owned majority of wealth

    ii)There had always been wealthy classes from beginning but extent and character was changing. Newly wealthy merchants & industrialists settled in cities- found new ways to display wealth in mansions, social clubs, clothing…

    iii)Large population of destitute ppl in growing urban areas- little resources, often homeless. Included recent immigrants, widows, orphans, ppl w/ mental illness. Free blacks=only menial jobs, little pay, no vote, no public schools 

    b)Social Mobility

    i)Class conflict quelled b/c working standards declined but living standard improving, opportunity for social mobility for workers captured imagination

    ii)Geographic mobility more extensive than Eur, Western lands “safety valve” for discontent. Also travel form city to city to search for new opportunity

    iii)Opportunity to participate in politics expanded, ballot tied ppl to community

    c)Middle-Class Life

    i)Fastest growing group in America middle class. Economic development offered opportunity to own and work for businesses, land no longer=wealth

    ii)Middle class life most influential cultural form of urban America, good neighborhoods, women stayed in home to care for children, cast-iron stoves used to cook, diets improved w/ new access to meats, grains, dairy

    d)The Changing Family

    i)Movement of families from farms to cities where jobs, not land, most important.  Patriarchal system of inherited farm land disappeared

    ii)Work moved out of home and into shop, mill, factory. Family as principal economic unit gave way to individual wage earners. Even farms became commercialized b/c larger lands required more labor than just family

    iii)Changing family role led to decline in birth rate by mid-19th century. Deliberate effort to limit family size result of future planning. Secular, rational

    e)Women and the “Cult of Domesticity”

    i)Growing distinction btwn workplace and home led to distinction in societal roles of men + women. Women had long been denied legal + political rights, little access to business, less access to education at high levels

    ii)Middle class husband seen as wage earner, wife to engage in domestic activities- “guardians of domestic virtues”, central role to nurture young

    iii)“Separate sphere” female culture emerged. Women seen as having special qualities difft than men-custodians of morality and shape home to be refuge from competitive marketplace. Provide religious, moral instruction to kids

    iv)By 1840s few genteel women considered working, seen as “lower class”, owners rarely hired women anyway b/c of “cult”. But Working-class women couldn’t afford to stay home, many went into domestic service 

    f)Leisure Activities

    i)Leisure time scarce for all but wealthy, vacations rare, Sunday often only day of rest + Church. Reading expanded, new newspapers, magazines, books for affluent. Theaters, minstrel shows, public sporting events increasingly popular

    ii)Circus amazed ppl (PT Barnum), lectures also very popular

    6)The Agricultural North

    a)Northeastern Agriculture

    i)After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of Northwest. Rural population declined. Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and became laborers. Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable dairy products

    b)The Old Northwest

    i)Some industry (more than in South), industrial growth, before Civil War- much served agriculture or relied on agricultural products

    ii)Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market, international market for American food

    iii)Growth of factories + cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold most goods to ppl in Northeast + dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern industry found market for products in prosperous West

    iv)To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840s/50s, new farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow

    v)Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick + thresher revolutionized grain production

    vi)NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property

    c)Rural Life

    i)Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to share tasks difficult for single family (such as barn raising)

    ii)Rural life not always isolated, but less contact w/ popular culture and public social life than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South

     1)The Cotton Economy

    a)The Rise of King Cotton

    i)19th century upper South (VA, MD, NC) cultivated tobacco, but unstable prices and exhaustive of soil. By 1830s upper South began to grow wheat, tobacco growing shifted westward. Southern regions of South (SC, GA, FL) continued growing rice, Gulf some sugar—crops limited b/c hard to cultivate

    ii)Decline of tobacco in upper South led not to industrialization but growing of short-staple cotton- could grow in difft env’ts, w/ cotton gin now profitable. Demand for cotton growing b/c of rise of textile industry in GB 1820s/30s and New England 1840s/50s—new lands and expansion to meet new demand

    iii)Beginning 1820s production of cotton moved westward into Alabama, Mississippi, LA, TX, AK. By 1850s dominated economy

    iv)“Lower South”/ “Cotton Kingdom” attracted many seeking profits, also slaves

    b)Southern Trade and Industry

    i)Business classes and manufacturers unimportant, slow growth + mainly in upper South. Non-farm commercial sectors mainly served needs of plantation economy- brokers who marketed crops, acted as merchants and lenders

    ii)Primitive banking system did not allow for structures necessary for industrial development. Inadequate transport system: few roads, canals, nat’l railroads

    iii)Some southerners recognized economic subordination to north and advocated for economic independence- New Orlean James De Bow- De Bow’s Review

    c)Sources of Southern Difference

    i)Despite “colonial dependency” South did little to industrialize b/c agricultural system + cotton so profitable, little incentive to look beyond. Wealthy had already invested much of their capital into land + slaves

    ii)Lack of commercial growth also b/c traditional values distinctive to South discouraged cities + industry- elegance, more refined life than rapid growth

    2)White Society in The South

    a)The Planter Class

    i)Majority of ppl didn’t own slaves (only ¼ did), of those small % owned many

    ii)Planter aristocracy (those earning 40+ slaves and 800+ acres of land) exercised power and influence greater than their number. Political economic, social control. Saw themselves as aristocracy, though most wealth was recent

    iii)Growing crops profitable but as competitive and risky as industry in North

    iv)After struggling to reach their position in society they were determined to defend it—perhaps why defense of slavery and South’s “rights” stronger in booming lower South and weaker in more established areas

    b)“Honor”

    i)White males adopted code of chivalry that obligated them to defend their “honor”. Ethical ideal and bravery but also public appearance of dignity & authority- anything to challenge dignity or social station a challenge

    c)The “Southern Lady”

    i)Lives of affluent centered in home, little role in public activities or as wage earners. White men more dominant + women subordinate than in North- solitary farm life w/ no access to “public world” led to main role wife, mother

    ii)Less educational opportunities, higher birth rate and infant mortality rate

    d)The Plain Folk

    i)Typical person not planter + slaveholder but modest yeoman farmer. Mainly subsistence farming- lacked resources for cotton or to expand operations

    ii)Little prospect of bettering position b/c southern educational system provided poor whites with little opportunity to learn and therefore advance

    iii)Majority excluded from planter society, but opposition to elite limited mainly to “hill” and “backcountry” ppl who were secluded, unconnected to commercial economy, and loyal to whole nation and above sectional fighting

    iv)Most nonslave-owning whites lived in middle of plantation system and were tied to it, relied on planters for markets, credit, and linked thru kinship. Also large sense of democracy + political participation gave sense of cnxn to societal order. Cotton boom of 1850s gave them hope of economic betterment

    v)Belief that assault on one hierarchical system (slavery) would threaten another hierarchical system (patriarchy)

    vi)Even the south’s poorest members (“clay eaters”) who owned no profitable land did not offer great opposition to society—greatest factor binding all classes together was perception of race and members of ruling race

    3)Slavery: The “Peculiar Institution”

    a)Varieties of Slavery

    i)Called “peculiar” by Southerners b/c was distinctive from N., Western world

    ii)Slavery regulated by law, slave codes forbade property, congregation, teaching a slave. Anyone suspected w/ trace of African blood defined as black

    iii)Despite provisions of law variety within slave system b/c white owners handled most transgressions, conditions. Size of farm, # of slaves varied

    iv)Majority of slave-owners small farmers, but majority of slaves lived on medium + large plantations-less intimate owner/slave relationship

    b)Life Under Slavery

    i)Generally received enough necessities to enable them to live and work; lived in slave quarters. Slaves worked hard, women labored in fields w/ men and had other chores, often single b/c husbands sold away (single parents)

    ii)High death rate and less children survived to adulthood than whites

    iii)Some say material condition of slavery may have been better than some northern factory workers, less sever than slaves in Caribbean + South Amer. Law preventing slave import incentive to Southern elite to provide some care

    iv)Other cheap laborer (such as Irish) used to perform most dangerous and least healthy tasks to protect investment. Still overseers hired by owners often treated slave badly, and household servants often sexually abused by master

    c)Slavery in the Cities

    i)On isolated plantations masters maintained direct control. Slaves in cities were often hired out to do labor and unskilled jobs in cities + towns

    ii)In cities line btwn slavery + freedom less clear, white southerners viewed slavery incompatible w/ city life- sold slaves to countryside, used segregation

    d)Free African Americans

    i)About 250,000 free African Americans in slaveholding states before Civil War, most in VA and MD. Some had earned money and bought freedom for themselves and family- mostly urban blacks able to do this

    ii)Some slaves freed by master for moral reasons, other after master died

    iii)During 1830s state laws for slaves tightened b/c growing number of free blacks, abolition movement in North—made manumission of slaves harder

    iv)Most free blacks very poor, limited opportunity, only quasi-free

    e)The Slave Trade

    i)Transfer of slaves from one part of South to another important consequence of development of Southwest. Sometimes moved with master, more often transferred thru slave traders

    ii)Domestic slave trade impt to growth and prosperity of system, but dehumanizing- children separated from parents

    f)Slave Resistance

    i)Most slaves unhappy with being slaves, wanted freedom- but dealt w/ slavery thru adaptation (slaves who acted as white world expected him, charade for whites) or resistance (those who could not come to accommodate their status)

    ii)1831 Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led armed African Americans in VA, overpowered by state + federal troops. Only actual slave insurrection 19th century, but fear of slave conspiracies renewed violence + led to stricter laws

    iii)Some attempted to resist by running away, escaping to the North or Canada using underground railroad + sympathetic whites. Odds of success low

    iv)Resisted also by refusing to work hard, stealing from master

    4)The Culture of Slavery

    a)Language and Music

    i)Slaves incorporated African speech w/ English- called “pidgin”

    ii)Songs very impt- to pass time, some political, emotional, religious

    b)African-American Religion

    i)By 19th century nearly all slaves Christians. Black congregations illegal, most went to master’s church led by Baptist or Methodist white minister

    ii)A.A. religion more emotional, reflected influence of African customs and practices- chanting, emphasized dream of freedom and deliverance. Christian images central to revel leaders Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner

    c)The Slave Family

    i)Blacks deprived of legal marriage, but “nuclear family” dominant kinship model nevertheless. Up to 1/3 of black families broken apart by slave trade- led to strong extended kinship networks

    ii)Black women often bore children to white masters who didn’t recognize kids

    iii)Slaves had complex relationships w/ masters b/c depended on them for material means of existence, sense of security and protection. This paternalism was used as an instrument of white control, sense of mutual dependence reduced resistance to institution that only benefited ruling white race


    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Antebellum Culture and Reform

    1)The Romantic Impulse

    a)Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting

    i)Eurs felt that they alone at center of artistic world, but paintings w/in US popular b/c felt they had artistic traditions of their own: wonder of nation’s landscape, shoe power of nature thru wild outdoor scenes- “awe & wonder”

    ii)First great school of American painters from Hudson River School in NY: Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand. Hoped to express “wild nature” that existed in America but not Eur

    b)Literature and the Quest for Liberation

    i)Early 19th century American literature unpopular, British novelist Sir Walter Scott was. But even during 1820s great American novelist James Fenimore Cooper- evocation of wilderness, adventure, westward expansion- his “Leatherstocking Tales were The Last of the Mohicans & The Deerslayer

    ii)Cooper’s novels showed effort to produce truly American literature, ideal of independent individual with natural inner goodness, fear of disorder

    iii)Later American romantic works included: poet Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855)- celebration of democracy, individual liberty. Other works more bleak- Herman Melville’sMoby Dick (1851) of individual will but tragedy of pride and revenge, writer Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” (1845) established him as literary figure- humans exploring deeper world of spirit and emotions

    c)Literature in the Antebellum South

    i)Southern writers wanted to create American literary culture as well, but often produced historical romances for eulogies of plantation system of Upper South. Most famous William Gilmore Simms- believed duty of intellectual to defend southern lifestyle + slavery, sectional

    ii)Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper focused not on “cavaliers” but on ordinary ppl and poor whites

    d)The Transcendentalists

    i)New England writers who focused on distinction btwn “reason” and inner capacity to grasp beauty and emotional expression vs “understanding” and repression of instinct and imposed learning- goal to cultivate “reason”

    ii)Centered in Concord, MA. Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson- essays “Nature” (1836) argued self-fulfillment thru communion w/ nature, “Self-Reliance” (1841) called for individual fully explore inner capacity, unity w/ universe

    iii)Emerson a nationalist, lecture “The American Scholar” (1837), argued beauty from instant vs learning, therefore Americans can still have artistic greatness

    iv)Henry David Thoreau- ppl should seek self-realization by not conforming to society’s expectations & responding to own instincts. His Walden (1845) of him living simply in the woods, essay “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849)- govt that required violation of personal mortality not legitimate

    e)The Defense of Nature

    i)Some uneasy w/ rapid economic development, feared impact on natural world. Nature not just for economic activity (farmers, miners) or for study by scientists- but vehicle for human inspiration, realize truth within the soul

    f)Visions of Utopia

    i)Transcendentalism spawned communal living experiments

    ii)Brook Farm established by George Ripley 1841 in MA, create community that would permit full opportunity for self-realization, equal labor, share leisure

    iii)Conflict btwn individual freedom & communal society led to dissenters: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852) submission equals oppression, The Scarlet Letter (1850)- price ind. pay for not being in society

    iv)French philosopher Charles Fourier’s idea of socialist communities led Robert Owen 1825 to create experiment New Harmony in Ind, economic failure

    g)Redefining Gender Roles

    i)Transcendentalism + utopian communities led to some sense of feminism

    ii)Margaret Fuller’s Women of the Nineteenth Century (1844)- feminist ideas

    iii)Johm Humphrey’s Oneida Community “Perfectionists” rejected traditional ideas of family and marriage, communal raising of children. An Lee’s Shaker Society committed to celibacy, equality of sexes, God neither male or female

    h)The Mormons

    i)Mormons effort to create new and more ordered society thru Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Began upstate NY by Joseph Smith w/ his 1830 Book of Mormon. Began looking for sanctuary for follower “New Jerusalem”

    ii)Ideas of polygamy and secrecy led surrounding communities to fear them. Mob killed Smith, his protégé Brigham Young led exodus to new community in present Salt Lake City, Utah. Family structure very impt

    iii)Belief in human perfectibility, but not individual liberty. Organized, centrally directed society- refuge from disorder and insecurity of secular world

    iv)Members mostly ppl dislodged by economic growth & social progress of era

    2)Remaking Society

    a)Revivalism, Mortality, and Order

    i)Reform b/c rejection of Calvinist doctrines + preached divinity of individual (Unitarians, Universalism), and b/c of Protestant revivalism

    ii)New Light revivalists believed every individual capable of salvation. Charles Finney impt leader- predestination and human helplessness obsolete

    iii)Revivals in “burned-over district” in upstate NY (economic change b/c where Erie Canal had been built). Successful among those who felt threatened by change (including the prosperous worried about social changes), and women

    b)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Alcohol seen as responsible for crime, disorder, poverty. Large problem in West where farmers made extra grain into whiskey, in East as leisure activity

    ii)Earlier temperance movement revived by new reformers- 1826 American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 1840 Western Temperance Society. 

    iii)Growth led to factions: which alcohol to ban, method (law v. conscience)

    iv)Trying to impose discipline on society- Protestants vs Catholic immigrants for which drinking social ritual, disturbing to old residents of communities 

    c)Health Fads and Phrenology

    i)Interest in individual + social perfection led to new health theories, also threat to public health by cholera epidemics 1830s/40s led to city health boards

    ii)B/c boards found few solutions Americans turned toward nonscientific theories to improve health: “water cure (hydrotherapy)”, Sylvester Graha’s new diet theories, German “phrenology” 1830s thru efforts of Fowler brothers- shape and regions of skull impt indicator of character + intelligence

    d)Medical Science

    i)Science of medicine lagged behind other tech. + scientific advances b/c lack of regulation led many poorly educated ppl to be physicians, absence of basic knowledge of disease- vaccination, anesthesia result of luck vs study

    ii)W/o appetence of scientific methods + experimentation little learned about treating + transmission of disease

    e)Reforming Education

    i)Reform toward universal public education-by 1830 no state had system (some limited state versions [MA, ect.])- reflection of new belief on innate capacity of every person, society’s obligation to tap that, expose kids to social values

    ii)Greatest reformer Horace Mann- educated electorate essential to work free political system. Academic year lengthened, better teacher salaries + training

    iii)By 1850s tax-supported elementary schools in all states. Quality of education varied widely- Horace Mann’s MA professional + trained, elsewhere some barely literate, limited funding. West dispersed pop=less opportunity, South blacks barred from formal education, only 1/3 children nationwide in school

    iv)School reform achievements: US literacy rate highest in world, new emphasis led to new institutions to help handicapped- greater Benevolent

    v)School efforts to impose set of social values on children seen as impt in industrial nation- thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, respect for authority

    f)Rehabilitation

    i)“Asylums” for criminals + mentally ill. Antiquated jails replaced w/ new penitentiaries and mental institutions, jailing debtors + paupers decreased

    ii)Reform & rehabilitate inmates- rigid discipline to curb criminal “laxness”, solitary confinement to contemplate crimes. Overcrowding became problem

    iii)Idea properly structured institution to prevent moral failure + rescue ppl from failure led to orphanages, almshouses for poor, homes for “friendless” women

    g)The Indian Reservation

    i)Main US Indian policy had been relocation to make way for expanding white civilization. Reform led to idea of reservation- enclosed area for Indians to live in isolation from white society. Served economic interest of whites, but also attempt to teach ways of civilization in protected setting

    h)The Rise of Feminism

    i)Women 1830s/40s had to deal w/ traditional limitations + new role in family to focus energy on home and children, leave income-earning to husbands

    ii)Resentment over limitations. Leaders of women’s movement (Grimke sisters, Stowe sisters, Lucrecia Matt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dorothy Dix) began to draw cnxn btwn their abolitionist ideas and plight of women

    iii)1848 organized convention at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights- led to “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” stating all men + women equal, call for women’s suffrage. Many women in feminist movement Quaker 

    iv)Progress limited in antebellum yrs- only few became physicians, ministers 

    v)Women benefited from association w/ other reform movements (very impt abolition), but led some to consider their demands secondary to slave rights

    3)The Crusade Against Slavery

    a)Early Opposition to Slavery

    i)Early 19th century opposition by genteel lot. 1817 American Colonization Society- Virginians who wanted manumission & transportation out of country but also maintain property rights by compensating slaveholder—1830 Liberia

    ii)Failed b/c not enough private + state funding, too many slaves to be possible, opposition from 3rd/4th generation Africans far removed from society + lands

    iii)By 1830 movement losing strength- colonization not viable, cotton boom in Deep South + planter commitment to “peculiar institution” led to dead end

    b)Garrison and Abolitionism

    i)William Lloyd Garrison employed by antislavery newspaper (Genius of Universal Emancipation), but impatient w/ moderate tone + reform proposals

    ii)1831 founded his own Liberator, should look from black perspective, shouldn’t talk in terms of damage to white society. Reject “gradualism”, extend African Americans full rights of American citizens

    iii)Gained Northern following, founded New England Antislavery Society 1832, year later American Antislavery Society- membership grew rapidly

    iv)Growth b/c like other reform movements committed to unleashing individual human spirit, eliminate artificial social barriers

    c)Black Abolitionists

    i)Abolitionism appealed to Northern free blacks who were poor, had little access to education, suffered mob violence, only menial occupations

    ii)P of their freedom, realized own position in society tied to existence of slavery. David Walker came to be a leader w/ violent rhetoric, most blacks less violent speech- Sojourner Truth became antislavery spokesman

    iii)Greatest abolitionist Frederick Douglass- escaped slavery, lectured in NE. His newspaperNorth Star, autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Demanded freedom, but also social + economic equality

    d)Anti-Abolitionism

    i)White southerners opposed abolition, but also many in the North. Seen as threat to social system, feared war btwn sections & influx of blacks to North

    ii)Escalating violence against abolitionists 1830s- abolitionist headquarters “Temple of Liberty” in Philadelphia burned by mob, Garrison seized

    iii)Yet movement grew despite, suggesting members strong-willed + passionate, great courage and moral strength. Majority sentiment ambivalent to slavery

    e)Abolitionism Divided

    i)By 1830s abolitionists faced serious internal strains + divisions. Prompted b/c anti-abolitionist violence made some favor moderation, radicalism of William Garrison and his attacks on slavery, opposition to slavery, call for full equality for women, extreme pacifism, call for northern disunion from South. Moderates called for “moral suasion” of slaveholders, later political action

    ii)1839 Amistad- slaves seized ship tried to return to Africa. US navy captured ship. Supreme Court 1841 declared the Africans free 1

    iii)842 Prigg v. Pennsylvania ruled states need not enforce 1793 law requiring return of fugitive slaves, “personal liberty laws” in northern states forbade officials to assist in capture + return of runaways 

    iv)Nat’t govt pressured to abolish slavery in areas of federal govt jurisdiction, prohibit interstate slave trade. No political party ever founded, but “free-soil” movement to keep slave out of territories became popular

    v)Some abolitionists violent, American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of A Thousand Witnesses (1839) distorted images of slavery

    vi)Most powerful abolitionist propaganda Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1851)- combined sentimental novel w/ political ideas of abolitionist. Story of good, kindly blacks victimized by cruel system movement. Brought message to new audience, but also inflamed sectional tensions to new level

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Impending Crisis

     1)Looking Westward

    a)Manifest Destiny

    i)Reflected pride of American nationalism + idealistic vision of social perfection that had fueled reform movements- US destined by God &  history- to expand over a vast area that included North America. 

    ii)Extend liberty + US political system to others, but also racist justifications- superiority of “American” race, ppl of territories unfit for republican system

    iii)By 1840s idea of Manifest Destiny had spread thru “penny press” (mass audience).  Almost all but not everyone embraced- Henry Clay feared tension

    b)Americans in Texas

    i)1820s Mexican govt encouraged American immigration into Texas hoping to strengthen territory’s economy and increase tax revenues, buffer against Indians, would prevent US expansion- 1824 Mex bill offered cheap land

    ii)Thousands took deal, land suitable for cotton, soon American population larger than Mexican. American intermediaries to Mex govt brought settlers- most famous Stephen Austin. Later attempts to stem US immigration failed

    c)Tensions Between the United States and Mexico

    i)Tension btwn US settlers and Mex govt grew b/c immigrants continued cultural + economic ties to US, also b/c desire to legalize slavery after it was outlawed in 1830

    ii)Mid 1830s Mex General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power as dictator- new law increased power of nat’l govt over state govts, Austin imprisoned. 1835 Mex sent more troops, 1836 Texans declared independence

    iii)Santa Anna led large army into TX, Americans unorganized and easily defeated (Battle of the Alamo in San Antonio). Then General Sam Houston defeated Mexicans 1836 at Battle of San Jacinto, the captured Santa Anna signed treaty making TX independent.      [MXs living in TX called tejanos]

    iv)Texans wanted to be annexed by US, delegation sent to D.C. had expansionist support, but northerners feared large new slave state + empowering the south w/ more Congressional/electoral votes- incl. Andrew Jackson who feared sectional controversy, Pres Van Buren and Pres Harrison also ignored issue

    v)TX sought allies in Eur who wanted to check US power, Pres Tyler sought TX to reapply for statehood 1844, rejected by Senateissue in 1844 election

    d)Oregon

    i)Both GB and US claimed sovereignty over Oregon region. 1818 treaty allowed citizens equal access to area-“joint occupation” for 20 yrs

    ii)US interest grew 1820s/30s b/c desire to convert Indians and oppose Canadian Cath. Missionaries- native rejection Christianity=repudiating right to land

    iii)Large amt of Americans began emigrating to Oregon early 1840s, soon outnumbered GB’s settlers, destroyed native pop. Mid-1840s desire for annex.

    e)The Westward Migration

    i)Growth of TX and Oregon population part of greater movement of population westward 1840-1860. Southerners went mainly to TX, largest numbers from Old Northwest – majority sought mainly new economic opportunity

    ii)Some wanted riches after CA gold discovery 1848, others take advance of cheap land fed govt selling, others on religious mission (Mormons)

    f)Life on the Trail

    i)Most migrants gathered major depots in Iowa or MI, joined wagon trains led by hired guides. Main route Oregon Trail to CA + WA, others Santa Fe Trail

    ii)Trip very difficult, especially in mountain and desert terrain. Fear of conflict w/ Indians (although very little fighting occurred), trade developed w/ Natives

    2)Expansion and War

    a)The Democrats and Expansion

    i)Two candidates for 1844 election Whig Henry Clay and the Democrat/former president Martin Van Buren. Clay chosen, but many Southern democrats supported TX annexation, chose stronger support James K. Polk

    ii)Polk able to win b/c wished to occupy Oregon and annex TX, thereby appealing to both northern and southern expansionists

    iii)Outgoing Pres John Tyler saw election as mandate for annexing TX, did so in 1845. Polk proposed Oregon border @ 49th parallel, GB refused, led to US cry “Fifty-four forty or fight!”. 1846 GB accepted treaty w/ border at 49th parallel

    b)The Southwest and California

    i)Oregon treaty accepted readily by Pres b/c tension growing in Southwest with Mex. After TX became state 1845 dispute over border- TX and Polk believed it to be at Rio Grande, sent Gen Zachary Taylor to protect from invasion

    ii)Part of disputed area was New Mexico where Mex had originally invited American settlers into. Interest in California growing as well as US fur traders gave way to merchants and farmers arriving. Settlers dreamed of annexation

    iii)Polk wanted California and New Mexico for US. At same time ordered Gen Taylor to TX, ordered navy seize CA ports if Mexico declared war

    c)The Mexican War

    i)Polk attempted diplomacy by sending special minister to Mex to purchase lands. When Polk heard MX rejected offer sent Gen. Taylor’s army from Nueces R to Rio Grande R January 1846

    ii)May 1846 US declaration of war. Whig critics of war b/c thought Polk instigated, intensified as war cont and public aware of casualties and expense

    iii)American forces successful in capturing NE Mexico, Polk ordered offensive against New Mexico and California. Col Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe, then aided US forces in CA’s “Bear Flag Revolution”, captured CA

    iv)When Mex refused to cede defeat Polk sent Gen Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. After taking city new Mex govt took power that was willing to negotiate treaty. Some in US wanted to annex part of Mexico, but w/ election soon Polk wanted war ended quickly. Sent envoy Nicolas Trist for settlement

    v)Feb 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo agreed to where Mex ceded CA and NM to US and acknowledged Rio Grande boundary of TX. US agreed to pay Mex $15 million. Despite to Mex annexations Polk accepted treaty

    3)The Sectional Debate

    a)Slavery and the Territories

    i)Rep David Wilmot’s “Wilmot Proviso”: prohibit slavery from territories acquired by Mex- failed Senate. Polk extended Missouri Compromise line to territory on West coast. Alternative- “popular sovereignty”- states decided 

    ii)1848 election Polk didn’t run again. Dem candidate Lewis Cass, Whig General Zachary Taylor. Slavery opponents formed “Free-Soil” Party w/ Van Buren for pres. Showed inability of existing parties to contain slavery passions

    b)The California Gold Rush

    i)Taylor won 1848 election, pressure to resolve slavery in territories urgent b/c of events in CA- 1848 Gold Rush lead to dramatic increase in CA’s population, migrants known as “Forty-niners” mainly men

    ii)Gold Rush led to many Chinese migrants to Western US. Labor shortage in CA (due to ppl flocking to fold fields) created opportunities for ppl who needed work. Also led to exploitation of Natives, “Indian hunters”

    iii)Most didn’t find gold, but many sated in CA and swelled agricultural + urban populations. Population diverse- white Americans, Eurs, Chinese, Mexicans, free blacks, slaves of southern migrants—tension led territory to be a turbulent place, therefore pressure to create a stable and effective govt to bring order

    c)Rising Sectional Tensions

    i)Taylor believed statehood solution to territory issue b/c territories controlled by fed govt, but states govt could settle slave issue w/in own state

    ii)Taylor 1849 proposed CA (which had constitution banning slavery) and New Mexico apply for statehood, decide slavery w/in state. Congress refused b/c at time 15 free and 15 slave states existed, South feared admission of New states would upset balance, make South minority in Sen. Tempers rising

    d)The Compromise of 1850

    i)Henry Clay proposed compromise to Congress in 1850- admitted CA as free state, new territorial govts w/o slave restrictions, new tough fugitive slave law

    ii)First phase of debating comp led by older voices of Clay, Calhoun, Webster and broad ideal of settling slave issue once and for all 

    iii)After Clay proposal defeated, second phase of debate led by younger group: William Seward of NY opposed compromise, Jefferson Davis of MI saw slavery in terms of South’s economic self-interest, Stephen Douglas of IL

    iv)W/ death of Taylor in 1850 (who refused compromise until CA admitted), new Pres Millard Fillmore supported compromise, rallied N Whig support

    v)Douglas proposed Clay compromise split into smaller measured and voted on (difft sections could vote for measures that they supported), used govt bonds and railroad construction to gain support. Comp passed in September- less widespread agreement on ideals then victory of self-interest

    4)The Crisis of the 1850s

    a)The Uneasy Truce

    i)1852 pres election candidates very sectional. Dem Franklin Pierce, Whig Gen Winfield Scott, Free-Soil John Hale. Whigs suffered from massive defection from antislavery members, Democrats won

    ii)Pres Pierce tried to ignore divisive issues, but N opposition to Fugitive Slave Act after 1850 as mobs prevented slave catchers in cities. S angered, alarmed

    b)“Young America”

    i)Pierce supported Democrat’s “Young America”- saw expansion of US democracy throughout world as way of diverting attention from slavery

    ii)Efforts to expand entangled in sectionalism- attempts to capture Cuba opposed by antislavery northerners who feared administration trying to bring new slave state to Union, south opposed acquiring Hawaii b/c prohibited slavery

    c)Slavery, Railroads, and the West

    i)1850s settlers began moving into plains to areas suitable for farming, dislodge Indians from reservations there. Settlement led to issue of railroad and slavery

    ii) RR used to solve communication problems btwn old states + areas W of Miss. R., movement for transcontinental RR. Disagreement over whether eastern terminus should be in North’s Chicago or in the South. Jefferson Davis organized Gadsden Purchase 1853 from Mex to make S route possible

    d)The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy

    i)Stephen Douglas 1854 proposed opening Nebraska Territory for white settlement (to clear Indians in way of possible transcont. RR from Chicago)

    ii)Nebraska North of Missouri Compromise line, therefore had to be free

    iii)To gain passage Douglas proposed dividing Nebraska in two (Nebraska and Kansas) and each would decide slavery by “popular sovereignty” (state legislature), repealed Missouri Compromise entirely

    iv)Kansas-Nebraska Act passed 1854 w/ Pres Pierce support. Had immediate, sweeping consequences: divided and destroyed Whig Party (disappeared by 1856), divided northern Democrats (disagreed w/ repealing Miss. Comp)

    v)Ppl in both parties opposed to bill formed Republican Party 1854

    e)“Bleeding Kansas”

    i)Settlers from N + S settling Kansas, but for 1855 elections southerners from Missouri traveled to Kansas to vote. Pro-slavery legislature elected, legalized slavery. Free-state supporters in state formed own Const, applied statehood

    ii)Pro-slave forces burned down anti-slave govt, abolitionist John Brown then killed 5 pro-slave settlers (Pottawatomie Massacre). Led to armed warfare by armed bands, “Bleeding Kansas” became symbol of sectional controversy

    iii)1856 anti-slavery Charles Sumner of MA gave speech entitled “The Crime Against Kansas” critical of slavery defender Sen Butler of SC. Butler’s nephew Preston Brooks came to Sen, beat Sumner w/ cane- both became hero

    f)The Free-Soil Ideology

    i)Tension from economic, territorial interest, but also sectional vision of US

    ii)North believed in “free soil” + “free labor”. Slavery not so much immoral but wrong b/c threatened whites- every citizen had right to own property, control labor, access to opportunity. To them South closed, static society where slavery preserved entrenched aristocracy & common white had no opportunity

    iii)North growing + prospering, S stagnant + rejecting individualism, progress. Believed S conspiring to extend slavery thru whole nation and thus destroy N capitalism, replace it with closed aristocracy of S- “slave power conspiracy”

    iv)This ideology @ heart of Repub Party. Committed to Union b/c growth + prosperity central to free-labor vision, breakup= smaller size+ less econ power

    g)The Pro-Slavery Argument

    i)Incompatible Southern ideology result of desire for security after Nat Turner 1831 uprising, lucrative nature of cotton economy into Deep South and expansion there, growth of Garrisonian abolition movement against S society

    ii)Intellectual defense of slavery begun by Professor Thomas Dew, others later gave ideology name The Pro-Slavery Argument- said that S should not apologize for slavery b/c was a good thing, slaved enjoyed better conditions than industrial workers in N, allowed for peace btwn races, helped nat’l econ

    iii)Also argued slavery good b/c basis of way S way of life, which was superior to any other. N greedy, destructive, factories horrific, cities crowded + immigrant filled- but S stable, orderly, protected worker welfare

    iv)Defense also on biological inferiority of blacks, inherently unfit to care for themselves and be citizens. Clergy also gave religious + biblical justification

    h)Buchanan and Depression

    i)In 1856 pres election Dems wanted candidate unassociated w/ “Bleeding Kansas” so chose James Buchanan, Repubs chose John Fremont (platform against Kansas-Nebraska Act and of Whiggish internal improvements reflecting N economic aspirations), Know-Nothings chose Millard Fillmore

    ii)Buchanan won, but proved indecisive at critical moment in history. After taking office financial panic + depression hit country

    iii)In N Repubs strengthened b/c manufacturers, workers, farmers joined--depression seen as result of unsound policies of southern Dem administrations

    i)The Dred Scott Decision

    i)March 1857 Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v Sandford- Scott was slave who after masters death sued widow for freedom on grounds that master had moved residence to a free state, but John Sanford (brother of deceased owner, Sup C. misspelled name) claimed ownership of Scott

    ii)Defeat for antislavery movement. Supreme Court had multiple decisions, Chief Justice Roger Taney: Scott could not bring suit in fed court b/c was not a citizen, blacks had virtually no rights under Const, slaves property & 5th Amendment forbid taking property w/o “due process” and therefore Congress had no authority to pass law depriving persons of slave property in territories (thereby ruling Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional)

    iii)Did not challenge rights of state to limit slavery, but fed govt now powerless

    j)Deadlock Over Kansas

    i)Pres Buchanan endorsed Dred Scott decision, to solve Kansas problem supported admission to Union as slave state. 1857 new KS Const legalized slavery, but election of new legislature saw antislavery majority who put Const to ppl to vote on- widely rejected

    ii)1858 Buchanan pressured Congress to admit it as slave state anyway but Cong rejected, compromise allowed KS to vote on Const again—rejected again

    iii)1861, after sever S states had already seceded, KS entered Union as free state

    k)The Emergence of Lincoln

    i)In 1858 Congressional elections Repub Abraham Lincoln ran against famed Dem Stephen Douglas. Lincoln-Douglas debates attracted attention 

    ii)Lincoln’s attacks on slavery prominent- argued if nation didn’t accept blacks had human rights then it could accept other groups such as immigrant laborers could be deprived of rights too. Also, extension of slavery in territories would lead to lost opportunity for betterment by poor white laborers

    iii)Lincoln opposed slavery but not abolitionist b/c did not see easy alternative to slavery in areas where it existed. Prevent spread of slavery to territories, trust institution would gradually die out in areas where it existed

    iv)Douglas won but Lincoln gained following. Dems lost maj in House, kept Sen

    l)John Brown’s Raid

    i)1859 antislavery zealot from KS John Brown led followers to capture fort in Harpers Ferry VA hoping to lead slave rebellion. Uprising never occurred, Brown surrendered, tried for treason by VA and hanged

    ii)Convinced white southerners that they could not live safely in Union, believed raid supported by Repub party and that North now wanted slave insurrection

    m)The Election of Lincoln

    i)In Pres election of 1860 Dems torn btwn southerners (who demanded strong endorsement of slavery) & westerners (who supported popular sovereignty) 

    ii)After popular sovereignty endorsed by convention southern states walked out, eventually nominated John Breckinridge of KY, rest chose Stephen Douglas

    iii)Still others formed Constitutional Union Party w/ John Bell as candidate- endorsed Union but remained silent regarding slavery

    iv)Republicans tried to broaden appeal to earn majority in North who feared S blocking its economic interests. Platform endorsed high tariff, internal improvements, homestead bill, Pacific railroad, popular sovereignty but Congress nor territory legislatures could legalize slavery in territories

    v)Repubs chose Abraham Lincoln as nominee b/c moderate positions on slavery, relative obscurity, and western origins to attract votes from region

    vi)Lincoln won presidency w/ majority of electoral votes but only 2/5 of popular vote but failed to win maj in Congress

    vii)Election of Lincoln final signal for many southerners that their position in Union hopeless, within weeks process of disunion began

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Civil War

    1)The Secession Crisis

    a)The Withdrawal of the South

    i)South Carolina voted Dec 1860 to secede, by time Lincoln came to office six more states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, TX) seceded

    ii)Seceded states formed Confederate States of America Feb1861. These states started seizing federal property but at first lacked power to seize the military instillations at Fort Sumter, SC and For Pickens, FL

    b)The Failure of Compromise

    i)Compromise proposed by Sen John Crittenden of KY proposed constitutional amdts w/ permanent slavery in slave states, fugitive slave returned. At heart was plan to reinstitute Missouri Compromise Line for western lands

    ii)Repubs rejected compromise. Lincoln came to office, stated: Union older than Const therefore no state could leave it, supporting secession= insurrection

    c)Fort Sumter

    i)Forces in fort running out of supplies, Lincoln informed SC govt that supply ships were being sent. South feared looking weak, ordered General PGT Beauregard to capture fort. Bombarded April 12-12,1861. Fort surrendered

    ii)After defeat of fort Lincoln began mobilizing for war, but 4 more slave states also seceded- VA, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina. Other 4 slave states remained in Union- MD, Delaware, KY, Missouri)

    iii)Ppl in N&S had come to believe two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in US, both incapable of living together in peace

    d)The Opposing Sides

    i)North held all the important material advantages- N had more than double the population (manpower for army and work force) advanced industrial system to manufacture war material (S had to rely on Eur imports), N had better transportation systems + more railroads

    ii)Advantages tempered b/c at first South fighting defensive war on own land w/ strong support of population. N more divided and support shaky throughout

    2)The Mobilization of the North

    a)Economic Measures

    i)W/o Southern forces in Congress it enacted nationalistic program to promote econ development- Homestead Act of 1862 gave public land to settlers for small fee, Morrill Land Grant Act gave land to state govts to sell for $ for public education. High tariffs passed- boom to domestic industries, protect from foreign producers

    ii)To build transcontinental RR created the Union Pacific RR Company to build westward from Omaha + Central Pacific to build east from CA

    iii) National Bank Acts of 1863-1864 created new bank system- banks could join if they invested in govt, in turn could issue US Treasure notes as currency

    iv)Govt financed war thru taxes, paper currency, and borrowing. 1861 first ever income tax levied, govt “greenbacks” (paper money) issued (not on gold or silver standard), but mostly thru bonds sold to individuals and larger financial bodies

    b)Raising Union Armies

    i)To increase army Congress authorized enlisting 500,000 volunteers- produced adequate forces only briefly. By March 1863 govt had to pass national draft law (but ppl could avoid service by hiring someone in his place or paying $)

    ii)Ppl were accustomed to remote, inactive nat’l govt so conscription had widespread opposition- mainly from laborers, immigrants, “Peace Democrats”

    c)Wartime Politics

    i)Lincoln moved to assert his authority- apptd cabinet representing every faction of Repub party, used war powers of president and disregarded parts of Const- e.x. never asking Congress for declaration of war (believed declaration would recognize Confederacy as an independent nation)

    ii)Lincoln’s greatest problem was popular opposition to war mobilized by parts of Democratic Party (“Copperheads”) who feared agriculture and Northwest losign influence + deterioration of states rights by strong nat’l govt

    iii)Lincoln suppressed opposition by ordering military arrests of civilian dissenters, suspending habeas corpus, stating all ppl who discouraged enlistment or disloyal practices subject to martial law. Lincoln defied Supreme Court when ordered to release secession leader (Ex parte Merryman), military courts declared unconst after war (Ex parte Milligan)

    iv)In1864 presidential election coalition formed btwn Repubs & War Democrats in Union Party- nominated Lincoln. Dems nominated Gen George McClellan, platform for truce. N victories (e.x. Sept capture of Atlanta) led to Lincoln win

    d)The Politics of Emancipation

    i)Republicans disagreed on slavery- Radicals incl. Sen Charles Sumner wanted to use war to abolish slavery, Conservatives= gradual, less destructive process

    ii)Lincoln cautious of emancipation but momentum gathered behind it- 1861 Confiscation Act freed all slaves used for “insurrectionary” purposes, second Confiscation Act in 1862 freed all slaves of ppl supporting the insurrection

    iii)North began to accept emancipation as central war aim b/c nothing less would justify sacrifices of struggle, Radical Repub influence on the rise

    iv)Lincoln seized leadership of antislavery sentiment- Sept 1862 after success at Battle of Antietam issued Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in all Confederate areas (but not Union slave states). Established war not only to maintain Union but also to eliminate slavery

    v)1865 Congress ratified 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all parts of US

    e)African Americans and the Union Cause

    i)About 180,000 emancipated blacks and more free blacks from North served as soldiers and laborers for Union forces. At start of war African Americans excluded from war, but after Emancipation Proc joined in great numbers

    f)The War and Economic Development

    i)War slowed some growth by cutting manufactueres off from Southern markets and raw materials and diverting labor, but mostly the war sped economic development in the North

    ii)Econ growth from Repub nationalistic legislation + new sectors of economy. Difficult for workers though purchasing power declined, mechanization 

    g)Women, Nursing, and the War

    i)Women entered new roles b/c of need for money and labor needs to fill positions vacated by men

    ii)Nursing (previously dominated by men) taken up by women, staffed field hospitals thru US Sanitary Commission. Countered resistance from doctors by associating care with women’s role as maternal + nurturing wife and mother

    iii)Many found war liberating, seen as opportunity to win support for own goals. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded National Woman’s Loyal League in 1863- worked for abolition and suffrage to women

    3)The Mobilization of the South

    a)The Confederate Government

    i)Confederate const similar to US Const but acknowledged sovereignty of individual states, sanctioned slavery and made abolition nearly impossible. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi named president, led like Union by moderates of new Western aristocracy as opposed to entrenched Eastern elements

    b)Money and Manpower

    i)To finance war South needed to create national revenue system in society not used to tax burdens. Small banking system, little liquid capital b/c of investments in land + slaves. Govt requested funds from state govts who issued questionable bonds

    ii)1863 Income tax created but raised little revenue, borrowing from Eur and bonds to citizens unsuccessful. Turned to issuing paper money but created inflation of over 9,000% vs North’s 80%, no uniform currency

    iii)To raise military called for volunteers, but decline in enlistment led to April 1862 Conscription Act. N capture of Confederate lands led to loss of source for manpower, 1864 shortage so desperate draft widened but still ineffective

    c)States’ Rights versus Centralization

    i)States’ rights supporters obstructed war effort by limiting Davis’ ability to declare martial law and obstructed conscription

    ii)Confed did centralize power in S- bureaucracy larger than that of Washington, impressed slaves to work for military, regulated industry + profits

    d)Economic and Social Effects of the War

    i)War devastating on S economy- cut off planters from markets in S, overseas cotton sales more difficult, industries w/o large slave forces suffered. Production declined by 1/3, fighting on S land destroyed RRs, farmland

    ii)N naval blockade led to shortages of everything- agriculture had focused on cotton and not enough food to meet needs, few doctors b/c of conscription

    iii)Like in N, w/ men leaving farms to fight the role of women changed- led slaves and family, became nurses. Led women to question S assumption that females unsuited for certain activities and to be in public sphere. War created gender imbalance w/ many more women, unmarried + widowed sought work

    iv)Whites feared slave revolts + enforced slave codes severely, but many slaves tried to escape or resisted authority of women and boys overseeing plantations

    4)Strategy and Diplomacy

    a)The Commanders

    i)Most impt Union commander was commander-in-chief Abraham Lincoln- realized N material advantages, goal defeat of Confed armies,  not occupation

    ii)Lincoln had trouble finding a competent chief of staff for war- Gen Winifield Scott, Gen George McCllellan, Gen Henry Halleck. Finally found commander in Gen Ulysses S. Grant- goal to target enemy army + resources, not territory

    iii)Lincoln and Grant scrutinized by Congress’ Committee on the Conduct of the War chaired by OH Sen Benjamin Wade - complained of lack of ruthlessness by of N generals

    iv)Southern command centered on Pres Davis, 1862 named Gen Robert E. Lee principal military adviser (w/ Lee in field Davis controlled strategy). 1864 Gen Braxton Bragg named military adviser, later 1865 Confed Congress created position of general in chief, Davis named Lee, but Davis still decider

    v)Most commanders from both N & S had attended one of the US service academies- US Military Academy at West Point, US Naval Acad at Annapolis

    b)The Role of Sea Power

    i)Union had overwhelming naval advantage- used to enforce blockade of S coast, assisted Union army in field operations especially on large rivers

    ii)Blockade prevented most ships out of Confed ports. Confederates tried to break blockade w/ new weapons such as the ironclad warship the Merrimac, which the Union stopped with one of their ironclads the Monitor

    c)Europe and the Disunited States

    i)Judith P Benjamin was Confed secretary of state, counterpart in Washington was the great William Seward

    ii)At start of war ruling classes of England + France sympathetic to Confed b/c imported cotton for textile industries from S, wanted to see a weaker US, admired aristocratic social order of S. France waited to take sides until England did, English didn’t act b/c of popular support of ppl for the Union

    iii)S countered w/ “King Cotton diplomacy” arguing S cotton vital for these nations textile industries. Surpluses in these nations allowed S to be ignored, later imports from mills from Egypt and India

    iv)No Eur nation diplomatically recognized Confed, no nation wanted to antagonize US unless Confed seemed likely to win- never reached that point

    v)Still, there was tension btwn US and GB + France b/c these nations had declared neutrality. Also 1861 Trent affair over arrest of Confed diplomats aboard English steamer from Cuba, later crisis over sale of Brit ships to S

    d)The American West and the War

    i)Most states and territories of West remained loyal to Union except TX, although Southerners and S sympathizers active in organizing opposition

    ii)Fighting occurred btwn Unionists and secessionists in Kansas and Missouri. Confed William Quantrill led guerilla fighters, Union Jayhawkers in KS

    iii)Confed tried to ally w/ Five Civilized Tribes in Indian territory to recruit support against Union, Indians divided. Never formally allied w/ either side

    5)The Course of Battle

    a)The Technology of Battle

    i)Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat

    ii)Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt’s 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester’s 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon

    iii)Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war

    iv)Railroad impt in war where millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight

    b)The Opening Clashes, 1861

    i)First major battle of war occurred in northern VA btwn Union Gen Irvin McDowell and Confed Gen PGT Beauregard at First Battle of Bull Run

    ii)Union lost, forced to retreat to Washington, dispelled illusion of quick war

    iii)1863 Union army under Gen George McClellan “liberated” anti-secessionists in western VA, area admitted to Union as West Virginia 1863

    c)The Western Theater

    i)Stalemate in East led to 1862 military operations in West. April 1862 Union forced surrender of New Orleans, closed Mississippi R to Confed trade and took away South’s largest city and most impt banking center

    ii)Gen Ulysses S. Grant captured forts under command of Confed Gen Albert Johnston. In doing so Grant forced Confed out of Kentucky and Tennessee

    iii)Grant then marched south, fought forced of Gen Sidney and Gen Beauregard at Battle of Shiloh April 1862. Narrow Union victory allowed capture of several impt railroad lines vital to the Confederacy

    d)The Virginia Front, 1862

    i)Union operations 1862 directed by Gen McClellan (commander of the Army of the Potomac), he was controversial b/c often reluctant to put troops in battle

    ii)McClellan planned Peninsular Campaign- use navy to transport troops, attack Confed capital at Richmond from behind. Gen McDowell left to defend D.C. 

    iii)Then Confed Gen Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson looked as if planning to cross Potomac to Washington, defeated Union forces in Valley campaign, withdrew

    iv)Meanwhile, McClellan battled and defeated Confed Gen Joseph Johnston at Battle of Fair Oaks. Johnston replaced by Gen Robert E. Lee who battled McClellan at Battle of the Seven Days. Union able to advance near Richmond

    v)When McClellan delayed attack Lincoln ordered him to move to northern VA to forces under Gen John Pope. But as Army of Potomac moved Lee attacked Pope with his Army of Northern Virginia at 2nd Battle of Bull Run (August)

    vi)Lincoln replaced Pope and McClellan led all forces. Lee planned offensive, resulted in Battle of Antietam Creek- bloodiest single-day of war w/ 6,000 dead & 17,000 injured. Confed withdrew but McClellan could have defeated Lee w/ last assault. Lincoln relieved McClellan from command in November, his replacement Gen Ambrose Burnside relieved in December after failures

    e)1863: Year of Decision

    i)New commander of Army of the Potomac Gen Joseph Hooker attacked by Lee + Jackson at Battle of Chancellorsville, barely able to escape w/ army

    ii)While Union frustrated in East won impt victories in the West

    iii)In July besieged Confed stronghold at Vicksburg, MI surrendered to Grant

    iv)Union now controlled entire Mississippi R, Confederacy split in two- Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas cut off from other seceded states

    v)To divert Union forces away from Missippi and Vicksburg and to gain major victory on N soil to get English and French aid, Lee proposed PA invasion

    vi)New Army of the Potomac commander Gen George Meade battled Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Meade defeated Lee w/ surrender on July 4, same day as Vicksburg defeat

    vii) Weakened Confed forced now unable to seriously threaten N territory

    viii)In September Gen Braxton Braggfought Union army under William Rosecrans, Union defeated at Battle of Chickamauga

    ix)Bragg then fought remaining Union forces at Battle of Chattanooga (Tennessee) in November. Grant reinforced the Union army, Union won and occupied most of eastern TN and controlled important Tennessee River

    x)Confed could not only hope to win independence thru holding on and exhausting N will to fight, not thru decisive military victory

    f)The Last Stage, 1864-1865

    i)Beginning 1864 Grant named general-in-chief of all Union armies. Planned two offensives: use Army of Potomac in VA to fight Lee near Richmond, and use western army under Gen William Sherman to advance toward Atlanta

    ii)Grant’s Overland campaign in VA led Lee to win three battles (Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Battle of Cold Harbor)

    iii)Grant then decided to bypass Richmond to railroad center at Petersburg- strong defenses and reinforcement by Lee led to 9-month siege

    iv)In Georgia Gen Sherman fought Gen Johnston and his replacement Gen Hood, took Atlanta in Sept- electrified N + united Repub Party behind Lincoln

    v)Sherman defeated Confed at Battle of Nashville, while beginning his March to the Sea- sought to deprive Confed army of war materials and railroad but also break will of Southern ppl by burning towns and plantations along route

    vi)Sherman captured Savannah, GA in Dec, turned north thru SC and NC

    vii)April 1865 Grant’s Army of the Potomac captured vital railroad juncture in Petersburg. W/o rail access to South and cut off rom other Confed forces Lee no longer able to defend Richmond

    viii)Lee attempted to move army around Union in hope of meeting forces with Gen Johnston in North Carolina, but Union blocked and pursued him

    ix) Realizng more bloodshed was futile Lee met w/ Grant in town of Appomattox Courthouse, VA- surrendered there on April 9

    x)Nine days later Gen Johnston surrendered to Sherman in North Carolina

    xi)In military war was effectively over even though Jefferson Davis refused to accept defeat. He fled Richmond but was captured in Georgia

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Reconstruction and the New South

    1)The Problems of Peacemaking

    a)The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation

    i)Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property. Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop) had died, ppl wanted to preserve what was left

    ii)Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family, work. Almost none owned land or possessions

    b)Competing Notions of Freedom

    i)Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice, humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also desired

    ii)AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some wanted economic redistribution including land, others wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted independence from white control

    iii)Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal govt. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be tied to plantations

    iv)March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr

    c)Issues of Reconstruction

    i)Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for suffering rebellion caused

    ii)Repubs split btwn Conservatives and Radicals- Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confed leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property confiscation. Moderates in between

    d)Plans for Reconstruction

    i)Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan- favored recruiting former Whigs to Repubs, amnesty to white Southerners other than high Confed officials. When 10% of ppl took loyalty oath state govt could be established. Questions of future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid reunification

    ii)The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee rejoined under plan in 1864

    iii)Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 proposed governor for each state, when majority of ppl took allegiance oath constitutional convention could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confed leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed

    e)The Death of Lincoln

    i)April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth

    ii)Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a mild plan would not come soon

    f)Johnson and “Restoration”

    i)Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress in recess during summer 1865

    ii)Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance oath, Confed officials + wealthy planters needed special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had provisional governors, constitutional convention had to revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amdt. State govts, then readmission

    iii)By end of 1865 all seceded states has new govts, waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to recognize Johnson govts b/c public sentiment more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confed Alexander Stephens as Sen)

    2)Radical Reconstruction

    a)The Black Codes

    i)1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves, prevent farm ownership or certain jobs

    ii)Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866 passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens, gave fed govt power to intervene to protect rights of citizens

    iii)Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden

    b)The Fourteenth Amendment

    i)14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former Confed members couldn’t hold state or fed office unless pardoned by Congress

    ii)Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified amendment, only TN did so

    iii)S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional elections, could now act over President’s objections

    c)The Congressional Plan

    i)Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867, established coherent plan

    ii)TN readmitted, but other state govts rejected. Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in rebellion) for const convention that must include black suffrage

    iii)After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state legislature had to ratify 14thAmdt. By 1868 10 former Confed states fulfilled these conditions (14th Amdt now part of Const) and readmitted to Union

    iv)Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act (forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military orders except thru commanding general of army or w/ Sen approval)

    v)Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared military tribunals where civil courts existed unconst, Radicals feared same ruling would apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2 years

    d)The Impeachment of President Johnson

    i)Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868 Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1 vote

    3)The South in Reconstruction

    a)The Reconstruction Governments

    i)In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to ¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These restrictions later lifted, but Repubs kept control w/ support of many southern whites called “scalawags” (most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman), felt Repub better for their economic interests

    ii)“Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals or veterans) who moved South after war to take advantage of new opportunity

    iii)Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who held conventions and created black churches that gave them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates to const conventions, held office- although white charges of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false

    iv)Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there were charges of corruption and extravagance. But corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic expansion of govt services that put new strains on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed services previous govts had not offered: public education, public works, and poor relief

    b)Education

    i)Education improvement benefited whites and blacks- large network of schools for former slaves created (over white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school system led to great percentage of white and black population attending school 

    ii)System divided into black and white system, integration efforts failed

    c)Landownership and Tenancy

    i)Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but Pres Johnson and govt returned most confiscated land to returning plantation owners

    ii)White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on help of failed Freedman’s Bank

    iii)Most ppl did not own land during Reconstruction, worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop

    d)The Crop-Lien System

    i)Postwar years saw economic progress for African Americans, great increase in income. Result of black profit share increasing, greater return on labor

    ii)Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty- black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then grew little more afterward

    iii)Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit institutions such as banks returned, new credit system centered on local country stores 

    iv)Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien (claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in debt cycle

    v)Effects included leading some blacks who had gained land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to decline in agric economy

    e)The African-American Family in Freedom

    i)Major black response during Reconstruction was effort to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and family

    ii)Women began performing more domestic work + child caring, less field labor

    iii)Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of slave activities: domestic servants, laundry

    4)The Grant Administration

    a)The Soldier President

    i)Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868 election. Had no political experience, apptd incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption

    ii)Opposing Repubs formed faction called Liberal Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection

    b)The Grant Scandals

    i)Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and Repubs. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier construction company helping build Union Pacific RR. Company heads steered contracts to company costing fed govt and Union Pacific millions, stock given to Congress members to stop investigation

    ii)Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that “Grantism” brought corruption to govt

    c)The Greenback Question

    i)Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of 1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors wanted govt to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks (paper currency) 

    ii)Grant and other Repubs wanted “sound” currency based on gold that would favor banks and other creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation

    iii)1875 Repubs passed Specie Resumption Act- pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supply grew little

    iv)National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept money issue alive

    d)Republican Diplomacy

    i)Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William Seward and Hamilton Fish

    ii)Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”), annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against GB of violating neutrality by building ships for Confed. Treaty of Washington allowed for arbitration of claims

    5)The Abandonment of Reconstruction

    a)The Southern States “Redeemed”

    i)By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked as majority to overthrow Repubs. In areas of black majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity

    ii)Klan led by former Confed Gen Nathan Forrest. Worked to advance interest of those who would gain from white supremacy- mainly planter class and Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic pressure used

    b)The Ku Klux Klan Acts

    i)Repubs tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)- prohibited states from discriminating against voters on race, fed govt given power to prosecute violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations

    ii)Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC

    c)Waning Northern Commitment

    i)Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amdt many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves. Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into Democratic Party

    ii)Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this light, favored little govt intervention to help. Depleted treasury led ppl to want to spend little on freedmen, poor state govts cut back on social services

    iii)In Congressional elections of 1874 Dems won majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA

    d)The Compromise of 1877

    i)In 1876 elections Repubs sought new candidate to distance from corruption and attract Liberals back- chose Rutherford B Hayes, Dems chose Sam Tilden

    ii)Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress created special electoral commission to judge disputed votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won election

    iii)Resolution result of compromises btwn Repubs w/ southern Dems- Hayes would withdraw last fed troops from S if Dems abandoned filibuster of bill

    iv)“Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to help Dems grow business and industrialize, withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state govts

    e)The Legacies of Reconstruction

    i)Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such bitterness that solution not attempted for another century. Failure b/c of ppl directing it, unwillingness to infringe on rights of states and individuals

    6)The New South

    a)The “Redeemers”

    i)By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern state govt “redeemed” (white Dems held power).  “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants, industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”, social conservatism, economic development

    ii)Dem govts lowered taxes, reduced services (incl. public education)

    iii)By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and Redeemer govt commitment to pay off prewar and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster movement)

    b)Industrialization and the “New South”

    i)Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop industrial economy, New South of industry, progress, thrift

    ii)Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’ 1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows

    iii)New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco-processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also grew

    iv)Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886 greater integration with rest of country when changed its gauge

    v)However, growth of South merely regained what it had done before war, average income in the South substantially lower than that of North

    vi)Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force. Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill towns restricted by company w/ labor unions suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of community

    c)Tenants and Sharecroppers

    i)S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop-lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of ppl in S became tenant farmers

    ii)“Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence laws” (prevented ppl from raising livestock) led to decline in living self-sufficiently

    iii)Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to follow in 1880s/1890s

    d)African Americans and the New South

    i)Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress + self improvement, entered middle class by becoming professionals, owning land or business

    ii)This small rising group of blacks believed education vital to future of race- supported black colleges

    iii)Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington (founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win respect of white population by adopting middle class standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement and economic gains to earn recognition

    e)The Birth of Jim Crow

    i)Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th & 15th Amdts (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented state discrimination but not private organizations of individuals)

    ii)Court validated separation of races- Plessy v Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were equal.Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)- laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable school for blacks existed

    iii)White policies shifted from subordination to segregation- black voting rights had been used by Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when poor white farmers saw this they sought to disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amdt thru “poll tax”/property requirement or “literacy”/understanding test

    iv)Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynchings, ect) to inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti-lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to pass national law enabling fed got to punish those responsible for lynchings

    v)White supremacy diluted class animosities btwn poor whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played secondary role to race, distracting ppl from social inequalities that affected blacks and whites

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Conquest of the Far West

    1)The Societies of the Far West

    a)The Western Tribes

    i)Some dislocated eastern tribes in “Indian Territory”, others western tribes such as Pueblos had permanent settlements/farms + interaction w/ Spanish & Mexicans- caste system over other Ind tribes (genizaros=Ind w/o tribes)

    ii)Plains Indians- some nomadic, some farmers. Many (including Sioux) hunted buffalo as main source of food + materials

    iii)Warriors unable to defeat white settlers b/c disunited, internal conflict, disease

    b)Hispanic New Mexico

    i)American capitalist integration led Spanish-speaking to erosion of communal society + economies, land aristocracy from Santa Fe + Span/Mex peasants

    ii)Territorial govt in 1850, in 1870s govt dominated by “territorial ring” where business ppl took advantage of impending statehood, used fed money for profit

    iii)Arrival of RRs in in SW during 1880s/1890s brought new ranching, farming, mining brought new Mexican migrants

    c)Hispanic California and Texas

    i)Most Spanish missions that employed Ind as near slaves until 1830s. White settlers expelled Hispanic californios from the land. Market for cattle allowed some rancheros to continue to own land, but most Mexs became working class

    ii)In Texas Mexs also unable to compete with enormous Anglo-American ranching kingdoms- most relegated to unskilled farm + industrial labor

    d)The Chinese Migration

    i)After 1848 gold rush, Chinese migration dramatically increased, settling mostly in CA. White sentiment soon turned negative b/c Chinese industrious and successful

    ii)Chinese excluded from gold mining by CA 1852 “foreign miner tax”, other laws 1850s discouraged immigration—Chinese began to work on transcontinental Central Pacific RR

    iii)After RR completion 1869 many Chinese moved to cities- formed “Chinatowns” w/ benevolent societies, “tongs”-secret criminal societies

    iv)Many Chinese occupied lower jobs- unskilled laborers. Many started laundries

    e)Anti-Chinese Sentiment

    i)“Anti-coolie” clubs in 1860s/1870s sought ban on employing Chinese, formed b/c some whites felt Chinese laborers accepted low wages + undercut unions

    ii)In CA, Democratic Party + Denis Kearney’s Workingmen’s Party attacked Chinese interest- based on economic tension, cultural + racial- “inassimilable”

    iii)1882 Congress responded to pressure, passed Chinese Exclusion Act- halted Chinese migration, barred naturalization- aimed to help “American” labor

    f)Migration from the East

    i)Extremely great postwar migration to empty and settled areas alike. Most white Anglo-Americans, others foreign-born Eur immigrants—attracted by metal deposits, lands for farming and ranching

    ii)Fed land policies encouraged settlement: Homestead Act of 1862 gave 160 acres of land for small fee, in return would improve land, create new markets mechanization + rising farm costs forced some small farmers off this land

    iii)In response Congress passed Timber Culture Act (1863), Desert Land Act (1877), Timber and Stone Act (1878) to allow ppl to buy/develop more cheap land

    g)1860s saw development of territorial govt, statehood soon followed for most

    2)The Changing Western Economy

    a)Labor in the West

    i)Labor shortage led to higher wages than in East, but job instability (after harvest or RR completion, ect) led to communities of jobless in cities. Workers mostly mobile, single men

    ii)Working class highly multiracial, but whites generally occupied higher job levels (management + skilled labor) than nonwhites in unskilled labor. Dual labor system reinforced by racial assumptions that held nonwhites more suited for worse conditions + harder labor- allowed whites greater social mobility

    b)The Arrival of the Miners

    i)First Western economic boom came from mining strikes in 1860s-1890s. During Pike’s Peak strike 1858 mining camps blossomed into “cities”, later Comstock Lode silver found in Nevada, 1874 Black Hill strike in Dakota Terr.

    ii)After surface wealth used up, eastern capitalists often bought claims of pioneer prospectors, began retrieving from deeper veins w/ corporate mines

    iii)In boom towns vigilantism used to combat outlaws. Men outnumbered women, prostitution very common. After boom most remained in town as wage laborer in corporate mine

    c)The Cattle Kingdom

    i)Economy also affected by the open range- provided cattle raisers w/ free lands to graze, RRs gave access to markets. Largest herds found in Texas

    ii)After success of the long drive proven, easier routes to access rest of country sought- market facility grew up at Abilene, KS as railhead of cattle kingdom. Agricultural development in 1870s in W. Kansas led other routes to grow

    iii)As settlement of plans increased new forms of competition emerged- sheep breeders used range to feed flock, farmers from the East fenced in their lands—“range wars” developed btwn ranchers and farmers

    iv)Large profits in cattle business led cattle economy to become more corporate. This expansion onto already shrunken ranges from RRs and farmers became overstocked, and combined with bad winters from 1885-1887, thousands of cattle died—open-range industry never recovered, but ranches survived + grew

    v)Although cattle industry mostly male, large number of women led them to have impt political presence- women won vote earlier in West than rest of nation (some states to swell population for statehood, bring “morals” to politics)

    3)The Romance of the West

    a)The Western Landscape

    i)Painters of the “Rocky Mountain School
    “ celebrated the West in grandiose paintings that attracted great crowds- emphasized ruggedness and variety of region, awe toward land that had been previously expressed by Hudson River valley painters

    b)The Cowboy Culture

    i)Cowboy life romanticized in contrast to stable, orderly world of the East. Owen Wister’sThe Virginian (1902) showed freedom from social contraints, only one example of magazine articles, novels, ect. about Western life

    c)The Idea of the Frontier

    i)Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Mark Twain wrote about (mostly early) frontier life is Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

    ii)Painter/sculptor Frederic Turner captured romance of West in his works comparing it to the East

    iii)Theodore Roosevelt wrote history of West- The Winning of the West (1890s)

    d)Frederick Jackson Turner

    i)The historian Turner contended that by 1890s no single frontier line existed and the end of an era had come. Expansion has stimulated individualism, nationalism, democracy, American uniqueness. Mirrored sentiments of US

    ii)Turner inaccurate and premature- ppl had always lived in “empty, uncivilized” lands and had been displaced, also in coming years much land still available

    e)The Loss of Utopia

    i)With nation feeling that there had been a “passing of the frontier”, ppl felt opportunities closing and with it ability to control own destiny

    ii)“Myth of the garden” (West as Garden of Eden) lost

    4)The Dispersal of the Tribes

    a)White Tribal Policies

    i)Traditional policy was to regard tribes as nations and wards of the president, therefore negotiate treaties w/ them ratified by Senate. As white settlers demanded more lands during 1850s led ppl to abandon idea of one large Indian Territory to policy of “concentration”- each tribe given negotiated reservation

    ii)In 1867 after bloody conflicts Congress created Indian peace Commission to make permanent Indian policy- move all Plains Indians into Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas. Failed b/c of poor administration by Bureau of Indian Affairs & killing of buffalo herds by whites + reduced Indian ability to resist white advance -led to violence

    b)The Indian Wars

    i)1850s-1880s showed nearly constant fighting as Indians struggled against threats to their civilizations- during Civil War conflict w/ Indians in Old Northwest and the Southwest

    ii)Not only military that threatened tribes; white vigilantes participated in “Indian hunting” killed tribes for sport or bounties, wanted retaliation after raids

    iii)Treaties made in 1867 saw temporary lull, but influx of settlers in 1870s penetrated Dakota Territory + change in govt policy to not recognize tribes as independent nations led to violence in 1875

    iv)Sioux rose up under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the Black Hills- at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 Indians killed Colonel George Custer and regiment, Indians became disunited after and forced to return to reservation

    v)Nez Perce Indians under Chief Joseph 1877 attempted to flee Idaho for Canada but caught by soldiers, forced to travel for years afterward to difft areas

    vi)Last organized resistance came from Apaches under Chiefs Mangas Colorados, Cochise, and finally Geronimo- unwilling to bow to white pressures Geronimo conducted raids on white outposts (“Apache Wars”), surrendered 1886

    vii)Atrocities against Indians had prompted much fighting- in 1890 Sioux religious revival under the prophet Wovoka led to “Ghost Dance” that celebrated vision of whites leaving + buffalo return- in Dec troops tried to round up some Indians at Wounded Knee, SD which turned into an Indian massacre

    c)The Dawes Act

    i)Efforts taken to destroy reservation + communal land ownership in order to force Indians to become farmers, landowners - abandon culture for white civili.

    ii)Dawes Act of 1887 eliminated tribal ownership and gave land to individual owners. Bureau of Indian Affairs promoted assimilation, sometimes by removing children and sending them to white boarding schools, build churches

    iii)Indians unprepared for capitalist individualism + corrupt administration led to abandonment of program, later Burke Act of 1906 also failed to divide lands

    5)The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer

    a)Farming on the Plains

    i)Before Civil War lands accessible only by wagon, transcontinental RR completed 1869 and subsidiary lines built afterward w/ land grants and loans

    ii)Easier access to Great Plains spurred agriculture- RRs offered cheap land and credit, rainfall allowed farming

    iii) Farmers faced problems: enclosing land expensive, but 1873 Joseph Glidden and IL Ellwood invited barbwire; arid land needed irrigation, especially after 1887 when series of dry spells followed- during 1880s booms credit easy, but arid weather of late 1880smany farmers unable to pay debt and forced to abandon farms

    b)Commercial Agriculture

    i)Commercial farmers specialized in cash crops sold on national/international markets. Relied on town stores for supplies and food, dependent on bankers’ interest rates, railroad freight rates, and US/Eur markets

    ii)During late 19th century agriculture became an international business- US commercial farmers relied on risky world market to absorb surpluses

    iii)Overproduction in 1880s led to price drops, economic crisis for small farmers

    c)The Farmers’ Grievances

    i)Farmers resented railroads and their higher freight rates for farm goods, credit institutions for their high interest rates and payments that had to be made in years when currency scarce, and prices that they had to pay for goods and the money they received- believed manufactures keeping farm good prices low

    d)The Agrarian Malaise

    i)Farmers isolated, lacked education for children, proper medical facilities, and community- this sense of obsolescence lead to growing malaise among farmers that created great political movement in 1890sSturdy yeoman farmers had viewed themselves as the backbone of American life, now they were becoming aware that their position was declining in relation to the rising urban-industrial society in the East

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Industrial Supremacy

     1)Sources of Industrial Growth

    a)Industrial Technologies

    i)Most impt tech development was new iron + steel production techniques- Henry Bessemer and William Kelly invented process to turn iron to steel, possible to produce large quantities and dimensions for construction, RRs

    ii)Steel industry emerged in Pennsylvania and Ohio (Pittsburgh notably)- iron industry existed, fuel could be found in PA coal

    iii)New transportation systems emerged to serve steel industry- freighters for the Great Lakes, RRs used steel to grow + transported it (sometimes merged w/ one another). Oil industry also grew b/c of need to lubricate mill machinery

    b)The Airplane and the Automobile

    i)Development of automobile dependent upon growth of two technologies: creation of gasoline from crude oil extraction, and 1870s Eur development of “internal combustion engine”. By 1910 car industry major role in economy

    ii)First gas-car built by Duryea brothers 1903, Henry For began production 1906

    iii)Search for flight by Wright Bros lead to famous 1903 flight. US govt created National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 1915 to match Eur research

    c)Research and Development

    i)New industrial technologies lead companies to sponsor own research- General Electric established first corp lab 1900, marked decentralization of govt-sponsored research. At same time cnxn began btwn university research + needs of industrial economy- partnership btwn academic + commercial

    d)The Science of Production

    i)Principles of “scientific management” began to be employed- fathered by Frederick Taylor who argued employers subdivide tasks to decrease need for highly skilled workers, increase efficiency by doing simple tasks w/ machines

    ii)Emphasis on industrial research led to corporate labs (e.g. Edison’s Menlo Park)

    iii)Most impt change in production was mass production + assembly line. First used by Henry Ford in automobile plant 1914- cut production time, prices

    e)Railroad Expansion

    i)Industrial development b/c of RR expansion- gave industrialists access to new markets + raw materials, spent large sums on construction and equipment

    ii)Possible b/c of govt subsidies, investment capital from abroad, and combinations of RRs by Cornelius Vanderbilt, James Hill, Collis Huntington

    f)The Corporation

    i)Modern corp emerged after Civil War when industrialists realized no person or group of limited partners able to finance great ventures

    ii)Businesses began to sell stock, appealing b/c “limited liability” meant lost only amt of investment + not liable for debts- allowed vast capital to be raised

    iii)Began in RR industry, spread to others- in steel industry Andrew Carnegie struck deals with RRs, bought up rivals, purchased coal mines w/ partner Henry Clay Frick controlled steel process from mine to market

    iv)Financed undertaking by selling stock. Bought out 1901 by JP Morgan who formed United States Steel- controlled 2/3 of nation’s steel production

    v)Corporate organizations developed new management techniques- division of responsibilities, control hierarchy, cost-accounting procedures, and “middle manager” btwn owners and labor introduced. Consolidation now a possibility

    g)Consolidating Corporate America

    i)Consolidation occurred thru “horizontal integration” (forming competing firms into single corporation) and “vertical integration” (control production from raw materials to distribution). Also thru pool arrangements (most failed)

    ii)Most famous corp empire John D Rockefeller’s Standard Oil- thru horizontal & vertical integration came to control 90% of refined oil in US

    iii)Consolidation used to cope w/ “cutthroat competition”- feared too much competition lead to instability, best was to eliminate/absorb competition

    h)The Trust and the Holding Company

    i)Failure of pools (informal agreements to stabilize rates, divide markets) led to less cooperation and more centralized control- “trust” emerged (stock transferred to group of trustees who made all decisions but shared profits)

    ii)Beginning w/ NJ 1889 states changed laws to allow companies to buy other companies, trust unnecessary—“holding companies” emerged as corporate body to buy up stock and establish formal ownership of corporations in trust

    iii)End of 19th cent 1% of corps controlled 33% of manufacturing, system where power in hands of a few men- NY bankers (JP Morgan), industrialists (Rockefeller), ect. 

    iv)Substantial economic growth ultimately from this arrangement- costs cut, industrial infrastructure formed, new markets stimulated, new unskilled jobs

    2)Capitalism and Its Critics

    a)The “Self-Made Man”

    i)Defenders argued capitalist economy expanding opportunities for individual advancement, and some tycoons were self-made men. But most came to be wealthy as a result of ruthlessness, arrogance, corruption (financial contributions to political, parties)

    ii)Many industrialists were modest entrepreneurs trying to carve role for their business in an unstable economy & fragmented, highly competitive industries

    b)Survival of the Fittest

    i)Assumptions that wealth earned thru hard work and thrift and that those who failed earned their failure became basis of Social Darwinism- only fittest individuals survived and flourished in the marketplace

    ii)English philosopher Herbert Spencer championed theory, in America William Graham Sumner promoted similar ideas- absolute freedom to struggle, compete, succeed, and fail

    iii)Appealed to businessmen b/c justified their tactics- efforts to raise wages by labor thru unions or govt regulation would fail, laws of supply and demand and “invisible hand” or market forces would determine wages and prices

    iv)Yet tycoons themselves thru monopolies tried to eliminate competition

    c)The Gospel of Wealth

    i)Gospel of Wealth (1901) by Andrew Carnegie advocated idea that w/ great wealth came great responsibility to use riches to advance social progress

    ii)Author Horatio Alger promoted stories of individual success in his works- anybody could become rich thru work, perseverance, and luck

    d)Alternative Visions

    i)Groups emerged challenging corporate and capitalistic ethos

    ii)Sociologist Lester Ward in Dynamic Sociology (1883) argued natural selection didn’t shape society, and active govt in positive planning best for society. Skeptical of laissez-fire, ppl should intervene to serve their needs

    iii)Famous dissidents emerged to challenge ideas: Socialist Labor Party founded 1870s by Daniel De Leon; Henry George and his Progress and Poverty (1879) argued poverty due to wealth of monopolists and their high land values; Edward Bellamy and his Looking Backward (1888) spoke of “fraternal cooperation” and of future society where govt distributed wealth equally

    e)The Problems of Monopoly

    i)Few questioned capitalism itself but movement grew in opposition to monopolies + economic concentrations- seen as creating artificially high prices, unstable economy. Recessions and havoc 1873 every 5-6 yrs

    ii)Resentment increased b/c of new class of conspicuously wealthy ppl who lived opulent lifestyle- flagrant wealth in face of 4/5 who lived modestly

    iii)Standard of living rising for everyone, but gap btwn rich + poor growing

    3)Industrial Workers in the New Economy

    a)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Industrial work force grew late 19th century b/c of migration to industrial cities from both rural areas and foreign immigration- late century most migrants from England, Ireland, N Eur, by end shit toward S and E Europeans

    ii)Immigrants came to escape poverty, lured by opportunity and advertisements by companies. Ethnic tensions increased b/c of job displacement, competition

    b)Wages and Working Conditions

    i)Average standard of living rose but wages low, little job security b/c boom-bust cycle, monotonous tasks that required little skill, long hours in unsafe conditions- loss of control over work conditions seen as worst part of factory labor as corporate efficiency and managers centralized workplace

    c)Women and Children at Work

    i)Decreasing need for skilled labor led to increase use of women and children who could be paid lower than men

    ii)Most women were young immigrants, concentrated in textile industry and domestic service. Some single, others supplemented husband’s earnings

    iii)Children employed in agriculture and factories w/ little regulation, dangerous

    d)The Struggle to Unionize

    i)Labor attempted to fight conditions by creating large combinations (unions) but had little success by century’s end. Fist attempt to federate separate unions came 1866 w/ National labor Union (disintegrated after Panic of 1873)

    ii)Unions faced difficulty during 1870s recessions b/c of high unemployment, hostility of middle class

    e)The Great Railroad Strike

    i)Railroad Strike of 1877 began after 10% wage cut announced. Strikers disrupted rail service, state militia mobilized and in July President Hayes ordered some federal troops. Strike collapsed eventually after many deaths

    ii)Showed disputes could no longer be localized in national economy, depth of resentment toward employers, frailty of labor movement

    f)The Knights of Labor

    i)First effort at national labor organization 1869 Noble Order of the Knights of Labor under Uriah Stephens- lacked strong central direction but local “assemblies” championed 8-hour workday, end to child labor, but also interested in long-range reform of economy. Allowed women to join

    ii)During 1870s under Terence Powderly rapid expansion, but by 1890 Knights had collapsed due to failure of strikes in the Gould railway system

    g)The AFL

    i)1880s American Federation of Labor created, became most impt +enduring national labor group- collection of autonomous craft unions of skilled workers

    ii)Led by Samuel Gompers- goal to secure greater share of capitalism’s material rewards to workers, opposed fundamental economic reform

    iii)Wanted creation of national 8-hour work day, national strike May 1, 1886 to achieve goal- in Chicago violence broke out btwn strikers and police after deaths in Haymarket Square bombing- “anarchism” became widely feared by middle class, associated it with radical labor

    h)The Homestead Strike

    i)The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (craft union in AFL) held large amt of power in steel industry b/c of reliance on skilled workers

    ii)By 1880s Efficient Carnegie process led management to want more control over labor + needed fewer skilled workers

    iii)Carnegie and Henry Frick began to cut wages at Homestead plant in Pittsburgh to break union. 1892 strike called after company stopped consulting the Amalgamated, Pinkerton Detective Agency security guards brought in as strikebreakers- were attacked, National Guard of PA called in

    iv)Eventually protected strikebreakers ended strike, by 1900 Amalgamated had lost nearly every major steel plant

    i)The Pullman Strike

    i)Strike at Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 after Pullman cut wages. Workers began to strike w/ the American Railway Union of Eugene V. Debs

    ii)Within few days thousands of railway workers struck and transportation nationwide frozen. General Manager’s Association asked Pres Grover Cleveland to send in federal troops b/c passage of mail being blocked

    iii)Pres complied and sent 2,000 troops to protect strikebreakers. Strike collapsed

    j)Sources of Labor Weakness

    i)Late 19th century labor suffered many losses- wages rose slowly, whatever progress made not enforced 

    ii)Reasons for failures included: leading labor organizations represented only small percentage of industrial work force; ethnic tensions; many immigrant workers planned to stay in country for short while and moved very often- eroded willingness to organize, believed not part of permanent working class; couldn’t match efforts of powerful + wealthy corporations


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Age of the City

    1)The Urbanization of America

    a)The Life of the City

    i)Urban pop increased 7x in 50 yrs after Civil War, by 1920 majority of ppl lived in urban areas. Occurred partly b/c of natural growth, mostly b/c immigrants and rural ppl flocked b/c offered better paying jobs than rural areas, cultural experiences available, transportation to cities easier than ever

    b)Migrations

    i)Late 19th century saw geographic mobility- Americans left declining Eastern agricultural regions for new farmlands in West and for cities of East

    ii)Women moved from farms where mechanization decreased their value; Southern blacks moved to cities to escape rural poverty, oppression, violence

    iii)Largest source of urban growth immigrants: until 1880s mainly educated N Europeans who were sometimes skilled laborers, businessmen or moved West to start farms. After 1880s largely S and E Europeans, lacked capital (like poor Irish immigrants before Civil War) so took mainly unskilled jobs

    c)The Ethnic City

    i)Not only was amt of immigrants tremendous, but so was diversity of immigrant population (no single national group dominated)

    ii)Most immigrants were rural ppl so formed close-knit ethnic communities to ease transition-offered native newspapers, food, links to national past

    iii)Assimilation of ethnic groups into capitalist economy depended on values of community, but also prejudices among employers, individual skills and capital

    d)Assimilation

    i)Most immigrants had desire to become true “Americans” and break with old national ways. Particular strain w/ women who in America shared more freedoms- adjust to more fluid life of American city

    ii)Assimilation encouraged by Natives thru public schools and employer requirement to learn English, religious leaders

    e)Exclusion

    i)Immigrant arrival provoked many fears + resentments of some native-born ppl. Reacted out of prejudice, foreign willingness to accept lower wages

    ii)Political response to these resentments- American Protective Association founded by Henry Bowers 1887, Immigration Restriction League sought to screen/reduce immigrants.  1882 Congress passed Chinese Exclusion Act, also denied entry to all “undesirables” and placed small tax on immigrants

    iii)New laws kept only small amt out. Literacy requirement vetoed by president Grover Cleveland—anti-immigrant measures failed mainly b/c many natives welcomed it, provided growing economy w/ cheap and plentiful labor 

    2)The Urban Landscape

    a)The Creation of Public Space

    i)By mid-19th century reformers and planners began to call for ordered vision of city, resulted in creation of public spaces and public services

    ii)Urban parks solution to congestion, allowed escape from strain of urban life. 1850s Central Park famously planned by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

    iii)Great public buildings (libraries, museums, theaters), spurred by wealthy residents who wanted amenities to match material and social aspirations

    iv)Urban leaders undertook massive city rebuilding projects- “City Beautiful Movement” inspired by architect Daniel Burnham- provide order and symmetry to disorderly life of city (faced opposition from private landowners)

    b)Housing the Well-to-Do

    i)Availability of cheap labor + materials lowered cost of building in late 19th century. Most wealthy lived in mansions, but later moderately well-to-do and wealthy both began to build and commute from suburban communities nearby

    c)Housing Workers and the Poor

    i)Most residentsforced to stay in city and rent- demand high and space scarce led to little bargaining power. Landlords tried to get most ppl in smallest space

    ii)“Tenements” came to refer to overcrowded slum dwellings. Poverty and rough tenement life showcased by reporter Jacob Riis in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives. Some immigrants also boarded in small family homes

    d)Urban Transportation

    i)Old, narrow dirty streets insufficient to deal w/ urban growth and need for ppl to move everyday to difft parts of city- new forms of mass transit needed

    ii)Cities experimented w/ elevated railways, cable cars, by 1895 electric trolley lines, and in 1897 Boston opened first subway in nation

    iii)New road, bridge tech also developed (e.g. John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge)

    e)The “Skyscraper”

    i)Inadequate structural materials and stairs prevented tall buildings until 1870s iron and steal beam development. After Civil War buildings grew successively taller, 1890s term “skyscraper” introduced

    ii)Steel girder construction allowed city’s w/ limited space to expand upward if not outward. Architect Louis Sullivan famous skyscraper designer

    3)Strains of Urban Life

    a)Fire and Disease

    i)Fires destroyed large parts of downtown areas w/ buildings made mainly of wood. “Great fires” led to fireproof buildings, professional fire departments

    ii)Diseases from poor neighborhoods w/ inadequate sanitation and sewage disposal threatened epidemics that could spread thru whole city

    b)Environmental Degradation

    i)Industrialization and rapid urbanization led to improper disposal of human and industrial waste that threatened waterways and drinking water, air quality suffered from burning of stoves and furnaces

    ii)By early 20th century reformers: seeking new sewage and drainage systems; Physician Alive Hamilton looked to identify and correct pollution in workplace; 1912 fed govt created Public Health Service created factory health standards to prevent occupational diseases (weak b/c no enforcement power)

    c)Urban Poverty

    i)Expansion of city created poverty, sheer number of ppl meant many unable to earn decent subsistence. Public agencies and private philanthropic groups offered limited relief, and if they did mostly only to the poorest

    ii)Some groups focused on religious revivalism as relief; others alarmed at great number of poor children in streets (some lives on their own)– “street arabs”

    d)Crime and Violence

    i)Poverty and crowding created violence, crime. Murder rate rose nationwide, and rising crime rates prompted cities to create larger, more professional police forces. Armories also developed b/c of fear of urban insurrections

    e)Fear of the City

    i)City offered allure and excitement, but also alienation and feelings of anonymity (e.g. Theodore Dreiser’s 1900 Sister Carrie about displaced single women)

    f)The Machine and the Boss

    i)Newly arrived immigrants sought assistance from political machines- created by power vacuum of cities, voting power of large immigrant communities

    ii)Urban “bosses” sought votes for his organization by winning loyalty of constituents thru relief, jobs for unemployed, patronage

    iii)Machines enriched politicians b/c of graft and corruption from contractors or investment from inside knowledge- most notorious was William Tweed of NY’s Tammany Hall during 1860s/1870s

    iv)In spite of middle class reformers citing machines as obstacles to progress, boss rule possible b/c immigrant voters wanted services first and foremost & weakness of city govts

    4)The Rise of Mass Consumption

    a)Patterns of Income and Consumption

    i)Growing markets and demand turn of century b/c of production and mass distribution made goods less expensive, also b/c of rising incomes of “white collar” professionals and working-class ppl despite union failures

    ii)Mass market also grew b/c affordable prices and new merchandising techniques allowed goods to reach more consumers (e.g. ready-made clothing after Civil War and rise of fashion)

    iii)Food transformed by tin cans, refrigerated RR cars for perishables, home iceboxes. Allowed for better diet and higher life expectancy

    b)Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses

    i)Way in which Americans bought goods altered- local stores faced competition from “chain stores” whose national network could sell manufactured goods at lower prices. Customers couldn’t resist great variety + lower prices of chains

    ii)Chain stores slow to rural areas but gained access thru mail-order houses-notably 1880s Montgomery Wary and Sears Roebuck mail order catalogues

    c)Department Stores

    i)Dept stores transformed shopping by bringing together many products under one roof (clothing, furniture) previously in separate shops; gave allure and excitement to shopping; economies of scale enabled lower prices than comp

    d)Women as Consumers

    i)Mass consumption affected women greatest b/c primary consumers in family. Spawned consumer protection movement w/ National Consumers League 1890s under Florence Kelley to force retainers for better wages, conditions

    5)Leisure in the Consumer Society

    a)Redefining Leisure

    i)Leisure had been previously scorned, but redefinition in late 19th century b/c economic expansion and greater worker time away from work leisure began to be a normal part of everyday life (economist Simon Pattern wrote of this in his 1902 The Theory of Prosperity and 1910 The New Basis of Civilization)

    ii)New forms of leisure had public character- time spent mostly in public spaces, part of appeal of leisure was time spent w/ large crowds

    b)Spectator Sports

    i)Search for public forms of leisure led to rise of organized spectator sports

    ii)Saw rise of baseball as “national pastime”, leagues formed in 1870s. Football became standardized 1870s and began to grew. Boxing grew in the 1880s after adoption of Marquis of Queensberry rules

    iii)Spectator sports had close association with gambling w/ elaborate betting syndicates. Prompted sports to “clean up” and regulate games

    c)Music and Theater

    i)Large market of cities allowed theaters to be maintained in ethnic communities, musical comedies developed, and vaudeville widely popular

    d)The Movies

    i)Thomas Edison and others laid tech for motion picture 1880s, soon projectors allowed showings on big screens in theaters w/ large audiences. By 1900 very popular, especially after DW Griffith introduced his silent epics

    e)Working-Class Leisure

    i)Workers spent great amt of leisure time on streets b/c had much time but little money. Also popular were neighborhood saloons (often ethnic), served as political centers b/c saloonkeepers often involved in political machines (largely b/c they had regular contact w/ many men in a neighborhood)

    ii)Boxing also emerged as a poplar sport- bare knuckle fights by ethnic clubs

    f)The Fourth of July

    i)B/c most ppl worked six-day workweek w/o vacations, 4th of July became a full day of leisure and an impt highlight in the year of ethnic, working-class communities. Massive neighborhood celebrations often w/ drinking

    g)Private Pursuits

    i)Reading remained popular as leisure activity, w/ Louisa Alcott’s Little Women (1869) capturing a large women audience

    ii)Public music performances popular, but also learning instrument w/in home

    h)Mass Communications

    i)Large urban market for transmitting news and information in urban industrial society- rise in publishing in journalism after Civil War w/ increase in newspaper circulation, rise of national press services using telegraph to supply news to papers across country

    ii)Rise of newspaper chains, especially competition btwn William Randolph Hearst + Joseph Pulitzer (rise of sensational “yellow journalism to sell papers)

    6)High Culture in the Age of the City

    a)The Literature of Urban America

    i)Some writers responded to new industrial civilization by evoking more natural world, others sought to use literature to recreate urban social reality

    ii)Realism led by Stephen Crane (famous for The Red Badge of Courage in 1895) who showed urban poverty and slum life. Theodore Dreiser highlighted social dislocations and injustices. There authors followed by Frank Norris’ The Octopus (1901) and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906) which showed depravity of capitalism by exposing abuses in meatpacking industry

    b)Art in the Age of the City

    i)By 1900 many American artists breaking from Old World traditions of Eur and experiment w/ new styles. Some turning away from traditional, academic style toward exploring grim aspects of modern life

    ii)Ashcan School produced stark portrayal of social realities, showcased expressionism and abstraction at famous 1913 art “Armory Show”

    iii)Beginning of modernism- rejected past and embraced new subjects, glorified the ordinary, coarse over genteel tradition +“dignified” aspects of civilization, embraced the future over “standards” of past- individual creativity

    c)The Impact of Darwinism

    i)Darwin argued evolution from earlier species thru “natural selection”, challenged traditional American religious faith. By end of century most urban professionals and members of educated classes converted; taught in schools

    ii)Darwinism led to schism btwn culture of city receptive to new ideas and the traditional, provincial culture of rural areas tied to religion and older values

    iii)Other intellectual movements included Social Darwinism of William Sumner, “pragmatism” of William James that valued scientific inquiry + experience

    iv)Relativism spawned by Darwinism led to growth of anthropology and study of other cultures (notably Native American culture)

    d)Toward Universal Schooling

    i)Dependence on specialized skills and scientific knowledge led to demand for education. Spread of free public primary and secondary education, compulsory attendance laws in many states. Rural education still lagged

    ii)Some reformers including Richard Pratt targeted native tribes to “civilize” them- urged practical “industrial” education. Failed b/c resistance, funding

    iii)Colleges grew late 19th century, benefited from Morrill Land Grant Act of Civil War era that donated large amt of land for colleges; also from contributions made by business and financial tycoons

    e)Education for Women

    i)Expansion of educational opportunities for women (although lagged behind that of men). Public high schools accepted women, and network of women’s colleges emerged that served to create distinctive women’s community

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - From Stalemate to Crisis

     1)The Politics of Equilibrium

    a)The Party System

    i)Party system of late 19th century very stable w/ little fluctuation in state loyalties. Repubs held most presidencies and Senate, Dems lead House

    ii)Public intensely loyal to parties, voter turnout was tremendous- loyalty result of region (Dems in S, Repubs in N), religion and ethnicity (Dems attracted Catholics, new immigrants, poor; Repubs middle class, N Protestants)

    iii)Party identification more cultural than of economic interest

    b)The National Government

    i)Federal govt held little power/responsibility- aside from supporting economic development (land grant subsidies, strike intervention), delivering pensions to Civil War veterans. Party leaders cared more about holding office than policy

    c)Presidents and Patronage

    i)President had little power save to make govt appointments (patronage used)

    ii)Pres Rutherford B. Hayes had to deal w/ factional Repub party split btwn Stalwarts (favored machine politics) and the Half-Breeds (favored reform). Patronage system overshadowed presidency, civil service system effort failed

    iii)Repubs won presidency in 1880 election, Pres James Garfield (Half-Breed) and VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart). Garfield attempted to defy Stalwarts, create civil service reform- assassinated 1881

    iv)New Pres Chester attempted supported civil service reform over Stalwarts- 1883 Congress passed Pendleton Act requiring exams for some govt jobs

    d)Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

    i)In 1884 election Repub nominee Sen James Blaine symbol of party politics, “liberal” Repubs flocked to Dem reform candidate Grover Cleveland

    ii)Cleveland opposed to graft and special interest, wished to see limited govt- asked Congress to reduce protective tariff rate 1887 to reduce govt surpluses and size. Dems passed bill, Republicans opposed it—>issue in 1888 elections

    iii)Dems renominated Cleveland; Repubs named Benjamin Harrison, won Pres

    e)New Public Issues

    i)Pres Harrison made little effort to influence Congress, but public opinion forced govt to begin to confront social and economic issues- especially trusts

    ii)By mid 1880s some states limiting combinations preventing competition, but reformers wanted nat’l movement- 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act passed, but little enforced, weakened by courts, and had little impact

    iii)Repubs main issue was dealing w/ tariff- passed McKinley Tariff 1890 (highest protective tariff ever).  Public opposed bill, by 1892 Pres election Repubs lost both House + Senate, Dem nominee Cleveland won Pres election

    iv)Cleveland’s 2nd term like 1st (devoted to minimal govt). Supported tariff reduction (Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed). Movement 1880s in may states to regulate RRs- after 1886 Supreme Court case Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad vs Illinois ruled only fed govt able to regulate interstate commerce

    v)To appease public Congress passed 1887 Interstate Commerce Act- banned rate discrimination + injustice, Interstate Commerce Commission formed

    2)The Agrarian Revolt

    a)The Grangers

    i)First major effort to organize farmers was Grange movement of 1860s (at firs goal to teach new scientific techniques), not until 1873 recession + fall of farm prices did it become highly political and large

    ii)Grange urged cooperative political action to fight monopolistic RR and warehouse practices, setup up co-op stores, insurance companies, and Montgomery Ward mail-order business (sought to challenge middle-men)

    iii)Elected Grange politicians 1870s to state legislatures to focus on RR reform; regulations destroyed by courts, temporary boom late-1870s destroyed Grange

    b)The Farmers’ Alliance

    i)Farmers’ Alliances formed in South, Northwest- like Grange focused on local problems (co-op banks, processing plants) but also larger goal to create society of cooperation. Like Grange cooperatives not very successful, harnessed frustrations into creating national political organization 1880s

    ii)1889 Southern and Northwestern Alliances merged, issued Ocala Demands (party platform), won seats in 1890 elections. Sentiments forming toward national third party, 1892 created People’s Party (Populists)

    iii)In 1892 elections Populists did surprising well, won seats in states + Congress

    c)The Populist Constituency

    i)Populism appealed mainly to small farmers, those whose farming becoming less viable in face of mechanized, consolidated commercial agriculture

    ii)Populists failed to attract much labor support, but attracted miners in Rocky Mountain states w/ “free silver” policy that allowed for silver to be currency, expand money supply. African Americans allowed limited involvement in S

    d)Populist Ideas

    i)Ocala platform 1892 outlined Populist reform programs- “subtreasuries” to strengthen cooperatives; govt warehouse system; abolish national banks; direct election of US Senators, other ways for ppl to influence political system; regulation and ownership of RRs, telephones; graduated income tax; currency inflation; silver remonetization. Populism associated w/ anti-Semitism

    ii)Rejection of laissez-faire, uphold absolutism of ownership

    3)The Crisis of the 1890s

    a)The Panic of 1893

    i)Panic of 1893 led to severe depression- caused by bankruptcy of few corporations that led to bank failure, led to credit contraction. Also caused by depressed farm prices of late 1880s, Eur depression, RR expansion beyond market demand- showed how dependent economy was on powerful RRs

    ii)Businesses, banks, RRs failed. Unemployment soared, led to social unrest- 1894 Populist Jacob Coxey called for massive public works program for unemployed + currency inflation, protested in D.C. w/ “Coxey’s Army”

    b)The Silver Question

    i)Financial panic weakened monetary system, Pres Cleveland believed currency instability cause of depression. Many ppl believed specie (precious metal) must back money to give it value

    ii)“Bimetal” standard discontinued 1873 by Congress b/c market value of silver high than 16:1 standard. Late 1870s silver became less valuable than standard but ppl unable to convert silver b/c of “Crime of ‘73”; opposition by silver-miners + farmers who wanted greater $ circulation (inflation) to ease debts

    iii)At same time decreasing govt gold reserves led Pres Cleveland 1893 to seek repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890- divided Dem party

    iv)Presidential of 1986 incredibly fierce b/c supporters of gold standard saw it as essential to national stability, supporters of “free silver” (guided by William Harvey’s 1894 Coin’s Financial School) saw gold standard as tyrannous and advantageous to wealthy, silver would decrease debt

    4)“A Cross of Gold”

    a)The Emergence of Bryan

    i)Repubs in 1896 election confident of victory b/c of Cleveland+ Dems failure to deal w/ depression nominated William McKinley w/ platform opposed to free coinage of silver 

    ii)Dems of West sought to weaken People’s Party by adopting Populist demands, debated platform of free silver, tariff reduction, income tax, RR and trust regulation- opposed by eastern Dems

    iii)William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech opposed to gold standard at convention, next day voted nominee

    iv)Populists split as to whether or not to fuse w/ Dem party b/c felt some of their unique needs addressed; concluded no other alternative, supported Bryan

    b)The Conservative Party

    i)Business + finance communities donated heavily to Repubs, Bryan’s national stump and camp-meeting style alienated Cath + ethnic voters who feared he embodied Protestants who so firmly opposed them

    ii)McKinley carried election b/c Dem platform had proved to be too narrow (sectional) to win nationally. B/c of “fusion” gamble w/ Democrats the People’s Party began to dissolve in wake of defeat

    c)McKinley and Recovery

    i)McKinley administration saw return to calm b/c labor unrest and agrarian protest had subsided by 1897, economic crisis gradually easing

    ii)McKinley focused on implementing high tariff rate, Congress soon passed Dingley Tariff. Repubs passed Currency (Gold Standard) Act of 1900 that confirmed nation’s gold standard, pegged dollar to specific gold value

    iii)Foreign crop failures resulted in economic uptick, nation entered period of expansion once again—clear trend btwn prosperity + gold standard support

    iv)Free-silver movement had failed- during late 19th century money supply had expanded much more slowly than increase in production and population, but by late 1890s increase in gold supply inflated money, satisfied free-silver ppl

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - The Imperial Republic

     1)Stirrings of Imperialism

    a)The New Manifest Destiny

    i)American attention shifted to foreign lands b/c “closing of the frontier” 1890s led some to fear natural resources would dwindle and must be found abroad, growing importance of foreign trade and desire for new markets, fears that Eur imperialism would lead America to be left out of spoils

    ii)Justifications provided by Social Darwinism- only fittest nations survive, therefore just for strong nations to dominate weaker ones

    iii) Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885) states Anglo-Saxon “race” represented liberty, Christianity and should spread them; John Burgess wrote that duty of A-S to uplift less fortunate ppl

    iv)Famous Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) that countries w/ sea power great nations of history- US needed to have foreign commerce, merchant marine, navy to defend routes, and colonies to provide raw materials and bases- claim Pacific Islands, HI

    b)Hemispheric Hegemony

    i)Sec of State James Blaine 1880s sought to expand US influence in Latin America to provide markets for surplus goods- 1889 organized Pan-American Congress. Pres Cleveland 1895 had dispute w/ GB over Venezuela border

    c)Hawaii and Samoa

    i)Hawaii appealing b/c Navy wanted Pearl Harbor as base, Americans who had settled on island had come to dominate political + economic life of islands

    ii)Hawaii had been series of islands w/ self-sufficient communities. After 1810 American traders, missionaries, planters began settling there. Disease decimated Native populations; by 1840s Americans spread thru islands

    iii)1887 US Navy negotiated to use Pearl Harbor as Navy base; by that time sugar exports to US basis of economy, American plantation system was displacing natives from their lands 

    iv)In response elevated nationalist Queen Liliuokalani 1891. 1890 US eliminated duty-free status of HI sugar, American planters felt only way to survive to join US- 1893 stages revolution. Pres Harrison signed annex agreement 1893 but delayed by Dem Senate and Dem Pres Cleveland until 1898 return of Repubs

    v)Samoa had served as station for US chips in Pacific trade; Pres Hayes 1878 got treaty to use harbor at Pago Pago for Navy. Power share btwn US, GB, Germany over islands- 1899 US and Germany split islands, compensated GB

    2)War with Spain

    a)Controversy Over Cuba

    i)Cubans had resisted Spanish rule of Cuba since 1868 for independence; in 1895 Cubans rose up violently again, Span under Gen Valeriano Weyler used harsh tactics + concentration camps in turn- US press skewered mainly Span

    ii)Pulitzer’s NY World and Hearst’s NY Journal catered to broad, economically lower audience- used sensational “yellow journalism” + Cuban crisis to fight each other for circulation; Cuban Americans urged Cuba Libre as well

    iii)Pres Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality; Pres McKinley took office 1897, protested Spanish conduct- withdrew Weyler

    iv)Two events Feb 1898 ruined peaceful settlement: the leak of a letter from Spain’s minister to Washington touting McKinley as “bidder…of the crowd; and the destruction of the US battleship The Maine in Havana Harbor- Spain initially blamed, Congress mobilized for war- war declared in April

    b)“A Splendid Little War”

    i)Sec of State John Hay called Spanish-American War “a splendid little war” b/c only lasted April-August, few US battle deaths (but 5000+ from disease)

    ii)War effort hampered by army supply problems, regular army w/o experience fighting large-scale war (used to Indian battles)- Nat’l Guard units used like in Civil War. Racial conflict w/ black army unites used in invasion

    c)Seizing the Philippines

    i)Sec of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened Pacific Fleet, ordered Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish forces in Philippines (Span colony) if war broke. May 1898 captured Manila Bay, later troops took city

    ii)War to free Cuba had become war to strip Spain of its colonies w/o any decisions as to what to do with them after capture

    d)The Battle for Cuba

    i)American forces staged landing in June after Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago harbor. US battled Spanish forces in on way to Santiago at Las Guasimos and then later El Caney and San Juan Hill in July

    ii)At Battle of Kettle Hill (part of Battle for San Juan Hill) unit called Rough Riders lead by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt (who had resigned as from Navy to fight in war) had famous charge

    iii)US forces soon took Santiago, later US army landed + captured Puerto Rico

    iv)Armistice w/ Spain in August ended war- recognized independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to US, accepted Manila (Philippines) occupation

    e)Puerto Rico and the United States

    i)Annexation of Puerto Rico produced little controversy- American military controlled island until 1900 Foraker Act created colonial got w/ American governor, 2-chamber legislature, and US could amend/veto any legislation

    ii)Puerto Ricans (who had history of demanding independence from Spanish) clamored for independence- 1917 Congress passed Jones Act that made PR US territory + PRicans American citizens

    iii)PR sugar economy flourished now w/o tariffs (as in HI); plantations formed, many PR farmers became paid laborers, dependent on int’l sugar prices

    f)The Debate over the Philippines

    i)Debate over Philippines difft b/c not in W. Hemisphere, densely populated and far away—McKinley reluctant but believed no other alternative (could not be retuned to Spain, given to other imperialist, and Filips “unfit for self govt”)

    ii)War w/ Spain ended 1898 w/ Treaty of Paris, US paid $20 million for Philippines. Fierce resistance in US to ratification

    iii)Anti-imperialists (under Anti-Imperialist League) opposed b/c imperialism immoral, industrial workers feared cheap labor

    iv)Ratification supported by imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt saw empire as means to reinvigorate nation, dominate Oriental trade, Repubs could come out of Repub war w/ new territory, and easy b/c US already occupied islands

    v)Ratified in 1899 b/c anti-imperialist Dem Williams Jennings Bryan wanted to make is issue in 1900 election. Bryan ran against McKinley, referendum on war showed American ppl supported imperialism- McKinley won decisively

    3)The Republic As Empire

    a)Governing the Colonies

    i)American dependents Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico got territory status (residents became US citizens)

    ii)US military remained in Cuba. After Cuban constitution failed to mention US, Congress passed 1901 Platt Amendment that would bar Cuba from making treaties, gave US right to intervene in Cuba (little political independence given). American capital bought up much of Cuban economy and dominated it

    b)The Philippine War

    i)US subjugation of natives led to long, bloody war w/ insurgent independence fighters. US used same brutal tactics that it had opposed Spain using in Cuba

    ii)Rebellion led by Emilio Aguinaldo w/ large popular following. By 1902 brutal and savage US tactics had changed American public opinion on war, but by then war already over (Aguinaldo captured 1901)

    iii)Power given to US administrator William Howard Taft who believed US mission to prepare Filipinos for independence, so gave broad local autonomy. Trade w/ US grew and islands came to almost depend on US markets

    c)The Open Door Policy

    i)Philippine occupation strengthened US interest in Asia and Chinese trade

    ii)Eur nations were carving up China for themselves; McKinley wanted to protect US interest in China w/o war. Sec of State John Hay proposed 1898 “Open Door notes” to Eur nations allowing access to China but give no nation special advantages. Allowed free trade w/o colony, military involvement

    iii)Boxer Rebellion arose against foreigners in China. Siege of foreign diplomatic corps resulted in McKinley and Hay participating in quelling rebellion

    d)A Modern Military System

    i)War w/ Spain showed weakness of US military system in training, supply, coordination. McKinley apptd Elihu Root as Sec of War to overhaul forces

    ii)Root enlarged army, federal standards for Nat’l Guard, created officer training schools, created Joint Chiefs of Staff to advise Sec of War, supervise military establishment, plan possible wars—modern military system by turn of century

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Rise of Progressivism

     1)The Progressive Impulse

    a)Varieties of Progressivism

    i)Progressives varied on how to intervene + reform- popular idea of “antimonopoly” (fear of concentrated power, limit + disperse wealth, power)

    ii)Social cohesion- welfare of single person dependent on welfare of society

    iii)Faith in knowledge, principles of natural + social sciences, modernized govt

    b)The Muckrakers

    i)Muckrakers were crusading journalists who exposed social, economic, political injustices and corruption

    ii)At first targeted trusts (particularly RR barons)- Ida Tarbell’s study on Standard Oil. Later, attention toward govt + political machines- writings of Lincoln Steffens helped arouse sentiment for urban reforms

    c)The Social Gospel

    i)Muckrakers moralistic tone prompted outrage at social + econ injustice, led to rise of Protestant Social Gospel- fusion of religion w/ reform

    ii)Salvation Army was Christian social welfare organization; ministers left parish to serve in troubled cities; Father John Ryan wrote of expanding scope of Cath social welfare groups

    iii)Religion w/ reform gave Progressivism moral component + commitment to redeem lives of even least favored citizens

    d)The Settlement House Movement

    i)Progressives believed env’t influenced individual development. To help distressed required improving their conditions

    ii)Ppl believed crowded immigrant neighbors created distress- creation of settlement houses a response. Most famous was Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago- sought to help immigrant families adapt to language + culture, belief that middle-class had responsibility to share values w/ immigrants

    iii)College educated women often involved in settlement house movement; movement helped spawn profession of social work

    e)The Allure of Expertise

    i)Progressivism values application of scientific methods, knowledge, expertise- well-designed bureaucracy needed. Some proposed civilization where science could solve social + econ problems- advocated in A Theory of The Leisure Class (1899) by Thorstein Veblen

    ii)Rise of social sciences- scientific methods used to study society + its institutions

    f)The Professions

    i)Late 19th century more ppl engaged in administrative + professional tasks (managers, scientists, teachers). This new middle class valued education, individual accomplishments

    ii)As demand for professionals increased so did their desire for reform to create organized professions

    iii)Doctors saw creation of professional American Medical Association1901- strict standards for admissions, govt passed laws requiring licensing; also rise of rigorous, scientific training and research

    iv)Similar movements in other professions- lawyers formed bar associations w/ central examining boards businessmen formed Chamber of Commerce

    g)Women and the Professions

    i)Some women encountered obstacles in entering professions, but many from women’s colleges did enter “appropriate professions”- settlement houses and social work, teaching, nursing (all had vague “domestic”/“helping” image)

    2)Women and Reform

    a)The “New Woman”

    i)“New woman” product of social + economic changes- wage earning activity had moved out of house and into factory or office, children enrolled in school at earlier ages, technology (running water, electricity) made housework less of a burden, declining family size; “Boston marriages”- women living w/ women

    b)The Clubwomen

    i)Late 19th/early 20th century rise of women’s clubs- network of associations that lead many reform movements. General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) at first cultural, later focused on social betterment

    ii)Clubs represented effort to extend women’s influence out of traditional role in home and create a public space for women. Worked to lobby legislatures for regulation of children + women work conditions, food inspection, temperance

    iii)Women’s Trade Union League rallied women to join unions, aid female labor

    c)Woman Suffrage

    i)Women’s suffrage movement at first advanced thru arguments that women deserved same “natural rights” as men, opponents said society needed distinct female “sphere”

    ii)Early 20th century suffragists more organized-- Anna Shaw + Carrie Chapman Catt formed National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

    iii)Began to make “safer” arguments for suffrage in that voting would not ruin distinct sphere but allow women to bring special virtues to society’s problems and contribute to politics. Some claimed could soothe male aggression (WWI)

    iv)1910 Washington extended suffrage to women, more hesitant in East b/c of associations w/ ethnic conflict (Catholics) over temperance movement

    v)1920 Nineteenth Amendment ratified guaranteeing female political rights; others (including Alice Paul’s Woman’s Party) wanted to fight on for an Equal Rights Amendment to prohibit all discrimination based on sex

    3)The Assault on the Parties

    a)Early Attacks

    i)Late 19th century populism and rise of Independent Republicans had attempted to break party lock on power- resulted in secret ballot

    ii)Argued party rule could be dealt w/ by increasing power of ppl + ability to express will at polls, also put more power in nonpartisan, nonelected officials

    b)Municipal Reform

    i)Many progressives believed party rule most powerful in cities. Muckrakers mobilized urban middle-class progressives against city bosses, special interests who benefited from machine organizations, immigrant laborers

    c)New Forms of Governance

    i)Commission Plan- replaced mayor and council replaced w/ nonpartisan commission. First used in Galveston, TX  in 1900, others followed

    ii)City-Manager Plan- elected officials hired outside expert to run govt, remain above corruption of politics

    iii)Successful reformer Cleveland Mayor Tom Johnson from conventional political structure controlled by progressives- fought special interests

    d)Statehouse Progressivism

    i)Failure of some attacks on city boss rule led reformers to turn to state govt for change- progressives looked to circumvent incompetent state legislatures

    ii)Initiative allowed reformers to submit legislation directly to voters in general election; Referendum put actions of legislature directly to the ppl for approval

    iii)Direct primary allowed ppl instead of bosses to choose candidates; Recall gave voters right to remove elected official thru special election

    iv)Famous state-level reformer was Gov Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin- regulated RRs, utilities, workplace, graduated taxes on inherited wealth

    e)Parties and Interest Groups

    i)Reform did not destroy parties but led to decline in their influence- seen by decreasing voter turnout. “Interest groups” emerged from professional organizations or labor to advance own demands directly to govt, not thru party

    4)Sources of Progressive Reform

    a)Labor, the Machine, and Reform

    i)Samuel Gompers’s American Federation of Labor mostly uninvolved in reform at time, but local unions played role in passing some state reform laws

    ii)Parties tried to preserve interest by adapting- some bosses allowed their machines to be vehicle of social reform (e.g. Charles Murphy of Tammany Hall supported legislation for working conditions, child labor)

    iii)Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 1911 in NY killed many women workers b/c bosses had locked emergency exits. Commission delivered report calling for reform in labor conditions- reform lead in legislature by Tammany Dems. Imposed regulation on factory owners and mechanisms for enforcement

    b)Western Progressives

    i)In Western states reformers targeted federal govt b/c powerful as it never had been in East (power over lands and resources, subsidies for RRs and water projects, issues transcended state borders). Weaker local + state govts political led to weaker W polit. parties, govts passed progressive reforms more quickly

    c)African Americans and Reform

    i)AAs faced large legal, social, economic, political obstacles in challenging their oppressed status and seeking reform- many embraced Booker T Washington’s message of self-improvement over long-term social change

    ii)1900s new Niagara Movement led by WEB Du Bois (author of 1903 The Souls of Black Folk)called for immediate civil rights, professional education

    iii)1909 joined w/ supportive white progressives to form National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), used federal lawsuits in pursuit of equal rights. In Guinn v. United States (1915) Supreme Court ruled grandfather clause illegal; Buchanan v. Worley (1917) Court outlawed some segregation—NAACP established itself as leading black organization

    5)Crusade for Social Order and Reform

    a)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Many progressives saw elimination of alcohol as way to restore societal order- women saw alcohol as source of problems for families, employers saw it as roadblock to efficiency, political reformers saw saloon as Machine institution

    ii)1873 temperance supporters formed Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) led by Frances Willard, together w/ Anti-Saloon League called for abolition of saloons and prohibition of manufacture and sale of alcohol

    iii)Opposition by immigrant and working-class voters; regardless, national effort and start of WWI moral fervor led to 1920 Eighteenth Amendment prohibition

    b)Immigration Restriction

    i)Reformers saw growing immigrant population as source of social problems- some wanted to help assimilation, others to limit flow of new immigrants

    ii)Early century pressure to slow immigration, heightened by growth of eugenics movement arguing human inequalities hereditary and immigration (especially of non-Anglo E. Eurs and Asians) resulting in growth of unfit peoples

    iii)Publicist Madison Grant’s 1916 The Passing of the Great Race tied together eugenics + Nativism; Congress’s Dillingham Report said new immigrants less assimilable than earlier groups, restrictions should be based on nationality

    iv)Others supported restrictions as means to solve urban overcrowding, unemployment, strained social services, and unrest

    6)Challenging the Capitalist Order

    a)The Dream of Socialism

    i)Radical opposition to capitalist system strongest btwn 1900-1914, Socialist Party under Eugene V. Debs grew during progressive era. Socialists wanted to change structure of economy, but disagreement as to extent and tactics

    ii)Some moderates favored nationalizing only major industries, use electoral politics; radicals including union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) under William Haywood wanted abolition of “wage slave” system, favored use of general strike, supported unskilled workers (strong force in West)

    iii)1917 strike by IWW led to federal government crackdown on union b/c needed materials in mobilization for war; IWW never fully recovered

    iv)Socialist Party refusal to support war + growing antiradicalism led to decline of socialism as powerful political force in America

    b)Decentralization and Regulation

    i)Most progressives also saw major problem in great corporate centralization + consolidation, but instead of nationalizing industries wanted federal govt to create balance btwn need for big business and need for competition

    ii)Lawyer Louis Brandeis argued about “curse of bigness”, saw it as threat to efficiency and freedom, limited individual control of own destiny

    iii)Others believed combinations sometimes helped efficiency, therefore govt should distinguish btwn “good” and “bad” trusts to protect against abuses by “bad” concentrations. Supported by “nationalist” Herbert Croly in 1909 The Promise of American Life

    iv)Movement growing for industry cooperation and self-regulation; others wanted active govt role in regulation and planning economy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Battle for National Reform

     1)Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency

    a)The Accidental President

    i)VP Theodore Roosevelt assumed presidency September 1901after Pres McKinley assassinated. Reputation as an independent and wild man; became champion of cautious an moderate change, reform to protect society against more radical changes

    b)Government, Capital, and Labor

    i)Roosevelt saw fed govt as mediator of the public good. Not opposed to industrial combinations but realized potential for abuse of power 

    ii)Supported regulation of trusts- created Department of Commerce and Labor 1903 to publicly investigate corporations. Did make effort to break up some trusts- used Sherman Antitrust Act to break up Northern Securities Company monopoly over RRs in Northwest

    iii)Saw govt as impartial regulator for labor as well- 1902 strike by United Mine workers led Roosevelt to ask labor and management to accept impartial federal arbitration, threatened to seize mines if management balked

    c)“The Square Deal”

    i)Reform not priority during first years as president, more concerned w/ winning reelection by not alienating conservative Republicans, winning support of businessmen and using patronage—won 1904 election

    ii)First targeted RR industry by asking Congress to increase fed power to oversee rates- Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 restored some govt regulatory power

    iii)Supported Congress passing Pure Food and Drug Act, after Upton Sinclair’s 1906 The Jungle supported Meat Inspection Act. Also favored 8 hour work day for labor, workmen’s compensation, and inheritance and income taxes

    d)Roosevelt and Conservation

    i)Concerned w/ unregulated exploitation of resources and wilderness- used executive power to restrict private development on govt land, saw goal of “conservation” to carefully manage development and to apply same scientific method of management being used in cities

    ii)President supported public reclamation and irrigation projects- 1902 Newlands Act funded dam construction, reservoirs, canals in West to open new lands for irrigation, cultivation and power development

    e)Roosevelt and Preservation

    i)Pres also sympathized w/ naturalists who wanted to protect land, wildlife from human intrusion- expanded National Forest System for “rational” lumbering, but also grew National Park System to protect lands from any development

    f)The Hetch Hetchy Controversy

    i)Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite seen as beautiful land by naturalists, but San Francisco residents + Roosevelt’s head of National Forest System Gifford Pinchot wanted land to build dam + reservoir for city’s growing water needs

    ii)Pinchot saw needs of city more important than claims of preservation; issue placed in 1908 referendum, dam approved by large margin in election

    g)The Panic of 1907

    i)Despite reforms govt still had little control over industrial economy; in 1907 production outgrew domestic + foreign demand, speculation + poor management led to panic. 

    ii)JP Morgan pooled assets of NY banks to prop up banks, made deal with Pres to allow US Steel to purchase Tennessee Coal and Iron Company shares

    iii)B/c of Panic of 1907 and promise made in 1904 to step down four years later, did not seek renomination and reelection for 1908 bid

    2)The Troubled Succession

    a)Taft and the Progressives

    i)During early administration called on Congress to lower tariff (a progressive demand), refused to oppose Repub Old Guard. Result was Payne-Aldrich Tariff - reduced tariffs little, raised others- progressives resented inaction

    ii)1909 Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute in which Head of Forest Service Gifford Pinchot was told that Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger had sold public lands in Alaska for personal profit. Taft thought charges groundless, Pinchot leaked info to press-- Taft fired Pinchot, progressives alienated 

    b)The Return of Roosevelt

    i)Roosevelt upset w/ Taft and believed only he was capable of reuniting Republican Party; 1910 outlined “New Nationalism” that moved away from conservatism + argued only effort of strong fed govt could bring social justice

    c)Spreading Insurgency

    i)In 1910 Congressional elections many conservative Repub candidates lost and progressives reelected; Dems gained maj in House, seats in Senate

    ii)Reform sentiment on the rise, but Roosevelt claimed he only wanted to pressure Taft into action; Roosevelt decided to run, however, after Taft charged US Steel acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company had been illegal and reform candidate Robert LaFollette’s campaign collapsed

    d)Roosevelt versus Taft

    i)Taft had support of conservative Repubs and party leaders, Roosevelt supported by progressives- at convention Republican National Committee gave nomination to Taft. Roosevelt left Repub Party and established own Progressive Party w/ himself as nominee (nicknamed Bull Moose Party)

    3)Woodrow Wilson and The New Freedom

    a)Woodrow Wilson

    i)Reform support growing in Democratic Party as well as Repub Party; Dems chose progressive Woodrow Wilson as 1912 Presidential election nominee

    ii)Wilson supported “New Freedom”- held that bigness was unjust and wanted to destroy, not regulate monopoly (whereas Roosevelt’s New Nationalism believed in govt regulation of concentration)

    iii)Roosevelt and Taft split Repub vote, Wilson elected

    b)The Scholar as President

    i)Wilson bold and forceful- used position as leader of Dems to build coalition to support his program (Dem majorities existed in both houses)

    ii)Greatly lowered tariff in Underwood-Simmons Tariff in order to introduce competition into market + breakup trusts; to make up for revenues past graduated income tax

    iii)1913 Congress passed Federal Reserve Act- regional Fed banks made up of regional banks + issued loans at “discount” rate, issued Fed Reserve notes backed by govt, shifted funds to meet credit demands + protect banks. Supervising Federal Reserve Board members selected by Pres

    iv)1914 Wilson began to deal w/ monopoly, Congress passed Federal Trade Commission Act and Clay Antitrust Act 

    (1)FTC was regulatory agency to help business determine whether their actions were legal, also power to prosecute “unfair trade practices”

    (2)Clayton Antitrust Bill to allow break up of trusts weakened by conservative opposition; ultimately administration decided that government supervision and regulation by FTC sufficient

    c)Retreat and Advance

    i)Pres believed New Freedom accomplished, therefore didn’t support progressive suffrage movement and efforts to halt segregation in federal agencies after Dems had heavy losses in Congress in 1914 elections to Repubs (who won support from Progressive party) Wilson began new reforms

    ii)Wilson supported appointment of progressive Louis Brandeis to Supreme Court; supported measured expanding role of federal govt 1916 Keating-Owen Act regulated child labor (struck down by Sup C b/c relied on interstate commerce clause in Const), 1914 Smith-Lever Act to help agricultural extension education

    4)The “Big Stick”: America and The World, 1901-1917

    a)Roosevelt and “Civilization”

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - America and the Great War

     1)The Road to War

    a)The Collapse of the European Peace

    i)Eur divided into alliances- “Triple Entente” of GB, France, Russia & “Triple Alliance” of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (GB-German tension notable)

    ii)After June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbs, A-H invaded Serbia who called on Russian help- b/c alliances other nations entered

    b)Wilson’s Neutrality

    i)1914 Wilson urged neutrality but many Americans sympathized w/ certain nations (German + Irish immigrants=Central, but most ppl= GB+Allies) 

    ii)Strong US-GB economic ties + blockade of Central Powers led US to continue trade w/ GB , shun trade w/ Central nations- “arsenal of Allies”

    iii)Germany began using submarine warfare 1915 to combat GB naval domination; 1915 sinking of Lusitania and 1916 Sussex sinking led Wilson to call on Germans to recognize rights of neutrals- Germans relented and stopped attacking merchant ships to stop  US entrance into war

    c)Preparedness vs Pacifism

    i)Wilson did not intervene for either side b/c of re-election + domestic division

    ii)Economic + militarily preparations debated by pacifists and interventionists. However, by 1916 military armament largely under way

    iii)Wilson won extremely close 1916 b/c of association w/ ability to keep US independent, although Dems barely held on to Congressional majorities

    d)A War for Democracy

    i)After election Wilson wanted country unified and justified if to enter war, should fight to create new progressive world order + not for material gains

    ii)January 1917 Germany began offensive + continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare to defeat Allies before US entrance; February Zimmerman Telegram urged Mex to join w/ Germany (increased public sentiment toward war); March Russian Revolution toppled czar for republican govt

    iii)April 1917 US officially declared war on side of Allies

    2)“War Without Stint”

    a)Entering the War

    i)Immediately w/ US entrance Allied navy able to dramatically reduce sinking’s in troop + supply convoys

    ii)1917 withdrawal of Russian forces after Bolshevik Revolution (Lenin) led Germans to put resources on Western Front, Allies needed US ground troops 

    b)The American Expeditionary Force

    i)US army too small to supply needed troops- April 1917 Wilson urged passage of Selective Service Act to draft soldiers into American Expeditionary Force

    ii)AEF was diverse-- women served as auxiliaries in non-combat roles; African-American soldiers served in segregated units or had menial roles

    c)The Military Struggle

    i)US ground forces insignificant until spring 1918; AEF under Gen John Pershing maintained command structure independent from other Allies

    ii)US forced tipped stalemate + balance of power to Allies--- June 1918 helped repel German offensive at Chateau-Thierry

    iii)Beginning Sept US forced fighting in Argonne Forest (as part of Allied Meuse-Argonne Offensive); pushed Germans back + cut off supply routes

    iv)11/11/1918 Great War ended w/ Allies on German border

    d)The New Technology of Warfare

    i)New military weapons + tactics more deadly (tanks, machine guns, trenches, chemical weapons). Logistics and materials transport gained increased importance. Rise of planes, dreadnought battleships, submarines

    ii)Casualties extremely high for war (British lost 1 million, Germany 2 million); even victors overwhelmed by sheer magnitude of deaths

    3)The War and American Society

    a)Organizing the Economy for War

    i)US appropriated $32 billion for war- to raise money sold “Liberty Bonds” to public & put new graduated taxes on income + inheritance

    ii)To organize economy Wilson created Council of National Defense; but emphasis Civilian Advisory Commission tasked w/ mobilizing at local level

    iii)CND members urged “scientific management” + centralization, proposed dividing economy based on function and not geography w/ “war boards” coordinating efforts in each sector

    iv)War Industries Board oversaw purchase of military supplies, under Bernard Baruch organized factories, set prices, and distributed needed materials. Instead of restricting profits, govt entered alliance w/ private sector

    b)Labor and the War

    i)National War Labor Board pressured industry for concessions to workers (8-hour day, living standards, collective bargaining) but workers forced to forgo strikes. Right before war Ludlow Massacre when striking miners killed

    c)Economic and Social Results of the War

    i)Economic boom during period from Eur demand, later US need. Industrial production expanded, opportunities for female + minorities b/c of men at war

    ii)War years saw “Great Migration” of hundreds of thousands of African- Americans from rural South to northern industrial cities. S poverty + racism and appeal of N factory jobs + freedom led to movement. Growing black communities near white neighborhoods sometimes resulted in race riots

    iii)Women took higher-paying industrial jobs that were unavailable in peace time

    4)The Search for Social Unity

    a)The Peace Movement

    i)Public sentiment divided over US involvement in war—peace movement supported by German Americans, Irish who opposed GB, religious pacifists, intellectuals and leftist groups

    ii) Peaces support also from women’s movement- maternal pacifism

    b)Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent

    i)Once America intervened most of country became patriotic and supportive of troops. Religious revivalism also became source of support for war

    ii)Govt concerned about minority in opposition to war, believed victory possible only thru united public opinion Committee on Public Information under George Creel distributed pro-war propaganda—portrayals of savage Germans

    iii)Espionage Act of 1917 gave govt power to punish spies and obstructers of war effort, respond to reports of disloyalty. Sabotage Act and Sedition Act of 1918 made any public expression of opposition illegal- targeted socialist groups

    iv)Local govts and private citizen groups worked to repress opposition- “vigilante mob” discipline, also American Protective League w/ thousands of members who spied on neighbors to ensure unity of opinion in communities

    v)Repressive efforts targeted socialists and labor leaders, but also largely immigrants (Germans, Irish, Jews)- “Loyalist” Americans called for “100 Percent Americanism”. German Americans faced fierce discrimination

    5)The Search for a New World Order

    a)The Fourteen Points

    i)Wilson’s Fourteen Poitns addressed three areas: self-determination and new boundaries; new international governance laws including freedom of the seas, end to secret treaties, free trade, determination of colonial claims; league of nations to implement points and resolve future disagreements

    ii)Fourteen Points also effort to combat Bolshevik (Lenin) aspiration to lead new postwar world order—US established itself thru the points

    b)Early Obstacles

    i)Wilson hoped popular support would help garner Allied support for Points, 

    ii)However, most Allies so decimated by war and so bitter against Germany that they did not with to be generous GB Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Premier Georges Clemenceau determined to gain compensation

    iii)At home Wilson + Dems lost control of Congress to Repub majorities in 1918 election, domestic economic issues + Repub opposition weakened his position

    c)The Paris Peace Conference

    i)Big Four nations to negotiate treaty were GB, France, Italy, US

    ii)Wilson’s idealism met by effort by other nations to improve own lot, concerns about eastern Europe and communism (US did not recognize Bolshevik govt until 1933). His economic + strategic demands suffered from conflict w/ cultural nationalism

    iii)Wilson initially rejected reparations from Central Powers, but Allies forced him to accept idea in order to keep Germany weak + unable to threaten Eur

    iv)Wilson was successful and placing some colonies under League of Nations “mandate” system, created Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia

    v)Allies accepted “covenant” of League of Nations-- to meet to resolve disputes + protect peace, Wilson believed problems w/ treaty could be fixed by League

    d)The Ratification Battle

    i)Americans used to isolation questioned international commitment, Wilson refused to compromise or modify League too much—when Treaty of Versailles introduced by Wilson to Senate in 1919 

    ii)Opposition lead by Repub Irreconcilables who wanted isolation, but also by personal hatred of Sen Henry Cabot Lodge for Wilson—wanted to delay so public approval would subside, make treaty issue in 1920 election

    e)Wilson’s Ordeal

    i)Wilson began traveling country to gain public support for treaty. The traveling and speaking tour exacerbated his already bad health and he suffered stroke that rendered him incapable for weeks

    ii)Condition made his views of world in moral terms and loathing for compromise stronger. When Treaty sent to Sen for approval w/ “reservations” (amendments) attached, Wilson urged Dems to vote against it- both amended treaty and original failed to reach 2/3 majority to be ratified

    6)A Society in Turmoil

    a)Industry and Labor

    i)After war govt began cancelling contracts. War boom continued for short while b/c of foreign demand + deficit spending

    ii)In 1920 bubble burst—GDP decreased, inflation and unemployment rose

    iii)In postwar env’t 1919 management sought to rescind worker rights that they had been forced to grant during war—use of union strikes increased to combat these moves: Boston Police Strike, great Steel Worker’s Strike failure

    b)The Demands of African-Americans

    i)Retruning blacks from war wanted social reward+ rights for service, black factory workers from war wanted to retain economic gains they had made

    ii)Racial tension increased as retrurning whites displaced black workers- contributed to large 1919 Chicago race riots

    iii)Marcus Garvey’s ideas of Black Nationalism gained popularity among blacks- advocated embracing heritage + return to Africa, reject white assimilation

    c)The Red Scare

    i)Industrial problems, racial violence, dissent, creation of Communist International in 1919 by Soviets to spread revolution, also bombings in US by radicals fueled middle class fears of instability + radicalism

    ii)Growing movement to fight radicalism + embrace “100 Percent Americanism” Red Scare

    iii)Antiradicals saw any instability or protest as radical threat; Jan 1920 Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer conducted nationwide raids in radical crackdown

    iv)1920 Sacco and Vanzetti murder trial showed American bias toward perceived radicals (they had been immigrant anarchists); they were executed in 1927

    d)The Retreat from Idealism

    i)Passage of 19th Amendment in 1920  (to give women suffrage) marked end of reform era—due to economic problems, labor unrest, and antiradicalism that all lead to sense of disillusionment

    ii)1920 Presidential election pitted idealists Dem James Cox (and VP Franklin Roosevelt) against conservative Republican Warren Harding who promised “return to normalcy”—Harding won by a large margin

    iii)Election a repudiation of League of Nation and postwar order of democratic ideals

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - “The New Era”

     1)The New Economy

    a)Technology and Economic Growth

    i)After 1921-1922 recession tremendous economic growth in output + income 

    ii)Growth result of collapse of Eur industry after war, important technological advances: rise of auto manufacturing (and in turn gas production, road construction), assembly line, rise of radio and commercial broadcasting, advances in air travel, development of electronics + synthetic materials

    iii)Maturation of electricity and telecommunications fields; work during 1920s and 1930s on primitive computer technologies

    b)Economic Organization

    i)Certain industries (e.g. steel) continued toward national organization and consolidation- these companies adopted new modern administrative systems w/ efficient division structures to allow subsidiary control + easier expansion

    ii)In industries w/ more competition stabilization reached thru cooperation—rise of trade association to coordinate production + marketing

    iii)Industrialists feared overproduction and recession, and efforts to curb competition thru either consolidation or cooperation reflected this

    c)Labor in the New Era

    i)Some employers 1920s used “welfare capitalism” to give workers more rights, improve safety, raise wages in order to avoid labor unrest + independent union growth. System survived only if industry prospering- collapsed in 1929

    ii)Welfare capitalism helped only a few workers, employers wage increases disproportional to their increase in profits. Ultimately workers still mainly impoverished and powerless, families relied on multiple wage earners

    iii)Organized labor + independent unions often failed to adapt to changing nature of modern economy. American Federation of Labor still used craft union system based on skills, did not allow growing unskilled industrial workers

    d)Women and Minorities in the Work Force

    i)Number of women in workforce increased, especially in “pink-collar” jobs- low-paying service jobs, most unions refused to organize them

    ii)African-Americans in cities after 1914 Great Migration largely excluded from unions (A. Philip Randolph’s Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters exception)

    iii)In West + Southwest unskilled and unorganized workers mainly Hispanics and Mexican immigrants, Asians (mainly Japanese who replaced Chinese after Exclusion Acts in menial jobs)

    e)The “American” Plan

    i)After 1919 economic uneasiness corporations rallied strongly against “subversive” unionism and wanted to protect idea of open shop (in which workers not forced to join union)—known as “American Plan”

    ii)Govt intervened on behalf of management, courts often ruled against striking workers. Btwn this and corporate efforts union membership saw large decline

    f)Agricultural Technology and the Plight of the Farmer

    i)American agriculture adopted new technolgoies (e.g. tractor, combine) allowed more crops w/ fewer workers; hybrid corn + fertilizers increased productivity led to overprodution and collapse in food prices

    ii)Farmers called on govt price support- idea of “parity” (govt set price, farmers reimbursed if good sold for less in fluctuating market) and high foreign crop tariffs introduced in Congress in McNary-Haugen Bill (vetoed by Coolidge)

    2)The New Culture

    a)Consumerism

    i)Industrial growth led to rise of consumer culture in which ppl had discretionary funds w/ which to buy items for pleasure (appliances, fashion)

    ii)Most revolutionary product was automobile- allowed rural ppl to escape isolation, city ppl to escape crowded urban life; rise of vacation traveling

    b)Advertising

    i)Techniques first used in wartime propaganda came of age in new age of advertising + work of publicists. Famous book of time The Man Nobody Knows by Bruce Burton about Jesus as “salesman”

    ii)Ads possible b/c of mass audience in national chains of newspapers, mass-circulation magazine growth

    c)The Movies and Broadcasting

    i)1920s saw rise of Hollywood, creation of Motion Picture Association and the Hays Code as industry self-ban on objectionable material

    ii)Phenomenal rise of radio beginning w/ first commercial station broadcasting in 1920. By 1929 12 million families owned radio sets

    d)Modernist Religion

    i)Growing consumer culture w/ emphasis on immediate self-fulfillment had influence on religion—abandonment by some of traditional + literal

    ii)Harry Emerson Fosdick spokesman for new liberal Protestantism of 1920s

    e)Professional Women

    i)Most employed women were working class b/c of professional struggle btwn career and family. Few professional women limited to mainly “feminine” fields of fashion, education, social work, nursing

    f)Changing Ideas of Motherhood

    i)Belief grew that maternal affection not adequate preparation for child rearing, advice and help of professionals needed instead 

    ii)Motherhood increasingly relied on institutions out of home, allowing time to devote to “companionate marriage”- involved more as wives, in social life

    iii)Growth of birth control related to sense of sex as recreation vs only creation

    g)The “Flapper”: Image and Reality

    i)Some women came to believe rigid and Victorian “feminism” unnecessary “flapper” women expressed themselves freely thru dress, speech, behavior

    h)Pressing for Women’s Rights

    i)Women formed League of Women Voters, many women helped growing consumer groups

    ii)1921 Sheppard-Towner Act gave federal funds to states for prenatal and child healthcare. Fought my American Medical Association, others; repealed in 1929--- showed women didn’t vote as single block, even on “female” issues 

    i)Education and Youth

    i)Growing secularism, emphasis on training and expertise manifested itself in growing upper education attendance rates, teaching of technical skills

    ii)Emergence of distinct youth culture w/ growing idea of adolescence, belief this was time for child to develop institutions w/ peers separate form family

    j)The Decline of the “Self-Made Man”

    i)Myth of “self-made man” who could gain wealth and fame thru hard work and natural talent gave way to belief that nothing possible without education and training (men felt losing independence, control, “masculinity”)

    ii)Idolized self-made men in Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh

    k)The Disenchanted

    i)New generation of artists and intellectuals viewed society w/ contempt; isolated themselves instead of playing reform role

    ii)Lost Generation’s critique American system in which individual had no means of personal fulfillment rose out of WWI experience and sense of deaths in vain, end of Wilsonian idealism, growing business + consumerism

    iii)Ernest Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) expressed contempt of war; other “debunkers” critical of society included H.L. Mencken, Sinclair Lewis

    iv)Many of these critics who rejected the “success ethics” of America became expatriates living abroad. Paris was center of American artistic life

    l)The Harlem Renaissance

    i)Other intellectuals saw solution to problems in exploration of own culture and its origins—great example Harlem during “Harlem Renaissance”

    ii)Harlem center of black artists and intellectuals; literature, poetry , and art drew on African roots—famously Alan Locke, Langston Hughes

    m)The Southern Agrarians

    i)Group of Southern intellectuals and poets known as the Fugitives rebelled against depersonalization and materialism due to industrialization by recalling the Southern nonindustrial, agrarian way of life

    ii)Wrote reactionary ideas in their 1930 agrarian manifesto I’ll Take My Stand

    3)A Conflict of Cultures

    a)Prohibition

    i)Prohibition took effect 1920; within a year “noble experiment” failing b/c even though some drinking rates fell alcohol still widely available and legitimate businesses being replaced by organized crime (famous Al Capone)

    ii)Prohibition supported by rural Protestants who they associated drinking w/ Catholic immigrants + new valueless culture

    b)Nativism and the Klan

    i)After war many Americans associated immigration w/ radicalism; efforts to restrict influx grew, 1921 Congress passed emergency law w/ quota system 

    ii)Nativists wanted harsher law--- National Origins Act of 1924 banned all east Asian immigration, reduced especially eastern Eur quotas

    iii)Ku Klux Klan re-emerged as force b/c of fear by some older Americans of disruption of culture by new peoples—“New Klan” emerged in 1915 after meeting in Stone Mountain, GA

    iv)At first targeted blacks, after the war targeted Catholics, Jews, and foreigners- purge “alien” influences; membership grew in S but also N industrial cities

    v) Wanted to threaten anyone who challenged “traditional values”- irreligion, drunkenness, ect. Defend racial homogeneity + defend traditional culture against modernity; provided disenfranchised w/ sense of community, power

    c)Religious Fundamentalism

    i)Fight over role of religion in modern society—split in Protestantism btwn urban, middle-class ppl who wanted to adapt religion to modern science and secular society vs traditional rural ppl who wanted to retain religious import

    ii)Fundamentalists wanted traditional interpretation of bible, opposed Darwinism; evangelical movement wanting to spread doctrine (famous preacher Billy Sunday)

    iii)When teaching Darwinism outlawed in Tennessee, ACLU promised to defend teacher John Scopes who defied law—Scopes trial isolated Fundamentalists from mainstream Protestants, ended their growing political activism

    d)The Democrat’s Ordeal

    i)Democrats split btwn urban and rural factions; party included prohibitionists, Klansmen, fundamentalists but also Caths, urban workers, immigrants

    ii)At 1924 Democratic National Convention in NY conflict btwn urban wing wanting prohibition repealed, denunciation of clan, and supported Alfred Smith for nominee; W + S supported William McAdoo. After deadlock both withdrew and John Davis chosen as nominee

    iii)In 1928 AL Smith won nomination, but party still divided b/c of southern anti-Catholicism; lost election to Herbert Hoover

    4)Republican Government

    a)Harding and Coolidge

    i)Pres Warren Harding elected 1920; appointed party elite who had helped win him nomination to positions in administration, ultimately this corrupt “Ohio Gang” committed fraud and corruption in Teapot Dome oil reserve scandal

    ii)Harding died of a heart attack 1923, VP Calvin Coolidge ascended to presidency (known for crushing Boston Police riot)

    iii)Coolidge a passive president like Harding, believed govt should not interfere little in life of nation; won re-election 1924 but did not seek office in 1928

    b)Government and Business

    i)Even though New Era presidents passive, fed govt as a whole worked to helped business + industry operate efficient and productively

    ii)Sec of Treasury Andrew Mellon reduced tax on corporate profits, personal incomes, inheritances, and cut federal budget

    iii)Sec of Commerce Herbert Hoover favored voluntary cooperation of businesses in private sector for stability. Supported business “Associationalism” in which businessmen in an industry worked together to promote stability, efficient production, and marketing

    iv)Hoover won the Presidential election of 1928, but nation entered Depression in 1929

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Great Depression

     1)The Coming of the Great Depression

    a)The Great Crash

    i)From Feb 1928 until October 1929 economic boom, stock prices rose dramatically w/ credit easily available

    ii)October 29, 1929- “Black Tuesday”- stock market crashed

    b)Unemployment and Relief

    i)In capitalist system recessions cyclical, but Great Depression direly severe 

    ii)Such large crash b/c lack of diversification (many overinvested in automobiles + construction), maldistribution of wealth resulting in consumers receiving too little money to spend to keep pace w/ growing markets + supplies (coupled w/ rising unemployment due to natural cycle + from technology)

    iii)Credit structures + indebtedness of farmers threatened banks, but banks also threatened by risky investments + loans in stock markets

    iv)US foreign exports declined b/c some Eur nations productivity increasing but others facing financial difficulties; international debt structure after WWI in which nations sought new loans to pay off existing Allied loans + Central nation reparations weakened US economy after 1929 left countries w/o source with which to repay loans, began to default 

    c)Progress of Depression

    i)Stock market crash triggered chain of events that further weakened economy over next 3 years

    ii)Banking system collapsed and billions of dollars in deposits lost; money supply contraction exacerbated by 1931 Fed Reserve interest raises

    iii)GDP, capital investment, gross farm product all down at least 25% by 1933; in 1932 national unemployment had risen to 25% (much more in some cities)

    2)The American People in Hard Times

    a)Unemployment and Relief

    i)Americans taught to believe that individual responsible for own fate, poverty sign of own failure; nevertheless the small relief system of the 1920s incapable of dealing w/ new demands and govts hesitant to increase support b/c of decreasing tax revenues + welfare stigma. Bread lines found in cities

    ii)In rural areas income declined 60%, 1/3 of farmers lost land, massive drought extended thru the “Dust Bowl” starting in 1930 lasting for a decade farm prices so low that many farmers left homes to seek employment (“Okies”)

    iii)Nationwide problems of malnutrition, homelessness; growth of shantytowns, massive migrations of ppl across country seeking jobs, better living conditions 

    b)African-Americans and the Depression

    i)Most S blacks were farmers, collapse of cotton + staple crop prices led them to leave land; menial jobs they had held in cities began to be given to whites (Black Shirts in Atlanta 1930 called for dismissal of all blacks from jobs so that they would be available for struggling whites to take)

    ii)Mass migration of jobless southern blacks to Northern urban centers

    iii)Segregation + black disenfranchisement remained, but famous Scottsboro case in which group of 7 blacks falsely accused of rape resulted in national attention b/c of NAACP support

    iv)NAACP began working to increase black participation in unions + organized labor

    c)Mexican Americans in Depression America

    i)Large Mex immigration population (known as Chicanos) centered mostly in Southwest, worked mainly menial jobs or as unskilled laborers in urban areas

    ii)When Depression hit many whites forced them from their jobs, relief to Mexicans severely limited + many rounded up to be sent back to Mexico—all highlighted the discrimination of Hispanics that swept region

    d)Asian Americans in Hard Times

    i)Depression strengthened pattern of economic marginalization of Asian American populations which were centered mainly on the West coast; frequently lost jobs to whites desperate for employment

    ii)Some Japanese sought to form clubs to advance political agendas: Japanese American Democratic Club worked for laws against discrimination; Japanese American Citizens League sought to make immigrants more assimilated

    e)Women and the Workplace in the Great Depression

    i)Ppl believed that b/c jobs so scarce whatever was available should go to men—this belief strengthened notion of women’s main role staying in home, also feelings that no woman with an employed husband should hold a job

    ii)Single and married women both continued to work during Depression b/c money so necessary- result of nonprofessional nature of “pink-collar” jobs as more secure than those in heavy industry, male stigma about taking them

    iii)Support for Reform Era ideas of women economically and professionally independent began to wane; Depression saw death of National Woman’s Party

    f)Depression Families

    i)Middle- and working-class families used to rising standard of living now uncertain b/c of unemployment or income reductions

    ii)Retreat from consumerism as women made clothes in home, home businesses established, banding together of extended family units

    3)The Depression and American Culture

    a)Depression Values

    i)Pre-Depression acceptance of affluence and consumerism remained unchanged as ppl worked even more hard to achieve ideals

    ii)Longstanding belief that individual controlled own fate and success thru hard work (“success ethic”) largely survived Depression as many unemployed simply blamed themselves and remained passive b/c felt ashamed

    iii)Masses responded messages that they themselves could restore own wealth + success—best-selling How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie

    b)Artists and Intellectuals in the Great Depression

    i)Just as urban poverty had received attention during Reform Era, during 1930s many shocked at “discovery” of rural poverty- photography of Farm Security Administration photographers highlighted impact of hostile env’t on ppl

    ii)Many writers began to highlight social injustices- Erskine Caldwell’s Tobacco Road(1932) of rural poverty; Richard Wright’s Native Son of urban ghettos; John Steinbeck’s novels of migrant workers; John Dos Passso’s USA trilogy attacked capitalism

    c)Radio

    i)Almost every family had radio, listening often a communal activity

    ii)Most radio programming was entertaining and escapist in nature (comedies or adventures, soap operas); live programming of performances also developed

    iii)Radio allowed access to major public events in news, sports, politics

    iv)Drew nation together b/c of widespread availability of same cultural and informational programming, gathered family together in the home

    d)The Movies

    i)Early 1930s movie attendance dropped b/c of economic hardship, but by mid-1930s many seeing them again

    ii)Most movies censored heavily and studio system kept projects largely uncontroversial; some films did manage to explore social and political questions, but most remained escapist in order to keep attention of audience away from troubles. Walt Disney movies emerged during 1930s

    e)Popular Literature and Journalism

    i)Literature more reflective of growing radicalism + discontentedness than radio and movies, although escapist and romantic works still widely popular (Mitchell’s 1936 Gone With The Wind; photographic Life Magazine)

    ii)Other works challenged American popular values: John Dos Passos’s U.S.A. trilogy (1930-1936) attacked American materialism; Nathanael West’s Miss Lonelyhearts(1933) of a woman overwhelmed by the life stories of others

    f)The Popular Front and the Left

    i)Late 1930s more literature more optimistic of society b/c of rise of Popular Front coalition lead by American Communist Party- supported Franklin Roosevelt and New Deal, mobilized intellectuals toward social criticism

    ii)Intellectual detachment of 1920s targeted by Popular Front- mobilized some men into Lincoln Brigade to fight in Spanish Civil War against the fascists

    iii)Communist Party organized unemployed, unions, supported racial justice; however party under control of Soviet Union- when Stalin signed 1939 nonaggression pact w/ Hitler Party abandoned Popular Front and returned to criticizing liberals

    iv)Socialist Party of America under Norman Thomas attempted to argue crisis failure of capitalist system and tried to win support for party, especially targeting rural poor—supported Southern Tenant Farmers Union but never gained strength

    v)Antiradicalism a strong force in 1930s and hostility existed toward Communist Party, yet at the same time Left widely respected amongst workers and intellectuals; temporary widening of mainstream culture

    vi)Famous accounts of social conditions of the era provided by James Agee’s Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941) and more famously John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath(1939)

    4)The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover

    a)The Hoover Program

    i)Hoover responded to Depression by trying to restore confidence in economy- tried to gather business into voluntary program of cooperation to aid recovery; by 1931 voluntarism had collapsed b/c of worsening economy

    ii)Hoover tried using govt spending to boost economy; spending not enough in face of huge economic problems, sought to raise taxes 1932 to balance budget

    iii)Offered Agricultural Marketing Act to help farmers w/ low crop prices, raised foreign agricultural tariffs in Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930- neither helped

    iv)Dems gained majority in House + increase in Senate in 1930 elections by promising government economic assistance; presidents unpopularity grew (shantytowns called “Hoovervilles”) especially after international financial panic in spring 1931 w/ Austrian bank collapse

    v)1932 Congress created Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to give loans to imperiled banks, RRs, businesses- RFC failed to improve economy b/c lent largely to big institutions, didn’t sponsor enough relief + public works

    b)Popular Protest

    i)By 1932 dissent beginning to come to a head: Farmers’ Holiday Association attempted farmer’s product strike; veterans in “Bonus Army” marched on Washington to protest withholding of bonuses, Hoover called on Army units under Gen Douglas MacArthur to clear Bonus Army out of city

    ii)Popular image of Hoover as unsympathetic + unable to act effectively

    c)The Election of 1932

    i)Repubs re-nominated Hover as candidate; Democrats nominated NY Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt

    ii)Roosevelt avoided religion and prohibition, focused on economic grievances of nation

    iii)Roosevelt won large majority of popular vote and even more overwhelmingly in electoral college; Dems majorities elected to House and Senate- signified mandate for change

    d)The “Interregnum”

    i)Period between election and inauguration one of increasing economic problems b/c of expanding banking crisis + more depositors seeking to withdraw money in a panic; more banks declared bankruptcy

    ii)Roosevelt refused to make public commitments asked of him by Hoover to maintain economic orthodoxy or not institute broad economic reforms


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The New Deal

    1)Launching the New Deal

    a)Restoring Confidence

    i)Roosevelt projected optimism- famous quote “all we have to fear is fear itself”

    ii)Two days after taking office issued “Bank Holiday” closing all banks for four days to give Congress time to discuss reforms; Emergency Banking Act required Treasury Dept inspection of banks, assistance to troubled institutions

    iii)Bank Holiday restored ¾ of closed banks; Economy Act passed a few days later forced balanced fed budget thru cutting govt salaries + veterans pensions

    b)Agricultural Adjustment

    i)Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 reduced crop production to end surpluses + raise prices; Agricultural Adjustment Administration would enforce industry limits + subsidize vacant lands to parity-- farm income began increasing 

    ii)1936 Agricultural Adjustment Act declared unconstitutional b/c it required farmers to limit production; new Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act passed to pay farmers to reduce production in order to “conserve soil”

    iii)Resettlement Administration and later Farm Security Administration gave loans to small farmers to help relocate to better lands; Rural Electrification Administration attempted to make power more available to farmers

    c)Industrial Recovery

    i)Administration allowed for relaxing of some antitrust laws to stabilize industry prices in return for concessions to labor to allow collective bargaining and unions led to 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act

    ii)Act created National Recovery Administration under Hugh Johnson called on adoption of labor codes + industrial codes to set floor prices-- sought to maintain employment + production

    iii)NRA weakened b/c codes poorly written and administered; Section 7(a) of NIR Act gave workers right to unionize but no enforcement so many corps. ignored it; Public Works Administration of NIR Act slow to distribute monies

    iv)NRA failed to raise production; 1935 Supreme C. held NRA unconstitutional

    d)Regional Planning

    i)AAA and NRA examples of economic planning that allowed private interests to dictate planning process; others wanted govt in charge of planning

    ii)Tennessee Valley Authority created after failure of electric utility companies to develop water resources for cheap power; 1933 TVA began building dams in Tennessee Valley region + sell electricity at reasonable rates

    iii)TVA revitalized region by improving transport, limiting flooding, making electricity more available, and lowered power rates nationwide

    e)Currency, Banks, and the Stock Market

    i)1933 president took president took nation off gold standard; govt began manipulating value of dollar by buying/selling large amts of silver

    ii)Efforts to increase govt regulation in 1933 Glass-Steagall Act- govt power to curb speculation, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to protect deposits

    iii)1933 Truth in Securities Act required corporations to give truthful disclosures

    iv)1934 Securities and Exchange Commission created to police stock market

    f)The Growth of Federal Relief

    i)Administration saw need to help impoverished until economy improved—Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave cash to state relief groups

    ii)Work relief provided by the Civil Works Administration that gave millions temporary work- built roads + schools, and pumped money into economy

    iii)Civilian Conservation Corps gave unemployed men jobs in national parks planting trees and improving irrigation

    iv)To aid in mortgage relief created Farm Credit Administration to help farmers refinance; 1933 Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act aided foreclosed farmers; 1933 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation refinanced households

    2)The new Deal in Transition

    a)Critics of the new Deal

    i)Conservatives and businesses leaders main opponents to New Deal, 1934 formed American Liberty League decrying “attacks” on free enterprise

    ii)Another threat to New Deal in Townsend Plan- proposed giving all over 60 monthly pension; idea gained much support older ppl, forerunner to Soc Sec

    iii)Father Charles Coughlin’s nat’l radio sermons called for banking + currency reform (recoining of silver, nationalization of banks) to restore economic justice, felt admin unresponsive so founded National Union for Social Justice

    iv)Sen Huey Long gained popularity for attacks on banks, oil companies, utilities and b/c of progressive voting record; like Coughlin felt administration not acting strongly enough so proposed Share-Our-Wealth Plan to redistribute wealth (and created Share-Our-Wealth Society)

    v)Growing dissident movements threat to president, so Roosevelt began to consider measures to counter their growing popularity

    b)The “Second New Deal”

    i)Second New Deal of 1935 marked beginning of open critique of big business

    ii)Holding Company Act sought to break up monopoly of utility industry; 1935 tax reforms established progressive tax w/ very high rate for wealthy

    iii)National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) gave enforcement to NIR Act’s Section 7(a) (right to unionize) in National Labor Relations Board

    c)Labor Militancy

    i)Trade union power increased dramatically in 1930s b/c of efforts to strengthen unions + growing labor militancy to challenge conservative groups

    ii)After Wagner Act attempts to find new forms of organization; American Federation of Labor still committed to organizing workers based on skill, but b/c mass of labor force unskilled industrial unionism gained popularity (all workers in industry organized regardless of role)

    iii)AFL hesitancy to adopt industrial unionism led John L Lewis in 1936 to create independent Congress of Industrial Organizations- grew into new areas

    d)Organizing Battles

    i)Laborers in auto industry increasingly joining unrecognized United Auto Workers; 1936 staged sit-down strike that stopped all production and prevented strikebreakers- most auto makers soon recognized union

    ii)In steel Steel Worker’s Organizing Committee recognized by US Steel 1937 to prevent costly stroke; “Little Steel” committed “Memorial Day Massacre” when strikers attempted protest- strike failed, SWOC not recognized for years

    iii)Period saw union membership increase by millions, growing recognition

    e)Social Security

    i)Lobbying for social insurance for elderly and unemployed led to 1935 Social Security Act—payroll tax created to create pension system for workers upon retirement, unemployment insurance paid by employers gave laid off workers temporary govt assistance, disability + dependent children aid created

    ii)Seen as insurance in which participants contributed and benefits for all

    f)New Directions in Relief

    i)SS for long term needs; to help currently unemployed created 1935 Works Progress Administration under Harry Hopkins to build + renovate public buildings, employ millions, pump money into economy

    ii)WPA replaced smaller CWA after 1934 fall- $5 billion budget vs $1 billion

    iii)Federal Writers Project of WPA (Music Proj, Theater Proj, ect.) provided govt salary to those ppl to continue work

    iv)Men often given relief in form of work relief and employment whereas women mainly given cash assistance

    g)The 1936 “Referendum”

    i)With 1936 revival of economy doubts about re-election from 1935 troubles largely dispelled. Repub nominee Alf Landon ran poor campaign, other Roosevelt dissidents (e.g. Coughlin and Townsend’s Union Party) very weak

    ii)Election largest landslide to date, Dems increased majorities in both Congressional houses; results highlighted Dem coalition of farmers, urban working ppl, unemployed and poor, progressive liberals, and blacks

    3)The New Deal in Disarray

    a)The Court Fight

    i)1936 landslide led Roosevelt to deal with Supreme Court whose conservative rulings (against NRA, AAA) he feared would ruin more legislation

    ii)1937 Roosevelt proposed overhaul of court system to Congress, including adding six new justices to Supreme Court so that he could appoint liberals and change ideological balance. Conservatives outraged as “Court-packing plan”

    iii)Legislation failed but more moderate court no longer a New Deal obstacle, although administration was damaged and Roosevelt viewed as power hungry

    b)Retrenchment and Recession

    i)In summer 1937 Roosevelt feared inflation so began to cut fed govt programs and reduce deficit—led to recession of 1937 (“Roosevelt’s Recession”); increased govt spending in 1938 for public works seemed to lead to recovery

    ii)Roosevelt began to denounce economic concentrations + sought antirust law reform- Congress formed Temporary National Economic Committee, apptd Thurman Arnold head of the antitrust division at the Justice Dept

    iii)1938 Fair Labor Standards Act established nat’l minimum wage, 40 hour work week, child labor limits

    iv)By end of 1938 New Deal largely over b/c of Congressional opposition + growing global crisis and Roosevelt’s concentration on war preparation

    4)Limits and Legacies of the New Deal

    a)The Idea of the “Broker State”

    i)New Deal backers originally sought to remake American capitalism and create new controls to make new economic order. Instead, transformation of government as “broker state” in which govt was a mediator in competition btwn interest groups rather than force to create universal harmony

    ii)Before 1930s main interest group corporations, but by end of 1930s business interests competing with labor, agricultural economy, and consumers

    b)African Americans and the New Deal

    i)New Deal did little to assist African Americans; Roosevelt himself not opposed to blacks- his “Black Cabinet” of blacks in second-level administrative positions, many blacks received govt relief or assistance

    ii)Electoral shift as blacks no longer overwhelmingly voted Republican but by 1936 90% voting Democratic- even though race not part of New Deal agenda

    iii)New Deal agencies reinforced discrimination by separating blacks in CCC and NRA codes, WPA gave minorities lower-paying jobs

    c)The new Deal and the “Indian Problem”

    i)Federal government sought to erase Indian problem by assimilating them and decreasing amt who identified as members of tribe

    ii)Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier proponent of cultural relativism and therefore supported legislation to reverse Native pressures to assimilate and instead be given right to live traditionally—Indian reorganization Act of 1934 advanced many of these goals by re-allowing collective ownership

    d)Women and the New Deal

    i)Administration mostly unconcerned w/ feminist movement b/c lack of popular support but nevertheless had symbolic gestures (Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins first female Cabinet member, other women appts in govt)

    ii)New Deal supported notion that women withdraw from working to open up positions for men—agencies offered women few jobs

    iii)Like with AAs New Deal not against women but still accepted cultural norms

    e)The New Deal in the West and the South

    i)West and South given special attention by New Deal relief and public works programs; these programs didn’t challenge racial and ethnic prejudices

    ii)New Deal had profound impact on West b/c farming central to economy and was a good site for and had the need for dams, electricity, other public works

    iii)New Deal programs profound in South b/c less economically developed than rest of nation in 1930s, gave federal attention to South that no previous administration had ever done b/c of view of S as “backward”

    f)The new Deal and the National Economy

    i)New Deal failed to end Depression, change drastically the maldistribution of wealth. New Deal did allow new groups previously unheld powers (labor, women, farmers), economically developed South and West, increased govt regulation, created welfare state thru relief and Social Security that broke w/ tradition of providing little public help to citizens deeply in need

    g)The New Deal and American Politics

    i)Roosevelt strengthened power of federal government as local govt took second seat to national govt, presidency established as center of power and shifted Congress to more secondary role

    ii)New Deal led to political shifts—Dem Party now strong coalition ready to dominate national politics; reawakened interest in economy over cultural issues; changed expectations American people had of government

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Global Crisis, 1921-1941

     1)The Diplomacy of the New Era

    a)Replacing the League

    i)Harding administration sought to negotiate separate peace treaties w/ Central Powers, find impermanent way to replace League as guarantor of world peace

    ii)Washington Conference of 1921 sought to deal w/ naval arms race btwn US, GB, Japan: Five-Power Pact limited armaments; Nine-Power Act continued Chinese Open Door policy; Four-Power Act acknowledged Pacific territories

    iii)Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 btwn 14 nations to outlaw war as policy measure

    iv)New Era efforts to protect peace w/o active international duties

    b)Debts and Diplomacy

    i)Diplomacy used to ensure free overseas trade thru reducing war and making financial arrangements w/ other nations

    ii)US prosperity depended on Eur economy, which was suffering from war destruction, Allied debt on US loans, Central reparations US acted to head off collapse thru 1924 Dawes Plan that created circular loan system where US loaned Germany money to pay GB + French debt who used $ to pay US debt

    iii)System led to increase in Eur debt, US banks and corporations took advantage of collapsed industries to assert themselves; high US tariffs under Republicans prevented Eur export of goods to earn money to repay loans

    iv)US economic expansion into Latin America during 1920s to better access rich natural resources, give loans to governments

    c)Hoover and the World Crisis

    i)Stock market crash of 1929 and worsening problems after 1931, growing nationalism + new hostile governments faced by Hoover administration

    ii)Hoover promised to recognize new Latin American govt if any collapsed, did not intervene some defaulted on US loans (against M. Doctrine + R.Corollary)

    iii)In efforts to restore Eur economic stability Pres refused to cancel debts- some nations defaulted; 1932 World Disarmament Conference ended in failure

    iv)Difficulties increased b/c of control by Benito Mussolini’s nationalistic Fascist Party in Italy & Adolf Hitler’s Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis)

    v)Crisis in Asia when in 1931 Japanese military staged coup against liberal govt b/c it had allowed China’s leader Chiang Kai-Shek to expand his power in Manchuria (which had been economically dominated by Japan) Japan invaded Manchuria + then China itself (Hoover refused to issue sanctions)

    vi)Interwar diplomacy of international voluntary cooperation and refusal to actively commit itself a failure; nation could now adopt internationalism or become even more nationalistic + isolated would try measures of both

    2)Isolationism and Internationalism

    a)Depression Diplomacy

    i)Early Roosevelt admin foreign policy concerned mainly w/ pressing economic issues- sought to differ from Hoover by solving war debts + adopting gold standard. However, 1933 World Economic Conference accomplished little

    ii)FDR forbid continuation of circular loan system, did little to stabilize international currencies; did adopt Reciprocal trade Agreement Act of 1934 to advance principles of free trade

    b)American and the Soviet Union

    i)FDR agreed to recognize Soviet Union in 1933 in hopes of increasing trade btwn nations (not b/c of lessening of hatred toward Communism)

    c)The Good Neighbor Policy

    i)“Good Neighbor Policy” toward Latin America focused on trade reciprocity (free trade);1933 Inter-American Conference administration officially pledged to not intervene in affairs of Latin nations. Closer economic ties emerged

    d)The Rise of Isolationism

    i)Geneva Conference on disarmament disbanded and Japan withdrew from 1921 Washington Conference; agreements of 1920s collapsed during 1930s

    ii)Many Americans supported isolationism b/c internationalism of League of Nations failed to restrain Japanese Asian aggression, belief US business interests had led to WW I involvement; FDR helpless to change tide

    iii)Neutrality Acts of 1935, ’36, ’37 meant to prevent issues of WWI from allowing US entrance into new war- “neutral rights” of US citizens defined, “cash-and-carry” policy allowed only nonmilitary goods to be sold to warring countries who had to provide own transportation

    iv)Military neutrality upheld after Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia and during Spain’s civil war btwn fascist Falangists + repub govt

    v)Alarm over Japan’s 1937 new assaults into China (after 1931 Manchuria invasion) led FDR to question isolationism, delivered “Quarantine speech” saying aggressors should be prevented from spreading war; speech unpopular

    e)The Failure of Munich

    i)In 1936 Hitler moved army into demilitarized Rhineland, 1938 invaded Austria to create union (anschluss) + demanded Czechoslovakia cede Sudetenland to increase lands for Germans to live (lebensraum); 1938 Munich Conference GB + France appeased Hitler for promise would be last expansion

    ii)1939 “appeasement” collapsed w/ German invasion of whole Czechoslovakia and then Poland- GB + France honored defense agreement w/ Poland, in September declared war against Germany

    3)From Neutrality to Intervention

    a)Neutrality Tested

    i)Most Americans supported Allies, FDR wanted to grant assistance by allowing arms sales to belligerents using “cash-and-carry” policy

    ii)Quiet “phony war” period shattered by spring 1940 German blitzkrieg invasion of W. Eur, by June France had fallen + GB retreated at Dunkirk

    iii)Roosevelt increased aid to Allies + monies for US self-defense, “scraped bottom of the barrel” to give GB’s Churchill war materials 

    iv)FDR able to take steps b/c public opinion shift after fall of France Germany now seen as threat to US by majority; debate still btwn “interventionists” who wanted increased US war involvement and “isolationist” America First Committee supported by many Repubs

    b)The Third-Term Campaign

    i)Roosevelt sought 3rd term in 1940 presidential election; Repubs nominated Wendell Willkie. Roosevelt won election w/ heavy measure of support

    c)Neutrality Abandoned

    i)After election Roosevelt changed US war role-- cash-short GB extended “lend-lease” agreement that allowed sale but also lending of armaments, began ensuring shipments reached GB by Navy patrolling Atlantic for subs

    ii)After Germany broke 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact by invading the USSR, US extended “lend-lease” to Russians; Nazi subs began attacking US ships, Congress voted to allow arming of merchants + US attacks on subs

    iii)1941 Churchill and Roosevelt released Atlantic Charter tying two nations together to war aims to destroy “Nazi tyranny”

    d)The Road to Pearl Harbor

    i)1940 Japan signed Tripartite Pact allying itself w/ Germany and Italy; in spite of Roosevelt denouncing Japanese aggression in 1941 it invaded Indochina

    ii)US froze Jap assets + placed trade embargo preventing Japan from buying impt supplies (including oil). Tokyo attempted to negotiate w/ US to continue flow of supplies, but Jap PM Konoye forced out of office by Gen Hideki Tojo

    iii)Tojo govt refused to recognize US calls to guarantee Chinese territorial rights so negotiations broke down, by November war imminent; on December 7, 1941 Jap aircraft carriers attacked US Pacific Navy HQ at Pearl Harbor

    iv)US lost 8 battleships, 2,000 soldiers dead, US Pacific forces weakened; resulted in unifying American ppl into commitment to war

    v)December 8, 1941 US declared war on Japan; December 11 Germany and Italy declared war on US, likewise same say us declared war on them

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - America In A World At War

    1)War on Two Fronts

    a)Containing the Japanese

    i)After Pearl Harbor US forces surrendered in the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island; to turn tide US lead 2 offensives- Gen Douglas MacArthur’s attacks from the south, and Admiral Chester Nimitz attacked from HI to the west

    ii)May 1942 Battle of Coral Sea weakened Jap navy; more important Battle of Midway Island June 1942 regained US central Pacific control

    iii)Mid-1943 after fighting in Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) US turned tide

    b)Holding Off the Germans

    i)US military plans in Europe influenced by Soviet Union and GB; FDR decided to delay invasion into France in favor of October 1942 counter-offensive in N. Africa against Nazi Gen Erwin Rommel; by May 1943 Gen George Patton and British Gen Montgomery had driven Germans from Africa

    ii)Soviet Red Army held off immense German 1942-1943 winter offensive at Stalingrad, Hitler’s forces exhausted and forced to abandon eastern advance

    iii)July 1943 US agreed to British plan to invade Sicily, Mussolini govt collapsed but German reinforcements prevented capture of Rome until June 1944; slow, costly Italy campaign delayed French channel invasion Soviets had called for

    c)America and the Holocaust

    i)By 1942 news of Holocaust (Nazi campaign to exterminate European Jews) prompting public cries to end killing, but US govt resisted calls for military aid + officials at the State Dept deliberately refused to let Jews enter US

    2)The American People In Wartime

    a)Prosperity

    i)WWII ended Great Depression problems of unemployment, deflation, production b/c of wartime economic expansion + massive govt spending (federal budget grew from 1939 $9 billion to 1945 $100 billion)

    b)The War and the West

    i)West shared disproportionally in massive govt capital investments; 

    ii)Businessman Henry Kaiser steered federal funds to make Pacific Coast major industrial center for shipbuilding, aircraft; launching stage for Japanese war

    c)Labor and the War

    i)Labor shortage caused by military recruitment; unemployed from Depression worked, but also women + other previously unused groups entered workforce 

    ii)Union membership increased; new govt limits on wage increases +“no-strike” promise, in return govt allowed all new workers to automatically join unions

    iii)Govt+ public sought to reduce inflation + guarantee production w/o disruption

    d)Stabilizing Boom

    i)1942 Congress passed Anti-Inflation Act which allowed Pres to freeze prices and wages, set rations; enforced by the Office of Price Administration

    ii)Govt spent 2X more $ btwn 1941-1945 than it had during whole existence; raised $ thru bond sales, Revenue Act of 1942 created new high tax brackets

    e)Mobilizing Production

    i)1942 War Production Board created to organize mobilization effort but was largely unable to direct military purchases + include small businesses; program later replaced by White House Office of War Mobilization

    ii)Nevertheless, US economy met all war needs; new factories were built, entire rubber industry created. By 1944 output 2X that of all Axis nations combined

    f)Wartime Science and Technology

    i)Govt stimulated new military technologies by funneling massive funds to National Defense Research Committee

    ii)Originally Germany (w/ sophisticated tanks + submarines) and Japan (w/ strong naval-air power) technologically ahead of Allies; US, however, had experience w/ mass production in auto industry and was able to convert many of these plants to produce armaments

    iii)Allied advances in radar + sonar beyond Axis capabilities helped limit effectiveness of U-Boats in Atlantic; Allies developed more effective anti-aircraft tech and produced large amount of powerful 4-engine aircraft (British Lancaster + US B17) able to attack military forces + industrial centers 

    iv)Greatest Allied advantage found in intelligence gathering—British Ultra project able to break German “Enigma” code and intercept info on enemy movements; American Magic operation broke Japanese “Purple” code

    g)African-Americans and the War

    i)Blacks wanted to use war as means of improving own conditions. A Philip Roth (head of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car porters) wanted all companies w/ war contracts to integrate work force

    ii)Fearing black workers strike, FDR created Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate labor discrimination. Later, Congress of Racial equality combated discrimination in society at large using popular resistance

    iii)War saw migration of blacks from rural South to industrial cities of North in greater numbers than those found of first Great Migration during WWI

    h)Native Americans and the War

    i)Some Native Americans served in military (some as famous “Code Talkers”), many others left reservations seeking work in war industries

    i)Mexican-American War Workers

    i)War labor shortages lead to large Mex immigration of braceros (contract laborers); ethnic tensions from growing immigrant neighborhoods w/ existing white communities led to “Zoot-Suit Riots” in Los Angeles in 1943

    j)Women and Children of War

    i)Large number of women entered roles they were previously excluded from

    ii)Many women worked in factories to replace men who had entered military, but some inequality existed in what jobs they could hold in factories

    iii)Most women took service-sector jobs in growing govt bureaucracies; limited others worked in “male” heavy-industry (famous Rosie the Riveter image)

    iv)Over 1/3 of teenagers took jobs during war; crime rate also rose during war

    k)Wartime Life and Culture

    i)Increased prosperity from war led to marked rise in theater and movie attendance, magazine and news circulation, hotel, casino, dance hall visits

    ii)War effort largely seen as means of protecting material comfort + consumer choice of “home”; visions of home and future women romanticized by troops

    l)The Internment of Japanese Americans

    i)WWII did not largely see restrictions of civil liberties + growth of hatred toward fringe groups as during WWI; little ethnic tension in part due to propaganda attacking enemy’s political system but not people

    ii)Glaring exception in treatment of Japanese Americans who were painted as scheming + cruel (re-enforced by Pearl Harbor); white Eur groups largely accepted by now, but assimilated Japs faced prejudice + viewed as “foreign”

    iii)Conspiracy theories of Jap-Americans aiding in Pearl Harbor attacks led govt + military to see them as a threat; 1942 Roosevelt created War Relocation Authority to move Japanese citizens to “relocation camps” for monitoring

    iv)Starting 1943 condition began to improve as some Japs allowed to got o college or take jobs on East Coast; although 1944 Supreme Court case Korematsu v U.S. ruled relocation constitutional, by that time most of internees had been allowed to leave camps

    m)Chinese Americans and the War

    i)US war alliance w/ China helped Chinese Americans advance legal + social position—1943 Congress repealed Chinese Exclusion acts

    ii)Many Chinese took jobs in industry or were drafted into the military

    n)The Retreat from Reform

    i)FDR wanted to shift priority from reform to war effort and victory

    ii)With massive unemployment no longer an issue + Republican gains, Congress dismantled relief programs and other New Deal programs

    iii)In 1944 Pres election Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey; Dems re-nominated Roosevelt but w/ new, less liberal VP candidate Harry Truman

    iv)Despite deteriorating health Roosevelt was popularly elected; Dems maintained control of both Houses of Congress

    3)The Defeat of the Axis

    a)The Liberation of France

    i)By 1944 devastating Allied strategic bombing against German industry at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin reduced production + complicated transport; German Luftwaffe forced to retreat to bases w/in Germany itself, weakened it

    ii)After 2 year buildup in England Supreme Allied Commander Gen Dwight Eisenhower ordered invasion across English Channel into Normandy, France on “D-Day” (June 6, 1944); Allies drove Germans from the coast, by September forced them to retreat from France, Belgium

    iii)In December Germany counter-attacked during Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes Forest, but soon repelled; with Soviet advances on Eastern front, Allies began moving into Germany across Rhine

    iv)April 30 Hitler commits suicide; May 8, 1945 full surrender + “V-E” Day

    b)The Pacific Offensive

    i)Thru 1944 American navy crippling Japanese shipping and economy in Pacific; on mainland Asia Japan attacking thru Chinese interior trying to cutoff Gen Stilwell’s Burma Road for supplies

    ii)June 1944 Americans captured Mariana Islands, in September Battle of Leyte Gulf Japanese navy decimated by US sinking of its aircraft carriers; in next few months Japanese fought desperate battles of resistance in Feb at Iwo Jima, in June at Okinawa (used Kamikaze suicide bombers throughout)

    iii)Many feared bloody island battles would ensue w/ invasion of Japanese mainland, but by 1945 Japanese weakened by firebombing in Tokyo, shelling of industrial centers; moderates in govt trying to sue peace against will of military leaders wanting to continue fight

    c)The Manhattan Project

    i)After news in 1939 that Nazis pursuing atomic bomb, US and +GB began race to develop one before them; work based on discovery of uranium radioactivity by Enrico Fermi 1930s, Einstein’s theory of relativity

    ii)Army took over control of research and poured billions of $ into Manhattan Project which gathered scientists to create nuclear chain reactions w/ a bomb

    iii)On July 16 1945 the plutonium bomb Trinity, created by scientist Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory, successfully tested

    d)Atomic Warfare

    i)Pres Truman issues ultimatum to Japanese for “unconditional surrender” by Aug 3rd or face annihilation; after Jap moderates unable to convince military leaders to accept Truman ordered use of atomic weapon

    ii)Some argue atomic weapon unnecessary b/c in time Japs would have sued for peace; others argue only atomic bomb could convince radical military leaders that surrender necessary. Truman saw weapon as military device that could end war quickly, but some say he used it to intimidate Stalin and Soviets

    iii)August 6, 1945 bomber Enola Gay dropped atomic weapon on Japanese city Hiroshima, killing 80,000 civilians; because Jap govt didn’t respond, on August 8 second atomic  bomb dropped on city of Nagasaki killing 100,000

    iv)By Aug 14 emperor agreed to surrender; September 2, 1945 Japan signed articles of surrender (“V-J Day”) marking end of WWII

    v)14 million combatants had died during war, even more civilians; threat of nuclear war loomed between two emerging super-powers in US and Soviet Union


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - The Cold War

    1)Origins of the Cold War

    a)Sources of Soviet-American Tensions

    i)Rivalry emerged b/c of difft visions of postwar world: US foresaw world where nations shed military alliances and used democratic international bodies as mediators; Soviet Union sought to control areas of strategic influence 

    b)Wartime Diplomacy

    i)Tensions began in 1943 b/c of Allied refusal to open second front w/ French invasion, dispute over governance of Poland unresolved at Tehran Conference

    c)Yalta

    i)Meeting of Big Three at Yalta in 1945 led to plan to create United Nations (w/ General Asembly and Security Council w/ permanent members)

    ii)Disagreement existed over future of Polish govt (independent + democratic vs Communist); US wanted to German reconstruction, Stalin wanted heavy reparations- finally agreed to commission and each Ally given German “zone”

    2)The Collapse of the Peace

    a)The Failure of Potsdam

    i)After Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, new Pres Truman decided US needed to “Get Tough” w Soviets to honor Yalta accords

    ii)Potsdam Conference in July ended w/ Stalin receiving increased land w/ new Polish-German border, US refusing to allow German reparations from Allied zones but US recognizing new communist Polish govt under Soviet influence

    b)The China Problem

    i)US had vision of open world “policed” by major powers; vision troubled by unpopular + corrupt Chinese govt under Chiang Kai-shek (supported by US aid during civil war) who battled communists under Mao Zedong

    ii)B/c Kai-shek govt sure to collapse, US sought to create new, Pro-West Japan by encouraging industrial development, lift trade restrictions

    c)The Containment Doctrine

    i)US no longer sought “open” world but rather “containment” of Soviet expansion; new Truman Doctrine sought aid for those forces in Turkey + Greece opposing take-over of Communist forces under Soviet influence

    d)The Marshall Plan

    i)Sec of State George Marshall 1947 plan to provide aid to all Eur nations (for humanitarian reasons, to rebuild to create markets for US goods, and to strengthen Pro-US govts against communists); 1948 created the Economic Cooperation Administration to channel billions of $ to aid economic revival

    e)Mobilization at Home

    i)US maintained wartime military levels, established Atomic Energy Commission to continue nuclear research 

    ii)National Security Act of 1947 restructured military by creating Department of Defense to combine all armed services, create National Security Council in White House and Central Intelligence Agency to collect information

    f)The Road to NATO

    i)Truman merged German “Western zones” into the West German republic; Stalin responded by blockading Western Berlin, Truman responded w/ airlift to re-supply inhabitants; Federal Republic became govt of west Germany, Democratic Republic of east

    ii)To strengthen military position US and Western Eur naions1949 created North Atlantic Treaty Organization as alliance to protect all members against threat of Soviet invasion (communists 1955 formed similar Warsaw Pact)

    g)Reevaluating Cold War Policy

    i)1949 saw Soviet Union explode atomic weapon and collapse of Nationalists in China to Mao’s Communists 

    ii)To reevaluate foreign policy, National Security Council released report NSC-68 that held US should lead noncommunist world and oppose communist expansion everywhere it existed, also expand US military power dramatically

    3)American Society and Politics After the War

    a)The Problems of Reconversion

    i)After end of war Truman attempted to quickly return nation to normal economic conditions, but problems ensued

    ii)No economic collapse b/c of increase in spending on consumer goods from savings, Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill) provided education + economic aid to returning soldiers that further increased spending

    iii)Problems arose w/ high inflation, union strikes in RR + mining industries, and displacement of some minorities and women b/c of returning soldiers to labor

    b)The Fair Deal Rejected

    i)After Jap surrender Truman proposed “Fair Deal” to enact liberal reforms—included raising minimum wage, enacting Fair Employment Practices Act, expanding Social Security, and creating nation health insurance plan

    ii)Fair Deal opposed by Repubs who gained majority in both Houses of Congress in 1946 elections; Repubs sought to reduce govt spending and economic controls, cut taxes for wealthy, refused to raise wages

    iii)Repubs wanted to decrease powers unions gained in 1935 Wagner Act by passing 1947 Labor-Management Relations Act of (Taft-Hartley Act)- made “closed-shop” illegal; limited efforts help those not yet organized (minorities)

    c)The Election of 1948

    i)Truman sought to make re-election about liberal reforms but electorate saw him as weak; Southern Dems (Dixiecrats) + progressives refused full support

    ii)Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey and seemed to be in strong position to win, but intense campaigning by Truman and his platform to reduce inflation + help common man allowed him to win Pres; Dems also won both Houses of C

    d)The Fair Deal Revivied

    i)New Dem Congress allowed for minimum wage increase + Social Security expansion, but hostile to Fair Deal programs expanding education aid, national healthcare, and civil rights

    ii)Truman did end govt hiring discrimination, desegregated armed forces; Supreme Court inSkelley v. Kraemer rules community “covenants” preventing movement of blacks unenforceable by courts

    e)The Nuclear Age

    i)Nuclear weapons viewed w/ fear b/c of threat from Soviet Union (expressed in pop culture,film noir, and govt preparations for nuclear attack), but public also awed by technological potential of nuclear power (Dreams of prosperity and unlimited + cheap electricity)

    4)The Korean War

    a)The Divided Peninsula

    i)Korea divided at 38th Parallel into Communist North and Southern government of capitalist Syngman Rhee (supported by US)

    ii)Nationalists in North invaded S in 1950 in effort to reunite countries; US won UN resolution calling for support of S. Korea armies (Russia unable to veto b/c boycotting Security Council at time)—“containment” but also “liberation”

    b)From Invasion to Stalemante

    i)Gen MacArthur (head of UN forces) able to advance far into North, but new communist Chinese govt feared American forces + entered conflict late 1950 

    ii)UN armies force dto retreat to 38th parallel long stalemate ensued until 1953

    iii)Truman wanted peace andnot new world war w/ China; Gen MacArthur publicly opposed peace effort and was relieved of command by Pres in 1951

    c)Limited Mobilization

    i)War led to only limited mobilization: Truman created Office of Defense Mobilization to combat rising inflation; govt seized RRs + steel mills during union strikes, increased govt spending stimulated economy

    ii)Inability of US to quickly end “small” war led to growth of fears of growth of communist  at home

    5)The Crusade Against Subversion

    a)HUAC and Alger Hiss

    i)“Red Scare” prompted by fear of Stalin, Communist growth (“loss” of China, Korean frustrations) many sought to blame US communist conspiracy

    ii)Repubs soguht to use anticommunist feeligns to win support against Dems; Congress created House Un-American Activities Committee 1947 to investigate communist subversion

    iii)Investigation into former State Dept official Alger Hiss revaled some complicity w/ communists increased fear of communist infiltrations

    b)The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case

    i)Truman began 1947 program to determine “loyalty” of fed employees; FBI monitored radicals; 1950 Congress passed McCarran Interal Secuity Act forcing communist groups to register w/ government

    ii)Explosion of atomic bomb by Soviets led to famous Rosenberg tiral to find out how Russia had learned of technology so quickly; Rosenbergs executed

    iii)HUAC, Rosenberg trial, “Loyalty” program, Hiss ordeal, McCarran Act all lead to national anticommunist hysteria at national, state, and local level

    c)McCarthyism

    i)Wisconsin Sen Joseph McCarthy 1951 began leveling charges of communist agents in State Dept and other agencies; his subcommittee was at the fore of anticommunist hysteria + partisan politics

    d)The Republican Revival

    i)Korean stalemate + anticommunist sentiments led to Dem disappointments

    ii)Dem nominated Adlai Stevenson (viewed as liberal and weak on Communism); Repubs nominated popular Gen Dwight Eisenhower and VP Richard Nixon (Eisenhower talked of Korean peace, Nixon of communist subversion)

    iii)Eisenhower won election by huge margin & Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Affluent Society

    Sources of Economic Growth
    ·By 1949, despite the continuing problems of postwar reconversion, an
    economic expansion had begun that would continue with only
    brief interruptions for almost twenty years
    · The causes of this growth varied
    1. Government spending continued to stimulate growth
    through public funding of schools, housing, veteran’s benefits,
    welfare, and the $100 billion interstate highway program
    ·Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    1. Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    a. There was the development of electronic
    computers
    b. The first modern computer emerged as a result of
    efforts during WWII to decipher enemy codes
    c. Not until the 1980s did most Americans come into
    direct and regular contact with computers, but the new
    machines were having a substantial effect on the
    economy long before that
    ·The national birth rate reversed a long pattern of decline with the socalled
    baby boom
    1. The baby boom meant increased consumer demand and
    expanding economic growth
    ·The rapid expansion of suburbs helped stimulate growth in several
    important sectors of the economy
    ·Because of this unprecedented growth, the economy grew nearly ten
    times as fast as the population in their thirty years after the war
    1. The American people had achieved the highest standard
    of living of any society in the history of the world
    The Rise of the Modern West
    · No region of the country experience more dramatic changes as a
    result of the new economic growth than the American West
    ·By the 1960s some parts of the West were among the most important
    industrial and cultural centers of the nation in their own right
    ·As during WWII much of the growth of the West was a result of federal
    spending and investment 1. Dams, power stations, highways,
    and other infrastructure projects
    ·The enormous increase in automobile use after WWII gave a large
    stimulus to the petroleum industry and contributed to the rapid
    growth of oil fields in Texas and Colorado
    ·State governments in the West invested heavily in their universities
    ·Climate also contributed
    The New Economics
    ·The exciting discovery of the power of the American economic system
    was a major cause of the confident, even arrogant tone of much
    American political life in the 1950s
    1. There was the belief that Keynesian economics made it
    possible for government to regulate and stabilize the
    economy without intruding directly into the private sector
    ·By the mid-1950s, Keynesian theory was rapidly becoming a
    fundamental article of faith
    1. Armed with these fiscal and monetary tools, many
    economists now believed, it was possible for the government to
    maintain a permanent prosperity
    ·If any doubters remained, there was ample evidence to dispel their
    misgivings during the era
    ·Accompanying the belief in the possibility of permanent economic
    stability was the equally exhilarating belief in permanent
    economic growth by the mid-1950s, reformers concerned about
    economic deprivation were arguing that the solution lay in
    increased production
    ·The Keynesians never managed to remake federal economic policy
    entirely to their liking
    1. Still, the new economics gave many Americans a
    confidence in their ability to solve economic problems that
    previous generations had never developed
    Captial and Labor
    ·A relatively small number or large-scale organizations controlled an
    enormous proportion oft eh nation’s economic activity
    ·A similar consolidation was occurring in the agricultural economy
    ·Corporations enjoying booming growth were reluctant to allow strikes
    to interfere with their operations
    ·By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of
    relationship with employers
    1. “Postwar Contract”
    ·Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries
    were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits
    1. In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising
    other issues
    ·The contract served the corporations and the union leadership well
    ·Many rank-and-file workers resented the abandonment of efforts to
    give them more control over the conditions of their labor
    ·The economic successes of the 1950s helped pave the way for a
    reunification of the labor movement
    1. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the
    Congress of Industrial Organizations ended their 20 year rivalry
    and merged to create the AFL- CIO
    ·But success also bread stagnation and corruption in some union
    bureaucracies
    ·While the labor movement enjoyed significant success in winning
    better wages and benefits for workers already organized in
    strong unions, the majority of laborers who were as yet
    unorganized made fewer advances
    1. New obstacles to organization
    a. Taft-Hartley Act and the state right-to-work laws
    ·In the American South impediments to unionization were enormous
    1. Antiunion sentiment was so powerful in the South that
    almost all organizing drives encountered crushing and usually
    fatal resistance
    The Explosion of Science and Technology
    Medical Breakthroughs
    ·The development of antibiotics had its origins=2 0in the discoveries of
    Louis Pasteur and Jules-Francois Joubert.
    ·Working in France in the 1870s they produced the first conclusive
    evidence that virulent bacterial infections could be defeated by
    other, more ordinary bacteria.
    ·In 1920, in the meantime, Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered
    the antibacterial properties of an organism that he named
    penicillin.
    ·There was also dramatic progress in immunization-the development of
    vaccines that can protect humans from contracting both
    bacterial and viral diseases.
    ·In 1954, the American scientist Jonas Salk introduced an effective
    vaccine against the disease that had killed and crippled
    thousands of children and adults.
    ·Average life expectancy in that same period rose by five years, to 71.
    Pesticides
    ·The most famous pesticides was dichlorodiphenyl-dichloromethane
    [DDT] a compound discovered in 1939 by Paul Muller.
    Postwar Electronic Research
    ·Researchers in the 1940s produced the first commercially viable
    televisions and created a technology that made it possible to
    broadcast programming over large areas.
    ·In 1948 bell Labs, the research arm of AT&T, produced=2 0the first
    transistor, a solid-state device capable of amplying electrical
    signals, which was much smaller and more efficient than the
    cumbersome vacuum tubes that had powered most electronic
    equipment in the past.
    ·Integrated circuits combined a number of once-separate electronic
    elements and embedded them into a single, microscopically
    small device.
    Postwar Computer Technology
    ·In the 1950s computers began to perform commercial functions for
    the first time, as data-processing devices used by businesses and
    other organizations.
    ·The first significant computer of the 1950s was the Universal
    Automatic Computer, which was developed initially for the U.S
    Bureau of the Census by the Remington Rand company.
    Bombs, Rockets, and Missles
    ·In 1952, the U.S successfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb.
    ·The development of the hydrogen bomb gave considerable impetus to
    a stalled scientific project in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
    The Space Program
    ·The Shock of Sputnik , th e united states had yet perform any similar
    feats , and the American government (and much of American
    society ) reacted to the announcement with alarm , as if the
    Soviet achievement was also a massive American failure .
    ·The centerpiece of space exploration , however . soon became the
    manned space program , established in 1958 through the
    creation of a new agency , the National Aeronautics and Space
    Administration (NASA ) and through the selection of the first
    American space pilots , or “astronauts”
    · They quickly became the nation’s most revered heroes .
    · The Apollo Program , Mercury and Gemini were followed by the Apollo
    program , whose purpose was to land men on the moon .
    · July 20 , 1969 , Neil Armstrong , Edwin Aldrin , and Michael Collins
    successfully traveled in a space capsule into orbit around the
    moon .
    · Armstrong and Aldrin , and Michael then detached a smaller craft from
    the capsule , landed on the surface of the moon , and became
    the first men to walk on a body other than earth .
    People of Plenty
    The Consumer Culture
    · At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing
    absorption with consumer goods
    · It was a result of:
    1. Increased prosperity
    2. Increasing variety and availability of products
    3. Advertiser’s adeptness in creating a demand for those
    product
    4. A growth of consumer credit
    To a striking degree, the prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s was
    consumer driven
    · Because consumer goods were so often marketed nationally, the
    1950s were notable for the rapid spread of creation national
    consumer crazes
    The Suburban Nation
    · By 1960 a third of the nation’s population was living in suburbs
    · The most famous of the postwar suburban developers, William Levitt,
    came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of
    mass-production techniques to construct a large housing
    development on Long Island, NY
    1. They helped to meet an enormous demand for housing
    that had been growing for more than a decade
    · Many Americans wanted to move to the suburbs
    1. One reason was the enormous importance postwar
    Americans place on family life after five years of war in which
    families had often been separated or otherwise disrupted
    2. They provided privacy
    3. A place to raise a large family
    4. They provided security from the noise and dangers of
    urban living
    5. They offered space for the new consumer goods
    6. Suburban life also helped provide a sense of community
    · Suburban neighborhoods
    1. They were not uniform
    The Suburban Family
    · For professional men, suburban life generally meant a rigid division
    between their working and personal worlds
    · For many middle-class married women, it meant an increase isolation
    from the workplace
    · One of the most influential books in postwar American life was a
    famous guide to child rearing
    1. Baby and Child Care
    a. Said that the needs of the child come before
    everything else
    b. Women who could afford not to work faced heavy
    pressures to remain in the home and concentrate on
    raising their children
    c.  Yet by 1960, nearly a third of all married women
    were in the paid workforce
    · The increasing numbers of women in the workplace laid the
    groundwork for demands for equal treatment by employers that
    became and important part of the feminist crusades of the 1960s
    and 1970s
    The Birth of Television
    · Television is perhaps the most powerful medium of mass
    communication in history
    · The television industry emerged directly out of the radio industry
    · Like radio, the television business was driven by advertising
    · The impact of television on American life was rapid, pervasive, and
    profound
    1. Television entertainment programming replace movies
    and radio as the principal source of diversion for American
    families
    · Much of the programming of the 1950s and early 1960s created a
    common image of American life
    1. An image that was predominately white, middle-class,
    and suburban
    2. Programming also reinforced the concept of gender roles
    3. Television inadvertently created conditions that could
    accentuate social conflict
    Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and Environmentalism
    ·
    Organized Society and Its Detractors
    · Large-scale organizations and bureaucracies increased their influence
    over American life in the postwar era
    ·More and more Americans were becoming convinced that the key to a
    successful future lay in acquiring the specialized training and
    skills necessary for work in large organizations
    1. The National Defense Education Act of 1958
    a. Provided federal funding for development of
    programs in those areas of science, mathematics, and
    foreign languages
    2. As in earlier eras, many Americans reacted to these
    developments with ambivalence, even hostility
    ·Novelists expressed misgivings in their work about the enormity and
    impersonality of modern society
    The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth
    ·The most derisive critics of bureaucracy, and of middle-class society
    in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists
    generally known as the “beats” – beatniks
    ·The beats were the most visible evidence of a widespread
    restlessness among young Americans in the 1950s
    ·In part, that restlessness was a result of prosperity itself
    1. Tremendous public attention was directed at the
    phenomenon of “juvenile delinquency” and in both politics and
    popular culture there were dire warnings about the growing
    criminality of American youth
    ·Also disturbing to many older Americans was the style of youth
    culture
    1. The culture of alienation that the beats so vividly
    represented had counterparts even in ordinary middle-class
    behavior
    a. Teenage rebelliousness toward parents, youthful
    fascination with fast cars and motorcycles, and an
    increasing visibility of teenage sex, assisted by the
    greater availability of birth-control devices and the
    spreading automobile culture that came to dominated the social
    lives of teenagers in much of the nation
    2. The popularity of James Dean was a particularly vivid
    sign of this aspect of youth culture in the 1950s
    a. Dean became an icon of the unfocused
    rebelliousness of American youth in his time
    Rock 'n' Roll
    ·One of the most powerful signs of the restiveness of American youth
    was the enormous popularity of rock ‘n’ roll and of the greatest
    early rock star
    1. Elvis Presley
    a. Presley became a symbol of a youthful
    determination to push at the borders of the
    conventional and acceptable
    b. Presley’s music, like that of most early white rock
    musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues
    traditions
    c. Rock also drew from country western music, gospel
    music, even from jazz
    ·The rise of such white rock musicians as Presley was a result in part of
    the limited willingness of white audience to accept black
    musicians
    ·The rapid rise and enormous popularity of rock owed a great deal to
    innovations in radio and television programming
    1. Early in the 1950s, a new breed of radio announcers
    began to create programming aimed specifically at young fans
    of rock music
    a. Disk Jockeys
    ·Radio and television were important to the recording industry because
    they encouraged the sale of records
    1. Also important were jukeboxes
    ·Rock music began in the 1950s to do what jazz and swing had done in
    the 1920s – 40s
    1. To define both youth culture as a whole and the
    experience of a generation
    The "Other America"
    On the Margins of the Affluent Society
    ·In 1962, The Other America was published
    a. Chronicles of the continuing existence of poverty in
    America
    ·The great economic expansion of the postwar years reduced poverty
    dramatically but did not eliminate it
    ·Most of the poor experience poverty intermittently and temporarily
    ·This poverty was a poverty that the growing prosperity of the postwar
    era seemed to affect hardly at all
    Rural Poverty
    ·Among those on the margins of the affluent society were many rural
    Americans
    ·Not all farmers were poor
    1. But the agrarian economy did produce substantial
    numbers of genuinely impoverished people
    ·Migrant farm workers and coal miners fell to the same kind of poverty
    The Inner Cities
    ·As white families moved from cities to suburbs in vast numbers, more
    and more inner-city neighborhoods became vast repositories for
    the poor
    1. Ghettos from which there was no easy escape
    a. African Americans helped this growth
    ·Similar migrations from Mexico and Puerto Rico expanded poor
    Hispanic barrios in many American cities at the same time
    ·For many years, the principal policy response to the poverty of inner
    cities was “urban renewal”
    1. The effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and
    most degraded areas
    a. In some cases, urban renewal provided new public
    housing for poor city residents
    b. In many cases, urban renewal projects replaced
    “slums” with middle and upper-income housing, office
    towers, or commercial buildings
    ·One result of inner-city poverty was a rising rate of juvenile crime
    The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement
    The Brown Decision and "Massive Resistance"
    ·On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court announced its decision in the
    case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
    1. Ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision was the culmination of many decades of effort by
    black opponents of segregation
    ·The Topeka suit involved the case of an African-American girl who had
    to travel several miles to a segregated public school every day
    even though she lived virtually next door to a white elementary
    school
    1. The Court concluded that school segregation inflicted
    unacceptable damage on those it affected
    ·The following year, the Court issued another decision to provide rules
    for implementing the 1954 order
    1. It ruled that communities must work to desegregate
    their schools “with all deliberate speed,” but it set no
    timetable and left specific decisions up to lower courts
    ·Strong local opposition produced long delays and bitter conflicts
    1. More than 100 southern members of Congress signed a
    “manifesto” in 1956 denouncing the Brown decision and
    urging their constituents to defy it
    ·Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (1958)
    1. Refused to declare “pupil placement laws”, placing a
    student in a school based on academic or social behaviors,
    unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision, far from ending segregation, had launched a
    prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local
    governments, and between those who believed in racial equality
    and those who did not
    ·In 1957, federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High
    School in Little Rick, Arkansas
    1. An angry white mob tried to prevent implementation of
    the order by blockading the entrances to the school
    2. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the
    National Guard and sending troops to Little Rock to restore
    order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed
    The Expanding Movement
    ·The Brown decision helped spark a growing number of popular
    challenges to segregation in the South
    ·December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama,
    when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a
    white passenger
    1. The arrest of this admired woman produced outrage in
    the city’s African-American community and helped local
    leaders organize a successful boycott of the bus system to
    demand an end to segregated seating
    2. The bus boycott put economic pressure not only on the
    bus company but on many Montgomery merchants
    a. The bus boycotters found it difficult to get to
    downtown stores and tended to shop instead in their own
    neighborhoods
    ·A Supreme Court decision in 1956 declared segregation in public
    transportation to be illegal
    ·More important than the immediate victories of the Montgomery
    boycott was its success in establishing a new form of racial
    protest and in elevating to prominence a new figure in the
    movement for civil rights
    1. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
    a. King’s approach to black protest was based on the
    doctrine of nonviolence
    b. He urged African Americans to engage in peaceful
    demonstrations
    2. The popular movement he came to represent soon
    spread throughout the South and throughout the country
    ·One important color line had been breached as early as 1947, when
    the Brooklyn Dodgers signed the great Jackie Robinson as the
    first African American to play Major League Baseball
    ·President Eisenhower signed a civil rights act in 1957
    1. Providing federal protection for blacks who wished to
    register to vote
    Cause of the Civil Rights Movement
    ·Several factors contributed to the rise of African-American protest in
    these years
    1. Millions of black men and women had served in the
    military or worked in war plants during the war and had
    derived from the experience a broader view of the world
    and their place in it
    2. Another factor was the growth of an urban black middle
    class
    3. Television and other forms of popular culture were
    another factor in the rising consciousness of racism among
    blacks
    ·Other forces were at work mobilizing many white Americans to
    support the movement once it began
    1. The Cold War
    2. Political mobilization of northern blacks
    3. Labor unions with substantial black memberships
    · By the early 1960s, this movement had made it one of the most
    powerful forces in America
    Eisenhower Republicanism
    "What was Good for...General Motors"
    · The first Republican administration in 20 years was staffed mostly
    with men drawn from the same quarter as those who had staffed
    Republican administrations in the 1920s
    1. The business community
    · Many of the nation's leading businessmen and financiers ha
    reconciled themselves to at least the broad outlines of the
    Keynesian welfare state the New Deal had launched and had
    come to see it as something that actually benefited them
    · To his cabinet, Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and
    business executives
    · Eisenhower’s leadership style helped enhance the power of his
    cabinet officers and others
    · Eisenhower’s consistent inclination was to limit federal activities and
    encourage private enterprise
    The Survival of the Welfare State
    · The president took few new initiatives in domestic policy
    · Perhaps the most significant legislative accomplishment of the
    Eisenhower administration was the Federal Highway Act of 1956
    1. Authorized $25 billion for a ten-year effort to construct
    over 40,000 miles of interstate highways
    2. The program was to be funded through a highway “trust
    fund” whose revenues would come from new taxes on the
    purchase of fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires
    · In 1956, Eisenhower ran for a second term
    1. Republicans – Adlai Stevenson
    2. Eisenhower won
    · Democrats still held power over Congress
    The Decline of McCarthyism
    · In its first years in office the Eisenhower administration did little to
    discourage the anticommunist furor that had gripped the nation
    · Among the most celebrated controversies of the new administration’s
    first year was the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer
    1. He opposed the building of the Hydrogen Bomb
    2. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar association
    with various left-wing groups
    a. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar
    association with various left-wing groups
    · But by 1954, such policies were beginning to produce significant
    opposition
    1. The clearest signal of that change was the political
    demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy
    a. He overstepped his boundaries when he charged
    Secretary of Army Robert Stevens
    b. Army-McCarthy hearings
    2. In December 1954, he was condemned for “conduct
    unbecoming a senator”
    Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War
    Dulles and "Massive Retaliation"
    · Eisenhower’s secretary of state, and the dominant figure in the
    nation’s foreign policy in the 1950s, was John Foster Dulles
    · He entered office denouncing the containment policies of the Truman
    years
    1. Arguing that the United States should pursue an active
    program of “liberation” which would lead to a “rollback” of
    communism expansion
    · “Massive Retaliation”
    1. The United States would, he explained, respond to
    communist threats to its allies not by using conventional forces
    to local conflicts but by relying on “the deterrent of massive
    retaliatory power” (nuclear weapons)
    · By the end of the decade, the United States had become a party to
    almost a dozen such treaties of mutual defense in NATO in all
    areas of the world
    France, America, and Vietnam
    ·
    Cold War Crisis
    ·
    Europe and the Soviet Union
    · Although the problems of the Third World were moving slowly to the
    center of American foreign policy, the direct relationship with the
    Soviet Union and the effort to resist communist expansion in
    Europe remained the principal concerns of the Eisenhower
    administration
    · In 1955, Eisenhower and other NATO leaders met with the Soviet
    premier, Nikolai Bulganin, at a cordial summit conference in
    Geneva
    1. They could find no basis for agreement
    · Relations between the Soviet Union and the West soured further in
    1956 in response to the Hungarian Revolution
    1. Hungarians were demanding democratic reforms
    a. Soviets came in to crush the uprising
    2. The suppression of the uprising convinced many
    American leaders that Soviet policies had not softened as much
    as the events of the previous two years had suggested
    ·The failure of conciliation brought renewed vigor to the Cold War and
    greatly intensified the Soviet-American arms race
    ·The arms race not only increased tensions between the United States
    and Russia
    1. It increased tensions within each nation as well
    The U-2 Crisis
    ·In this tense and fearful atmosphere, the Soviet Union raised new
    challenges to the West in Berlin
    ·In November 1958, Nikita Khrushchev renewed his predecessors’
    demands that NATO powers abandon the city
    1. The United States and its allies refused
    ·Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower discuss the issue
    personally
    1. The United States agreed
    ·Only days before Eisenhower was to leave for Moscow the Soviet
    Union announced that it had shot down an American U-2, a spy
    plane, over Russian territory
    ·By the spring of 1960, Khrushchev knew that no agreement was
    possible on the Berlin issue
    ·The events of 1960 provided a somber backdrop for the end of the
    Eisenhower administration
    ·He warned in his farewell address of 1961 of the “unwarranted
    influence” of a vast “military-industrial complex”
    1. His caution, in both domestic and international affairs,
    stood in marked contrast to the attitudes of his successors, who
    argued that the United States must act more boldly and
    aggressively on behalf of its goals at home and abroad
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - The Ordeal of Liberalism

    Expanding the Liberal State
    John Kennedy
    ·The campaign of 1960 produced two young candidates who claimed
    to offer the nation active leadership.
    ·The Republican nomination went almost uncontested to Vice President
    Richard Nixon, who promised moderate reform.
    ·John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the son of the wealthy powerful, and
    highly controversial Joseph P. Kennedy, former American
    ambassador to Britain.
    ·He premised his campaign, he said, “on the single assumption that
    the American people are uneasy at the present drift in our
    national course”.
    ·Kennedy had campaigned promising a set of domestic reforms more
    ambitious than any since the New Deal, a program he described
    as the “New Frontier”.
    ·Kennedy had traveled to Texas with his wife and Vice President Lyndon
    Johnson for a series of=2 0political appearances.
    ·While the presidential motorcade rode slowly through the streets of
    Dallas, shots rang out.
    ·He got shot in the throat and head, he was rushed to a hospital, where
    minutes later he was pronounced dead.
    ·Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested for the crime later that day, and
    then mysteriously murdered by a Dallas nightclub owner, Jack
    Ruby, 2 days later as he was being moved from one jail to
    another.
    ·In years later years many Americans came to believe that the Warren
    Commission report had ignored evidence of a wider conspiracy
    behind the murders.
    Lyndon Johnson
    ·The Kennedy assassination was a national trauma-a defining event for
    almost everyone old enough to be aware of it.
    ·Johnson was a native of the poor “hill country” of west Texas and had
    risen to become majority leader of the U.S. Senate by dint of
    extraordinary, even obsessive, effort and ambition.
    ·Between 1963 and 1966, he compiled the most impressive legislative
    record of any president since Franklin Roosevelt.
    ·He created the “Great Society”.
    ·Record Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, any of
    whose members had been swept into office=2 0only because of
    the margin of Johnson’s victory, ensured that the president would
    be able to fulfill many of his goals.
    The Assault on Poverty
    ·The most important welfare program was Medicare: a program to
    provide federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses.
    ·Its enactment in 1965 came at the end of a bitter, 20 year debate
    between those who believed in the concept of national health
    assistance and those who denounced it as “socialized medicine”.
    ·Medicare benefits available to all elderly Americans, regardless of
    need.
    ·Medicare simply shifted responsibility for paying those fees from the
    patient to the government.
    ·The centerpiece of this “war on poverty”, as Johnson called it, was the
    Office of economic Opportunity, which created an array of new
    educational, employment, housing, and health-care programs.
    ·The Community Action programs provided jobs for many poor people
    and gave them valuable experience in administrative and
    political work.
    ·The OEO spent nearly $3 billion during its first two years of existence,
    and it helped reduce poverty in some areas.
    Cities, Schools, and Immigration
    ·The Housing Act of 1961 offered $4.9 billion in federal grants to cities
    for the preservation of open spaces, the development of mass
    transit systems, and the subsidization of middle income housing.
    ·In 1966, Johnson established a new cabinet agency, the Department
    of Housing and Urban Development.
    ·Johnson also inaugurated the Model Cites program, which offered
    federal subsidies for urban redevelopment pilot programs.
    ·Johnson managed to circumvent both objections with the Elementary
    and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and a series of subsequent
    measures.
    ·Total federal expenditures for education and technical training rose
    from $5 billion to $12 billion between 1964 and 1967.
    ·The Immigration Act of 1965 maintained a strict limit on the number
    of newcomers admitted to the country each year (170,000), but
    it eliminated the “national origins” system established in the
    1920s, which gave preference to immigrants from northern
    Europe over those from other parts of the world.
    Legacies of the Great Society
    ·In 1964, Johnson managed to win passage of the $11.5 bill ion tax cut
    that Kennedy had first proposed in 1962.
    ·The cut increased the federal deficit, but substantial economic growth
    over the next several years made up for much of the revenue
    initially lost.
    ·The high costs of the Great Society programs, the deficiencies and
    failures of many of them, and the inability of the government to
    find the revenues to pay for them contributed to a growing
    disillusionment in later years with the idea of federal efforts to
    solve social problems.
    The Battle for the Racial Equality
    Expanding Protests
    ·John Kennedy had long been vaguely sympathetic to the cause of
    racial justice, but he was hardly a committed crusader.
    ·In February 1960, black college students in Greensboro, North
    Carolina, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch
    counter, and in the following weeks, similar demonstrations
    spread throughout the South, forcing many merchants to
    integrate their facilities.
    ·The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, worked to keep the
    spirit of resistance alive.
    ·In 1961, an interracial group of students, working with the Congress of
    Racial Equality, began what t hey called “freedom rides”.
    ·Traveling by bus throughout the South, the freedom riders tried to
    force the desegregation of bus stations.
    ·SNCC workers began fanning out through black communities and even
    into remote rural areas to encourage blacks to challenge the
    obstacles to voting that the Jim Crow laws had created and that
    powerful social custom sustained.
    ·In April, Martin Luther King, Jr., helped launch a series of nonviolent
    demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, a city unsurpassed in
    the strength of its commitment to segregation.
    ·Medgar Evers was murdered in Mississippi.
    A National Commitment
    ·To generate support for the legislation, and to dramatize the power of
    the growing movement, ore than 200,000 demonstrators
    marched down the Mall in Washington, D.C., in August 1963 and
    gathered before the Lincoln Memorial for the greatest civil rights
    demonstration in the nation’s history.
    ·Early in 1964, after Johnson applied both public and private pressure,
    supporters of the measure finally mustered the two-thirds
    majority necessary to close debate and end a filibuster by
    southern senators; and the Senate passed the most
    comprehensive civil rights bill in the nation’s history.
    The Battle for Voting Rights
    ·During the summer of 1964, thousands of civil rights workers, black
    and white, northern and southern, spread out through the South,
    but primarily in Mississippi.
    ·The campaign was known as “freedom summer”, and it produced a
    violent response from some southern whites.
    ·The “freedom summer” also produced the Mississippi Freedom
    Democratic Party, and integrated alternative to the regular state
    party organization.
    ·It permitted the MFDP to be seated as observers, with promises of
    party reforms later on, while the regular party retained its official
    standing.
    ·A year later, in March 1965, King helped organize a major
    demonstration in Selma, Alabama to press the demand for the
    right of blacks to register to vote.
    ·Two northern whites participating in the Selma march were murdered
    in the course of the effort there- one, a minister, beaten to death
    in the streets of the town; the other, a Detroit housewife, shot as
    she drove along a highway at night with a black passenger in her
    car.
    ·The Civil Rights Act of 1965, better known as the Voting Rights Act,
    which provided federal protection to blacks attempting to
    exercise their right to vote.
    The Changing Movement
    ·By 1966, 69 percent of American blacks were living in metropolitan
    areas and 45 percent outside the South.
    ·Well over half of all American non-whites lived in poverty at the
    beginning of the 1960s; black unemployment was twice that of
    whites.
    ·Over the next decade, affirmative action guidelines gradually
    extended to virtually all institutions doing business with or
    receiving funds from the federal government- and to many
    others as well.
    ·Organizers of the Chicago campaign hoped to direct national attention
    to housing and employment discrimination in northern industrial
    cities in much the same way similar campaigns had exposed
    legal racism in the South.
    Urban Violence
    ·Well before the Chicago campaign, the problem of urban poverty had
    thrust itself into national attention when violence broke out in
    black neighborhoods in major cities.
    ·The first large race riot since the end of World War II occurred the
    following summer in the Watts section of Los Angeles.
    ·The incident triggered a storm of anger and a week of violence.
    ·34 people died during the Watts uprising, which was eventually
    quelled by the National Guard; 28 of the dead were black.
    ·Televised reports of the violence alarmed millions of Americans and
    created both a new sense of urgency and a growing sense of
    doubt among many of those whites who had embraced the cause
    of racial justice only a few years before.
    ·A special Commission on Civil Disorders, created by the president in
    response to the disturbances, issued a celebrated report in the
    spring of 1968 recommending massive spending to eliminate the
    abysmal conditions of the ghettoes.
    Black Power
    ·Disillusioned with the ideal of peaceful change in cooperation with
    whites, an increasing number of African Americans were turning
    to a new approach to the racial issue: the philosophy of “black
    power”.
    ·The most enduring impact of the black-power ideology was a social
    and psychological one: instilling racial pride in African Americans,
    who lived in a society whose dominant culture generally
    portrayed blacks as inferior to whites.
    ·It encouraged the growth of black studies in schools and universities.
    ·Traditional black organizations that had emphasized cooperation=2
    0with sympathetic whites- groups such as the NAACP, the Urban
    League, and King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conferencenow
    faced competition from more radical groups.
    ·In Oakland, California the Black Panther Party promised to defend
    black rights even if that required violence.
    Malcolm X
    ·In Detroit, a once-obscure black nationalist group, the Nation of Islam,
    gained new prominence.
    ·Founded in 1931 by Wali Farad and Elijah Poole, the movement taught
    blacks to take responsibility for their own lives, to be disciplined,
    to live by strict codes of behavior, and to reject any dependence
    on whites.
    ·Malcolm became one of the movement’s most influential spokesmen,
    particularly among younger blacks, as a result of his intelligence,
    his oratorical skills, and his harsh, uncompromising opposition to
    all forms of racism and oppression.
    ·He did not advocate violence, but he insisted that black people had
    the right to defend themselves, violently if necessary from those
    who assaulted them.
    ·Malcolm died in 1965 when black gunmen, presumably under orders
    from rivals within the Nation of Islam, assassinated him in New
    York.
    "Flexible Response and the Cold War"
    Diversifying Foreign Policy
    · The Kennedy administration entered office convinced that the United
    States needed to be able to counter communist aggression in
    more flexible ways than the atomic weapons-oriented defense
    strategy of the Eisenhower years permitted.
    · Kennedy was unsatisfied with the nation’s ability to meet communist
    threats in “emerging areas” of the Third World- the areas in
    which, Kennedy believed, the real struggle against communism
    would be waged in the future.
    · Kennedy also inaugurated the Agency for International Development
    to coordinate foreign aid.
    · The Peace Corps, sent young American volunteers abroad to work in
    developing areas.
    · On April 17, 1961, with the approval of the new president, 2,000 of
    the armed exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, expecting
    first American air support and then a spontaneous uprising by
    the Cuban people on their behalf.
    Confrontations with the Soviet Union
    · In the grim aft ermath of the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy traveled to Vienna
    in June 1961 for his first meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita
    Khrushchev.
    · Before dawn on August 13, 1961, the East German government,
    complying with directives from Moscow, constructed a wall
    between East and West Berlin.
    · For nearly 30 years the Berlin Wall served as the most potent physical
    symbol of the conflict between the communist and
    noncommunist worlds.
    · On October 14, aerial reconnaissance photos produced clear evidence
    that the Soviets were constructing sites on the island for
    offensive nuclear weapons.
    · On October 22, he ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a
    “quarantine” against all offensive weapons.
    Johnson and the World
    · Lyndon Johnson entered the presidency lacking even John Kennedy’s
    limited prior experience with international affairs.
    · A 1961 assassination had toppled the repressive dictatorship of
    General Rafael Trujillo, and for the next four years various
    fascinations in the country had struggled for dominance.
    · In the spring of 1965, a conservative military regime began to
    collapse in the face of a revolt by a broad range of groups on
    behalf of the left-wing nationalist Juan Bosch.
    · Only after a conservative candidate defeated Bosch in a 1966 election
    were the forces withdrawn.
    The Agony of Vietnam
    The First Indochina War
    · Vietnam had a long history both as an independent kingdom and
    major power in its region, and as a subjugated province of China;
    its people were both proud of their past glory and painfully aware
    of their many years of subjugation.
    · In the mi-19th century, Vietnam became a colony of France.
    · The French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam.
    · In the fall of 1945, after the collapse of Japan and before the western
    powers had time to return, the Vietminh declared Vietnam an
    independent nation and set up a nationalist government under
    Ho Chi Mihn in Hanoi.
    · For the next 4 years, during what has become known as the First
    Indochina War, Truman and then Eisenhower continued to
    support the French military campaign against the Vietminh; by
    1954, by some calculations, the United States was paying 80
    percent of France’s war costs.
    Geneva and the Two Vietnams
    · An international conference at Geneva, planned many months before
    to settle the Korean dispute and other controversies, now took up
    the fate of Vietnam as well.
    · Secretary of State Dulles, who reluctantly attended but left early; the
    United States was not a party to the accords.
    · Vietnam would be temporarily portioned along the 17th parallel, with
    the Vietminh in control of North Vietnam, and a pro-western
    regime in control of the South.
    America and Diem
    · The U.S almost immediately stepped into the vacuum and became the
    principal benefactor of the new government in the South, led by
    NGO Dihn Diem.
    · The Buddhist crisis was alarming and embarrassing to the Kennedy
    Administration.
    From Aid to Intervention
    · Lyndon Johnson thus inherited what was already a substantial
    American commitment to the survival of an anticommunist South
    Vietnam.
    · Intervention in South Vietnam was fully consistent with nearly 20
    years of American foreign policy.
    · In August 1964, the president announced that American destroyers on
    patrol in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin had been
    attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats.
    The Quagmire
    · There was a continuous stream of optimistic reports from American
    military commanders, government officials, and others.
    · The “attrition” was a strategy premised on the belief that the Unites
    States could inflict so many causalities and so much damage on
    the enemy that eventually they would be unable and unwilling to
    continue the struggle.
    · By the end of 1967, virtually every identifiable target of any strategic
    importance in North Vietnam had been destroyed.
    · Another crucial part of the American strategy was the “pacification”
    program, which was intended to push the Viet Cong from
    particular regions and then pacify those regions by winning the
    “hearts and minds” of the people.
    The War at Home
    · A series of “teach-ins” on university campuses, beginning at the
    University of Michigan in 196 sparked a national debate over the
    war before such debate developed inside the government itself.
    · Opposition to the war had become a central issue in left-wing politics
    and in the culture of colleges and universities.
    The Traumas of 1968
    The Tet Offensive
    · On January 31, 1968, the 1st day of the Vietnamese New Year (TET),
    communist forces launched an enormous, concerted attack on
    American strongholds throughout South Vietnam.
    The Political Challenge
    · On March 31, Johnson went on television to announce a limited halt in
    the bombing of North Vietnam.
    The King and Kennedy Assassinations
    · On April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed while standing on
    the balcony of his motel.
    · In the days after the assassination, major riots broke out in more than
    60 American cities.
    · Rober t Kennedy shaped what some would later call the “Kennedy
    Legacy”, a set of ideas that would for a time become central to
    American liberalism.
    · The passions Kennedy had aroused made his violent death a
    particularly shattering experience for many Americans.
    The Conservation Response
    · George Wallace established himself in 1963 as one of the nation's
    leading spokesmen for the defense of segregation.
    · As a governor of Alabama, he attempted to block the admission of
    black students to the University of Alabama.
    · In 1964, he has run a few Democratic presidential primaries and
    although had done surprisingly well, standing in the polls with
    20%, he had no serious chance of winning the election.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - The Crisis of Authority

     
    The Youth Culture
    The New Left
    ·The postwar baby-boom generation, the unprecedented number of
    people born in a few years just after World War II, was growing
    up.
    ·One of the most visible results of the increasingly assertive youth
    movement was a radicalization of many American college and
    university students, who in the course of the 1960s formed what
    became known as the New Left- a large, diverse group of men
    and women energized by the polarizing developments of their
    time to challenge the political system.
    ·The New Left embraced the cause of African Americans and other
    minorities, but its own ranks consisted overwhelmingly of white
    people.
    ·The New Left drew from many sources.
    ·The New Left drew as well from the writings of some of the important
    social critics of the 1950s-among them C. Wright Mills, a soci
    ologist at Columbia University who wrote a series of scathing and
    brilliant critiques of modern bureaucracies.
    ·The New Left drew its inspiration above all from the civil rights
    movement, in which many idealistic young white Americans had
    become involved in the early 1960s.
    ·In 1962, a group of students, most of them from prestigious
    universities, gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give
    voice to their demands: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
    ·A 1964 dispute at the University of California at Berkeley over the
    rights of students to engage in political activities on campus
    gained national attention.
    ·The Free Speech Movement, created turmoil at Berkeley as students
    challenged campus police, occupied administrative offices, and
    produced a strike in which nearly ¾ of the Berkeley students
    participated.
    ·The revolt at Berkeley was the first outburst of what was to be nearly
    a decade of campus turmoil.
    ·Also in 1969, Berkeley became the scene of perhaps the most
    prolonged and traumatic conflict of any American college
    campus in the 1960s: a battle over the efforts of a few students
    to build a “People’s Park” on a vacant lot the university planned
    to use to build a parking garage.
    ·By the end of the People’s Park battle, which lasted for more than a
    week, the Berkeley campus was completely polarized.
    ·Student radicals were, for the20first time, winning large audiences for
    their extravagant rhetoric linking together university
    administrators, the police, and the larger political and economic
    system, describing them all as part of one united, oppressive
    force.
    ·As time went on, moreover, the student fringe groups became
    increasingly militant.
    ·Student activists tried to drive out training programs for military
    officers (ROTC) and bar military recruiters from college
    campuses.
    ·The October 1967 march on the Pentagon, where demonstrators were
    met by a solid line of armed troops; the “spring mobilization” of
    April 1968, which attracted hundreds of thousands of
    demonstrators in cities around the country.
    ·Many draft-age Americans simply refused induction, accepting what
    occasionally what were long terms in jail as a result.
    The Counterculture
    ·The most visible characteristic of the counterculture was a change in
    lifestyle.
    ·Young Americans flaunted long hair, shabby or flamboyant clothing,
    and a rebellious disdain for traditional speech and decorum,
    which they replaced with their own “hippie” idiom.
    ·Also central to the counterculture were drugs: marijuana smokingwhich
    after 1966 became almost as common a youthful diversion
    as b eer drinking-and the less widespread but still substantial use
    of other, more potent hallucinogens, such as LSD.
    ·To some degree, the emergence of more relaxed approaches to
    sexuality was a result less of the counterculture than of the new
    accessibility of effective contraceptives, most notably the birthcontrol
    pill and, after 1973, legalized abortion.
    ·The counterculture’s rejection of traditional values and its open
    embrace of sensual pleasure sometimes masked its philosophy,
    which offered a fundamental challenge to the American middleclass
    mainstream.
    ·The most adherents of the counterculture-the hippies, who came to
    dominate the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco and
    other places, and the social dropouts, many of whom retreated to
    rural communes-rejected modern society altogether and
    attempted to find refuge in a simpler, more “natural” existence.
    ·Theodore Roszak, whose book the Making of a Counter Culture(1969)
    became a significant document of the era, captured much of the
    spirit of the movement in his frank admission that “the primary
    project of our counterculture is to proclaim a new heaven and a
    new earth so vast, so marvelous that the inordinate claims of
    technical expertise must of necessity withdraw to a subordinate
    and marginal status in the lives of men.”
    ·The use of marijuana, the freer attitudes toward sex, the iconoclastic
    (and sometimes obscene) language- all spread far beyond the
    realm of the true devotes of the counterculture.
    ·Rock n Roll first achieved wide popularity in the 1950s, on the
    strength of such early performers as Buddy Holly and Elvis
    Presley.
    ·Early in the 1960s, its influence began to spread, a result in large part
    of the phenomenal popularity of the Beatles, the English group
    whose first visit to the United States in 1964 created a
    remarkable sensation, “Beatlemania”.
    ·Other groups such as the Rolling Stones turned even more openly to
    themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness.
    ·Television began to turn to programming that reflected social and
    cultural conflict- as exemplified by the enormously popular All in
    the Family, whose protagonist, Archie Bunker, was a lowermiddle-
    class bigot.
    The Mobilization of Minorities
    Seeds of Indian Militancy
    ·Indians were the least prosperous, least healthy, and least stable
    group in the nation.
    ·They constituted less than one percent of the population.
    ·The Native American unemployment rate was ten times the national
    rate.
    ·Life expectancy among Indians was more than twenty years less than
    the national average.
    ·For much of the postwar era, and particularly after the resignation of
    John Collier as commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1946, federal
    policy toward the tribes had been shaped by a determination to
    incorporate Indians into mainstream American society, whether
    Indians wanted to assimilate or not.
    ·Through termination, the federal government withdrew all official
    recognition of the tribes as legal entities, administratively
    separate from state governments, and made them subject to the
    same local jurisdictions as white residents.
    ·Many Native Americans adapted to life in the cites, at least to a
    degree.
    The Indian Civil Rights Movement
    ·The National Indian Youth Council, created in the aftermath of the
    1961 Chicago meeting, promoted the idea of Indian nationalism
    and intertribal unity.
    ·In 1968, a group of young of young militant Indian Movement, which
    drew its greatest support from those Indians who lived in urban
    areas but soon established a significant presence on the rese
    rvations as well.
    ·In 1968, Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act, which
    guaranteed reservation Indians many of the protections accorded
    other citizens by the Bill of Rights, but which also recognized the
    legitimacy of tribal laws within the reservations.
    ·The Indian civil rights movement fell far short of winning full justice
    and equality for its constituents.
    Latino Activism
    ·Latinos were the fastest-growing minority group in the United States.
    ·Large numbers of Puerto Ricans had migrated to eastern cities,
    particularly New York.
    ·In 1980, a second, much poorer wave of Cuban immigrants-the so
    called Marielitos, named for the port from which they left Cubaarrived
    in Florida when Castro temporarily relaxed exit
    restrictions.
    ·Large numbers of Mexican Americans had entered the country during
    the war in response to the labor shortage, and may had
    remained in the cities of the Southwest and the Pacific Coast.
    ·After the war, when the legal agreements that had allowed Mexican
    contract workers to enter the country expired, large numbers of
    immigrants continued to move to the United States illegally.
    ·By the late 1960s, therefore, Mexican Americans were one of the
    largest population=2 0groups in the West-outnumbering African
    Americans-and had established communities in most other parts
    of the nation as well.
    ·Young Mexican-American activist began themselves “Chicanos” as a
    way of emphasizing the shared culture of Spanish-speaking use
    among Mexican Americans.
    ·Cesar Chavez, created an effective union itinerant farm workers.
    ·In 1965 his United Farmers Workers (UFW), a largely Chicano
    organization, launched a prolonged strike against growers to
    demand, first, recognition of their union and, second, increased
    wages and benefits.
    ·Supporters of bilingualism in education argued that non-Englishspeaking
    Americans were entitled to schooling in their own
    language, that otherwise they would be at a grave disadvantage
    in comparison with native English speakers.
    Challenging the "Melting Pot" Ideal
    ·The efforts of blacks, Latinos, Indians, Asians, and others to forge a
    clearer group identity challenged a longstanding premise of
    American political thought: the idea of the “melting pot”.
    ·The newly assertive ethnic groups of the 1960s and after appeared
    less willing to accept the standards of the larger society and
    more likely to demand recognition of their own ethnic identities.
    Gay Liberation
    ·The last important liberation movement to make major gains in the
    1960s, and the most surprising to many Americans, was the
    effort by homosexuals to win political and economic rights and,
    equally important, social acceptance.
    ·On June 27, 1969, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay
    nightclub in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and began
    arresting patrons simply for frequenting the place.
    ·The raid was not unusual.
    ·The “Stonewall Riot” marked the beginning of the gay liberation
    movement-one of the most controversial challenges to traditional
    values and assumptions of its time.
    ·Universities were establishing gay and lesbian studies programs.
    ·Laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual preference were
    making slow, halting progress at the local level.
    The New Feminism
    The Rebirth
    ·A few determined women kept feminist political demands alive in the
    National Woman’s Party and other organizations.
    ·The 1963 publication of Betty Friedan’s the Feminine Mystique is often
    cited as the first event of contemporary women’s liberation.
    ·In 1963 the Kennedy administration helped win passage of the Equal
    Pay Act, which barred the pervasive practice of paying women
    less than men for equal work.
    ·The conflict between the ideal and the reality was crucial to the
    rebirth of feminism.
    ·The National Organization for Women, which was to become the
    nation’s largest and most influential feminist organization.
    The new organization reflected the varying constituencies of the
    emerging feminist movement.
    Women's Liberation
    ·The new feminists were mostly younger, the vanguard of the bayboom
    generation.
    ·Many had found that even within those movements, they faced
    discrimination and exclusion or subordination to male leaders.
    ·In its most radical form, the new feminism rejected the whole notion
    of marriage.
    Expanding Achievements
    ·In 1971, the government extended its affirmative action guidelines to
    include women-linking sexism with racism as an officially
    acknowledged social problem.
    ·Nearly half of all married women held jobs by the mid-1970s, and
    almost 9/10 of all women with college degrees worked.
    ·There were also important symbolic changes, such as the refusal of
    many women to adopt their husbands’ names when they married
    and the use of the term “Ms.” in place of “Mrs.” or “Miss” to
    denote the irrelevance of a woman’s marital status.
    The Abortion Controversy
    · In least controversial form, this impulse helped produce an increasing
    awareness in the 1960s and 1970s of the problems of rape,
    sexual abuse, and wife beating.
    · There continued to be some controversy over the dissemination of
    contraceptives and birth-control inf ormation; but that issue, at
    least, seemed to have lost much of the explosive character it had
    had in the 1920s, when Margaret Sanger had become a heroine
    to some and a figure of public scorn to others for her efforts on
    its behalf.
    Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society
    The New Science of Ecology
    · Until the mid-twentieth century, most people who considered
    themselves environmentalists based their commitment on
    aesthetic or moral grounds.
    · They wanted to preserve nature because it was too beautiful to
    despoil, or because it was a mark of divinity on the world, or
    because it permitted humans a spiritual experience that would
    otherwise be unavailable to them.
    · They called it ecology.
    Funded by government agencies, by universities, by foundations, and
    eventually even by some corporations, ecological science
    gradually established itself as a significant field of its own- not,
    perhaps, with the same stature as such traditional fields as
    physics, chemistry, and biology, but certainly a field whose
    importance and appeal grew rapidly in the last decades of the
     20th century
    Environmental Advocacy
    · Academic ecologists often have close ties to environmental
    organizations committed to public action and political lobbying.
    · The professional zed environmental advocacy they provided gave the
    movement a political strength it had never enjoyed in the past.
    · Lawyers fought battles with government agencies and in the courts.
    · When Congress or state legislatures considered environmental
    legislation, more often than not the environmental organizations
    played a critical role in drafting it.
    Environmental Degradation
    · Many other forces contributed as well in the 1960s and 1970s to
    create what became the environmental movement.
    · Water pollution- which had been a problem in some areas of the
    country for many decades- was becoming so widespread that
    almost every major city was dealing with the unpleasant sight
    and odor, as well as the very real health risks, of polluted rivers
    and lakes.
    · In some large cities-Los Angeles and Denver among them-smog
    became an almost perpetual fact of life,=2 0rising steadily
    through the day, blotting out the sun, and creating respiratory
    difficulties for many citizens.
    · Environmentalist also brought to public attention some longer-term
    dangers of unchecked industrial development: the rapid
    depletion of oil and other irreplaceable fossil fuels; the
    destruction of lakes and forests as a result of “acid rain”; the
    rapid destruction of vast rain forests, in Brazil and elsewhere,
    which limited the earth’s capacity to replenish its oxygen supply.
    Earth Day and Beyond
    · On April 22, 1970, people all over the United States gathered in
    schools and universities, in churches and clubs, in parks and
    auditoria, for the first “Earth Day”.
    · The Clean Air Act, also passed in 1970, and the Clean Water Act,
    passed in 1972, added additional tools to government’s arsenal
    of weapons against environmental degradation.
    · Different administrations displayed varying levels of support for
    environmental goals, and advocacy groups remained ready to
    spring into action to force them to change their positions.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the War
    Vietnamization
    · Henry Kissinger, a Harvard professor whom the president appointed
    as his special assistance for national security affairs.
    · The new Vietnam policy moved along several fronts.
    · By 1973, the Selective Service System was on its way to least
    temporary extinction.
    · In the fall of 1969, Nixon announced reduction of American ground
    troops from Vietnam by 60,000 the first reduction in U.S. troop
    strength since the beginning of the war.
    Escalation
    ·By the end of their first year in office, Nixon and Kissinger had
    concluded that the most effective ay to tip the military balance in
    America’s favor was to destroy the bases in Cambodia from
    which the American military believed the North Vietnamese were
    launching many of their attacks.
    ·Four college students were killed and nine others injured when
    members of the National Guard opened fire on antiwar
    demonstrators at Kent State University in Ohio.
    ·The trail and conviction in 1971 of Lieutenant William Calley, who was
    charged wit h overseeing a massacre of more than 300
    unharmed South Vietnamese civilians, attracted wide public
    attention.
    "Peace with Honor"
    ·In April 1972, the president dropped his longtime insistence on a
    removal of North Vietnamese troops from the south before any
    American withdrawal.
    ·On December 17, American B-52s began the heaviest and most
    destructive air raids of the entire war on Hanoi, Haiphong, and
    other North Vietnamese targets.
    Defeat in Indochina
    ·Late in April 1975, communist forces marched into Saigon, shortly
    after officials of the Thieu regime and the staff of the American
    embassy had fled the country in humiliating disarray.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the World
    China and the Soviet Union
    ·Nixon and Kissinger wanted to forge a new relationship with the
    Chinese communists- in part to strengthen them as a
    counterbalance to the Soviet Union.
    ·In July 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to Beijing.
    ·In February 1972, Nixon paid a formal visits to China and, in a single
    stroke, erased much of the deep American animosity toward the
    Chinese communists regime, but in 1972 the United states and
    China began low-level diplomatic relations.
    ·In 1969, America and Soviet diplomats met in Helsinki, Finland, to
    begin talks on limiting nuclear weapons.
    In 1972, they produced the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT
    I), which froze the nuclear missiles (ICBMs) of both sides at present
    levels.
    The Problems of Multipolarity
    ·In 1969 and 1970, the president described what became known as the
    Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would “participate in
    the defense and development of allies and friends” but would
    leave the “basic responsibility” for the future of those “friends”
    to the nations themselves.
    ·In practice, the Nixon Doctrine meant a declining American interest in
    contributing to Third World development; a growing contempt for
    the United Nations, where less-developed nations were gaining
    influence through their sheer numbers; and increasing support to
    authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand radical challenges
    from within.
    ·In 1973, a military junta seized power from Allende, who was
    subsequently murdered.
    ·In October 1973, on the Jewish High Holy day of Yom Kippur, Egyptian
    and Syrian forces attacked Israel.
    ·The imposed settlement of the Yom Kippur War demonstrated the
    growing dependence of the United States and its allies on Arab
    oil.
    ·The United States could no longer depend on cheap, easy access to
    raw materials as it had in the past.
    Politics and Economics Under Nixon
    Domestic Initiatives
    ·He forbade the department of Health, Education, and Welfare to cut
    off the federal funds from school districts that had failed to
    comply with court orders to integrate.
    In 1973, he abolished the Office of economic Opportunity, the
    centerpiece of the antipoverty program of the Office of economic
    Opportunity, the centerpiece of the antipoverty program20of the
    Johnson years.
    From the Warren Court to the Nixon Court
    ·In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the court had ruled that prayers in public
    schools were unconstitutional, sparking outrage among religious
    fundamentalists and others.
    The Election of 1972
    ·Nixon was most fortunate in 1972, however, in his opposition.
    ·The possibility of such a campaign vanished in May, when a would-be
    assassin shot the Alabama governor during a rally at a Maryland
    shopping center.
    The Troubled Economy
    ·The American dollar had been the strongest currency in the world, and
    the American standard of living had risen steadily from its
    already substantial heights.
    ·Its most visible cause was significant increase in federal deficit
    spending in the 1960s, when the Johnson administration tried to
    fund the war in Vietnam and its ambitious social prog rams
    without raising taxes.
    ·Domestic petroleum reserves were no longer sufficient to meet this
    demand, and the nation was heavily dependent on imports from
    the Middle East and Africa.
    ·The U.S manufacturing now faced major completion from aboard-not
    only in world trade but also at home.
    The Nixon Response
    ·The government moved first to reduce spending and raises taxes.
    ·The United States was encountering a new and puzzling dilemma:
    “stagflation”, a combination of rising prices and general
    economic stagnation.
    In 1973, prices rose 9 percent; in 1974, after the Arab oil embargo and
    the OPEC price increases, they rose 12 percent-the highest rate since
    the relaxation of price controls shortly after World War II.
    The Watergate Crisis
    The Scandals
    ·Early on the morning of June 17, 1972 police arrested five men who
    had broken into the offices of the Democratic National
    Committee in the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C.
    Two others were seized a short time porters for the Washington Post
    began researching the backgrounds of the culprits, they discovered
    that among those involved in the burglary were former employees of
    the Committee for the Re-Election of the President.
    The Fall of Richard Nixon
    ·In April 1974, the president released some transcripts of relevent
    conversations, claiming that they proved his innocence, but
    investigators believed them to be edited for a cover-up.
    ·The Supreme Court ruled unanimously, in the United States v. Richard
    M. Nixon, that the president must relinquish the tapes to Special
    Prosecutor Jaworski.
    ·The House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend three articles of
    impeachment:
    1. Charging that Nixon had obstructed justice in the
    Watergate cover-up.
    2. Misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens.
    3. Defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliever
    tapes and other materials suboenaed by the committee.
    ·On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation, the first
    president in American history to ever do so.
    ·Gerald Ford became president.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - From "The Age of Limits" to The Age of Reagan

    Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate
    The Ford Custodianship
    ·Gerald Ford had to try to rebuild confidence in government in the face of the widespread
    cynicism the Watergate scandals had produced.
    ·He had to try to restore prosperity in the face of major domestic and international
    challenges to the American economy.
    ·Ford explained that he was attempting to spare the nation the ordeal of years of litigation
    and to spare Nixon himself any further suffering.
    ·The Ford administration enjoyed less success in its effort to solve the problems of the
    American economy.
    ·In the aftermath of the Arab oil embargo of 1973, the OPEC cartel began to raise thr
    price of oil-by 400 percent in 1974 alone.
    ·Ford retained Henry Kissinger as secretary of state and continued the general policies of
    the Nixon years.
    ·Late in 1974, Ford met with Leonid Brezhnev at Vladivostok in Siberia and signed an
    arms control accord that was to serve as the basis for SALT II, thus achieving a
    goal the Nixon administration had long sought.
    In the republican primary campaign Ford faced a powerful challenge from former
    California governor Ronald Reagan, leader of the party’s conservative wing, who
    spoke for many on the right who were unhappy with any conciliation of
    communists.
    The Trials of Jimmy Carter
    ·Jimmy Carter assumed the presidency at a moment when the nation faced problems of
    staggering complexity and difficulty.
    ·He left office in 1981 one of the least popular presidents of the country.
    ·He surrounded himself in the White House with group of close-knit associates from
    Georgia; and in the beginning, at least, he seemed deliberately to spurn assistance
    from more experienced political figures.
    ·He moved first to reduce unemployment by raising public spending and cutting federal
    taxes.
    He appointed G. William Miller and then Paul Volcker, both conservative economists, to
    head the Federal Reserve Board, thus ensuring a policy of high interest rates and
    reduced currency supplies.
    Human Rights and National Interests
    ·Among Jimmy Carter’s most frequent campaign promises was a pledge to build a new
    basis for American foreign policy, one in which the defense of “human rights”
    would replace the pursuit of “selfish interest.
    ·Domestic opposition to the treaties was intense, especially among conservatives who
    viewed the new arrangements as part of a general American retreat from
    international power.
    ·Middle East negotiations had seemed hopelessly stalled when a dramatic breakthrough
    occurred in Nove mber 1977.
    ·In Tel Aviv, he announced that Egypt was now willing to accept the state of Israel as a
    legitimate political entity.
    ·On September 17, Carter escorted the two leaders into the White House to announce
    agreement on a “framework” for an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty.
    ·On December 15, 1978, Washington and Beijing announced the resumption of formal
    diplomatic relations between the two nations.
    ·The treaty set limits on the number of long-range missiles, bombers, and nuclear
    warheads on each side.
    By the fall of 1979, with the Senate scheduled to begin debate over the treaty shortly,
    ratification was already in jeopardy.
    The Year of the Hostages
    ·By 1979, the Shah of Iran, hoping to make his nation a bulwark against Soviet
    expansion in the Middle East.
    ·In January 1979, the Shah fled the country.
    ·By late 1979, revolutionary chaos in Iran was making any normal relations impossible.
    ·In late October 1979, the deposed Shah arrived in New York to be treated for cancer.
    Days later, on November 4, an armed mob invaded the American embassy in
    Teheran, seized the diplomats and military personnel inside, and demanded the
    return of the Shah to Iran in exchange for their freedom.
    ·53 Americans remained hostages in the embassy for over a year.
    ·Only weeks after the hostage seizure, on December 27, 1979, Soviet troops invaded
    Afghanistan, the mountaino us Islamic nation lying between the USSR and Iran.
    ·The combination of domestic economic troubles and international crises created
    widespread anxiety, frustration, and anger in the United States-damaging
    President Carter already low stranding with the public, and giving added strength
    to an alternative political force that had already made great strides.
    The Rise of the New American Right
    The Sunbelt and Its Politics
    ·The most widely discusses demographic phenomenon of the 1970s was the rise of what
    became known as the “Sunbelt”- a term coined by the political analyst Kevin
    Phillips to describe a collection of regions that emerged together in the postwar
    era to become the most dynamically growing parts of the country.
    ·By 1980, the population of the Sunbelt had risen to exceed that of the older industrial
    regions of the North and the East.
    ·White southerners equated the federal government’s effort to change racial norms in the
    region with what they believed was tyranny of Reconstruction.
    ·In the 1970s and early 1980s, the boom mentality of some of these rapidly growing
    areas conflicted sharply with the concerns of the older industrial states of the
    Northeast and Midwest.
    ·The so-called Sagebrush Rebellion, which emerged in parts of the West in the late
    1970s, mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restrictions
    on development.
    Suburbanization also fueled the rise of the right.
    Religious Revivalism
    ·In the 1960s, may critics had predicted the virtual extinction of religious influence in
    American life.
    ·By early 1980s, it was no longer possible to ignore them.
    ·More than 70 million Americans now described themselves as “born-again” Christiansmen
    and women who had established a “direct personal relationship with Jesus”.
    ·For Jimmy Carter and for some others, evangelical Christianity had formed the basis for
    a commitment to racial and economic justice and to world peace.
    The Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, and other organizations of similar
    inclination opposed federal interference in local affairs; denounced abortion,
    divorce, enterprise; and supported a strong American posture in the world.
    The Emergnece of the New Right
    ·Evangelical Christians were an important part, but only a part, of what became known
    as the new right- a diverse but powerful movement that enjoyed rapid growth in
    the 1970s and early 1980s.
    ·Conservative campaigns had for many years been less well funded and organized than
    those of their rivals.
    ·By the late 1970s, there were right-wing think tanks, consulting forms, lobbyists,
    foundations, and scholarly centers.
    ·In the early 1950s Roosevelt became a corporate spokesman for General Electric and
    won a wide following on the right with his smooth, eloquent speeches in defense
    of individual freedom and private enterprise.
    In 1966, with the support of a group of a group of wealthy conservatives, he won the first
    of two terms as governor of California-which gave him a much more visible
    platform for promoting himself and his ideas. [Ronald Reagan]
    The Tax Revolt
    ·At least equally important to the success of the new right was a new and potent
    conservative issue: the tax revolt.
    ·The biggest and most expensive programs-Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and
    others-had the broadest support.
    In Proposition 13 and similar initiatives, members of the right found a better way to
    discredit government than by attacking specific programs: attacking taxes.
    The Campaign of 1980
    ·Jimmy Carter's standing in popularity polls were lower than that of any
    president.
    ·On election day 1980, Reagan(R) won 51% of the vote to 41% for
    Jimmy Carter(D) and 7% for John Anderson(I)
    1. Electoral botes: Reagan 489, Carter 49.
    ·The Republican Party won control of the Senate for the first time since
    1952.
    The "Reagan Revolution"
    The Reagan Coalition
    ·Reagan owed his election to widespread disillusionment with Carter and to the crises
    and disappointments that many voters, perhaps unfairly, associated with him.
    ·The Reagan coalition included a relatively small but highly influential group of wealthy
    Americans associated with the corporate and financial world-the kind of people
    who had dominated American politics and government through much of the
    nations history until the New Deal began to challenge their preeminence.
    ·A second element of the Reagan coalition was even smaller, but also disproportionately
    influential: a group of intellectuals commonly known as “neo-conservatives,” who
    gave to the right something it had not had in may years-a firm base among
    “opinion leaders”, people with access to the most influential public forums for
    ideas.
    Neo-conservatives were sympathetic to the complaints and demands of capitalists, but
    their principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western
    democratic, anticommunists values and commitments.
    Reagan in the White House
    ·Reagan was the master of television, a gifted public speaker, and -in public at leastrugged,
    fearless, and seemingly impervious to danger or misfortune.
    ·He spent his many vacations on a California ranch, where he chopped wood and rode
    horses.
    At times, the president revealed a startling ignorance about the nature of his own policies
    or the actions of his subordinates.
    "Supply-Side" Economics
    ·Reagan’s 1980 campaign for the presidency had promised, among other things, to
    restore the economy to health by a bold experiment that became known as
    “supply-side” economics or, to some, “Reaganomics”.
    ·In its first months in office, accordingly , the new administration hastily assembled a
    legislative program based on the supply-side idea.
    ·The recession convinced many people, including some conservatives, that the Reagan
    economic program failed.
    ·The gross national product had grown 3.6 percent in a year, the largest increase since the
    -1970s.
    ·The economy continued to grow, a nd both inflation and unemployment remained low
    through most of the decade.
    A worldwide “energy glut” and the virtual collapse of the OPEC cartel had produced at
    least a temporary end to the inflationary pressures of spiraling fuel costs.
    The Fiscal Crisis
    ·By the mid-1980s, this growing fiscal crisis had become one of the central issues in
    American politics.
    ·Throughout the 1980s, the annual budget deficit consistently exceeded $100 billion.
    ·The 1981 tax cuts, the largest in American history, contributed to the deficit.
    ·There were reductions in funding for food stamps; a major cut in federal subsidies for
    low-income housing; strict new limitations on Medicare and Medicaid payments;
    reductions in student loans, school lunches, and other educational programs; and
    an end to many forms of federal assistance to the states and cities-which helped
    precipitate years of local fiscal crises as well.
    By the late 1980s, may fiscal conservatives were calling for a constitutional amendment
    mandating a balanced budget-a provision the president himself claimed to
    support.
    Reagan and the World
    ·Determined to restore American pride and prestige in the world, he argued that the
    United States should once again become active and assertive in opposing
    communism and in supporting friendly governments whatever their internal
    policies.
    ·The president spoke harshly of Soviet regime accusing it of sponsori ng world terrorism
    and declaring that any armaments negotiations must be linked to negotiations on
    Soviet behavior in other areas.
    ·Although the president had long denounced the SALT II arms control treaty as
    unfavorable to the United States, he continued to honor it provisions.
    ·The Soviet Union claimed that the new program would elevate the arms race to new and
    more dangerous levels and insisted that any arms control agreement begin with an
    American abandonment of SDI.
    ·The New Policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine, and it meant, above all, a new
    American activism came in Latin America.
    The Reagan administration spoke bravely about its resolve to punish terrorism; and at one
    point in 1986, the president ordered American planes to bomb site in Tripoli, the
    capital of Libya, whose controversial leader was widely believed to be a leading
    sponsor of terrorism.
    The Election of 1984
    ·Reagan was victorious in the election winning 59% of the vote,
    carrying every state but Mondale's native Minnesota and the
    District of Columbia.
    ·The election of 1984 was the first campaign of the Cold War.
    America and the Waning of the Cold War
    The Fall of the Soviet Union
    ·The first he called glasnost (openness): the dismantling many of the repressive
    mechanisms that had been conspicuous features of Soviet life for over half a
    century.
    ·The Communists Parties of Eastern Europe collapsed or redefined themselves into more
    conventional left-leaning social democratic parties.
    Among other things, it legalized the chief black party in the nation, the African National
    Congress, which had been banned for dec ades; and on February 11, 1990, it
    released from prison the leader of the ANC, and a revered hero too black south
    Africans, Nelson Mandela, who had been in jail for 27 years.
    Reagan and Gorbachev
    ·At a summit meeting with Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland, in 1986, Gorbachev proposed
    reducing the nuclear arsenals of both sides by 50 percent or more, although
    continuing disputes over Reagan’s commitment to the SDI program prevented
    agreements.
    The Fading of the Reagan Revolution
    ·There were revelations of illegality, corruption, and ethical lapses in the Environmental
    Protection Agency, the CIA, the Department of Defense, the Department of Labor,
    the Department of Justice, and the Department of Housing and Urban
    Development.
    The most politically damaging scandal of the Reagan years came to light in November
    1986, when the White House conceded that it had sold weapons to the
    revolutionary government of Iran as part of a largely unsuccessful effort to secure
    the release of several Americans being held hostage by radical Islamic groups in
    the Middle East.
    The Election of 1988
    ·The Bush campaign was almost the most negative of the 20th
    century, with Bush attacking Dukakis by tying him to all the
    unpopular social and cultural stances Americans had come to
    identify with "liberals."
    ·It was also one of the most effective, although the listless, indecisive
    character of the Dukakis effort contributed to the Republican
    cause as well.
    ·Bush won the election with 54% of the popular vote to Dukakis' 46%,
    and 426 electoral votes to Dukakis' 112.
    The Bush Presidency
    ·The Bush presidency was notable for the dramatic developments in international affairs
    with which it coincided and at times helped to advance, and for the absence of
    important initiatives or ideas on domestic issues.
    ·The broad popularity Bush enjoyed during his first three years in office was partly a res
    ult of his subdued, unthreading public image.
    ·On domestic issues, the Bush administration was less successful-partly because the
    president himself seemed to have little interest in promoting a domestic agenda
    and partly because he faced serious obstacles.
    In 1990, the president bowed to congressional pressure and agreed to a significant tax
    increase as part of a multiyear “budget package” designed to reduce the deficit.
    The Gulf War
    ·The events of 1989-1991 ad left the United States in the unanticipated position of being
    the only real superpower in the world.
    ·The United States would reduce its military strength dramatically and concentrate its
    energies and resources on pressing domestic problems.
    ·America would continue to use its power actively, not to fight communism but to defend
    its regional and economic interests.
    ·In 1989, that led the administration to order an invasion of Panama.
    ·On August 2, 1990, the armed forces of Iraq invaded and quickly overwhelmed their
    small, oil-rich neighbor, the emirate of Kuwait.
    On February 28 Iraq announced its acceptance of allied terms for a cease-fire, and the
    brief Persian Gulf War came to an end.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - The Age of Globalization

    A Resurgence of Partisanship
    Launching the Clinton Presidency
    ·The new administration compounded its problems with a series of missteps and
    misfortunes in its first months.
    ·A long time friend of the president, Vince Foster, serving in the office of the White
    House counsel, committed suicide in the summer of 1993.
    ·Despite its many problems the Clinton administration could boast of some significant
    achievements in its first year.
    ·Clinton was a committed advocate of free trade and a proponent of many aspects of
    what came to be known as globalism.
    ·He won approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which
    eliminated most trade barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
    ·Early in 1993, he appointed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, which proposed a
    sweeping reform designed to guarantee coverage to every American and hold
    down the costs of medical care.
    ·The foreign policy of the Clinton administration was at first cautious and even tentativea
    reflection, perhaps, of the president’s relative inexperience in international
    affairs, but also of the rapidly changing character of international politics.
    The United States was among the nations to send peaceke eping troops to Bosnia to
    police the fragile settlement, which-despite many pessimistic predictions-was still
    largely in place 7 years later, although terrible new conflicts soon emerged in
    other areas of the Balkans.
    The Republican Resurgence
    ·For the first time in 40 years, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress.
    ·Newt Gingrich of Georgia, released a set of campaign promises signed by almost all
    Republican candidates for he House and called it the “Contract with America”.
    ·It called for tax reductions, dramatic changes in federal spending to produce a balanced
    budget, and a host of other promises consistent with the long-time goals of the
    Republican Party’s conservative wing.
    ·The Republican Congress proposed a series of measures to transfer important powers
    from the federal government to the states.
    Medicare program to reduce costs.
    ·In November 1995 and again in January 1996, the federal government literally shut
    down for several days because the president and Congress could not agree on a
    budget.
    The Election of 1996
    ·The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while Europe was embroiled
    in World War I.
    · Public sentiment in the still neutral United States leaned towards the British and French
    (allied) forces, due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army, which
    had invaded and occupied large parts of Belgium and northern France.
    · Despite their sympathy with the allied forces most American voters wanted to avoid
    involvement in the war, and preferred to continue a policy of neutrality.
    Clinton Triumpant and Embattled
    ·He proposed a relatively modest domestic agenda, consisting primarily of tax cuts and
    tax credits targeted at middle-class Americans and designed to help them educate
    their children.
    ·In early 1998, inquiries associated with the Paula Jones case led to charges that the
    president had had a sexua l relationship with a young White House intern, Monica
    Lewinsky; that he had lied about it in his deposition before Jones’s attorneys; and
    that he had encouraged her to do the same.
    ·Clinton admitted that he had an “improper relationship” with Monica.
    The president seemed to have escaped his difficulties as a result of strong popular
    support.
    Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence
    ·House leaders resisted all calls for dismissal of the charges or compromise.
    ·First the House Judiciary Committee and then, on December 19, 1998, the full House,
    both voting on strictly partisan lines, approved 2 counts of impeachment: lying to
    the grand jury and obstructing justice.
    ·Expanding role of scandal in American politics driven by an increasingly sensationalist
    media culture, the legal device of independent counsels, and the intensely
    adversarial quality of partisan politics.
    ·Numerous reports of Serbian atrocities against the Kosovans, and an enormous refugee
    crisis spurred by Yugoslavian military action in the province, slowly roused world
    opinion.
    The Two-Tiered Economy
    ·The increasing attendance created enormous new wealth that enriched those talented, or
    luck, enough to profit from the areas of booming growth.
    ·Between 1980 and the mid-1990s, the average family incomes of he wealthiest 20
    percent of the population grew by nearly 20 percent.
    ·Poverty in America had declined steadily and at times dramatically in the years after
    World War II, so that by the end of the 1970s the percentage of people living in
    poverty had fallen 12 percent.
    Globalization
    ·The most important economic change, and certainly the one whose impact was the most
    difficult to gauge, was what became known as the “globalization” of the economy.
    ·As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in the American
    economy as a whole, which thrived on the basis of the huge domestic market in
    North America.
    ·Imports rose.
    ·The North American Free Trade Agreement and the General Agreement on Trade and
    Tariffs, were the boldest of a long series of treaties designed to lower trade
    barriers stretching back to the 1960s.
    Science and Technology in the New Economy
    The Personal Computer
    ·The most visible element of the technological revolution to most Americans was the
    dramatic growth in the use of computers in almost every area of life.
    ·The development of the microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel, which
    represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry.
    ·Apple launched its Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely
    available to the public.
    ·3 years later, Apple introduced its Macintosh computer technology, among other things.
    ·Computerized word processing replaced typewriters and spreadsheets revolutionized
    bookkeeping.
    ·The computer revolution created thousands of new, lucrative businesses: computer
    manufacturers themselves (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Sun, Digital,
    and many others).
    The Internet
    ·The Internet is, a vast, geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people
    connected to the network to communicate with others all over the world.
    ·In 1989, a laboratory in Geneva introduced the World Wide Web, through which
    individual users could publish information for the Internet, which helped establish
    an orderly system for both the distribution and retrieval of electronic information.
    ·Newspapers, magazines, and other publications have begun to publish on the Internet.
    Breakthroughs in Genetics
    ·The Human Genome Project set out to identify all of the more than 100,000 genes by
    2005.
    Anti-Abortion advocates20denounced the research, claiming that it exploited unborn
    children.
    A Changing Society
    The Graying of America
    ·The declining birth rate and a significant rise in life expectancy produced a substantial
    increase in proportion of elderly citizens.
    ·Increasing costliness of Social Security pensions.
    New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity
    ·The nation’s immigration quotas expanded significantly in those years, allowing more
    newcomers to enter the United States legally than at any point since the beginning
    of the 20h century.
    ·In 1965, 90 percent of the immigrants to the united States came from Europe.
    ·Mexico alone accounted for over one-fourth of all the immigrants living in the United
    States in 2000.
    ·In the 1980s and 1990s, Asian immigrants arrived in even greater numbers than Latinos,
    constituting more than 40 percent of the total of legal newcomers.
    ·Many of the new Asian immigrants were refugees, including Vietnamese driven from
    their homes in the aftermath of the diatoms war in which the United States had so
    long been involved.
    The Black Middle Class
    ·There were increased opportunities for advancement available to those in a position to
    take advantage of them.
    ·As the industrial economy declined and government services dwindled, there was a
    growing sense of helplessness and despair among the large groups of nonwhites
    who continued to find themselves barred from=2 0upward mobility.
    ·The percentage of black high-school graduates going on to college was virtually the
    same as that of white high0school graduates by the end of the 20th century.
    ·There were few areas of American life from which blacks were any longer entirely
    excluded.
    Poor and Working-Class African Americans
    ·The “underclass” made up as much as a third of the nation’s black population.
    ·The black family structure suffered as well from the dislocations of urban poverty.
    ·There was an increase in the number of single-parent, female-headed black households.
    ·A bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police officers beating a helpless black
    man, Rodney King.
    ·Black residents of South Central Los Angeles erupted in anger.
    Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS
    ·The new immigrants arrived in cities with a dramatic increase in drug use, which
    penetrated nearly every community in the nation.
    ·AIDS is the product of the HIV virus, which is transmitted by the exchange of bodily
    fluids (blood or semen).
    ·The first American victims of AIDS, group among whom cases remained the most
    numerous were homosexual men.
    ·In 2000, U.S. government agencies estimated that about 780,000 Americans were
    infected with the HIV virus and that another 427,000 had already died from the
    disease.
    The Decline in Crime
    ·There was a dramatic reduction in crime=2 0rates across most of the United States.
    ·New incarceration policies-longer, tougher sentences and fewer paroles and early
    releases for violent criminals-led to a radical. Increase in the prison population
    and a reduction in the number of criminals at liberty to commit crimes.
    A Contested Culture
    ·Battles over Feminism and Abortion
    ·Leaders of the New Right had campaigned successfully against the proposed Equal
    Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
    ·The played a central role over the controversy over abortion rights.
    ·The opposition of some other anti-abortion activists had less to do with religion than
    with their commitment to traditional notions of family and gender relations.
    ·The Reagan and Bush administrations imposed further restrictions on federal funding
    and even on the right of doctors in federally funded clinics to give patients any
    information on abortion.
    The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism
    ·The environmental movement continued to expand in the last decades of the 20th
    century.
    ·They blocked the construction of roads, airports, and other projects that they claimed
    would be ecologically dangerous, taking advantage of new legislations protecting
    endangered species and environmentally fragile regions.
    The Fragmentation of Mass Culture
    ·The institutions of the media, news, entertainment grew more powerful.
    ·Fast food chains became the most widely known restaurants in America.=0 A
    ·Viewers could now rent or buy videotapes.
    The Perils of Globalization
    Opposing the "New World Order"
    ·Environmentalists argued that globalization, in exporting industry to low-wage
    countries, also exported industrial pollution and toxic waste into nations that had
    no effective laws to control them.
    ·In November 1999, when the leaders of the 7 nations gathered for their meeting many of
    them clashed with police.
    Defending Orthodoxy
    ·The Iranian Revolution of 1979, in which orthodox Muslims ousted a despotic
    government whose leaders had embraced many aspects of modern western
    culture, was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that
    would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten the stability
    of the globe.
    The Rise of Terrorism
    ·The U.S has experienced terrorism for many years.
    ·Due to the events on September 11, 2001, new security measures began to change the
    way Americans traveled.
    ·A puzzling and frightening epidemic of anthrax began in the weeks after 9/11.
    ·The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, government intelligence
    indicated, had been planned and orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of a
    powerful terrorist network known as Al Qaeda led by Osama Bin Laden.
    ·In his State of the Union address to Congress in January 2002, Bush spoke of an “axis of
    evil”.
    The New Era
    ·In the immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001, may Americans came to believe that
    they had entered a new era in their history.
    The reaction to the catastrophe exposed a side of American life and culture that had
    always existed but that had not always been visible.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American History: A Survey, 11th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the American History: A Survey, 11th Edition notes. These American History: A Survey notes will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1080 pages
    • Publisher: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages; 11th edition (August 6, 2002)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0072424362
    • ISBN-13: 978-0072424362

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - Transplantations and Borderlands

    1)The Early Chesapeake

    a)The Founding of Jamestown

    i)Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed, Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607

    ii)Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indians

    b)Reorganization

    i)London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to planters

    ii)Winter of 1609-1610= starving time

    iii)First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline w/ work gangs

    iv)Communal system didn’t work well, Governor Dale thought better off with personal incentive to work and private ownership

    c)Tobacco

    i)1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansion

    d)Expansion

    i)Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlers

    ii)Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of others

    iii)Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)

    iv)1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundant

    v)Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644

    vi)By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crown

    e)Exchanges of Agricultural Tech

    i)Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soil

    f)Maryland and the Calverts

    i)Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture + retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius (second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new land

    ii)1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Maryland

    iii)Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), “Act Concerning Religion” granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655

    iv)Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright system

    g)Turbulent Virginia

    i)Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indians

    ii)Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwell’s victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony

    (1)Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westward

    iii)At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led to recent settlers in “back country” to be underrepresented

    h)Bacon’s Rebellion

    i)Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in west

    ii)Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govt

    iii)Bacon’s army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenly

    iv)Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with natives, also potential for instability in colony’s large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentry—common interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing

    2)The Growth of New England

    a)Plymouth Plantation

    i)1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch society

    ii)Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would “not molest them”. William Bradford was their leader and historian

    iii)Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 “saints” (members of church) and 67 “strangers”, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Cod

    iv)Land outside of London Company’s territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to king

    v)Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur trade

    vi)William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debt

    b)The Massachusetts Bay Experiment

    i)Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.

    ii)Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. 

    iii)Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didn’t separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, “congregation church”

    iv)Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, “city upon a hill” (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a “theocracy”

    v)Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quickly

    c)Expansion of New England

    i)As more ppl arrived many didn’t accept all religious tenets of colony’s leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religious

    ii)Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold off

    iii)Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)

    iv)Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, “liberty in religious concernments”

    v)Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt

    (1)Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, 

    vi)Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)

    d)Settlers and Natives

    i)Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly extinguished by epidemics

    ii)Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops + technique, trade with Indians created fortune

    iii)Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as “heathens” and “savages’

    e)The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and Technology of Battle

    i)First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped out

    ii)Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law

    (1)for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back

    (2)1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerless

    iii)Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutch

    iv)Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower

    3)The Restoration Colonies

    a)The English Civil War

    i)Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeated

    ii)After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary ventures

    b)The Carolinas

    i)Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failed

    ii)Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order

    (1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal crop

    iii)SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation society

    iv)Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolina

    c)New Netherland, New York, and New Jersey

    i)1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New York

    ii)Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch “patrons” (large landowners”, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois ties

    iii)Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valley

    iv)Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crown

    d)The Quaker Colonies

    i)Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fell

    ii)Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylum

    iii)Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authority

    iv)Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a “holy experiment”

    (1)Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land

    (2)PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive.  1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, “lower counties” allowed own rep assembly—result was later Delaware

    4)Borderland and Middle Grounds

    a)The Caribbean Islands

    i)Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly deserted

    ii)Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch

    iii)Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers

    (1)Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumbered

    b)Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean

    i)Small white, successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt, 1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves

    (1)Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves than to protect well-being, worked them to death

    ii)Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community

    (1)Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditions

    iii)Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoples

    c)The Southwestern Borderlands

    i)In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiers

    ii)New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areas

    iii)Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborers

    iv)Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. 

    (1)Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 

    (2)North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success though

    v)Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing them

    d)The Southeast Borderlands

    i)Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas. Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span French

    ii)By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarried

    iii)Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundary

    e)The Founding of Georgia

    i)Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe, interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anew

    ii)Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Anne’s War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713

    iii)Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colony

    iv)1732 King George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholics—all to prevent revolt/conflict

    v)1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colony

    vi)Strict rules stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trustees

    vii)1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assembly

    f)Middle Grounds

    i)Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populations

    ii)In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precarious

    iii)In western borders neither side dominant, in “middle grounds” frequent conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribes

    iv)To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer gifts

    v)17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur traders

    vi)By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw force

    vii)As British and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by 19th century “middle grounds” collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption

    5)The Evolution of the British Empire

    a)The Drive for Reorganization

    i)Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excluded

    ii)Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English markets

    iii)@ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwell’’s Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies,  Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts

    (1)First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third 1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Acts

    iv)Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English needed

    b)The Dominion of New England

    i)1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colony

    ii)James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688  NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims “rights of Englishmen”, strengthened Anglican church

    c)The “Glorious Revolution”

    i)James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688 daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coup

    ii)Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + office

    iii)Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn “Leislerians” and “anti-Laslerians” dominated NY poitics for years

    iv)Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balt’s officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715  5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Church

    v)Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Society and Culture in Provincial America

    1)The Colonial Population

    a)Indentured Servitude

    i)Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at end—in reality left with nothing at all

    (1)Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselves

    ii)Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrest

    iii)1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rate

    b)Birth and Death

    i)Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number  early deaths. But growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growth

    ii)N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigration

    iii)By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growth

    c)Medicine in the Colonies

    i)17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbs

    ii)Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselves

    d)Women and families in the Chesapeake

    i)B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratio

    ii)High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whites

    e)Women and Families in New England

    i)Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young, children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearing

    ii)Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of society

    f)The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

    i)Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies- Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch

    (1)Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)

    ii)Mid 1690s Royal African Company’s monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stopped

    iii)Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force

    (1)Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of masters

    g)Changing Sources of European Immigration

    i)BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased

    (1)French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there

    2)The Colonial Economies

    a)The Southern Economy

    i)Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthy

    ii)South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white

    (1)Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in England

    iii)B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communities

    b)Northern Economic and Technological Life

    i)Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheat

    ii)Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing England

    iii)Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy supplies

    iv)Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to trade

    c)The Extent and Limits of Technology

    i)Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolation

    ii)Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce them

    d)The Rise of Colonial Commerce

    i)At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroad

    ii)Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficult

    iii)Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies, expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. 

    iv)“Triangular trade”, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goods

    v)New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goods

    vi)During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expanded

    e)The Rise of Consumerism

    i)Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goods

    ii)Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealth

    iii)Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertising

    iv)Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educated

    v)Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display

    3)Patterns of Society

    a)The Plantation

    i)Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 ppl

    ii)Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldn’t control markets, when prices fell faced ruin

    iii)Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of town

    iv)Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majority

    b)Plantation Slavery

    i)By mid-18th cent ¾ blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, ½ lived w/ 50+

    ii)In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African lore

    iii)Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run away

    iv)Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedom

    c)The Puritan Community

    i)Social unit of NE was town, “covenant” of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a “common”, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govt

    ii)English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritance

    iii)Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new town

    iv)Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.

    d)The Witchcraft Phenomenon

    i)Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690s

    ii)Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for “independent women”

    iii)Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstream

    e)Cities

    i)Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)

    ii)Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.

    iii)Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas

    4)Awakenings and Enlightenments

    a)The Pattern of Religions

    i)Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Rome

    ii)Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despair

    b)The Great Awakening

    i)Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with God

    ii)Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edward

    c)The Enlightenment

    i)Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledge

    ii)Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didn’t challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianity

    d)Education

    i)Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647 law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, women’s rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to education

    ii)Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans)  created to train ministers, William and  Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutions

    e)The Spread of Science

    i)Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. 

    ii)Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation, spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common procedure

    f)Concepts of Law and Politics

    i)Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurate

    ii)Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limited

    iii) Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Empire in Transition

    1)Loosening Ties

    a)A Tradition of Neglect

    i)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits

    ii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism

    iii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power

    b)The Colonies Divided

    i)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service

    ii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies

    2)The Struggle for the Continent

    a)New France and the Iroquois Nation

    i)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior

    ii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy 

    iii)“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships

    iv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground

    b)Anglo-French Conflicts

    i)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French

    ii)King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English

    iii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748

    iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated

    v)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender

    c)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War

    i)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. 

    (1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English

    ii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction

    iii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760

    iv)Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R

    v)War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions

    vi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs

    vii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble

    3)The New Imperialism

    a)Burdens of Empire

    i)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable

    ii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies

    iii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way

    iv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure

    (1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire

    b)The British and the Tribes

    i)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line

    (1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists

    ii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs

    iii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well

    c)The Colonial Response

    i)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing

    ii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners

    iii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies

    iv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents 

    v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers

    vi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor

    vii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems

    viii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance

    (1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed

    4)Stirrings of Revolt

    a)The Stamp Act Crisis

    i)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval

    ii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps

    iii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.

    iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological

    v)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)

    b)The Townshend Program

    i)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power

    ii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused

    iii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax

    iv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent

    v)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA

    vi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement

    vii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on tea

    c)The Boston Massacre

    i)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market

    ii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl

    iii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd

    iv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s

    d)The Philosophy of Revolt

    i)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments

    ii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked

    iii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers

    iv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community

    v)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority

    e)The Tea Excitement

    i)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas

    ii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants

    iii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed

    iv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty

    v)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”

    vi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses

    vii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion

    viii)Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance

    5)Cooperation and War

    a)New Sources of Authority

    i)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts

    ii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress

    iii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions

    (1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority

    (2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation

    (3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston

    (4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements

    (5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization

    iv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired

    b)Lexington and Concord

    i)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training “minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775

    ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army

    iii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The American Revolution

    1)The States United

    a)Defining American War Aims

    i)2nd  Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle ground

    ii)“Olive Branch Petition” conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”

    iii)Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted “Prohibitory Act” w/ naval blockade

    iv)January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruption

    b)The Decision for Independence

    i)After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish independent govt’s from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independence

    ii)Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament 

    iii)Dec. inspired French Revolution’s Dec. of the rights of Men, claimed sovereign “United States of America”, led to increased foreign aid

    c)Responses to Independence

    i)At news of Dec many rejoiced others disapproved b/c still had great loyalty to king, called themselves Loyalists but independents called them Tories

    ii)States drafted constitutions to replace loyal govts by 1781, states considered centers of authority but war required central direction

    iii)1777 Articles of Confederation passed to confirm weak, decentralized system in place. Continental Congress was main coordinator of war effort

    d)Mobilizing for War

    i)Nation needed to raise, organize, equip, and pay for army. W/o British markets shortages of materials, gunsmiths couldn’t meet demand for funs and ammunition. Most supplies captured from Brits or supplied by Eur nations

    ii)Financing problematic, Congress had no power to tax ppl + had to ask states for funds. Eventually issued paper money, led to inflation, value of money plummeted. Most farmers + merchants preferred business w/ British who could pay for goods in gold and silver. Govt forced to borrowed $ from other nations

    iii)After patriotic surge 1775 few American army volunteers. States used persuasion, force, drafts. To correct problem of states controlling army units 1775 created Continental army w/ single commander, George Washington. In new nation unsure of structure and govt, he provided the army and the ppl a symbol of stability around which they could rally, held nation together

    2)The War for Independence

    a)The First Phase: New England

    i)After Concord and Lexington American forces besieged army of General Thomas Gage in Boston, Battle of Bunker Hill fought June 1775. Heaviest British casualties of entire war occurred

    ii)By 1776 Brits concluded Boston not best place to wage war from b/c of geography and fervor. March 1776 withdrew to Halifax, Nova Scotia

    iii)In south Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists February 1776 at Moore’s Creek Bridge, NC. In north Americans invaded Canada, Patriot General Benedict Arnold + Richard Montgomery threatened Quebec in order to remove British threat and recruit Canadians. Siege failed, Canada not to become part of US

    iv)British evacuation not so much victory as changing English assumptions about war. Clear conflict not local phenomenon around Boston but larger war

    b)The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region

    i)During summer 1776 British army of 32,000 landed in New York City under William Howe. Americans rejected Howe’s offer or royal pardon, Washington’s 19,000 man army pushed backed from LI, thru NJ, to PA

    ii)Eur warfare was seasonal activity, British settled for winter in NJ leaving outpost of Hessians at Trenton. Christmas 1776 Washington attacked across Deleware

    iii)British 1777 sought to capture Philadelphia to discourage Patriots, rally Loyalists, end war quickly. Captured city September, Washington defeated at Germanton in October, went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. CC, dislodged from capital, met in York, PA

    iv)British John Burgoyne led British campaign in north, at first successful- captured supplies of Fort Ticonderoga. Defeats led Congress to remove General Philip Schuyler and replace with Horatio Gates. But series of Patriot victories followed, Burgoyne forced to withdraw to Saratoga where Gates surrounded him and forced surrender of 5,000 man army

    v)Campaign Patriot success, led to alliance btwn US and France

    vi)British failure due to William Howe abandoning northern campaign and letting Burgoyne fight alone, allowed Washington to retreat and regroup instead of finishing him, left Continental army unmolested in Valley Forge

    c)The Iroquois and the British

    i)Iroquois Confederacy declared neutrality in 1776, but Joseph and Mary Brant persuaded some tribes to support British (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga). Belived British victory would stem white movement onto tribal lands

    ii)Only 3 of 6 nations supported British(Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga split)

    d)Securing Aid From Abroad

    i)Failure of Brits to crush Continental army in mid-Atlandtic states + rebel victory at Saratoga was turning point

    ii)After Dec of Indep, US sent reps to Europe’s capitals to negotiate commercial treaties. Most promising potential Ally was France where King Louis XVI and his Count de Vergennes eager to see Britain lose part of empire

    iii)Thru covert deals French supplied Americans supplies but would not officially recognize US diplomatically. Ben Franklin went to France, after news of Saratoga in February France formally recognized US as nation. Allowed for expanded assistance- money, munitions, navy

    e)The Final Phase: The South

    i)After defeat at Saratoga and French intervention British govt put limit on commitment to conflict, tried to enlist loyalist dissidents believed to be centered in South to fight from within

    ii)British forced moved from battle to battle 1778-1781, but much less Loyalist sentiment than predicted. Some refused to rise up b/c of fear of Patriot reprisal + British attempts to free slaves in order to fight. Patriots=no threat to slavery

    iii)British had disadvantage of enemy in hostile territory, new form of combat. Segments of population previously apathetic now forced to involve themselves

    iv)In North fighting stalemate after British moved forces to New York. Benedict Arnold became traitor, scheme to betray Patriot fort at West Point was foiled

    v)In South British captured Savannah 1778, Port of Charleston 1780. Won conventional battles but harassed as they moved thru countryside by Patriot guerillas. Lord Cornwallis (Brit general for South) defeated Patriot Horatio Gates, led Washing to give command to Gen. Nathanael Greene

    vi)Battle of King’s Mountain 1780 a Patriot victory, Greene split army into small, fast contingents and refrained from open battles. British had to abandon Southern campaign after battle at Guilford Courth House, NC in 1781

    vii)Cornwalis ordered by Clinton to wait for ships at Yorktown. Washington, French Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, and Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse all coordinated army and navy to surround British on peninsula

    viii)Cornwallis surrendered October 17, 1781. Fighting over, but Brits continued to hold seaports of Savannah, Charleston, Wilmington, & New York

    f)Winning the Peace

    i)Cornwallis’s defeat let to outcry aginsnt war, Lord North resigned and Lord Shelbrune succeeded. British emissaries in France began speaking to diplomats there (Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay). Final settlement Peace of Paris signed Sept 1783 when France and Spain also agreed to end hostilities

    ii)Treaty recognized US independence, gave land from southern Canada to north boundary of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi River

    3)War and Society

    a)Loyalists and Minorities

    i)Up to 1/5 of white population Loyalists- some officeholders in imperial govt, others merchants engaged in trade tied to imperial system, others who had lived in isolation of revolutionary ideas, others expected Brits to be victors

    ii)Hounded by Patriots, harassed by legislative and judicial actions- fled to Canada or to England. Most Loyalists of average means but many were wealthy, after they left estates and social and economic leadership vacancies

    iii)Anglicans were mostly Loyalists, in colonies where it was official religion (such as MA and VA). Taxes to church halted, support from England ceased, few ministers remained. Quakers weakened b/c their pacifism unpopular

    iv)Catholic Church gained respect b/c most American Caths supported Patriot cause, French alliance brought Cath troops and ministers. Gratitude eroded hostility, after war Vatican named Father John Caroll American archbishop

    b)The War and Slavery

    i)War led to some slaves to escape due to British presence in South + their policies meant to disrupt American war effort. Revolutionary ideas introduced slaves to idea of liberty. This situation put slave dominated states like SC and Georgia to be ambivalent to revolution b/c opposed British emancipation efforts but feared revolution would foment slave rebellions

    c)Native Americans and the Revolution

    i)Patriots and Brits wanted Indians to remain neutral, and by and large they did. Some supported British b/c feared replacing ruling class whom they had developed limited trust with and who had fought against white expansion

    ii)Patriot victory weaked natvies bc increased white demand for western lands, many Americans resented Mohawk and other Indians assistance to British and wanted to treat them as conquered people

    iii)Revolution increased deep divisions and made it difficult for tribes to form common front for resistance b/c of neutral and pro-Brit alliances

    iv)After war Indian and American fighting continued w/ Indian raids against froneir whites, white militia responded with attacks into Indian territories

    d)Women’s Rights and the Women’s Roles

    i)Patriot men going off to fight eft wives, mothers, sisters in charge of farms and businesses- sometimes successful and other times not so much. In many cities and towns impoverished women class emerged

    ii)Sometimes women chose, other times forced to join camps of Patriot armies, raised morale and performed necessary tasks on cooking, nursing, cleaning. Some women ended up in combat (legendary Molly Pitcher)

    iii)After revolution certain assumptions about women questioned- some like  Abigail Adams called for modest expansion of women’s rights and protections. Others such as Judith Sargent Murray wanted equal education and rights

    iv)New era for women did not arrive, legal doctrines of English common law gave married women barely any rights, Rev did not change these legal customs

    v)Revolution encouraged ppl to reevaulate contributions of women b/c of womens participation in revolution and part general reevalutaion of American life after struggle- search for a cultural identity

    e)The War Economy

    i)No longer protection of trade by British navy, no more access to markets of the empire including Britain itself. Privateering used by Americans to pretty on Brit commerce. 

    ii)End of imperial relation in long run opened up enormous new areas of trade for nation b/c no more Brit regulations. Trade w/ Asia, South America, Caribbean

    iii)End of English imports thru prewar boycotts and war itself led to stimulation of domestic manufacturing of necessities, desire for sufficiency grew

    4)The Creation of State Governments

    a)The Assumptions of Republicanism

    i)Republicanism meant all power came from ppl, active citizenry important and could not be just a few powerful aristocrats and mass of dependent workers- idea of independent landowner was basic political ideology

    ii)Opposed Eur ideas of inherited aristocracy- talents and energies of individuals and not birth would determine role in society- equality of opportunity

    b)The First State Constitutions

    i)States decided tat constitutions had to be written b/c believed vagueness of England’s unwritten constitution produced corruption, believed power of executive had to be limited, separation of executive from legislature

    ii)Except GA and PA upper and lower chambers, property requirements for voters

    c)Revising State Governments

    i)By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they were too democratic—steps taken to limit popular power

    ii)To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet again

    iii)Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppl

    d)Toleration and Slavery

    i)New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and state

    ii)Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives

    5)The Search for A National Government

    a)The Confederation

    i)Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781

    b)Diplomatic Failures

    i)GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empire’s markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refused

    ii)Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Florida’s borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articles

    c)The Confederation and the Northwest

    i)Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of 1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schools

    ii)Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibited

    iii)S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolved

    d)Indians and the Western Lands

    i)Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement, but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indians

    ii)Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s. Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded lands

    e)Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shays

    i)Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested funds

    ii)Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederation

    iii)To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New England

    iv)Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Constitution and The New Republic

    1)Framing A New Government

    a)Advocates of Centralization

    i)Confederation had averted the danger of remote and tyrannical authority, but during 1780s powerful groups began to want a national govt capable of dealing with nation’s problems- mainly economic that affected themselves

    ii)Artisans wanted a single high national duty, merchants wanted a single, national commercial policy, people owed money wanted states to stop issuing paper money and causing inflation, land owners wanted protection from mobs

    iii)Reformers led by Alexander Hamilton called for convention. Inter-state conference on trade held in MA advised congress to call a convention to “render the constitution… adequate to the exigencies of the union” in 1786

    iv)George Washington’s support of new convention in Philadelphia 1787 gave it credibility, feared disorders like Shay’s Rebellion spreading

    b)A Divided Convention

    i)55 delegates from all but RI, mainly young, educated, and propertied

    ii)Washington chosen as presiding officer, sessions closed to public and press

    iii)VA delegation led by James Madison, had plan drafted. Edmund Randolph proposed a new nat’t govt with executive, judiciary, legislature

    iv)VA Plan called for 2 house legislature w/  lower house based on population and upper house elected by lower house

    v)Proposal opposed by Delaware, NJ, other small states. Proposal by William Paterson of NJ would reform Confederation + give it power to tax. Tabled, VA Plan remained basis for discussion

    vi)VA Plan supporters realized concessions to small states needed for agreement, conceded upper house be elected by state legislatures, each state at least 1 rep

    vii)Questions of equal rep in upper house, of slaves counted in states population but feared would be taxed if states taxed based on population

    c)Compromise

    i)In July grand committee established with Franklin as head, produced basis of “Great Compromise” where lower house would be based on populating with each slave counted as 3/5 o of a person in representation and direct taxation, in upper house each state had 2 reps- July 16, 1787 compromise accepted

    ii)Reps agreed legislature forbidden to tax exports b/c of Southern fear of interfering with cotton economy, slave trade couldn’t be stopped for 20 years

    iii)Constitution provided no definition of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights that would restrain powers of nat’l govt

    d)The Constitution of 1787

    i)James Madison created VA Plan, helped resolve question of sovereignty and of limiting power

    ii)Sovereignty at all levels, nat’l and state, came from people. States and nat’l govt both had sovereignty from ppl and therefore Constitution could distribute powers btwn federal govt and states- but Constitution was “supreme law”

    iii)Federal govt had power to tax, regulate commerce, control currency, pass laws

    iv)Leaders frightened of creating a tyrannical govt, believed small nation needed to stop corruption. Madison convinced others that large nation would produce less tyranny b/c many factions would check one from being too powerful

    v)Separation of powers + checks and balances forced branches to compete, federal structure divided power btwn states and nation

    vi)Fear of despotism, but also fear of the “mob” and “excess of democracy”, only House of Reps elected directly by ppl. 

    vii)Constitution signed on September 17, 1787

    e)Federalists and Antifederalists

    i)Delegates decided that Constitution would come into existence when 9 of 13 states had ratified it thru conventions instead of unanimous state legislature approval required by Articles

    ii)Supporters of Const well organized, supported by Washington and Franklin, called themselves Federalists. Had best political philosophers in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. Wrote Federalist Papers arguing for Const under pseudonym Publius

    iii)Antifederalists believed Const would betray principles of Revolution by establish a strong, potentially tyrannical central govt that would increase taxies, obliterate states, favor the “well born”. 

    (1)Biggest complaint was that Const lacked a bill of rights, any govt with central authority could not be trusted to protect citizens’ liberties, therefore natural rights had to be enumerated in order to be preserved

    iv) Federalists feared disorder, anarchy, power of masses, Antifederalists feared the state more than they did the ppl, feared concentrated power

    v)Delaware first to ratify, New Hampshire 9th state in June 1788. New govt could not flourish w/o participation of VA and NY. VA, NY, MA ratified on assumption that bill of rights would be added

    f)Completing the Structure

    i)First elections took place 1789, George Washington elected first president unanimously, John Adams became VP- inauguration April 30, 1789

    ii)First Congress passed bill of rights 1789, 10 ratified by states by end of 1791. Nine forbid Congress from infringing basic rights, 10th reserved powers to states unless specifically withheld from them or delegated to fed govt

    iii)Judiciary Act of 1789 created 6 member Supreme court, 13 district courts, 3 courts of appeal, Sup Court had final decision in constitutionality of state laws

    iv)Congress created departments of executive- State led by Jefferson, Treasury by Hamilton, War by Henry Knox, attorney general Edmund Randolph

    2)Federalists and Republicans

    a)Hamilton and the Federalists

    i)Federalists dominated govt for 12 years under leadership of Treasurer Alexander Hamilton (Washington supported, but avoided direct involvement)

    ii)Believed stable and effective govt required enlightened ruling class, therefore rich and powerful needed stake in its success

    iii)To do so made govt responsible for existing debt + states debts, would create new large national debt w/ continuous bonds issued to give wealthy stake

    iv)Creation of federal bank would fill absence of developed banking system, safe place for deposit of federal funds, collect taxes and pay expenses

    v)Funding of debts required new revenue to pay bonds interest, govt sales of Western land not enough. Hamilton proposed tax on alcohol distillers- heavy toll on whiskey distillers of backcountry PA, VA, NC- & tariff on imports to raise $ + stimulate growth of industry- his 1791 “Report on Manufactures

    b)Enacting the Federalist Program

    i)Few members opposed plan for funding nat’l debt, but disagreement over whether payment should be to original holders or to speculators who bought many bonds from originals during hard times of 1780s. James Madison proposed dividing btwn two. Hamilton won out and current bondholders paid

    ii)Hamilton faced stiffer opposition to fed’l assumption of state debts b/c ppl of states with few debts (such as VA) would pay taxes to service large debts of other states (like MA). Compromise w/ Virginians moved capital from Philadelphia to a southern location along Potomac R.  for VA support of bill

    iii)Bank bill most heated debate, Madison, Jefferson, Randolph, others argued Congress should exercise no powers Const did not assign it. Bill passed House and Senate, Bank of United States began operating 1791 under 20 yr charter

    iv)Passage of excise tax and tariff 1792. Whole program won support of the influential population- restored public credit, speculators, manufacturing + merchants prospered. However, small farmers (maj of pop) complained of tax burden, taxes to state, excise tax on distillation, + tariff- feeling Federalist program served interests not of ppl but of wealthy elites

    c)The Republican Opposition

    i)Framers believed organized political parties dangerous, should be avoided would lead to factions (Madison Fed Papers #10), but eventually Madison and others convinced that Hamilton and Federalists had become a majority and used their power to control appts, offices, and rewards to supporters

    ii)B/c Federalist structures thought to resemble corrupt Brit govt and menacing structure, critics felt only alternative vigorous opposition thru emergence of alternative political organization- the Republican Party

    iii)By late 1790s Republicans creating even greater apparatus of partisan influence- correspondence btwn groups, influenced state and local elections

    iv)Both groups believed represented only legitimate interest group, neither conceded right of other to exist- factionalism known as “first party system”

    v)Leaders of Repubs James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson believed in an agrarian republic w/ independent farmer-citizens tilling own soil. Didn’t oppose commerce, trade or industry, but feared cities, urban mobs, and advanced industrial economy b/c of increase of propertyless workers

    3)Establishing National Sovereignty

    a)Securing the Frontier

    i)1791 PA farmers refused to pay whiskey excise tax, Washington called militia from 3 states, Whiskey Rebellion collapsed- intimidation won allegiance

    ii)Fed govt won loyalty of frontiersmen by accept territories as new states (NC 1789, RI 1791 last of 13 colonies)- VT 1791, Kentucky 1792, Tennessee 1796

    b)Native Americans and the New Nation

    i)Clashes with natives raised question of Indians’ place of in federal structure. Constitution recognized tribes as legal entities, but not outright nations

    ii)Constitution did not address main issue of land, Indians lived within US boundaries but offered some measure of sovereignty

    c)Maintaining Neutrality

    i)In 1791 GB sent first minister to US, question of US neutrality arose in 1793 when French govt from revolution of 1789 went to war with GB

    ii)French rep to US Edmond Genet violated Neutrality Act and tried to recruit Americans to French cause- US ships as privateers, raids against Spanish

    iii)GB Royal Navy began seizing US ships trading w/ French in West Indies1794, anti-British feelings high, Hamilton concerned b/c war meant end to English imports- main revenue for financial system dependent from duties

    d)Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty

    i)Hamilton feared pro-French State Dept, had Washington send Chief Justice and Federalist John Jay to negotiate treaty with GB

    ii)Jay’s Treaty in 1794 failed to compensate Brit assaults on ships and withdrawal of Brit forces from frontier, but prevented war, established American sovereignty over Northwest, satisfactory commercial relationship

    iii)American backlash followed b/c not enough Brit promises, Republicans and some Federalists offered opposition but ultimately ratified by Senate

    iv)Jay’s treaty allowed peace to be made with Spain b/c raised fears of Brit/American alliance in North America, Pinckney’s treaty 1795 recognized US right to Mississippi, Florida border, control of Indian raids from FL

    4)The Downfall of the Federalists

    a)The Election of 1796

    i)Washington retired 1797, in “Farewell” worried over foreign influence on gov’t, including French efforts to frustrate Federalist diplomatic program

    ii)Open expression of political rivalries after Washington- Jefferson running for Republicans, Hamilton too many enemies so VP John Adams Fed candidate

    iii)Federalists could win majority of electors 1796 pres. election for Adams but factional fighting within party caused second candidate Thomas Pinckney to receive many votes- resulted in Jefferson finishing second, became VP. 

    iv)Federalists divided, strong Republicans opposition, Hamilton still lead party

    b)The Quasi War with France

    i)US relations w/ GB + Spain improved after treaties, deteriorated w/ France b/c of impressments of US ships and sailors

    ii)President Adam’s pursued reconciliation by appointing bi-partisan commission of Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry to negotiate

    iii)French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded loan and bribe, Adams turned over report of this to Congress w/ names deleted- “XYZ Affair” caused outrage at France, Federalist gained support for response

    iv)Adams asked Congress to cut off trade, 1798 created Dept of Navy (very successful capturing French ships), cooperated w/ GB

    v)France reconciled, new govt of Napoleon 1800 new commercial arrangements

    c)Repression and Protest

    i)Conflict w/ France led to Federalist majority 1798, to silence Republican opposition passed the Alien and Sedition Acts

    ii)Alien Acts restricted places obstacles for foreigners becoming citizens, Sedition Act allowed govt to prosecute libelous or treasonous activity- but definitions allowed govt to stifle any opposition—Repubs fought back

    iii)Adams cautious in implementation but still repressive, Republican leaders hoped for reversal from state legislatures 

    iv)Jefferson + Madison had VA, KY adopt resolutions arguing when govt exercised undelegated powers, its acts “void”. Used Locke’s “compact theory”: states were part of contract, fed govt had breached contract, therefore states could “nullify” the appropriate laws—only VA and KY did so

    v)By late 1790s national crisis b/c nation so politically divided

    d)The “Revolution” of 1800

    i)1800 pres election saw same candidates- Adams’ and Jefferson’s supporters showed no restraint or dignity in their assaults against other 

    ii)Crucial contest in New York where Aaron Burr (candidate for VP) mobilized Rev War veterans, the Tammany Society, to serve as Repub political machine- Repubs eventually won the state and election

    iii)In partisan atmosphere Jefferson and Burr votes tied, the previous Federalist Congress had to choose between the two in a vote (H of Reps decides when no majority), ultimately Hamilton and Federalists elected Jefferson

    iv)After election only judiciary branch still Federalist, Judiciary Act of 1801 had created many new positions which Adams had filled before leaving office

    v)Republican viewed victory as savior from tyranny, believed new era would begin where true founding principles would govern

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Jeffersonian Era

     1)The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

    a)Patterns of Education

    i)Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republic

    ii)By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay. Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor

    iii)Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant, late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training

    iv)Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans very little schooling- literacy rate very small

    v)Higher education not public, private contribution + tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education

    b)Medicine and Science

    i)Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled w/ introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments. 

    ii)Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives

    c)Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation

    i)After Eur independence ppl wanted cultural independence, literary and artistic achievements to rival those of Europe

    ii)Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Languageestablished national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created

    iii)High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature

    (1)Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes

    (2)Washington Irving wrote American fold tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle

    (3)Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism

    d)Religious Skepticism

    i)Revolution detached churches from govt + elevated liberty and reason, by 1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”

    ii)Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason.

    iii)Skepticism led to “universalism” + “unitarianism”, @ first within New England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God

    iv)Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches + denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801

    e)The Second Great Awakening

    i)Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists (founded by John Wesley) successful at combating New Light dissenters (ppl who made religion more compatible w/ rationalism)

    ii)By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy

    iii)Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God + Christ into daily life, reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety w/ belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith + works

    iv)Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order + social stability to ppl searching for identity

    v)Women particularly drawn to revivalism b/c women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for

    vi)Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom

    vii) Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake  encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture

    2)Stirrings of Industrialism

    a)Technology in America

    i)America imported technological advances from England. Brit govt attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America

    ii)American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and 

    iii)Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever. 

    iv)In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820s/30s- as N became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture

    v)His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War w/ France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products

    b)Transportation Innovations

    i)Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system

    ii)To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Eur in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade btwn Eur and Western hemisphere

    iii)Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship

    iv)Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton + Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention w/ theirClermont

    v)Turnpike era began 1792 w/ corporate construction of turnpikes, but b/c needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas

    c)The Rising Cities

    i)America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns of more than 8,000 in 1800 census—yet there were signs of change

    ii)Major US cities such as New York + Philadelphia large and complex enough to rival secondary cities of Europe

    iii)Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance, dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing

    3)Jefferson the President

    a)The Federal City and the “People’s President”

    i)French architect Pierre L’Enfant designed city on grand scale, but Washington remained little more than provincial village w/ few public buildings

    ii)Jefferson acted in spirit of democratic simplicity, made his image plain, disdain for pretension. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency

    iii)Political genius, worked as leader of his party to give Republicans in Congress direction, used appointments as political weapon. Won 1804 reelection easily

    b)Dollars and Ships

    i)Washington and Adams had increased expenditures, debt, taxation. Jefferson 1802 had Congress abolish all internal taxes leaving only land sales and customs duties, cut govt spending, halved debt

    ii) Scaled down armed forces, cut navy due to fear of limiting civil liberty + civilian govt, promoting overseas commerce instead of agriculture 

    iii)At same time established US Military Academy @ West Point 1802, built up navy after 1801 threats by pasha of Tripoli in Mediterranean following Jefferson’s end to paying ransom demanded by Barbary pirates

    c)Conflict With The Courts

    i)Judiciary remained in hands of Federalist judges, congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 eliminating judgeships Adam’s filled before leaving office 

    ii)Case of Marbury v. Madison 1803 btwn Justice of Peace William Marbury and Sec of State James Madison 

    (1)Supreme Court ruled Congress exceeded its authority in creating a statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 b/c Constitution had already defined judiciary

    (2)Court asserted that the act of Congress was void. Enlarged courts power

    iii)Chief Justice John Marshall presided over case, battled to give fed govt unity and strength, established judiciary as branch coequal w/ exec and legislature

    iv)Jefferson assaulted last Federalist stronghold, urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges. Tried to impeach justice Samuel Chase in 1805 but Republican Senate could not get 2/3 vote necessary- acquittal set precedent impeachment not purely a political weapon, above partisan disagreement

    4)Doubling the National Domain

    a)Jefferson and Napoleon

    i)After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted power in New World. Spain held areas west of Mississippi, 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso granted French this Louisiana. Also held sugar-rich West Indian islands Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo (where slave revolt led by Toussaint L’ouverture put down)

    ii)Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy- apptd pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800, disapproved of black Santo Domingo uprising 

    iii)Reconsidered position when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana and seizure of New Orleans, alarmed n 1802 when Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean going vessels (which was guaranteed in Pikcney Treaty of 1795)- this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

    iv)Westerners demanded govt reopen river, Jefferson ordered Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans, in meantime expanded military and river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

    v)Nap offered sale of whole Louisiana Territory. Plans for American empire awry b/c army decimated by yellow fever, reinforcements frozen

    b)The Louisiana Purchase

    i)Livingston and James Monroe in Paris decided to proceed with sale of whole territory even though not authorized to do so by govt, treaty signed April 1803

    ii)US paid $15 million to France, had to incorporate N.O. residents into Union

    iii)Jefferson unsure US had authority to accept offer b/c power not specifically granted in Constitution, ultimately agreed constituted as treaty power. December 1803 territory handed over from Spain to France then US

    iv)Govt organized Louisiana territory like Northwest territory w/ various territories to eventually to become states- Louisiana first, admitted 1812

    c)Lewis and Clark Explore the West

    i)Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical fats and investigate trade w/ Indians

    ii)Lewis and Clark set out 1804 from Mississippi R. in St Louis w/ Indian Sacajawea as guide, reached pacific fall 1805

    iii)Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions btwn Mississppi and Rocky Mts

    d)The Burr Conspiracy

    i)Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions, but some NE Federalists known as Essex Junto felt expansion weakened power of Federalists + region . Felt only answer secession and “Northern Confederacy”

    ii)Plan required support of NY, NJ, New England, but leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused support 

    iii)Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr (who had no prospect in own party after 1800 election deadlock) to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

    iv)Hamilton accused Burr of treason and negative remarks about character, when Burr lost election blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

    v)Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel 1804, Hamilton mortally wounded

    vi)Burr, now political outcast, fled NY for West and along with General James Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and possibly make his own empire. 1806 tried for treason, acquitted

    vii)“Conspiracy” showed perils of central govt that remained deliberately weak w/ vast tracts of nominally controlled land, state of US as stable and united nation

    5)Expansion and War

    a)Conflict on the Seas

    i)US shipping expanded to control trade btwn Eur and W. Indies 

    ii)Napoleon’s Continental system forbade ships that had docked at any point in British ports from landing on continent- Berlin (1806) + Milan (1807) Decrees

    iii) Britain’s “orders in council” required goods to continent be in ships that had at least stopped in British ports- response to Nap’s “Continental System”

    iv)American ships caught btwn countries, but England greater threat b/c greater sea power and the worse offender

    b)Impressment

    i)Brit Navy had terrible conditions, forced service called “impressments” used, many deserted when possible and joined Americans- to stop loss Brit claimed right to stop and search American merchant ships + reimpress deserters

    ii)1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: Brit fired on US ship that refused search, US Minister James Monroe protested, GB refused to renounce impressments

    c)“Peaceable Coercion”

    i)To prevent future incidents that might bring war Jefferson proposed The Embargo 1807- prohibited US ship from leaving for any foreign port

    ii)Created national depression, ship-owners + merchants of NE (mainly Federalists) hardest hit-before

    iii)James Madison, Jefferson’s Sec of State, won election of 1808 but fierce opposition- led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act- reopened trade w/ all nations except GB + France

    iv)1810 new Macon’s Bill No. 2 opened trade w/ GB + France but pres had power to prohibit commerce for belligerent behavior against neutral shipping

    v)Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere, Madison issued embargo against GB 1811 until it renounced restrictions of American shipping

    d)The “Indian Problem” and the British

    i)After dislodgement by Americans, Indians looked to Brits for protection

    ii)William Henry Harrison had been a promoter of Western expansion (Harrison Land Law 1800), named governor of Indiana 1801 by Jefferson. Offered Indians ultimatum: become farmers and assimilate or move to West of Miss. 

    iii)By 1807 tribes mainly ceding land. After Chesapeake incident, however, Brits began to renew Indian friendships to begin defense of invasion into Can

    e)Tecumseh and the Prophet

    i)The Prophet was Indian leader inspired religious revival, rejection of white culture. Attracted thousands from many tribes at Tippecanoe Creek. Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

    ii)Starting 1809 began to unite tribes of Miss. valley, 1811 traveled south to add tribes of the South to alliance

    iii)1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy. However, thru 1812 continued to attack settlers, encouraged by Brit agents—Americans believed end only thru Can. Invasion

    f)Florida and War Fever

    i)“Frontiersman” in N wanted Canada, those in S wanted to acquire Spanish Florida in order to stop Indian attacks, gain access to rivers w/ port access

    ii)1810 setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, President Madison agreed to annex territory- Spain Britain’s ally, made pretext for war

    iii)By 1812 “war harks” elected during 1810 elections eager for war- some ardent nationalists seeking territorial expansion, others defense of Republican values

    iv)Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of SC led Republicans in pressing for Canadian invasion- Madison declared war June 18, 1812

    6)The War of 1812

    a)Battles with the Tribes

    i)Americans forced to surrender Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months. On seas American frigates and privateers successful, but by 1813 Brit navy (less occupied w/ Napoleon) devoted resources and imposed blockade

    ii)US began to have success in Great Lakes- Oliver Perry beat Brits at Put-In-Bay 1813, burned capital at York. William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames- disheartened Natives of Northwest and diminished ability to defend claims

    iii)Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians @ Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, continued invasion into Florida and captured Pensacola Sept 1814

    b)Battles With the British

    i)After Nap surrendered 1814 England prepared to invade US, landed armada in Chesapeake region. Aug 1814 captured and burned Washington

    ii)Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled Brit attack in Sept. This battle is what Francis Scott Key witnessed, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

    iii)Brit also repelled in NY at Battle of Plattsburgh in Sept. January 1815 Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans- after treaty signed

    c)The Revolt of New England

    i)US failures 1812-1815 led to increased govt opposition. In NE opposition to war and Repub govt, Federalists led by Daniel Webtser led Congressional opposition. Federalists in NE dreamed of separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders and backwoodsmen

    ii)Dec 1814 convention at Hartford led to nothing b/c of news of Jackson’s smashing success at New Orleans. Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

    d)The Peace Settlement

    i)Aug 1814 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ Brit diplomats. Final treaty did little but end fighting- US dropped call to end impressments, Brit dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

    ii)Brit accepted b/c exhausted + indebted after Napoleonic conflict, US believed w/ end of Eur conflict less commercial interference would occur

    iii)Treaty of Gent signed Dec 1814, free trade agreement 1815later Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

    iv)War disastrous to Natives, lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Varieties of American Nationalism

    1)A Growing Economy

    a)Banking, Currency, and Protection

    i)War of 1812 stimulated manufacturing, but after war produced chaos in shipping and banking- need for new Bank of the United States charter its expiration 1811 and not renewed, protecting new industries, transport systems

    ii)After expiration of charter state banks offered difft currencies at difft values- confusion and counterfeiting. Congress passed new charter for Bank of US 1816- its size and power essentially forced state banks to issue safer currency

    iii)Manufacturing had grown tremendously due to imports being cut off, textile industry increased exponentially btwn Embargo of 1807 and War. Factories in NE no longer family operations. Francis Lowell developed new loom 1813 in Boston Manufacturing Company- first process of both spinning and weaving

    iv)After war English ships swarmed American ports, wanted to reclaim old markets with prices below cost. 1816 Congress passed tariff to protect “infant industries” from competition aboard- farmers objected b/c paid higher price

    b)Transportation

    i)W/o transport network manufacturers couldn’t access raw materials and send finished goods to markets in US- should fed govt finance roads?

    ii)1807 Jefferson’s Sec Treasury Albert Gallatin proposed revenue from Ohio land sale go to fund National Road. Crucial Lancaster Pike built in PA- both allowed for the beginning of transport of commodities like textiles

    iii)Steam-powered shipping (advancements of Robert Fulton) expanded on rivers and Great Lakes. Steamboats on Miss. stimulated already agricultural economy of South & West b/c cost to transport products to market lowered

    iv)Despite progress of turnpikes + steamships serious gaps in trasportation. 1815 John Calhoun introduced bill to use federal funds to finance internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it in 1817 b/c believed unconstitutional

    v)Remained to state govts + private enterprise to build needed transit networks

    2)Expanding Westward

    a)The Great Migrations

    i)Westward movement affected economy, factor in Civil War, peoples thrusted together. Pop. + econ. pressures, land availability, decreased Indian resistance

    ii)Immigration and natural growth increased Eastern population, agricultural lands occupied. Slaves in S limited work opportunity. West attractive b/c War of 1812 lessened Native opposition by pushing Indians west + establishing forts on Great Lakes and Miss. R., govt “factor system” of goods to Indians

    b)White Settlers in the Old Northwest

    i)Shelters primitive, clearings in forest for crops to supplement game and domestic animals, rough existence w/ poverty and loneliness

    ii)Migrants journeyed westward in groups, some formed communities and schools, churches, other institutions. Mobility a large part of life

    iii)Farm economy based on modest seized farms w/ grain cultivation + livestock

    c)The Plantation System in the Southwest

    i)Cotton longs in Old South had lost much fertility but market continued to grow for it, Black Belt of SW lands could support thriving cotton

    ii)First arrivals small farmers, wealthier planters followed buying and clearing smaller lands. Brought w/ them slaves, eventually mansions grew up from simpler log cabins symbolizing emergence of a newly rich class

    iii)Rapid growth in NW and SW resulted in new states after War of 1812: Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819

    d)Trade and Trapping in the Far West

    i)Trade began to develop btwn western regions in US in 19th century + beyond

    ii)Mexico (controlled Texas, CA, Southwest) won independence from Spain 1821, opened territories to trade in order to grow their fortunes. US merchants such as William Becknell displaced Indian traders and inferior Mexican products lost out to new US traders- Mexico lost its markets it in own colonies

    iii)Fur traders such as Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company eventually extended to Rockies, instead of pelts from Indians increasingly trapped their own

    iv)Trappers (“mountain men”) first wedge of white movement, changed society by interacting with Indians and Mexicans. 1822 Andrew and William Ashley founded Rocky Mountain Fur Company, recruited trappers to live permanently in Rockies (Utah, New Mexico)

    v)Lives of trappers bound up with expanding market economy- relied on fur companies for credit, depended on Eastern merchants for livelihood

    e)Eastern Images of the West

    i)Ppl in East only dimly aware of trappers’ world and their reshaping of it

    ii)Explorers dispatched by US govt to chart territories. 1819/1820 Steven Long sent by War Dept to explore, wrote influential report with dismissive conclusions for future settlement (like Zebulon Pike 15 yrs before)

    3)The Era of Good Feelings

    a)The End of the First Party System

    i)James Monroe, Madison’s Sec of State, elected Republican president 1816. W/ Federalist decline faced party faced no serious opposition, after War of 1812 no serious international threat- wanted republic w/o partisan factions

    ii)For Sec of State chose New Englander and former Federalist John Quincy Adams, John Calhoun named Sec of War- Monroe took pains to include northerners, southerners, easterners, westerners, Feds and Repubs in Cabinet

    iii)After election national goodwill tour, re-elected 1820 w/o any opposition

    b)John Quincy Adams

    i)Committed nationalist, important task promotion of American expansion

    ii)US already annexed W Florida, 1817 began negotiations w/ Spanish minister Lius de Onis. Meanwhile, American commander in Florida Andrew Jackson used orders from Sec of War Calhoun to invade Florida to stop Seminole raids—known as Seminole war. Adams wanted to use as excuse to annex

    iii)Onis realized he had little choice, Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florid and lands north of 42nd parallel to US, US gave up Texas claims

    c)The Panic of 1819

    i)Panic followed period of high foreign demand for US goods, rising prices had stimulated land boom in western US. Availability for easy credit to settlers and speculators- from govt, state and wildcat banks

    ii)1819 management at Bank of US tightened credit, led to series of state bank failures, led to financial panic- those in West blamed it on bank

    iii)Depression for 6 years followed, but growth ultimately continued

    4)Sectionalism and Nationalism

    a)The Missouri Compromise

    i)Missouri applied for statehood 1819, although slavery already established NY Rep James Tallmadge’s Amendment gradual emancipation- controversial

    ii)Since beginning new states had come into Union in pairs (1 from N, 1 from S), Missouri entrance would increase power of North over South

    iii)Maine had also applied for statehood, Henry Clay threatened South would block entrance in Missouri not permitted to be a slave state

    iv)Compromise in Maine-Missouri Bill, Senator Jesse Thomas’s Amendment to ban slavery in rest of Louisiana Ter. north of MO’s 3630’ border also passed

    b)Marshall and the Court

    i)John Marshall chief justice from 1801-1835. Strengthened judicial system at expense of executive and legislature, increased fed power over states, advanced interest of propertied and commercial classes

    ii)Supported inviolability contracts in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) which held GA legislature could not repeal contract acts of previous legislature. Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions- states had given up some sovereignty by ratifying Constitution, therefore their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction

    iii)“Implied powers” of Congress upheld in McCulloch v Maryland (1819) by upholding Bank of United States, attorney Daniel Webster argued establishment legal under “necessary and proper” clause, power to tax involved “power to destroy”. States therefore could not tax now-legal Bank

    iv)Strengthened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce in Gibbons v Ogden(1824)- Fed govt gave license to Thomas Gibbons for ferry even transport btwn NY and NJ even though NY state had granted Aaron Ogden monopoly- Marshall argued that Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce + navigation “complete in itself” + could exercise to the utmost

    v)Decisions established primacy of fed govt over states in regulating economy, protected corporations + private economic institutions from local govt 

    c)The Court and the Tribes

    i)Marshall court decisions w/ Natives affirmed supremacy of US and carved out position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure

    ii)In Johnson v McIntosh (1825) Marshall described the basic right of Natives to tribal lands that preceded all other American law. Individual Americans could not buy or take land from tribes, only fed govt could do that

    iii)Worchester v Georgia (1832) invalidated law to regulate citizen access to Cherokee lands. Only fed govt had power to do that, tribes described as sovereign entities w/ exclusive authority and territorial boundaries

    iv)Marshall court did what Const had not- establish place for Indian tribes in American political system. Sovereign, but fed govt “guardian” over its “ward” 

    d)The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine

    i) US foreign policy mainly centered on Eur, but after War of 1812 Spanish Empire in decline w/ new revolutions, US developing profitable trade w/ Latin America rivaling GB as principal trading pattern

    ii)1815 US proclaimed neutrality in wars btwn Spain and rebellious colonies, 1822 President Monroe established diplomatic relations w/ 5 new nations

    iii)1823 Monroe announced policy (later known as “Monroe Doctrine”) that American continent not be considered subject of future colonization by European powers, any foreign challenge would be unfriendly

    iv)Monroe Doctrine developed b/c Americans feared Spanish allies (such as France) would aid it in retaking lost empire, fear of GB taking over Cuba

    5)The Revival of Opposition

    a)The “Corrupt Bargain”

    i)In 1824 Republican caucus nominated William Crawford of Georgia for presidency, but other candidates received nominations from state legislatures

    ii)Candidates included: Sec of State John Quincy Adams had little popular appeal, Speaker of the House Henry Clay had personal following and strong program in the “American System” to strengthen home industry and Bank, Andrew Jackson little political experience but a military hero and TN allies

    iii)Jackson received more popular and electoral votes tan other candidates but not majority, Twelfth Amendment (passed after contested 1800 election) required House of Reps to choose among top three candidates- Clay threw endorsement behind Adams b/c Jackson a political rival in West + Adams a nationalist and likely American system supporter

    iv) Adams named Clay Sec of State, Jackson’s followers enraged at seeming “corrupt bargain”- haunted Adams throughout presidency

    b)The Second President Adams

    i)Adams proposed nationalist program reminiscent of Clay’s American System but Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it. Southerners in Congress blocked delegates to international conference called by Simon Bolivar in Panama in 1826 b/c Haiti was sending black delegates

    ii)Georgia wished to remove remaining Creek and Cherokee Indians from state to gain more land for cotton planters. Adams refused to enforce treaty made btwn Indians + Georgia. Governor defied president and proceeded w/ removal

    iii)Adams supported tariff on imported goods 1828 b/c NE textile manufacturers complained of competition. To be passed concessions made to middle + west states on other tariffs—bill signed hated by all, called “tariff of abominations”

    c)Jackson Triumphant

    i)By 1828 presidential election new 2-party system had begun to emerge from divisions btwn Republicans. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism, opposing them was Democratic Republicans of Andrew Jackson who called for assault on privilege and widening of opportunity

    ii)Campaign of personal charges, Jackson’s wife Rachel accused of bigamy, she was so upset that she ultimately died- Jackson blamed opponents

    iii)Jackson won decisive but sectional victory. Adams strong in New England & mid-Atlantic. Jackson believed victory similar to Jefferson’s 1800 win

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - Jacksonian America

     1)The Rise of Mass Politics

    a)The Expanding Electorate

    i)No economic equality, but transformation of American politics to extend the right to vote to new groups. Until 1820s most states limited franchise to white landowners. Changes began in West w/ Constitutions guaranteeing right to vote to all white males- E. states did likewise in order to stop exodus of ppl

    ii)Change provoked resistance- MA conservatives wanted property requirement, state eventually required voters to be taxpayers + Gov had to own large lands

    iii)State reforms generally peaceful but in RI instability when 1840 group led by Thomas Dorr and the “People’s Party” submitted and won a new state Const. by the ppl. 1842 2 simultaneous govts, Dorr rebellion quickly failed

    iv)In S election laws favored planters and politicians from older counties, limited influence of newly settled western areas

    v)Everywhere women could not vote, no secret ballots—despite limitations numbers of voters increased faster than population 

    vi)Originally electors chosen by legislature, by 1828 popularly elected except SC

    b)The Legitimization of Party

    i)Higher levels of voter participation due to expanded electorate but also strengthening of party organization and loyalty

    ii)1820s/1830s saw permanent, institutionalized parties become desirable part of political process. Began at state level in NY w/ Martin Van Buren’s factional “Bucktails”. Party’s preservation thru favors, rewards, patronage leaders goals

    iii)Parties would check/balance one other, politicians forced 2 rep. will of the ppl

    iv)By late 1820s new idea of party spreading beyond NY, Jackson’s 1828 election seemed to legitimize new system. By 1830s national 2-party system: anti-Jackson forces called Whigs, his followers called Democrats

    c)“President of the Common Man”

    i)Democratic party embraced no uniform ideological position, committed to offer equal protection and benefits by assaulting eastern aristocracy to extend opportunity to rising classes of the W + S, preserve white-male democracy thru subjugation of African Americans and Indians

    ii)Jackson’s first targets entrenched officeholders of fed govt, wanted to simplify official duties to make office more accessible. Removed nearly 1/5 of office-holders removed b/c misuse of govt funds or corruption

    iii)Jackson’s supporters embraced “spoils system”, making right of elected officials to appt followers to office established feature of American politics

    iv)Supporters worked to transform presidential nomination system- 1832 national party convention held to replace congressional caucus, considered democratic triumph b/c power from ppl and not aristocratic caucus

    v)Spoils system and convention limited power of entrenched elites (permanent officeholders, caucus elite), but neither really transferred true power to the ppl

    2)“Our Federal Union”

    a)Calhoun and Nullification

    i)Late 1820s many in SC came to see “tariff of abominations” as responsible for stagnation of state economy (really due to exhausted farmland unable to compete with new western lands). Some considered remedy thru secession

    ii)Vice President Calhoun offered alternative in theory of nullification- idea like Madison and Jefferson’s KY + VA Resolutions of 1798-1799. Argued fed govt created by states, therefore states final arbiter (not Congress or courts) of constitutionality. Convention could be held to null and void law within state

    b)The Rise of Van Buren

    i)Apptd Sec of State 1829 by Jackson, also member of president’s of unofficial circle of allies in “Kitchen Cabinet”. After supporting Peggy Eaton in affair over acceptance into cabinet wife social circle gained favor w/ President

    ii)By 1831 Jackson had chosen Van Buren to succeed him in WH, Calhoun’s presidential dream ended

    c)The Webster-Hayne Debate

    i)January 1830 proposal to temporarily stop western land sales led SC Sen. Robert Hayne to claim slowing down W growth means for east to retain political and economic power. Hinted at uniting S + W against “tyranny”

    ii)Nationalist and Whig Sen. Daniel Webster attacked Hayne + Calhoun for challenging integrity of the Union. Debate ensued over issue of states rights vs national power

    iii)Jackson announced at Democratic Party banquet “Our Federal Union-It must be preserved”, lines drawn btwn Jackson and Calhoun

    d)The Nullification Crisis

    i)1832 tariff bill in Congress gave SC no relief from “tariff of abominations”, state convention held- voted for nullification of tariffs of 1828 & 1832, duties collection w/in state. Calhoun resigned VP became Sen., Hayne now Gov

    ii)Jackson insisted nullification treason, strengthened federal forts in SC. 1833 Pres. proposed bill to authorize use of military to see acts of Congress obeyed

    iii)No states supported SC, state itself divided. Sen Henry Clay offered compromise that tariff would be gradually lowered so that by 1842 it would be at same level as in 1816. Compromise + force bill passed March 1833

    iv)SC state convention met and repealed its nullification of the tariffs, but also nullified the force act (symbolic of null. legitimacy)

    3)The Removal of the Indians

    a)White Attitudes Toward the Tribes

    i)In 18th century many whites considered Indians “noble savages” who had inherent dignity, by 19th century more hostile attitude especially among whites in W and territories, simply “savages”

    ii)White westerners wanted removal b/c feared continued contact + expanding white settlements would lead to endless violence, & Indian lands valuable

    iii)Only fed govt had power to deal w/ Indians after Sup. Court decisions. Indians created new large political entities to deal w/ whites

    b)The Black Hawk War

    i)In Old Northwest Black Hawk War 1831-1832 to expel last of Indians there

    ii)Conflict notable for violence of white military efforts, attacked even when Chief Black Hawk was surrendering and killed Indians fleeing battle

    c)The “Five Civilized Tribes”

    i)1830s govt worried about remaining “Five Civilized Tribes” in South- successful agricultural society, Constitution forming Cherokee Nation 1827

    ii)Fed govt worked in early 19th century thru treaties to remove tribes to West and open lands to white settlement. Negotiation process unsatisfying + slow

    iii)Congress passed Removal Act 1830 to finance def negotiations w/ tribes in order to relocate them West, pressure from state govts to move as well

    iv)In GA Sup. Court decisions of Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832) seemed to protect tribal lands

    v)1835 treaty signed with minority tribe in Cherokee nation ceding all land to GA, but majority of Cherokees refused to recognize its legitimacy. Jackson sent army under General Winfield Scott to drive them westward to reservation  

    d)Trials of Tears

    i)Forced trek to “Indian Territory” began winter 1838. Thousands died before destination, dubbed “Trail of Tears”

    ii)Cherokees not alone: btwn 1830-1838 nearly all “Five Civilized Tribes” expelled from Southern states & relocated to Indian Territory created by Congress in Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. Undesirable land far from whites

    iii)Only Seminoles in Florida resisted relocation. Under pressure had agreed to cede land and move to Ind. Territory, many members of tribe moved

    (1)But 1835 minority led by chief Osceola staged uprising. Jackson sent army, conducted campaign of systematic extermination but successful guerilla warfare forced govt to abandon war in 1842

    e)The Meaning of Removal

    i)By end of 1830s almost all major Indian societies relocated to far less hospitable lands west of Mississippi on reservations surrounded by forts

    ii)White movement west impossible to have stopped, but alternative to removal could have been some form of co-existence like in NW trading posts, TX

    iii)BY mid-19th century Americans believed western lands had no pre-existing civilization. Natives could not be equal partners, were obstacles to be removed, “lacked intelligence, industry and moral habits for improvement”

    4)Jackson and the Bank War

    a)Biddle’s Institution

    i)Bank of United States in 1830s had HQ in Philadelphia, branches in 19 cities, by law only place govt could deposit its funds

    ii)Conducted private business issuing credit, bank notes used throughout country, restrained less well-managed state banks. Pres Nicholas Biddle had made bank sound + prosperous. Regardless, Jackson wanted to destroy it

    iii)Opposition came from “soft-money” faction who wanted more currency in circulation. Made up of state banks, resisted Bank of US’s efforts to restrain free issue of notes from state banks

    iv)“Hard money” faction wanted gold and silver to back currency, suspicious of expansion and speculation. Jackson supported hard-money

    v)Jackson did not favor renewal of bank charter after 1836 expiration. Biddle tried to save bank by granting financial favors to influential men, named Daniel Webster made legal counsel (gained Clay’s support). Recommended renewal bill 1832 to make bank issue in 1832 elections. 

    vi)Bill passed Congress but Jackson vetoed it, could not be overridden. In 1832 Jackson + Van Buren elected despite opposition to bank over opposition Clay

    b)The “Monster” Destroyed

    i)Jackson determined to destroy “monster” Bank quickly. To weaken it removed govt deposits (two Tres. Secretaries fired b/c feared financial destabilization, third Roget Taney complied)

    ii)When administration transferred funds from Bank to pet banks, Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates- hoped would cause financial distress and recession that would persuade Congress to recharter Bank

    iii)Financial conditions worsened winter 1833/1834, two sides blamed it on each other. Finally Biddle contracted credit too far for his own allies in the business community, began to fear his efforts to save ban threatening their own

    iv)Biddle forced to grant credit in abundance on reasonable terms, tactics ended change of re-charter. End in 1836 empowered unstable bank system

    c)The Taney Court

    i)Jackson moved against economic nationalism support of Supreme Court, after Marshall died 1835 named Roger Taney chief justice

    ii)Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837) btwn company chartered by state for toll bridge monopoly and company applying to legislature to pay for toll-free bridge. Taney ruled that govt’s goal to promote general happiness took precedence over right of contract and property, therefore state had right to amend contract o advance well-being of community

    iii)Reflected Jacksonian ideal that key to democracy expansion of economic opportunity that could not occur if corporations maintained monopolies and choked off competition from newer companies

    5)The Changing Face of American Politics

    a)Democrats and Whigs

    i)Democrats in 1830s envisioned expanding economic and political opportunity for white males, limited govt but one that removed obstacles to opportunity, defense of Union, attacking corruption, radical branch called Locofocos

    ii)Whigs favored expanding power of fed govt, industrial and commercial development, knit country into consolidated economic system, cautious westward expansion b/c feared territorial growth would produce instability, embraced industrial future and commercial and manufacturing greatness

    iii)Whigs supported by merchants and manufactures of NE, wealthy Southern planters, western commercialists. Democrats supported by smaller merchants and workingmen of NE, S planters suspicious of industry, agrarian westerners

    iv)Above all wanted to win elections: Whigs connected w/ Anti-Masons to resent “undemocratic” Freemasons (such as Jackson and Van Buren). Irish and German Catholic immigrants supported Democrats b/c aversion to commercial development, Evangelical Protestants supported Whigs

    v)Whigs led by “Great Triumvirate” of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun. 1836 election Dems united behind Jackson’s choice of Van Buren for candidate, but Whigs could not agree on single candidate. Clay, White, and William Henry Harrison ran for regional interests, defeated by Van Buren

    b)Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

    i)Van Buren elected on economic boom that reached height 1836- canals and railroads being built, easy credit, land business booming, govt revenues from sales + 1833 tariff created surpluses that allowed reduction of nat’l debt

    ii)Congress passed 1836 “distribution” act to return surplus to states, used to fund highways, railroads, canals, created economic boom

    iii)Withdrawal of fed funds strained state “pet” banks, forced to call in loans. Jackson issued “specie circular” that required payment for public land sales be in gold or silver or currency backed by them b/c feared rampant speculation

    iv)Circular produced financial panic during Van Buren’s presidency banks and business failed, food riots- largest depression in American history to that point

    v)Both parties responsible for panic- surplus redistribution a Whig measure, Jackson’s circular, but also panics in England and W. Eur that caused those investors to withdraw funds from American banks, also crop failures

    vi)Panic of 1837 led Democrats + Van Buren administration to pay price for no govt intervention. Only success of VB creation of “subtreasury system” to replace Bank of US- govt funds placed in independent treasury in Washington, no private banks could use money to fund loans and speculation

    c)The Log Cabin Campaign

    i)To win 1840 election Whigs supported only one candidate- William Henry Harrison for pres and John Tyler for VP

    ii)1840 campaign first in which “penny press” carried news of candidates to larger audience of workers and tradespeople. Whigs, although represented affluent elements of pop, presented themselves as party of the common people

    iii)Whig campaign effective at portraying the wealthy Harrison as a simple log cabin and cider man and VB as an aloof aristocrat--- Harrison won election

    d)The Frustration of the Whigs

    i)Harrison died of pneumonia 1 month after inauguration, new President Tyler was a former Democrat who refused to let Clay and Webster control policy

    ii)Pres supported bills abolishing independent treasury system and raising tariff rate, but refused Clay’s attempt to recharter Bank and vetoed internal improvement bills sponsored by Whigs. 

    iii)Whigs kicked Tyler out of party, entire cabinet resigned. Tyler and some conservative southern Whigs who supported slavery and states rights prepared to join the Democratic Party

    e)Whig Diplomacy

    i)Canada uprising caused tension leading to burning of an American steamship carrying arms and the subsequent arrest of a British citizen for burning 1837. Tension over Canada-Maine boundary led to small “Aroostook War” 1838

    ii)Finally negotiations to reduce all tensions occurred btwn Sec of State Webster and British Lord Ashburton. 1842 Webster Ashburton treaty established new Maine border, GB refused to interfere w/ American ships-- relations improved

    iii)Tyler administration established first diplomatic relations with China, Americans received same privileges as British such as “extraterritoriality” and port use

    iv)Whigs lost White House in 1844 elections

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - America’s Economic Revolution

    1)The Changing American Population

    a)The American Population, 1820-1840

    i)Population dramatically increased, began to concentrate in industrial centers of Northeast and Northwest, provided labor force for factory system

    ii)Growth b/c of improvements in public health (decrease in number and intensity of epidemics), high birth rate, lower infant mortality rates

    iii)Immigration did not contribute greatly until 1830s b/c of Eur wars & US economic problems. Immigrant boom caused by lower transport costs, increased US economic opportunity + less econ opportunity in some Eur areas

    iv)Immigrant + internal migration led to growth of cities b/c agriculture in New England less profitable (some moved West also). By 1810 NY largest city

    b)Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860

    i)By 1860 26% of free state populations lived in towns or cities

    ii)Booming agricultural economy of west led small villages and trading posts to become cities. Benefited from Mississippi R, centers of Midwest trade

    iii)By 1860 American population greater than that of GB and approaching France and Germany. Urban growth from flow of ppl from Northeast farms (competition from Eur farms + Western farms) & influx of immigrants abroad

    iv)Majority of immigrants from Ireland and Germany. German industrial revolution had caused poverty, & b/c of collapse of liberal 1848 revolution. In Ireland unpopular English rule & “potato famine” of 1845-1849 

    v)Most Irish settled in eastern cities + became unskilled laborers (had little $, many were young women- domestic/factory work in cities). Most Germans moved to Northwest, farming or business in towns (many were single men)

    c)Rise of Nativism

    i)Some native-born Americans saw opportunity in immigration. Industrialists & employers wanted cheap labor, land speculators and politicians hoped would populate west + increase demand for goods, increase influence

    ii)Some (Nativists) hostile to foreigners and immigration. Some racist, some argued newcomers socially unfit and did not have sufficient standards of civilization, workers feared low immigrant wages would steal their jobs, Protestants feared Irish Catholics & Rome, many upset b/c voted Democratic

    iii)Tension and prejudice led to secret societies to combat “alien menace”, Native American Association 1837, 1845 Native American Party, peak in 1850s with combination in Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. Wanted to ban Catholics form office, restrict naturalization, force literacy tests for voting

    iv)Secret order known as Know-Nothings turned to party politics, after 1852 election formed American Party, success in 1854 East elections, declined after

    2)Transportation, Communications, and Technology

    a)The Canal Age

    i)1790-1820s “turnpike era”, but roads not adequate for nation’s growing needs

    ii)Traffic on large rivers such as Miss. and Ohio had been mainly flat barges that could not travel upstream, by 1820s steamboats and riverboats carried western and southern crops quickly, from New Orleans ocean ships to Eastern ports

    iii)Farmers and merchants unhappy b/c more direct route could lower transport costs and product costs. By 1820s economic advantages of canals had generated boom in expanding water routes to West. Too expensive for private companies, states of Northeast constructed them

    iv)NY’s Erie Canal began July 4, 1817 to connect Hudson R and Lake Erie. Opened 1825, tolls repaid construction costs, gave NY access to Great Lakes, Chicago, growing Western markets. NY now competed with New Orleans  

    v)Water transport system expanded when Ohio + Indiana connected Lake Erie & Ohio R. Increased white settlement, but primacy of NY power + hinterland control alarmed other Atlantic cities. Most attempts limited successes or failed

    b)The Early Railroads

    i)Railroads played secondary role in 1820s/30s, but laid groundword for mid-century surge. Emerged form technological (tracks, steam-powered locomotive) and entrepreneurial innovations

    ii)In 1830s no real rial system, most lines simply connected water routes and not links to other rail systems. Some states and corporations also limited their ability to compete effectively against canals

    c)The Triumph of the Rails

    i)After 1840 rail gradually supplanted canals. 1850’s trackage tripled. Most comprehensive and efficient system in northeast, but no region untouched

    ii)Trend toward consolidation of short lines into longer lines (“trunk lines”), connected Northeast w/ Northwest, from these other railroads traveled into interior of nation. Main Northwest hub was Chicago

    iii)Lessened dependence of West on Miss. R, weakening N + S economic cnxn

    iv)Capital to finance railroads came from private investors, abroad, and local governments. Fed govt gave public land grants to railroads, states for RRs

    d)Innovations in Communications

    i)Magnetic telegraph lines along tracks aided train routing, but also allowed instant communication btwn cities, linked N and NW at exclusion of S

    ii)1844 Samuel Morse first transmitted. Low cost of construction made it ideal solution to long-distance communication. By 1860 Western Union Telegraph company had been founded linking most independent telegraph lines

    iii)In journalism Richard Hoe’s 1846 steam cylinder rotary press allowed rapid and cheap newspapers, telegraph increased news speed. 1846 Associated Press formed to promote cooperate wire transmission

    iv)NY’s major papers Horace Greeley’s Tribune, James Bennett’s Herald, Henry Raymond’s Times. In 1840s/50s journalism fed sectional discord, most major magazines and newspapers located in North. New awareness of differences

    3)Commerce and Industry

    a)The Expansion of Business, 1820-1840

    i)Business grew b/c population, transportation revolution, and new practices

    ii)Retain distribution became more efficient w/ specialty stores in cities

    iii) Individual + small merchant capitalist companies dominated, but some larger businesses gave way to corporations- combined resources of large number of shareholders. Grew 1830s b/c states passed easy incorporation laws. Limited liability meant stockholder risked only value of investment if corp failed

    iv)Great demand for capital led businesses to rely on credit, but gold and silver standards of govt led to too little $, led private banks to issue less stable notes

    v)Bank failures frequent, insecure deposits. Credit difficulty limited growth

    b)The Emergence of the Factory

    i)Before War of 1812 most manufacturing occurred in private households in small workshops. Technology and demand led to factories- began in New England textile industry, large water-driven machines increased production

    ii)1820s factory system in shoe industry, by 1830s spread throughout Northeast. By 1860 value of manufactured goods roughly equal to agricultural goods. Largest manufacturers located in the Northeast, large amt of ppl employed

    c)Advances in Technology

    i)Developed industries relatively immature, fine items came from England. But by 1840s rapid machine technology advances, sophisticated textile industry 

    ii)Manufacture of machine tools (tools used to make machinery) improved by govt supported research for military (at Springfield Armory, MA)- turret lathe and universal milling machine in early 19th century. Later precision grinder

    iii)Better machine tools allowed for wide use of interchangeable parts, new uses

    iv)Industrialization aided by new energy sources: coal replacing wood + water in factories. Allowed mills to be located away from streams, easier expansion 

    v)Technological advances due to American inventors, increasing number of patents. Included Howe-Singer sewing machine, Goodyear vulcanized rubber

    d)Innovations in Corporate Organization

    i)Merchant capitalists still prominent 1840s, their clippers were fastest sailing ships afloat at time. By mid-century merchant capitalism declining b/c British competition stealing export trade, greater profits found in manufacturing than trade. Industry grew in NE b/c this merchant class could finance factories

    ii)By 1840s corporations spreading rapidly, especially in textile industry. Ownership moving form families and individuals to many shareholders

    4)Men and Women At Work

    a)Recruiting A Native Work Force

    i)In factory system’s early years recruiting labor difficult b/c of farms and small cities. New farmlands in Midwest + new farm machinery and techniques increased food production, decreased need for labor. Transport allowed importation of food from other regions—ppl in New Eng left for factories

    ii)Some recruitment brought whole families form farm to the mill w/ parents and children, but Lowell/Waltham system enlisted young women 

    iii)Labor conditions relatively good in early years of system, better than Eur. Lowell system used young, unmarried women but had good housing + food

    iv)Even well-treated workers found transition from life on farm to in factory difficult- regimented env’t, repetitive tasks. Women had little other choice b/c barred from manual labor, unthinkable to travel in search of opportunity

    v)Competitive textile market of 1830s/40s manufactures had difficulty maintaining high standards + conditions, wages fell. Union of Factory Girls Association struck twice, but both failed. Eventually immigrants filled jobs

    b)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 boom for manufacturers- large and inexpensive labor source. Little leverage with employers, lack of skills and native prejudice led to low, intermittent wages—great poverty

    ii)Irish workers predominated 1840s textile industry, arrival led to deteriorating working conditions. Less social pressure on owners to maintain decent env’t, piece rates instead of daily wages to speed production

    iii)Factories becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, dangerous places to work, hours long, wages declining. Still however, condition better than England and Eur

    c)The Factory System and the Artisan Trade

    i)Factory system displaced skilled artisans- had been embodiment of republican independent worker. Unable to compete w/ factory-made goods for fraction of artisan’s prices. Early 19th century began to form organizations and first labor unions to protect position. 1820s/30s trade unions developed in cities

    ii)Interconnected economies of cities made national unions or federations of local unions logical. 1834 National Trade’s Union

    iii)Labor leaders struggled w/ hostile laws and courts, common law made worker combination as illegal conspiracy. Panic of 1837 also weakened movement

    d)Fighting for Control

    i)Workers at all levels in industrial economy tried to improve position by making 10-hour workday or restricting child labor. Laws changed little

    ii)1842 MA Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v Hunt that unions were legal and strikes lawful, other states gradually agreed. Unions still largely ineffective 1840s/50s

    iii)Artisans + skilled workers unions more successful 1850s, but their unions more like preindustrial guilds that restricted admission to skilled trades

    iv)Working class of 1840s/50s had only modest power- limited by numerous immigrant laborers who could replace strikers, ethnic division led to worker disunity. Industrial capitalists had great economic, political and social power

    5)Patterns of Industrial Society

    a)The Rich and the Poor

    i)Commercial +industrial growth raised average income of Americans, but wealth distributed unequally – for slaves, Indians, landless farmers, many unskilled workers little change. Small % of families owned majority of wealth

    ii)There had always been wealthy classes from beginning but extent and character was changing. Newly wealthy merchants & industrialists settled in cities- found new ways to display wealth in mansions, social clubs, clothing…

    iii)Large population of destitute ppl in growing urban areas- little resources, often homeless. Included recent immigrants, widows, orphans, ppl w/ mental illness. Free blacks=only menial jobs, little pay, no vote, no public schools 

    b)Social Mobility

    i)Class conflict quelled b/c working standards declined but living standard improving, opportunity for social mobility for workers captured imagination

    ii)Geographic mobility more extensive than Eur, Western lands “safety valve” for discontent. Also travel form city to city to search for new opportunity

    iii)Opportunity to participate in politics expanded, ballot tied ppl to community

    c)Middle-Class Life

    i)Fastest growing group in America middle class. Economic development offered opportunity to own and work for businesses, land no longer=wealth

    ii)Middle class life most influential cultural form of urban America, good neighborhoods, women stayed in home to care for children, cast-iron stoves used to cook, diets improved w/ new access to meats, grains, dairy

    d)The Changing Family

    i)Movement of families from farms to cities where jobs, not land, most important.  Patriarchal system of inherited farm land disappeared

    ii)Work moved out of home and into shop, mill, factory. Family as principal economic unit gave way to individual wage earners. Even farms became commercialized b/c larger lands required more labor than just family

    iii)Changing family role led to decline in birth rate by mid-19th century. Deliberate effort to limit family size result of future planning. Secular, rational

    e)Women and the “Cult of Domesticity”

    i)Growing distinction btwn workplace and home led to distinction in societal roles of men + women. Women had long been denied legal + political rights, little access to business, less access to education at high levels

    ii)Middle class husband seen as wage earner, wife to engage in domestic activities- “guardians of domestic virtues”, central role to nurture young

    iii)“Separate sphere” female culture emerged. Women seen as having special qualities difft than men-custodians of morality and shape home to be refuge from competitive marketplace. Provide religious, moral instruction to kids

    iv)By 1840s few genteel women considered working, seen as “lower class”, owners rarely hired women anyway b/c of “cult”. But Working-class women couldn’t afford to stay home, many went into domestic service 

    f)Leisure Activities

    i)Leisure time scarce for all but wealthy, vacations rare, Sunday often only day of rest + Church. Reading expanded, new newspapers, magazines, books for affluent. Theaters, minstrel shows, public sporting events increasingly popular

    ii)Circus amazed ppl (PT Barnum), lectures also very popular

    6)The Agricultural North

    a)Northeastern Agriculture

    i)After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of Northwest. Rural population declined. Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and became laborers. Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable dairy products

    b)The Old Northwest

    i)Some industry (more than in South), industrial growth, before Civil War- much served agriculture or relied on agricultural products

    ii)Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market, international market for American food

    iii)Growth of factories + cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold most goods to ppl in Northeast + dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern industry found market for products in prosperous West

    iv)To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840s/50s, new farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow

    v)Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick + thresher revolutionized grain production

    vi)NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property

    c)Rural Life

    i)Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to share tasks difficult for single family (such as barn raising)

    ii)Rural life not always isolated, but less contact w/ popular culture and public social life than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South

     1)The Cotton Economy

    a)The Rise of King Cotton

    i)19th century upper South (VA, MD, NC) cultivated tobacco, but unstable prices and exhaustive of soil. By 1830s upper South began to grow wheat, tobacco growing shifted westward. Southern regions of South (SC, GA, FL) continued growing rice, Gulf some sugar—crops limited b/c hard to cultivate

    ii)Decline of tobacco in upper South led not to industrialization but growing of short-staple cotton- could grow in difft env’ts, w/ cotton gin now profitable. Demand for cotton growing b/c of rise of textile industry in GB 1820s/30s and New England 1840s/50s—new lands and expansion to meet new demand

    iii)Beginning 1820s production of cotton moved westward into Alabama, Mississippi, LA, TX, AK. By 1850s dominated economy

    iv)“Lower South”/ “Cotton Kingdom” attracted many seeking profits, also slaves

    b)Southern Trade and Industry

    i)Business classes and manufacturers unimportant, slow growth + mainly in upper South. Non-farm commercial sectors mainly served needs of plantation economy- brokers who marketed crops, acted as merchants and lenders

    ii)Primitive banking system did not allow for structures necessary for industrial development. Inadequate transport system: few roads, canals, nat’l railroads

    iii)Some southerners recognized economic subordination to north and advocated for economic independence- New Orlean James De Bow- De Bow’s Review

    c)Sources of Southern Difference

    i)Despite “colonial dependency” South did little to industrialize b/c agricultural system + cotton so profitable, little incentive to look beyond. Wealthy had already invested much of their capital into land + slaves

    ii)Lack of commercial growth also b/c traditional values distinctive to South discouraged cities + industry- elegance, more refined life than rapid growth

    2)White Society in The South

    a)The Planter Class

    i)Majority of ppl didn’t own slaves (only ¼ did), of those small % owned many

    ii)Planter aristocracy (those earning 40+ slaves and 800+ acres of land) exercised power and influence greater than their number. Political economic, social control. Saw themselves as aristocracy, though most wealth was recent

    iii)Growing crops profitable but as competitive and risky as industry in North

    iv)After struggling to reach their position in society they were determined to defend it—perhaps why defense of slavery and South’s “rights” stronger in booming lower South and weaker in more established areas

    b)“Honor”

    i)White males adopted code of chivalry that obligated them to defend their “honor”. Ethical ideal and bravery but also public appearance of dignity & authority- anything to challenge dignity or social station a challenge

    c)The “Southern Lady”

    i)Lives of affluent centered in home, little role in public activities or as wage earners. White men more dominant + women subordinate than in North- solitary farm life w/ no access to “public world” led to main role wife, mother

    ii)Less educational opportunities, higher birth rate and infant mortality rate

    d)The Plain Folk

    i)Typical person not planter + slaveholder but modest yeoman farmer. Mainly subsistence farming- lacked resources for cotton or to expand operations

    ii)Little prospect of bettering position b/c southern educational system provided poor whites with little opportunity to learn and therefore advance

    iii)Majority excluded from planter society, but opposition to elite limited mainly to “hill” and “backcountry” ppl who were secluded, unconnected to commercial economy, and loyal to whole nation and above sectional fighting

    iv)Most nonslave-owning whites lived in middle of plantation system and were tied to it, relied on planters for markets, credit, and linked thru kinship. Also large sense of democracy + political participation gave sense of cnxn to societal order. Cotton boom of 1850s gave them hope of economic betterment

    v)Belief that assault on one hierarchical system (slavery) would threaten another hierarchical system (patriarchy)

    vi)Even the south’s poorest members (“clay eaters”) who owned no profitable land did not offer great opposition to society—greatest factor binding all classes together was perception of race and members of ruling race

    3)Slavery: The “Peculiar Institution”

    a)Varieties of Slavery

    i)Called “peculiar” by Southerners b/c was distinctive from N., Western world

    ii)Slavery regulated by law, slave codes forbade property, congregation, teaching a slave. Anyone suspected w/ trace of African blood defined as black

    iii)Despite provisions of law variety within slave system b/c white owners handled most transgressions, conditions. Size of farm, # of slaves varied

    iv)Majority of slave-owners small farmers, but majority of slaves lived on medium + large plantations-less intimate owner/slave relationship

    b)Life Under Slavery

    i)Generally received enough necessities to enable them to live and work; lived in slave quarters. Slaves worked hard, women labored in fields w/ men and had other chores, often single b/c husbands sold away (single parents)

    ii)High death rate and less children survived to adulthood than whites

    iii)Some say material condition of slavery may have been better than some northern factory workers, less sever than slaves in Caribbean + South Amer. Law preventing slave import incentive to Southern elite to provide some care

    iv)Other cheap laborer (such as Irish) used to perform most dangerous and least healthy tasks to protect investment. Still overseers hired by owners often treated slave badly, and household servants often sexually abused by master

    c)Slavery in the Cities

    i)On isolated plantations masters maintained direct control. Slaves in cities were often hired out to do labor and unskilled jobs in cities + towns

    ii)In cities line btwn slavery + freedom less clear, white southerners viewed slavery incompatible w/ city life- sold slaves to countryside, used segregation

    d)Free African Americans

    i)About 250,000 free African Americans in slaveholding states before Civil War, most in VA and MD. Some had earned money and bought freedom for themselves and family- mostly urban blacks able to do this

    ii)Some slaves freed by master for moral reasons, other after master died

    iii)During 1830s state laws for slaves tightened b/c growing number of free blacks, abolition movement in North—made manumission of slaves harder

    iv)Most free blacks very poor, limited opportunity, only quasi-free

    e)The Slave Trade

    i)Transfer of slaves from one part of South to another important consequence of development of Southwest. Sometimes moved with master, more often transferred thru slave traders

    ii)Domestic slave trade impt to growth and prosperity of system, but dehumanizing- children separated from parents

    f)Slave Resistance

    i)Most slaves unhappy with being slaves, wanted freedom- but dealt w/ slavery thru adaptation (slaves who acted as white world expected him, charade for whites) or resistance (those who could not come to accommodate their status)

    ii)1831 Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led armed African Americans in VA, overpowered by state + federal troops. Only actual slave insurrection 19th century, but fear of slave conspiracies renewed violence + led to stricter laws

    iii)Some attempted to resist by running away, escaping to the North or Canada using underground railroad + sympathetic whites. Odds of success low

    iv)Resisted also by refusing to work hard, stealing from master

    4)The Culture of Slavery

    a)Language and Music

    i)Slaves incorporated African speech w/ English- called “pidgin”

    ii)Songs very impt- to pass time, some political, emotional, religious

    b)African-American Religion

    i)By 19th century nearly all slaves Christians. Black congregations illegal, most went to master’s church led by Baptist or Methodist white minister

    ii)A.A. religion more emotional, reflected influence of African customs and practices- chanting, emphasized dream of freedom and deliverance. Christian images central to revel leaders Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner

    c)The Slave Family

    i)Blacks deprived of legal marriage, but “nuclear family” dominant kinship model nevertheless. Up to 1/3 of black families broken apart by slave trade- led to strong extended kinship networks

    ii)Black women often bore children to white masters who didn’t recognize kids

    iii)Slaves had complex relationships w/ masters b/c depended on them for material means of existence, sense of security and protection. This paternalism was used as an instrument of white control, sense of mutual dependence reduced resistance to institution that only benefited ruling white race


    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Antebellum Culture and Reform

     1)The Romantic Impulse

    a)Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting

    i)Eurs felt that they alone at center of artistic world, but paintings w/in US popular b/c felt they had artistic traditions of their own: wonder of nation’s landscape, shoe power of nature thru wild outdoor scenes- “awe & wonder”

    ii)First great school of American painters from Hudson River School in NY: Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand. Hoped to express “wild nature” that existed in America but not Eur

    b)Literature and the Quest for Liberation

    i)Early 19th century American literature unpopular, British novelist Sir Walter Scott was. But even during 1820s great American novelist James Fenimore Cooper- evocation of wilderness, adventure, westward expansion- his “Leatherstocking Tales were The Last of the Mohicans & The Deerslayer

    ii)Cooper’s novels showed effort to produce truly American literature, ideal of independent individual with natural inner goodness, fear of disorder

    iii)Later American romantic works included: poet Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855)- celebration of democracy, individual liberty. Other works more bleak- Herman Melville’sMoby Dick (1851) of individual will but tragedy of pride and revenge, writer Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” (1845) established him as literary figure- humans exploring deeper world of spirit and emotions

    c)Literature in the Antebellum South

    i)Southern writers wanted to create American literary culture as well, but often produced historical romances for eulogies of plantation system of Upper South. Most famous William Gilmore Simms- believed duty of intellectual to defend southern lifestyle + slavery, sectional

    ii)Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper focused not on “cavaliers” but on ordinary ppl and poor whites

    d)The Transcendentalists

    i)New England writers who focused on distinction btwn “reason” and inner capacity to grasp beauty and emotional expression vs “understanding” and repression of instinct and imposed learning- goal to cultivate “reason”

    ii)Centered in Concord, MA. Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson- essays “Nature” (1836) argued self-fulfillment thru communion w/ nature, “Self-Reliance” (1841) called for individual fully explore inner capacity, unity w/ universe

    iii)Emerson a nationalist, lecture “The American Scholar” (1837), argued beauty from instant vs learning, therefore Americans can still have artistic greatness

    iv)Henry David Thoreau- ppl should seek self-realization by not conforming to society’s expectations & responding to own instincts. His Walden (1845) of him living simply in the woods, essay “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849)- govt that required violation of personal mortality not legitimate

    e)The Defense of Nature

    i)Some uneasy w/ rapid economic development, feared impact on natural world. Nature not just for economic activity (farmers, miners) or for study by scientists- but vehicle for human inspiration, realize truth within the soul

    f)Visions of Utopia

    i)Transcendentalism spawned communal living experiments

    ii)Brook Farm established by George Ripley 1841 in MA, create community that would permit full opportunity for self-realization, equal labor, share leisure

    iii)Conflict btwn individual freedom & communal society led to dissenters: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852) submission equals oppression, The Scarlet Letter (1850)- price ind. pay for not being in society

    iv)French philosopher Charles Fourier’s idea of socialist communities led Robert Owen 1825 to create experiment New Harmony in Ind, economic failure

    g)Redefining Gender Roles

    i)Transcendentalism + utopian communities led to some sense of feminism

    ii)Margaret Fuller’s Women of the Nineteenth Century (1844)- feminist ideas

    iii)Johm Humphrey’s Oneida Community “Perfectionists” rejected traditional ideas of family and marriage, communal raising of children. An Lee’s Shaker Society committed to celibacy, equality of sexes, God neither male or female

    h)The Mormons

    i)Mormons effort to create new and more ordered society thru Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Began upstate NY by Joseph Smith w/ his 1830 Book of Mormon. Began looking for sanctuary for follower “New Jerusalem”

    ii)Ideas of polygamy and secrecy led surrounding communities to fear them. Mob killed Smith, his protégé Brigham Young led exodus to new community in present Salt Lake City, Utah. Family structure very impt

    iii)Belief in human perfectibility, but not individual liberty. Organized, centrally directed society- refuge from disorder and insecurity of secular world

    iv)Members mostly ppl dislodged by economic growth & social progress of era

    2)Remaking Society

    a)Revivalism, Mortality, and Order

    i)Reform b/c rejection of Calvinist doctrines + preached divinity of individual (Unitarians, Universalism), and b/c of Protestant revivalism

    ii)New Light revivalists believed every individual capable of salvation. Charles Finney impt leader- predestination and human helplessness obsolete

    iii)Revivals in “burned-over district” in upstate NY (economic change b/c where Erie Canal had been built). Successful among those who felt threatened by change (including the prosperous worried about social changes), and women

    b)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Alcohol seen as responsible for crime, disorder, poverty. Large problem in West where farmers made extra grain into whiskey, in East as leisure activity

    ii)Earlier temperance movement revived by new reformers- 1826 American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 1840 Western Temperance Society. 

    iii)Growth led to factions: which alcohol to ban, method (law v. conscience)

    iv)Trying to impose discipline on society- Protestants vs Catholic immigrants for which drinking social ritual, disturbing to old residents of communities 

    c)Health Fads and Phrenology

    i)Interest in individual + social perfection led to new health theories, also threat to public health by cholera epidemics 1830s/40s led to city health boards

    ii)B/c boards found few solutions Americans turned toward nonscientific theories to improve health: “water cure (hydrotherapy)”, Sylvester Graha’s new diet theories, German “phrenology” 1830s thru efforts of Fowler brothers- shape and regions of skull impt indicator of character + intelligence

    d)Medical Science

    i)Science of medicine lagged behind other tech. + scientific advances b/c lack of regulation led many poorly educated ppl to be physicians, absence of basic knowledge of disease- vaccination, anesthesia result of luck vs study

    ii)W/o appetence of scientific methods + experimentation little learned about treating + transmission of disease

    e)Reforming Education

    i)Reform toward universal public education-by 1830 no state had system (some limited state versions [MA, ect.])- reflection of new belief on innate capacity of every person, society’s obligation to tap that, expose kids to social values

    ii)Greatest reformer Horace Mann- educated electorate essential to work free political system. Academic year lengthened, better teacher salaries + training

    iii)By 1850s tax-supported elementary schools in all states. Quality of education varied widely- Horace Mann’s MA professional + trained, elsewhere some barely literate, limited funding. West dispersed pop=less opportunity, South blacks barred from formal education, only 1/3 children nationwide in school

    iv)School reform achievements: US literacy rate highest in world, new emphasis led to new institutions to help handicapped- greater Benevolent

    v)School efforts to impose set of social values on children seen as impt in industrial nation- thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, respect for authority

    f)Rehabilitation

    i)“Asylums” for criminals + mentally ill. Antiquated jails replaced w/ new penitentiaries and mental institutions, jailing debtors + paupers decreased

    ii)Reform & rehabilitate inmates- rigid discipline to curb criminal “laxness”, solitary confinement to contemplate crimes. Overcrowding became problem

    iii)Idea properly structured institution to prevent moral failure + rescue ppl from failure led to orphanages, almshouses for poor, homes for “friendless” women

    g)The Indian Reservation

    i)Main US Indian policy had been relocation to make way for expanding white civilization. Reform led to idea of reservation- enclosed area for Indians to live in isolation from white society. Served economic interest of whites, but also attempt to teach ways of civilization in protected setting

    h)The Rise of Feminism

    i)Women 1830s/40s had to deal w/ traditional limitations + new role in family to focus energy on home and children, leave income-earning to husbands

    ii)Resentment over limitations. Leaders of women’s movement (Grimke sisters, Stowe sisters, Lucrecia Matt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dorothy Dix) began to draw cnxn btwn their abolitionist ideas and plight of women

    iii)1848 organized convention at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights- led to “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” stating all men + women equal, call for women’s suffrage. Many women in feminist movement Quaker 

    iv)Progress limited in antebellum yrs- only few became physicians, ministers 

    v)Women benefited from association w/ other reform movements (very impt abolition), but led some to consider their demands secondary to slave rights

    3)The Crusade Against Slavery

    a)Early Opposition to Slavery

    i)Early 19th century opposition by genteel lot. 1817 American Colonization Society- Virginians who wanted manumission & transportation out of country but also maintain property rights by compensating slaveholder—1830 Liberia

    ii)Failed b/c not enough private + state funding, too many slaves to be possible, opposition from 3rd/4th generation Africans far removed from society + lands

    iii)By 1830 movement losing strength- colonization not viable, cotton boom in Deep South + planter commitment to “peculiar institution” led to dead end

    b)Garrison and Abolitionism

    i)William Lloyd Garrison employed by antislavery newspaper (Genius of Universal Emancipation), but impatient w/ moderate tone + reform proposals

    ii)1831 founded his own Liberator, should look from black perspective, shouldn’t talk in terms of damage to white society. Reject “gradualism”, extend African Americans full rights of American citizens

    iii)Gained Northern following, founded New England Antislavery Society 1832, year later American Antislavery Society- membership grew rapidly

    iv)Growth b/c like other reform movements committed to unleashing individual human spirit, eliminate artificial social barriers

    c)Black Abolitionists

    i)Abolitionism appealed to Northern free blacks who were poor, had little access to education, suffered mob violence, only menial occupations

    ii)P of their freedom, realized own position in society tied to existence of slavery. David Walker came to be a leader w/ violent rhetoric, most blacks less violent speech- Sojourner Truth became antislavery spokesman

    iii)Greatest abolitionist Frederick Douglass- escaped slavery, lectured in NE. His newspaperNorth Star, autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Demanded freedom, but also social + economic equality

    d)Anti-Abolitionism

    i)White southerners opposed abolition, but also many in the North. Seen as threat to social system, feared war btwn sections & influx of blacks to North

    ii)Escalating violence against abolitionists 1830s- abolitionist headquarters “Temple of Liberty” in Philadelphia burned by mob, Garrison seized

    iii)Yet movement grew despite, suggesting members strong-willed + passionate, great courage and moral strength. Majority sentiment ambivalent to slavery

    e)Abolitionism Divided

    i)By 1830s abolitionists faced serious internal strains + divisions. Prompted b/c anti-abolitionist violence made some favor moderation, radicalism of William Garrison and his attacks on slavery, opposition to slavery, call for full equality for women, extreme pacifism, call for northern disunion from South. Moderates called for “moral suasion” of slaveholders, later political action

    ii)1839 Amistad- slaves seized ship tried to return to Africa. US navy captured ship. Supreme Court 1841 declared the Africans free 1

    iii)842 Prigg v. Pennsylvania ruled states need not enforce 1793 law requiring return of fugitive slaves, “personal liberty laws” in northern states forbade officials to assist in capture + return of runaways 

    iv)Nat’t govt pressured to abolish slavery in areas of federal govt jurisdiction, prohibit interstate slave trade. No political party ever founded, but “free-soil” movement to keep slave out of territories became popular

    v)Some abolitionists violent, American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of A Thousand Witnesses (1839) distorted images of slavery

    vi)Most powerful abolitionist propaganda Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1851)- combined sentimental novel w/ political ideas of abolitionist. Story of good, kindly blacks victimized by cruel system movement. Brought message to new audience, but also inflamed sectional tensions to new level

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Impending Crisis

     1)Looking Westward

    a)Manifest Destiny

    i)Reflected pride of American nationalism + idealistic vision of social perfection that had fueled reform movements- US destined by God &  history- to expand over a vast area that included North America. 

    ii)Extend liberty + US political system to others, but also racist justifications- superiority of “American” race, ppl of territories unfit for republican system

    iii)By 1840s idea of Manifest Destiny had spread thru “penny press” (mass audience).  Almost all but not everyone embraced- Henry Clay feared tension

    b)Americans in Texas

    i)1820s Mexican govt encouraged American immigration into Texas hoping to strengthen territory’s economy and increase tax revenues, buffer against Indians, would prevent US expansion- 1824 Mex bill offered cheap land

    ii)Thousands took deal, land suitable for cotton, soon American population larger than Mexican. American intermediaries to Mex govt brought settlers- most famous Stephen Austin. Later attempts to stem US immigration failed

    c)Tensions Between the United States and Mexico

    i)Tension btwn US settlers and Mex govt grew b/c immigrants continued cultural + economic ties to US, also b/c desire to legalize slavery after it was outlawed in 1830

    ii)Mid 1830s Mex General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power as dictator- new law increased power of nat’l govt over state govts, Austin imprisoned. 1835 Mex sent more troops, 1836 Texans declared independence

    iii)Santa Anna led large army into TX, Americans unorganized and easily defeated (Battle of the Alamo in San Antonio). Then General Sam Houston defeated Mexicans 1836 at Battle of San Jacinto, the captured Santa Anna signed treaty making TX independent.      [MXs living in TX called tejanos]

    iv)Texans wanted to be annexed by US, delegation sent to D.C. had expansionist support, but northerners feared large new slave state + empowering the south w/ more Congressional/electoral votes- incl. Andrew Jackson who feared sectional controversy, Pres Van Buren and Pres Harrison also ignored issue

    v)TX sought allies in Eur who wanted to check US power, Pres Tyler sought TX to reapply for statehood 1844, rejected by Senateissue in 1844 election

    d)Oregon

    i)Both GB and US claimed sovereignty over Oregon region. 1818 treaty allowed citizens equal access to area-“joint occupation” for 20 yrs

    ii)US interest grew 1820s/30s b/c desire to convert Indians and oppose Canadian Cath. Missionaries- native rejection Christianity=repudiating right to land

    iii)Large amt of Americans began emigrating to Oregon early 1840s, soon outnumbered GB’s settlers, destroyed native pop. Mid-1840s desire for annex.

    e)The Westward Migration

    i)Growth of TX and Oregon population part of greater movement of population westward 1840-1860. Southerners went mainly to TX, largest numbers from Old Northwest – majority sought mainly new economic opportunity

    ii)Some wanted riches after CA gold discovery 1848, others take advance of cheap land fed govt selling, others on religious mission (Mormons)

    f)Life on the Trail

    i)Most migrants gathered major depots in Iowa or MI, joined wagon trains led by hired guides. Main route Oregon Trail to CA + WA, others Santa Fe Trail

    ii)Trip very difficult, especially in mountain and desert terrain. Fear of conflict w/ Indians (although very little fighting occurred), trade developed w/ Natives

    2)Expansion and War

    a)The Democrats and Expansion

    i)Two candidates for 1844 election Whig Henry Clay and the Democrat/former president Martin Van Buren. Clay chosen, but many Southern democrats supported TX annexation, chose stronger support James K. Polk

    ii)Polk able to win b/c wished to occupy Oregon and annex TX, thereby appealing to both northern and southern expansionists

    iii)Outgoing Pres John Tyler saw election as mandate for annexing TX, did so in 1845. Polk proposed Oregon border @ 49th parallel, GB refused, led to US cry “Fifty-four forty or fight!”. 1846 GB accepted treaty w/ border at 49th parallel

    b)The Southwest and California

    i)Oregon treaty accepted readily by Pres b/c tension growing in Southwest with Mex. After TX became state 1845 dispute over border- TX and Polk believed it to be at Rio Grande, sent Gen Zachary Taylor to protect from invasion

    ii)Part of disputed area was New Mexico where Mex had originally invited American settlers into. Interest in California growing as well as US fur traders gave way to merchants and farmers arriving. Settlers dreamed of annexation

    iii)Polk wanted California and New Mexico for US. At same time ordered Gen Taylor to TX, ordered navy seize CA ports if Mexico declared war

    c)The Mexican War

    i)Polk attempted diplomacy by sending special minister to Mex to purchase lands. When Polk heard MX rejected offer sent Gen. Taylor’s army from Nueces R to Rio Grande R January 1846

    ii)May 1846 US declaration of war. Whig critics of war b/c thought Polk instigated, intensified as war cont and public aware of casualties and expense

    iii)American forces successful in capturing NE Mexico, Polk ordered offensive against New Mexico and California. Col Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe, then aided US forces in CA’s “Bear Flag Revolution”, captured CA

    iv)When Mex refused to cede defeat Polk sent Gen Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. After taking city new Mex govt took power that was willing to negotiate treaty. Some in US wanted to annex part of Mexico, but w/ election soon Polk wanted war ended quickly. Sent envoy Nicolas Trist for settlement

    v)Feb 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo agreed to where Mex ceded CA and NM to US and acknowledged Rio Grande boundary of TX. US agreed to pay Mex $15 million. Despite to Mex annexations Polk accepted treaty

    3)The Sectional Debate

    a)Slavery and the Territories

    i)Rep David Wilmot’s “Wilmot Proviso”: prohibit slavery from territories acquired by Mex- failed Senate. Polk extended Missouri Compromise line to territory on West coast. Alternative- “popular sovereignty”- states decided 

    ii)1848 election Polk didn’t run again. Dem candidate Lewis Cass, Whig General Zachary Taylor. Slavery opponents formed “Free-Soil” Party w/ Van Buren for pres. Showed inability of existing parties to contain slavery passions

    b)The California Gold Rush

    i)Taylor won 1848 election, pressure to resolve slavery in territories urgent b/c of events in CA- 1848 Gold Rush lead to dramatic increase in CA’s population, migrants known as “Forty-niners” mainly men

    ii)Gold Rush led to many Chinese migrants to Western US. Labor shortage in CA (due to ppl flocking to fold fields) created opportunities for ppl who needed work. Also led to exploitation of Natives, “Indian hunters”

    iii)Most didn’t find gold, but many sated in CA and swelled agricultural + urban populations. Population diverse- white Americans, Eurs, Chinese, Mexicans, free blacks, slaves of southern migrants—tension led territory to be a turbulent place, therefore pressure to create a stable and effective govt to bring order

    c)Rising Sectional Tensions

    i)Taylor believed statehood solution to territory issue b/c territories controlled by fed govt, but states govt could settle slave issue w/in own state

    ii)Taylor 1849 proposed CA (which had constitution banning slavery) and New Mexico apply for statehood, decide slavery w/in state. Congress refused b/c at time 15 free and 15 slave states existed, South feared admission of New states would upset balance, make South minority in Sen. Tempers rising

    d)The Compromise of 1850

    i)Henry Clay proposed compromise to Congress in 1850- admitted CA as free state, new territorial govts w/o slave restrictions, new tough fugitive slave law

    ii)First phase of debating comp led by older voices of Clay, Calhoun, Webster and broad ideal of settling slave issue once and for all 

    iii)After Clay proposal defeated, second phase of debate led by younger group: William Seward of NY opposed compromise, Jefferson Davis of MI saw slavery in terms of South’s economic self-interest, Stephen Douglas of IL

    iv)W/ death of Taylor in 1850 (who refused compromise until CA admitted), new Pres Millard Fillmore supported compromise, rallied N Whig support

    v)Douglas proposed Clay compromise split into smaller measured and voted on (difft sections could vote for measures that they supported), used govt bonds and railroad construction to gain support. Comp passed in September- less widespread agreement on ideals then victory of self-interest

    4)The Crisis of the 1850s

    a)The Uneasy Truce

    i)1852 pres election candidates very sectional. Dem Franklin Pierce, Whig Gen Winfield Scott, Free-Soil John Hale. Whigs suffered from massive defection from antislavery members, Democrats won

    ii)Pres Pierce tried to ignore divisive issues, but N opposition to Fugitive Slave Act after 1850 as mobs prevented slave catchers in cities. S angered, alarmed

    b)“Young America”

    i)Pierce supported Democrat’s “Young America”- saw expansion of US democracy throughout world as way of diverting attention from slavery

    ii)Efforts to expand entangled in sectionalism- attempts to capture Cuba opposed by antislavery northerners who feared administration trying to bring new slave state to Union, south opposed acquiring Hawaii b/c prohibited slavery

    c)Slavery, Railroads, and the West

    i)1850s settlers began moving into plains to areas suitable for farming, dislodge Indians from reservations there. Settlement led to issue of railroad and slavery

    ii) RR used to solve communication problems btwn old states + areas W of Miss. R., movement for transcontinental RR. Disagreement over whether eastern terminus should be in North’s Chicago or in the South. Jefferson Davis organized Gadsden Purchase 1853 from Mex to make S route possible

    d)The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy

    i)Stephen Douglas 1854 proposed opening Nebraska Territory for white settlement (to clear Indians in way of possible transcont. RR from Chicago)

    ii)Nebraska North of Missouri Compromise line, therefore had to be free

    iii)To gain passage Douglas proposed dividing Nebraska in two (Nebraska and Kansas) and each would decide slavery by “popular sovereignty” (state legislature), repealed Missouri Compromise entirely

    iv)Kansas-Nebraska Act passed 1854 w/ Pres Pierce support. Had immediate, sweeping consequences: divided and destroyed Whig Party (disappeared by 1856), divided northern Democrats (disagreed w/ repealing Miss. Comp)

    v)Ppl in both parties opposed to bill formed Republican Party 1854

    e)“Bleeding Kansas”

    i)Settlers from N + S settling Kansas, but for 1855 elections southerners from Missouri traveled to Kansas to vote. Pro-slavery legislature elected, legalized slavery. Free-state supporters in state formed own Const, applied statehood

    ii)Pro-slave forces burned down anti-slave govt, abolitionist John Brown then killed 5 pro-slave settlers (Pottawatomie Massacre). Led to armed warfare by armed bands, “Bleeding Kansas” became symbol of sectional controversy

    iii)1856 anti-slavery Charles Sumner of MA gave speech entitled “The Crime Against Kansas” critical of slavery defender Sen Butler of SC. Butler’s nephew Preston Brooks came to Sen, beat Sumner w/ cane- both became hero

    f)The Free-Soil Ideology

    i)Tension from economic, territorial interest, but also sectional vision of US

    ii)North believed in “free soil” + “free labor”. Slavery not so much immoral but wrong b/c threatened whites- every citizen had right to own property, control labor, access to opportunity. To them South closed, static society where slavery preserved entrenched aristocracy & common white had no opportunity

    iii)North growing + prospering, S stagnant + rejecting individualism, progress. Believed S conspiring to extend slavery thru whole nation and thus destroy N capitalism, replace it with closed aristocracy of S- “slave power conspiracy”

    iv)This ideology @ heart of Repub Party. Committed to Union b/c growth + prosperity central to free-labor vision, breakup= smaller size+ less econ power

    g)The Pro-Slavery Argument

    i)Incompatible Southern ideology result of desire for security after Nat Turner 1831 uprising, lucrative nature of cotton economy into Deep South and expansion there, growth of Garrisonian abolition movement against S society

    ii)Intellectual defense of slavery begun by Professor Thomas Dew, others later gave ideology name The Pro-Slavery Argument- said that S should not apologize for slavery b/c was a good thing, slaved enjoyed better conditions than industrial workers in N, allowed for peace btwn races, helped nat’l econ

    iii)Also argued slavery good b/c basis of way S way of life, which was superior to any other. N greedy, destructive, factories horrific, cities crowded + immigrant filled- but S stable, orderly, protected worker welfare

    iv)Defense also on biological inferiority of blacks, inherently unfit to care for themselves and be citizens. Clergy also gave religious + biblical justification

    h)Buchanan and Depression

    i)In 1856 pres election Dems wanted candidate unassociated w/ “Bleeding Kansas” so chose James Buchanan, Repubs chose John Fremont (platform against Kansas-Nebraska Act and of Whiggish internal improvements reflecting N economic aspirations), Know-Nothings chose Millard Fillmore

    ii)Buchanan won, but proved indecisive at critical moment in history. After taking office financial panic + depression hit country

    iii)In N Repubs strengthened b/c manufacturers, workers, farmers joined--depression seen as result of unsound policies of southern Dem administrations

    i)The Dred Scott Decision

    i)March 1857 Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v Sandford- Scott was slave who after masters death sued widow for freedom on grounds that master had moved residence to a free state, but John Sanford (brother of deceased owner, Sup C. misspelled name) claimed ownership of Scott

    ii)Defeat for antislavery movement. Supreme Court had multiple decisions, Chief Justice Roger Taney: Scott could not bring suit in fed court b/c was not a citizen, blacks had virtually no rights under Const, slaves property & 5th Amendment forbid taking property w/o “due process” and therefore Congress had no authority to pass law depriving persons of slave property in territories (thereby ruling Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional)

    iii)Did not challenge rights of state to limit slavery, but fed govt now powerless

    j)Deadlock Over Kansas

    i)Pres Buchanan endorsed Dred Scott decision, to solve Kansas problem supported admission to Union as slave state. 1857 new KS Const legalized slavery, but election of new legislature saw antislavery majority who put Const to ppl to vote on- widely rejected

    ii)1858 Buchanan pressured Congress to admit it as slave state anyway but Cong rejected, compromise allowed KS to vote on Const again—rejected again

    iii)1861, after sever S states had already seceded, KS entered Union as free state

    k)The Emergence of Lincoln

    i)In 1858 Congressional elections Repub Abraham Lincoln ran against famed Dem Stephen Douglas. Lincoln-Douglas debates attracted attention 

    ii)Lincoln’s attacks on slavery prominent- argued if nation didn’t accept blacks had human rights then it could accept other groups such as immigrant laborers could be deprived of rights too. Also, extension of slavery in territories would lead to lost opportunity for betterment by poor white laborers

    iii)Lincoln opposed slavery but not abolitionist b/c did not see easy alternative to slavery in areas where it existed. Prevent spread of slavery to territories, trust institution would gradually die out in areas where it existed

    iv)Douglas won but Lincoln gained following. Dems lost maj in House, kept Sen

    l)John Brown’s Raid

    i)1859 antislavery zealot from KS John Brown led followers to capture fort in Harpers Ferry VA hoping to lead slave rebellion. Uprising never occurred, Brown surrendered, tried for treason by VA and hanged

    ii)Convinced white southerners that they could not live safely in Union, believed raid supported by Repub party and that North now wanted slave insurrection

    m)The Election of Lincoln

    i)In Pres election of 1860 Dems torn btwn southerners (who demanded strong endorsement of slavery) & westerners (who supported popular sovereignty) 

    ii)After popular sovereignty endorsed by convention southern states walked out, eventually nominated John Breckinridge of KY, rest chose Stephen Douglas

    iii)Still others formed Constitutional Union Party w/ John Bell as candidate- endorsed Union but remained silent regarding slavery

    iv)Republicans tried to broaden appeal to earn majority in North who feared S blocking its economic interests. Platform endorsed high tariff, internal improvements, homestead bill, Pacific railroad, popular sovereignty but Congress nor territory legislatures could legalize slavery in territories

    v)Repubs chose Abraham Lincoln as nominee b/c moderate positions on slavery, relative obscurity, and western origins to attract votes from region

    vi)Lincoln won presidency w/ majority of electoral votes but only 2/5 of popular vote but failed to win maj in Congress

    vii)Election of Lincoln final signal for many southerners that their position in Union hopeless, within weeks process of disunion began

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Civil War

     1)The Secession Crisis

    a)The Withdrawal of the South

    i)South Carolina voted Dec 1860 to secede, by time Lincoln came to office six more states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, TX) seceded

    ii)Seceded states formed Confederate States of America Feb1861. These states started seizing federal property but at first lacked power to seize the military instillations at Fort Sumter, SC and For Pickens, FL

    b)The Failure of Compromise

    i)Compromise proposed by Sen John Crittenden of KY proposed constitutional amdts w/ permanent slavery in slave states, fugitive slave returned. At heart was plan to reinstitute Missouri Compromise Line for western lands

    ii)Repubs rejected compromise. Lincoln came to office, stated: Union older than Const therefore no state could leave it, supporting secession= insurrection

    c)Fort Sumter

    i)Forces in fort running out of supplies, Lincoln informed SC govt that supply ships were being sent. South feared looking weak, ordered General PGT Beauregard to capture fort. Bombarded April 12-12,1861. Fort surrendered

    ii)After defeat of fort Lincoln began mobilizing for war, but 4 more slave states also seceded- VA, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina. Other 4 slave states remained in Union- MD, Delaware, KY, Missouri)

    iii)Ppl in N&S had come to believe two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in US, both incapable of living together in peace

    d)The Opposing Sides

    i)North held all the important material advantages- N had more than double the population (manpower for army and work force) advanced industrial system to manufacture war material (S had to rely on Eur imports), N had better transportation systems + more railroads

    ii)Advantages tempered b/c at first South fighting defensive war on own land w/ strong support of population. N more divided and support shaky throughout

    2)The Mobilization of the North

    a)Economic Measures

    i)W/o Southern forces in Congress it enacted nationalistic program to promote econ development- Homestead Act of 1862 gave public land to settlers for small fee, Morrill Land Grant Act gave land to state govts to sell for $ for public education. High tariffs passed- boom to domestic industries, protect from foreign producers

    ii)To build transcontinental RR created the Union Pacific RR Company to build westward from Omaha + Central Pacific to build east from CA

    iii) National Bank Acts of 1863-1864 created new bank system- banks could join if they invested in govt, in turn could issue US Treasure notes as currency

    iv)Govt financed war thru taxes, paper currency, and borrowing. 1861 first ever income tax levied, govt “greenbacks” (paper money) issued (not on gold or silver standard), but mostly thru bonds sold to individuals and larger financial bodies

    b)Raising Union Armies

    i)To increase army Congress authorized enlisting 500,000 volunteers- produced adequate forces only briefly. By March 1863 govt had to pass national draft law (but ppl could avoid service by hiring someone in his place or paying $)

    ii)Ppl were accustomed to remote, inactive nat’l govt so conscription had widespread opposition- mainly from laborers, immigrants, “Peace Democrats”

    c)Wartime Politics

    i)Lincoln moved to assert his authority- apptd cabinet representing every faction of Repub party, used war powers of president and disregarded parts of Const- e.x. never asking Congress for declaration of war (believed declaration would recognize Confederacy as an independent nation)

    ii)Lincoln’s greatest problem was popular opposition to war mobilized by parts of Democratic Party (“Copperheads”) who feared agriculture and Northwest losign influence + deterioration of states rights by strong nat’l govt

    iii)Lincoln suppressed opposition by ordering military arrests of civilian dissenters, suspending habeas corpus, stating all ppl who discouraged enlistment or disloyal practices subject to martial law. Lincoln defied Supreme Court when ordered to release secession leader (Ex parte Merryman), military courts declared unconst after war (Ex parte Milligan)

    iv)In1864 presidential election coalition formed btwn Repubs & War Democrats in Union Party- nominated Lincoln. Dems nominated Gen George McClellan, platform for truce. N victories (e.x. Sept capture of Atlanta) led to Lincoln win

    d)The Politics of Emancipation

    i)Republicans disagreed on slavery- Radicals incl. Sen Charles Sumner wanted to use war to abolish slavery, Conservatives= gradual, less destructive process

    ii)Lincoln cautious of emancipation but momentum gathered behind it- 1861 Confiscation Act freed all slaves used for “insurrectionary” purposes, second Confiscation Act in 1862 freed all slaves of ppl supporting the insurrection

    iii)North began to accept emancipation as central war aim b/c nothing less would justify sacrifices of struggle, Radical Repub influence on the rise

    iv)Lincoln seized leadership of antislavery sentiment- Sept 1862 after success at Battle of Antietam issued Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in all Confederate areas (but not Union slave states). Established war not only to maintain Union but also to eliminate slavery

    v)1865 Congress ratified 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all parts of US

    e)African Americans and the Union Cause

    i)About 180,000 emancipated blacks and more free blacks from North served as soldiers and laborers for Union forces. At start of war African Americans excluded from war, but after Emancipation Proc joined in great numbers

    f)The War and Economic Development

    i)War slowed some growth by cutting manufactueres off from Southern markets and raw materials and diverting labor, but mostly the war sped economic development in the North

    ii)Econ growth from Repub nationalistic legislation + new sectors of economy. Difficult for workers though purchasing power declined, mechanization 

    g)Women, Nursing, and the War

    i)Women entered new roles b/c of need for money and labor needs to fill positions vacated by men

    ii)Nursing (previously dominated by men) taken up by women, staffed field hospitals thru US Sanitary Commission. Countered resistance from doctors by associating care with women’s role as maternal + nurturing wife and mother

    iii)Many found war liberating, seen as opportunity to win support for own goals. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded National Woman’s Loyal League in 1863- worked for abolition and suffrage to women

    3)The Mobilization of the South

    a)The Confederate Government

    i)Confederate const similar to US Const but acknowledged sovereignty of individual states, sanctioned slavery and made abolition nearly impossible. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi named president, led like Union by moderates of new Western aristocracy as opposed to entrenched Eastern elements

    b)Money and Manpower

    i)To finance war South needed to create national revenue system in society not used to tax burdens. Small banking system, little liquid capital b/c of investments in land + slaves. Govt requested funds from state govts who issued questionable bonds

    ii)1863 Income tax created but raised little revenue, borrowing from Eur and bonds to citizens unsuccessful. Turned to issuing paper money but created inflation of over 9,000% vs North’s 80%, no uniform currency

    iii)To raise military called for volunteers, but decline in enlistment led to April 1862 Conscription Act. N capture of Confederate lands led to loss of source for manpower, 1864 shortage so desperate draft widened but still ineffective

    c)States’ Rights versus Centralization

    i)States’ rights supporters obstructed war effort by limiting Davis’ ability to declare martial law and obstructed conscription

    ii)Confed did centralize power in S- bureaucracy larger than that of Washington, impressed slaves to work for military, regulated industry + profits

    d)Economic and Social Effects of the War

    i)War devastating on S economy- cut off planters from markets in S, overseas cotton sales more difficult, industries w/o large slave forces suffered. Production declined by 1/3, fighting on S land destroyed RRs, farmland

    ii)N naval blockade led to shortages of everything- agriculture had focused on cotton and not enough food to meet needs, few doctors b/c of conscription

    iii)Like in N, w/ men leaving farms to fight the role of women changed- led slaves and family, became nurses. Led women to question S assumption that females unsuited for certain activities and to be in public sphere. War created gender imbalance w/ many more women, unmarried + widowed sought work

    iv)Whites feared slave revolts + enforced slave codes severely, but many slaves tried to escape or resisted authority of women and boys overseeing plantations

    4)Strategy and Diplomacy

    a)The Commanders

    i)Most impt Union commander was commander-in-chief Abraham Lincoln- realized N material advantages, goal defeat of Confed armies,  not occupation

    ii)Lincoln had trouble finding a competent chief of staff for war- Gen Winifield Scott, Gen George McCllellan, Gen Henry Halleck. Finally found commander in Gen Ulysses S. Grant- goal to target enemy army + resources, not territory

    iii)Lincoln and Grant scrutinized by Congress’ Committee on the Conduct of the War chaired by OH Sen Benjamin Wade - complained of lack of ruthlessness by of N generals

    iv)Southern command centered on Pres Davis, 1862 named Gen Robert E. Lee principal military adviser (w/ Lee in field Davis controlled strategy). 1864 Gen Braxton Bragg named military adviser, later 1865 Confed Congress created position of general in chief, Davis named Lee, but Davis still decider

    v)Most commanders from both N & S had attended one of the US service academies- US Military Academy at West Point, US Naval Acad at Annapolis

    b)The Role of Sea Power

    i)Union had overwhelming naval advantage- used to enforce blockade of S coast, assisted Union army in field operations especially on large rivers

    ii)Blockade prevented most ships out of Confed ports. Confederates tried to break blockade w/ new weapons such as the ironclad warship the Merrimac, which the Union stopped with one of their ironclads the Monitor

    c)Europe and the Disunited States

    i)Judith P Benjamin was Confed secretary of state, counterpart in Washington was the great William Seward

    ii)At start of war ruling classes of England + France sympathetic to Confed b/c imported cotton for textile industries from S, wanted to see a weaker US, admired aristocratic social order of S. France waited to take sides until England did, English didn’t act b/c of popular support of ppl for the Union

    iii)S countered w/ “King Cotton diplomacy” arguing S cotton vital for these nations textile industries. Surpluses in these nations allowed S to be ignored, later imports from mills from Egypt and India

    iv)No Eur nation diplomatically recognized Confed, no nation wanted to antagonize US unless Confed seemed likely to win- never reached that point

    v)Still, there was tension btwn US and GB + France b/c these nations had declared neutrality. Also 1861 Trent affair over arrest of Confed diplomats aboard English steamer from Cuba, later crisis over sale of Brit ships to S

    d)The American West and the War

    i)Most states and territories of West remained loyal to Union except TX, although Southerners and S sympathizers active in organizing opposition

    ii)Fighting occurred btwn Unionists and secessionists in Kansas and Missouri. Confed William Quantrill led guerilla fighters, Union Jayhawkers in KS

    iii)Confed tried to ally w/ Five Civilized Tribes in Indian territory to recruit support against Union, Indians divided. Never formally allied w/ either side

    5)The Course of Battle

    a)The Technology of Battle

    i)Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat

    ii)Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt’s 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester’s 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon

    iii)Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war

    iv)Railroad impt in war where millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight

    b)The Opening Clashes, 1861

    i)First major battle of war occurred in northern VA btwn Union Gen Irvin McDowell and Confed Gen PGT Beauregard at First Battle of Bull Run

    ii)Union lost, forced to retreat to Washington, dispelled illusion of quick war

    iii)1863 Union army under Gen George McClellan “liberated” anti-secessionists in western VA, area admitted to Union as West Virginia 1863

    c)The Western Theater

    i)Stalemate in East led to 1862 military operations in West. April 1862 Union forced surrender of New Orleans, closed Mississippi R to Confed trade and took away South’s largest city and most impt banking center

    ii)Gen Ulysses S. Grant captured forts under command of Confed Gen Albert Johnston. In doing so Grant forced Confed out of Kentucky and Tennessee

    iii)Grant then marched south, fought forced of Gen Sidney and Gen Beauregard at Battle of Shiloh April 1862. Narrow Union victory allowed capture of several impt railroad lines vital to the Confederacy

    d)The Virginia Front, 1862

    i)Union operations 1862 directed by Gen McClellan (commander of the Army of the Potomac), he was controversial b/c often reluctant to put troops in battle

    ii)McClellan planned Peninsular Campaign- use navy to transport troops, attack Confed capital at Richmond from behind. Gen McDowell left to defend D.C. 

    iii)Then Confed Gen Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson looked as if planning to cross Potomac to Washington, defeated Union forces in Valley campaign, withdrew

    iv)Meanwhile, McClellan battled and defeated Confed Gen Joseph Johnston at Battle of Fair Oaks. Johnston replaced by Gen Robert E. Lee who battled McClellan at Battle of the Seven Days. Union able to advance near Richmond

    v)When McClellan delayed attack Lincoln ordered him to move to northern VA to forces under Gen John Pope. But as Army of Potomac moved Lee attacked Pope with his Army of Northern Virginia at 2nd Battle of Bull Run (August)

    vi)Lincoln replaced Pope and McClellan led all forces. Lee planned offensive, resulted in Battle of Antietam Creek- bloodiest single-day of war w/ 6,000 dead & 17,000 injured. Confed withdrew but McClellan could have defeated Lee w/ last assault. Lincoln relieved McClellan from command in November, his replacement Gen Ambrose Burnside relieved in December after failures

    e)1863: Year of Decision

    i)New commander of Army of the Potomac Gen Joseph Hooker attacked by Lee + Jackson at Battle of Chancellorsville, barely able to escape w/ army

    ii)While Union frustrated in East won impt victories in the West

    iii)In July besieged Confed stronghold at Vicksburg, MI surrendered to Grant

    iv)Union now controlled entire Mississippi R, Confederacy split in two- Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas cut off from other seceded states

    v)To divert Union forces away from Missippi and Vicksburg and to gain major victory on N soil to get English and French aid, Lee proposed PA invasion

    vi)New Army of the Potomac commander Gen George Meade battled Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Meade defeated Lee w/ surrender on July 4, same day as Vicksburg defeat

    vii) Weakened Confed forced now unable to seriously threaten N territory

    viii)In September Gen Braxton Braggfought Union army under William Rosecrans, Union defeated at Battle of Chickamauga

    ix)Bragg then fought remaining Union forces at Battle of Chattanooga (Tennessee) in November. Grant reinforced the Union army, Union won and occupied most of eastern TN and controlled important Tennessee River

    x)Confed could not only hope to win independence thru holding on and exhausting N will to fight, not thru decisive military victory

    f)The Last Stage, 1864-1865

    i)Beginning 1864 Grant named general-in-chief of all Union armies. Planned two offensives: use Army of Potomac in VA to fight Lee near Richmond, and use western army under Gen William Sherman to advance toward Atlanta

    ii)Grant’s Overland campaign in VA led Lee to win three battles (Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Battle of Cold Harbor)

    iii)Grant then decided to bypass Richmond to railroad center at Petersburg- strong defenses and reinforcement by Lee led to 9-month siege

    iv)In Georgia Gen Sherman fought Gen Johnston and his replacement Gen Hood, took Atlanta in Sept- electrified N + united Repub Party behind Lincoln

    v)Sherman defeated Confed at Battle of Nashville, while beginning his March to the Sea- sought to deprive Confed army of war materials and railroad but also break will of Southern ppl by burning towns and plantations along route

    vi)Sherman captured Savannah, GA in Dec, turned north thru SC and NC

    vii)April 1865 Grant’s Army of the Potomac captured vital railroad juncture in Petersburg. W/o rail access to South and cut off rom other Confed forces Lee no longer able to defend Richmond

    viii)Lee attempted to move army around Union in hope of meeting forces with Gen Johnston in North Carolina, but Union blocked and pursued him

    ix) Realizng more bloodshed was futile Lee met w/ Grant in town of Appomattox Courthouse, VA- surrendered there on April 9

    x)Nine days later Gen Johnston surrendered to Sherman in North Carolina

    xi)In military war was effectively over even though Jefferson Davis refused to accept defeat. He fled Richmond but was captured in Georgia

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Reconstruction and the New South

    1)The Problems of Peacemaking

    a)The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation

    i)Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property. Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop) had died, ppl wanted to preserve what was left

    ii)Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family, work. Almost none owned land or possessions

    b)Competing Notions of Freedom

    i)Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice, humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also desired

    ii)AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some wanted economic redistribution including land, others wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted independence from white control

    iii)Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal govt. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be tied to plantations

    iv)March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr

    c)Issues of Reconstruction

    i)Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for suffering rebellion caused

    ii)Repubs split btwn Conservatives and Radicals- Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confed leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property confiscation. Moderates in between

    d)Plans for Reconstruction

    i)Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan- favored recruiting former Whigs to Repubs, amnesty to white Southerners other than high Confed officials. When 10% of ppl took loyalty oath state govt could be established. Questions of future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid reunification

    ii)The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee rejoined under plan in 1864

    iii)Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 proposed governor for each state, when majority of ppl took allegiance oath constitutional convention could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confed leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed

    e)The Death of Lincoln

    i)April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth

    ii)Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a mild plan would not come soon

    f)Johnson and “Restoration”

    i)Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress in recess during summer 1865

    ii)Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance oath, Confed officials + wealthy planters needed special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had provisional governors, constitutional convention had to revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amdt. State govts, then readmission

    iii)By end of 1865 all seceded states has new govts, waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to recognize Johnson govts b/c public sentiment more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confed Alexander Stephens as Sen)

    2)Radical Reconstruction

    a)The Black Codes

    i)1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves, prevent farm ownership or certain jobs

    ii)Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866 passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens, gave fed govt power to intervene to protect rights of citizens

    iii)Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden

    b)The Fourteenth Amendment

    i)14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former Confed members couldn’t hold state or fed office unless pardoned by Congress

    ii)Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified amendment, only TN did so

    iii)S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional elections, could now act over President’s objections

    c)The Congressional Plan

    i)Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867, established coherent plan

    ii)TN readmitted, but other state govts rejected. Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in rebellion) for const convention that must include black suffrage

    iii)After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state legislature had to ratify 14thAmdt. By 1868 10 former Confed states fulfilled these conditions (14th Amdt now part of Const) and readmitted to Union

    iv)Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act (forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military orders except thru commanding general of army or w/ Sen approval)

    v)Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared military tribunals where civil courts existed unconst, Radicals feared same ruling would apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2 years

    d)The Impeachment of President Johnson

    i)Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868 Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1 vote

    3)The South in Reconstruction

    a)The Reconstruction Governments

    i)In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to ¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These restrictions later lifted, but Repubs kept control w/ support of many southern whites called “scalawags” (most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman), felt Repub better for their economic interests

    ii)“Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals or veterans) who moved South after war to take advantage of new opportunity

    iii)Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who held conventions and created black churches that gave them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates to const conventions, held office- although white charges of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false

    iv)Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there were charges of corruption and extravagance. But corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic expansion of govt services that put new strains on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed services previous govts had not offered: public education, public works, and poor relief

    b)Education

    i)Education improvement benefited whites and blacks- large network of schools for former slaves created (over white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school system led to great percentage of white and black population attending school 

    ii)System divided into black and white system, integration efforts failed

    c)Landownership and Tenancy

    i)Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but Pres Johnson and govt returned most confiscated land to returning plantation owners

    ii)White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on help of failed Freedman’s Bank

    iii)Most ppl did not own land during Reconstruction, worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop

    d)The Crop-Lien System

    i)Postwar years saw economic progress for African Americans, great increase in income. Result of black profit share increasing, greater return on labor

    ii)Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty- black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then grew little more afterward

    iii)Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit institutions such as banks returned, new credit system centered on local country stores 

    iv)Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien (claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in debt cycle

    v)Effects included leading some blacks who had gained land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to decline in agric economy

    e)The African-American Family in Freedom

    i)Major black response during Reconstruction was effort to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and family

    ii)Women began performing more domestic work + child caring, less field labor

    iii)Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of slave activities: domestic servants, laundry

    4)The Grant Administration

    a)The Soldier President

    i)Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868 election. Had no political experience, apptd incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption

    ii)Opposing Repubs formed faction called Liberal Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection

    b)The Grant Scandals

    i)Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and Repubs. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier construction company helping build Union Pacific RR. Company heads steered contracts to company costing fed govt and Union Pacific millions, stock given to Congress members to stop investigation

    ii)Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that “Grantism” brought corruption to govt

    c)The Greenback Question

    i)Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of 1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors wanted govt to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks (paper currency) 

    ii)Grant and other Repubs wanted “sound” currency based on gold that would favor banks and other creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation

    iii)1875 Repubs passed Specie Resumption Act- pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supply grew little

    iv)National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept money issue alive

    d)Republican Diplomacy

    i)Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William Seward and Hamilton Fish

    ii)Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”), annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against GB of violating neutrality by building ships for Confed. Treaty of Washington allowed for arbitration of claims

    5)The Abandonment of Reconstruction

    a)The Southern States “Redeemed”

    i)By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked as majority to overthrow Repubs. In areas of black majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity

    ii)Klan led by former Confed Gen Nathan Forrest. Worked to advance interest of those who would gain from white supremacy- mainly planter class and Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic pressure used

    b)The Ku Klux Klan Acts

    i)Repubs tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)- prohibited states from discriminating against voters on race, fed govt given power to prosecute violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations

    ii)Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC

    c)Waning Northern Commitment

    i)Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amdt many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves. Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into Democratic Party

    ii)Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this light, favored little govt intervention to help. Depleted treasury led ppl to want to spend little on freedmen, poor state govts cut back on social services

    iii)In Congressional elections of 1874 Dems won majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA

    d)The Compromise of 1877

    i)In 1876 elections Repubs sought new candidate to distance from corruption and attract Liberals back- chose Rutherford B Hayes, Dems chose Sam Tilden

    ii)Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress created special electoral commission to judge disputed votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won election

    iii)Resolution result of compromises btwn Repubs w/ southern Dems- Hayes would withdraw last fed troops from S if Dems abandoned filibuster of bill

    iv)“Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to help Dems grow business and industrialize, withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state govts

    e)The Legacies of Reconstruction

    i)Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such bitterness that solution not attempted for another century. Failure b/c of ppl directing it, unwillingness to infringe on rights of states and individuals

    6)The New South

    a)The “Redeemers”

    i)By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern state govt “redeemed” (white Dems held power).  “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants, industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”, social conservatism, economic development

    ii)Dem govts lowered taxes, reduced services (incl. public education)

    iii)By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and Redeemer govt commitment to pay off prewar and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster movement)

    b)Industrialization and the “New South”

    i)Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop industrial economy, New South of industry, progress, thrift

    ii)Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’ 1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows

    iii)New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco-processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also grew

    iv)Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886 greater integration with rest of country when changed its gauge

    v)However, growth of South merely regained what it had done before war, average income in the South substantially lower than that of North

    vi)Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force. Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill towns restricted by company w/ labor unions suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of community

    c)Tenants and Sharecroppers

    i)S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop-lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of ppl in S became tenant farmers

    ii)“Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence laws” (prevented ppl from raising livestock) led to decline in living self-sufficiently

    iii)Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to follow in 1880s/1890s

    d)African Americans and the New South

    i)Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress + self improvement, entered middle class by becoming professionals, owning land or business

    ii)This small rising group of blacks believed education vital to future of race- supported black colleges

    iii)Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington (founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win respect of white population by adopting middle class standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement and economic gains to earn recognition

    e)The Birth of Jim Crow

    i)Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th & 15th Amdts (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented state discrimination but not private organizations of individuals)

    ii)Court validated separation of races- Plessy v Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were equal.Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)- laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable school for blacks existed

    iii)White policies shifted from subordination to segregation- black voting rights had been used by Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when poor white farmers saw this they sought to disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amdt thru “poll tax”/property requirement or “literacy”/understanding test

    iv)Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynchings, ect) to inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti-lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to pass national law enabling fed got to punish those responsible for lynchings

    v)White supremacy diluted class animosities btwn poor whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played secondary role to race, distracting ppl from social inequalities that affected blacks and whites

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Conquest of the Far West

     1)The Societies of the Far West

    a)The Western Tribes

    i)Some dislocated eastern tribes in “Indian Territory”, others western tribes such as Pueblos had permanent settlements/farms + interaction w/ Spanish & Mexicans- caste system over other Ind tribes (genizaros=Ind w/o tribes)

    ii)Plains Indians- some nomadic, some farmers. Many (including Sioux) hunted buffalo as main source of food + materials

    iii)Warriors unable to defeat white settlers b/c disunited, internal conflict, disease

    b)Hispanic New Mexico

    i)American capitalist integration led Spanish-speaking to erosion of communal society + economies, land aristocracy from Santa Fe + Span/Mex peasants

    ii)Territorial govt in 1850, in 1870s govt dominated by “territorial ring” where business ppl took advantage of impending statehood, used fed money for profit

    iii)Arrival of RRs in in SW during 1880s/1890s brought new ranching, farming, mining brought new Mexican migrants

    c)Hispanic California and Texas

    i)Most Spanish missions that employed Ind as near slaves until 1830s. White settlers expelled Hispanic californios from the land. Market for cattle allowed some rancheros to continue to own land, but most Mexs became working class

    ii)In Texas Mexs also unable to compete with enormous Anglo-American ranching kingdoms- most relegated to unskilled farm + industrial labor

    d)The Chinese Migration

    i)After 1848 gold rush, Chinese migration dramatically increased, settling mostly in CA. White sentiment soon turned negative b/c Chinese industrious and successful

    ii)Chinese excluded from gold mining by CA 1852 “foreign miner tax”, other laws 1850s discouraged immigration—Chinese began to work on transcontinental Central Pacific RR

    iii)After RR completion 1869 many Chinese moved to cities- formed “Chinatowns” w/ benevolent societies, “tongs”-secret criminal societies

    iv)Many Chinese occupied lower jobs- unskilled laborers. Many started laundries

    e)Anti-Chinese Sentiment

    i)“Anti-coolie” clubs in 1860s/1870s sought ban on employing Chinese, formed b/c some whites felt Chinese laborers accepted low wages + undercut unions

    ii)In CA, Democratic Party + Denis Kearney’s Workingmen’s Party attacked Chinese interest- based on economic tension, cultural + racial- “inassimilable”

    iii)1882 Congress responded to pressure, passed Chinese Exclusion Act- halted Chinese migration, barred naturalization- aimed to help “American” labor

    f)Migration from the East

    i)Extremely great postwar migration to empty and settled areas alike. Most white Anglo-Americans, others foreign-born Eur immigrants—attracted by metal deposits, lands for farming and ranching

    ii)Fed land policies encouraged settlement: Homestead Act of 1862 gave 160 acres of land for small fee, in return would improve land, create new markets mechanization + rising farm costs forced some small farmers off this land

    iii)In response Congress passed Timber Culture Act (1863), Desert Land Act (1877), Timber and Stone Act (1878) to allow ppl to buy/develop more cheap land

    g)1860s saw development of territorial govt, statehood soon followed for most

    2)The Changing Western Economy

    a)Labor in the West

    i)Labor shortage led to higher wages than in East, but job instability (after harvest or RR completion, ect) led to communities of jobless in cities. Workers mostly mobile, single men

    ii)Working class highly multiracial, but whites generally occupied higher job levels (management + skilled labor) than nonwhites in unskilled labor. Dual labor system reinforced by racial assumptions that held nonwhites more suited for worse conditions + harder labor- allowed whites greater social mobility

    b)The Arrival of the Miners

    i)First Western economic boom came from mining strikes in 1860s-1890s. During Pike’s Peak strike 1858 mining camps blossomed into “cities”, later Comstock Lode silver found in Nevada, 1874 Black Hill strike in Dakota Terr.

    ii)After surface wealth used up, eastern capitalists often bought claims of pioneer prospectors, began retrieving from deeper veins w/ corporate mines

    iii)In boom towns vigilantism used to combat outlaws. Men outnumbered women, prostitution very common. After boom most remained in town as wage laborer in corporate mine

    c)The Cattle Kingdom

    i)Economy also affected by the open range- provided cattle raisers w/ free lands to graze, RRs gave access to markets. Largest herds found in Texas

    ii)After success of the long drive proven, easier routes to access rest of country sought- market facility grew up at Abilene, KS as railhead of cattle kingdom. Agricultural development in 1870s in W. Kansas led other routes to grow

    iii)As settlement of plans increased new forms of competition emerged- sheep breeders used range to feed flock, farmers from the East fenced in their lands—“range wars” developed btwn ranchers and farmers

    iv)Large profits in cattle business led cattle economy to become more corporate. This expansion onto already shrunken ranges from RRs and farmers became overstocked, and combined with bad winters from 1885-1887, thousands of cattle died—open-range industry never recovered, but ranches survived + grew

    v)Although cattle industry mostly male, large number of women led them to have impt political presence- women won vote earlier in West than rest of nation (some states to swell population for statehood, bring “morals” to politics)

    3)The Romance of the West

    a)The Western Landscape

    i)Painters of the “Rocky Mountain School
    “ celebrated the West in grandiose paintings that attracted great crowds- emphasized ruggedness and variety of region, awe toward land that had been previously expressed by Hudson River valley painters

    b)The Cowboy Culture

    i)Cowboy life romanticized in contrast to stable, orderly world of the East. Owen Wister’sThe Virginian (1902) showed freedom from social contraints, only one example of magazine articles, novels, ect. about Western life

    c)The Idea of the Frontier

    i)Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Mark Twain wrote about (mostly early) frontier life is Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

    ii)Painter/sculptor Frederic Turner captured romance of West in his works comparing it to the East

    iii)Theodore Roosevelt wrote history of West- The Winning of the West (1890s)

    d)Frederick Jackson Turner

    i)The historian Turner contended that by 1890s no single frontier line existed and the end of an era had come. Expansion has stimulated individualism, nationalism, democracy, American uniqueness. Mirrored sentiments of US

    ii)Turner inaccurate and premature- ppl had always lived in “empty, uncivilized” lands and had been displaced, also in coming years much land still available

    e)The Loss of Utopia

    i)With nation feeling that there had been a “passing of the frontier”, ppl felt opportunities closing and with it ability to control own destiny

    ii)“Myth of the garden” (West as Garden of Eden) lost

    4)The Dispersal of the Tribes

    a)White Tribal Policies

    i)Traditional policy was to regard tribes as nations and wards of the president, therefore negotiate treaties w/ them ratified by Senate. As white settlers demanded more lands during 1850s led ppl to abandon idea of one large Indian Territory to policy of “concentration”- each tribe given negotiated reservation

    ii)In 1867 after bloody conflicts Congress created Indian peace Commission to make permanent Indian policy- move all Plains Indians into Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas. Failed b/c of poor administration by Bureau of Indian Affairs & killing of buffalo herds by whites + reduced Indian ability to resist white advance -led to violence

    b)The Indian Wars

    i)1850s-1880s showed nearly constant fighting as Indians struggled against threats to their civilizations- during Civil War conflict w/ Indians in Old Northwest and the Southwest

    ii)Not only military that threatened tribes; white vigilantes participated in “Indian hunting” killed tribes for sport or bounties, wanted retaliation after raids

    iii)Treaties made in 1867 saw temporary lull, but influx of settlers in 1870s penetrated Dakota Territory + change in govt policy to not recognize tribes as independent nations led to violence in 1875

    iv)Sioux rose up under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the Black Hills- at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 Indians killed Colonel George Custer and regiment, Indians became disunited after and forced to return to reservation

    v)Nez Perce Indians under Chief Joseph 1877 attempted to flee Idaho for Canada but caught by soldiers, forced to travel for years afterward to difft areas

    vi)Last organized resistance came from Apaches under Chiefs Mangas Colorados, Cochise, and finally Geronimo- unwilling to bow to white pressures Geronimo conducted raids on white outposts (“Apache Wars”), surrendered 1886

    vii)Atrocities against Indians had prompted much fighting- in 1890 Sioux religious revival under the prophet Wovoka led to “Ghost Dance” that celebrated vision of whites leaving + buffalo return- in Dec troops tried to round up some Indians at Wounded Knee, SD which turned into an Indian massacre

    c)The Dawes Act

    i)Efforts taken to destroy reservation + communal land ownership in order to force Indians to become farmers, landowners - abandon culture for white civili.

    ii)Dawes Act of 1887 eliminated tribal ownership and gave land to individual owners. Bureau of Indian Affairs promoted assimilation, sometimes by removing children and sending them to white boarding schools, build churches

    iii)Indians unprepared for capitalist individualism + corrupt administration led to abandonment of program, later Burke Act of 1906 also failed to divide lands

    5)The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer

    a)Farming on the Plains

    i)Before Civil War lands accessible only by wagon, transcontinental RR completed 1869 and subsidiary lines built afterward w/ land grants and loans

    ii)Easier access to Great Plains spurred agriculture- RRs offered cheap land and credit, rainfall allowed farming

    iii) Farmers faced problems: enclosing land expensive, but 1873 Joseph Glidden and IL Ellwood invited barbwire; arid land needed irrigation, especially after 1887 when series of dry spells followed- during 1880s booms credit easy, but arid weather of late 1880smany farmers unable to pay debt and forced to abandon farms

    b)Commercial Agriculture

    i)Commercial farmers specialized in cash crops sold on national/international markets. Relied on town stores for supplies and food, dependent on bankers’ interest rates, railroad freight rates, and US/Eur markets

    ii)During late 19th century agriculture became an international business- US commercial farmers relied on risky world market to absorb surpluses

    iii)Overproduction in 1880s led to price drops, economic crisis for small farmers

    c)The Farmers’ Grievances

    i)Farmers resented railroads and their higher freight rates for farm goods, credit institutions for their high interest rates and payments that had to be made in years when currency scarce, and prices that they had to pay for goods and the money they received- believed manufactures keeping farm good prices low

    d)The Agrarian Malaise

    i)Farmers isolated, lacked education for children, proper medical facilities, and community- this sense of obsolescence lead to growing malaise among farmers that created great political movement in 1890sSturdy yeoman farmers had viewed themselves as the backbone of American life, now they were becoming aware that their position was declining in relation to the rising urban-industrial society in the East

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Industrial Supremacy

     1)Sources of Industrial Growth

    a)Industrial Technologies

    i)Most impt tech development was new iron + steel production techniques- Henry Bessemer and William Kelly invented process to turn iron to steel, possible to produce large quantities and dimensions for construction, RRs

    ii)Steel industry emerged in Pennsylvania and Ohio (Pittsburgh notably)- iron industry existed, fuel could be found in PA coal

    iii)New transportation systems emerged to serve steel industry- freighters for the Great Lakes, RRs used steel to grow + transported it (sometimes merged w/ one another). Oil industry also grew b/c of need to lubricate mill machinery

    b)The Airplane and the Automobile

    i)Development of automobile dependent upon growth of two technologies: creation of gasoline from crude oil extraction, and 1870s Eur development of “internal combustion engine”. By 1910 car industry major role in economy

    ii)First gas-car built by Duryea brothers 1903, Henry For began production 1906

    iii)Search for flight by Wright Bros lead to famous 1903 flight. US govt created National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 1915 to match Eur research

    c)Research and Development

    i)New industrial technologies lead companies to sponsor own research- General Electric established first corp lab 1900, marked decentralization of govt-sponsored research. At same time cnxn began btwn university research + needs of industrial economy- partnership btwn academic + commercial

    d)The Science of Production

    i)Principles of “scientific management” began to be employed- fathered by Frederick Taylor who argued employers subdivide tasks to decrease need for highly skilled workers, increase efficiency by doing simple tasks w/ machines

    ii)Emphasis on industrial research led to corporate labs (e.g. Edison’s Menlo Park)

    iii)Most impt change in production was mass production + assembly line. First used by Henry Ford in automobile plant 1914- cut production time, prices

    e)Railroad Expansion

    i)Industrial development b/c of RR expansion- gave industrialists access to new markets + raw materials, spent large sums on construction and equipment

    ii)Possible b/c of govt subsidies, investment capital from abroad, and combinations of RRs by Cornelius Vanderbilt, James Hill, Collis Huntington

    f)The Corporation

    i)Modern corp emerged after Civil War when industrialists realized no person or group of limited partners able to finance great ventures

    ii)Businesses began to sell stock, appealing b/c “limited liability” meant lost only amt of investment + not liable for debts- allowed vast capital to be raised

    iii)Began in RR industry, spread to others- in steel industry Andrew Carnegie struck deals with RRs, bought up rivals, purchased coal mines w/ partner Henry Clay Frick controlled steel process from mine to market

    iv)Financed undertaking by selling stock. Bought out 1901 by JP Morgan who formed United States Steel- controlled 2/3 of nation’s steel production

    v)Corporate organizations developed new management techniques- division of responsibilities, control hierarchy, cost-accounting procedures, and “middle manager” btwn owners and labor introduced. Consolidation now a possibility

    g)Consolidating Corporate America

    i)Consolidation occurred thru “horizontal integration” (forming competing firms into single corporation) and “vertical integration” (control production from raw materials to distribution). Also thru pool arrangements (most failed)

    ii)Most famous corp empire John D Rockefeller’s Standard Oil- thru horizontal & vertical integration came to control 90% of refined oil in US

    iii)Consolidation used to cope w/ “cutthroat competition”- feared too much competition lead to instability, best was to eliminate/absorb competition

    h)The Trust and the Holding Company

    i)Failure of pools (informal agreements to stabilize rates, divide markets) led to less cooperation and more centralized control- “trust” emerged (stock transferred to group of trustees who made all decisions but shared profits)

    ii)Beginning w/ NJ 1889 states changed laws to allow companies to buy other companies, trust unnecessary—“holding companies” emerged as corporate body to buy up stock and establish formal ownership of corporations in trust

    iii)End of 19th cent 1% of corps controlled 33% of manufacturing, system where power in hands of a few men- NY bankers (JP Morgan), industrialists (Rockefeller), ect. 

    iv)Substantial economic growth ultimately from this arrangement- costs cut, industrial infrastructure formed, new markets stimulated, new unskilled jobs

    2)Capitalism and Its Critics

    a)The “Self-Made Man”

    i)Defenders argued capitalist economy expanding opportunities for individual advancement, and some tycoons were self-made men. But most came to be wealthy as a result of ruthlessness, arrogance, corruption (financial contributions to political, parties)

    ii)Many industrialists were modest entrepreneurs trying to carve role for their business in an unstable economy & fragmented, highly competitive industries

    b)Survival of the Fittest

    i)Assumptions that wealth earned thru hard work and thrift and that those who failed earned their failure became basis of Social Darwinism- only fittest individuals survived and flourished in the marketplace

    ii)English philosopher Herbert Spencer championed theory, in America William Graham Sumner promoted similar ideas- absolute freedom to struggle, compete, succeed, and fail

    iii)Appealed to businessmen b/c justified their tactics- efforts to raise wages by labor thru unions or govt regulation would fail, laws of supply and demand and “invisible hand” or market forces would determine wages and prices

    iv)Yet tycoons themselves thru monopolies tried to eliminate competition

    c)The Gospel of Wealth

    i)Gospel of Wealth (1901) by Andrew Carnegie advocated idea that w/ great wealth came great responsibility to use riches to advance social progress

    ii)Author Horatio Alger promoted stories of individual success in his works- anybody could become rich thru work, perseverance, and luck

    d)Alternative Visions

    i)Groups emerged challenging corporate and capitalistic ethos

    ii)Sociologist Lester Ward in Dynamic Sociology (1883) argued natural selection didn’t shape society, and active govt in positive planning best for society. Skeptical of laissez-fire, ppl should intervene to serve their needs

    iii)Famous dissidents emerged to challenge ideas: Socialist Labor Party founded 1870s by Daniel De Leon; Henry George and his Progress and Poverty (1879) argued poverty due to wealth of monopolists and their high land values; Edward Bellamy and his Looking Backward (1888) spoke of “fraternal cooperation” and of future society where govt distributed wealth equally

    e)The Problems of Monopoly

    i)Few questioned capitalism itself but movement grew in opposition to monopolies + economic concentrations- seen as creating artificially high prices, unstable economy. Recessions and havoc 1873 every 5-6 yrs

    ii)Resentment increased b/c of new class of conspicuously wealthy ppl who lived opulent lifestyle- flagrant wealth in face of 4/5 who lived modestly

    iii)Standard of living rising for everyone, but gap btwn rich + poor growing

    3)Industrial Workers in the New Economy

    a)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Industrial work force grew late 19th century b/c of migration to industrial cities from both rural areas and foreign immigration- late century most migrants from England, Ireland, N Eur, by end shit toward S and E Europeans

    ii)Immigrants came to escape poverty, lured by opportunity and advertisements by companies. Ethnic tensions increased b/c of job displacement, competition

    b)Wages and Working Conditions

    i)Average standard of living rose but wages low, little job security b/c boom-bust cycle, monotonous tasks that required little skill, long hours in unsafe conditions- loss of control over work conditions seen as worst part of factory labor as corporate efficiency and managers centralized workplace

    c)Women and Children at Work

    i)Decreasing need for skilled labor led to increase use of women and children who could be paid lower than men

    ii)Most women were young immigrants, concentrated in textile industry and domestic service. Some single, others supplemented husband’s earnings

    iii)Children employed in agriculture and factories w/ little regulation, dangerous

    d)The Struggle to Unionize

    i)Labor attempted to fight conditions by creating large combinations (unions) but had little success by century’s end. Fist attempt to federate separate unions came 1866 w/ National labor Union (disintegrated after Panic of 1873)

    ii)Unions faced difficulty during 1870s recessions b/c of high unemployment, hostility of middle class

    e)The Great Railroad Strike

    i)Railroad Strike of 1877 began after 10% wage cut announced. Strikers disrupted rail service, state militia mobilized and in July President Hayes ordered some federal troops. Strike collapsed eventually after many deaths

    ii)Showed disputes could no longer be localized in national economy, depth of resentment toward employers, frailty of labor movement

    f)The Knights of Labor

    i)First effort at national labor organization 1869 Noble Order of the Knights of Labor under Uriah Stephens- lacked strong central direction but local “assemblies” championed 8-hour workday, end to child labor, but also interested in long-range reform of economy. Allowed women to join

    ii)During 1870s under Terence Powderly rapid expansion, but by 1890 Knights had collapsed due to failure of strikes in the Gould railway system

    g)The AFL

    i)1880s American Federation of Labor created, became most impt +enduring national labor group- collection of autonomous craft unions of skilled workers

    ii)Led by Samuel Gompers- goal to secure greater share of capitalism’s material rewards to workers, opposed fundamental economic reform

    iii)Wanted creation of national 8-hour work day, national strike May 1, 1886 to achieve goal- in Chicago violence broke out btwn strikers and police after deaths in Haymarket Square bombing- “anarchism” became widely feared by middle class, associated it with radical labor

    h)The Homestead Strike

    i)The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (craft union in AFL) held large amt of power in steel industry b/c of reliance on skilled workers

    ii)By 1880s Efficient Carnegie process led management to want more control over labor + needed fewer skilled workers

    iii)Carnegie and Henry Frick began to cut wages at Homestead plant in Pittsburgh to break union. 1892 strike called after company stopped consulting the Amalgamated, Pinkerton Detective Agency security guards brought in as strikebreakers- were attacked, National Guard of PA called in

    iv)Eventually protected strikebreakers ended strike, by 1900 Amalgamated had lost nearly every major steel plant

    i)The Pullman Strike

    i)Strike at Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 after Pullman cut wages. Workers began to strike w/ the American Railway Union of Eugene V. Debs

    ii)Within few days thousands of railway workers struck and transportation nationwide frozen. General Manager’s Association asked Pres Grover Cleveland to send in federal troops b/c passage of mail being blocked

    iii)Pres complied and sent 2,000 troops to protect strikebreakers. Strike collapsed

    j)Sources of Labor Weakness

    i)Late 19th century labor suffered many losses- wages rose slowly, whatever progress made not enforced 

    ii)Reasons for failures included: leading labor organizations represented only small percentage of industrial work force; ethnic tensions; many immigrant workers planned to stay in country for short while and moved very often- eroded willingness to organize, believed not part of permanent working class; couldn’t match efforts of powerful + wealthy corporations


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Age of the City

    1)The Urbanization of America

    a)The Life of the City

    i)Urban pop increased 7x in 50 yrs after Civil War, by 1920 majority of ppl lived in urban areas. Occurred partly b/c of natural growth, mostly b/c immigrants and rural ppl flocked b/c offered better paying jobs than rural areas, cultural experiences available, transportation to cities easier than ever

    b)Migrations

    i)Late 19th century saw geographic mobility- Americans left declining Eastern agricultural regions for new farmlands in West and for cities of East

    ii)Women moved from farms where mechanization decreased their value; Southern blacks moved to cities to escape rural poverty, oppression, violence

    iii)Largest source of urban growth immigrants: until 1880s mainly educated N Europeans who were sometimes skilled laborers, businessmen or moved West to start farms. After 1880s largely S and E Europeans, lacked capital (like poor Irish immigrants before Civil War) so took mainly unskilled jobs

    c)The Ethnic City

    i)Not only was amt of immigrants tremendous, but so was diversity of immigrant population (no single national group dominated)

    ii)Most immigrants were rural ppl so formed close-knit ethnic communities to ease transition-offered native newspapers, food, links to national past

    iii)Assimilation of ethnic groups into capitalist economy depended on values of community, but also prejudices among employers, individual skills and capital

    d)Assimilation

    i)Most immigrants had desire to become true “Americans” and break with old national ways. Particular strain w/ women who in America shared more freedoms- adjust to more fluid life of American city

    ii)Assimilation encouraged by Natives thru public schools and employer requirement to learn English, religious leaders

    e)Exclusion

    i)Immigrant arrival provoked many fears + resentments of some native-born ppl. Reacted out of prejudice, foreign willingness to accept lower wages

    ii)Political response to these resentments- American Protective Association founded by Henry Bowers 1887, Immigration Restriction League sought to screen/reduce immigrants.  1882 Congress passed Chinese Exclusion Act, also denied entry to all “undesirables” and placed small tax on immigrants

    iii)New laws kept only small amt out. Literacy requirement vetoed by president Grover Cleveland—anti-immigrant measures failed mainly b/c many natives welcomed it, provided growing economy w/ cheap and plentiful labor 

    2)The Urban Landscape

    a)The Creation of Public Space

    i)By mid-19th century reformers and planners began to call for ordered vision of city, resulted in creation of public spaces and public services

    ii)Urban parks solution to congestion, allowed escape from strain of urban life. 1850s Central Park famously planned by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

    iii)Great public buildings (libraries, museums, theaters), spurred by wealthy residents who wanted amenities to match material and social aspirations

    iv)Urban leaders undertook massive city rebuilding projects- “City Beautiful Movement” inspired by architect Daniel Burnham- provide order and symmetry to disorderly life of city (faced opposition from private landowners)

    b)Housing the Well-to-Do

    i)Availability of cheap labor + materials lowered cost of building in late 19th century. Most wealthy lived in mansions, but later moderately well-to-do and wealthy both began to build and commute from suburban communities nearby

    c)Housing Workers and the Poor

    i)Most residentsforced to stay in city and rent- demand high and space scarce led to little bargaining power. Landlords tried to get most ppl in smallest space

    ii)“Tenements” came to refer to overcrowded slum dwellings. Poverty and rough tenement life showcased by reporter Jacob Riis in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives. Some immigrants also boarded in small family homes

    d)Urban Transportation

    i)Old, narrow dirty streets insufficient to deal w/ urban growth and need for ppl to move everyday to difft parts of city- new forms of mass transit needed

    ii)Cities experimented w/ elevated railways, cable cars, by 1895 electric trolley lines, and in 1897 Boston opened first subway in nation

    iii)New road, bridge tech also developed (e.g. John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge)

    e)The “Skyscraper”

    i)Inadequate structural materials and stairs prevented tall buildings until 1870s iron and steal beam development. After Civil War buildings grew successively taller, 1890s term “skyscraper” introduced

    ii)Steel girder construction allowed city’s w/ limited space to expand upward if not outward. Architect Louis Sullivan famous skyscraper designer

    3)Strains of Urban Life

    a)Fire and Disease

    i)Fires destroyed large parts of downtown areas w/ buildings made mainly of wood. “Great fires” led to fireproof buildings, professional fire departments

    ii)Diseases from poor neighborhoods w/ inadequate sanitation and sewage disposal threatened epidemics that could spread thru whole city

    b)Environmental Degradation

    i)Industrialization and rapid urbanization led to improper disposal of human and industrial waste that threatened waterways and drinking water, air quality suffered from burning of stoves and furnaces

    ii)By early 20th century reformers: seeking new sewage and drainage systems; Physician Alive Hamilton looked to identify and correct pollution in workplace; 1912 fed govt created Public Health Service created factory health standards to prevent occupational diseases (weak b/c no enforcement power)

    c)Urban Poverty

    i)Expansion of city created poverty, sheer number of ppl meant many unable to earn decent subsistence. Public agencies and private philanthropic groups offered limited relief, and if they did mostly only to the poorest

    ii)Some groups focused on religious revivalism as relief; others alarmed at great number of poor children in streets (some lives on their own)– “street arabs”

    d)Crime and Violence

    i)Poverty and crowding created violence, crime. Murder rate rose nationwide, and rising crime rates prompted cities to create larger, more professional police forces. Armories also developed b/c of fear of urban insurrections

    e)Fear of the City

    i)City offered allure and excitement, but also alienation and feelings of anonymity (e.g. Theodore Dreiser’s 1900 Sister Carrie about displaced single women)

    f)The Machine and the Boss

    i)Newly arrived immigrants sought assistance from political machines- created by power vacuum of cities, voting power of large immigrant communities

    ii)Urban “bosses” sought votes for his organization by winning loyalty of constituents thru relief, jobs for unemployed, patronage

    iii)Machines enriched politicians b/c of graft and corruption from contractors or investment from inside knowledge- most notorious was William Tweed of NY’s Tammany Hall during 1860s/1870s

    iv)In spite of middle class reformers citing machines as obstacles to progress, boss rule possible b/c immigrant voters wanted services first and foremost & weakness of city govts

    4)The Rise of Mass Consumption

    a)Patterns of Income and Consumption

    i)Growing markets and demand turn of century b/c of production and mass distribution made goods less expensive, also b/c of rising incomes of “white collar” professionals and working-class ppl despite union failures

    ii)Mass market also grew b/c affordable prices and new merchandising techniques allowed goods to reach more consumers (e.g. ready-made clothing after Civil War and rise of fashion)

    iii)Food transformed by tin cans, refrigerated RR cars for perishables, home iceboxes. Allowed for better diet and higher life expectancy

    b)Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses

    i)Way in which Americans bought goods altered- local stores faced competition from “chain stores” whose national network could sell manufactured goods at lower prices. Customers couldn’t resist great variety + lower prices of chains

    ii)Chain stores slow to rural areas but gained access thru mail-order houses-notably 1880s Montgomery Wary and Sears Roebuck mail order catalogues

    c)Department Stores

    i)Dept stores transformed shopping by bringing together many products under one roof (clothing, furniture) previously in separate shops; gave allure and excitement to shopping; economies of scale enabled lower prices than comp

    d)Women as Consumers

    i)Mass consumption affected women greatest b/c primary consumers in family. Spawned consumer protection movement w/ National Consumers League 1890s under Florence Kelley to force retainers for better wages, conditions

    5)Leisure in the Consumer Society

    a)Redefining Leisure

    i)Leisure had been previously scorned, but redefinition in late 19th century b/c economic expansion and greater worker time away from work leisure began to be a normal part of everyday life (economist Simon Pattern wrote of this in his 1902 The Theory of Prosperity and 1910 The New Basis of Civilization)

    ii)New forms of leisure had public character- time spent mostly in public spaces, part of appeal of leisure was time spent w/ large crowds

    b)Spectator Sports

    i)Search for public forms of leisure led to rise of organized spectator sports

    ii)Saw rise of baseball as “national pastime”, leagues formed in 1870s. Football became standardized 1870s and began to grew. Boxing grew in the 1880s after adoption of Marquis of Queensberry rules

    iii)Spectator sports had close association with gambling w/ elaborate betting syndicates. Prompted sports to “clean up” and regulate games

    c)Music and Theater

    i)Large market of cities allowed theaters to be maintained in ethnic communities, musical comedies developed, and vaudeville widely popular

    d)The Movies

    i)Thomas Edison and others laid tech for motion picture 1880s, soon projectors allowed showings on big screens in theaters w/ large audiences. By 1900 very popular, especially after DW Griffith introduced his silent epics

    e)Working-Class Leisure

    i)Workers spent great amt of leisure time on streets b/c had much time but little money. Also popular were neighborhood saloons (often ethnic), served as political centers b/c saloonkeepers often involved in political machines (largely b/c they had regular contact w/ many men in a neighborhood)

    ii)Boxing also emerged as a poplar sport- bare knuckle fights by ethnic clubs

    f)The Fourth of July

    i)B/c most ppl worked six-day workweek w/o vacations, 4th of July became a full day of leisure and an impt highlight in the year of ethnic, working-class communities. Massive neighborhood celebrations often w/ drinking

    g)Private Pursuits

    i)Reading remained popular as leisure activity, w/ Louisa Alcott’s Little Women (1869) capturing a large women audience

    ii)Public music performances popular, but also learning instrument w/in home

    h)Mass Communications

    i)Large urban market for transmitting news and information in urban industrial society- rise in publishing in journalism after Civil War w/ increase in newspaper circulation, rise of national press services using telegraph to supply news to papers across country

    ii)Rise of newspaper chains, especially competition btwn William Randolph Hearst + Joseph Pulitzer (rise of sensational “yellow journalism to sell papers)

    6)High Culture in the Age of the City

    a)The Literature of Urban America

    i)Some writers responded to new industrial civilization by evoking more natural world, others sought to use literature to recreate urban social reality

    ii)Realism led by Stephen Crane (famous for The Red Badge of Courage in 1895) who showed urban poverty and slum life. Theodore Dreiser highlighted social dislocations and injustices. There authors followed by Frank Norris’ The Octopus (1901) and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906) which showed depravity of capitalism by exposing abuses in meatpacking industry

    b)Art in the Age of the City

    i)By 1900 many American artists breaking from Old World traditions of Eur and experiment w/ new styles. Some turning away from traditional, academic style toward exploring grim aspects of modern life

    ii)Ashcan School produced stark portrayal of social realities, showcased expressionism and abstraction at famous 1913 art “Armory Show”

    iii)Beginning of modernism- rejected past and embraced new subjects, glorified the ordinary, coarse over genteel tradition +“dignified” aspects of civilization, embraced the future over “standards” of past- individual creativity

    c)The Impact of Darwinism

    i)Darwin argued evolution from earlier species thru “natural selection”, challenged traditional American religious faith. By end of century most urban professionals and members of educated classes converted; taught in schools

    ii)Darwinism led to schism btwn culture of city receptive to new ideas and the traditional, provincial culture of rural areas tied to religion and older values

    iii)Other intellectual movements included Social Darwinism of William Sumner, “pragmatism” of William James that valued scientific inquiry + experience

    iv)Relativism spawned by Darwinism led to growth of anthropology and study of other cultures (notably Native American culture)

    d)Toward Universal Schooling

    i)Dependence on specialized skills and scientific knowledge led to demand for education. Spread of free public primary and secondary education, compulsory attendance laws in many states. Rural education still lagged

    ii)Some reformers including Richard Pratt targeted native tribes to “civilize” them- urged practical “industrial” education. Failed b/c resistance, funding

    iii)Colleges grew late 19th century, benefited from Morrill Land Grant Act of Civil War era that donated large amt of land for colleges; also from contributions made by business and financial tycoons

    e)Education for Women

    i)Expansion of educational opportunities for women (although lagged behind that of men). Public high schools accepted women, and network of women’s colleges emerged that served to create distinctive women’s community

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - From Stalemate to Crisis

     1)The Politics of Equilibrium

    a)The Party System

    i)Party system of late 19th century very stable w/ little fluctuation in state loyalties. Repubs held most presidencies and Senate, Dems lead House

    ii)Public intensely loyal to parties, voter turnout was tremendous- loyalty result of region (Dems in S, Repubs in N), religion and ethnicity (Dems attracted Catholics, new immigrants, poor; Repubs middle class, N Protestants)

    iii)Party identification more cultural than of economic interest

    b)The National Government

    i)Federal govt held little power/responsibility- aside from supporting economic development (land grant subsidies, strike intervention), delivering pensions to Civil War veterans. Party leaders cared more about holding office than policy

    c)Presidents and Patronage

    i)President had little power save to make govt appointments (patronage used)

    ii)Pres Rutherford B. Hayes had to deal w/ factional Repub party split btwn Stalwarts (favored machine politics) and the Half-Breeds (favored reform). Patronage system overshadowed presidency, civil service system effort failed

    iii)Repubs won presidency in 1880 election, Pres James Garfield (Half-Breed) and VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart). Garfield attempted to defy Stalwarts, create civil service reform- assassinated 1881

    iv)New Pres Chester attempted supported civil service reform over Stalwarts- 1883 Congress passed Pendleton Act requiring exams for some govt jobs

    d)Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

    i)In 1884 election Repub nominee Sen James Blaine symbol of party politics, “liberal” Repubs flocked to Dem reform candidate Grover Cleveland

    ii)Cleveland opposed to graft and special interest, wished to see limited govt- asked Congress to reduce protective tariff rate 1887 to reduce govt surpluses and size. Dems passed bill, Republicans opposed it—>issue in 1888 elections

    iii)Dems renominated Cleveland; Repubs named Benjamin Harrison, won Pres

    e)New Public Issues

    i)Pres Harrison made little effort to influence Congress, but public opinion forced govt to begin to confront social and economic issues- especially trusts

    ii)By mid 1880s some states limiting combinations preventing competition, but reformers wanted nat’l movement- 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act passed, but little enforced, weakened by courts, and had little impact

    iii)Repubs main issue was dealing w/ tariff- passed McKinley Tariff 1890 (highest protective tariff ever).  Public opposed bill, by 1892 Pres election Repubs lost both House + Senate, Dem nominee Cleveland won Pres election

    iv)Cleveland’s 2nd term like 1st (devoted to minimal govt). Supported tariff reduction (Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed). Movement 1880s in may states to regulate RRs- after 1886 Supreme Court case Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad vs Illinois ruled only fed govt able to regulate interstate commerce

    v)To appease public Congress passed 1887 Interstate Commerce Act- banned rate discrimination + injustice, Interstate Commerce Commission formed

    2)The Agrarian Revolt

    a)The Grangers

    i)First major effort to organize farmers was Grange movement of 1860s (at firs goal to teach new scientific techniques), not until 1873 recession + fall of farm prices did it become highly political and large

    ii)Grange urged cooperative political action to fight monopolistic RR and warehouse practices, setup up co-op stores, insurance companies, and Montgomery Ward mail-order business (sought to challenge middle-men)

    iii)Elected Grange politicians 1870s to state legislatures to focus on RR reform; regulations destroyed by courts, temporary boom late-1870s destroyed Grange

    b)The Farmers’ Alliance

    i)Farmers’ Alliances formed in South, Northwest- like Grange focused on local problems (co-op banks, processing plants) but also larger goal to create society of cooperation. Like Grange cooperatives not very successful, harnessed frustrations into creating national political organization 1880s

    ii)1889 Southern and Northwestern Alliances merged, issued Ocala Demands (party platform), won seats in 1890 elections. Sentiments forming toward national third party, 1892 created People’s Party (Populists)

    iii)In 1892 elections Populists did surprising well, won seats in states + Congress

    c)The Populist Constituency

    i)Populism appealed mainly to small farmers, those whose farming becoming less viable in face of mechanized, consolidated commercial agriculture

    ii)Populists failed to attract much labor support, but attracted miners in Rocky Mountain states w/ “free silver” policy that allowed for silver to be currency, expand money supply. African Americans allowed limited involvement in S

    d)Populist Ideas

    i)Ocala platform 1892 outlined Populist reform programs- “subtreasuries” to strengthen cooperatives; govt warehouse system; abolish national banks; direct election of US Senators, other ways for ppl to influence political system; regulation and ownership of RRs, telephones; graduated income tax; currency inflation; silver remonetization. Populism associated w/ anti-Semitism

    ii)Rejection of laissez-faire, uphold absolutism of ownership

    3)The Crisis of the 1890s

    a)The Panic of 1893

    i)Panic of 1893 led to severe depression- caused by bankruptcy of few corporations that led to bank failure, led to credit contraction. Also caused by depressed farm prices of late 1880s, Eur depression, RR expansion beyond market demand- showed how dependent economy was on powerful RRs

    ii)Businesses, banks, RRs failed. Unemployment soared, led to social unrest- 1894 Populist Jacob Coxey called for massive public works program for unemployed + currency inflation, protested in D.C. w/ “Coxey’s Army”

    b)The Silver Question

    i)Financial panic weakened monetary system, Pres Cleveland believed currency instability cause of depression. Many ppl believed specie (precious metal) must back money to give it value

    ii)“Bimetal” standard discontinued 1873 by Congress b/c market value of silver high than 16:1 standard. Late 1870s silver became less valuable than standard but ppl unable to convert silver b/c of “Crime of ‘73”; opposition by silver-miners + farmers who wanted greater $ circulation (inflation) to ease debts

    iii)At same time decreasing govt gold reserves led Pres Cleveland 1893 to seek repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890- divided Dem party

    iv)Presidential of 1986 incredibly fierce b/c supporters of gold standard saw it as essential to national stability, supporters of “free silver” (guided by William Harvey’s 1894 Coin’s Financial School) saw gold standard as tyrannous and advantageous to wealthy, silver would decrease debt

    4)“A Cross of Gold”

    a)The Emergence of Bryan

    i)Repubs in 1896 election confident of victory b/c of Cleveland+ Dems failure to deal w/ depression nominated William McKinley w/ platform opposed to free coinage of silver 

    ii)Dems of West sought to weaken People’s Party by adopting Populist demands, debated platform of free silver, tariff reduction, income tax, RR and trust regulation- opposed by eastern Dems

    iii)William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech opposed to gold standard at convention, next day voted nominee

    iv)Populists split as to whether or not to fuse w/ Dem party b/c felt some of their unique needs addressed; concluded no other alternative, supported Bryan

    b)The Conservative Party

    i)Business + finance communities donated heavily to Repubs, Bryan’s national stump and camp-meeting style alienated Cath + ethnic voters who feared he embodied Protestants who so firmly opposed them

    ii)McKinley carried election b/c Dem platform had proved to be too narrow (sectional) to win nationally. B/c of “fusion” gamble w/ Democrats the People’s Party began to dissolve in wake of defeat

    c)McKinley and Recovery

    i)McKinley administration saw return to calm b/c labor unrest and agrarian protest had subsided by 1897, economic crisis gradually easing

    ii)McKinley focused on implementing high tariff rate, Congress soon passed Dingley Tariff. Repubs passed Currency (Gold Standard) Act of 1900 that confirmed nation’s gold standard, pegged dollar to specific gold value

    iii)Foreign crop failures resulted in economic uptick, nation entered period of expansion once again—clear trend btwn prosperity + gold standard support

    iv)Free-silver movement had failed- during late 19th century money supply had expanded much more slowly than increase in production and population, but by late 1890s increase in gold supply inflated money, satisfied free-silver ppl

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - The Imperial Republic

     1)Stirrings of Imperialism

    a)The New Manifest Destiny

    i)American attention shifted to foreign lands b/c “closing of the frontier” 1890s led some to fear natural resources would dwindle and must be found abroad, growing importance of foreign trade and desire for new markets, fears that Eur imperialism would lead America to be left out of spoils

    ii)Justifications provided by Social Darwinism- only fittest nations survive, therefore just for strong nations to dominate weaker ones

    iii) Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885) states Anglo-Saxon “race” represented liberty, Christianity and should spread them; John Burgess wrote that duty of A-S to uplift less fortunate ppl

    iv)Famous Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) that countries w/ sea power great nations of history- US needed to have foreign commerce, merchant marine, navy to defend routes, and colonies to provide raw materials and bases- claim Pacific Islands, HI

    b)Hemispheric Hegemony

    i)Sec of State James Blaine 1880s sought to expand US influence in Latin America to provide markets for surplus goods- 1889 organized Pan-American Congress. Pres Cleveland 1895 had dispute w/ GB over Venezuela border

    c)Hawaii and Samoa

    i)Hawaii appealing b/c Navy wanted Pearl Harbor as base, Americans who had settled on island had come to dominate political + economic life of islands

    ii)Hawaii had been series of islands w/ self-sufficient communities. After 1810 American traders, missionaries, planters began settling there. Disease decimated Native populations; by 1840s Americans spread thru islands

    iii)1887 US Navy negotiated to use Pearl Harbor as Navy base; by that time sugar exports to US basis of economy, American plantation system was displacing natives from their lands 

    iv)In response elevated nationalist Queen Liliuokalani 1891. 1890 US eliminated duty-free status of HI sugar, American planters felt only way to survive to join US- 1893 stages revolution. Pres Harrison signed annex agreement 1893 but delayed by Dem Senate and Dem Pres Cleveland until 1898 return of Repubs

    v)Samoa had served as station for US chips in Pacific trade; Pres Hayes 1878 got treaty to use harbor at Pago Pago for Navy. Power share btwn US, GB, Germany over islands- 1899 US and Germany split islands, compensated GB

    2)War with Spain

    a)Controversy Over Cuba

    i)Cubans had resisted Spanish rule of Cuba since 1868 for independence; in 1895 Cubans rose up violently again, Span under Gen Valeriano Weyler used harsh tactics + concentration camps in turn- US press skewered mainly Span

    ii)Pulitzer’s NY World and Hearst’s NY Journal catered to broad, economically lower audience- used sensational “yellow journalism” + Cuban crisis to fight each other for circulation; Cuban Americans urged Cuba Libre as well

    iii)Pres Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality; Pres McKinley took office 1897, protested Spanish conduct- withdrew Weyler

    iv)Two events Feb 1898 ruined peaceful settlement: the leak of a letter from Spain’s minister to Washington touting McKinley as “bidder…of the crowd; and the destruction of the US battleship The Maine in Havana Harbor- Spain initially blamed, Congress mobilized for war- war declared in April

    b)“A Splendid Little War”

    i)Sec of State John Hay called Spanish-American War “a splendid little war” b/c only lasted April-August, few US battle deaths (but 5000+ from disease)

    ii)War effort hampered by army supply problems, regular army w/o experience fighting large-scale war (used to Indian battles)- Nat’l Guard units used like in Civil War. Racial conflict w/ black army unites used in invasion

    c)Seizing the Philippines

    i)Sec of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened Pacific Fleet, ordered Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish forces in Philippines (Span colony) if war broke. May 1898 captured Manila Bay, later troops took city

    ii)War to free Cuba had become war to strip Spain of its colonies w/o any decisions as to what to do with them after capture

    d)The Battle for Cuba

    i)American forces staged landing in June after Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago harbor. US battled Spanish forces in on way to Santiago at Las Guasimos and then later El Caney and San Juan Hill in July

    ii)At Battle of Kettle Hill (part of Battle for San Juan Hill) unit called Rough Riders lead by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt (who had resigned as from Navy to fight in war) had famous charge

    iii)US forces soon took Santiago, later US army landed + captured Puerto Rico

    iv)Armistice w/ Spain in August ended war- recognized independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to US, accepted Manila (Philippines) occupation

    e)Puerto Rico and the United States

    i)Annexation of Puerto Rico produced little controversy- American military controlled island until 1900 Foraker Act created colonial got w/ American governor, 2-chamber legislature, and US could amend/veto any legislation

    ii)Puerto Ricans (who had history of demanding independence from Spanish) clamored for independence- 1917 Congress passed Jones Act that made PR US territory + PRicans American citizens

    iii)PR sugar economy flourished now w/o tariffs (as in HI); plantations formed, many PR farmers became paid laborers, dependent on int’l sugar prices

    f)The Debate over the Philippines

    i)Debate over Philippines difft b/c not in W. Hemisphere, densely populated and far away—McKinley reluctant but believed no other alternative (could not be retuned to Spain, given to other imperialist, and Filips “unfit for self govt”)

    ii)War w/ Spain ended 1898 w/ Treaty of Paris, US paid $20 million for Philippines. Fierce resistance in US to ratification

    iii)Anti-imperialists (under Anti-Imperialist League) opposed b/c imperialism immoral, industrial workers feared cheap labor

    iv)Ratification supported by imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt saw empire as means to reinvigorate nation, dominate Oriental trade, Repubs could come out of Repub war w/ new territory, and easy b/c US already occupied islands

    v)Ratified in 1899 b/c anti-imperialist Dem Williams Jennings Bryan wanted to make is issue in 1900 election. Bryan ran against McKinley, referendum on war showed American ppl supported imperialism- McKinley won decisively

    3)The Republic As Empire

    a)Governing the Colonies

    i)American dependents Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico got territory status (residents became US citizens)

    ii)US military remained in Cuba. After Cuban constitution failed to mention US, Congress passed 1901 Platt Amendment that would bar Cuba from making treaties, gave US right to intervene in Cuba (little political independence given). American capital bought up much of Cuban economy and dominated it

    b)The Philippine War

    i)US subjugation of natives led to long, bloody war w/ insurgent independence fighters. US used same brutal tactics that it had opposed Spain using in Cuba

    ii)Rebellion led by Emilio Aguinaldo w/ large popular following. By 1902 brutal and savage US tactics had changed American public opinion on war, but by then war already over (Aguinaldo captured 1901)

    iii)Power given to US administrator William Howard Taft who believed US mission to prepare Filipinos for independence, so gave broad local autonomy. Trade w/ US grew and islands came to almost depend on US markets

    c)The Open Door Policy

    i)Philippine occupation strengthened US interest in Asia and Chinese trade

    ii)Eur nations were carving up China for themselves; McKinley wanted to protect US interest in China w/o war. Sec of State John Hay proposed 1898 “Open Door notes” to Eur nations allowing access to China but give no nation special advantages. Allowed free trade w/o colony, military involvement

    iii)Boxer Rebellion arose against foreigners in China. Siege of foreign diplomatic corps resulted in McKinley and Hay participating in quelling rebellion

    d)A Modern Military System

    i)War w/ Spain showed weakness of US military system in training, supply, coordination. McKinley apptd Elihu Root as Sec of War to overhaul forces

    ii)Root enlarged army, federal standards for Nat’l Guard, created officer training schools, created Joint Chiefs of Staff to advise Sec of War, supervise military establishment, plan possible wars—modern military system by turn of century

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Rise of Progressivism

    1)The Progressive Impulse

    a)Varieties of Progressivism

    i)Progressives varied on how to intervene + reform- popular idea of “antimonopoly” (fear of concentrated power, limit + disperse wealth, power)

    ii)Social cohesion- welfare of single person dependent on welfare of society

    iii)Faith in knowledge, principles of natural + social sciences, modernized govt

    b)The Muckrakers

    i)Muckrakers were crusading journalists who exposed social, economic, political injustices and corruption

    ii)At first targeted trusts (particularly RR barons)- Ida Tarbell’s study on Standard Oil. Later, attention toward govt + political machines- writings of Lincoln Steffens helped arouse sentiment for urban reforms

    c)The Social Gospel

    i)Muckrakers moralistic tone prompted outrage at social + econ injustice, led to rise of Protestant Social Gospel- fusion of religion w/ reform

    ii)Salvation Army was Christian social welfare organization; ministers left parish to serve in troubled cities; Father John Ryan wrote of expanding scope of Cath social welfare groups

    iii)Religion w/ reform gave Progressivism moral component + commitment to redeem lives of even least favored citizens

    d)The Settlement House Movement

    i)Progressives believed env’t influenced individual development. To help distressed required improving their conditions

    ii)Ppl believed crowded immigrant neighbors created distress- creation of settlement houses a response. Most famous was Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago- sought to help immigrant families adapt to language + culture, belief that middle-class had responsibility to share values w/ immigrants

    iii)College educated women often involved in settlement house movement; movement helped spawn profession of social work

    e)The Allure of Expertise

    i)Progressivism values application of scientific methods, knowledge, expertise- well-designed bureaucracy needed. Some proposed civilization where science could solve social + econ problems- advocated in A Theory of The Leisure Class (1899) by Thorstein Veblen

    ii)Rise of social sciences- scientific methods used to study society + its institutions

    f)The Professions

    i)Late 19th century more ppl engaged in administrative + professional tasks (managers, scientists, teachers). This new middle class valued education, individual accomplishments

    ii)As demand for professionals increased so did their desire for reform to create organized professions

    iii)Doctors saw creation of professional American Medical Association1901- strict standards for admissions, govt passed laws requiring licensing; also rise of rigorous, scientific training and research

    iv)Similar movements in other professions- lawyers formed bar associations w/ central examining boards businessmen formed Chamber of Commerce

    g)Women and the Professions

    i)Some women encountered obstacles in entering professions, but many from women’s colleges did enter “appropriate professions”- settlement houses and social work, teaching, nursing (all had vague “domestic”/“helping” image)

    2)Women and Reform

    a)The “New Woman”

    i)“New woman” product of social + economic changes- wage earning activity had moved out of house and into factory or office, children enrolled in school at earlier ages, technology (running water, electricity) made housework less of a burden, declining family size; “Boston marriages”- women living w/ women

    b)The Clubwomen

    i)Late 19th/early 20th century rise of women’s clubs- network of associations that lead many reform movements. General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) at first cultural, later focused on social betterment

    ii)Clubs represented effort to extend women’s influence out of traditional role in home and create a public space for women. Worked to lobby legislatures for regulation of children + women work conditions, food inspection, temperance

    iii)Women’s Trade Union League rallied women to join unions, aid female labor

    c)Woman Suffrage

    i)Women’s suffrage movement at first advanced thru arguments that women deserved same “natural rights” as men, opponents said society needed distinct female “sphere”

    ii)Early 20th century suffragists more organized-- Anna Shaw + Carrie Chapman Catt formed National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

    iii)Began to make “safer” arguments for suffrage in that voting would not ruin distinct sphere but allow women to bring special virtues to society’s problems and contribute to politics. Some claimed could soothe male aggression (WWI)

    iv)1910 Washington extended suffrage to women, more hesitant in East b/c of associations w/ ethnic conflict (Catholics) over temperance movement

    v)1920 Nineteenth Amendment ratified guaranteeing female political rights; others (including Alice Paul’s Woman’s Party) wanted to fight on for an Equal Rights Amendment to prohibit all discrimination based on sex

    3)The Assault on the Parties

    a)Early Attacks

    i)Late 19th century populism and rise of Independent Republicans had attempted to break party lock on power- resulted in secret ballot

    ii)Argued party rule could be dealt w/ by increasing power of ppl + ability to express will at polls, also put more power in nonpartisan, nonelected officials

    b)Municipal Reform

    i)Many progressives believed party rule most powerful in cities. Muckrakers mobilized urban middle-class progressives against city bosses, special interests who benefited from machine organizations, immigrant laborers

    c)New Forms of Governance

    i)Commission Plan- replaced mayor and council replaced w/ nonpartisan commission. First used in Galveston, TX  in 1900, others followed

    ii)City-Manager Plan- elected officials hired outside expert to run govt, remain above corruption of politics

    iii)Successful reformer Cleveland Mayor Tom Johnson from conventional political structure controlled by progressives- fought special interests

    d)Statehouse Progressivism

    i)Failure of some attacks on city boss rule led reformers to turn to state govt for change- progressives looked to circumvent incompetent state legislatures

    ii)Initiative allowed reformers to submit legislation directly to voters in general election; Referendum put actions of legislature directly to the ppl for approval

    iii)Direct primary allowed ppl instead of bosses to choose candidates; Recall gave voters right to remove elected official thru special election

    iv)Famous state-level reformer was Gov Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin- regulated RRs, utilities, workplace, graduated taxes on inherited wealth

    e)Parties and Interest Groups

    i)Reform did not destroy parties but led to decline in their influence- seen by decreasing voter turnout. “Interest groups” emerged from professional organizations or labor to advance own demands directly to govt, not thru party

    4)Sources of Progressive Reform

    a)Labor, the Machine, and Reform

    i)Samuel Gompers’s American Federation of Labor mostly uninvolved in reform at time, but local unions played role in passing some state reform laws

    ii)Parties tried to preserve interest by adapting- some bosses allowed their machines to be vehicle of social reform (e.g. Charles Murphy of Tammany Hall supported legislation for working conditions, child labor)

    iii)Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 1911 in NY killed many women workers b/c bosses had locked emergency exits. Commission delivered report calling for reform in labor conditions- reform lead in legislature by Tammany Dems. Imposed regulation on factory owners and mechanisms for enforcement

    b)Western Progressives

    i)In Western states reformers targeted federal govt b/c powerful as it never had been in East (power over lands and resources, subsidies for RRs and water projects, issues transcended state borders). Weaker local + state govts political led to weaker W polit. parties, govts passed progressive reforms more quickly

    c)African Americans and Reform

    i)AAs faced large legal, social, economic, political obstacles in challenging their oppressed status and seeking reform- many embraced Booker T Washington’s message of self-improvement over long-term social change

    ii)1900s new Niagara Movement led by WEB Du Bois (author of 1903 The Souls of Black Folk)called for immediate civil rights, professional education

    iii)1909 joined w/ supportive white progressives to form National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), used federal lawsuits in pursuit of equal rights. In Guinn v. United States (1915) Supreme Court ruled grandfather clause illegal; Buchanan v. Worley (1917) Court outlawed some segregation—NAACP established itself as leading black organization

    5)Crusade for Social Order and Reform

    a)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Many progressives saw elimination of alcohol as way to restore societal order- women saw alcohol as source of problems for families, employers saw it as roadblock to efficiency, political reformers saw saloon as Machine institution

    ii)1873 temperance supporters formed Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) led by Frances Willard, together w/ Anti-Saloon League called for abolition of saloons and prohibition of manufacture and sale of alcohol

    iii)Opposition by immigrant and working-class voters; regardless, national effort and start of WWI moral fervor led to 1920 Eighteenth Amendment prohibition

    b)Immigration Restriction

    i)Reformers saw growing immigrant population as source of social problems- some wanted to help assimilation, others to limit flow of new immigrants

    ii)Early century pressure to slow immigration, heightened by growth of eugenics movement arguing human inequalities hereditary and immigration (especially of non-Anglo E. Eurs and Asians) resulting in growth of unfit peoples

    iii)Publicist Madison Grant’s 1916 The Passing of the Great Race tied together eugenics + Nativism; Congress’s Dillingham Report said new immigrants less assimilable than earlier groups, restrictions should be based on nationality

    iv)Others supported restrictions as means to solve urban overcrowding, unemployment, strained social services, and unrest

    6)Challenging the Capitalist Order

    a)The Dream of Socialism

    i)Radical opposition to capitalist system strongest btwn 1900-1914, Socialist Party under Eugene V. Debs grew during progressive era. Socialists wanted to change structure of economy, but disagreement as to extent and tactics

    ii)Some moderates favored nationalizing only major industries, use electoral politics; radicals including union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) under William Haywood wanted abolition of “wage slave” system, favored use of general strike, supported unskilled workers (strong force in West)

    iii)1917 strike by IWW led to federal government crackdown on union b/c needed materials in mobilization for war; IWW never fully recovered

    iv)Socialist Party refusal to support war + growing antiradicalism led to decline of socialism as powerful political force in America

    b)Decentralization and Regulation

    i)Most progressives also saw major problem in great corporate centralization + consolidation, but instead of nationalizing industries wanted federal govt to create balance btwn need for big business and need for competition

    ii)Lawyer Louis Brandeis argued about “curse of bigness”, saw it as threat to efficiency and freedom, limited individual control of own destiny

    iii)Others believed combinations sometimes helped efficiency, therefore govt should distinguish btwn “good” and “bad” trusts to protect against abuses by “bad” concentrations. Supported by “nationalist” Herbert Croly in 1909 The Promise of American Life

    iv)Movement growing for industry cooperation and self-regulation; others wanted active govt role in regulation and planning economy

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Battle for National Reform

     1)Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency

    a)The Accidental President

    i)VP Theodore Roosevelt assumed presidency September 1901after Pres McKinley assassinated. Reputation as an independent and wild man; became champion of cautious an moderate change, reform to protect society against more radical changes

    b)Government, Capital, and Labor

    i)Roosevelt saw fed govt as mediator of the public good. Not opposed to industrial combinations but realized potential for abuse of power 

    ii)Supported regulation of trusts- created Department of Commerce and Labor 1903 to publicly investigate corporations. Did make effort to break up some trusts- used Sherman Antitrust Act to break up Northern Securities Company monopoly over RRs in Northwest

    iii)Saw govt as impartial regulator for labor as well- 1902 strike by United Mine workers led Roosevelt to ask labor and management to accept impartial federal arbitration, threatened to seize mines if management balked

    c)“The Square Deal”

    i)Reform not priority during first years as president, more concerned w/ winning reelection by not alienating conservative Republicans, winning support of businessmen and using patronage—won 1904 election

    ii)First targeted RR industry by asking Congress to increase fed power to oversee rates- Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 restored some govt regulatory power

    iii)Supported Congress passing Pure Food and Drug Act, after Upton Sinclair’s 1906 The Jungle supported Meat Inspection Act. Also favored 8 hour work day for labor, workmen’s compensation, and inheritance and income taxes

    d)Roosevelt and Conservation

    i)Concerned w/ unregulated exploitation of resources and wilderness- used executive power to restrict private development on govt land, saw goal of “conservation” to carefully manage development and to apply same scientific method of management being used in cities

    ii)President supported public reclamation and irrigation projects- 1902 Newlands Act funded dam construction, reservoirs, canals in West to open new lands for irrigation, cultivation and power development

    e)Roosevelt and Preservation

    i)Pres also sympathized w/ naturalists who wanted to protect land, wildlife from human intrusion- expanded National Forest System for “rational” lumbering, but also grew National Park System to protect lands from any development

    f)The Hetch Hetchy Controversy

    i)Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite seen as beautiful land by naturalists, but San Francisco residents + Roosevelt’s head of National Forest System Gifford Pinchot wanted land to build dam + reservoir for city’s growing water needs

    ii)Pinchot saw needs of city more important than claims of preservation; issue placed in 1908 referendum, dam approved by large margin in election

    g)The Panic of 1907

    i)Despite reforms govt still had little control over industrial economy; in 1907 production outgrew domestic + foreign demand, speculation + poor management led to panic. 

    ii)JP Morgan pooled assets of NY banks to prop up banks, made deal with Pres to allow US Steel to purchase Tennessee Coal and Iron Company shares

    iii)B/c of Panic of 1907 and promise made in 1904 to step down four years later, did not seek renomination and reelection for 1908 bid

    2)The Troubled Succession

    a)Taft and the Progressives

    i)During early administration called on Congress to lower tariff (a progressive demand), refused to oppose Repub Old Guard. Result was Payne-Aldrich Tariff - reduced tariffs little, raised others- progressives resented inaction

    ii)1909 Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute in which Head of Forest Service Gifford Pinchot was told that Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger had sold public lands in Alaska for personal profit. Taft thought charges groundless, Pinchot leaked info to press-- Taft fired Pinchot, progressives alienated 

    b)The Return of Roosevelt

    i)Roosevelt upset w/ Taft and believed only he was capable of reuniting Republican Party; 1910 outlined “New Nationalism” that moved away from conservatism + argued only effort of strong fed govt could bring social justice

    c)Spreading Insurgency

    i)In 1910 Congressional elections many conservative Repub candidates lost and progressives reelected; Dems gained maj in House, seats in Senate

    ii)Reform sentiment on the rise, but Roosevelt claimed he only wanted to pressure Taft into action; Roosevelt decided to run, however, after Taft charged US Steel acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company had been illegal and reform candidate Robert LaFollette’s campaign collapsed

    d)Roosevelt versus Taft

    i)Taft had support of conservative Repubs and party leaders, Roosevelt supported by progressives- at convention Republican National Committee gave nomination to Taft. Roosevelt left Repub Party and established own Progressive Party w/ himself as nominee (nicknamed Bull Moose Party)

    3)Woodrow Wilson and The New Freedom

    a)Woodrow Wilson

    i)Reform support growing in Democratic Party as well as Repub Party; Dems chose progressive Woodrow Wilson as 1912 Presidential election nominee

    ii)Wilson supported “New Freedom”- held that bigness was unjust and wanted to destroy, not regulate monopoly (whereas Roosevelt’s New Nationalism believed in govt regulation of concentration)

    iii)Roosevelt and Taft split Repub vote, Wilson elected

    b)The Scholar as President

    i)Wilson bold and forceful- used position as leader of Dems to build coalition to support his program (Dem majorities existed in both houses)

    ii)Greatly lowered tariff in Underwood-Simmons Tariff in order to introduce competition into market + breakup trusts; to make up for revenues past graduated income tax

    iii)1913 Congress passed Federal Reserve Act- regional Fed banks made up of regional banks + issued loans at “discount” rate, issued Fed Reserve notes backed by govt, shifted funds to meet credit demands + protect banks. Supervising Federal Reserve Board members selected by Pres

    iv)1914 Wilson began to deal w/ monopoly, Congress passed Federal Trade Commission Act and Clay Antitrust Act 

    (1)FTC was regulatory agency to help business determine whether their actions were legal, also power to prosecute “unfair trade practices”

    (2)Clayton Antitrust Bill to allow break up of trusts weakened by conservative opposition; ultimately administration decided that government supervision and regulation by FTC sufficient

    c)Retreat and Advance

    i)Pres believed New Freedom accomplished, therefore didn’t support progressive suffrage movement and efforts to halt segregation in federal agencies after Dems had heavy losses in Congress in 1914 elections to Repubs (who won support from Progressive party) Wilson began new reforms

    ii)Wilson supported appointment of progressive Louis Brandeis to Supreme Court; supported measured expanding role of federal govt 1916 Keating-Owen Act regulated child labor (struck down by Sup C b/c relied on interstate commerce clause in Const), 1914 Smith-Lever Act to help agricultural extension education

    4)The “Big Stick”: America and The World, 1901-1917

    a)Roosevelt and “Civilization”

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - America and the Great War

     1)The Road to War

    a)The Collapse of the European Peace

    i)Eur divided into alliances- “Triple Entente” of GB, France, Russia & “Triple Alliance” of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (GB-German tension notable)

    ii)After June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbs, A-H invaded Serbia who called on Russian help- b/c alliances other nations entered

    b)Wilson’s Neutrality

    i)1914 Wilson urged neutrality but many Americans sympathized w/ certain nations (German + Irish immigrants=Central, but most ppl= GB+Allies) 

    ii)Strong US-GB economic ties + blockade of Central Powers led US to continue trade w/ GB , shun trade w/ Central nations- “arsenal of Allies”

    iii)Germany began using submarine warfare 1915 to combat GB naval domination; 1915 sinking of Lusitania and 1916 Sussex sinking led Wilson to call on Germans to recognize rights of neutrals- Germans relented and stopped attacking merchant ships to stop  US entrance into war

    c)Preparedness vs Pacifism

    i)Wilson did not intervene for either side b/c of re-election + domestic division

    ii)Economic + militarily preparations debated by pacifists and interventionists. However, by 1916 military armament largely under way

    iii)Wilson won extremely close 1916 b/c of association w/ ability to keep US independent, although Dems barely held on to Congressional majorities

    d)A War for Democracy

    i)After election Wilson wanted country unified and justified if to enter war, should fight to create new progressive world order + not for material gains

    ii)January 1917 Germany began offensive + continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare to defeat Allies before US entrance; February Zimmerman Telegram urged Mex to join w/ Germany (increased public sentiment toward war); March Russian Revolution toppled czar for republican govt

    iii)April 1917 US officially declared war on side of Allies

    2)“War Without Stint”

    a)Entering the War

    i)Immediately w/ US entrance Allied navy able to dramatically reduce sinking’s in troop + supply convoys

    ii)1917 withdrawal of Russian forces after Bolshevik Revolution (Lenin) led Germans to put resources on Western Front, Allies needed US ground troops 

    b)The American Expeditionary Force

    i)US army too small to supply needed troops- April 1917 Wilson urged passage of Selective Service Act to draft soldiers into American Expeditionary Force

    ii)AEF was diverse-- women served as auxiliaries in non-combat roles; African-American soldiers served in segregated units or had menial roles

    c)The Military Struggle

    i)US ground forces insignificant until spring 1918; AEF under Gen John Pershing maintained command structure independent from other Allies

    ii)US forced tipped stalemate + balance of power to Allies--- June 1918 helped repel German offensive at Chateau-Thierry

    iii)Beginning Sept US forced fighting in Argonne Forest (as part of Allied Meuse-Argonne Offensive); pushed Germans back + cut off supply routes

    iv)11/11/1918 Great War ended w/ Allies on German border

    d)The New Technology of Warfare

    i)New military weapons + tactics more deadly (tanks, machine guns, trenches, chemical weapons). Logistics and materials transport gained increased importance. Rise of planes, dreadnought battleships, submarines

    ii)Casualties extremely high for war (British lost 1 million, Germany 2 million); even victors overwhelmed by sheer magnitude of deaths

    3)The War and American Society

    a)Organizing the Economy for War

    i)US appropriated $32 billion for war- to raise money sold “Liberty Bonds” to public & put new graduated taxes on income + inheritance

    ii)To organize economy Wilson created Council of National Defense; but emphasis Civilian Advisory Commission tasked w/ mobilizing at local level

    iii)CND members urged “scientific management” + centralization, proposed dividing economy based on function and not geography w/ “war boards” coordinating efforts in each sector

    iv)War Industries Board oversaw purchase of military supplies, under Bernard Baruch organized factories, set prices, and distributed needed materials. Instead of restricting profits, govt entered alliance w/ private sector

    b)Labor and the War

    i)National War Labor Board pressured industry for concessions to workers (8-hour day, living standards, collective bargaining) but workers forced to forgo strikes. Right before war Ludlow Massacre when striking miners killed

    c)Economic and Social Results of the War

    i)Economic boom during period from Eur demand, later US need. Industrial production expanded, opportunities for female + minorities b/c of men at war

    ii)War years saw “Great Migration” of hundreds of thousands of African- Americans from rural South to northern industrial cities. S poverty + racism and appeal of N factory jobs + freedom led to movement. Growing black communities near white neighborhoods sometimes resulted in race riots

    iii)Women took higher-paying industrial jobs that were unavailable in peace time

    4)The Search for Social Unity

    a)The Peace Movement

    i)Public sentiment divided over US involvement in war—peace movement supported by German Americans, Irish who opposed GB, religious pacifists, intellectuals and leftist groups

    ii) Peaces support also from women’s movement- maternal pacifism

    b)Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent

    i)Once America intervened most of country became patriotic and supportive of troops. Religious revivalism also became source of support for war

    ii)Govt concerned about minority in opposition to war, believed victory possible only thru united public opinion Committee on Public Information under George Creel distributed pro-war propaganda—portrayals of savage Germans

    iii)Espionage Act of 1917 gave govt power to punish spies and obstructers of war effort, respond to reports of disloyalty. Sabotage Act and Sedition Act of 1918 made any public expression of opposition illegal- targeted socialist groups

    iv)Local govts and private citizen groups worked to repress opposition- “vigilante mob” discipline, also American Protective League w/ thousands of members who spied on neighbors to ensure unity of opinion in communities

    v)Repressive efforts targeted socialists and labor leaders, but also largely immigrants (Germans, Irish, Jews)- “Loyalist” Americans called for “100 Percent Americanism”. German Americans faced fierce discrimination

    5)The Search for a New World Order

    a)The Fourteen Points

    i)Wilson’s Fourteen Poitns addressed three areas: self-determination and new boundaries; new international governance laws including freedom of the seas, end to secret treaties, free trade, determination of colonial claims; league of nations to implement points and resolve future disagreements

    ii)Fourteen Points also effort to combat Bolshevik (Lenin) aspiration to lead new postwar world order—US established itself thru the points

    b)Early Obstacles

    i)Wilson hoped popular support would help garner Allied support for Points, 

    ii)However, most Allies so decimated by war and so bitter against Germany that they did not with to be generous GB Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Premier Georges Clemenceau determined to gain compensation

    iii)At home Wilson + Dems lost control of Congress to Repub majorities in 1918 election, domestic economic issues + Repub opposition weakened his position

    c)The Paris Peace Conference

    i)Big Four nations to negotiate treaty were GB, France, Italy, US

    ii)Wilson’s idealism met by effort by other nations to improve own lot, concerns about eastern Europe and communism (US did not recognize Bolshevik govt until 1933). His economic + strategic demands suffered from conflict w/ cultural nationalism

    iii)Wilson initially rejected reparations from Central Powers, but Allies forced him to accept idea in order to keep Germany weak + unable to threaten Eur

    iv)Wilson was successful and placing some colonies under League of Nations “mandate” system, created Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia

    v)Allies accepted “covenant” of League of Nations-- to meet to resolve disputes + protect peace, Wilson believed problems w/ treaty could be fixed by League

    d)The Ratification Battle

    i)Americans used to isolation questioned international commitment, Wilson refused to compromise or modify League too much—when Treaty of Versailles introduced by Wilson to Senate in 1919 

    ii)Opposition lead by Repub Irreconcilables who wanted isolation, but also by personal hatred of Sen Henry Cabot Lodge for Wilson—wanted to delay so public approval would subside, make treaty issue in 1920 election

    e)Wilson’s Ordeal

    i)Wilson began traveling country to gain public support for treaty. The traveling and speaking tour exacerbated his already bad health and he suffered stroke that rendered him incapable for weeks

    ii)Condition made his views of world in moral terms and loathing for compromise stronger. When Treaty sent to Sen for approval w/ “reservations” (amendments) attached, Wilson urged Dems to vote against it- both amended treaty and original failed to reach 2/3 majority to be ratified

    6)A Society in Turmoil

    a)Industry and Labor

    i)After war govt began cancelling contracts. War boom continued for short while b/c of foreign demand + deficit spending

    ii)In 1920 bubble burst—GDP decreased, inflation and unemployment rose

    iii)In postwar env’t 1919 management sought to rescind worker rights that they had been forced to grant during war—use of union strikes increased to combat these moves: Boston Police Strike, great Steel Worker’s Strike failure

    b)The Demands of African-Americans

    i)Retruning blacks from war wanted social reward+ rights for service, black factory workers from war wanted to retain economic gains they had made

    ii)Racial tension increased as retrurning whites displaced black workers- contributed to large 1919 Chicago race riots

    iii)Marcus Garvey’s ideas of Black Nationalism gained popularity among blacks- advocated embracing heritage + return to Africa, reject white assimilation

    c)The Red Scare

    i)Industrial problems, racial violence, dissent, creation of Communist International in 1919 by Soviets to spread revolution, also bombings in US by radicals fueled middle class fears of instability + radicalism

    ii)Growing movement to fight radicalism + embrace “100 Percent Americanism” Red Scare

    iii)Antiradicals saw any instability or protest as radical threat; Jan 1920 Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer conducted nationwide raids in radical crackdown

    iv)1920 Sacco and Vanzetti murder trial showed American bias toward perceived radicals (they had been immigrant anarchists); they were executed in 1927

    d)The Retreat from Idealism

    i)Passage of 19th Amendment in 1920  (to give women suffrage) marked end of reform era—due to economic problems, labor unrest, and antiradicalism that all lead to sense of disillusionment

    ii)1920 Presidential election pitted idealists Dem James Cox (and VP Franklin Roosevelt) against conservative Republican Warren Harding who promised “return to normalcy”—Harding won by a large margin

    iii)Election a repudiation of League of Nation and postwar order of democratic ideals

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - “The New Era”

    1)The New Economy

    a)Technology and Economic Growth

    i)After 1921-1922 recession tremendous economic growth in output + income 

    ii)Growth result of collapse of Eur industry after war, important technological advances: rise of auto manufacturing (and in turn gas production, road construction), assembly line, rise of radio and commercial broadcasting, advances in air travel, development of electronics + synthetic materials

    iii)Maturation of electricity and telecommunications fields; work during 1920s and 1930s on primitive computer technologies

    b)Economic Organization

    i)Certain industries (e.g. steel) continued toward national organization and consolidation- these companies adopted new modern administrative systems w/ efficient division structures to allow subsidiary control + easier expansion

    ii)In industries w/ more competition stabilization reached thru cooperation—rise of trade association to coordinate production + marketing

    iii)Industrialists feared overproduction and recession, and efforts to curb competition thru either consolidation or cooperation reflected this

    c)Labor in the New Era

    i)Some employers 1920s used “welfare capitalism” to give workers more rights, improve safety, raise wages in order to avoid labor unrest + independent union growth. System survived only if industry prospering- collapsed in 1929

    ii)Welfare capitalism helped only a few workers, employers wage increases disproportional to their increase in profits. Ultimately workers still mainly impoverished and powerless, families relied on multiple wage earners

    iii)Organized labor + independent unions often failed to adapt to changing nature of modern economy. American Federation of Labor still used craft union system based on skills, did not allow growing unskilled industrial workers

    d)Women and Minorities in the Work Force

    i)Number of women in workforce increased, especially in “pink-collar” jobs- low-paying service jobs, most unions refused to organize them

    ii)African-Americans in cities after 1914 Great Migration largely excluded from unions (A. Philip Randolph’s Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters exception)

    iii)In West + Southwest unskilled and unorganized workers mainly Hispanics and Mexican immigrants, Asians (mainly Japanese who replaced Chinese after Exclusion Acts in menial jobs)

    e)The “American” Plan

    i)After 1919 economic uneasiness corporations rallied strongly against “subversive” unionism and wanted to protect idea of open shop (in which workers not forced to join union)—known as “American Plan”

    ii)Govt intervened on behalf of management, courts often ruled against striking workers. Btwn this and corporate efforts union membership saw large decline

    f)Agricultural Technology and the Plight of the Farmer

    i)American agriculture adopted new technolgoies (e.g. tractor, combine) allowed more crops w/ fewer workers; hybrid corn + fertilizers increased productivity led to overprodution and collapse in food prices

    ii)Farmers called on govt price support- idea of “parity” (govt set price, farmers reimbursed if good sold for less in fluctuating market) and high foreign crop tariffs introduced in Congress in McNary-Haugen Bill (vetoed by Coolidge)

    2)The New Culture

    a)Consumerism

    i)Industrial growth led to rise of consumer culture in which ppl had discretionary funds w/ which to buy items for pleasure (appliances, fashion)

    ii)Most revolutionary product was automobile- allowed rural ppl to escape isolation, city ppl to escape crowded urban life; rise of vacation traveling

    b)Advertising

    i)Techniques first used in wartime propaganda came of age in new age of advertising + work of publicists. Famous book of time The Man Nobody Knows by Bruce Burton about Jesus as “salesman”

    ii)Ads possible b/c of mass audience in national chains of newspapers, mass-circulation magazine growth

    c)The Movies and Broadcasting

    i)1920s saw rise of Hollywood, creation of Motion Picture Association and the Hays Code as industry self-ban on objectionable material

    ii)Phenomenal rise of radio beginning w/ first commercial station broadcasting in 1920. By 1929 12 million families owned radio sets

    d)Modernist Religion

    i)Growing consumer culture w/ emphasis on immediate self-fulfillment had influence on religion—abandonment by some of traditional + literal

    ii)Harry Emerson Fosdick spokesman for new liberal Protestantism of 1920s

    e)Professional Women

    i)Most employed women were working class b/c of professional struggle btwn career and family. Few professional women limited to mainly “feminine” fields of fashion, education, social work, nursing

    f)Changing Ideas of Motherhood

    i)Belief grew that maternal affection not adequate preparation for child rearing, advice and help of professionals needed instead 

    ii)Motherhood increasingly relied on institutions out of home, allowing time to devote to “companionate marriage”- involved more as wives, in social life

    iii)Growth of birth control related to sense of sex as recreation vs only creation

    g)The “Flapper”: Image and Reality

    i)Some women came to believe rigid and Victorian “feminism” unnecessary “flapper” women expressed themselves freely thru dress, speech, behavior

    h)Pressing for Women’s Rights

    i)Women formed League of Women Voters, many women helped growing consumer groups

    ii)1921 Sheppard-Towner Act gave federal funds to states for prenatal and child healthcare. Fought my American Medical Association, others; repealed in 1929--- showed women didn’t vote as single block, even on “female” issues 

    i)Education and Youth

    i)Growing secularism, emphasis on training and expertise manifested itself in growing upper education attendance rates, teaching of technical skills

    ii)Emergence of distinct youth culture w/ growing idea of adolescence, belief this was time for child to develop institutions w/ peers separate form family

    j)The Decline of the “Self-Made Man”

    i)Myth of “self-made man” who could gain wealth and fame thru hard work and natural talent gave way to belief that nothing possible without education and training (men felt losing independence, control, “masculinity”)

    ii)Idolized self-made men in Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh

    k)The Disenchanted

    i)New generation of artists and intellectuals viewed society w/ contempt; isolated themselves instead of playing reform role

    ii)Lost Generation’s critique American system in which individual had no means of personal fulfillment rose out of WWI experience and sense of deaths in vain, end of Wilsonian idealism, growing business + consumerism

    iii)Ernest Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) expressed contempt of war; other “debunkers” critical of society included H.L. Mencken, Sinclair Lewis

    iv)Many of these critics who rejected the “success ethics” of America became expatriates living abroad. Paris was center of American artistic life

    l)The Harlem Renaissance

    i)Other intellectuals saw solution to problems in exploration of own culture and its origins—great example Harlem during “Harlem Renaissance”

    ii)Harlem center of black artists and intellectuals; literature, poetry , and art drew on African roots—famously Alan Locke, Langston Hughes

    m)The Southern Agrarians

    i)Group of Southern intellectuals and poets known as the Fugitives rebelled against depersonalization and materialism due to industrialization by recalling the Southern nonindustrial, agrarian way of life

    ii)Wrote reactionary ideas in their 1930 agrarian manifesto I’ll Take My Stand

    3)A Conflict of Cultures

    a)Prohibition

    i)Prohibition took effect 1920; within a year “noble experiment” failing b/c even though some drinking rates fell alcohol still widely available and legitimate businesses being replaced by organized crime (famous Al Capone)

    ii)Prohibition supported by rural Protestants who they associated drinking w/ Catholic immigrants + new valueless culture

    b)Nativism and the Klan

    i)After war many Americans associated immigration w/ radicalism; efforts to restrict influx grew, 1921 Congress passed emergency law w/ quota system 

    ii)Nativists wanted harsher law--- National Origins Act of 1924 banned all east Asian immigration, reduced especially eastern Eur quotas

    iii)Ku Klux Klan re-emerged as force b/c of fear by some older Americans of disruption of culture by new peoples—“New Klan” emerged in 1915 after meeting in Stone Mountain, GA

    iv)At first targeted blacks, after the war targeted Catholics, Jews, and foreigners- purge “alien” influences; membership grew in S but also N industrial cities

    v) Wanted to threaten anyone who challenged “traditional values”- irreligion, drunkenness, ect. Defend racial homogeneity + defend traditional culture against modernity; provided disenfranchised w/ sense of community, power

    c)Religious Fundamentalism

    i)Fight over role of religion in modern society—split in Protestantism btwn urban, middle-class ppl who wanted to adapt religion to modern science and secular society vs traditional rural ppl who wanted to retain religious import

    ii)Fundamentalists wanted traditional interpretation of bible, opposed Darwinism; evangelical movement wanting to spread doctrine (famous preacher Billy Sunday)

    iii)When teaching Darwinism outlawed in Tennessee, ACLU promised to defend teacher John Scopes who defied law—Scopes trial isolated Fundamentalists from mainstream Protestants, ended their growing political activism

    d)The Democrat’s Ordeal

    i)Democrats split btwn urban and rural factions; party included prohibitionists, Klansmen, fundamentalists but also Caths, urban workers, immigrants

    ii)At 1924 Democratic National Convention in NY conflict btwn urban wing wanting prohibition repealed, denunciation of clan, and supported Alfred Smith for nominee; W + S supported William McAdoo. After deadlock both withdrew and John Davis chosen as nominee

    iii)In 1928 AL Smith won nomination, but party still divided b/c of southern anti-Catholicism; lost election to Herbert Hoover

    4)Republican Government

    a)Harding and Coolidge

    i)Pres Warren Harding elected 1920; appointed party elite who had helped win him nomination to positions in administration, ultimately this corrupt “Ohio Gang” committed fraud and corruption in Teapot Dome oil reserve scandal

    ii)Harding died of a heart attack 1923, VP Calvin Coolidge ascended to presidency (known for crushing Boston Police riot)

    iii)Coolidge a passive president like Harding, believed govt should not interfere little in life of nation; won re-election 1924 but did not seek office in 1928

    b)Government and Business

    i)Even though New Era presidents passive, fed govt as a whole worked to helped business + industry operate efficient and productively

    ii)Sec of Treasury Andrew Mellon reduced tax on corporate profits, personal incomes, inheritances, and cut federal budget

    iii)Sec of Commerce Herbert Hoover favored voluntary cooperation of businesses in private sector for stability. Supported business “Associationalism” in which businessmen in an industry worked together to promote stability, efficient production, and marketing

    iv)Hoover won the Presidential election of 1928, but nation entered Depression in 1929

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Great Depression

     1)The Coming of the Great Depression

    a)The Great Crash

    i)From Feb 1928 until October 1929 economic boom, stock prices rose dramatically w/ credit easily available

    ii)October 29, 1929- “Black Tuesday”- stock market crashed

    b)Unemployment and Relief

    i)In capitalist system recessions cyclical, but Great Depression direly severe 

    ii)Such large crash b/c lack of diversification (many overinvested in automobiles + construction), maldistribution of wealth resulting in consumers receiving too little money to spend to keep pace w/ growing markets + supplies (coupled w/ rising unemployment due to natural cycle + from technology)

    iii)Credit structures + indebtedness of farmers threatened banks, but banks also threatened by risky investments + loans in stock markets

    iv)US foreign exports declined b/c some Eur nations productivity increasing but others facing financial difficulties; international debt structure after WWI in which nations sought new loans to pay off existing Allied loans + Central nation reparations weakened US economy after 1929 left countries w/o source with which to repay loans, began to default 

    c)Progress of Depression

    i)Stock market crash triggered chain of events that further weakened economy over next 3 years

    ii)Banking system collapsed and billions of dollars in deposits lost; money supply contraction exacerbated by 1931 Fed Reserve interest raises

    iii)GDP, capital investment, gross farm product all down at least 25% by 1933; in 1932 national unemployment had risen to 25% (much more in some cities)

    2)The American People in Hard Times

    a)Unemployment and Relief

    i)Americans taught to believe that individual responsible for own fate, poverty sign of own failure; nevertheless the small relief system of the 1920s incapable of dealing w/ new demands and govts hesitant to increase support b/c of decreasing tax revenues + welfare stigma. Bread lines found in cities

    ii)In rural areas income declined 60%, 1/3 of farmers lost land, massive drought extended thru the “Dust Bowl” starting in 1930 lasting for a decade farm prices so low that many farmers left homes to seek employment (“Okies”)

    iii)Nationwide problems of malnutrition, homelessness; growth of shantytowns, massive migrations of ppl across country seeking jobs, better living conditions 

    b)African-Americans and the Depression

    i)Most S blacks were farmers, collapse of cotton + staple crop prices led them to leave land; menial jobs they had held in cities began to be given to whites (Black Shirts in Atlanta 1930 called for dismissal of all blacks from jobs so that they would be available for struggling whites to take)

    ii)Mass migration of jobless southern blacks to Northern urban centers

    iii)Segregation + black disenfranchisement remained, but famous Scottsboro case in which group of 7 blacks falsely accused of rape resulted in national attention b/c of NAACP support

    iv)NAACP began working to increase black participation in unions + organized labor

    c)Mexican Americans in Depression America

    i)Large Mex immigration population (known as Chicanos) centered mostly in Southwest, worked mainly menial jobs or as unskilled laborers in urban areas

    ii)When Depression hit many whites forced them from their jobs, relief to Mexicans severely limited + many rounded up to be sent back to Mexico—all highlighted the discrimination of Hispanics that swept region

    d)Asian Americans in Hard Times

    i)Depression strengthened pattern of economic marginalization of Asian American populations which were centered mainly on the West coast; frequently lost jobs to whites desperate for employment

    ii)Some Japanese sought to form clubs to advance political agendas: Japanese American Democratic Club worked for laws against discrimination; Japanese American Citizens League sought to make immigrants more assimilated

    e)Women and the Workplace in the Great Depression

    i)Ppl believed that b/c jobs so scarce whatever was available should go to men—this belief strengthened notion of women’s main role staying in home, also feelings that no woman with an employed husband should hold a job

    ii)Single and married women both continued to work during Depression b/c money so necessary- result of nonprofessional nature of “pink-collar” jobs as more secure than those in heavy industry, male stigma about taking them

    iii)Support for Reform Era ideas of women economically and professionally independent began to wane; Depression saw death of National Woman’s Party

    f)Depression Families

    i)Middle- and working-class families used to rising standard of living now uncertain b/c of unemployment or income reductions

    ii)Retreat from consumerism as women made clothes in home, home businesses established, banding together of extended family units

    3)The Depression and American Culture

    a)Depression Values

    i)Pre-Depression acceptance of affluence and consumerism remained unchanged as ppl worked even more hard to achieve ideals

    ii)Longstanding belief that individual controlled own fate and success thru hard work (“success ethic”) largely survived Depression as many unemployed simply blamed themselves and remained passive b/c felt ashamed

    iii)Masses responded messages that they themselves could restore own wealth + success—best-selling How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie

    b)Artists and Intellectuals in the Great Depression

    i)Just as urban poverty had received attention during Reform Era, during 1930s many shocked at “discovery” of rural poverty- photography of Farm Security Administration photographers highlighted impact of hostile env’t on ppl

    ii)Many writers began to highlight social injustices- Erskine Caldwell’s Tobacco Road(1932) of rural poverty; Richard Wright’s Native Son of urban ghettos; John Steinbeck’s novels of migrant workers; John Dos Passso’s USA trilogy attacked capitalism

    c)Radio

    i)Almost every family had radio, listening often a communal activity

    ii)Most radio programming was entertaining and escapist in nature (comedies or adventures, soap operas); live programming of performances also developed

    iii)Radio allowed access to major public events in news, sports, politics

    iv)Drew nation together b/c of widespread availability of same cultural and informational programming, gathered family together in the home

    d)The Movies

    i)Early 1930s movie attendance dropped b/c of economic hardship, but by mid-1930s many seeing them again

    ii)Most movies censored heavily and studio system kept projects largely uncontroversial; some films did manage to explore social and political questions, but most remained escapist in order to keep attention of audience away from troubles. Walt Disney movies emerged during 1930s

    e)Popular Literature and Journalism

    i)Literature more reflective of growing radicalism + discontentedness than radio and movies, although escapist and romantic works still widely popular (Mitchell’s 1936 Gone With The Wind; photographic Life Magazine)

    ii)Other works challenged American popular values: John Dos Passos’s U.S.A. trilogy (1930-1936) attacked American materialism; Nathanael West’s Miss Lonelyhearts(1933) of a woman overwhelmed by the life stories of others

    f)The Popular Front and the Left

    i)Late 1930s more literature more optimistic of society b/c of rise of Popular Front coalition lead by American Communist Party- supported Franklin Roosevelt and New Deal, mobilized intellectuals toward social criticism

    ii)Intellectual detachment of 1920s targeted by Popular Front- mobilized some men into Lincoln Brigade to fight in Spanish Civil War against the fascists

    iii)Communist Party organized unemployed, unions, supported racial justice; however party under control of Soviet Union- when Stalin signed 1939 nonaggression pact w/ Hitler Party abandoned Popular Front and returned to criticizing liberals

    iv)Socialist Party of America under Norman Thomas attempted to argue crisis failure of capitalist system and tried to win support for party, especially targeting rural poor—supported Southern Tenant Farmers Union but never gained strength

    v)Antiradicalism a strong force in 1930s and hostility existed toward Communist Party, yet at the same time Left widely respected amongst workers and intellectuals; temporary widening of mainstream culture

    vi)Famous accounts of social conditions of the era provided by James Agee’s Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941) and more famously John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath(1939)

    4)The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover

    a)The Hoover Program

    i)Hoover responded to Depression by trying to restore confidence in economy- tried to gather business into voluntary program of cooperation to aid recovery; by 1931 voluntarism had collapsed b/c of worsening economy

    ii)Hoover tried using govt spending to boost economy; spending not enough in face of huge economic problems, sought to raise taxes 1932 to balance budget

    iii)Offered Agricultural Marketing Act to help farmers w/ low crop prices, raised foreign agricultural tariffs in Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930- neither helped

    iv)Dems gained majority in House + increase in Senate in 1930 elections by promising government economic assistance; presidents unpopularity grew (shantytowns called “Hoovervilles”) especially after international financial panic in spring 1931 w/ Austrian bank collapse

    v)1932 Congress created Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to give loans to imperiled banks, RRs, businesses- RFC failed to improve economy b/c lent largely to big institutions, didn’t sponsor enough relief + public works

    b)Popular Protest

    i)By 1932 dissent beginning to come to a head: Farmers’ Holiday Association attempted farmer’s product strike; veterans in “Bonus Army” marched on Washington to protest withholding of bonuses, Hoover called on Army units under Gen Douglas MacArthur to clear Bonus Army out of city

    ii)Popular image of Hoover as unsympathetic + unable to act effectively

    c)The Election of 1932

    i)Repubs re-nominated Hover as candidate; Democrats nominated NY Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt

    ii)Roosevelt avoided religion and prohibition, focused on economic grievances of nation

    iii)Roosevelt won large majority of popular vote and even more overwhelmingly in electoral college; Dems majorities elected to House and Senate- signified mandate for change

    d)The “Interregnum”

    i)Period between election and inauguration one of increasing economic problems b/c of expanding banking crisis + more depositors seeking to withdraw money in a panic; more banks declared bankruptcy

    ii)Roosevelt refused to make public commitments asked of him by Hoover to maintain economic orthodoxy or not institute broad economic reforms


    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The New Deal

    1)Launching the New Deal

    a)Restoring Confidence

    i)Roosevelt projected optimism- famous quote “all we have to fear is fear itself”

    ii)Two days after taking office issued “Bank Holiday” closing all banks for four days to give Congress time to discuss reforms; Emergency Banking Act required Treasury Dept inspection of banks, assistance to troubled institutions

    iii)Bank Holiday restored ¾ of closed banks; Economy Act passed a few days later forced balanced fed budget thru cutting govt salaries + veterans pensions

    b)Agricultural Adjustment

    i)Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 reduced crop production to end surpluses + raise prices; Agricultural Adjustment Administration would enforce industry limits + subsidize vacant lands to parity-- farm income began increasing 

    ii)1936 Agricultural Adjustment Act declared unconstitutional b/c it required farmers to limit production; new Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act passed to pay farmers to reduce production in order to “conserve soil”

    iii)Resettlement Administration and later Farm Security Administration gave loans to small farmers to help relocate to better lands; Rural Electrification Administration attempted to make power more available to farmers

    c)Industrial Recovery

    i)Administration allowed for relaxing of some antitrust laws to stabilize industry prices in return for concessions to labor to allow collective bargaining and unions led to 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act

    ii)Act created National Recovery Administration under Hugh Johnson called on adoption of labor codes + industrial codes to set floor prices-- sought to maintain employment + production

    iii)NRA weakened b/c codes poorly written and administered; Section 7(a) of NIR Act gave workers right to unionize but no enforcement so many corps. ignored it; Public Works Administration of NIR Act slow to distribute monies

    iv)NRA failed to raise production; 1935 Supreme C. held NRA unconstitutional

    d)Regional Planning

    i)AAA and NRA examples of economic planning that allowed private interests to dictate planning process; others wanted govt in charge of planning

    ii)Tennessee Valley Authority created after failure of electric utility companies to develop water resources for cheap power; 1933 TVA began building dams in Tennessee Valley region + sell electricity at reasonable rates

    iii)TVA revitalized region by improving transport, limiting flooding, making electricity more available, and lowered power rates nationwide

    e)Currency, Banks, and the Stock Market

    i)1933 president took president took nation off gold standard; govt began manipulating value of dollar by buying/selling large amts of silver

    ii)Efforts to increase govt regulation in 1933 Glass-Steagall Act- govt power to curb speculation, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to protect deposits

    iii)1933 Truth in Securities Act required corporations to give truthful disclosures

    iv)1934 Securities and Exchange Commission created to police stock market

    f)The Growth of Federal Relief

    i)Administration saw need to help impoverished until economy improved—Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave cash to state relief groups

    ii)Work relief provided by the Civil Works Administration that gave millions temporary work- built roads + schools, and pumped money into economy

    iii)Civilian Conservation Corps gave unemployed men jobs in national parks planting trees and improving irrigation

    iv)To aid in mortgage relief created Farm Credit Administration to help farmers refinance; 1933 Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act aided foreclosed farmers; 1933 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation refinanced households

    2)The new Deal in Transition

    a)Critics of the new Deal

    i)Conservatives and businesses leaders main opponents to New Deal, 1934 formed American Liberty League decrying “attacks” on free enterprise

    ii)Another threat to New Deal in Townsend Plan- proposed giving all over 60 monthly pension; idea gained much support older ppl, forerunner to Soc Sec

    iii)Father Charles Coughlin’s nat’l radio sermons called for banking + currency reform (recoining of silver, nationalization of banks) to restore economic justice, felt admin unresponsive so founded National Union for Social Justice

    iv)Sen Huey Long gained popularity for attacks on banks, oil companies, utilities and b/c of progressive voting record; like Coughlin felt administration not acting strongly enough so proposed Share-Our-Wealth Plan to redistribute wealth (and created Share-Our-Wealth Society)

    v)Growing dissident movements threat to president, so Roosevelt began to consider measures to counter their growing popularity

    b)The “Second New Deal”

    i)Second New Deal of 1935 marked beginning of open critique of big business

    ii)Holding Company Act sought to break up monopoly of utility industry; 1935 tax reforms established progressive tax w/ very high rate for wealthy

    iii)National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) gave enforcement to NIR Act’s Section 7(a) (right to unionize) in National Labor Relations Board

    c)Labor Militancy

    i)Trade union power increased dramatically in 1930s b/c of efforts to strengthen unions + growing labor militancy to challenge conservative groups

    ii)After Wagner Act attempts to find new forms of organization; American Federation of Labor still committed to organizing workers based on skill, but b/c mass of labor force unskilled industrial unionism gained popularity (all workers in industry organized regardless of role)

    iii)AFL hesitancy to adopt industrial unionism led John L Lewis in 1936 to create independent Congress of Industrial Organizations- grew into new areas

    d)Organizing Battles

    i)Laborers in auto industry increasingly joining unrecognized United Auto Workers; 1936 staged sit-down strike that stopped all production and prevented strikebreakers- most auto makers soon recognized union

    ii)In steel Steel Worker’s Organizing Committee recognized by US Steel 1937 to prevent costly stroke; “Little Steel” committed “Memorial Day Massacre” when strikers attempted protest- strike failed, SWOC not recognized for years

    iii)Period saw union membership increase by millions, growing recognition

    e)Social Security

    i)Lobbying for social insurance for elderly and unemployed led to 1935 Social Security Act—payroll tax created to create pension system for workers upon retirement, unemployment insurance paid by employers gave laid off workers temporary govt assistance, disability + dependent children aid created

    ii)Seen as insurance in which participants contributed and benefits for all

    f)New Directions in Relief

    i)SS for long term needs; to help currently unemployed created 1935 Works Progress Administration under Harry Hopkins to build + renovate public buildings, employ millions, pump money into economy

    ii)WPA replaced smaller CWA after 1934 fall- $5 billion budget vs $1 billion

    iii)Federal Writers Project of WPA (Music Proj, Theater Proj, ect.) provided govt salary to those ppl to continue work

    iv)Men often given relief in form of work relief and employment whereas women mainly given cash assistance

    g)The 1936 “Referendum”

    i)With 1936 revival of economy doubts about re-election from 1935 troubles largely dispelled. Repub nominee Alf Landon ran poor campaign, other Roosevelt dissidents (e.g. Coughlin and Townsend’s Union Party) very weak

    ii)Election largest landslide to date, Dems increased majorities in both Congressional houses; results highlighted Dem coalition of farmers, urban working ppl, unemployed and poor, progressive liberals, and blacks

    3)The New Deal in Disarray

    a)The Court Fight

    i)1936 landslide led Roosevelt to deal with Supreme Court whose conservative rulings (against NRA, AAA) he feared would ruin more legislation

    ii)1937 Roosevelt proposed overhaul of court system to Congress, including adding six new justices to Supreme Court so that he could appoint liberals and change ideological balance. Conservatives outraged as “Court-packing plan”

    iii)Legislation failed but more moderate court no longer a New Deal obstacle, although administration was damaged and Roosevelt viewed as power hungry

    b)Retrenchment and Recession

    i)In summer 1937 Roosevelt feared inflation so began to cut fed govt programs and reduce deficit—led to recession of 1937 (“Roosevelt’s Recession”); increased govt spending in 1938 for public works seemed to lead to recovery

    ii)Roosevelt began to denounce economic concentrations + sought antirust law reform- Congress formed Temporary National Economic Committee, apptd Thurman Arnold head of the antitrust division at the Justice Dept

    iii)1938 Fair Labor Standards Act established nat’l minimum wage, 40 hour work week, child labor limits

    iv)By end of 1938 New Deal largely over b/c of Congressional opposition + growing global crisis and Roosevelt’s concentration on war preparation

    4)Limits and Legacies of the New Deal

    a)The Idea of the “Broker State”

    i)New Deal backers originally sought to remake American capitalism and create new controls to make new economic order. Instead, transformation of government as “broker state” in which govt was a mediator in competition btwn interest groups rather than force to create universal harmony

    ii)Before 1930s main interest group corporations, but by end of 1930s business interests competing with labor, agricultural economy, and consumers

    b)African Americans and the New Deal

    i)New Deal did little to assist African Americans; Roosevelt himself not opposed to blacks- his “Black Cabinet” of blacks in second-level administrative positions, many blacks received govt relief or assistance

    ii)Electoral shift as blacks no longer overwhelmingly voted Republican but by 1936 90% voting Democratic- even though race not part of New Deal agenda

    iii)New Deal agencies reinforced discrimination by separating blacks in CCC and NRA codes, WPA gave minorities lower-paying jobs

    c)The new Deal and the “Indian Problem”

    i)Federal government sought to erase Indian problem by assimilating them and decreasing amt who identified as members of tribe

    ii)Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier proponent of cultural relativism and therefore supported legislation to reverse Native pressures to assimilate and instead be given right to live traditionally—Indian reorganization Act of 1934 advanced many of these goals by re-allowing collective ownership

    d)Women and the New Deal

    i)Administration mostly unconcerned w/ feminist movement b/c lack of popular support but nevertheless had symbolic gestures (Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins first female Cabinet member, other women appts in govt)

    ii)New Deal supported notion that women withdraw from working to open up positions for men—agencies offered women few jobs

    iii)Like with AAs New Deal not against women but still accepted cultural norms

    e)The New Deal in the West and the South

    i)West and South given special attention by New Deal relief and public works programs; these programs didn’t challenge racial and ethnic prejudices

    ii)New Deal had profound impact on West b/c farming central to economy and was a good site for and had the need for dams, electricity, other public works

    iii)New Deal programs profound in South b/c less economically developed than rest of nation in 1930s, gave federal attention to South that no previous administration had ever done b/c of view of S as “backward”

    f)The new Deal and the National Economy

    i)New Deal failed to end Depression, change drastically the maldistribution of wealth. New Deal did allow new groups previously unheld powers (labor, women, farmers), economically developed South and West, increased govt regulation, created welfare state thru relief and Social Security that broke w/ tradition of providing little public help to citizens deeply in need

    g)The New Deal and American Politics

    i)Roosevelt strengthened power of federal government as local govt took second seat to national govt, presidency established as center of power and shifted Congress to more secondary role

    ii)New Deal led to political shifts—Dem Party now strong coalition ready to dominate national politics; reawakened interest in economy over cultural issues; changed expectations American people had of government

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Global Crisis, 1921-1941

    1)The Diplomacy of the New Era

    a)Replacing the League

    i)Harding administration sought to negotiate separate peace treaties w/ Central Powers, find impermanent way to replace League as guarantor of world peace

    ii)Washington Conference of 1921 sought to deal w/ naval arms race btwn US, GB, Japan: Five-Power Pact limited armaments; Nine-Power Act continued Chinese Open Door policy; Four-Power Act acknowledged Pacific territories

    iii)Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 btwn 14 nations to outlaw war as policy measure

    iv)New Era efforts to protect peace w/o active international duties

    b)Debts and Diplomacy

    i)Diplomacy used to ensure free overseas trade thru reducing war and making financial arrangements w/ other nations

    ii)US prosperity depended on Eur economy, which was suffering from war destruction, Allied debt on US loans, Central reparations US acted to head off collapse thru 1924 Dawes Plan that created circular loan system where US loaned Germany money to pay GB + French debt who used $ to pay US debt

    iii)System led to increase in Eur debt, US banks and corporations took advantage of collapsed industries to assert themselves; high US tariffs under Republicans prevented Eur export of goods to earn money to repay loans

    iv)US economic expansion into Latin America during 1920s to better access rich natural resources, give loans to governments

    c)Hoover and the World Crisis

    i)Stock market crash of 1929 and worsening problems after 1931, growing nationalism + new hostile governments faced by Hoover administration

    ii)Hoover promised to recognize new Latin American govt if any collapsed, did not intervene some defaulted on US loans (against M. Doctrine + R.Corollary)

    iii)In efforts to restore Eur economic stability Pres refused to cancel debts- some nations defaulted; 1932 World Disarmament Conference ended in failure

    iv)Difficulties increased b/c of control by Benito Mussolini’s nationalistic Fascist Party in Italy & Adolf Hitler’s Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis)

    v)Crisis in Asia when in 1931 Japanese military staged coup against liberal govt b/c it had allowed China’s leader Chiang Kai-Shek to expand his power in Manchuria (which had been economically dominated by Japan) Japan invaded Manchuria + then China itself (Hoover refused to issue sanctions)

    vi)Interwar diplomacy of international voluntary cooperation and refusal to actively commit itself a failure; nation could now adopt internationalism or become even more nationalistic + isolated would try measures of both

    2)Isolationism and Internationalism

    a)Depression Diplomacy

    i)Early Roosevelt admin foreign policy concerned mainly w/ pressing economic issues- sought to differ from Hoover by solving war debts + adopting gold standard. However, 1933 World Economic Conference accomplished little

    ii)FDR forbid continuation of circular loan system, did little to stabilize international currencies; did adopt Reciprocal trade Agreement Act of 1934 to advance principles of free trade

    b)American and the Soviet Union

    i)FDR agreed to recognize Soviet Union in 1933 in hopes of increasing trade btwn nations (not b/c of lessening of hatred toward Communism)

    c)The Good Neighbor Policy

    i)“Good Neighbor Policy” toward Latin America focused on trade reciprocity (free trade);1933 Inter-American Conference administration officially pledged to not intervene in affairs of Latin nations. Closer economic ties emerged

    d)The Rise of Isolationism

    i)Geneva Conference on disarmament disbanded and Japan withdrew from 1921 Washington Conference; agreements of 1920s collapsed during 1930s

    ii)Many Americans supported isolationism b/c internationalism of League of Nations failed to restrain Japanese Asian aggression, belief US business interests had led to WW I involvement; FDR helpless to change tide

    iii)Neutrality Acts of 1935, ’36, ’37 meant to prevent issues of WWI from allowing US entrance into new war- “neutral rights” of US citizens defined, “cash-and-carry” policy allowed only nonmilitary goods to be sold to warring countries who had to provide own transportation

    iv)Military neutrality upheld after Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia and during Spain’s civil war btwn fascist Falangists + repub govt

    v)Alarm over Japan’s 1937 new assaults into China (after 1931 Manchuria invasion) led FDR to question isolationism, delivered “Quarantine speech” saying aggressors should be prevented from spreading war; speech unpopular

    e)The Failure of Munich

    i)In 1936 Hitler moved army into demilitarized Rhineland, 1938 invaded Austria to create union (anschluss) + demanded Czechoslovakia cede Sudetenland to increase lands for Germans to live (lebensraum); 1938 Munich Conference GB + France appeased Hitler for promise would be last expansion

    ii)1939 “appeasement” collapsed w/ German invasion of whole Czechoslovakia and then Poland- GB + France honored defense agreement w/ Poland, in September declared war against Germany

    3)From Neutrality to Intervention

    a)Neutrality Tested

    i)Most Americans supported Allies, FDR wanted to grant assistance by allowing arms sales to belligerents using “cash-and-carry” policy

    ii)Quiet “phony war” period shattered by spring 1940 German blitzkrieg invasion of W. Eur, by June France had fallen + GB retreated at Dunkirk

    iii)Roosevelt increased aid to Allies + monies for US self-defense, “scraped bottom of the barrel” to give GB’s Churchill war materials 

    iv)FDR able to take steps b/c public opinion shift after fall of France Germany now seen as threat to US by majority; debate still btwn “interventionists” who wanted increased US war involvement and “isolationist” America First Committee supported by many Repubs

    b)The Third-Term Campaign

    i)Roosevelt sought 3rd term in 1940 presidential election; Repubs nominated Wendell Willkie. Roosevelt won election w/ heavy measure of support

    c)Neutrality Abandoned

    i)After election Roosevelt changed US war role-- cash-short GB extended “lend-lease” agreement that allowed sale but also lending of armaments, began ensuring shipments reached GB by Navy patrolling Atlantic for subs

    ii)After Germany broke 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact by invading the USSR, US extended “lend-lease” to Russians; Nazi subs began attacking US ships, Congress voted to allow arming of merchants + US attacks on subs

    iii)1941 Churchill and Roosevelt released Atlantic Charter tying two nations together to war aims to destroy “Nazi tyranny”

    d)The Road to Pearl Harbor

    i)1940 Japan signed Tripartite Pact allying itself w/ Germany and Italy; in spite of Roosevelt denouncing Japanese aggression in 1941 it invaded Indochina

    ii)US froze Jap assets + placed trade embargo preventing Japan from buying impt supplies (including oil). Tokyo attempted to negotiate w/ US to continue flow of supplies, but Jap PM Konoye forced out of office by Gen Hideki Tojo

    iii)Tojo govt refused to recognize US calls to guarantee Chinese territorial rights so negotiations broke down, by November war imminent; on December 7, 1941 Jap aircraft carriers attacked US Pacific Navy HQ at Pearl Harbor

    iv)US lost 8 battleships, 2,000 soldiers dead, US Pacific forces weakened; resulted in unifying American ppl into commitment to war

    v)December 8, 1941 US declared war on Japan; December 11 Germany and Italy declared war on US, likewise same say us declared war on them

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - America In A World At War

     1)War on Two Fronts

    a)Containing the Japanese

    i)After Pearl Harbor US forces surrendered in the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island; to turn tide US lead 2 offensives- Gen Douglas MacArthur’s attacks from the south, and Admiral Chester Nimitz attacked from HI to the west

    ii)May 1942 Battle of Coral Sea weakened Jap navy; more important Battle of Midway Island June 1942 regained US central Pacific control

    iii)Mid-1943 after fighting in Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) US turned tide

    b)Holding Off the Germans

    i)US military plans in Europe influenced by Soviet Union and GB; FDR decided to delay invasion into France in favor of October 1942 counter-offensive in N. Africa against Nazi Gen Erwin Rommel; by May 1943 Gen George Patton and British Gen Montgomery had driven Germans from Africa

    ii)Soviet Red Army held off immense German 1942-1943 winter offensive at Stalingrad, Hitler’s forces exhausted and forced to abandon eastern advance

    iii)July 1943 US agreed to British plan to invade Sicily, Mussolini govt collapsed but German reinforcements prevented capture of Rome until June 1944; slow, costly Italy campaign delayed French channel invasion Soviets had called for

    c)America and the Holocaust

    i)By 1942 news of Holocaust (Nazi campaign to exterminate European Jews) prompting public cries to end killing, but US govt resisted calls for military aid + officials at the State Dept deliberately refused to let Jews enter US

    2)The American People In Wartime

    a)Prosperity

    i)WWII ended Great Depression problems of unemployment, deflation, production b/c of wartime economic expansion + massive govt spending (federal budget grew from 1939 $9 billion to 1945 $100 billion)

    b)The War and the West

    i)West shared disproportionally in massive govt capital investments; 

    ii)Businessman Henry Kaiser steered federal funds to make Pacific Coast major industrial center for shipbuilding, aircraft; launching stage for Japanese war

    c)Labor and the War

    i)Labor shortage caused by military recruitment; unemployed from Depression worked, but also women + other previously unused groups entered workforce 

    ii)Union membership increased; new govt limits on wage increases +“no-strike” promise, in return govt allowed all new workers to automatically join unions

    iii)Govt+ public sought to reduce inflation + guarantee production w/o disruption

    d)Stabilizing Boom

    i)1942 Congress passed Anti-Inflation Act which allowed Pres to freeze prices and wages, set rations; enforced by the Office of Price Administration

    ii)Govt spent 2X more $ btwn 1941-1945 than it had during whole existence; raised $ thru bond sales, Revenue Act of 1942 created new high tax brackets

    e)Mobilizing Production

    i)1942 War Production Board created to organize mobilization effort but was largely unable to direct military purchases + include small businesses; program later replaced by White House Office of War Mobilization

    ii)Nevertheless, US economy met all war needs; new factories were built, entire rubber industry created. By 1944 output 2X that of all Axis nations combined

    f)Wartime Science and Technology

    i)Govt stimulated new military technologies by funneling massive funds to National Defense Research Committee

    ii)Originally Germany (w/ sophisticated tanks + submarines) and Japan (w/ strong naval-air power) technologically ahead of Allies; US, however, had experience w/ mass production in auto industry and was able to convert many of these plants to produce armaments

    iii)Allied advances in radar + sonar beyond Axis capabilities helped limit effectiveness of U-Boats in Atlantic; Allies developed more effective anti-aircraft tech and produced large amount of powerful 4-engine aircraft (British Lancaster + US B17) able to attack military forces + industrial centers 

    iv)Greatest Allied advantage found in intelligence gathering—British Ultra project able to break German “Enigma” code and intercept info on enemy movements; American Magic operation broke Japanese “Purple” code

    g)African-Americans and the War

    i)Blacks wanted to use war as means of improving own conditions. A Philip Roth (head of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car porters) wanted all companies w/ war contracts to integrate work force

    ii)Fearing black workers strike, FDR created Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate labor discrimination. Later, Congress of Racial equality combated discrimination in society at large using popular resistance

    iii)War saw migration of blacks from rural South to industrial cities of North in greater numbers than those found of first Great Migration during WWI

    h)Native Americans and the War

    i)Some Native Americans served in military (some as famous “Code Talkers”), many others left reservations seeking work in war industries

    i)Mexican-American War Workers

    i)War labor shortages lead to large Mex immigration of braceros (contract laborers); ethnic tensions from growing immigrant neighborhoods w/ existing white communities led to “Zoot-Suit Riots” in Los Angeles in 1943

    j)Women and Children of War

    i)Large number of women entered roles they were previously excluded from

    ii)Many women worked in factories to replace men who had entered military, but some inequality existed in what jobs they could hold in factories

    iii)Most women took service-sector jobs in growing govt bureaucracies; limited others worked in “male” heavy-industry (famous Rosie the Riveter image)

    iv)Over 1/3 of teenagers took jobs during war; crime rate also rose during war

    k)Wartime Life and Culture

    i)Increased prosperity from war led to marked rise in theater and movie attendance, magazine and news circulation, hotel, casino, dance hall visits

    ii)War effort largely seen as means of protecting material comfort + consumer choice of “home”; visions of home and future women romanticized by troops

    l)The Internment of Japanese Americans

    i)WWII did not largely see restrictions of civil liberties + growth of hatred toward fringe groups as during WWI; little ethnic tension in part due to propaganda attacking enemy’s political system but not people

    ii)Glaring exception in treatment of Japanese Americans who were painted as scheming + cruel (re-enforced by Pearl Harbor); white Eur groups largely accepted by now, but assimilated Japs faced prejudice + viewed as “foreign”

    iii)Conspiracy theories of Jap-Americans aiding in Pearl Harbor attacks led govt + military to see them as a threat; 1942 Roosevelt created War Relocation Authority to move Japanese citizens to “relocation camps” for monitoring

    iv)Starting 1943 condition began to improve as some Japs allowed to got o college or take jobs on East Coast; although 1944 Supreme Court case Korematsu v U.S. ruled relocation constitutional, by that time most of internees had been allowed to leave camps

    m)Chinese Americans and the War

    i)US war alliance w/ China helped Chinese Americans advance legal + social position—1943 Congress repealed Chinese Exclusion acts

    ii)Many Chinese took jobs in industry or were drafted into the military

    n)The Retreat from Reform

    i)FDR wanted to shift priority from reform to war effort and victory

    ii)With massive unemployment no longer an issue + Republican gains, Congress dismantled relief programs and other New Deal programs

    iii)In 1944 Pres election Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey; Dems re-nominated Roosevelt but w/ new, less liberal VP candidate Harry Truman

    iv)Despite deteriorating health Roosevelt was popularly elected; Dems maintained control of both Houses of Congress

    3)The Defeat of the Axis

    a)The Liberation of France

    i)By 1944 devastating Allied strategic bombing against German industry at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin reduced production + complicated transport; German Luftwaffe forced to retreat to bases w/in Germany itself, weakened it

    ii)After 2 year buildup in England Supreme Allied Commander Gen Dwight Eisenhower ordered invasion across English Channel into Normandy, France on “D-Day” (June 6, 1944); Allies drove Germans from the coast, by September forced them to retreat from France, Belgium

    iii)In December Germany counter-attacked during Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes Forest, but soon repelled; with Soviet advances on Eastern front, Allies began moving into Germany across Rhine

    iv)April 30 Hitler commits suicide; May 8, 1945 full surrender + “V-E” Day

    b)The Pacific Offensive

    i)Thru 1944 American navy crippling Japanese shipping and economy in Pacific; on mainland Asia Japan attacking thru Chinese interior trying to cutoff Gen Stilwell’s Burma Road for supplies

    ii)June 1944 Americans captured Mariana Islands, in September Battle of Leyte Gulf Japanese navy decimated by US sinking of its aircraft carriers; in next few months Japanese fought desperate battles of resistance in Feb at Iwo Jima, in June at Okinawa (used Kamikaze suicide bombers throughout)

    iii)Many feared bloody island battles would ensue w/ invasion of Japanese mainland, but by 1945 Japanese weakened by firebombing in Tokyo, shelling of industrial centers; moderates in govt trying to sue peace against will of military leaders wanting to continue fight

    c)The Manhattan Project

    i)After news in 1939 that Nazis pursuing atomic bomb, US and +GB began race to develop one before them; work based on discovery of uranium radioactivity by Enrico Fermi 1930s, Einstein’s theory of relativity

    ii)Army took over control of research and poured billions of $ into Manhattan Project which gathered scientists to create nuclear chain reactions w/ a bomb

    iii)On July 16 1945 the plutonium bomb Trinity, created by scientist Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory, successfully tested

    d)Atomic Warfare

    i)Pres Truman issues ultimatum to Japanese for “unconditional surrender” by Aug 3rd or face annihilation; after Jap moderates unable to convince military leaders to accept Truman ordered use of atomic weapon

    ii)Some argue atomic weapon unnecessary b/c in time Japs would have sued for peace; others argue only atomic bomb could convince radical military leaders that surrender necessary. Truman saw weapon as military device that could end war quickly, but some say he used it to intimidate Stalin and Soviets

    iii)August 6, 1945 bomber Enola Gay dropped atomic weapon on Japanese city Hiroshima, killing 80,000 civilians; because Jap govt didn’t respond, on August 8 second atomic  bomb dropped on city of Nagasaki killing 100,000

    iv)By Aug 14 emperor agreed to surrender; September 2, 1945 Japan signed articles of surrender (“V-J Day”) marking end of WWII

    v)14 million combatants had died during war, even more civilians; threat of nuclear war loomed between two emerging super-powers in US and Soviet Union


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - The Cold War

     1)Origins of the Cold War

    a)Sources of Soviet-American Tensions

    i)Rivalry emerged b/c of difft visions of postwar world: US foresaw world where nations shed military alliances and used democratic international bodies as mediators; Soviet Union sought to control areas of strategic influence 

    b)Wartime Diplomacy

    i)Tensions began in 1943 b/c of Allied refusal to open second front w/ French invasion, dispute over governance of Poland unresolved at Tehran Conference

    c)Yalta

    i)Meeting of Big Three at Yalta in 1945 led to plan to create United Nations (w/ General Asembly and Security Council w/ permanent members)

    ii)Disagreement existed over future of Polish govt (independent + democratic vs Communist); US wanted to German reconstruction, Stalin wanted heavy reparations- finally agreed to commission and each Ally given German “zone”

    2)The Collapse of the Peace

    a)The Failure of Potsdam

    i)After Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, new Pres Truman decided US needed to “Get Tough” w Soviets to honor Yalta accords

    ii)Potsdam Conference in July ended w/ Stalin receiving increased land w/ new Polish-German border, US refusing to allow German reparations from Allied zones but US recognizing new communist Polish govt under Soviet influence

    b)The China Problem

    i)US had vision of open world “policed” by major powers; vision troubled by unpopular + corrupt Chinese govt under Chiang Kai-shek (supported by US aid during civil war) who battled communists under Mao Zedong

    ii)B/c Kai-shek govt sure to collapse, US sought to create new, Pro-West Japan by encouraging industrial development, lift trade restrictions

    c)The Containment Doctrine

    i)US no longer sought “open” world but rather “containment” of Soviet expansion; new Truman Doctrine sought aid for those forces in Turkey + Greece opposing take-over of Communist forces under Soviet influence

    d)The Marshall Plan

    i)Sec of State George Marshall 1947 plan to provide aid to all Eur nations (for humanitarian reasons, to rebuild to create markets for US goods, and to strengthen Pro-US govts against communists); 1948 created the Economic Cooperation Administration to channel billions of $ to aid economic revival

    e)Mobilization at Home

    i)US maintained wartime military levels, established Atomic Energy Commission to continue nuclear research 

    ii)National Security Act of 1947 restructured military by creating Department of Defense to combine all armed services, create National Security Council in White House and Central Intelligence Agency to collect information

    f)The Road to NATO

    i)Truman merged German “Western zones” into the West German republic; Stalin responded by blockading Western Berlin, Truman responded w/ airlift to re-supply inhabitants; Federal Republic became govt of west Germany, Democratic Republic of east

    ii)To strengthen military position US and Western Eur naions1949 created North Atlantic Treaty Organization as alliance to protect all members against threat of Soviet invasion (communists 1955 formed similar Warsaw Pact)

    g)Reevaluating Cold War Policy

    i)1949 saw Soviet Union explode atomic weapon and collapse of Nationalists in China to Mao’s Communists 

    ii)To reevaluate foreign policy, National Security Council released report NSC-68 that held US should lead noncommunist world and oppose communist expansion everywhere it existed, also expand US military power dramatically

    3)American Society and Politics After the War

    a)The Problems of Reconversion

    i)After end of war Truman attempted to quickly return nation to normal economic conditions, but problems ensued

    ii)No economic collapse b/c of increase in spending on consumer goods from savings, Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill) provided education + economic aid to returning soldiers that further increased spending

    iii)Problems arose w/ high inflation, union strikes in RR + mining industries, and displacement of some minorities and women b/c of returning soldiers to labor

    b)The Fair Deal Rejected

    i)After Jap surrender Truman proposed “Fair Deal” to enact liberal reforms—included raising minimum wage, enacting Fair Employment Practices Act, expanding Social Security, and creating nation health insurance plan

    ii)Fair Deal opposed by Repubs who gained majority in both Houses of Congress in 1946 elections; Repubs sought to reduce govt spending and economic controls, cut taxes for wealthy, refused to raise wages

    iii)Repubs wanted to decrease powers unions gained in 1935 Wagner Act by passing 1947 Labor-Management Relations Act of (Taft-Hartley Act)- made “closed-shop” illegal; limited efforts help those not yet organized (minorities)

    c)The Election of 1948

    i)Truman sought to make re-election about liberal reforms but electorate saw him as weak; Southern Dems (Dixiecrats) + progressives refused full support

    ii)Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey and seemed to be in strong position to win, but intense campaigning by Truman and his platform to reduce inflation + help common man allowed him to win Pres; Dems also won both Houses of C

    d)The Fair Deal Revivied

    i)New Dem Congress allowed for minimum wage increase + Social Security expansion, but hostile to Fair Deal programs expanding education aid, national healthcare, and civil rights

    ii)Truman did end govt hiring discrimination, desegregated armed forces; Supreme Court inSkelley v. Kraemer rules community “covenants” preventing movement of blacks unenforceable by courts

    e)The Nuclear Age

    i)Nuclear weapons viewed w/ fear b/c of threat from Soviet Union (expressed in pop culture,film noir, and govt preparations for nuclear attack), but public also awed by technological potential of nuclear power (Dreams of prosperity and unlimited + cheap electricity)

    4)The Korean War

    a)The Divided Peninsula

    i)Korea divided at 38th Parallel into Communist North and Southern government of capitalist Syngman Rhee (supported by US)

    ii)Nationalists in North invaded S in 1950 in effort to reunite countries; US won UN resolution calling for support of S. Korea armies (Russia unable to veto b/c boycotting Security Council at time)—“containment” but also “liberation”

    b)From Invasion to Stalemante

    i)Gen MacArthur (head of UN forces) able to advance far into North, but new communist Chinese govt feared American forces + entered conflict late 1950 

    ii)UN armies force dto retreat to 38th parallel long stalemate ensued until 1953

    iii)Truman wanted peace andnot new world war w/ China; Gen MacArthur publicly opposed peace effort and was relieved of command by Pres in 1951

    c)Limited Mobilization

    i)War led to only limited mobilization: Truman created Office of Defense Mobilization to combat rising inflation; govt seized RRs + steel mills during union strikes, increased govt spending stimulated economy

    ii)Inability of US to quickly end “small” war led to growth of fears of growth of communist  at home

    5)The Crusade Against Subversion

    a)HUAC and Alger Hiss

    i)“Red Scare” prompted by fear of Stalin, Communist growth (“loss” of China, Korean frustrations) many sought to blame US communist conspiracy

    ii)Repubs soguht to use anticommunist feeligns to win support against Dems; Congress created House Un-American Activities Committee 1947 to investigate communist subversion

    iii)Investigation into former State Dept official Alger Hiss revaled some complicity w/ communists increased fear of communist infiltrations

    b)The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case

    i)Truman began 1947 program to determine “loyalty” of fed employees; FBI monitored radicals; 1950 Congress passed McCarran Interal Secuity Act forcing communist groups to register w/ government

    ii)Explosion of atomic bomb by Soviets led to famous Rosenberg tiral to find out how Russia had learned of technology so quickly; Rosenbergs executed

    iii)HUAC, Rosenberg trial, “Loyalty” program, Hiss ordeal, McCarran Act all lead to national anticommunist hysteria at national, state, and local level

    c)McCarthyism

    i)Wisconsin Sen Joseph McCarthy 1951 began leveling charges of communist agents in State Dept and other agencies; his subcommittee was at the fore of anticommunist hysteria + partisan politics

    d)The Republican Revival

    i)Korean stalemate + anticommunist sentiments led to Dem disappointments

    ii)Dem nominated Adlai Stevenson (viewed as liberal and weak on Communism); Repubs nominated popular Gen Dwight Eisenhower and VP Richard Nixon (Eisenhower talked of Korean peace, Nixon of communist subversion)

    iii)Eisenhower won election by huge margin & Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Affluent Society

    Sources of Economic Growth
    ·By 1949, despite the continuing problems of postwar reconversion, an
    economic expansion had begun that would continue with only
    brief interruptions for almost twenty years
    · The causes of this growth varied
    1. Government spending continued to stimulate growth
    through public funding of schools, housing, veteran’s benefits,
    welfare, and the $100 billion interstate highway program
    ·Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    1. Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    a. There was the development of electronic
    computers
    b. The first modern computer emerged as a result of
    efforts during WWII to decipher enemy codes
    c. Not until the 1980s did most Americans come into
    direct and regular contact with computers, but the new
    machines were having a substantial effect on the
    economy long before that
    ·The national birth rate reversed a long pattern of decline with the socalled
    baby boom
    1. The baby boom meant increased consumer demand and
    expanding economic growth
    ·The rapid expansion of suburbs helped stimulate growth in several
    important sectors of the economy
    ·Because of this unprecedented growth, the economy grew nearly ten
    times as fast as the population in their thirty years after the war
    1. The American people had achieved the highest standard
    of living of any society in the history of the world
    The Rise of the Modern West
    · No region of the country experience more dramatic changes as a
    result of the new economic growth than the American West
    ·By the 1960s some parts of the West were among the most important
    industrial and cultural centers of the nation in their own right
    ·As during WWII much of the growth of the West was a result of federal
    spending and investment 1. Dams, power stations, highways,
    and other infrastructure projects
    ·The enormous increase in automobile use after WWII gave a large
    stimulus to the petroleum industry and contributed to the rapid
    growth of oil fields in Texas and Colorado
    ·State governments in the West invested heavily in their universities
    ·Climate also contributed
    The New Economics
    ·The exciting discovery of the power of the American economic system
    was a major cause of the confident, even arrogant tone of much
    American political life in the 1950s
    1. There was the belief that Keynesian economics made it
    possible for government to regulate and stabilize the
    economy without intruding directly into the private sector
    ·By the mid-1950s, Keynesian theory was rapidly becoming a
    fundamental article of faith
    1. Armed with these fiscal and monetary tools, many
    economists now believed, it was possible for the government to
    maintain a permanent prosperity
    ·If any doubters remained, there was ample evidence to dispel their
    misgivings during the era
    ·Accompanying the belief in the possibility of permanent economic
    stability was the equally exhilarating belief in permanent
    economic growth by the mid-1950s, reformers concerned about
    economic deprivation were arguing that the solution lay in
    increased production
    ·The Keynesians never managed to remake federal economic policy
    entirely to their liking
    1. Still, the new economics gave many Americans a
    confidence in their ability to solve economic problems that
    previous generations had never developed
    Captial and Labor
    ·A relatively small number or large-scale organizations controlled an
    enormous proportion oft eh nation’s economic activity
    ·A similar consolidation was occurring in the agricultural economy
    ·Corporations enjoying booming growth were reluctant to allow strikes
    to interfere with their operations
    ·By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of
    relationship with employers
    1. “Postwar Contract”
    ·Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries
    were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits
    1. In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising
    other issues
    ·The contract served the corporations and the union leadership well
    ·Many rank-and-file workers resented the abandonment of efforts to
    give them more control over the conditions of their labor
    ·The economic successes of the 1950s helped pave the way for a
    reunification of the labor movement
    1. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the
    Congress of Industrial Organizations ended their 20 year rivalry
    and merged to create the AFL- CIO
    ·But success also bread stagnation and corruption in some union
    bureaucracies
    ·While the labor movement enjoyed significant success in winning
    better wages and benefits for workers already organized in
    strong unions, the majority of laborers who were as yet
    unorganized made fewer advances
    1. New obstacles to organization
    a. Taft-Hartley Act and the state right-to-work laws
    ·In the American South impediments to unionization were enormous
    1. Antiunion sentiment was so powerful in the South that
    almost all organizing drives encountered crushing and usually
    fatal resistance
    The Explosion of Science and Technology
    Medical Breakthroughs
    ·The development of antibiotics had its origins=2 0in the discoveries of
    Louis Pasteur and Jules-Francois Joubert.
    ·Working in France in the 1870s they produced the first conclusive
    evidence that virulent bacterial infections could be defeated by
    other, more ordinary bacteria.
    ·In 1920, in the meantime, Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered
    the antibacterial properties of an organism that he named
    penicillin.
    ·There was also dramatic progress in immunization-the development of
    vaccines that can protect humans from contracting both
    bacterial and viral diseases.
    ·In 1954, the American scientist Jonas Salk introduced an effective
    vaccine against the disease that had killed and crippled
    thousands of children and adults.
    ·Average life expectancy in that same period rose by five years, to 71.
    Pesticides
    ·The most famous pesticides was dichlorodiphenyl-dichloromethane
    [DDT] a compound discovered in 1939 by Paul Muller.
    Postwar Electronic Research
    ·Researchers in the 1940s produced the first commercially viable
    televisions and created a technology that made it possible to
    broadcast programming over large areas.
    ·In 1948 bell Labs, the research arm of AT&T, produced=2 0the first
    transistor, a solid-state device capable of amplying electrical
    signals, which was much smaller and more efficient than the
    cumbersome vacuum tubes that had powered most electronic
    equipment in the past.
    ·Integrated circuits combined a number of once-separate electronic
    elements and embedded them into a single, microscopically
    small device.
    Postwar Computer Technology
    ·In the 1950s computers began to perform commercial functions for
    the first time, as data-processing devices used by businesses and
    other organizations.
    ·The first significant computer of the 1950s was the Universal
    Automatic Computer, which was developed initially for the U.S
    Bureau of the Census by the Remington Rand company.
    Bombs, Rockets, and Missles
    ·In 1952, the U.S successfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb.
    ·The development of the hydrogen bomb gave considerable impetus to
    a stalled scientific project in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
    The Space Program
    ·The Shock of Sputnik , th e united states had yet perform any similar
    feats , and the American government (and much of American
    society ) reacted to the announcement with alarm , as if the
    Soviet achievement was also a massive American failure .
    ·The centerpiece of space exploration , however . soon became the
    manned space program , established in 1958 through the
    creation of a new agency , the National Aeronautics and Space
    Administration (NASA ) and through the selection of the first
    American space pilots , or “astronauts”
    · They quickly became the nation’s most revered heroes .
    · The Apollo Program , Mercury and Gemini were followed by the Apollo
    program , whose purpose was to land men on the moon .
    · July 20 , 1969 , Neil Armstrong , Edwin Aldrin , and Michael Collins
    successfully traveled in a space capsule into orbit around the
    moon .
    · Armstrong and Aldrin , and Michael then detached a smaller craft from
    the capsule , landed on the surface of the moon , and became
    the first men to walk on a body other than earth .
    People of Plenty
    The Consumer Culture
    · At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing
    absorption with consumer goods
    · It was a result of:
    1. Increased prosperity
    2. Increasing variety and availability of products
    3. Advertiser’s adeptness in creating a demand for those
    product
    4. A growth of consumer credit
    To a striking degree, the prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s was
    consumer driven
    · Because consumer goods were so often marketed nationally, the
    1950s were notable for the rapid spread of creation national
    consumer crazes
    The Suburban Nation
    · By 1960 a third of the nation’s population was living in suburbs
    · The most famous of the postwar suburban developers, William Levitt,
    came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of
    mass-production techniques to construct a large housing
    development on Long Island, NY
    1. They helped to meet an enormous demand for housing
    that had been growing for more than a decade
    · Many Americans wanted to move to the suburbs
    1. One reason was the enormous importance postwar
    Americans place on family life after five years of war in which
    families had often been separated or otherwise disrupted
    2. They provided privacy
    3. A place to raise a large family
    4. They provided security from the noise and dangers of
    urban living
    5. They offered space for the new consumer goods
    6. Suburban life also helped provide a sense of community
    · Suburban neighborhoods
    1. They were not uniform
    The Suburban Family
    · For professional men, suburban life generally meant a rigid division
    between their working and personal worlds
    · For many middle-class married women, it meant an increase isolation
    from the workplace
    · One of the most influential books in postwar American life was a
    famous guide to child rearing
    1. Baby and Child Care
    a. Said that the needs of the child come before
    everything else
    b. Women who could afford not to work faced heavy
    pressures to remain in the home and concentrate on
    raising their children
    c.  Yet by 1960, nearly a third of all married women
    were in the paid workforce
    · The increasing numbers of women in the workplace laid the
    groundwork for demands for equal treatment by employers that
    became and important part of the feminist crusades of the 1960s
    and 1970s
    The Birth of Television
    · Television is perhaps the most powerful medium of mass
    communication in history
    · The television industry emerged directly out of the radio industry
    · Like radio, the television business was driven by advertising
    · The impact of television on American life was rapid, pervasive, and
    profound
    1. Television entertainment programming replace movies
    and radio as the principal source of diversion for American
    families
    · Much of the programming of the 1950s and early 1960s created a
    common image of American life
    1. An image that was predominately white, middle-class,
    and suburban
    2. Programming also reinforced the concept of gender roles
    3. Television inadvertently created conditions that could
    accentuate social conflict
    Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and Environmentalism
    ·
    Organized Society and Its Detractors
    · Large-scale organizations and bureaucracies increased their influence
    over American life in the postwar era
    ·More and more Americans were becoming convinced that the key to a
    successful future lay in acquiring the specialized training and
    skills necessary for work in large organizations
    1. The National Defense Education Act of 1958
    a. Provided federal funding for development of
    programs in those areas of science, mathematics, and
    foreign languages
    2. As in earlier eras, many Americans reacted to these
    developments with ambivalence, even hostility
    ·Novelists expressed misgivings in their work about the enormity and
    impersonality of modern society
    The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth
    ·The most derisive critics of bureaucracy, and of middle-class society
    in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists
    generally known as the “beats” – beatniks
    ·The beats were the most visible evidence of a widespread
    restlessness among young Americans in the 1950s
    ·In part, that restlessness was a result of prosperity itself
    1. Tremendous public attention was directed at the
    phenomenon of “juvenile delinquency” and in both politics and
    popular culture there were dire warnings about the growing
    criminality of American youth
    ·Also disturbing to many older Americans was the style of youth
    culture
    1. The culture of alienation that the beats so vividly
    represented had counterparts even in ordinary middle-class
    behavior
    a. Teenage rebelliousness toward parents, youthful
    fascination with fast cars and motorcycles, and an
    increasing visibility of teenage sex, assisted by the
    greater availability of birth-control devices and the
    spreading automobile culture that came to dominated the social
    lives of teenagers in much of the nation
    2. The popularity of James Dean was a particularly vivid
    sign of this aspect of youth culture in the 1950s
    a. Dean became an icon of the unfocused
    rebelliousness of American youth in his time
    Rock 'n' Roll
    ·One of the most powerful signs of the restiveness of American youth
    was the enormous popularity of rock ‘n’ roll and of the greatest
    early rock star
    1. Elvis Presley
    a. Presley became a symbol of a youthful
    determination to push at the borders of the
    conventional and acceptable
    b. Presley’s music, like that of most early white rock
    musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues
    traditions
    c. Rock also drew from country western music, gospel
    music, even from jazz
    ·The rise of such white rock musicians as Presley was a result in part of
    the limited willingness of white audience to accept black
    musicians
    ·The rapid rise and enormous popularity of rock owed a great deal to
    innovations in radio and television programming
    1. Early in the 1950s, a new breed of radio announcers
    began to create programming aimed specifically at young fans
    of rock music
    a. Disk Jockeys
    ·Radio and television were important to the recording industry because
    they encouraged the sale of records
    1. Also important were jukeboxes
    ·Rock music began in the 1950s to do what jazz and swing had done in
    the 1920s – 40s
    1. To define both youth culture as a whole and the
    experience of a generation
    The "Other America"
    On the Margins of the Affluent Society
    ·In 1962, The Other America was published
    a. Chronicles of the continuing existence of poverty in
    America
    ·The great economic expansion of the postwar years reduced poverty
    dramatically but did not eliminate it
    ·Most of the poor experience poverty intermittently and temporarily
    ·This poverty was a poverty that the growing prosperity of the postwar
    era seemed to affect hardly at all
    Rural Poverty
    ·Among those on the margins of the affluent society were many rural
    Americans
    ·Not all farmers were poor
    1. But the agrarian economy did produce substantial
    numbers of genuinely impoverished people
    ·Migrant farm workers and coal miners fell to the same kind of poverty
    The Inner Cities
    ·As white families moved from cities to suburbs in vast numbers, more
    and more inner-city neighborhoods became vast repositories for
    the poor
    1. Ghettos from which there was no easy escape
    a. African Americans helped this growth
    ·Similar migrations from Mexico and Puerto Rico expanded poor
    Hispanic barrios in many American cities at the same time
    ·For many years, the principal policy response to the poverty of inner
    cities was “urban renewal”
    1. The effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and
    most degraded areas
    a. In some cases, urban renewal provided new public
    housing for poor city residents
    b. In many cases, urban renewal projects replaced
    “slums” with middle and upper-income housing, office
    towers, or commercial buildings
    ·One result of inner-city poverty was a rising rate of juvenile crime
    The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement
    The Brown Decision and "Massive Resistance"
    ·On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court announced its decision in the
    case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
    1. Ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision was the culmination of many decades of effort by
    black opponents of segregation
    ·The Topeka suit involved the case of an African-American girl who had
    to travel several miles to a segregated public school every day
    even though she lived virtually next door to a white elementary
    school
    1. The Court concluded that school segregation inflicted
    unacceptable damage on those it affected
    ·The following year, the Court issued another decision to provide rules
    for implementing the 1954 order
    1. It ruled that communities must work to desegregate
    their schools “with all deliberate speed,” but it set no
    timetable and left specific decisions up to lower courts
    ·Strong local opposition produced long delays and bitter conflicts
    1. More than 100 southern members of Congress signed a
    “manifesto” in 1956 denouncing the Brown decision and
    urging their constituents to defy it
    ·Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (1958)
    1. Refused to declare “pupil placement laws”, placing a
    student in a school based on academic or social behaviors,
    unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision, far from ending segregation, had launched a
    prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local
    governments, and between those who believed in racial equality
    and those who did not
    ·In 1957, federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High
    School in Little Rick, Arkansas
    1. An angry white mob tried to prevent implementation of
    the order by blockading the entrances to the school
    2. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the
    National Guard and sending troops to Little Rock to restore
    order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed
    The Expanding Movement
    ·The Brown decision helped spark a growing number of popular
    challenges to segregation in the South
    ·December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama,
    when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a
    white passenger
    1. The arrest of this admired woman produced outrage in
    the city’s African-American community and helped local
    leaders organize a successful boycott of the bus system to
    demand an end to segregated seating
    2. The bus boycott put economic pressure not only on the
    bus company but on many Montgomery merchants
    a. The bus boycotters found it difficult to get to
    downtown stores and tended to shop instead in their own
    neighborhoods
    ·A Supreme Court decision in 1956 declared segregation in public
    transportation to be illegal
    ·More important than the immediate victories of the Montgomery
    boycott was its success in establishing a new form of racial
    protest and in elevating to prominence a new figure in the
    movement for civil rights
    1. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
    a. King’s approach to black protest was based on the
    doctrine of nonviolence
    b. He urged African Americans to engage in peaceful
    demonstrations
    2. The popular movement he came to represent soon
    spread throughout the South and throughout the country
    ·One important color line had been breached as early as 1947, when
    the Brooklyn Dodgers signed the great Jackie Robinson as the
    first African American to play Major League Baseball
    ·President Eisenhower signed a civil rights act in 1957
    1. Providing federal protection for blacks who wished to
    register to vote
    Cause of the Civil Rights Movement
    ·Several factors contributed to the rise of African-American protest in
    these years
    1. Millions of black men and women had served in the
    military or worked in war plants during the war and had
    derived from the experience a broader view of the world
    and their place in it
    2. Another factor was the growth of an urban black middle
    class
    3. Television and other forms of popular culture were
    another factor in the rising consciousness of racism among
    blacks
    ·Other forces were at work mobilizing many white Americans to
    support the movement once it began
    1. The Cold War
    2. Political mobilization of northern blacks
    3. Labor unions with substantial black memberships
    · By the early 1960s, this movement had made it one of the most
    powerful forces in America
    Eisenhower Republicanism
    "What was Good for...General Motors"
    · The first Republican administration in 20 years was staffed mostly
    with men drawn from the same quarter as those who had staffed
    Republican administrations in the 1920s
    1. The business community
    · Many of the nation's leading businessmen and financiers ha
    reconciled themselves to at least the broad outlines of the
    Keynesian welfare state the New Deal had launched and had
    come to see it as something that actually benefited them
    · To his cabinet, Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and
    business executives
    · Eisenhower’s leadership style helped enhance the power of his
    cabinet officers and others
    · Eisenhower’s consistent inclination was to limit federal activities and
    encourage private enterprise
    The Survival of the Welfare State
    · The president took few new initiatives in domestic policy
    · Perhaps the most significant legislative accomplishment of the
    Eisenhower administration was the Federal Highway Act of 1956
    1. Authorized $25 billion for a ten-year effort to construct
    over 40,000 miles of interstate highways
    2. The program was to be funded through a highway “trust
    fund” whose revenues would come from new taxes on the
    purchase of fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires
    · In 1956, Eisenhower ran for a second term
    1. Republicans – Adlai Stevenson
    2. Eisenhower won
    · Democrats still held power over Congress
    The Decline of McCarthyism
    · In its first years in office the Eisenhower administration did little to
    discourage the anticommunist furor that had gripped the nation
    · Among the most celebrated controversies of the new administration’s
    first year was the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer
    1. He opposed the building of the Hydrogen Bomb
    2. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar association
    with various left-wing groups
    a. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar
    association with various left-wing groups
    · But by 1954, such policies were beginning to produce significant
    opposition
    1. The clearest signal of that change was the political
    demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy
    a. He overstepped his boundaries when he charged
    Secretary of Army Robert Stevens
    b. Army-McCarthy hearings
    2. In December 1954, he was condemned for “conduct
    unbecoming a senator”
    Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War
    Dulles and "Massive Retaliation"
    · Eisenhower’s secretary of state, and the dominant figure in the
    nation’s foreign policy in the 1950s, was John Foster Dulles
    · He entered office denouncing the containment policies of the Truman
    years
    1. Arguing that the United States should pursue an active
    program of “liberation” which would lead to a “rollback” of
    communism expansion
    · “Massive Retaliation”
    1. The United States would, he explained, respond to
    communist threats to its allies not by using conventional forces
    to local conflicts but by relying on “the deterrent of massive
    retaliatory power” (nuclear weapons)
    · By the end of the decade, the United States had become a party to
    almost a dozen such treaties of mutual defense in NATO in all
    areas of the world
    France, America, and Vietnam
    ·
    Cold War Crisis
    ·
    Europe and the Soviet Union
    · Although the problems of the Third World were moving slowly to the
    center of American foreign policy, the direct relationship with the
    Soviet Union and the effort to resist communist expansion in
    Europe remained the principal concerns of the Eisenhower
    administration
    · In 1955, Eisenhower and other NATO leaders met with the Soviet
    premier, Nikolai Bulganin, at a cordial summit conference in
    Geneva
    1. They could find no basis for agreement
    · Relations between the Soviet Union and the West soured further in
    1956 in response to the Hungarian Revolution
    1. Hungarians were demanding democratic reforms
    a. Soviets came in to crush the uprising
    2. The suppression of the uprising convinced many
    American leaders that Soviet policies had not softened as much
    as the events of the previous two years had suggested
    ·The failure of conciliation brought renewed vigor to the Cold War and
    greatly intensified the Soviet-American arms race
    ·The arms race not only increased tensions between the United States
    and Russia
    1. It increased tensions within each nation as well
    The U-2 Crisis
    ·In this tense and fearful atmosphere, the Soviet Union raised new
    challenges to the West in Berlin
    ·In November 1958, Nikita Khrushchev renewed his predecessors’
    demands that NATO powers abandon the city
    1. The United States and its allies refused
    ·Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower discuss the issue
    personally
    1. The United States agreed
    ·Only days before Eisenhower was to leave for Moscow the Soviet
    Union announced that it had shot down an American U-2, a spy
    plane, over Russian territory
    ·By the spring of 1960, Khrushchev knew that no agreement was
    possible on the Berlin issue
    ·The events of 1960 provided a somber backdrop for the end of the
    Eisenhower administration
    ·He warned in his farewell address of 1961 of the “unwarranted
    influence” of a vast “military-industrial complex”
    1. His caution, in both domestic and international affairs,
    stood in marked contrast to the attitudes of his successors, who
    argued that the United States must act more boldly and
    aggressively on behalf of its goals at home and abroad
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - The Ordeal of Liberalism

    Expanding the Liberal State
    John Kennedy
    ·The campaign of 1960 produced two young candidates who claimed
    to offer the nation active leadership.
    ·The Republican nomination went almost uncontested to Vice President
    Richard Nixon, who promised moderate reform.
    ·John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the son of the wealthy powerful, and
    highly controversial Joseph P. Kennedy, former American
    ambassador to Britain.
    ·He premised his campaign, he said, “on the single assumption that
    the American people are uneasy at the present drift in our
    national course”.
    ·Kennedy had campaigned promising a set of domestic reforms more
    ambitious than any since the New Deal, a program he described
    as the “New Frontier”.
    ·Kennedy had traveled to Texas with his wife and Vice President Lyndon
    Johnson for a series of=2 0political appearances.
    ·While the presidential motorcade rode slowly through the streets of
    Dallas, shots rang out.
    ·He got shot in the throat and head, he was rushed to a hospital, where
    minutes later he was pronounced dead.
    ·Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested for the crime later that day, and
    then mysteriously murdered by a Dallas nightclub owner, Jack
    Ruby, 2 days later as he was being moved from one jail to
    another.
    ·In years later years many Americans came to believe that the Warren
    Commission report had ignored evidence of a wider conspiracy
    behind the murders.
    Lyndon Johnson
    ·The Kennedy assassination was a national trauma-a defining event for
    almost everyone old enough to be aware of it.
    ·Johnson was a native of the poor “hill country” of west Texas and had
    risen to become majority leader of the U.S. Senate by dint of
    extraordinary, even obsessive, effort and ambition.
    ·Between 1963 and 1966, he compiled the most impressive legislative
    record of any president since Franklin Roosevelt.
    ·He created the “Great Society”.
    ·Record Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, any of
    whose members had been swept into office=2 0only because of
    the margin of Johnson’s victory, ensured that the president would
    be able to fulfill many of his goals.
    The Assault on Poverty
    ·The most important welfare program was Medicare: a program to
    provide federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses.
    ·Its enactment in 1965 came at the end of a bitter, 20 year debate
    between those who believed in the concept of national health
    assistance and those who denounced it as “socialized medicine”.
    ·Medicare benefits available to all elderly Americans, regardless of
    need.
    ·Medicare simply shifted responsibility for paying those fees from the
    patient to the government.
    ·The centerpiece of this “war on poverty”, as Johnson called it, was the
    Office of economic Opportunity, which created an array of new
    educational, employment, housing, and health-care programs.
    ·The Community Action programs provided jobs for many poor people
    and gave them valuable experience in administrative and
    political work.
    ·The OEO spent nearly $3 billion during its first two years of existence,
    and it helped reduce poverty in some areas.
    Cities, Schools, and Immigration
    ·The Housing Act of 1961 offered $4.9 billion in federal grants to cities
    for the preservation of open spaces, the development of mass
    transit systems, and the subsidization of middle income housing.
    ·In 1966, Johnson established a new cabinet agency, the Department
    of Housing and Urban Development.
    ·Johnson also inaugurated the Model Cites program, which offered
    federal subsidies for urban redevelopment pilot programs.
    ·Johnson managed to circumvent both objections with the Elementary
    and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and a series of subsequent
    measures.
    ·Total federal expenditures for education and technical training rose
    from $5 billion to $12 billion between 1964 and 1967.
    ·The Immigration Act of 1965 maintained a strict limit on the number
    of newcomers admitted to the country each year (170,000), but
    it eliminated the “national origins” system established in the
    1920s, which gave preference to immigrants from northern
    Europe over those from other parts of the world.
    Legacies of the Great Society
    ·In 1964, Johnson managed to win passage of the $11.5 bill ion tax cut
    that Kennedy had first proposed in 1962.
    ·The cut increased the federal deficit, but substantial economic growth
    over the next several years made up for much of the revenue
    initially lost.
    ·The high costs of the Great Society programs, the deficiencies and
    failures of many of them, and the inability of the government to
    find the revenues to pay for them contributed to a growing
    disillusionment in later years with the idea of federal efforts to
    solve social problems.
    The Battle for the Racial Equality
    Expanding Protests
    ·John Kennedy had long been vaguely sympathetic to the cause of
    racial justice, but he was hardly a committed crusader.
    ·In February 1960, black college students in Greensboro, North
    Carolina, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch
    counter, and in the following weeks, similar demonstrations
    spread throughout the South, forcing many merchants to
    integrate their facilities.
    ·The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, worked to keep the
    spirit of resistance alive.
    ·In 1961, an interracial group of students, working with the Congress of
    Racial Equality, began what t hey called “freedom rides”.
    ·Traveling by bus throughout the South, the freedom riders tried to
    force the desegregation of bus stations.
    ·SNCC workers began fanning out through black communities and even
    into remote rural areas to encourage blacks to challenge the
    obstacles to voting that the Jim Crow laws had created and that
    powerful social custom sustained.
    ·In April, Martin Luther King, Jr., helped launch a series of nonviolent
    demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, a city unsurpassed in
    the strength of its commitment to segregation.
    ·Medgar Evers was murdered in Mississippi.
    A National Commitment
    ·To generate support for the legislation, and to dramatize the power of
    the growing movement, ore than 200,000 demonstrators
    marched down the Mall in Washington, D.C., in August 1963 and
    gathered before the Lincoln Memorial for the greatest civil rights
    demonstration in the nation’s history.
    ·Early in 1964, after Johnson applied both public and private pressure,
    supporters of the measure finally mustered the two-thirds
    majority necessary to close debate and end a filibuster by
    southern senators; and the Senate passed the most
    comprehensive civil rights bill in the nation’s history.
    The Battle for Voting Rights
    ·During the summer of 1964, thousands of civil rights workers, black
    and white, northern and southern, spread out through the South,
    but primarily in Mississippi.
    ·The campaign was known as “freedom summer”, and it produced a
    violent response from some southern whites.
    ·The “freedom summer” also produced the Mississippi Freedom
    Democratic Party, and integrated alternative to the regular state
    party organization.
    ·It permitted the MFDP to be seated as observers, with promises of
    party reforms later on, while the regular party retained its official
    standing.
    ·A year later, in March 1965, King helped organize a major
    demonstration in Selma, Alabama to press the demand for the
    right of blacks to register to vote.
    ·Two northern whites participating in the Selma march were murdered
    in the course of the effort there- one, a minister, beaten to death
    in the streets of the town; the other, a Detroit housewife, shot as
    she drove along a highway at night with a black passenger in her
    car.
    ·The Civil Rights Act of 1965, better known as the Voting Rights Act,
    which provided federal protection to blacks attempting to
    exercise their right to vote.
    The Changing Movement
    ·By 1966, 69 percent of American blacks were living in metropolitan
    areas and 45 percent outside the South.
    ·Well over half of all American non-whites lived in poverty at the
    beginning of the 1960s; black unemployment was twice that of
    whites.
    ·Over the next decade, affirmative action guidelines gradually
    extended to virtually all institutions doing business with or
    receiving funds from the federal government- and to many
    others as well.
    ·Organizers of the Chicago campaign hoped to direct national attention
    to housing and employment discrimination in northern industrial
    cities in much the same way similar campaigns had exposed
    legal racism in the South.
    Urban Violence
    ·Well before the Chicago campaign, the problem of urban poverty had
    thrust itself into national attention when violence broke out in
    black neighborhoods in major cities.
    ·The first large race riot since the end of World War II occurred the
    following summer in the Watts section of Los Angeles.
    ·The incident triggered a storm of anger and a week of violence.
    ·34 people died during the Watts uprising, which was eventually
    quelled by the National Guard; 28 of the dead were black.
    ·Televised reports of the violence alarmed millions of Americans and
    created both a new sense of urgency and a growing sense of
    doubt among many of those whites who had embraced the cause
    of racial justice only a few years before.
    ·A special Commission on Civil Disorders, created by the president in
    response to the disturbances, issued a celebrated report in the
    spring of 1968 recommending massive spending to eliminate the
    abysmal conditions of the ghettoes.
    Black Power
    ·Disillusioned with the ideal of peaceful change in cooperation with
    whites, an increasing number of African Americans were turning
    to a new approach to the racial issue: the philosophy of “black
    power”.
    ·The most enduring impact of the black-power ideology was a social
    and psychological one: instilling racial pride in African Americans,
    who lived in a society whose dominant culture generally
    portrayed blacks as inferior to whites.
    ·It encouraged the growth of black studies in schools and universities.
    ·Traditional black organizations that had emphasized cooperation=2
    0with sympathetic whites- groups such as the NAACP, the Urban
    League, and King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conferencenow
    faced competition from more radical groups.
    ·In Oakland, California the Black Panther Party promised to defend
    black rights even if that required violence.
    Malcolm X
    ·In Detroit, a once-obscure black nationalist group, the Nation of Islam,
    gained new prominence.
    ·Founded in 1931 by Wali Farad and Elijah Poole, the movement taught
    blacks to take responsibility for their own lives, to be disciplined,
    to live by strict codes of behavior, and to reject any dependence
    on whites.
    ·Malcolm became one of the movement’s most influential spokesmen,
    particularly among younger blacks, as a result of his intelligence,
    his oratorical skills, and his harsh, uncompromising opposition to
    all forms of racism and oppression.
    ·He did not advocate violence, but he insisted that black people had
    the right to defend themselves, violently if necessary from those
    who assaulted them.
    ·Malcolm died in 1965 when black gunmen, presumably under orders
    from rivals within the Nation of Islam, assassinated him in New
    York.
    "Flexible Response and the Cold War"
    Diversifying Foreign Policy
    · The Kennedy administration entered office convinced that the United
    States needed to be able to counter communist aggression in
    more flexible ways than the atomic weapons-oriented defense
    strategy of the Eisenhower years permitted.
    · Kennedy was unsatisfied with the nation’s ability to meet communist
    threats in “emerging areas” of the Third World- the areas in
    which, Kennedy believed, the real struggle against communism
    would be waged in the future.
    · Kennedy also inaugurated the Agency for International Development
    to coordinate foreign aid.
    · The Peace Corps, sent young American volunteers abroad to work in
    developing areas.
    · On April 17, 1961, with the approval of the new president, 2,000 of
    the armed exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, expecting
    first American air support and then a spontaneous uprising by
    the Cuban people on their behalf.
    Confrontations with the Soviet Union
    · In the grim aft ermath of the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy traveled to Vienna
    in June 1961 for his first meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita
    Khrushchev.
    · Before dawn on August 13, 1961, the East German government,
    complying with directives from Moscow, constructed a wall
    between East and West Berlin.
    · For nearly 30 years the Berlin Wall served as the most potent physical
    symbol of the conflict between the communist and
    noncommunist worlds.
    · On October 14, aerial reconnaissance photos produced clear evidence
    that the Soviets were constructing sites on the island for
    offensive nuclear weapons.
    · On October 22, he ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a
    “quarantine” against all offensive weapons.
    Johnson and the World
    · Lyndon Johnson entered the presidency lacking even John Kennedy’s
    limited prior experience with international affairs.
    · A 1961 assassination had toppled the repressive dictatorship of
    General Rafael Trujillo, and for the next four years various
    fascinations in the country had struggled for dominance.
    · In the spring of 1965, a conservative military regime began to
    collapse in the face of a revolt by a broad range of groups on
    behalf of the left-wing nationalist Juan Bosch.
    · Only after a conservative candidate defeated Bosch in a 1966 election
    were the forces withdrawn.
    The Agony of Vietnam
    The First Indochina War
    · Vietnam had a long history both as an independent kingdom and
    major power in its region, and as a subjugated province of China;
    its people were both proud of their past glory and painfully aware
    of their many years of subjugation.
    · In the mi-19th century, Vietnam became a colony of France.
    · The French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam.
    · In the fall of 1945, after the collapse of Japan and before the western
    powers had time to return, the Vietminh declared Vietnam an
    independent nation and set up a nationalist government under
    Ho Chi Mihn in Hanoi.
    · For the next 4 years, during what has become known as the First
    Indochina War, Truman and then Eisenhower continued to
    support the French military campaign against the Vietminh; by
    1954, by some calculations, the United States was paying 80
    percent of France’s war costs.
    Geneva and the Two Vietnams
    · An international conference at Geneva, planned many months before
    to settle the Korean dispute and other controversies, now took up
    the fate of Vietnam as well.
    · Secretary of State Dulles, who reluctantly attended but left early; the
    United States was not a party to the accords.
    · Vietnam would be temporarily portioned along the 17th parallel, with
    the Vietminh in control of North Vietnam, and a pro-western
    regime in control of the South.
    America and Diem
    · The U.S almost immediately stepped into the vacuum and became the
    principal benefactor of the new government in the South, led by
    NGO Dihn Diem.
    · The Buddhist crisis was alarming and embarrassing to the Kennedy
    Administration.
    From Aid to Intervention
    · Lyndon Johnson thus inherited what was already a substantial
    American commitment to the survival of an anticommunist South
    Vietnam.
    · Intervention in South Vietnam was fully consistent with nearly 20
    years of American foreign policy.
    · In August 1964, the president announced that American destroyers on
    patrol in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin had been
    attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats.
    The Quagmire
    · There was a continuous stream of optimistic reports from American
    military commanders, government officials, and others.
    · The “attrition” was a strategy premised on the belief that the Unites
    States could inflict so many causalities and so much damage on
    the enemy that eventually they would be unable and unwilling to
    continue the struggle.
    · By the end of 1967, virtually every identifiable target of any strategic
    importance in North Vietnam had been destroyed.
    · Another crucial part of the American strategy was the “pacification”
    program, which was intended to push the Viet Cong from
    particular regions and then pacify those regions by winning the
    “hearts and minds” of the people.
    The War at Home
    · A series of “teach-ins” on university campuses, beginning at the
    University of Michigan in 196 sparked a national debate over the
    war before such debate developed inside the government itself.
    · Opposition to the war had become a central issue in left-wing politics
    and in the culture of colleges and universities.
    The Traumas of 1968
    The Tet Offensive
    · On January 31, 1968, the 1st day of the Vietnamese New Year (TET),
    communist forces launched an enormous, concerted attack on
    American strongholds throughout South Vietnam.
    The Political Challenge
    · On March 31, Johnson went on television to announce a limited halt in
    the bombing of North Vietnam.
    The King and Kennedy Assassinations
    · On April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed while standing on
    the balcony of his motel.
    · In the days after the assassination, major riots broke out in more than
    60 American cities.
    · Rober t Kennedy shaped what some would later call the “Kennedy
    Legacy”, a set of ideas that would for a time become central to
    American liberalism.
    · The passions Kennedy had aroused made his violent death a
    particularly shattering experience for many Americans.
    The Conservation Response
    · George Wallace established himself in 1963 as one of the nation's
    leading spokesmen for the defense of segregation.
    · As a governor of Alabama, he attempted to block the admission of
    black students to the University of Alabama.
    · In 1964, he has run a few Democratic presidential primaries and
    although had done surprisingly well, standing in the polls with
    20%, he had no serious chance of winning the election.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - The Crisis of Authority

    The Youth Culture
    The New Left
    ·The postwar baby-boom generation, the unprecedented number of
    people born in a few years just after World War II, was growing
    up.
    ·One of the most visible results of the increasingly assertive youth
    movement was a radicalization of many American college and
    university students, who in the course of the 1960s formed what
    became known as the New Left- a large, diverse group of men
    and women energized by the polarizing developments of their
    time to challenge the political system.
    ·The New Left embraced the cause of African Americans and other
    minorities, but its own ranks consisted overwhelmingly of white
    people.
    ·The New Left drew from many sources.
    ·The New Left drew as well from the writings of some of the important
    social critics of the 1950s-among them C. Wright Mills, a soci
    ologist at Columbia University who wrote a series of scathing and
    brilliant critiques of modern bureaucracies.
    ·The New Left drew its inspiration above all from the civil rights
    movement, in which many idealistic young white Americans had
    become involved in the early 1960s.
    ·In 1962, a group of students, most of them from prestigious
    universities, gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give
    voice to their demands: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
    ·A 1964 dispute at the University of California at Berkeley over the
    rights of students to engage in political activities on campus
    gained national attention.
    ·The Free Speech Movement, created turmoil at Berkeley as students
    challenged campus police, occupied administrative offices, and
    produced a strike in which nearly ¾ of the Berkeley students
    participated.
    ·The revolt at Berkeley was the first outburst of what was to be nearly
    a decade of campus turmoil.
    ·Also in 1969, Berkeley became the scene of perhaps the most
    prolonged and traumatic conflict of any American college
    campus in the 1960s: a battle over the efforts of a few students
    to build a “People’s Park” on a vacant lot the university planned
    to use to build a parking garage.
    ·By the end of the People’s Park battle, which lasted for more than a
    week, the Berkeley campus was completely polarized.
    ·Student radicals were, for the20first time, winning large audiences for
    their extravagant rhetoric linking together university
    administrators, the police, and the larger political and economic
    system, describing them all as part of one united, oppressive
    force.
    ·As time went on, moreover, the student fringe groups became
    increasingly militant.
    ·Student activists tried to drive out training programs for military
    officers (ROTC) and bar military recruiters from college
    campuses.
    ·The October 1967 march on the Pentagon, where demonstrators were
    met by a solid line of armed troops; the “spring mobilization” of
    April 1968, which attracted hundreds of thousands of
    demonstrators in cities around the country.
    ·Many draft-age Americans simply refused induction, accepting what
    occasionally what were long terms in jail as a result.
    The Counterculture
    ·The most visible characteristic of the counterculture was a change in
    lifestyle.
    ·Young Americans flaunted long hair, shabby or flamboyant clothing,
    and a rebellious disdain for traditional speech and decorum,
    which they replaced with their own “hippie” idiom.
    ·Also central to the counterculture were drugs: marijuana smokingwhich
    after 1966 became almost as common a youthful diversion
    as b eer drinking-and the less widespread but still substantial use
    of other, more potent hallucinogens, such as LSD.
    ·To some degree, the emergence of more relaxed approaches to
    sexuality was a result less of the counterculture than of the new
    accessibility of effective contraceptives, most notably the birthcontrol
    pill and, after 1973, legalized abortion.
    ·The counterculture’s rejection of traditional values and its open
    embrace of sensual pleasure sometimes masked its philosophy,
    which offered a fundamental challenge to the American middleclass
    mainstream.
    ·The most adherents of the counterculture-the hippies, who came to
    dominate the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco and
    other places, and the social dropouts, many of whom retreated to
    rural communes-rejected modern society altogether and
    attempted to find refuge in a simpler, more “natural” existence.
    ·Theodore Roszak, whose book the Making of a Counter Culture(1969)
    became a significant document of the era, captured much of the
    spirit of the movement in his frank admission that “the primary
    project of our counterculture is to proclaim a new heaven and a
    new earth so vast, so marvelous that the inordinate claims of
    technical expertise must of necessity withdraw to a subordinate
    and marginal status in the lives of men.”
    ·The use of marijuana, the freer attitudes toward sex, the iconoclastic
    (and sometimes obscene) language- all spread far beyond the
    realm of the true devotes of the counterculture.
    ·Rock n Roll first achieved wide popularity in the 1950s, on the
    strength of such early performers as Buddy Holly and Elvis
    Presley.
    ·Early in the 1960s, its influence began to spread, a result in large part
    of the phenomenal popularity of the Beatles, the English group
    whose first visit to the United States in 1964 created a
    remarkable sensation, “Beatlemania”.
    ·Other groups such as the Rolling Stones turned even more openly to
    themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness.
    ·Television began to turn to programming that reflected social and
    cultural conflict- as exemplified by the enormously popular All in
    the Family, whose protagonist, Archie Bunker, was a lowermiddle-
    class bigot.
    The Mobilization of Minorities
    Seeds of Indian Militancy
    ·Indians were the least prosperous, least healthy, and least stable
    group in the nation.
    ·They constituted less than one percent of the population.
    ·The Native American unemployment rate was ten times the national
    rate.
    ·Life expectancy among Indians was more than twenty years less than
    the national average.
    ·For much of the postwar era, and particularly after the resignation of
    John Collier as commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1946, federal
    policy toward the tribes had been shaped by a determination to
    incorporate Indians into mainstream American society, whether
    Indians wanted to assimilate or not.
    ·Through termination, the federal government withdrew all official
    recognition of the tribes as legal entities, administratively
    separate from state governments, and made them subject to the
    same local jurisdictions as white residents.
    ·Many Native Americans adapted to life in the cites, at least to a
    degree.
    The Indian Civil Rights Movement
    ·The National Indian Youth Council, created in the aftermath of the
    1961 Chicago meeting, promoted the idea of Indian nationalism
    and intertribal unity.
    ·In 1968, a group of young of young militant Indian Movement, which
    drew its greatest support from those Indians who lived in urban
    areas but soon established a significant presence on the rese
    rvations as well.
    ·In 1968, Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act, which
    guaranteed reservation Indians many of the protections accorded
    other citizens by the Bill of Rights, but which also recognized the
    legitimacy of tribal laws within the reservations.
    ·The Indian civil rights movement fell far short of winning full justice
    and equality for its constituents.
    Latino Activism
    ·Latinos were the fastest-growing minority group in the United States.
    ·Large numbers of Puerto Ricans had migrated to eastern cities,
    particularly New York.
    ·In 1980, a second, much poorer wave of Cuban immigrants-the so
    called Marielitos, named for the port from which they left Cubaarrived
    in Florida when Castro temporarily relaxed exit
    restrictions.
    ·Large numbers of Mexican Americans had entered the country during
    the war in response to the labor shortage, and may had
    remained in the cities of the Southwest and the Pacific Coast.
    ·After the war, when the legal agreements that had allowed Mexican
    contract workers to enter the country expired, large numbers of
    immigrants continued to move to the United States illegally.
    ·By the late 1960s, therefore, Mexican Americans were one of the
    largest population=2 0groups in the West-outnumbering African
    Americans-and had established communities in most other parts
    of the nation as well.
    ·Young Mexican-American activist began themselves “Chicanos” as a
    way of emphasizing the shared culture of Spanish-speaking use
    among Mexican Americans.
    ·Cesar Chavez, created an effective union itinerant farm workers.
    ·In 1965 his United Farmers Workers (UFW), a largely Chicano
    organization, launched a prolonged strike against growers to
    demand, first, recognition of their union and, second, increased
    wages and benefits.
    ·Supporters of bilingualism in education argued that non-Englishspeaking
    Americans were entitled to schooling in their own
    language, that otherwise they would be at a grave disadvantage
    in comparison with native English speakers.
    Challenging the "Melting Pot" Ideal
    ·The efforts of blacks, Latinos, Indians, Asians, and others to forge a
    clearer group identity challenged a longstanding premise of
    American political thought: the idea of the “melting pot”.
    ·The newly assertive ethnic groups of the 1960s and after appeared
    less willing to accept the standards of the larger society and
    more likely to demand recognition of their own ethnic identities.
    Gay Liberation
    ·The last important liberation movement to make major gains in the
    1960s, and the most surprising to many Americans, was the
    effort by homosexuals to win political and economic rights and,
    equally important, social acceptance.
    ·On June 27, 1969, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay
    nightclub in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and began
    arresting patrons simply for frequenting the place.
    ·The raid was not unusual.
    ·The “Stonewall Riot” marked the beginning of the gay liberation
    movement-one of the most controversial challenges to traditional
    values and assumptions of its time.
    ·Universities were establishing gay and lesbian studies programs.
    ·Laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual preference were
    making slow, halting progress at the local level.
    The New Feminism
    The Rebirth
    ·A few determined women kept feminist political demands alive in the
    National Woman’s Party and other organizations.
    ·The 1963 publication of Betty Friedan’s the Feminine Mystique is often
    cited as the first event of contemporary women’s liberation.
    ·In 1963 the Kennedy administration helped win passage of the Equal
    Pay Act, which barred the pervasive practice of paying women
    less than men for equal work.
    ·The conflict between the ideal and the reality was crucial to the
    rebirth of feminism.
    ·The National Organization for Women, which was to become the
    nation’s largest and most influential feminist organization.
    The new organization reflected the varying constituencies of the
    emerging feminist movement.
    Women's Liberation
    ·The new feminists were mostly younger, the vanguard of the bayboom
    generation.
    ·Many had found that even within those movements, they faced
    discrimination and exclusion or subordination to male leaders.
    ·In its most radical form, the new feminism rejected the whole notion
    of marriage.
    Expanding Achievements
    ·In 1971, the government extended its affirmative action guidelines to
    include women-linking sexism with racism as an officially
    acknowledged social problem.
    ·Nearly half of all married women held jobs by the mid-1970s, and
    almost 9/10 of all women with college degrees worked.
    ·There were also important symbolic changes, such as the refusal of
    many women to adopt their husbands’ names when they married
    and the use of the term “Ms.” in place of “Mrs.” or “Miss” to
    denote the irrelevance of a woman’s marital status.
    The Abortion Controversy
    · In least controversial form, this impulse helped produce an increasing
    awareness in the 1960s and 1970s of the problems of rape,
    sexual abuse, and wife beating.
    · There continued to be some controversy over the dissemination of
    contraceptives and birth-control inf ormation; but that issue, at
    least, seemed to have lost much of the explosive character it had
    had in the 1920s, when Margaret Sanger had become a heroine
    to some and a figure of public scorn to others for her efforts on
    its behalf.
    Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society
    The New Science of Ecology
    · Until the mid-twentieth century, most people who considered
    themselves environmentalists based their commitment on
    aesthetic or moral grounds.
    · They wanted to preserve nature because it was too beautiful to
    despoil, or because it was a mark of divinity on the world, or
    because it permitted humans a spiritual experience that would
    otherwise be unavailable to them.
    · They called it ecology.
    Funded by government agencies, by universities, by foundations, and
    eventually even by some corporations, ecological science
    gradually established itself as a significant field of its own- not,
    perhaps, with the same stature as such traditional fields as
    physics, chemistry, and biology, but certainly a field whose
    importance and appeal grew rapidly in the last decades of the
     20th century
    Environmental Advocacy
    · Academic ecologists often have close ties to environmental
    organizations committed to public action and political lobbying.
    · The professional zed environmental advocacy they provided gave the
    movement a political strength it had never enjoyed in the past.
    · Lawyers fought battles with government agencies and in the courts.
    · When Congress or state legislatures considered environmental
    legislation, more often than not the environmental organizations
    played a critical role in drafting it.
    Environmental Degradation
    · Many other forces contributed as well in the 1960s and 1970s to
    create what became the environmental movement.
    · Water pollution- which had been a problem in some areas of the
    country for many decades- was becoming so widespread that
    almost every major city was dealing with the unpleasant sight
    and odor, as well as the very real health risks, of polluted rivers
    and lakes.
    · In some large cities-Los Angeles and Denver among them-smog
    became an almost perpetual fact of life,=2 0rising steadily
    through the day, blotting out the sun, and creating respiratory
    difficulties for many citizens.
    · Environmentalist also brought to public attention some longer-term
    dangers of unchecked industrial development: the rapid
    depletion of oil and other irreplaceable fossil fuels; the
    destruction of lakes and forests as a result of “acid rain”; the
    rapid destruction of vast rain forests, in Brazil and elsewhere,
    which limited the earth’s capacity to replenish its oxygen supply.
    Earth Day and Beyond
    · On April 22, 1970, people all over the United States gathered in
    schools and universities, in churches and clubs, in parks and
    auditoria, for the first “Earth Day”.
    · The Clean Air Act, also passed in 1970, and the Clean Water Act,
    passed in 1972, added additional tools to government’s arsenal
    of weapons against environmental degradation.
    · Different administrations displayed varying levels of support for
    environmental goals, and advocacy groups remained ready to
    spring into action to force them to change their positions.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the War
    Vietnamization
    · Henry Kissinger, a Harvard professor whom the president appointed
    as his special assistance for national security affairs.
    · The new Vietnam policy moved along several fronts.
    · By 1973, the Selective Service System was on its way to least
    temporary extinction.
    · In the fall of 1969, Nixon announced reduction of American ground
    troops from Vietnam by 60,000 the first reduction in U.S. troop
    strength since the beginning of the war.
    Escalation
    ·By the end of their first year in office, Nixon and Kissinger had
    concluded that the most effective ay to tip the military balance in
    America’s favor was to destroy the bases in Cambodia from
    which the American military believed the North Vietnamese were
    launching many of their attacks.
    ·Four college students were killed and nine others injured when
    members of the National Guard opened fire on antiwar
    demonstrators at Kent State University in Ohio.
    ·The trail and conviction in 1971 of Lieutenant William Calley, who was
    charged wit h overseeing a massacre of more than 300
    unharmed South Vietnamese civilians, attracted wide public
    attention.
    "Peace with Honor"
    ·In April 1972, the president dropped his longtime insistence on a
    removal of North Vietnamese troops from the south before any
    American withdrawal.
    ·On December 17, American B-52s began the heaviest and most
    destructive air raids of the entire war on Hanoi, Haiphong, and
    other North Vietnamese targets.
    Defeat in Indochina
    ·Late in April 1975, communist forces marched into Saigon, shortly
    after officials of the Thieu regime and the staff of the American
    embassy had fled the country in humiliating disarray.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the World
    China and the Soviet Union
    ·Nixon and Kissinger wanted to forge a new relationship with the
    Chinese communists- in part to strengthen them as a
    counterbalance to the Soviet Union.
    ·In July 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to Beijing.
    ·In February 1972, Nixon paid a formal visits to China and, in a single
    stroke, erased much of the deep American animosity toward the
    Chinese communists regime, but in 1972 the United states and
    China began low-level diplomatic relations.
    ·In 1969, America and Soviet diplomats met in Helsinki, Finland, to
    begin talks on limiting nuclear weapons.
    In 1972, they produced the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT
    I), which froze the nuclear missiles (ICBMs) of both sides at present
    levels.
    The Problems of Multipolarity
    ·In 1969 and 1970, the president described what became known as the
    Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would “participate in
    the defense and development of allies and friends” but would
    leave the “basic responsibility” for the future of those “friends”
    to the nations themselves.
    ·In practice, the Nixon Doctrine meant a declining American interest in
    contributing to Third World development; a growing contempt for
    the United Nations, where less-developed nations were gaining
    influence through their sheer numbers; and increasing support to
    authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand radical challenges
    from within.
    ·In 1973, a military junta seized power from Allende, who was
    subsequently murdered.
    ·In October 1973, on the Jewish High Holy day of Yom Kippur, Egyptian
    and Syrian forces attacked Israel.
    ·The imposed settlement of the Yom Kippur War demonstrated the
    growing dependence of the United States and its allies on Arab
    oil.
    ·The United States could no longer depend on cheap, easy access to
    raw materials as it had in the past.
    Politics and Economics Under Nixon
    Domestic Initiatives
    ·He forbade the department of Health, Education, and Welfare to cut
    off the federal funds from school districts that had failed to
    comply with court orders to integrate.
    In 1973, he abolished the Office of economic Opportunity, the
    centerpiece of the antipoverty program of the Office of economic
    Opportunity, the centerpiece of the antipoverty program20of the
    Johnson years.
    From the Warren Court to the Nixon Court
    ·In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the court had ruled that prayers in public
    schools were unconstitutional, sparking outrage among religious
    fundamentalists and others.
    The Election of 1972
    ·Nixon was most fortunate in 1972, however, in his opposition.
    ·The possibility of such a campaign vanished in May, when a would-be
    assassin shot the Alabama governor during a rally at a Maryland
    shopping center.
    The Troubled Economy
    ·The American dollar had been the strongest currency in the world, and
    the American standard of living had risen steadily from its
    already substantial heights.
    ·Its most visible cause was significant increase in federal deficit
    spending in the 1960s, when the Johnson administration tried to
    fund the war in Vietnam and its ambitious social prog rams
    without raising taxes.
    ·Domestic petroleum reserves were no longer sufficient to meet this
    demand, and the nation was heavily dependent on imports from
    the Middle East and Africa.
    ·The U.S manufacturing now faced major completion from aboard-not
    only in world trade but also at home.
    The Nixon Response
    ·The government moved first to reduce spending and raises taxes.
    ·The United States was encountering a new and puzzling dilemma:
    “stagflation”, a combination of rising prices and general
    economic stagnation.
    In 1973, prices rose 9 percent; in 1974, after the Arab oil embargo and
    the OPEC price increases, they rose 12 percent-the highest rate since
    the relaxation of price controls shortly after World War II.
    The Watergate Crisis
    The Scandals
    ·Early on the morning of June 17, 1972 police arrested five men who
    had broken into the offices of the Democratic National
    Committee in the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C.
    Two others were seized a short time porters for the Washington Post
    began researching the backgrounds of the culprits, they discovered
    that among those involved in the burglary were former employees of
    the Committee for the Re-Election of the President.
    The Fall of Richard Nixon
    ·In April 1974, the president released some transcripts of relevent
    conversations, claiming that they proved his innocence, but
    investigators believed them to be edited for a cover-up.
    ·The Supreme Court ruled unanimously, in the United States v. Richard
    M. Nixon, that the president must relinquish the tapes to Special
    Prosecutor Jaworski.
    ·The House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend three articles of
    impeachment:
    1. Charging that Nixon had obstructed justice in the
    Watergate cover-up.
    2. Misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens.
    3. Defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliever
    tapes and other materials suboenaed by the committee.
    ·On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation, the first
    president in American history to ever do so.
    ·Gerald Ford became president.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - From "The Age of Limits" to The Age of Reagan

    Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate
    The Ford Custodianship
    ·Gerald Ford had to try to rebuild confidence in government in the face of the widespread
    cynicism the Watergate scandals had produced.
    ·He had to try to restore prosperity in the face of major domestic and international
    challenges to the American economy.
    ·Ford explained that he was attempting to spare the nation the ordeal of years of litigation
    and to spare Nixon himself any further suffering.
    ·The Ford administration enjoyed less success in its effort to solve the problems of the
    American economy.
    ·In the aftermath of the Arab oil embargo of 1973, the OPEC cartel began to raise thr
    price of oil-by 400 percent in 1974 alone.
    ·Ford retained Henry Kissinger as secretary of state and continued the general policies of
    the Nixon years.
    ·Late in 1974, Ford met with Leonid Brezhnev at Vladivostok in Siberia and signed an
    arms control accord that was to serve as the basis for SALT II, thus achieving a
    goal the Nixon administration had long sought.
    In the republican primary campaign Ford faced a powerful challenge from former
    California governor Ronald Reagan, leader of the party’s conservative wing, who
    spoke for many on the right who were unhappy with any conciliation of
    communists.
    The Trials of Jimmy Carter
    ·Jimmy Carter assumed the presidency at a moment when the nation faced problems of
    staggering complexity and difficulty.
    ·He left office in 1981 one of the least popular presidents of the country.
    ·He surrounded himself in the White House with group of close-knit associates from
    Georgia; and in the beginning, at least, he seemed deliberately to spurn assistance
    from more experienced political figures.
    ·He moved first to reduce unemployment by raising public spending and cutting federal
    taxes.
    He appointed G. William Miller and then Paul Volcker, both conservative economists, to
    head the Federal Reserve Board, thus ensuring a policy of high interest rates and
    reduced currency supplies.
    Human Rights and National Interests
    ·Among Jimmy Carter’s most frequent campaign promises was a pledge to build a new
    basis for American foreign policy, one in which the defense of “human rights”
    would replace the pursuit of “selfish interest.
    ·Domestic opposition to the treaties was intense, especially among conservatives who
    viewed the new arrangements as part of a general American retreat from
    international power.
    ·Middle East negotiations had seemed hopelessly stalled when a dramatic breakthrough
    occurred in Nove mber 1977.
    ·In Tel Aviv, he announced that Egypt was now willing to accept the state of Israel as a
    legitimate political entity.
    ·On September 17, Carter escorted the two leaders into the White House to announce
    agreement on a “framework” for an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty.
    ·On December 15, 1978, Washington and Beijing announced the resumption of formal
    diplomatic relations between the two nations.
    ·The treaty set limits on the number of long-range missiles, bombers, and nuclear
    warheads on each side.
    By the fall of 1979, with the Senate scheduled to begin debate over the treaty shortly,
    ratification was already in jeopardy.
    The Year of the Hostages
    ·By 1979, the Shah of Iran, hoping to make his nation a bulwark against Soviet
    expansion in the Middle East.
    ·In January 1979, the Shah fled the country.
    ·By late 1979, revolutionary chaos in Iran was making any normal relations impossible.
    ·In late October 1979, the deposed Shah arrived in New York to be treated for cancer.
    Days later, on November 4, an armed mob invaded the American embassy in
    Teheran, seized the diplomats and military personnel inside, and demanded the
    return of the Shah to Iran in exchange for their freedom.
    ·53 Americans remained hostages in the embassy for over a year.
    ·Only weeks after the hostage seizure, on December 27, 1979, Soviet troops invaded
    Afghanistan, the mountaino us Islamic nation lying between the USSR and Iran.
    ·The combination of domestic economic troubles and international crises created
    widespread anxiety, frustration, and anger in the United States-damaging
    President Carter already low stranding with the public, and giving added strength
    to an alternative political force that had already made great strides.
    The Rise of the New American Right
    The Sunbelt and Its Politics
    ·The most widely discusses demographic phenomenon of the 1970s was the rise of what
    became known as the “Sunbelt”- a term coined by the political analyst Kevin
    Phillips to describe a collection of regions that emerged together in the postwar
    era to become the most dynamically growing parts of the country.
    ·By 1980, the population of the Sunbelt had risen to exceed that of the older industrial
    regions of the North and the East.
    ·White southerners equated the federal government’s effort to change racial norms in the
    region with what they believed was tyranny of Reconstruction.
    ·In the 1970s and early 1980s, the boom mentality of some of these rapidly growing
    areas conflicted sharply with the concerns of the older industrial states of the
    Northeast and Midwest.
    ·The so-called Sagebrush Rebellion, which emerged in parts of the West in the late
    1970s, mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restrictions
    on development.
    Suburbanization also fueled the rise of the right.
    Religious Revivalism
    ·In the 1960s, may critics had predicted the virtual extinction of religious influence in
    American life.
    ·By early 1980s, it was no longer possible to ignore them.
    ·More than 70 million Americans now described themselves as “born-again” Christiansmen
    and women who had established a “direct personal relationship with Jesus”.
    ·For Jimmy Carter and for some others, evangelical Christianity had formed the basis for
    a commitment to racial and economic justice and to world peace.
    The Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, and other organizations of similar
    inclination opposed federal interference in local affairs; denounced abortion,
    divorce, enterprise; and supported a strong American posture in the world.
    The Emergnece of the New Right
    ·Evangelical Christians were an important part, but only a part, of what became known
    as the new right- a diverse but powerful movement that enjoyed rapid growth in
    the 1970s and early 1980s.
    ·Conservative campaigns had for many years been less well funded and organized than
    those of their rivals.
    ·By the late 1970s, there were right-wing think tanks, consulting forms, lobbyists,
    foundations, and scholarly centers.
    ·In the early 1950s Roosevelt became a corporate spokesman for General Electric and
    won a wide following on the right with his smooth, eloquent speeches in defense
    of individual freedom and private enterprise.
    In 1966, with the support of a group of a group of wealthy conservatives, he won the first
    of two terms as governor of California-which gave him a much more visible
    platform for promoting himself and his ideas. [Ronald Reagan]
    The Tax Revolt
    ·At least equally important to the success of the new right was a new and potent
    conservative issue: the tax revolt.
    ·The biggest and most expensive programs-Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and
    others-had the broadest support.
    In Proposition 13 and similar initiatives, members of the right found a better way to
    discredit government than by attacking specific programs: attacking taxes.
    The Campaign of 1980
    ·Jimmy Carter's standing in popularity polls were lower than that of any
    president.
    ·On election day 1980, Reagan(R) won 51% of the vote to 41% for
    Jimmy Carter(D) and 7% for John Anderson(I)
    1. Electoral botes: Reagan 489, Carter 49.
    ·The Republican Party won control of the Senate for the first time since
    1952.
    The "Reagan Revolution"
    The Reagan Coalition
    ·Reagan owed his election to widespread disillusionment with Carter and to the crises
    and disappointments that many voters, perhaps unfairly, associated with him.
    ·The Reagan coalition included a relatively small but highly influential group of wealthy
    Americans associated with the corporate and financial world-the kind of people
    who had dominated American politics and government through much of the
    nations history until the New Deal began to challenge their preeminence.
    ·A second element of the Reagan coalition was even smaller, but also disproportionately
    influential: a group of intellectuals commonly known as “neo-conservatives,” who
    gave to the right something it had not had in may years-a firm base among
    “opinion leaders”, people with access to the most influential public forums for
    ideas.
    Neo-conservatives were sympathetic to the complaints and demands of capitalists, but
    their principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western
    democratic, anticommunists values and commitments.
    Reagan in the White House
    ·Reagan was the master of television, a gifted public speaker, and -in public at leastrugged,
    fearless, and seemingly impervious to danger or misfortune.
    ·He spent his many vacations on a California ranch, where he chopped wood and rode
    horses.
    At times, the president revealed a startling ignorance about the nature of his own policies
    or the actions of his subordinates.
    "Supply-Side" Economics
    ·Reagan’s 1980 campaign for the presidency had promised, among other things, to
    restore the economy to health by a bold experiment that became known as
    “supply-side” economics or, to some, “Reaganomics”.
    ·In its first months in office, accordingly , the new administration hastily assembled a
    legislative program based on the supply-side idea.
    ·The recession convinced many people, including some conservatives, that the Reagan
    economic program failed.
    ·The gross national product had grown 3.6 percent in a year, the largest increase since the
    -1970s.
    ·The economy continued to grow, a nd both inflation and unemployment remained low
    through most of the decade.
    A worldwide “energy glut” and the virtual collapse of the OPEC cartel had produced at
    least a temporary end to the inflationary pressures of spiraling fuel costs.
    The Fiscal Crisis
    ·By the mid-1980s, this growing fiscal crisis had become one of the central issues in
    American politics.
    ·Throughout the 1980s, the annual budget deficit consistently exceeded $100 billion.
    ·The 1981 tax cuts, the largest in American history, contributed to the deficit.
    ·There were reductions in funding for food stamps; a major cut in federal subsidies for
    low-income housing; strict new limitations on Medicare and Medicaid payments;
    reductions in student loans, school lunches, and other educational programs; and
    an end to many forms of federal assistance to the states and cities-which helped
    precipitate years of local fiscal crises as well.
    By the late 1980s, may fiscal conservatives were calling for a constitutional amendment
    mandating a balanced budget-a provision the president himself claimed to
    support.
    Reagan and the World
    ·Determined to restore American pride and prestige in the world, he argued that the
    United States should once again become active and assertive in opposing
    communism and in supporting friendly governments whatever their internal
    policies.
    ·The president spoke harshly of Soviet regime accusing it of sponsori ng world terrorism
    and declaring that any armaments negotiations must be linked to negotiations on
    Soviet behavior in other areas.
    ·Although the president had long denounced the SALT II arms control treaty as
    unfavorable to the United States, he continued to honor it provisions.
    ·The Soviet Union claimed that the new program would elevate the arms race to new and
    more dangerous levels and insisted that any arms control agreement begin with an
    American abandonment of SDI.
    ·The New Policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine, and it meant, above all, a new
    American activism came in Latin America.
    The Reagan administration spoke bravely about its resolve to punish terrorism; and at one
    point in 1986, the president ordered American planes to bomb site in Tripoli, the
    capital of Libya, whose controversial leader was widely believed to be a leading
    sponsor of terrorism.
    The Election of 1984
    ·Reagan was victorious in the election winning 59% of the vote,
    carrying every state but Mondale's native Minnesota and the
    District of Columbia.
    ·The election of 1984 was the first campaign of the Cold War.
    America and the Waning of the Cold War
    The Fall of the Soviet Union
    ·The first he called glasnost (openness): the dismantling many of the repressive
    mechanisms that had been conspicuous features of Soviet life for over half a
    century.
    ·The Communists Parties of Eastern Europe collapsed or redefined themselves into more
    conventional left-leaning social democratic parties.
    Among other things, it legalized the chief black party in the nation, the African National
    Congress, which had been banned for dec ades; and on February 11, 1990, it
    released from prison the leader of the ANC, and a revered hero too black south
    Africans, Nelson Mandela, who had been in jail for 27 years.
    Reagan and Gorbachev
    ·At a summit meeting with Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland, in 1986, Gorbachev proposed
    reducing the nuclear arsenals of both sides by 50 percent or more, although
    continuing disputes over Reagan’s commitment to the SDI program prevented
    agreements.
    The Fading of the Reagan Revolution
    ·There were revelations of illegality, corruption, and ethical lapses in the Environmental
    Protection Agency, the CIA, the Department of Defense, the Department of Labor,
    the Department of Justice, and the Department of Housing and Urban
    Development.
    The most politically damaging scandal of the Reagan years came to light in November
    1986, when the White House conceded that it had sold weapons to the
    revolutionary government of Iran as part of a largely unsuccessful effort to secure
    the release of several Americans being held hostage by radical Islamic groups in
    the Middle East.
    The Election of 1988
    ·The Bush campaign was almost the most negative of the 20th
    century, with Bush attacking Dukakis by tying him to all the
    unpopular social and cultural stances Americans had come to
    identify with "liberals."
    ·It was also one of the most effective, although the listless, indecisive
    character of the Dukakis effort contributed to the Republican
    cause as well.
    ·Bush won the election with 54% of the popular vote to Dukakis' 46%,
    and 426 electoral votes to Dukakis' 112.
    The Bush Presidency
    ·The Bush presidency was notable for the dramatic developments in international affairs
    with which it coincided and at times helped to advance, and for the absence of
    important initiatives or ideas on domestic issues.
    ·The broad popularity Bush enjoyed during his first three years in office was partly a res
    ult of his subdued, unthreading public image.
    ·On domestic issues, the Bush administration was less successful-partly because the
    president himself seemed to have little interest in promoting a domestic agenda
    and partly because he faced serious obstacles.
    In 1990, the president bowed to congressional pressure and agreed to a significant tax
    increase as part of a multiyear “budget package” designed to reduce the deficit.
    The Gulf War
    ·The events of 1989-1991 ad left the United States in the unanticipated position of being
    the only real superpower in the world.
    ·The United States would reduce its military strength dramatically and concentrate its
    energies and resources on pressing domestic problems.
    ·America would continue to use its power actively, not to fight communism but to defend
    its regional and economic interests.
    ·In 1989, that led the administration to order an invasion of Panama.
    ·On August 2, 1990, the armed forces of Iraq invaded and quickly overwhelmed their
    small, oil-rich neighbor, the emirate of Kuwait.
    On February 28 Iraq announced its acceptance of allied terms for a cease-fire, and the
    brief Persian Gulf War came to an end.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - The Age of Globalization

    A Resurgence of Partisanship
    Launching the Clinton Presidency
    ·The new administration compounded its problems with a series of missteps and
    misfortunes in its first months.
    ·A long time friend of the president, Vince Foster, serving in the office of the White
    House counsel, committed suicide in the summer of 1993.
    ·Despite its many problems the Clinton administration could boast of some significant
    achievements in its first year.
    ·Clinton was a committed advocate of free trade and a proponent of many aspects of
    what came to be known as globalism.
    ·He won approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which
    eliminated most trade barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
    ·Early in 1993, he appointed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, which proposed a
    sweeping reform designed to guarantee coverage to every American and hold
    down the costs of medical care.
    ·The foreign policy of the Clinton administration was at first cautious and even tentativea
    reflection, perhaps, of the president’s relative inexperience in international
    affairs, but also of the rapidly changing character of international politics.
    The United States was among the nations to send peaceke eping troops to Bosnia to
    police the fragile settlement, which-despite many pessimistic predictions-was still
    largely in place 7 years later, although terrible new conflicts soon emerged in
    other areas of the Balkans.
    The Republican Resurgence
    ·For the first time in 40 years, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress.
    ·Newt Gingrich of Georgia, released a set of campaign promises signed by almost all
    Republican candidates for he House and called it the “Contract with America”.
    ·It called for tax reductions, dramatic changes in federal spending to produce a balanced
    budget, and a host of other promises consistent with the long-time goals of the
    Republican Party’s conservative wing.
    ·The Republican Congress proposed a series of measures to transfer important powers
    from the federal government to the states.
    Medicare program to reduce costs.
    ·In November 1995 and again in January 1996, the federal government literally shut
    down for several days because the president and Congress could not agree on a
    budget.
    The Election of 1996
    ·The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while Europe was embroiled
    in World War I.
    · Public sentiment in the still neutral United States leaned towards the British and French
    (allied) forces, due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army, which
    had invaded and occupied large parts of Belgium and northern France.
    · Despite their sympathy with the allied forces most American voters wanted to avoid
    involvement in the war, and preferred to continue a policy of neutrality.
    Clinton Triumpant and Embattled
    ·He proposed a relatively modest domestic agenda, consisting primarily of tax cuts and
    tax credits targeted at middle-class Americans and designed to help them educate
    their children.
    ·In early 1998, inquiries associated with the Paula Jones case led to charges that the
    president had had a sexua l relationship with a young White House intern, Monica
    Lewinsky; that he had lied about it in his deposition before Jones’s attorneys; and
    that he had encouraged her to do the same.
    ·Clinton admitted that he had an “improper relationship” with Monica.
    The president seemed to have escaped his difficulties as a result of strong popular
    support.
    Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence
    ·House leaders resisted all calls for dismissal of the charges or compromise.
    ·First the House Judiciary Committee and then, on December 19, 1998, the full House,
    both voting on strictly partisan lines, approved 2 counts of impeachment: lying to
    the grand jury and obstructing justice.
    ·Expanding role of scandal in American politics driven by an increasingly sensationalist
    media culture, the legal device of independent counsels, and the intensely
    adversarial quality of partisan politics.
    ·Numerous reports of Serbian atrocities against the Kosovans, and an enormous refugee
    crisis spurred by Yugoslavian military action in the province, slowly roused world
    opinion.
    The Two-Tiered Economy
    ·The increasing attendance created enormous new wealth that enriched those talented, or
    luck, enough to profit from the areas of booming growth.
    ·Between 1980 and the mid-1990s, the average family incomes of he wealthiest 20
    percent of the population grew by nearly 20 percent.
    ·Poverty in America had declined steadily and at times dramatically in the years after
    World War II, so that by the end of the 1970s the percentage of people living in
    poverty had fallen 12 percent.
    Globalization
    ·The most important economic change, and certainly the one whose impact was the most
    difficult to gauge, was what became known as the “globalization” of the economy.
    ·As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in the American
    economy as a whole, which thrived on the basis of the huge domestic market in
    North America.
    ·Imports rose.
    ·The North American Free Trade Agreement and the General Agreement on Trade and
    Tariffs, were the boldest of a long series of treaties designed to lower trade
    barriers stretching back to the 1960s.
    Science and Technology in the New Economy
    The Personal Computer
    ·The most visible element of the technological revolution to most Americans was the
    dramatic growth in the use of computers in almost every area of life.
    ·The development of the microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel, which
    represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry.
    ·Apple launched its Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely
    available to the public.
    ·3 years later, Apple introduced its Macintosh computer technology, among other things.
    ·Computerized word processing replaced typewriters and spreadsheets revolutionized
    bookkeeping.
    ·The computer revolution created thousands of new, lucrative businesses: computer
    manufacturers themselves (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Sun, Digital,
    and many others).
    The Internet
    ·The Internet is, a vast, geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people
    connected to the network to communicate with others all over the world.
    ·In 1989, a laboratory in Geneva introduced the World Wide Web, through which
    individual users could publish information for the Internet, which helped establish
    an orderly system for both the distribution and retrieval of electronic information.
    ·Newspapers, magazines, and other publications have begun to publish on the Internet.
    Breakthroughs in Genetics
    ·The Human Genome Project set out to identify all of the more than 100,000 genes by
    2005.
    Anti-Abortion advocates20denounced the research, claiming that it exploited unborn
    children.
    A Changing Society
    The Graying of America
    ·The declining birth rate and a significant rise in life expectancy produced a substantial
    increase in proportion of elderly citizens.
    ·Increasing costliness of Social Security pensions.
    New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity
    ·The nation’s immigration quotas expanded significantly in those years, allowing more
    newcomers to enter the United States legally than at any point since the beginning
    of the 20h century.
    ·In 1965, 90 percent of the immigrants to the united States came from Europe.
    ·Mexico alone accounted for over one-fourth of all the immigrants living in the United
    States in 2000.
    ·In the 1980s and 1990s, Asian immigrants arrived in even greater numbers than Latinos,
    constituting more than 40 percent of the total of legal newcomers.
    ·Many of the new Asian immigrants were refugees, including Vietnamese driven from
    their homes in the aftermath of the diatoms war in which the United States had so
    long been involved.
    The Black Middle Class
    ·There were increased opportunities for advancement available to those in a position to
    take advantage of them.
    ·As the industrial economy declined and government services dwindled, there was a
    growing sense of helplessness and despair among the large groups of nonwhites
    who continued to find themselves barred from=2 0upward mobility.
    ·The percentage of black high-school graduates going on to college was virtually the
    same as that of white high0school graduates by the end of the 20th century.
    ·There were few areas of American life from which blacks were any longer entirely
    excluded.
    Poor and Working-Class African Americans
    ·The “underclass” made up as much as a third of the nation’s black population.
    ·The black family structure suffered as well from the dislocations of urban poverty.
    ·There was an increase in the number of single-parent, female-headed black households.
    ·A bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police officers beating a helpless black
    man, Rodney King.
    ·Black residents of South Central Los Angeles erupted in anger.
    Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS
    ·The new immigrants arrived in cities with a dramatic increase in drug use, which
    penetrated nearly every community in the nation.
    ·AIDS is the product of the HIV virus, which is transmitted by the exchange of bodily
    fluids (blood or semen).
    ·The first American victims of AIDS, group among whom cases remained the most
    numerous were homosexual men.
    ·In 2000, U.S. government agencies estimated that about 780,000 Americans were
    infected with the HIV virus and that another 427,000 had already died from the
    disease.
    The Decline in Crime
    ·There was a dramatic reduction in crime=2 0rates across most of the United States.
    ·New incarceration policies-longer, tougher sentences and fewer paroles and early
    releases for violent criminals-led to a radical. Increase in the prison population
    and a reduction in the number of criminals at liberty to commit crimes.
    A Contested Culture
    ·Battles over Feminism and Abortion
    ·Leaders of the New Right had campaigned successfully against the proposed Equal
    Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
    ·The played a central role over the controversy over abortion rights.
    ·The opposition of some other anti-abortion activists had less to do with religion than
    with their commitment to traditional notions of family and gender relations.
    ·The Reagan and Bush administrations imposed further restrictions on federal funding
    and even on the right of doctors in federally funded clinics to give patients any
    information on abortion.
    The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism
    ·The environmental movement continued to expand in the last decades of the 20th
    century.
    ·They blocked the construction of roads, airports, and other projects that they claimed
    would be ecologically dangerous, taking advantage of new legislations protecting
    endangered species and environmentally fragile regions.
    The Fragmentation of Mass Culture
    ·The institutions of the media, news, entertainment grew more powerful.
    ·Fast food chains became the most widely known restaurants in America.=0 A
    ·Viewers could now rent or buy videotapes.
    The Perils of Globalization
    Opposing the "New World Order"
    ·Environmentalists argued that globalization, in exporting industry to low-wage
    countries, also exported industrial pollution and toxic waste into nations that had
    no effective laws to control them.
    ·In November 1999, when the leaders of the 7 nations gathered for their meeting many of
    them clashed with police.
    Defending Orthodoxy
    ·The Iranian Revolution of 1979, in which orthodox Muslims ousted a despotic
    government whose leaders had embraced many aspects of modern western
    culture, was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that
    would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten the stability
    of the globe.
    The Rise of Terrorism
    ·The U.S has experienced terrorism for many years.
    ·Due to the events on September 11, 2001, new security measures began to change the
    way Americans traveled.
    ·A puzzling and frightening epidemic of anthrax began in the weeks after 9/11.
    ·The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, government intelligence
    indicated, had been planned and orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of a
    powerful terrorist network known as Al Qaeda led by Osama Bin Laden.
    ·In his State of the Union address to Congress in January 2002, Bush spoke of an “axis of
    evil”.
    The New Era
    ·In the immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001, may Americans came to believe that
    they had entered a new era in their history.
    The reaction to the catastrophe exposed a side of American life and culture that had
    always existed but that had not always been visible.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American History: A Survey, 12th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the American History: A Survey, 12th Edition notes. These American History: A Survey outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 939 pages
    • Publisher: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill; 12th edition (January 30, 2006)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 007328047X
    • ISBN-13: 978-0073280479

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - Transplantations and Borderlands

     1)The Early Chesapeake

    a)The Founding of Jamestown

    i)Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed, Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607

    ii)Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indians

    b)Reorganization

    i)London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to planters

    ii)Winter of 1609-1610= starving time

    iii)First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline w/ work gangs

    iv)Communal system didn’t work well, Governor Dale thought better off with personal incentive to work and private ownership

    c)Tobacco

    i)1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansion

    d)Expansion

    i)Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlers

    ii)Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of others

    iii)Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)

    iv)1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundant

    v)Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644

    vi)By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crown

    e)Exchanges of Agricultural Tech

    i)Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soil

    f)Maryland and the Calverts

    i)Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture + retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius (second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new land

    ii)1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Maryland

    iii)Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), “Act Concerning Religion” granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655

    iv)Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright system

    g)Turbulent Virginia

    i)Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indians

    ii)Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwell’s victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony

    (1)Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westward

    iii)At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led to recent settlers in “back country” to be underrepresented

    h)Bacon’s Rebellion

    i)Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in west

    ii)Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govt

    iii)Bacon’s army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenly

    iv)Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with natives, also potential for instability in colony’s large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentry—common interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing

    2)The Growth of New England

    a)Plymouth Plantation

    i)1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch society

    ii)Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would “not molest them”. William Bradford was their leader and historian

    iii)Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 “saints” (members of church) and 67 “strangers”, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Cod

    iv)Land outside of London Company’s territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to king

    v)Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur trade

    vi)William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debt

    b)The Massachusetts Bay Experiment

    i)Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.

    ii)Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. 

    iii)Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didn’t separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, “congregation church”

    iv)Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, “city upon a hill” (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a “theocracy”

    v)Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quickly

    c)Expansion of New England

    i)As more ppl arrived many didn’t accept all religious tenets of colony’s leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religious

    ii)Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold off

    iii)Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)

    iv)Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, “liberty in religious concernments”

    v)Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt

    (1)Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, 

    vi)Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)

    d)Settlers and Natives

    i)Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly extinguished by epidemics

    ii)Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops + technique, trade with Indians created fortune

    iii)Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as “heathens” and “savages’

    e)The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and Technology of Battle

    i)First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped out

    ii)Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law

    (1)for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back

    (2)1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerless

    iii)Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutch

    iv)Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower

    3)The Restoration Colonies

    a)The English Civil War

    i)Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeated

    ii)After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary ventures

    b)The Carolinas

    i)Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failed

    ii)Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order

    (1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal crop

    iii)SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation society

    iv)Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolina

    c)New Netherland, New York, and New Jersey

    i)1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New York

    ii)Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch “patrons” (large landowners”, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois ties

    iii)Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valley

    iv)Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crown

    d)The Quaker Colonies

    i)Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fell

    ii)Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylum

    iii)Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authority

    iv)Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a “holy experiment”

    (1)Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land

    (2)PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive.  1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, “lower counties” allowed own rep assembly—result was later Delaware

    4)Borderland and Middle Grounds

    a)The Caribbean Islands

    i)Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly deserted

    ii)Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch

    iii)Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers

    (1)Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumbered

    b)Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean

    i)Small white, successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt, 1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves

    (1)Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves than to protect well-being, worked them to death

    ii)Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community

    (1)Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditions

    iii)Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoples

    c)The Southwestern Borderlands

    i)In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiers

    ii)New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areas

    iii)Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborers

    iv)Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. 

    (1)Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 

    (2)North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success though

    v)Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing them

    d)The Southeast Borderlands

    i)Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas. Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span French

    ii)By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarried

    iii)Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundary

    e)The Founding of Georgia

    i)Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe, interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anew

    ii)Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Anne’s War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713

    iii)Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colony

    iv)1732 King George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholics—all to prevent revolt/conflict

    v)1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colony

    vi)Strict rules stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trustees

    vii)1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assembly

    f)Middle Grounds

    i)Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populations

    ii)In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precarious

    iii)In western borders neither side dominant, in “middle grounds” frequent conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribes

    iv)To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer gifts

    v)17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur traders

    vi)By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw force

    vii)As British and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by 19th century “middle grounds” collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption

    5)The Evolution of the British Empire

    a)The Drive for Reorganization

    i)Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excluded

    ii)Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English markets

    iii)@ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwell’’s Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies,  Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts

    (1)First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third 1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Acts

    iv)Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English needed

    b)The Dominion of New England

    i)1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colony

    ii)James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688  NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims “rights of Englishmen”, strengthened Anglican church

    c)The “Glorious Revolution”

    i)James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688 daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coup

    ii)Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + office

    iii)Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn “Leislerians” and “anti-Laslerians” dominated NY poitics for years

    iv)Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balt’s officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715  5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Church

    v)Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Society and Culture in Provincial America

    1)The Colonial Population

    a)Indentured Servitude

    i)Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at end—in reality left with nothing at all

    (1)Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselves

    ii)Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrest

    iii)1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rate

    b)Birth and Death

    i)Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number  early deaths. But growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growth

    ii)N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigration

    iii)By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growth

    c)Medicine in the Colonies

    i)17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbs

    ii)Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselves

    d)Women and families in the Chesapeake

    i)B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratio

    ii)High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whites

    e)Women and Families in New England

    i)Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young, children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearing

    ii)Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of society

    f)The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

    i)Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies- Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch

    (1)Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)

    ii)Mid 1690s Royal African Company’s monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stopped

    iii)Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force

    (1)Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of masters

    g)Changing Sources of European Immigration

    i)BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased

    (1)French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there

    2)The Colonial Economies

    a)The Southern Economy

    i)Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthy

    ii)South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white

    (1)Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in England

    iii)B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communities

    b)Northern Economic and Technological Life

    i)Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheat

    ii)Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing England

    iii)Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy supplies

    iv)Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to trade

    c)The Extent and Limits of Technology

    i)Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolation

    ii)Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce them

    d)The Rise of Colonial Commerce

    i)At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroad

    ii)Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficult

    iii)Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies, expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. 

    iv)“Triangular trade”, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goods

    v)New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goods

    vi)During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expanded

    e)The Rise of Consumerism

    i)Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goods

    ii)Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealth

    iii)Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertising

    iv)Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educated

    v)Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display

    3)Patterns of Society

    a)The Plantation

    i)Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 ppl

    ii)Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldn’t control markets, when prices fell faced ruin

    iii)Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of town

    iv)Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majority

    b)Plantation Slavery

    i)By mid-18th cent ¾ blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, ½ lived w/ 50+

    ii)In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African lore

    iii)Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run away

    iv)Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedom

    c)The Puritan Community

    i)Social unit of NE was town, “covenant” of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a “common”, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govt

    ii)English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritance

    iii)Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new town

    iv)Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.

    d)The Witchcraft Phenomenon

    i)Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690s

    ii)Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for “independent women”

    iii)Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstream

    e)Cities

    i)Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)

    ii)Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.

    iii)Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas

    4)Awakenings and Enlightenments

    a)The Pattern of Religions

    i)Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Rome

    ii)Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despair

    b)The Great Awakening

    i)Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with God

    ii)Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edward

    c)The Enlightenment

    i)Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledge

    ii)Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didn’t challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianity

    d)Education

    i)Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647 law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, women’s rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to education

    ii)Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans)  created to train ministers, William and  Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutions

    e)The Spread of Science

    i)Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. 

    ii)Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation, spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common procedure

    f)Concepts of Law and Politics

    i)Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurate

    ii)Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limited

    iii) Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Empire in Transition

     1)Loosening Ties

    a)A Tradition of Neglect

    i)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits

    ii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism

    iii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power

    b)The Colonies Divided

    i)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service

    ii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies

    2)The Struggle for the Continent

    a)New France and the Iroquois Nation

    i)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior

    ii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy 

    iii)“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships

    iv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground

    b)Anglo-French Conflicts

    i)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French

    ii)King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English

    iii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748

    iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated

    v)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender

    c)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War

    i)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. 

    (1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English

    ii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction

    iii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760

    iv)Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R

    v)War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions

    vi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs

    vii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble

    3)The New Imperialism

    a)Burdens of Empire

    i)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable

    ii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies

    iii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way

    iv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure

    (1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire

    b)The British and the Tribes

    i)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line

    (1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists

    ii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs

    iii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well

    c)The Colonial Response

    i)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing

    ii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners

    iii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies

    iv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents 

    v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers

    vi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor

    vii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems

    viii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance

    (1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed

    4)Stirrings of Revolt

    a)The Stamp Act Crisis

    i)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval

    ii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps

    iii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.

    iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological

    v)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)

    b)The Townshend Program

    i)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power

    ii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused

    iii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax

    iv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent

    v)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA

    vi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement

    vii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on tea

    c)The Boston Massacre

    i)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market

    ii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl

    iii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd

    iv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s

    d)The Philosophy of Revolt

    i)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments

    ii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked

    iii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers

    iv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community

    v)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority

    e)The Tea Excitement

    i)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas

    ii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants

    iii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed

    iv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty

    v)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”

    vi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses

    vii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion

    viii)Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance

    5)Cooperation and War

    a)New Sources of Authority

    i)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts

    ii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress

    iii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions

    (1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority

    (2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation

    (3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston

    (4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements

    (5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization

    iv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired

    b)Lexington and Concord

    i)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training “minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775

    ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army

    iii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The American Revolution

    1)The States United

    a)Defining American War Aims

    i)2nd  Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle ground

    ii)“Olive Branch Petition” conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”

    iii)Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted “Prohibitory Act” w/ naval blockade

    iv)January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruption

    b)The Decision for Independence

    i)After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish independent govt’s from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independence

    ii)Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament 

    iii)Dec. inspired French Revolution’s Dec. of the rights of Men, claimed sovereign “United States of America”, led to increased foreign aid

    c)Responses to Independence

    i)At news of Dec many rejoiced others disapproved b/c still had great loyalty to king, called themselves Loyalists but independents called them Tories

    ii)States drafted constitutions to replace loyal govts by 1781, states considered centers of authority but war required central direction

    iii)1777 Articles of Confederation passed to confirm weak, decentralized system in place. Continental Congress was main coordinator of war effort

    d)Mobilizing for War

    i)Nation needed to raise, organize, equip, and pay for army. W/o British markets shortages of materials, gunsmiths couldn’t meet demand for funs and ammunition. Most supplies captured from Brits or supplied by Eur nations

    ii)Financing problematic, Congress had no power to tax ppl + had to ask states for funds. Eventually issued paper money, led to inflation, value of money plummeted. Most farmers + merchants preferred business w/ British who could pay for goods in gold and silver. Govt forced to borrowed $ from other nations

    iii)After patriotic surge 1775 few American army volunteers. States used persuasion, force, drafts. To correct problem of states controlling army units 1775 created Continental army w/ single commander, George Washington. In new nation unsure of structure and govt, he provided the army and the ppl a symbol of stability around which they could rally, held nation together

    2)The War for Independence

    a)The First Phase: New England

    i)After Concord and Lexington American forces besieged army of General Thomas Gage in Boston, Battle of Bunker Hill fought June 1775. Heaviest British casualties of entire war occurred

    ii)By 1776 Brits concluded Boston not best place to wage war from b/c of geography and fervor. March 1776 withdrew to Halifax, Nova Scotia

    iii)In south Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists February 1776 at Moore’s Creek Bridge, NC. In north Americans invaded Canada, Patriot General Benedict Arnold + Richard Montgomery threatened Quebec in order to remove British threat and recruit Canadians. Siege failed, Canada not to become part of US

    iv)British evacuation not so much victory as changing English assumptions about war. Clear conflict not local phenomenon around Boston but larger war

    b)The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region

    i)During summer 1776 British army of 32,000 landed in New York City under William Howe. Americans rejected Howe’s offer or royal pardon, Washington’s 19,000 man army pushed backed from LI, thru NJ, to PA

    ii)Eur warfare was seasonal activity, British settled for winter in NJ leaving outpost of Hessians at Trenton. Christmas 1776 Washington attacked across Deleware

    iii)British 1777 sought to capture Philadelphia to discourage Patriots, rally Loyalists, end war quickly. Captured city September, Washington defeated at Germanton in October, went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. CC, dislodged from capital, met in York, PA

    iv)British John Burgoyne led British campaign in north, at first successful- captured supplies of Fort Ticonderoga. Defeats led Congress to remove General Philip Schuyler and replace with Horatio Gates. But series of Patriot victories followed, Burgoyne forced to withdraw to Saratoga where Gates surrounded him and forced surrender of 5,000 man army

    v)Campaign Patriot success, led to alliance btwn US and France

    vi)British failure due to William Howe abandoning northern campaign and letting Burgoyne fight alone, allowed Washington to retreat and regroup instead of finishing him, left Continental army unmolested in Valley Forge

    c)The Iroquois and the British

    i)Iroquois Confederacy declared neutrality in 1776, but Joseph and Mary Brant persuaded some tribes to support British (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga). Belived British victory would stem white movement onto tribal lands

    ii)Only 3 of 6 nations supported British(Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga split)

    d)Securing Aid From Abroad

    i)Failure of Brits to crush Continental army in mid-Atlandtic states + rebel victory at Saratoga was turning point

    ii)After Dec of Indep, US sent reps to Europe’s capitals to negotiate commercial treaties. Most promising potential Ally was France where King Louis XVI and his Count de Vergennes eager to see Britain lose part of empire

    iii)Thru covert deals French supplied Americans supplies but would not officially recognize US diplomatically. Ben Franklin went to France, after news of Saratoga in February France formally recognized US as nation. Allowed for expanded assistance- money, munitions, navy

    e)The Final Phase: The South

    i)After defeat at Saratoga and French intervention British govt put limit on commitment to conflict, tried to enlist loyalist dissidents believed to be centered in South to fight from within

    ii)British forced moved from battle to battle 1778-1781, but much less Loyalist sentiment than predicted. Some refused to rise up b/c of fear of Patriot reprisal + British attempts to free slaves in order to fight. Patriots=no threat to slavery

    iii)British had disadvantage of enemy in hostile territory, new form of combat. Segments of population previously apathetic now forced to involve themselves

    iv)In North fighting stalemate after British moved forces to New York. Benedict Arnold became traitor, scheme to betray Patriot fort at West Point was foiled

    v)In South British captured Savannah 1778, Port of Charleston 1780. Won conventional battles but harassed as they moved thru countryside by Patriot guerillas. Lord Cornwallis (Brit general for South) defeated Patriot Horatio Gates, led Washing to give command to Gen. Nathanael Greene

    vi)Battle of King’s Mountain 1780 a Patriot victory, Greene split army into small, fast contingents and refrained from open battles. British had to abandon Southern campaign after battle at Guilford Courth House, NC in 1781

    vii)Cornwalis ordered by Clinton to wait for ships at Yorktown. Washington, French Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, and Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse all coordinated army and navy to surround British on peninsula

    viii)Cornwallis surrendered October 17, 1781. Fighting over, but Brits continued to hold seaports of Savannah, Charleston, Wilmington, & New York

    f)Winning the Peace

    i)Cornwallis’s defeat let to outcry aginsnt war, Lord North resigned and Lord Shelbrune succeeded. British emissaries in France began speaking to diplomats there (Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay). Final settlement Peace of Paris signed Sept 1783 when France and Spain also agreed to end hostilities

    ii)Treaty recognized US independence, gave land from southern Canada to north boundary of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi River

    3)War and Society

    a)Loyalists and Minorities

    i)Up to 1/5 of white population Loyalists- some officeholders in imperial govt, others merchants engaged in trade tied to imperial system, others who had lived in isolation of revolutionary ideas, others expected Brits to be victors

    ii)Hounded by Patriots, harassed by legislative and judicial actions- fled to Canada or to England. Most Loyalists of average means but many were wealthy, after they left estates and social and economic leadership vacancies

    iii)Anglicans were mostly Loyalists, in colonies where it was official religion (such as MA and VA). Taxes to church halted, support from England ceased, few ministers remained. Quakers weakened b/c their pacifism unpopular

    iv)Catholic Church gained respect b/c most American Caths supported Patriot cause, French alliance brought Cath troops and ministers. Gratitude eroded hostility, after war Vatican named Father John Caroll American archbishop

    b)The War and Slavery

    i)War led to some slaves to escape due to British presence in South + their policies meant to disrupt American war effort. Revolutionary ideas introduced slaves to idea of liberty. This situation put slave dominated states like SC and Georgia to be ambivalent to revolution b/c opposed British emancipation efforts but feared revolution would foment slave rebellions

    c)Native Americans and the Revolution

    i)Patriots and Brits wanted Indians to remain neutral, and by and large they did. Some supported British b/c feared replacing ruling class whom they had developed limited trust with and who had fought against white expansion

    ii)Patriot victory weaked natvies bc increased white demand for western lands, many Americans resented Mohawk and other Indians assistance to British and wanted to treat them as conquered people

    iii)Revolution increased deep divisions and made it difficult for tribes to form common front for resistance b/c of neutral and pro-Brit alliances

    iv)After war Indian and American fighting continued w/ Indian raids against froneir whites, white militia responded with attacks into Indian territories

    d)Women’s Rights and the Women’s Roles

    i)Patriot men going off to fight eft wives, mothers, sisters in charge of farms and businesses- sometimes successful and other times not so much. In many cities and towns impoverished women class emerged

    ii)Sometimes women chose, other times forced to join camps of Patriot armies, raised morale and performed necessary tasks on cooking, nursing, cleaning. Some women ended up in combat (legendary Molly Pitcher)

    iii)After revolution certain assumptions about women questioned- some like  Abigail Adams called for modest expansion of women’s rights and protections. Others such as Judith Sargent Murray wanted equal education and rights

    iv)New era for women did not arrive, legal doctrines of English common law gave married women barely any rights, Rev did not change these legal customs

    v)Revolution encouraged ppl to reevaulate contributions of women b/c of womens participation in revolution and part general reevalutaion of American life after struggle- search for a cultural identity

    e)The War Economy

    i)No longer protection of trade by British navy, no more access to markets of the empire including Britain itself. Privateering used by Americans to pretty on Brit commerce. 

    ii)End of imperial relation in long run opened up enormous new areas of trade for nation b/c no more Brit regulations. Trade w/ Asia, South America, Caribbean

    iii)End of English imports thru prewar boycotts and war itself led to stimulation of domestic manufacturing of necessities, desire for sufficiency grew

    4)The Creation of State Governments

    a)The Assumptions of Republicanism

    i)Republicanism meant all power came from ppl, active citizenry important and could not be just a few powerful aristocrats and mass of dependent workers- idea of independent landowner was basic political ideology

    ii)Opposed Eur ideas of inherited aristocracy- talents and energies of individuals and not birth would determine role in society- equality of opportunity

    b)The First State Constitutions

    i)States decided tat constitutions had to be written b/c believed vagueness of England’s unwritten constitution produced corruption, believed power of executive had to be limited, separation of executive from legislature

    ii)Except GA and PA upper and lower chambers, property requirements for voters

    c)Revising State Governments

    i)By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they were too democratic—steps taken to limit popular power

    ii)To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet again

    iii)Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppl

    d)Toleration and Slavery

    i)New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and state

    ii)Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives

    5)The Search for A National Government

    a)The Confederation

    i)Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781

    b)Diplomatic Failures

    i)GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empire’s markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refused

    ii)Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Florida’s borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articles

    c)The Confederation and the Northwest

    i)Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of 1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schools

    ii)Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibited

    iii)S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolved

    d)Indians and the Western Lands

    i)Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement, but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indians

    ii)Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s. Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded lands

    e)Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shays

    i)Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested funds

    ii)Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederation

    iii)To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New England

    iv)Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Constitution and The New Republic

    1)Framing A New Government

    a)Advocates of Centralization

    i)Confederation had averted the danger of remote and tyrannical authority, but during 1780s powerful groups began to want a national govt capable of dealing with nation’s problems- mainly economic that affected themselves

    ii)Artisans wanted a single high national duty, merchants wanted a single, national commercial policy, people owed money wanted states to stop issuing paper money and causing inflation, land owners wanted protection from mobs

    iii)Reformers led by Alexander Hamilton called for convention. Inter-state conference on trade held in MA advised congress to call a convention to “render the constitution… adequate to the exigencies of the union” in 1786

    iv)George Washington’s support of new convention in Philadelphia 1787 gave it credibility, feared disorders like Shay’s Rebellion spreading

    b)A Divided Convention

    i)55 delegates from all but RI, mainly young, educated, and propertied

    ii)Washington chosen as presiding officer, sessions closed to public and press

    iii)VA delegation led by James Madison, had plan drafted. Edmund Randolph proposed a new nat’t govt with executive, judiciary, legislature

    iv)VA Plan called for 2 house legislature w/  lower house based on population and upper house elected by lower house

    v)Proposal opposed by Delaware, NJ, other small states. Proposal by William Paterson of NJ would reform Confederation + give it power to tax. Tabled, VA Plan remained basis for discussion

    vi)VA Plan supporters realized concessions to small states needed for agreement, conceded upper house be elected by state legislatures, each state at least 1 rep

    vii)Questions of equal rep in upper house, of slaves counted in states population but feared would be taxed if states taxed based on population

    c)Compromise

    i)In July grand committee established with Franklin as head, produced basis of “Great Compromise” where lower house would be based on populating with each slave counted as 3/5 o of a person in representation and direct taxation, in upper house each state had 2 reps- July 16, 1787 compromise accepted

    ii)Reps agreed legislature forbidden to tax exports b/c of Southern fear of interfering with cotton economy, slave trade couldn’t be stopped for 20 years

    iii)Constitution provided no definition of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights that would restrain powers of nat’l govt

    d)The Constitution of 1787

    i)James Madison created VA Plan, helped resolve question of sovereignty and of limiting power

    ii)Sovereignty at all levels, nat’l and state, came from people. States and nat’l govt both had sovereignty from ppl and therefore Constitution could distribute powers btwn federal govt and states- but Constitution was “supreme law”

    iii)Federal govt had power to tax, regulate commerce, control currency, pass laws

    iv)Leaders frightened of creating a tyrannical govt, believed small nation needed to stop corruption. Madison convinced others that large nation would produce less tyranny b/c many factions would check one from being too powerful

    v)Separation of powers + checks and balances forced branches to compete, federal structure divided power btwn states and nation

    vi)Fear of despotism, but also fear of the “mob” and “excess of democracy”, only House of Reps elected directly by ppl. 

    vii)Constitution signed on September 17, 1787

    e)Federalists and Antifederalists

    i)Delegates decided that Constitution would come into existence when 9 of 13 states had ratified it thru conventions instead of unanimous state legislature approval required by Articles

    ii)Supporters of Const well organized, supported by Washington and Franklin, called themselves Federalists. Had best political philosophers in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. Wrote Federalist Papers arguing for Const under pseudonym Publius

    iii)Antifederalists believed Const would betray principles of Revolution by establish a strong, potentially tyrannical central govt that would increase taxies, obliterate states, favor the “well born”. 

    (1)Biggest complaint was that Const lacked a bill of rights, any govt with central authority could not be trusted to protect citizens’ liberties, therefore natural rights had to be enumerated in order to be preserved

    iv) Federalists feared disorder, anarchy, power of masses, Antifederalists feared the state more than they did the ppl, feared concentrated power

    v)Delaware first to ratify, New Hampshire 9th state in June 1788. New govt could not flourish w/o participation of VA and NY. VA, NY, MA ratified on assumption that bill of rights would be added

    f)Completing the Structure

    i)First elections took place 1789, George Washington elected first president unanimously, John Adams became VP- inauguration April 30, 1789

    ii)First Congress passed bill of rights 1789, 10 ratified by states by end of 1791. Nine forbid Congress from infringing basic rights, 10th reserved powers to states unless specifically withheld from them or delegated to fed govt

    iii)Judiciary Act of 1789 created 6 member Supreme court, 13 district courts, 3 courts of appeal, Sup Court had final decision in constitutionality of state laws

    iv)Congress created departments of executive- State led by Jefferson, Treasury by Hamilton, War by Henry Knox, attorney general Edmund Randolph

    2)Federalists and Republicans

    a)Hamilton and the Federalists

    i)Federalists dominated govt for 12 years under leadership of Treasurer Alexander Hamilton (Washington supported, but avoided direct involvement)

    ii)Believed stable and effective govt required enlightened ruling class, therefore rich and powerful needed stake in its success

    iii)To do so made govt responsible for existing debt + states debts, would create new large national debt w/ continuous bonds issued to give wealthy stake

    iv)Creation of federal bank would fill absence of developed banking system, safe place for deposit of federal funds, collect taxes and pay expenses

    v)Funding of debts required new revenue to pay bonds interest, govt sales of Western land not enough. Hamilton proposed tax on alcohol distillers- heavy toll on whiskey distillers of backcountry PA, VA, NC- & tariff on imports to raise $ + stimulate growth of industry- his 1791 “Report on Manufactures

    b)Enacting the Federalist Program

    i)Few members opposed plan for funding nat’l debt, but disagreement over whether payment should be to original holders or to speculators who bought many bonds from originals during hard times of 1780s. James Madison proposed dividing btwn two. Hamilton won out and current bondholders paid

    ii)Hamilton faced stiffer opposition to fed’l assumption of state debts b/c ppl of states with few debts (such as VA) would pay taxes to service large debts of other states (like MA). Compromise w/ Virginians moved capital from Philadelphia to a southern location along Potomac R.  for VA support of bill

    iii)Bank bill most heated debate, Madison, Jefferson, Randolph, others argued Congress should exercise no powers Const did not assign it. Bill passed House and Senate, Bank of United States began operating 1791 under 20 yr charter

    iv)Passage of excise tax and tariff 1792. Whole program won support of the influential population- restored public credit, speculators, manufacturing + merchants prospered. However, small farmers (maj of pop) complained of tax burden, taxes to state, excise tax on distillation, + tariff- feeling Federalist program served interests not of ppl but of wealthy elites

    c)The Republican Opposition

    i)Framers believed organized political parties dangerous, should be avoided would lead to factions (Madison Fed Papers #10), but eventually Madison and others convinced that Hamilton and Federalists had become a majority and used their power to control appts, offices, and rewards to supporters

    ii)B/c Federalist structures thought to resemble corrupt Brit govt and menacing structure, critics felt only alternative vigorous opposition thru emergence of alternative political organization- the Republican Party

    iii)By late 1790s Republicans creating even greater apparatus of partisan influence- correspondence btwn groups, influenced state and local elections

    iv)Both groups believed represented only legitimate interest group, neither conceded right of other to exist- factionalism known as “first party system”

    v)Leaders of Repubs James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson believed in an agrarian republic w/ independent farmer-citizens tilling own soil. Didn’t oppose commerce, trade or industry, but feared cities, urban mobs, and advanced industrial economy b/c of increase of propertyless workers

    3)Establishing National Sovereignty

    a)Securing the Frontier

    i)1791 PA farmers refused to pay whiskey excise tax, Washington called militia from 3 states, Whiskey Rebellion collapsed- intimidation won allegiance

    ii)Fed govt won loyalty of frontiersmen by accept territories as new states (NC 1789, RI 1791 last of 13 colonies)- VT 1791, Kentucky 1792, Tennessee 1796

    b)Native Americans and the New Nation

    i)Clashes with natives raised question of Indians’ place of in federal structure. Constitution recognized tribes as legal entities, but not outright nations

    ii)Constitution did not address main issue of land, Indians lived within US boundaries but offered some measure of sovereignty

    c)Maintaining Neutrality

    i)In 1791 GB sent first minister to US, question of US neutrality arose in 1793 when French govt from revolution of 1789 went to war with GB

    ii)French rep to US Edmond Genet violated Neutrality Act and tried to recruit Americans to French cause- US ships as privateers, raids against Spanish

    iii)GB Royal Navy began seizing US ships trading w/ French in West Indies1794, anti-British feelings high, Hamilton concerned b/c war meant end to English imports- main revenue for financial system dependent from duties

    d)Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty

    i)Hamilton feared pro-French State Dept, had Washington send Chief Justice and Federalist John Jay to negotiate treaty with GB

    ii)Jay’s Treaty in 1794 failed to compensate Brit assaults on ships and withdrawal of Brit forces from frontier, but prevented war, established American sovereignty over Northwest, satisfactory commercial relationship

    iii)American backlash followed b/c not enough Brit promises, Republicans and some Federalists offered opposition but ultimately ratified by Senate

    iv)Jay’s treaty allowed peace to be made with Spain b/c raised fears of Brit/American alliance in North America, Pinckney’s treaty 1795 recognized US right to Mississippi, Florida border, control of Indian raids from FL

    4)The Downfall of the Federalists

    a)The Election of 1796

    i)Washington retired 1797, in “Farewell” worried over foreign influence on gov’t, including French efforts to frustrate Federalist diplomatic program

    ii)Open expression of political rivalries after Washington- Jefferson running for Republicans, Hamilton too many enemies so VP John Adams Fed candidate

    iii)Federalists could win majority of electors 1796 pres. election for Adams but factional fighting within party caused second candidate Thomas Pinckney to receive many votes- resulted in Jefferson finishing second, became VP. 

    iv)Federalists divided, strong Republicans opposition, Hamilton still lead party

    b)The Quasi War with France

    i)US relations w/ GB + Spain improved after treaties, deteriorated w/ France b/c of impressments of US ships and sailors

    ii)President Adam’s pursued reconciliation by appointing bi-partisan commission of Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry to negotiate

    iii)French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded loan and bribe, Adams turned over report of this to Congress w/ names deleted- “XYZ Affair” caused outrage at France, Federalist gained support for response

    iv)Adams asked Congress to cut off trade, 1798 created Dept of Navy (very successful capturing French ships), cooperated w/ GB

    v)France reconciled, new govt of Napoleon 1800 new commercial arrangements

    c)Repression and Protest

    i)Conflict w/ France led to Federalist majority 1798, to silence Republican opposition passed the Alien and Sedition Acts

    ii)Alien Acts restricted places obstacles for foreigners becoming citizens, Sedition Act allowed govt to prosecute libelous or treasonous activity- but definitions allowed govt to stifle any opposition—Repubs fought back

    iii)Adams cautious in implementation but still repressive, Republican leaders hoped for reversal from state legislatures 

    iv)Jefferson + Madison had VA, KY adopt resolutions arguing when govt exercised undelegated powers, its acts “void”. Used Locke’s “compact theory”: states were part of contract, fed govt had breached contract, therefore states could “nullify” the appropriate laws—only VA and KY did so

    v)By late 1790s national crisis b/c nation so politically divided

    d)The “Revolution” of 1800

    i)1800 pres election saw same candidates- Adams’ and Jefferson’s supporters showed no restraint or dignity in their assaults against other 

    ii)Crucial contest in New York where Aaron Burr (candidate for VP) mobilized Rev War veterans, the Tammany Society, to serve as Repub political machine- Repubs eventually won the state and election

    iii)In partisan atmosphere Jefferson and Burr votes tied, the previous Federalist Congress had to choose between the two in a vote (H of Reps decides when no majority), ultimately Hamilton and Federalists elected Jefferson

    iv)After election only judiciary branch still Federalist, Judiciary Act of 1801 had created many new positions which Adams had filled before leaving office

    v)Republican viewed victory as savior from tyranny, believed new era would begin where true founding principles would govern

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Jeffersonian Era

    1)The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

    a)Patterns of Education

    i)Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republic

    ii)By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay. Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor

    iii)Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant, late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training

    iv)Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans very little schooling- literacy rate very small

    v)Higher education not public, private contribution + tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education

    b)Medicine and Science

    i)Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled w/ introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments. 

    ii)Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives

    c)Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation

    i)After Eur independence ppl wanted cultural independence, literary and artistic achievements to rival those of Europe

    ii)Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Languageestablished national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created

    iii)High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature

    (1)Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes

    (2)Washington Irving wrote American fold tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle

    (3)Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism

    d)Religious Skepticism

    i)Revolution detached churches from govt + elevated liberty and reason, by 1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”

    ii)Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason.

    iii)Skepticism led to “universalism” + “unitarianism”, @ first within New England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God

    iv)Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches + denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801

    e)The Second Great Awakening

    i)Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists (founded by John Wesley) successful at combating New Light dissenters (ppl who made religion more compatible w/ rationalism)

    ii)By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy

    iii)Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God + Christ into daily life, reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety w/ belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith + works

    iv)Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order + social stability to ppl searching for identity

    v)Women particularly drawn to revivalism b/c women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for

    vi)Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom

    vii) Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake  encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture

    2)Stirrings of Industrialism

    a)Technology in America

    i)America imported technological advances from England. Brit govt attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America

    ii)American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and 

    iii)Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever. 

    iv)In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820s/30s- as N became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture

    v)His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War w/ France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products

    b)Transportation Innovations

    i)Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system

    ii)To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Eur in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade btwn Eur and Western hemisphere

    iii)Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship

    iv)Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton + Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention w/ theirClermont

    v)Turnpike era began 1792 w/ corporate construction of turnpikes, but b/c needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas

    c)The Rising Cities

    i)America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns of more than 8,000 in 1800 census—yet there were signs of change

    ii)Major US cities such as New York + Philadelphia large and complex enough to rival secondary cities of Europe

    iii)Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance, dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing

    3)Jefferson the President

    a)The Federal City and the “People’s President”

    i)French architect Pierre L’Enfant designed city on grand scale, but Washington remained little more than provincial village w/ few public buildings

    ii)Jefferson acted in spirit of democratic simplicity, made his image plain, disdain for pretension. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency

    iii)Political genius, worked as leader of his party to give Republicans in Congress direction, used appointments as political weapon. Won 1804 reelection easily

    b)Dollars and Ships

    i)Washington and Adams had increased expenditures, debt, taxation. Jefferson 1802 had Congress abolish all internal taxes leaving only land sales and customs duties, cut govt spending, halved debt

    ii) Scaled down armed forces, cut navy due to fear of limiting civil liberty + civilian govt, promoting overseas commerce instead of agriculture 

    iii)At same time established US Military Academy @ West Point 1802, built up navy after 1801 threats by pasha of Tripoli in Mediterranean following Jefferson’s end to paying ransom demanded by Barbary pirates

    c)Conflict With The Courts

    i)Judiciary remained in hands of Federalist judges, congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 eliminating judgeships Adam’s filled before leaving office 

    ii)Case of Marbury v. Madison 1803 btwn Justice of Peace William Marbury and Sec of State James Madison 

    (1)Supreme Court ruled Congress exceeded its authority in creating a statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 b/c Constitution had already defined judiciary

    (2)Court asserted that the act of Congress was void. Enlarged courts power

    iii)Chief Justice John Marshall presided over case, battled to give fed govt unity and strength, established judiciary as branch coequal w/ exec and legislature

    iv)Jefferson assaulted last Federalist stronghold, urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges. Tried to impeach justice Samuel Chase in 1805 but Republican Senate could not get 2/3 vote necessary- acquittal set precedent impeachment not purely a political weapon, above partisan disagreement

    4)Doubling the National Domain

    a)Jefferson and Napoleon

    i)After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted power in New World. Spain held areas west of Mississippi, 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso granted French this Louisiana. Also held sugar-rich West Indian islands Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo (where slave revolt led by Toussaint L’ouverture put down)

    ii)Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy- apptd pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800, disapproved of black Santo Domingo uprising 

    iii)Reconsidered position when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana and seizure of New Orleans, alarmed n 1802 when Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean going vessels (which was guaranteed in Pikcney Treaty of 1795)- this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

    iv)Westerners demanded govt reopen river, Jefferson ordered Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans, in meantime expanded military and river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

    v)Nap offered sale of whole Louisiana Territory. Plans for American empire awry b/c army decimated by yellow fever, reinforcements frozen

    b)The Louisiana Purchase

    i)Livingston and James Monroe in Paris decided to proceed with sale of whole territory even though not authorized to do so by govt, treaty signed April 1803

    ii)US paid $15 million to France, had to incorporate N.O. residents into Union

    iii)Jefferson unsure US had authority to accept offer b/c power not specifically granted in Constitution, ultimately agreed constituted as treaty power. December 1803 territory handed over from Spain to France then US

    iv)Govt organized Louisiana territory like Northwest territory w/ various territories to eventually to become states- Louisiana first, admitted 1812

    c)Lewis and Clark Explore the West

    i)Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical fats and investigate trade w/ Indians

    ii)Lewis and Clark set out 1804 from Mississippi R. in St Louis w/ Indian Sacajawea as guide, reached pacific fall 1805

    iii)Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions btwn Mississppi and Rocky Mts

    d)The Burr Conspiracy

    i)Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions, but some NE Federalists known as Essex Junto felt expansion weakened power of Federalists + region . Felt only answer secession and “Northern Confederacy”

    ii)Plan required support of NY, NJ, New England, but leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused support 

    iii)Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr (who had no prospect in own party after 1800 election deadlock) to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

    iv)Hamilton accused Burr of treason and negative remarks about character, when Burr lost election blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

    v)Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel 1804, Hamilton mortally wounded

    vi)Burr, now political outcast, fled NY for West and along with General James Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and possibly make his own empire. 1806 tried for treason, acquitted

    vii)“Conspiracy” showed perils of central govt that remained deliberately weak w/ vast tracts of nominally controlled land, state of US as stable and united nation

    5)Expansion and War

    a)Conflict on the Seas

    i)US shipping expanded to control trade btwn Eur and W. Indies 

    ii)Napoleon’s Continental system forbade ships that had docked at any point in British ports from landing on continent- Berlin (1806) + Milan (1807) Decrees

    iii) Britain’s “orders in council” required goods to continent be in ships that had at least stopped in British ports- response to Nap’s “Continental System”

    iv)American ships caught btwn countries, but England greater threat b/c greater sea power and the worse offender

    b)Impressment

    i)Brit Navy had terrible conditions, forced service called “impressments” used, many deserted when possible and joined Americans- to stop loss Brit claimed right to stop and search American merchant ships + reimpress deserters

    ii)1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: Brit fired on US ship that refused search, US Minister James Monroe protested, GB refused to renounce impressments

    c)“Peaceable Coercion”

    i)To prevent future incidents that might bring war Jefferson proposed The Embargo 1807- prohibited US ship from leaving for any foreign port

    ii)Created national depression, ship-owners + merchants of NE (mainly Federalists) hardest hit-before

    iii)James Madison, Jefferson’s Sec of State, won election of 1808 but fierce opposition- led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act- reopened trade w/ all nations except GB + France

    iv)1810 new Macon’s Bill No. 2 opened trade w/ GB + France but pres had power to prohibit commerce for belligerent behavior against neutral shipping

    v)Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere, Madison issued embargo against GB 1811 until it renounced restrictions of American shipping

    d)The “Indian Problem” and the British

    i)After dislodgement by Americans, Indians looked to Brits for protection

    ii)William Henry Harrison had been a promoter of Western expansion (Harrison Land Law 1800), named governor of Indiana 1801 by Jefferson. Offered Indians ultimatum: become farmers and assimilate or move to West of Miss. 

    iii)By 1807 tribes mainly ceding land. After Chesapeake incident, however, Brits began to renew Indian friendships to begin defense of invasion into Can

    e)Tecumseh and the Prophet

    i)The Prophet was Indian leader inspired religious revival, rejection of white culture. Attracted thousands from many tribes at Tippecanoe Creek. Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

    ii)Starting 1809 began to unite tribes of Miss. valley, 1811 traveled south to add tribes of the South to alliance

    iii)1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy. However, thru 1812 continued to attack settlers, encouraged by Brit agents—Americans believed end only thru Can. Invasion

    f)Florida and War Fever

    i)“Frontiersman” in N wanted Canada, those in S wanted to acquire Spanish Florida in order to stop Indian attacks, gain access to rivers w/ port access

    ii)1810 setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, President Madison agreed to annex territory- Spain Britain’s ally, made pretext for war

    iii)By 1812 “war harks” elected during 1810 elections eager for war- some ardent nationalists seeking territorial expansion, others defense of Republican values

    iv)Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of SC led Republicans in pressing for Canadian invasion- Madison declared war June 18, 1812

    6)The War of 1812

    a)Battles with the Tribes

    i)Americans forced to surrender Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months. On seas American frigates and privateers successful, but by 1813 Brit navy (less occupied w/ Napoleon) devoted resources and imposed blockade

    ii)US began to have success in Great Lakes- Oliver Perry beat Brits at Put-In-Bay 1813, burned capital at York. William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames- disheartened Natives of Northwest and diminished ability to defend claims

    iii)Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians @ Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, continued invasion into Florida and captured Pensacola Sept 1814

    b)Battles With the British

    i)After Nap surrendered 1814 England prepared to invade US, landed armada in Chesapeake region. Aug 1814 captured and burned Washington

    ii)Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled Brit attack in Sept. This battle is what Francis Scott Key witnessed, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

    iii)Brit also repelled in NY at Battle of Plattsburgh in Sept. January 1815 Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans- after treaty signed

    c)The Revolt of New England

    i)US failures 1812-1815 led to increased govt opposition. In NE opposition to war and Repub govt, Federalists led by Daniel Webtser led Congressional opposition. Federalists in NE dreamed of separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders and backwoodsmen

    ii)Dec 1814 convention at Hartford led to nothing b/c of news of Jackson’s smashing success at New Orleans. Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

    d)The Peace Settlement

    i)Aug 1814 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ Brit diplomats. Final treaty did little but end fighting- US dropped call to end impressments, Brit dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

    ii)Brit accepted b/c exhausted + indebted after Napoleonic conflict, US believed w/ end of Eur conflict less commercial interference would occur

    iii)Treaty of Gent signed Dec 1814, free trade agreement 1815later Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

    iv)War disastrous to Natives, lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Varieties of American Nationalism

    1)A Growing Economy

    a)Banking, Currency, and Protection

    i)War of 1812 stimulated manufacturing, but after war produced chaos in shipping and banking- need for new Bank of the United States charter its expiration 1811 and not renewed, protecting new industries, transport systems

    ii)After expiration of charter state banks offered difft currencies at difft values- confusion and counterfeiting. Congress passed new charter for Bank of US 1816- its size and power essentially forced state banks to issue safer currency

    iii)Manufacturing had grown tremendously due to imports being cut off, textile industry increased exponentially btwn Embargo of 1807 and War. Factories in NE no longer family operations. Francis Lowell developed new loom 1813 in Boston Manufacturing Company- first process of both spinning and weaving

    iv)After war English ships swarmed American ports, wanted to reclaim old markets with prices below cost. 1816 Congress passed tariff to protect “infant industries” from competition aboard- farmers objected b/c paid higher price

    b)Transportation

    i)W/o transport network manufacturers couldn’t access raw materials and send finished goods to markets in US- should fed govt finance roads?

    ii)1807 Jefferson’s Sec Treasury Albert Gallatin proposed revenue from Ohio land sale go to fund National Road. Crucial Lancaster Pike built in PA- both allowed for the beginning of transport of commodities like textiles

    iii)Steam-powered shipping (advancements of Robert Fulton) expanded on rivers and Great Lakes. Steamboats on Miss. stimulated already agricultural economy of South & West b/c cost to transport products to market lowered

    iv)Despite progress of turnpikes + steamships serious gaps in trasportation. 1815 John Calhoun introduced bill to use federal funds to finance internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it in 1817 b/c believed unconstitutional

    v)Remained to state govts + private enterprise to build needed transit networks

    2)Expanding Westward

    a)The Great Migrations

    i)Westward movement affected economy, factor in Civil War, peoples thrusted together. Pop. + econ. pressures, land availability, decreased Indian resistance

    ii)Immigration and natural growth increased Eastern population, agricultural lands occupied. Slaves in S limited work opportunity. West attractive b/c War of 1812 lessened Native opposition by pushing Indians west + establishing forts on Great Lakes and Miss. R., govt “factor system” of goods to Indians

    b)White Settlers in the Old Northwest

    i)Shelters primitive, clearings in forest for crops to supplement game and domestic animals, rough existence w/ poverty and loneliness

    ii)Migrants journeyed westward in groups, some formed communities and schools, churches, other institutions. Mobility a large part of life

    iii)Farm economy based on modest seized farms w/ grain cultivation + livestock

    c)The Plantation System in the Southwest

    i)Cotton longs in Old South had lost much fertility but market continued to grow for it, Black Belt of SW lands could support thriving cotton

    ii)First arrivals small farmers, wealthier planters followed buying and clearing smaller lands. Brought w/ them slaves, eventually mansions grew up from simpler log cabins symbolizing emergence of a newly rich class

    iii)Rapid growth in NW and SW resulted in new states after War of 1812: Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819

    d)Trade and Trapping in the Far West

    i)Trade began to develop btwn western regions in US in 19th century + beyond

    ii)Mexico (controlled Texas, CA, Southwest) won independence from Spain 1821, opened territories to trade in order to grow their fortunes. US merchants such as William Becknell displaced Indian traders and inferior Mexican products lost out to new US traders- Mexico lost its markets it in own colonies

    iii)Fur traders such as Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company eventually extended to Rockies, instead of pelts from Indians increasingly trapped their own

    iv)Trappers (“mountain men”) first wedge of white movement, changed society by interacting with Indians and Mexicans. 1822 Andrew and William Ashley founded Rocky Mountain Fur Company, recruited trappers to live permanently in Rockies (Utah, New Mexico)

    v)Lives of trappers bound up with expanding market economy- relied on fur companies for credit, depended on Eastern merchants for livelihood

    e)Eastern Images of the West

    i)Ppl in East only dimly aware of trappers’ world and their reshaping of it

    ii)Explorers dispatched by US govt to chart territories. 1819/1820 Steven Long sent by War Dept to explore, wrote influential report with dismissive conclusions for future settlement (like Zebulon Pike 15 yrs before)

    3)The Era of Good Feelings

    a)The End of the First Party System

    i)James Monroe, Madison’s Sec of State, elected Republican president 1816. W/ Federalist decline faced party faced no serious opposition, after War of 1812 no serious international threat- wanted republic w/o partisan factions

    ii)For Sec of State chose New Englander and former Federalist John Quincy Adams, John Calhoun named Sec of War- Monroe took pains to include northerners, southerners, easterners, westerners, Feds and Repubs in Cabinet

    iii)After election national goodwill tour, re-elected 1820 w/o any opposition

    b)John Quincy Adams

    i)Committed nationalist, important task promotion of American expansion

    ii)US already annexed W Florida, 1817 began negotiations w/ Spanish minister Lius de Onis. Meanwhile, American commander in Florida Andrew Jackson used orders from Sec of War Calhoun to invade Florida to stop Seminole raids—known as Seminole war. Adams wanted to use as excuse to annex

    iii)Onis realized he had little choice, Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florid and lands north of 42nd parallel to US, US gave up Texas claims

    c)The Panic of 1819

    i)Panic followed period of high foreign demand for US goods, rising prices had stimulated land boom in western US. Availability for easy credit to settlers and speculators- from govt, state and wildcat banks

    ii)1819 management at Bank of US tightened credit, led to series of state bank failures, led to financial panic- those in West blamed it on bank

    iii)Depression for 6 years followed, but growth ultimately continued

    4)Sectionalism and Nationalism

    a)The Missouri Compromise

    i)Missouri applied for statehood 1819, although slavery already established NY Rep James Tallmadge’s Amendment gradual emancipation- controversial

    ii)Since beginning new states had come into Union in pairs (1 from N, 1 from S), Missouri entrance would increase power of North over South

    iii)Maine had also applied for statehood, Henry Clay threatened South would block entrance in Missouri not permitted to be a slave state

    iv)Compromise in Maine-Missouri Bill, Senator Jesse Thomas’s Amendment to ban slavery in rest of Louisiana Ter. north of MO’s 3630’ border also passed

    b)Marshall and the Court

    i)John Marshall chief justice from 1801-1835. Strengthened judicial system at expense of executive and legislature, increased fed power over states, advanced interest of propertied and commercial classes

    ii)Supported inviolability contracts in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) which held GA legislature could not repeal contract acts of previous legislature. Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions- states had given up some sovereignty by ratifying Constitution, therefore their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction

    iii)“Implied powers” of Congress upheld in McCulloch v Maryland (1819) by upholding Bank of United States, attorney Daniel Webster argued establishment legal under “necessary and proper” clause, power to tax involved “power to destroy”. States therefore could not tax now-legal Bank

    iv)Strengthened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce in Gibbons v Ogden(1824)- Fed govt gave license to Thomas Gibbons for ferry even transport btwn NY and NJ even though NY state had granted Aaron Ogden monopoly- Marshall argued that Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce + navigation “complete in itself” + could exercise to the utmost

    v)Decisions established primacy of fed govt over states in regulating economy, protected corporations + private economic institutions from local govt 

    c)The Court and the Tribes

    i)Marshall court decisions w/ Natives affirmed supremacy of US and carved out position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure

    ii)In Johnson v McIntosh (1825) Marshall described the basic right of Natives to tribal lands that preceded all other American law. Individual Americans could not buy or take land from tribes, only fed govt could do that

    iii)Worchester v Georgia (1832) invalidated law to regulate citizen access to Cherokee lands. Only fed govt had power to do that, tribes described as sovereign entities w/ exclusive authority and territorial boundaries

    iv)Marshall court did what Const had not- establish place for Indian tribes in American political system. Sovereign, but fed govt “guardian” over its “ward” 

    d)The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine

    i) US foreign policy mainly centered on Eur, but after War of 1812 Spanish Empire in decline w/ new revolutions, US developing profitable trade w/ Latin America rivaling GB as principal trading pattern

    ii)1815 US proclaimed neutrality in wars btwn Spain and rebellious colonies, 1822 President Monroe established diplomatic relations w/ 5 new nations

    iii)1823 Monroe announced policy (later known as “Monroe Doctrine”) that American continent not be considered subject of future colonization by European powers, any foreign challenge would be unfriendly

    iv)Monroe Doctrine developed b/c Americans feared Spanish allies (such as France) would aid it in retaking lost empire, fear of GB taking over Cuba

    5)The Revival of Opposition

    a)The “Corrupt Bargain”

    i)In 1824 Republican caucus nominated William Crawford of Georgia for presidency, but other candidates received nominations from state legislatures

    ii)Candidates included: Sec of State John Quincy Adams had little popular appeal, Speaker of the House Henry Clay had personal following and strong program in the “American System” to strengthen home industry and Bank, Andrew Jackson little political experience but a military hero and TN allies

    iii)Jackson received more popular and electoral votes tan other candidates but not majority, Twelfth Amendment (passed after contested 1800 election) required House of Reps to choose among top three candidates- Clay threw endorsement behind Adams b/c Jackson a political rival in West + Adams a nationalist and likely American system supporter

    iv) Adams named Clay Sec of State, Jackson’s followers enraged at seeming “corrupt bargain”- haunted Adams throughout presidency

    b)The Second President Adams

    i)Adams proposed nationalist program reminiscent of Clay’s American System but Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it. Southerners in Congress blocked delegates to international conference called by Simon Bolivar in Panama in 1826 b/c Haiti was sending black delegates

    ii)Georgia wished to remove remaining Creek and Cherokee Indians from state to gain more land for cotton planters. Adams refused to enforce treaty made btwn Indians + Georgia. Governor defied president and proceeded w/ removal

    iii)Adams supported tariff on imported goods 1828 b/c NE textile manufacturers complained of competition. To be passed concessions made to middle + west states on other tariffs—bill signed hated by all, called “tariff of abominations”

    c)Jackson Triumphant

    i)By 1828 presidential election new 2-party system had begun to emerge from divisions btwn Republicans. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism, opposing them was Democratic Republicans of Andrew Jackson who called for assault on privilege and widening of opportunity

    ii)Campaign of personal charges, Jackson’s wife Rachel accused of bigamy, she was so upset that she ultimately died- Jackson blamed opponents

    iii)Jackson won decisive but sectional victory. Adams strong in New England & mid-Atlantic. Jackson believed victory similar to Jefferson’s 1800 win

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - Jacksonian America

     1)The Rise of Mass Politics

    a)The Expanding Electorate

    i)No economic equality, but transformation of American politics to extend the right to vote to new groups. Until 1820s most states limited franchise to white landowners. Changes began in West w/ Constitutions guaranteeing right to vote to all white males- E. states did likewise in order to stop exodus of ppl

    ii)Change provoked resistance- MA conservatives wanted property requirement, state eventually required voters to be taxpayers + Gov had to own large lands

    iii)State reforms generally peaceful but in RI instability when 1840 group led by Thomas Dorr and the “People’s Party” submitted and won a new state Const. by the ppl. 1842 2 simultaneous govts, Dorr rebellion quickly failed

    iv)In S election laws favored planters and politicians from older counties, limited influence of newly settled western areas

    v)Everywhere women could not vote, no secret ballots—despite limitations numbers of voters increased faster than population 

    vi)Originally electors chosen by legislature, by 1828 popularly elected except SC

    b)The Legitimization of Party

    i)Higher levels of voter participation due to expanded electorate but also strengthening of party organization and loyalty

    ii)1820s/1830s saw permanent, institutionalized parties become desirable part of political process. Began at state level in NY w/ Martin Van Buren’s factional “Bucktails”. Party’s preservation thru favors, rewards, patronage leaders goals

    iii)Parties would check/balance one other, politicians forced 2 rep. will of the ppl

    iv)By late 1820s new idea of party spreading beyond NY, Jackson’s 1828 election seemed to legitimize new system. By 1830s national 2-party system: anti-Jackson forces called Whigs, his followers called Democrats

    c)“President of the Common Man”

    i)Democratic party embraced no uniform ideological position, committed to offer equal protection and benefits by assaulting eastern aristocracy to extend opportunity to rising classes of the W + S, preserve white-male democracy thru subjugation of African Americans and Indians

    ii)Jackson’s first targets entrenched officeholders of fed govt, wanted to simplify official duties to make office more accessible. Removed nearly 1/5 of office-holders removed b/c misuse of govt funds or corruption

    iii)Jackson’s supporters embraced “spoils system”, making right of elected officials to appt followers to office established feature of American politics

    iv)Supporters worked to transform presidential nomination system- 1832 national party convention held to replace congressional caucus, considered democratic triumph b/c power from ppl and not aristocratic caucus

    v)Spoils system and convention limited power of entrenched elites (permanent officeholders, caucus elite), but neither really transferred true power to the ppl

    2)“Our Federal Union”

    a)Calhoun and Nullification

    i)Late 1820s many in SC came to see “tariff of abominations” as responsible for stagnation of state economy (really due to exhausted farmland unable to compete with new western lands). Some considered remedy thru secession

    ii)Vice President Calhoun offered alternative in theory of nullification- idea like Madison and Jefferson’s KY + VA Resolutions of 1798-1799. Argued fed govt created by states, therefore states final arbiter (not Congress or courts) of constitutionality. Convention could be held to null and void law within state

    b)The Rise of Van Buren

    i)Apptd Sec of State 1829 by Jackson, also member of president’s of unofficial circle of allies in “Kitchen Cabinet”. After supporting Peggy Eaton in affair over acceptance into cabinet wife social circle gained favor w/ President

    ii)By 1831 Jackson had chosen Van Buren to succeed him in WH, Calhoun’s presidential dream ended

    c)The Webster-Hayne Debate

    i)January 1830 proposal to temporarily stop western land sales led SC Sen. Robert Hayne to claim slowing down W growth means for east to retain political and economic power. Hinted at uniting S + W against “tyranny”

    ii)Nationalist and Whig Sen. Daniel Webster attacked Hayne + Calhoun for challenging integrity of the Union. Debate ensued over issue of states rights vs national power

    iii)Jackson announced at Democratic Party banquet “Our Federal Union-It must be preserved”, lines drawn btwn Jackson and Calhoun

    d)The Nullification Crisis

    i)1832 tariff bill in Congress gave SC no relief from “tariff of abominations”, state convention held- voted for nullification of tariffs of 1828 & 1832, duties collection w/in state. Calhoun resigned VP became Sen., Hayne now Gov

    ii)Jackson insisted nullification treason, strengthened federal forts in SC. 1833 Pres. proposed bill to authorize use of military to see acts of Congress obeyed

    iii)No states supported SC, state itself divided. Sen Henry Clay offered compromise that tariff would be gradually lowered so that by 1842 it would be at same level as in 1816. Compromise + force bill passed March 1833

    iv)SC state convention met and repealed its nullification of the tariffs, but also nullified the force act (symbolic of null. legitimacy)

    3)The Removal of the Indians

    a)White Attitudes Toward the Tribes

    i)In 18th century many whites considered Indians “noble savages” who had inherent dignity, by 19th century more hostile attitude especially among whites in W and territories, simply “savages”

    ii)White westerners wanted removal b/c feared continued contact + expanding white settlements would lead to endless violence, & Indian lands valuable

    iii)Only fed govt had power to deal w/ Indians after Sup. Court decisions. Indians created new large political entities to deal w/ whites

    b)The Black Hawk War

    i)In Old Northwest Black Hawk War 1831-1832 to expel last of Indians there

    ii)Conflict notable for violence of white military efforts, attacked even when Chief Black Hawk was surrendering and killed Indians fleeing battle

    c)The “Five Civilized Tribes”

    i)1830s govt worried about remaining “Five Civilized Tribes” in South- successful agricultural society, Constitution forming Cherokee Nation 1827

    ii)Fed govt worked in early 19th century thru treaties to remove tribes to West and open lands to white settlement. Negotiation process unsatisfying + slow

    iii)Congress passed Removal Act 1830 to finance def negotiations w/ tribes in order to relocate them West, pressure from state govts to move as well

    iv)In GA Sup. Court decisions of Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832) seemed to protect tribal lands

    v)1835 treaty signed with minority tribe in Cherokee nation ceding all land to GA, but majority of Cherokees refused to recognize its legitimacy. Jackson sent army under General Winfield Scott to drive them westward to reservation  

    d)Trials of Tears

    i)Forced trek to “Indian Territory” began winter 1838. Thousands died before destination, dubbed “Trail of Tears”

    ii)Cherokees not alone: btwn 1830-1838 nearly all “Five Civilized Tribes” expelled from Southern states & relocated to Indian Territory created by Congress in Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. Undesirable land far from whites

    iii)Only Seminoles in Florida resisted relocation. Under pressure had agreed to cede land and move to Ind. Territory, many members of tribe moved

    (1)But 1835 minority led by chief Osceola staged uprising. Jackson sent army, conducted campaign of systematic extermination but successful guerilla warfare forced govt to abandon war in 1842

    e)The Meaning of Removal

    i)By end of 1830s almost all major Indian societies relocated to far less hospitable lands west of Mississippi on reservations surrounded by forts

    ii)White movement west impossible to have stopped, but alternative to removal could have been some form of co-existence like in NW trading posts, TX

    iii)BY mid-19th century Americans believed western lands had no pre-existing civilization. Natives could not be equal partners, were obstacles to be removed, “lacked intelligence, industry and moral habits for improvement”

    4)Jackson and the Bank War

    a)Biddle’s Institution

    i)Bank of United States in 1830s had HQ in Philadelphia, branches in 19 cities, by law only place govt could deposit its funds

    ii)Conducted private business issuing credit, bank notes used throughout country, restrained less well-managed state banks. Pres Nicholas Biddle had made bank sound + prosperous. Regardless, Jackson wanted to destroy it

    iii)Opposition came from “soft-money” faction who wanted more currency in circulation. Made up of state banks, resisted Bank of US’s efforts to restrain free issue of notes from state banks

    iv)“Hard money” faction wanted gold and silver to back currency, suspicious of expansion and speculation. Jackson supported hard-money

    v)Jackson did not favor renewal of bank charter after 1836 expiration. Biddle tried to save bank by granting financial favors to influential men, named Daniel Webster made legal counsel (gained Clay’s support). Recommended renewal bill 1832 to make bank issue in 1832 elections. 

    vi)Bill passed Congress but Jackson vetoed it, could not be overridden. In 1832 Jackson + Van Buren elected despite opposition to bank over opposition Clay

    b)The “Monster” Destroyed

    i)Jackson determined to destroy “monster” Bank quickly. To weaken it removed govt deposits (two Tres. Secretaries fired b/c feared financial destabilization, third Roget Taney complied)

    ii)When administration transferred funds from Bank to pet banks, Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates- hoped would cause financial distress and recession that would persuade Congress to recharter Bank

    iii)Financial conditions worsened winter 1833/1834, two sides blamed it on each other. Finally Biddle contracted credit too far for his own allies in the business community, began to fear his efforts to save ban threatening their own

    iv)Biddle forced to grant credit in abundance on reasonable terms, tactics ended change of re-charter. End in 1836 empowered unstable bank system

    c)The Taney Court

    i)Jackson moved against economic nationalism support of Supreme Court, after Marshall died 1835 named Roger Taney chief justice

    ii)Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837) btwn company chartered by state for toll bridge monopoly and company applying to legislature to pay for toll-free bridge. Taney ruled that govt’s goal to promote general happiness took precedence over right of contract and property, therefore state had right to amend contract o advance well-being of community

    iii)Reflected Jacksonian ideal that key to democracy expansion of economic opportunity that could not occur if corporations maintained monopolies and choked off competition from newer companies

    5)The Changing Face of American Politics

    a)Democrats and Whigs

    i)Democrats in 1830s envisioned expanding economic and political opportunity for white males, limited govt but one that removed obstacles to opportunity, defense of Union, attacking corruption, radical branch called Locofocos

    ii)Whigs favored expanding power of fed govt, industrial and commercial development, knit country into consolidated economic system, cautious westward expansion b/c feared territorial growth would produce instability, embraced industrial future and commercial and manufacturing greatness

    iii)Whigs supported by merchants and manufactures of NE, wealthy Southern planters, western commercialists. Democrats supported by smaller merchants and workingmen of NE, S planters suspicious of industry, agrarian westerners

    iv)Above all wanted to win elections: Whigs connected w/ Anti-Masons to resent “undemocratic” Freemasons (such as Jackson and Van Buren). Irish and German Catholic immigrants supported Democrats b/c aversion to commercial development, Evangelical Protestants supported Whigs

    v)Whigs led by “Great Triumvirate” of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun. 1836 election Dems united behind Jackson’s choice of Van Buren for candidate, but Whigs could not agree on single candidate. Clay, White, and William Henry Harrison ran for regional interests, defeated by Van Buren

    b)Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

    i)Van Buren elected on economic boom that reached height 1836- canals and railroads being built, easy credit, land business booming, govt revenues from sales + 1833 tariff created surpluses that allowed reduction of nat’l debt

    ii)Congress passed 1836 “distribution” act to return surplus to states, used to fund highways, railroads, canals, created economic boom

    iii)Withdrawal of fed funds strained state “pet” banks, forced to call in loans. Jackson issued “specie circular” that required payment for public land sales be in gold or silver or currency backed by them b/c feared rampant speculation

    iv)Circular produced financial panic during Van Buren’s presidency banks and business failed, food riots- largest depression in American history to that point

    v)Both parties responsible for panic- surplus redistribution a Whig measure, Jackson’s circular, but also panics in England and W. Eur that caused those investors to withdraw funds from American banks, also crop failures

    vi)Panic of 1837 led Democrats + Van Buren administration to pay price for no govt intervention. Only success of VB creation of “subtreasury system” to replace Bank of US- govt funds placed in independent treasury in Washington, no private banks could use money to fund loans and speculation

    c)The Log Cabin Campaign

    i)To win 1840 election Whigs supported only one candidate- William Henry Harrison for pres and John Tyler for VP

    ii)1840 campaign first in which “penny press” carried news of candidates to larger audience of workers and tradespeople. Whigs, although represented affluent elements of pop, presented themselves as party of the common people

    iii)Whig campaign effective at portraying the wealthy Harrison as a simple log cabin and cider man and VB as an aloof aristocrat--- Harrison won election

    d)The Frustration of the Whigs

    i)Harrison died of pneumonia 1 month after inauguration, new President Tyler was a former Democrat who refused to let Clay and Webster control policy

    ii)Pres supported bills abolishing independent treasury system and raising tariff rate, but refused Clay’s attempt to recharter Bank and vetoed internal improvement bills sponsored by Whigs. 

    iii)Whigs kicked Tyler out of party, entire cabinet resigned. Tyler and some conservative southern Whigs who supported slavery and states rights prepared to join the Democratic Party

    e)Whig Diplomacy

    i)Canada uprising caused tension leading to burning of an American steamship carrying arms and the subsequent arrest of a British citizen for burning 1837. Tension over Canada-Maine boundary led to small “Aroostook War” 1838

    ii)Finally negotiations to reduce all tensions occurred btwn Sec of State Webster and British Lord Ashburton. 1842 Webster Ashburton treaty established new Maine border, GB refused to interfere w/ American ships-- relations improved

    iii)Tyler administration established first diplomatic relations with China, Americans received same privileges as British such as “extraterritoriality” and port use

    iv)Whigs lost White House in 1844 elections

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - America’s Economic Revolution

     1)The Changing American Population

    a)The American Population, 1820-1840

    i)Population dramatically increased, began to concentrate in industrial centers of Northeast and Northwest, provided labor force for factory system

    ii)Growth b/c of improvements in public health (decrease in number and intensity of epidemics), high birth rate, lower infant mortality rates

    iii)Immigration did not contribute greatly until 1830s b/c of Eur wars & US economic problems. Immigrant boom caused by lower transport costs, increased US economic opportunity + less econ opportunity in some Eur areas

    iv)Immigrant + internal migration led to growth of cities b/c agriculture in New England less profitable (some moved West also). By 1810 NY largest city

    b)Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860

    i)By 1860 26% of free state populations lived in towns or cities

    ii)Booming agricultural economy of west led small villages and trading posts to become cities. Benefited from Mississippi R, centers of Midwest trade

    iii)By 1860 American population greater than that of GB and approaching France and Germany. Urban growth from flow of ppl from Northeast farms (competition from Eur farms + Western farms) & influx of immigrants abroad

    iv)Majority of immigrants from Ireland and Germany. German industrial revolution had caused poverty, & b/c of collapse of liberal 1848 revolution. In Ireland unpopular English rule & “potato famine” of 1845-1849 

    v)Most Irish settled in eastern cities + became unskilled laborers (had little $, many were young women- domestic/factory work in cities). Most Germans moved to Northwest, farming or business in towns (many were single men)

    c)Rise of Nativism

    i)Some native-born Americans saw opportunity in immigration. Industrialists & employers wanted cheap labor, land speculators and politicians hoped would populate west + increase demand for goods, increase influence

    ii)Some (Nativists) hostile to foreigners and immigration. Some racist, some argued newcomers socially unfit and did not have sufficient standards of civilization, workers feared low immigrant wages would steal their jobs, Protestants feared Irish Catholics & Rome, many upset b/c voted Democratic

    iii)Tension and prejudice led to secret societies to combat “alien menace”, Native American Association 1837, 1845 Native American Party, peak in 1850s with combination in Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. Wanted to ban Catholics form office, restrict naturalization, force literacy tests for voting

    iv)Secret order known as Know-Nothings turned to party politics, after 1852 election formed American Party, success in 1854 East elections, declined after

    2)Transportation, Communications, and Technology

    a)The Canal Age

    i)1790-1820s “turnpike era”, but roads not adequate for nation’s growing needs

    ii)Traffic on large rivers such as Miss. and Ohio had been mainly flat barges that could not travel upstream, by 1820s steamboats and riverboats carried western and southern crops quickly, from New Orleans ocean ships to Eastern ports

    iii)Farmers and merchants unhappy b/c more direct route could lower transport costs and product costs. By 1820s economic advantages of canals had generated boom in expanding water routes to West. Too expensive for private companies, states of Northeast constructed them

    iv)NY’s Erie Canal began July 4, 1817 to connect Hudson R and Lake Erie. Opened 1825, tolls repaid construction costs, gave NY access to Great Lakes, Chicago, growing Western markets. NY now competed with New Orleans  

    v)Water transport system expanded when Ohio + Indiana connected Lake Erie & Ohio R. Increased white settlement, but primacy of NY power + hinterland control alarmed other Atlantic cities. Most attempts limited successes or failed

    b)The Early Railroads

    i)Railroads played secondary role in 1820s/30s, but laid groundword for mid-century surge. Emerged form technological (tracks, steam-powered locomotive) and entrepreneurial innovations

    ii)In 1830s no real rial system, most lines simply connected water routes and not links to other rail systems. Some states and corporations also limited their ability to compete effectively against canals

    c)The Triumph of the Rails

    i)After 1840 rail gradually supplanted canals. 1850’s trackage tripled. Most comprehensive and efficient system in northeast, but no region untouched

    ii)Trend toward consolidation of short lines into longer lines (“trunk lines”), connected Northeast w/ Northwest, from these other railroads traveled into interior of nation. Main Northwest hub was Chicago

    iii)Lessened dependence of West on Miss. R, weakening N + S economic cnxn

    iv)Capital to finance railroads came from private investors, abroad, and local governments. Fed govt gave public land grants to railroads, states for RRs

    d)Innovations in Communications

    i)Magnetic telegraph lines along tracks aided train routing, but also allowed instant communication btwn cities, linked N and NW at exclusion of S

    ii)1844 Samuel Morse first transmitted. Low cost of construction made it ideal solution to long-distance communication. By 1860 Western Union Telegraph company had been founded linking most independent telegraph lines

    iii)In journalism Richard Hoe’s 1846 steam cylinder rotary press allowed rapid and cheap newspapers, telegraph increased news speed. 1846 Associated Press formed to promote cooperate wire transmission

    iv)NY’s major papers Horace Greeley’s Tribune, James Bennett’s Herald, Henry Raymond’s Times. In 1840s/50s journalism fed sectional discord, most major magazines and newspapers located in North. New awareness of differences

    3)Commerce and Industry

    a)The Expansion of Business, 1820-1840

    i)Business grew b/c population, transportation revolution, and new practices

    ii)Retain distribution became more efficient w/ specialty stores in cities

    iii) Individual + small merchant capitalist companies dominated, but some larger businesses gave way to corporations- combined resources of large number of shareholders. Grew 1830s b/c states passed easy incorporation laws. Limited liability meant stockholder risked only value of investment if corp failed

    iv)Great demand for capital led businesses to rely on credit, but gold and silver standards of govt led to too little $, led private banks to issue less stable notes

    v)Bank failures frequent, insecure deposits. Credit difficulty limited growth

    b)The Emergence of the Factory

    i)Before War of 1812 most manufacturing occurred in private households in small workshops. Technology and demand led to factories- began in New England textile industry, large water-driven machines increased production

    ii)1820s factory system in shoe industry, by 1830s spread throughout Northeast. By 1860 value of manufactured goods roughly equal to agricultural goods. Largest manufacturers located in the Northeast, large amt of ppl employed

    c)Advances in Technology

    i)Developed industries relatively immature, fine items came from England. But by 1840s rapid machine technology advances, sophisticated textile industry 

    ii)Manufacture of machine tools (tools used to make machinery) improved by govt supported research for military (at Springfield Armory, MA)- turret lathe and universal milling machine in early 19th century. Later precision grinder

    iii)Better machine tools allowed for wide use of interchangeable parts, new uses

    iv)Industrialization aided by new energy sources: coal replacing wood + water in factories. Allowed mills to be located away from streams, easier expansion 

    v)Technological advances due to American inventors, increasing number of patents. Included Howe-Singer sewing machine, Goodyear vulcanized rubber

    d)Innovations in Corporate Organization

    i)Merchant capitalists still prominent 1840s, their clippers were fastest sailing ships afloat at time. By mid-century merchant capitalism declining b/c British competition stealing export trade, greater profits found in manufacturing than trade. Industry grew in NE b/c this merchant class could finance factories

    ii)By 1840s corporations spreading rapidly, especially in textile industry. Ownership moving form families and individuals to many shareholders

    4)Men and Women At Work

    a)Recruiting A Native Work Force

    i)In factory system’s early years recruiting labor difficult b/c of farms and small cities. New farmlands in Midwest + new farm machinery and techniques increased food production, decreased need for labor. Transport allowed importation of food from other regions—ppl in New Eng left for factories

    ii)Some recruitment brought whole families form farm to the mill w/ parents and children, but Lowell/Waltham system enlisted young women 

    iii)Labor conditions relatively good in early years of system, better than Eur. Lowell system used young, unmarried women but had good housing + food

    iv)Even well-treated workers found transition from life on farm to in factory difficult- regimented env’t, repetitive tasks. Women had little other choice b/c barred from manual labor, unthinkable to travel in search of opportunity

    v)Competitive textile market of 1830s/40s manufactures had difficulty maintaining high standards + conditions, wages fell. Union of Factory Girls Association struck twice, but both failed. Eventually immigrants filled jobs

    b)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 boom for manufacturers- large and inexpensive labor source. Little leverage with employers, lack of skills and native prejudice led to low, intermittent wages—great poverty

    ii)Irish workers predominated 1840s textile industry, arrival led to deteriorating working conditions. Less social pressure on owners to maintain decent env’t, piece rates instead of daily wages to speed production

    iii)Factories becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, dangerous places to work, hours long, wages declining. Still however, condition better than England and Eur

    c)The Factory System and the Artisan Trade

    i)Factory system displaced skilled artisans- had been embodiment of republican independent worker. Unable to compete w/ factory-made goods for fraction of artisan’s prices. Early 19th century began to form organizations and first labor unions to protect position. 1820s/30s trade unions developed in cities

    ii)Interconnected economies of cities made national unions or federations of local unions logical. 1834 National Trade’s Union

    iii)Labor leaders struggled w/ hostile laws and courts, common law made worker combination as illegal conspiracy. Panic of 1837 also weakened movement

    d)Fighting for Control

    i)Workers at all levels in industrial economy tried to improve position by making 10-hour workday or restricting child labor. Laws changed little

    ii)1842 MA Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v Hunt that unions were legal and strikes lawful, other states gradually agreed. Unions still largely ineffective 1840s/50s

    iii)Artisans + skilled workers unions more successful 1850s, but their unions more like preindustrial guilds that restricted admission to skilled trades

    iv)Working class of 1840s/50s had only modest power- limited by numerous immigrant laborers who could replace strikers, ethnic division led to worker disunity. Industrial capitalists had great economic, political and social power

    5)Patterns of Industrial Society

    a)The Rich and the Poor

    i)Commercial +industrial growth raised average income of Americans, but wealth distributed unequally – for slaves, Indians, landless farmers, many unskilled workers little change. Small % of families owned majority of wealth

    ii)There had always been wealthy classes from beginning but extent and character was changing. Newly wealthy merchants & industrialists settled in cities- found new ways to display wealth in mansions, social clubs, clothing…

    iii)Large population of destitute ppl in growing urban areas- little resources, often homeless. Included recent immigrants, widows, orphans, ppl w/ mental illness. Free blacks=only menial jobs, little pay, no vote, no public schools 

    b)Social Mobility

    i)Class conflict quelled b/c working standards declined but living standard improving, opportunity for social mobility for workers captured imagination

    ii)Geographic mobility more extensive than Eur, Western lands “safety valve” for discontent. Also travel form city to city to search for new opportunity

    iii)Opportunity to participate in politics expanded, ballot tied ppl to community

    c)Middle-Class Life

    i)Fastest growing group in America middle class. Economic development offered opportunity to own and work for businesses, land no longer=wealth

    ii)Middle class life most influential cultural form of urban America, good neighborhoods, women stayed in home to care for children, cast-iron stoves used to cook, diets improved w/ new access to meats, grains, dairy

    d)The Changing Family

    i)Movement of families from farms to cities where jobs, not land, most important.  Patriarchal system of inherited farm land disappeared

    ii)Work moved out of home and into shop, mill, factory. Family as principal economic unit gave way to individual wage earners. Even farms became commercialized b/c larger lands required more labor than just family

    iii)Changing family role led to decline in birth rate by mid-19th century. Deliberate effort to limit family size result of future planning. Secular, rational

    e)Women and the “Cult of Domesticity”

    i)Growing distinction btwn workplace and home led to distinction in societal roles of men + women. Women had long been denied legal + political rights, little access to business, less access to education at high levels

    ii)Middle class husband seen as wage earner, wife to engage in domestic activities- “guardians of domestic virtues”, central role to nurture young

    iii)“Separate sphere” female culture emerged. Women seen as having special qualities difft than men-custodians of morality and shape home to be refuge from competitive marketplace. Provide religious, moral instruction to kids

    iv)By 1840s few genteel women considered working, seen as “lower class”, owners rarely hired women anyway b/c of “cult”. But Working-class women couldn’t afford to stay home, many went into domestic service 

    f)Leisure Activities

    i)Leisure time scarce for all but wealthy, vacations rare, Sunday often only day of rest + Church. Reading expanded, new newspapers, magazines, books for affluent. Theaters, minstrel shows, public sporting events increasingly popular

    ii)Circus amazed ppl (PT Barnum), lectures also very popular

    6)The Agricultural North

    a)Northeastern Agriculture

    i)After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of Northwest. Rural population declined. Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and became laborers. Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable dairy products

    b)The Old Northwest

    i)Some industry (more than in South), industrial growth, before Civil War- much served agriculture or relied on agricultural products

    ii)Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market, international market for American food

    iii)Growth of factories + cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold most goods to ppl in Northeast + dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern industry found market for products in prosperous West

    iv)To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840s/50s, new farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow

    v)Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick + thresher revolutionized grain production

    vi)NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property

    c)Rural Life

    i)Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to share tasks difficult for single family (such as barn raising)

    ii)Rural life not always isolated, but less contact w/ popular culture and public social life than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South

     1)The Cotton Economy

    a)The Rise of King Cotton

    i)19th century upper South (VA, MD, NC) cultivated tobacco, but unstable prices and exhaustive of soil. By 1830s upper South began to grow wheat, tobacco growing shifted westward. Southern regions of South (SC, GA, FL) continued growing rice, Gulf some sugar—crops limited b/c hard to cultivate

    ii)Decline of tobacco in upper South led not to industrialization but growing of short-staple cotton- could grow in difft env’ts, w/ cotton gin now profitable. Demand for cotton growing b/c of rise of textile industry in GB 1820s/30s and New England 1840s/50s—new lands and expansion to meet new demand

    iii)Beginning 1820s production of cotton moved westward into Alabama, Mississippi, LA, TX, AK. By 1850s dominated economy

    iv)“Lower South”/ “Cotton Kingdom” attracted many seeking profits, also slaves

    b)Southern Trade and Industry

    i)Business classes and manufacturers unimportant, slow growth + mainly in upper South. Non-farm commercial sectors mainly served needs of plantation economy- brokers who marketed crops, acted as merchants and lenders

    ii)Primitive banking system did not allow for structures necessary for industrial development. Inadequate transport system: few roads, canals, nat’l railroads

    iii)Some southerners recognized economic subordination to north and advocated for economic independence- New Orlean James De Bow- De Bow’s Review

    c)Sources of Southern Difference

    i)Despite “colonial dependency” South did little to industrialize b/c agricultural system + cotton so profitable, little incentive to look beyond. Wealthy had already invested much of their capital into land + slaves

    ii)Lack of commercial growth also b/c traditional values distinctive to South discouraged cities + industry- elegance, more refined life than rapid growth

    2)White Society in The South

    a)The Planter Class

    i)Majority of ppl didn’t own slaves (only ¼ did), of those small % owned many

    ii)Planter aristocracy (those earning 40+ slaves and 800+ acres of land) exercised power and influence greater than their number. Political economic, social control. Saw themselves as aristocracy, though most wealth was recent

    iii)Growing crops profitable but as competitive and risky as industry in North

    iv)After struggling to reach their position in society they were determined to defend it—perhaps why defense of slavery and South’s “rights” stronger in booming lower South and weaker in more established areas

    b)“Honor”

    i)White males adopted code of chivalry that obligated them to defend their “honor”. Ethical ideal and bravery but also public appearance of dignity & authority- anything to challenge dignity or social station a challenge

    c)The “Southern Lady”

    i)Lives of affluent centered in home, little role in public activities or as wage earners. White men more dominant + women subordinate than in North- solitary farm life w/ no access to “public world” led to main role wife, mother

    ii)Less educational opportunities, higher birth rate and infant mortality rate

    d)The Plain Folk

    i)Typical person not planter + slaveholder but modest yeoman farmer. Mainly subsistence farming- lacked resources for cotton or to expand operations

    ii)Little prospect of bettering position b/c southern educational system provided poor whites with little opportunity to learn and therefore advance

    iii)Majority excluded from planter society, but opposition to elite limited mainly to “hill” and “backcountry” ppl who were secluded, unconnected to commercial economy, and loyal to whole nation and above sectional fighting

    iv)Most nonslave-owning whites lived in middle of plantation system and were tied to it, relied on planters for markets, credit, and linked thru kinship. Also large sense of democracy + political participation gave sense of cnxn to societal order. Cotton boom of 1850s gave them hope of economic betterment

    v)Belief that assault on one hierarchical system (slavery) would threaten another hierarchical system (patriarchy)

    vi)Even the south’s poorest members (“clay eaters”) who owned no profitable land did not offer great opposition to society—greatest factor binding all classes together was perception of race and members of ruling race

    3)Slavery: The “Peculiar Institution”

    a)Varieties of Slavery

    i)Called “peculiar” by Southerners b/c was distinctive from N., Western world

    ii)Slavery regulated by law, slave codes forbade property, congregation, teaching a slave. Anyone suspected w/ trace of African blood defined as black

    iii)Despite provisions of law variety within slave system b/c white owners handled most transgressions, conditions. Size of farm, # of slaves varied

    iv)Majority of slave-owners small farmers, but majority of slaves lived on medium + large plantations-less intimate owner/slave relationship

    b)Life Under Slavery

    i)Generally received enough necessities to enable them to live and work; lived in slave quarters. Slaves worked hard, women labored in fields w/ men and had other chores, often single b/c husbands sold away (single parents)

    ii)High death rate and less children survived to adulthood than whites

    iii)Some say material condition of slavery may have been better than some northern factory workers, less sever than slaves in Caribbean + South Amer. Law preventing slave import incentive to Southern elite to provide some care

    iv)Other cheap laborer (such as Irish) used to perform most dangerous and least healthy tasks to protect investment. Still overseers hired by owners often treated slave badly, and household servants often sexually abused by master

    c)Slavery in the Cities

    i)On isolated plantations masters maintained direct control. Slaves in cities were often hired out to do labor and unskilled jobs in cities + towns

    ii)In cities line btwn slavery + freedom less clear, white southerners viewed slavery incompatible w/ city life- sold slaves to countryside, used segregation

    d)Free African Americans

    i)About 250,000 free African Americans in slaveholding states before Civil War, most in VA and MD. Some had earned money and bought freedom for themselves and family- mostly urban blacks able to do this

    ii)Some slaves freed by master for moral reasons, other after master died

    iii)During 1830s state laws for slaves tightened b/c growing number of free blacks, abolition movement in North—made manumission of slaves harder

    iv)Most free blacks very poor, limited opportunity, only quasi-free

    e)The Slave Trade

    i)Transfer of slaves from one part of South to another important consequence of development of Southwest. Sometimes moved with master, more often transferred thru slave traders

    ii)Domestic slave trade impt to growth and prosperity of system, but dehumanizing- children separated from parents

    f)Slave Resistance

    i)Most slaves unhappy with being slaves, wanted freedom- but dealt w/ slavery thru adaptation (slaves who acted as white world expected him, charade for whites) or resistance (those who could not come to accommodate their status)

    ii)1831 Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led armed African Americans in VA, overpowered by state + federal troops. Only actual slave insurrection 19th century, but fear of slave conspiracies renewed violence + led to stricter laws

    iii)Some attempted to resist by running away, escaping to the North or Canada using underground railroad + sympathetic whites. Odds of success low

    iv)Resisted also by refusing to work hard, stealing from master

    4)The Culture of Slavery

    a)Language and Music

    i)Slaves incorporated African speech w/ English- called “pidgin”

    ii)Songs very impt- to pass time, some political, emotional, religious

    b)African-American Religion

    i)By 19th century nearly all slaves Christians. Black congregations illegal, most went to master’s church led by Baptist or Methodist white minister

    ii)A.A. religion more emotional, reflected influence of African customs and practices- chanting, emphasized dream of freedom and deliverance. Christian images central to revel leaders Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner

    c)The Slave Family

    i)Blacks deprived of legal marriage, but “nuclear family” dominant kinship model nevertheless. Up to 1/3 of black families broken apart by slave trade- led to strong extended kinship networks

    ii)Black women often bore children to white masters who didn’t recognize kids

    iii)Slaves had complex relationships w/ masters b/c depended on them for material means of existence, sense of security and protection. This paternalism was used as an instrument of white control, sense of mutual dependence reduced resistance to institution that only benefited ruling white race


    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Antebellum Culture and Reform

     1)The Romantic Impulse

    a)Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting

    i)Eurs felt that they alone at center of artistic world, but paintings w/in US popular b/c felt they had artistic traditions of their own: wonder of nation’s landscape, shoe power of nature thru wild outdoor scenes- “awe & wonder”

    ii)First great school of American painters from Hudson River School in NY: Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand. Hoped to express “wild nature” that existed in America but not Eur

    b)Literature and the Quest for Liberation

    i)Early 19th century American literature unpopular, British novelist Sir Walter Scott was. But even during 1820s great American novelist James Fenimore Cooper- evocation of wilderness, adventure, westward expansion- his “Leatherstocking Tales were The Last of the Mohicans & The Deerslayer

    ii)Cooper’s novels showed effort to produce truly American literature, ideal of independent individual with natural inner goodness, fear of disorder

    iii)Later American romantic works included: poet Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855)- celebration of democracy, individual liberty. Other works more bleak- Herman Melville’sMoby Dick (1851) of individual will but tragedy of pride and revenge, writer Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” (1845) established him as literary figure- humans exploring deeper world of spirit and emotions

    c)Literature in the Antebellum South

    i)Southern writers wanted to create American literary culture as well, but often produced historical romances for eulogies of plantation system of Upper South. Most famous William Gilmore Simms- believed duty of intellectual to defend southern lifestyle + slavery, sectional

    ii)Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper focused not on “cavaliers” but on ordinary ppl and poor whites

    d)The Transcendentalists

    i)New England writers who focused on distinction btwn “reason” and inner capacity to grasp beauty and emotional expression vs “understanding” and repression of instinct and imposed learning- goal to cultivate “reason”

    ii)Centered in Concord, MA. Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson- essays “Nature” (1836) argued self-fulfillment thru communion w/ nature, “Self-Reliance” (1841) called for individual fully explore inner capacity, unity w/ universe

    iii)Emerson a nationalist, lecture “The American Scholar” (1837), argued beauty from instant vs learning, therefore Americans can still have artistic greatness

    iv)Henry David Thoreau- ppl should seek self-realization by not conforming to society’s expectations & responding to own instincts. His Walden (1845) of him living simply in the woods, essay “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849)- govt that required violation of personal mortality not legitimate

    e)The Defense of Nature

    i)Some uneasy w/ rapid economic development, feared impact on natural world. Nature not just for economic activity (farmers, miners) or for study by scientists- but vehicle for human inspiration, realize truth within the soul

    f)Visions of Utopia

    i)Transcendentalism spawned communal living experiments

    ii)Brook Farm established by George Ripley 1841 in MA, create community that would permit full opportunity for self-realization, equal labor, share leisure

    iii)Conflict btwn individual freedom & communal society led to dissenters: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852) submission equals oppression, The Scarlet Letter (1850)- price ind. pay for not being in society

    iv)French philosopher Charles Fourier’s idea of socialist communities led Robert Owen 1825 to create experiment New Harmony in Ind, economic failure

    g)Redefining Gender Roles

    i)Transcendentalism + utopian communities led to some sense of feminism

    ii)Margaret Fuller’s Women of the Nineteenth Century (1844)- feminist ideas

    iii)Johm Humphrey’s Oneida Community “Perfectionists” rejected traditional ideas of family and marriage, communal raising of children. An Lee’s Shaker Society committed to celibacy, equality of sexes, God neither male or female

    h)The Mormons

    i)Mormons effort to create new and more ordered society thru Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Began upstate NY by Joseph Smith w/ his 1830 Book of Mormon. Began looking for sanctuary for follower “New Jerusalem”

    ii)Ideas of polygamy and secrecy led surrounding communities to fear them. Mob killed Smith, his protégé Brigham Young led exodus to new community in present Salt Lake City, Utah. Family structure very impt

    iii)Belief in human perfectibility, but not individual liberty. Organized, centrally directed society- refuge from disorder and insecurity of secular world

    iv)Members mostly ppl dislodged by economic growth & social progress of era

    2)Remaking Society

    a)Revivalism, Mortality, and Order

    i)Reform b/c rejection of Calvinist doctrines + preached divinity of individual (Unitarians, Universalism), and b/c of Protestant revivalism

    ii)New Light revivalists believed every individual capable of salvation. Charles Finney impt leader- predestination and human helplessness obsolete

    iii)Revivals in “burned-over district” in upstate NY (economic change b/c where Erie Canal had been built). Successful among those who felt threatened by change (including the prosperous worried about social changes), and women

    b)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Alcohol seen as responsible for crime, disorder, poverty. Large problem in West where farmers made extra grain into whiskey, in East as leisure activity

    ii)Earlier temperance movement revived by new reformers- 1826 American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 1840 Western Temperance Society. 

    iii)Growth led to factions: which alcohol to ban, method (law v. conscience)

    iv)Trying to impose discipline on society- Protestants vs Catholic immigrants for which drinking social ritual, disturbing to old residents of communities 

    c)Health Fads and Phrenology

    i)Interest in individual + social perfection led to new health theories, also threat to public health by cholera epidemics 1830s/40s led to city health boards

    ii)B/c boards found few solutions Americans turned toward nonscientific theories to improve health: “water cure (hydrotherapy)”, Sylvester Graha’s new diet theories, German “phrenology” 1830s thru efforts of Fowler brothers- shape and regions of skull impt indicator of character + intelligence

    d)Medical Science

    i)Science of medicine lagged behind other tech. + scientific advances b/c lack of regulation led many poorly educated ppl to be physicians, absence of basic knowledge of disease- vaccination, anesthesia result of luck vs study

    ii)W/o appetence of scientific methods + experimentation little learned about treating + transmission of disease

    e)Reforming Education

    i)Reform toward universal public education-by 1830 no state had system (some limited state versions [MA, ect.])- reflection of new belief on innate capacity of every person, society’s obligation to tap that, expose kids to social values

    ii)Greatest reformer Horace Mann- educated electorate essential to work free political system. Academic year lengthened, better teacher salaries + training

    iii)By 1850s tax-supported elementary schools in all states. Quality of education varied widely- Horace Mann’s MA professional + trained, elsewhere some barely literate, limited funding. West dispersed pop=less opportunity, South blacks barred from formal education, only 1/3 children nationwide in school

    iv)School reform achievements: US literacy rate highest in world, new emphasis led to new institutions to help handicapped- greater Benevolent

    v)School efforts to impose set of social values on children seen as impt in industrial nation- thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, respect for authority

    f)Rehabilitation

    i)“Asylums” for criminals + mentally ill. Antiquated jails replaced w/ new penitentiaries and mental institutions, jailing debtors + paupers decreased

    ii)Reform & rehabilitate inmates- rigid discipline to curb criminal “laxness”, solitary confinement to contemplate crimes. Overcrowding became problem

    iii)Idea properly structured institution to prevent moral failure + rescue ppl from failure led to orphanages, almshouses for poor, homes for “friendless” women

    g)The Indian Reservation

    i)Main US Indian policy had been relocation to make way for expanding white civilization. Reform led to idea of reservation- enclosed area for Indians to live in isolation from white society. Served economic interest of whites, but also attempt to teach ways of civilization in protected setting

    h)The Rise of Feminism

    i)Women 1830s/40s had to deal w/ traditional limitations + new role in family to focus energy on home and children, leave income-earning to husbands

    ii)Resentment over limitations. Leaders of women’s movement (Grimke sisters, Stowe sisters, Lucrecia Matt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dorothy Dix) began to draw cnxn btwn their abolitionist ideas and plight of women

    iii)1848 organized convention at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights- led to “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” stating all men + women equal, call for women’s suffrage. Many women in feminist movement Quaker 

    iv)Progress limited in antebellum yrs- only few became physicians, ministers 

    v)Women benefited from association w/ other reform movements (very impt abolition), but led some to consider their demands secondary to slave rights

    3)The Crusade Against Slavery

    a)Early Opposition to Slavery

    i)Early 19th century opposition by genteel lot. 1817 American Colonization Society- Virginians who wanted manumission & transportation out of country but also maintain property rights by compensating slaveholder—1830 Liberia

    ii)Failed b/c not enough private + state funding, too many slaves to be possible, opposition from 3rd/4th generation Africans far removed from society + lands

    iii)By 1830 movement losing strength- colonization not viable, cotton boom in Deep South + planter commitment to “peculiar institution” led to dead end

    b)Garrison and Abolitionism

    i)William Lloyd Garrison employed by antislavery newspaper (Genius of Universal Emancipation), but impatient w/ moderate tone + reform proposals

    ii)1831 founded his own Liberator, should look from black perspective, shouldn’t talk in terms of damage to white society. Reject “gradualism”, extend African Americans full rights of American citizens

    iii)Gained Northern following, founded New England Antislavery Society 1832, year later American Antislavery Society- membership grew rapidly

    iv)Growth b/c like other reform movements committed to unleashing individual human spirit, eliminate artificial social barriers

    c)Black Abolitionists

    i)Abolitionism appealed to Northern free blacks who were poor, had little access to education, suffered mob violence, only menial occupations

    ii)P of their freedom, realized own position in society tied to existence of slavery. David Walker came to be a leader w/ violent rhetoric, most blacks less violent speech- Sojourner Truth became antislavery spokesman

    iii)Greatest abolitionist Frederick Douglass- escaped slavery, lectured in NE. His newspaperNorth Star, autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Demanded freedom, but also social + economic equality

    d)Anti-Abolitionism

    i)White southerners opposed abolition, but also many in the North. Seen as threat to social system, feared war btwn sections & influx of blacks to North

    ii)Escalating violence against abolitionists 1830s- abolitionist headquarters “Temple of Liberty” in Philadelphia burned by mob, Garrison seized

    iii)Yet movement grew despite, suggesting members strong-willed + passionate, great courage and moral strength. Majority sentiment ambivalent to slavery

    e)Abolitionism Divided

    i)By 1830s abolitionists faced serious internal strains + divisions. Prompted b/c anti-abolitionist violence made some favor moderation, radicalism of William Garrison and his attacks on slavery, opposition to slavery, call for full equality for women, extreme pacifism, call for northern disunion from South. Moderates called for “moral suasion” of slaveholders, later political action

    ii)1839 Amistad- slaves seized ship tried to return to Africa. US navy captured ship. Supreme Court 1841 declared the Africans free 1

    iii)842 Prigg v. Pennsylvania ruled states need not enforce 1793 law requiring return of fugitive slaves, “personal liberty laws” in northern states forbade officials to assist in capture + return of runaways 

    iv)Nat’t govt pressured to abolish slavery in areas of federal govt jurisdiction, prohibit interstate slave trade. No political party ever founded, but “free-soil” movement to keep slave out of territories became popular

    v)Some abolitionists violent, American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of A Thousand Witnesses (1839) distorted images of slavery

    vi)Most powerful abolitionist propaganda Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1851)- combined sentimental novel w/ political ideas of abolitionist. Story of good, kindly blacks victimized by cruel system movement. Brought message to new audience, but also inflamed sectional tensions to new level

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Impending Crisis

    1)Looking Westward

    a)Manifest Destiny

    i)Reflected pride of American nationalism + idealistic vision of social perfection that had fueled reform movements- US destined by God &  history- to expand over a vast area that included North America. 

    ii)Extend liberty + US political system to others, but also racist justifications- superiority of “American” race, ppl of territories unfit for republican system

    iii)By 1840s idea of Manifest Destiny had spread thru “penny press” (mass audience).  Almost all but not everyone embraced- Henry Clay feared tension

    b)Americans in Texas

    i)1820s Mexican govt encouraged American immigration into Texas hoping to strengthen territory’s economy and increase tax revenues, buffer against Indians, would prevent US expansion- 1824 Mex bill offered cheap land

    ii)Thousands took deal, land suitable for cotton, soon American population larger than Mexican. American intermediaries to Mex govt brought settlers- most famous Stephen Austin. Later attempts to stem US immigration failed

    c)Tensions Between the United States and Mexico

    i)Tension btwn US settlers and Mex govt grew b/c immigrants continued cultural + economic ties to US, also b/c desire to legalize slavery after it was outlawed in 1830

    ii)Mid 1830s Mex General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power as dictator- new law increased power of nat’l govt over state govts, Austin imprisoned. 1835 Mex sent more troops, 1836 Texans declared independence

    iii)Santa Anna led large army into TX, Americans unorganized and easily defeated (Battle of the Alamo in San Antonio). Then General Sam Houston defeated Mexicans 1836 at Battle of San Jacinto, the captured Santa Anna signed treaty making TX independent.      [MXs living in TX called tejanos]

    iv)Texans wanted to be annexed by US, delegation sent to D.C. had expansionist support, but northerners feared large new slave state + empowering the south w/ more Congressional/electoral votes- incl. Andrew Jackson who feared sectional controversy, Pres Van Buren and Pres Harrison also ignored issue

    v)TX sought allies in Eur who wanted to check US power, Pres Tyler sought TX to reapply for statehood 1844, rejected by Senateissue in 1844 election

    d)Oregon

    i)Both GB and US claimed sovereignty over Oregon region. 1818 treaty allowed citizens equal access to area-“joint occupation” for 20 yrs

    ii)US interest grew 1820s/30s b/c desire to convert Indians and oppose Canadian Cath. Missionaries- native rejection Christianity=repudiating right to land

    iii)Large amt of Americans began emigrating to Oregon early 1840s, soon outnumbered GB’s settlers, destroyed native pop. Mid-1840s desire for annex.

    e)The Westward Migration

    i)Growth of TX and Oregon population part of greater movement of population westward 1840-1860. Southerners went mainly to TX, largest numbers from Old Northwest – majority sought mainly new economic opportunity

    ii)Some wanted riches after CA gold discovery 1848, others take advance of cheap land fed govt selling, others on religious mission (Mormons)

    f)Life on the Trail

    i)Most migrants gathered major depots in Iowa or MI, joined wagon trains led by hired guides. Main route Oregon Trail to CA + WA, others Santa Fe Trail

    ii)Trip very difficult, especially in mountain and desert terrain. Fear of conflict w/ Indians (although very little fighting occurred), trade developed w/ Natives

    2)Expansion and War

    a)The Democrats and Expansion

    i)Two candidates for 1844 election Whig Henry Clay and the Democrat/former president Martin Van Buren. Clay chosen, but many Southern democrats supported TX annexation, chose stronger support James K. Polk

    ii)Polk able to win b/c wished to occupy Oregon and annex TX, thereby appealing to both northern and southern expansionists

    iii)Outgoing Pres John Tyler saw election as mandate for annexing TX, did so in 1845. Polk proposed Oregon border @ 49th parallel, GB refused, led to US cry “Fifty-four forty or fight!”. 1846 GB accepted treaty w/ border at 49th parallel

    b)The Southwest and California

    i)Oregon treaty accepted readily by Pres b/c tension growing in Southwest with Mex. After TX became state 1845 dispute over border- TX and Polk believed it to be at Rio Grande, sent Gen Zachary Taylor to protect from invasion

    ii)Part of disputed area was New Mexico where Mex had originally invited American settlers into. Interest in California growing as well as US fur traders gave way to merchants and farmers arriving. Settlers dreamed of annexation

    iii)Polk wanted California and New Mexico for US. At same time ordered Gen Taylor to TX, ordered navy seize CA ports if Mexico declared war

    c)The Mexican War

    i)Polk attempted diplomacy by sending special minister to Mex to purchase lands. When Polk heard MX rejected offer sent Gen. Taylor’s army from Nueces R to Rio Grande R January 1846

    ii)May 1846 US declaration of war. Whig critics of war b/c thought Polk instigated, intensified as war cont and public aware of casualties and expense

    iii)American forces successful in capturing NE Mexico, Polk ordered offensive against New Mexico and California. Col Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe, then aided US forces in CA’s “Bear Flag Revolution”, captured CA

    iv)When Mex refused to cede defeat Polk sent Gen Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. After taking city new Mex govt took power that was willing to negotiate treaty. Some in US wanted to annex part of Mexico, but w/ election soon Polk wanted war ended quickly. Sent envoy Nicolas Trist for settlement

    v)Feb 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo agreed to where Mex ceded CA and NM to US and acknowledged Rio Grande boundary of TX. US agreed to pay Mex $15 million. Despite to Mex annexations Polk accepted treaty

    3)The Sectional Debate

    a)Slavery and the Territories

    i)Rep David Wilmot’s “Wilmot Proviso”: prohibit slavery from territories acquired by Mex- failed Senate. Polk extended Missouri Compromise line to territory on West coast. Alternative- “popular sovereignty”- states decided 

    ii)1848 election Polk didn’t run again. Dem candidate Lewis Cass, Whig General Zachary Taylor. Slavery opponents formed “Free-Soil” Party w/ Van Buren for pres. Showed inability of existing parties to contain slavery passions

    b)The California Gold Rush

    i)Taylor won 1848 election, pressure to resolve slavery in territories urgent b/c of events in CA- 1848 Gold Rush lead to dramatic increase in CA’s population, migrants known as “Forty-niners” mainly men

    ii)Gold Rush led to many Chinese migrants to Western US. Labor shortage in CA (due to ppl flocking to fold fields) created opportunities for ppl who needed work. Also led to exploitation of Natives, “Indian hunters”

    iii)Most didn’t find gold, but many sated in CA and swelled agricultural + urban populations. Population diverse- white Americans, Eurs, Chinese, Mexicans, free blacks, slaves of southern migrants—tension led territory to be a turbulent place, therefore pressure to create a stable and effective govt to bring order

    c)Rising Sectional Tensions

    i)Taylor believed statehood solution to territory issue b/c territories controlled by fed govt, but states govt could settle slave issue w/in own state

    ii)Taylor 1849 proposed CA (which had constitution banning slavery) and New Mexico apply for statehood, decide slavery w/in state. Congress refused b/c at time 15 free and 15 slave states existed, South feared admission of New states would upset balance, make South minority in Sen. Tempers rising

    d)The Compromise of 1850

    i)Henry Clay proposed compromise to Congress in 1850- admitted CA as free state, new territorial govts w/o slave restrictions, new tough fugitive slave law

    ii)First phase of debating comp led by older voices of Clay, Calhoun, Webster and broad ideal of settling slave issue once and for all 

    iii)After Clay proposal defeated, second phase of debate led by younger group: William Seward of NY opposed compromise, Jefferson Davis of MI saw slavery in terms of South’s economic self-interest, Stephen Douglas of IL

    iv)W/ death of Taylor in 1850 (who refused compromise until CA admitted), new Pres Millard Fillmore supported compromise, rallied N Whig support

    v)Douglas proposed Clay compromise split into smaller measured and voted on (difft sections could vote for measures that they supported), used govt bonds and railroad construction to gain support. Comp passed in September- less widespread agreement on ideals then victory of self-interest

    4)The Crisis of the 1850s

    a)The Uneasy Truce

    i)1852 pres election candidates very sectional. Dem Franklin Pierce, Whig Gen Winfield Scott, Free-Soil John Hale. Whigs suffered from massive defection from antislavery members, Democrats won

    ii)Pres Pierce tried to ignore divisive issues, but N opposition to Fugitive Slave Act after 1850 as mobs prevented slave catchers in cities. S angered, alarmed

    b)“Young America”

    i)Pierce supported Democrat’s “Young America”- saw expansion of US democracy throughout world as way of diverting attention from slavery

    ii)Efforts to expand entangled in sectionalism- attempts to capture Cuba opposed by antislavery northerners who feared administration trying to bring new slave state to Union, south opposed acquiring Hawaii b/c prohibited slavery

    c)Slavery, Railroads, and the West

    i)1850s settlers began moving into plains to areas suitable for farming, dislodge Indians from reservations there. Settlement led to issue of railroad and slavery

    ii) RR used to solve communication problems btwn old states + areas W of Miss. R., movement for transcontinental RR. Disagreement over whether eastern terminus should be in North’s Chicago or in the South. Jefferson Davis organized Gadsden Purchase 1853 from Mex to make S route possible

    d)The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy

    i)Stephen Douglas 1854 proposed opening Nebraska Territory for white settlement (to clear Indians in way of possible transcont. RR from Chicago)

    ii)Nebraska North of Missouri Compromise line, therefore had to be free

    iii)To gain passage Douglas proposed dividing Nebraska in two (Nebraska and Kansas) and each would decide slavery by “popular sovereignty” (state legislature), repealed Missouri Compromise entirely

    iv)Kansas-Nebraska Act passed 1854 w/ Pres Pierce support. Had immediate, sweeping consequences: divided and destroyed Whig Party (disappeared by 1856), divided northern Democrats (disagreed w/ repealing Miss. Comp)

    v)Ppl in both parties opposed to bill formed Republican Party 1854

    e)“Bleeding Kansas”

    i)Settlers from N + S settling Kansas, but for 1855 elections southerners from Missouri traveled to Kansas to vote. Pro-slavery legislature elected, legalized slavery. Free-state supporters in state formed own Const, applied statehood

    ii)Pro-slave forces burned down anti-slave govt, abolitionist John Brown then killed 5 pro-slave settlers (Pottawatomie Massacre). Led to armed warfare by armed bands, “Bleeding Kansas” became symbol of sectional controversy

    iii)1856 anti-slavery Charles Sumner of MA gave speech entitled “The Crime Against Kansas” critical of slavery defender Sen Butler of SC. Butler’s nephew Preston Brooks came to Sen, beat Sumner w/ cane- both became hero

    f)The Free-Soil Ideology

    i)Tension from economic, territorial interest, but also sectional vision of US

    ii)North believed in “free soil” + “free labor”. Slavery not so much immoral but wrong b/c threatened whites- every citizen had right to own property, control labor, access to opportunity. To them South closed, static society where slavery preserved entrenched aristocracy & common white had no opportunity

    iii)North growing + prospering, S stagnant + rejecting individualism, progress. Believed S conspiring to extend slavery thru whole nation and thus destroy N capitalism, replace it with closed aristocracy of S- “slave power conspiracy”

    iv)This ideology @ heart of Repub Party. Committed to Union b/c growth + prosperity central to free-labor vision, breakup= smaller size+ less econ power

    g)The Pro-Slavery Argument

    i)Incompatible Southern ideology result of desire for security after Nat Turner 1831 uprising, lucrative nature of cotton economy into Deep South and expansion there, growth of Garrisonian abolition movement against S society

    ii)Intellectual defense of slavery begun by Professor Thomas Dew, others later gave ideology name The Pro-Slavery Argument- said that S should not apologize for slavery b/c was a good thing, slaved enjoyed better conditions than industrial workers in N, allowed for peace btwn races, helped nat’l econ

    iii)Also argued slavery good b/c basis of way S way of life, which was superior to any other. N greedy, destructive, factories horrific, cities crowded + immigrant filled- but S stable, orderly, protected worker welfare

    iv)Defense also on biological inferiority of blacks, inherently unfit to care for themselves and be citizens. Clergy also gave religious + biblical justification

    h)Buchanan and Depression

    i)In 1856 pres election Dems wanted candidate unassociated w/ “Bleeding Kansas” so chose James Buchanan, Repubs chose John Fremont (platform against Kansas-Nebraska Act and of Whiggish internal improvements reflecting N economic aspirations), Know-Nothings chose Millard Fillmore

    ii)Buchanan won, but proved indecisive at critical moment in history. After taking office financial panic + depression hit country

    iii)In N Repubs strengthened b/c manufacturers, workers, farmers joined--depression seen as result of unsound policies of southern Dem administrations

    i)The Dred Scott Decision

    i)March 1857 Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v Sandford- Scott was slave who after masters death sued widow for freedom on grounds that master had moved residence to a free state, but John Sanford (brother of deceased owner, Sup C. misspelled name) claimed ownership of Scott

    ii)Defeat for antislavery movement. Supreme Court had multiple decisions, Chief Justice Roger Taney: Scott could not bring suit in fed court b/c was not a citizen, blacks had virtually no rights under Const, slaves property & 5th Amendment forbid taking property w/o “due process” and therefore Congress had no authority to pass law depriving persons of slave property in territories (thereby ruling Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional)

    iii)Did not challenge rights of state to limit slavery, but fed govt now powerless

    j)Deadlock Over Kansas

    i)Pres Buchanan endorsed Dred Scott decision, to solve Kansas problem supported admission to Union as slave state. 1857 new KS Const legalized slavery, but election of new legislature saw antislavery majority who put Const to ppl to vote on- widely rejected

    ii)1858 Buchanan pressured Congress to admit it as slave state anyway but Cong rejected, compromise allowed KS to vote on Const again—rejected again

    iii)1861, after sever S states had already seceded, KS entered Union as free state

    k)The Emergence of Lincoln

    i)In 1858 Congressional elections Repub Abraham Lincoln ran against famed Dem Stephen Douglas. Lincoln-Douglas debates attracted attention 

    ii)Lincoln’s attacks on slavery prominent- argued if nation didn’t accept blacks had human rights then it could accept other groups such as immigrant laborers could be deprived of rights too. Also, extension of slavery in territories would lead to lost opportunity for betterment by poor white laborers

    iii)Lincoln opposed slavery but not abolitionist b/c did not see easy alternative to slavery in areas where it existed. Prevent spread of slavery to territories, trust institution would gradually die out in areas where it existed

    iv)Douglas won but Lincoln gained following. Dems lost maj in House, kept Sen

    l)John Brown’s Raid

    i)1859 antislavery zealot from KS John Brown led followers to capture fort in Harpers Ferry VA hoping to lead slave rebellion. Uprising never occurred, Brown surrendered, tried for treason by VA and hanged

    ii)Convinced white southerners that they could not live safely in Union, believed raid supported by Repub party and that North now wanted slave insurrection

    m)The Election of Lincoln

    i)In Pres election of 1860 Dems torn btwn southerners (who demanded strong endorsement of slavery) & westerners (who supported popular sovereignty) 

    ii)After popular sovereignty endorsed by convention southern states walked out, eventually nominated John Breckinridge of KY, rest chose Stephen Douglas

    iii)Still others formed Constitutional Union Party w/ John Bell as candidate- endorsed Union but remained silent regarding slavery

    iv)Republicans tried to broaden appeal to earn majority in North who feared S blocking its economic interests. Platform endorsed high tariff, internal improvements, homestead bill, Pacific railroad, popular sovereignty but Congress nor territory legislatures could legalize slavery in territories

    v)Repubs chose Abraham Lincoln as nominee b/c moderate positions on slavery, relative obscurity, and western origins to attract votes from region

    vi)Lincoln won presidency w/ majority of electoral votes but only 2/5 of popular vote but failed to win maj in Congress

    vii)Election of Lincoln final signal for many southerners that their position in Union hopeless, within weeks process of disunion began

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Civil War

    1)The Secession Crisis

    a)The Withdrawal of the South

    i)South Carolina voted Dec 1860 to secede, by time Lincoln came to office six more states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, TX) seceded

    ii)Seceded states formed Confederate States of America Feb1861. These states started seizing federal property but at first lacked power to seize the military instillations at Fort Sumter, SC and For Pickens, FL

    b)The Failure of Compromise

    i)Compromise proposed by Sen John Crittenden of KY proposed constitutional amdts w/ permanent slavery in slave states, fugitive slave returned. At heart was plan to reinstitute Missouri Compromise Line for western lands

    ii)Repubs rejected compromise. Lincoln came to office, stated: Union older than Const therefore no state could leave it, supporting secession= insurrection

    c)Fort Sumter

    i)Forces in fort running out of supplies, Lincoln informed SC govt that supply ships were being sent. South feared looking weak, ordered General PGT Beauregard to capture fort. Bombarded April 12-12,1861. Fort surrendered

    ii)After defeat of fort Lincoln began mobilizing for war, but 4 more slave states also seceded- VA, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina. Other 4 slave states remained in Union- MD, Delaware, KY, Missouri)

    iii)Ppl in N&S had come to believe two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in US, both incapable of living together in peace

    d)The Opposing Sides

    i)North held all the important material advantages- N had more than double the population (manpower for army and work force) advanced industrial system to manufacture war material (S had to rely on Eur imports), N had better transportation systems + more railroads

    ii)Advantages tempered b/c at first South fighting defensive war on own land w/ strong support of population. N more divided and support shaky throughout

    2)The Mobilization of the North

    a)Economic Measures

    i)W/o Southern forces in Congress it enacted nationalistic program to promote econ development- Homestead Act of 1862 gave public land to settlers for small fee, Morrill Land Grant Act gave land to state govts to sell for $ for public education. High tariffs passed- boom to domestic industries, protect from foreign producers

    ii)To build transcontinental RR created the Union Pacific RR Company to build westward from Omaha + Central Pacific to build east from CA

    iii) National Bank Acts of 1863-1864 created new bank system- banks could join if they invested in govt, in turn could issue US Treasure notes as currency

    iv)Govt financed war thru taxes, paper currency, and borrowing. 1861 first ever income tax levied, govt “greenbacks” (paper money) issued (not on gold or silver standard), but mostly thru bonds sold to individuals and larger financial bodies

    b)Raising Union Armies

    i)To increase army Congress authorized enlisting 500,000 volunteers- produced adequate forces only briefly. By March 1863 govt had to pass national draft law (but ppl could avoid service by hiring someone in his place or paying $)

    ii)Ppl were accustomed to remote, inactive nat’l govt so conscription had widespread opposition- mainly from laborers, immigrants, “Peace Democrats”

    c)Wartime Politics

    i)Lincoln moved to assert his authority- apptd cabinet representing every faction of Repub party, used war powers of president and disregarded parts of Const- e.x. never asking Congress for declaration of war (believed declaration would recognize Confederacy as an independent nation)

    ii)Lincoln’s greatest problem was popular opposition to war mobilized by parts of Democratic Party (“Copperheads”) who feared agriculture and Northwest losign influence + deterioration of states rights by strong nat’l govt

    iii)Lincoln suppressed opposition by ordering military arrests of civilian dissenters, suspending habeas corpus, stating all ppl who discouraged enlistment or disloyal practices subject to martial law. Lincoln defied Supreme Court when ordered to release secession leader (Ex parte Merryman), military courts declared unconst after war (Ex parte Milligan)

    iv)In1864 presidential election coalition formed btwn Repubs & War Democrats in Union Party- nominated Lincoln. Dems nominated Gen George McClellan, platform for truce. N victories (e.x. Sept capture of Atlanta) led to Lincoln win

    d)The Politics of Emancipation

    i)Republicans disagreed on slavery- Radicals incl. Sen Charles Sumner wanted to use war to abolish slavery, Conservatives= gradual, less destructive process

    ii)Lincoln cautious of emancipation but momentum gathered behind it- 1861 Confiscation Act freed all slaves used for “insurrectionary” purposes, second Confiscation Act in 1862 freed all slaves of ppl supporting the insurrection

    iii)North began to accept emancipation as central war aim b/c nothing less would justify sacrifices of struggle, Radical Repub influence on the rise

    iv)Lincoln seized leadership of antislavery sentiment- Sept 1862 after success at Battle of Antietam issued Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in all Confederate areas (but not Union slave states). Established war not only to maintain Union but also to eliminate slavery

    v)1865 Congress ratified 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all parts of US

    e)African Americans and the Union Cause

    i)About 180,000 emancipated blacks and more free blacks from North served as soldiers and laborers for Union forces. At start of war African Americans excluded from war, but after Emancipation Proc joined in great numbers

    f)The War and Economic Development

    i)War slowed some growth by cutting manufactueres off from Southern markets and raw materials and diverting labor, but mostly the war sped economic development in the North

    ii)Econ growth from Repub nationalistic legislation + new sectors of economy. Difficult for workers though purchasing power declined, mechanization 

    g)Women, Nursing, and the War

    i)Women entered new roles b/c of need for money and labor needs to fill positions vacated by men

    ii)Nursing (previously dominated by men) taken up by women, staffed field hospitals thru US Sanitary Commission. Countered resistance from doctors by associating care with women’s role as maternal + nurturing wife and mother

    iii)Many found war liberating, seen as opportunity to win support for own goals. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded National Woman’s Loyal League in 1863- worked for abolition and suffrage to women

    3)The Mobilization of the South

    a)The Confederate Government

    i)Confederate const similar to US Const but acknowledged sovereignty of individual states, sanctioned slavery and made abolition nearly impossible. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi named president, led like Union by moderates of new Western aristocracy as opposed to entrenched Eastern elements

    b)Money and Manpower

    i)To finance war South needed to create national revenue system in society not used to tax burdens. Small banking system, little liquid capital b/c of investments in land + slaves. Govt requested funds from state govts who issued questionable bonds

    ii)1863 Income tax created but raised little revenue, borrowing from Eur and bonds to citizens unsuccessful. Turned to issuing paper money but created inflation of over 9,000% vs North’s 80%, no uniform currency

    iii)To raise military called for volunteers, but decline in enlistment led to April 1862 Conscription Act. N capture of Confederate lands led to loss of source for manpower, 1864 shortage so desperate draft widened but still ineffective

    c)States’ Rights versus Centralization

    i)States’ rights supporters obstructed war effort by limiting Davis’ ability to declare martial law and obstructed conscription

    ii)Confed did centralize power in S- bureaucracy larger than that of Washington, impressed slaves to work for military, regulated industry + profits

    d)Economic and Social Effects of the War

    i)War devastating on S economy- cut off planters from markets in S, overseas cotton sales more difficult, industries w/o large slave forces suffered. Production declined by 1/3, fighting on S land destroyed RRs, farmland

    ii)N naval blockade led to shortages of everything- agriculture had focused on cotton and not enough food to meet needs, few doctors b/c of conscription

    iii)Like in N, w/ men leaving farms to fight the role of women changed- led slaves and family, became nurses. Led women to question S assumption that females unsuited for certain activities and to be in public sphere. War created gender imbalance w/ many more women, unmarried + widowed sought work

    iv)Whites feared slave revolts + enforced slave codes severely, but many slaves tried to escape or resisted authority of women and boys overseeing plantations

    4)Strategy and Diplomacy

    a)The Commanders

    i)Most impt Union commander was commander-in-chief Abraham Lincoln- realized N material advantages, goal defeat of Confed armies,  not occupation

    ii)Lincoln had trouble finding a competent chief of staff for war- Gen Winifield Scott, Gen George McCllellan, Gen Henry Halleck. Finally found commander in Gen Ulysses S. Grant- goal to target enemy army + resources, not territory

    iii)Lincoln and Grant scrutinized by Congress’ Committee on the Conduct of the War chaired by OH Sen Benjamin Wade - complained of lack of ruthlessness by of N generals

    iv)Southern command centered on Pres Davis, 1862 named Gen Robert E. Lee principal military adviser (w/ Lee in field Davis controlled strategy). 1864 Gen Braxton Bragg named military adviser, later 1865 Confed Congress created position of general in chief, Davis named Lee, but Davis still decider

    v)Most commanders from both N & S had attended one of the US service academies- US Military Academy at West Point, US Naval Acad at Annapolis

    b)The Role of Sea Power

    i)Union had overwhelming naval advantage- used to enforce blockade of S coast, assisted Union army in field operations especially on large rivers

    ii)Blockade prevented most ships out of Confed ports. Confederates tried to break blockade w/ new weapons such as the ironclad warship the Merrimac, which the Union stopped with one of their ironclads the Monitor

    c)Europe and the Disunited States

    i)Judith P Benjamin was Confed secretary of state, counterpart in Washington was the great William Seward

    ii)At start of war ruling classes of England + France sympathetic to Confed b/c imported cotton for textile industries from S, wanted to see a weaker US, admired aristocratic social order of S. France waited to take sides until England did, English didn’t act b/c of popular support of ppl for the Union

    iii)S countered w/ “King Cotton diplomacy” arguing S cotton vital for these nations textile industries. Surpluses in these nations allowed S to be ignored, later imports from mills from Egypt and India

    iv)No Eur nation diplomatically recognized Confed, no nation wanted to antagonize US unless Confed seemed likely to win- never reached that point

    v)Still, there was tension btwn US and GB + France b/c these nations had declared neutrality. Also 1861 Trent affair over arrest of Confed diplomats aboard English steamer from Cuba, later crisis over sale of Brit ships to S

    d)The American West and the War

    i)Most states and territories of West remained loyal to Union except TX, although Southerners and S sympathizers active in organizing opposition

    ii)Fighting occurred btwn Unionists and secessionists in Kansas and Missouri. Confed William Quantrill led guerilla fighters, Union Jayhawkers in KS

    iii)Confed tried to ally w/ Five Civilized Tribes in Indian territory to recruit support against Union, Indians divided. Never formally allied w/ either side

    5)The Course of Battle

    a)The Technology of Battle

    i)Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat

    ii)Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt’s 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester’s 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon

    iii)Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war

    iv)Railroad impt in war where millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight

    b)The Opening Clashes, 1861

    i)First major battle of war occurred in northern VA btwn Union Gen Irvin McDowell and Confed Gen PGT Beauregard at First Battle of Bull Run

    ii)Union lost, forced to retreat to Washington, dispelled illusion of quick war

    iii)1863 Union army under Gen George McClellan “liberated” anti-secessionists in western VA, area admitted to Union as West Virginia 1863

    c)The Western Theater

    i)Stalemate in East led to 1862 military operations in West. April 1862 Union forced surrender of New Orleans, closed Mississippi R to Confed trade and took away South’s largest city and most impt banking center

    ii)Gen Ulysses S. Grant captured forts under command of Confed Gen Albert Johnston. In doing so Grant forced Confed out of Kentucky and Tennessee

    iii)Grant then marched south, fought forced of Gen Sidney and Gen Beauregard at Battle of Shiloh April 1862. Narrow Union victory allowed capture of several impt railroad lines vital to the Confederacy

    d)The Virginia Front, 1862

    i)Union operations 1862 directed by Gen McClellan (commander of the Army of the Potomac), he was controversial b/c often reluctant to put troops in battle

    ii)McClellan planned Peninsular Campaign- use navy to transport troops, attack Confed capital at Richmond from behind. Gen McDowell left to defend D.C. 

    iii)Then Confed Gen Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson looked as if planning to cross Potomac to Washington, defeated Union forces in Valley campaign, withdrew

    iv)Meanwhile, McClellan battled and defeated Confed Gen Joseph Johnston at Battle of Fair Oaks. Johnston replaced by Gen Robert E. Lee who battled McClellan at Battle of the Seven Days. Union able to advance near Richmond

    v)When McClellan delayed attack Lincoln ordered him to move to northern VA to forces under Gen John Pope. But as Army of Potomac moved Lee attacked Pope with his Army of Northern Virginia at 2nd Battle of Bull Run (August)

    vi)Lincoln replaced Pope and McClellan led all forces. Lee planned offensive, resulted in Battle of Antietam Creek- bloodiest single-day of war w/ 6,000 dead & 17,000 injured. Confed withdrew but McClellan could have defeated Lee w/ last assault. Lincoln relieved McClellan from command in November, his replacement Gen Ambrose Burnside relieved in December after failures

    e)1863: Year of Decision

    i)New commander of Army of the Potomac Gen Joseph Hooker attacked by Lee + Jackson at Battle of Chancellorsville, barely able to escape w/ army

    ii)While Union frustrated in East won impt victories in the West

    iii)In July besieged Confed stronghold at Vicksburg, MI surrendered to Grant

    iv)Union now controlled entire Mississippi R, Confederacy split in two- Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas cut off from other seceded states

    v)To divert Union forces away from Missippi and Vicksburg and to gain major victory on N soil to get English and French aid, Lee proposed PA invasion

    vi)New Army of the Potomac commander Gen George Meade battled Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Meade defeated Lee w/ surrender on July 4, same day as Vicksburg defeat

    vii) Weakened Confed forced now unable to seriously threaten N territory

    viii)In September Gen Braxton Braggfought Union army under William Rosecrans, Union defeated at Battle of Chickamauga

    ix)Bragg then fought remaining Union forces at Battle of Chattanooga (Tennessee) in November. Grant reinforced the Union army, Union won and occupied most of eastern TN and controlled important Tennessee River

    x)Confed could not only hope to win independence thru holding on and exhausting N will to fight, not thru decisive military victory

    f)The Last Stage, 1864-1865

    i)Beginning 1864 Grant named general-in-chief of all Union armies. Planned two offensives: use Army of Potomac in VA to fight Lee near Richmond, and use western army under Gen William Sherman to advance toward Atlanta

    ii)Grant’s Overland campaign in VA led Lee to win three battles (Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Battle of Cold Harbor)

    iii)Grant then decided to bypass Richmond to railroad center at Petersburg- strong defenses and reinforcement by Lee led to 9-month siege

    iv)In Georgia Gen Sherman fought Gen Johnston and his replacement Gen Hood, took Atlanta in Sept- electrified N + united Repub Party behind Lincoln

    v)Sherman defeated Confed at Battle of Nashville, while beginning his March to the Sea- sought to deprive Confed army of war materials and railroad but also break will of Southern ppl by burning towns and plantations along route

    vi)Sherman captured Savannah, GA in Dec, turned north thru SC and NC

    vii)April 1865 Grant’s Army of the Potomac captured vital railroad juncture in Petersburg. W/o rail access to South and cut off rom other Confed forces Lee no longer able to defend Richmond

    viii)Lee attempted to move army around Union in hope of meeting forces with Gen Johnston in North Carolina, but Union blocked and pursued him

    ix) Realizng more bloodshed was futile Lee met w/ Grant in town of Appomattox Courthouse, VA- surrendered there on April 9

    x)Nine days later Gen Johnston surrendered to Sherman in North Carolina

    xi)In military war was effectively over even though Jefferson Davis refused to accept defeat. He fled Richmond but was captured in Georgia

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Reconstruction and the New South

     1)The Problems of Peacemaking

    a)The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation

    i)Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property. Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop) had died, ppl wanted to preserve what was left

    ii)Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family, work. Almost none owned land or possessions

    b)Competing Notions of Freedom

    i)Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice, humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also desired

    ii)AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some wanted economic redistribution including land, others wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted independence from white control

    iii)Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal govt. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be tied to plantations

    iv)March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr

    c)Issues of Reconstruction

    i)Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for suffering rebellion caused

    ii)Repubs split btwn Conservatives and Radicals- Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confed leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property confiscation. Moderates in between

    d)Plans for Reconstruction

    i)Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan- favored recruiting former Whigs to Repubs, amnesty to white Southerners other than high Confed officials. When 10% of ppl took loyalty oath state govt could be established. Questions of future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid reunification

    ii)The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee rejoined under plan in 1864

    iii)Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 proposed governor for each state, when majority of ppl took allegiance oath constitutional convention could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confed leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed

    e)The Death of Lincoln

    i)April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth

    ii)Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a mild plan would not come soon

    f)Johnson and “Restoration”

    i)Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress in recess during summer 1865

    ii)Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance oath, Confed officials + wealthy planters needed special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had provisional governors, constitutional convention had to revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amdt. State govts, then readmission

    iii)By end of 1865 all seceded states has new govts, waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to recognize Johnson govts b/c public sentiment more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confed Alexander Stephens as Sen)

    2)Radical Reconstruction

    a)The Black Codes

    i)1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves, prevent farm ownership or certain jobs

    ii)Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866 passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens, gave fed govt power to intervene to protect rights of citizens

    iii)Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden

    b)The Fourteenth Amendment

    i)14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former Confed members couldn’t hold state or fed office unless pardoned by Congress

    ii)Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified amendment, only TN did so

    iii)S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional elections, could now act over President’s objections

    c)The Congressional Plan

    i)Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867, established coherent plan

    ii)TN readmitted, but other state govts rejected. Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in rebellion) for const convention that must include black suffrage

    iii)After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state legislature had to ratify 14thAmdt. By 1868 10 former Confed states fulfilled these conditions (14th Amdt now part of Const) and readmitted to Union

    iv)Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act (forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military orders except thru commanding general of army or w/ Sen approval)

    v)Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared military tribunals where civil courts existed unconst, Radicals feared same ruling would apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2 years

    d)The Impeachment of President Johnson

    i)Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868 Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1 vote

    3)The South in Reconstruction

    a)The Reconstruction Governments

    i)In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to ¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These restrictions later lifted, but Repubs kept control w/ support of many southern whites called “scalawags” (most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman), felt Repub better for their economic interests

    ii)“Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals or veterans) who moved South after war to take advantage of new opportunity

    iii)Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who held conventions and created black churches that gave them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates to const conventions, held office- although white charges of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false

    iv)Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there were charges of corruption and extravagance. But corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic expansion of govt services that put new strains on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed services previous govts had not offered: public education, public works, and poor relief

    b)Education

    i)Education improvement benefited whites and blacks- large network of schools for former slaves created (over white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school system led to great percentage of white and black population attending school 

    ii)System divided into black and white system, integration efforts failed

    c)Landownership and Tenancy

    i)Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but Pres Johnson and govt returned most confiscated land to returning plantation owners

    ii)White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on help of failed Freedman’s Bank

    iii)Most ppl did not own land during Reconstruction, worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop

    d)The Crop-Lien System

    i)Postwar years saw economic progress for African Americans, great increase in income. Result of black profit share increasing, greater return on labor

    ii)Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty- black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then grew little more afterward

    iii)Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit institutions such as banks returned, new credit system centered on local country stores 

    iv)Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien (claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in debt cycle

    v)Effects included leading some blacks who had gained land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to decline in agric economy

    e)The African-American Family in Freedom

    i)Major black response during Reconstruction was effort to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and family

    ii)Women began performing more domestic work + child caring, less field labor

    iii)Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of slave activities: domestic servants, laundry

    4)The Grant Administration

    a)The Soldier President

    i)Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868 election. Had no political experience, apptd incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption

    ii)Opposing Repubs formed faction called Liberal Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection

    b)The Grant Scandals

    i)Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and Repubs. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier construction company helping build Union Pacific RR. Company heads steered contracts to company costing fed govt and Union Pacific millions, stock given to Congress members to stop investigation

    ii)Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that “Grantism” brought corruption to govt

    c)The Greenback Question

    i)Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of 1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors wanted govt to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks (paper currency) 

    ii)Grant and other Repubs wanted “sound” currency based on gold that would favor banks and other creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation

    iii)1875 Repubs passed Specie Resumption Act- pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supply grew little

    iv)National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept money issue alive

    d)Republican Diplomacy

    i)Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William Seward and Hamilton Fish

    ii)Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”), annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against GB of violating neutrality by building ships for Confed. Treaty of Washington allowed for arbitration of claims

    5)The Abandonment of Reconstruction

    a)The Southern States “Redeemed”

    i)By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked as majority to overthrow Repubs. In areas of black majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity

    ii)Klan led by former Confed Gen Nathan Forrest. Worked to advance interest of those who would gain from white supremacy- mainly planter class and Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic pressure used

    b)The Ku Klux Klan Acts

    i)Repubs tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)- prohibited states from discriminating against voters on race, fed govt given power to prosecute violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations

    ii)Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC

    c)Waning Northern Commitment

    i)Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amdt many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves. Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into Democratic Party

    ii)Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this light, favored little govt intervention to help. Depleted treasury led ppl to want to spend little on freedmen, poor state govts cut back on social services

    iii)In Congressional elections of 1874 Dems won majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA

    d)The Compromise of 1877

    i)In 1876 elections Repubs sought new candidate to distance from corruption and attract Liberals back- chose Rutherford B Hayes, Dems chose Sam Tilden

    ii)Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress created special electoral commission to judge disputed votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won election

    iii)Resolution result of compromises btwn Repubs w/ southern Dems- Hayes would withdraw last fed troops from S if Dems abandoned filibuster of bill

    iv)“Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to help Dems grow business and industrialize, withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state govts

    e)The Legacies of Reconstruction

    i)Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such bitterness that solution not attempted for another century. Failure b/c of ppl directing it, unwillingness to infringe on rights of states and individuals

    6)The New South

    a)The “Redeemers”

    i)By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern state govt “redeemed” (white Dems held power).  “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants, industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”, social conservatism, economic development

    ii)Dem govts lowered taxes, reduced services (incl. public education)

    iii)By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and Redeemer govt commitment to pay off prewar and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster movement)

    b)Industrialization and the “New South”

    i)Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop industrial economy, New South of industry, progress, thrift

    ii)Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’ 1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows

    iii)New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco-processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also grew

    iv)Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886 greater integration with rest of country when changed its gauge

    v)However, growth of South merely regained what it had done before war, average income in the South substantially lower than that of North

    vi)Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force. Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill towns restricted by company w/ labor unions suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of community

    c)Tenants and Sharecroppers

    i)S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop-lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of ppl in S became tenant farmers

    ii)“Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence laws” (prevented ppl from raising livestock) led to decline in living self-sufficiently

    iii)Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to follow in 1880s/1890s

    d)African Americans and the New South

    i)Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress + self improvement, entered middle class by becoming professionals, owning land or business

    ii)This small rising group of blacks believed education vital to future of race- supported black colleges

    iii)Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington (founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win respect of white population by adopting middle class standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement and economic gains to earn recognition

    e)The Birth of Jim Crow

    i)Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th & 15th Amdts (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented state discrimination but not private organizations of individuals)

    ii)Court validated separation of races- Plessy v Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were equal.Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)- laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable school for blacks existed

    iii)White policies shifted from subordination to segregation- black voting rights had been used by Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when poor white farmers saw this they sought to disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amdt thru “poll tax”/property requirement or “literacy”/understanding test

    iv)Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynchings, ect) to inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti-lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to pass national law enabling fed got to punish those responsible for lynchings

    v)White supremacy diluted class animosities btwn poor whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played secondary role to race, distracting ppl from social inequalities that affected blacks and whites

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Conquest of the Far West

    1)The Societies of the Far West

    a)The Western Tribes

    i)Some dislocated eastern tribes in “Indian Territory”, others western tribes such as Pueblos had permanent settlements/farms + interaction w/ Spanish & Mexicans- caste system over other Ind tribes (genizaros=Ind w/o tribes)

    ii)Plains Indians- some nomadic, some farmers. Many (including Sioux) hunted buffalo as main source of food + materials

    iii)Warriors unable to defeat white settlers b/c disunited, internal conflict, disease

    b)Hispanic New Mexico

    i)American capitalist integration led Spanish-speaking to erosion of communal society + economies, land aristocracy from Santa Fe + Span/Mex peasants

    ii)Territorial govt in 1850, in 1870s govt dominated by “territorial ring” where business ppl took advantage of impending statehood, used fed money for profit

    iii)Arrival of RRs in in SW during 1880s/1890s brought new ranching, farming, mining brought new Mexican migrants

    c)Hispanic California and Texas

    i)Most Spanish missions that employed Ind as near slaves until 1830s. White settlers expelled Hispanic californios from the land. Market for cattle allowed some rancheros to continue to own land, but most Mexs became working class

    ii)In Texas Mexs also unable to compete with enormous Anglo-American ranching kingdoms- most relegated to unskilled farm + industrial labor

    d)The Chinese Migration

    i)After 1848 gold rush, Chinese migration dramatically increased, settling mostly in CA. White sentiment soon turned negative b/c Chinese industrious and successful

    ii)Chinese excluded from gold mining by CA 1852 “foreign miner tax”, other laws 1850s discouraged immigration—Chinese began to work on transcontinental Central Pacific RR

    iii)After RR completion 1869 many Chinese moved to cities- formed “Chinatowns” w/ benevolent societies, “tongs”-secret criminal societies

    iv)Many Chinese occupied lower jobs- unskilled laborers. Many started laundries

    e)Anti-Chinese Sentiment

    i)“Anti-coolie” clubs in 1860s/1870s sought ban on employing Chinese, formed b/c some whites felt Chinese laborers accepted low wages + undercut unions

    ii)In CA, Democratic Party + Denis Kearney’s Workingmen’s Party attacked Chinese interest- based on economic tension, cultural + racial- “inassimilable”

    iii)1882 Congress responded to pressure, passed Chinese Exclusion Act- halted Chinese migration, barred naturalization- aimed to help “American” labor

    f)Migration from the East

    i)Extremely great postwar migration to empty and settled areas alike. Most white Anglo-Americans, others foreign-born Eur immigrants—attracted by metal deposits, lands for farming and ranching

    ii)Fed land policies encouraged settlement: Homestead Act of 1862 gave 160 acres of land for small fee, in return would improve land, create new markets mechanization + rising farm costs forced some small farmers off this land

    iii)In response Congress passed Timber Culture Act (1863), Desert Land Act (1877), Timber and Stone Act (1878) to allow ppl to buy/develop more cheap land

    g)1860s saw development of territorial govt, statehood soon followed for most

    2)The Changing Western Economy

    a)Labor in the West

    i)Labor shortage led to higher wages than in East, but job instability (after harvest or RR completion, ect) led to communities of jobless in cities. Workers mostly mobile, single men

    ii)Working class highly multiracial, but whites generally occupied higher job levels (management + skilled labor) than nonwhites in unskilled labor. Dual labor system reinforced by racial assumptions that held nonwhites more suited for worse conditions + harder labor- allowed whites greater social mobility

    b)The Arrival of the Miners

    i)First Western economic boom came from mining strikes in 1860s-1890s. During Pike’s Peak strike 1858 mining camps blossomed into “cities”, later Comstock Lode silver found in Nevada, 1874 Black Hill strike in Dakota Terr.

    ii)After surface wealth used up, eastern capitalists often bought claims of pioneer prospectors, began retrieving from deeper veins w/ corporate mines

    iii)In boom towns vigilantism used to combat outlaws. Men outnumbered women, prostitution very common. After boom most remained in town as wage laborer in corporate mine

    c)The Cattle Kingdom

    i)Economy also affected by the open range- provided cattle raisers w/ free lands to graze, RRs gave access to markets. Largest herds found in Texas

    ii)After success of the long drive proven, easier routes to access rest of country sought- market facility grew up at Abilene, KS as railhead of cattle kingdom. Agricultural development in 1870s in W. Kansas led other routes to grow

    iii)As settlement of plans increased new forms of competition emerged- sheep breeders used range to feed flock, farmers from the East fenced in their lands—“range wars” developed btwn ranchers and farmers

    iv)Large profits in cattle business led cattle economy to become more corporate. This expansion onto already shrunken ranges from RRs and farmers became overstocked, and combined with bad winters from 1885-1887, thousands of cattle died—open-range industry never recovered, but ranches survived + grew

    v)Although cattle industry mostly male, large number of women led them to have impt political presence- women won vote earlier in West than rest of nation (some states to swell population for statehood, bring “morals” to politics)

    3)The Romance of the West

    a)The Western Landscape

    i)Painters of the “Rocky Mountain School
    “ celebrated the West in grandiose paintings that attracted great crowds- emphasized ruggedness and variety of region, awe toward land that had been previously expressed by Hudson River valley painters

    b)The Cowboy Culture

    i)Cowboy life romanticized in contrast to stable, orderly world of the East. Owen Wister’sThe Virginian (1902) showed freedom from social contraints, only one example of magazine articles, novels, ect. about Western life

    c)The Idea of the Frontier

    i)Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Mark Twain wrote about (mostly early) frontier life is Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

    ii)Painter/sculptor Frederic Turner captured romance of West in his works comparing it to the East

    iii)Theodore Roosevelt wrote history of West- The Winning of the West (1890s)

    d)Frederick Jackson Turner

    i)The historian Turner contended that by 1890s no single frontier line existed and the end of an era had come. Expansion has stimulated individualism, nationalism, democracy, American uniqueness. Mirrored sentiments of US

    ii)Turner inaccurate and premature- ppl had always lived in “empty, uncivilized” lands and had been displaced, also in coming years much land still available

    e)The Loss of Utopia

    i)With nation feeling that there had been a “passing of the frontier”, ppl felt opportunities closing and with it ability to control own destiny

    ii)“Myth of the garden” (West as Garden of Eden) lost

    4)The Dispersal of the Tribes

    a)White Tribal Policies

    i)Traditional policy was to regard tribes as nations and wards of the president, therefore negotiate treaties w/ them ratified by Senate. As white settlers demanded more lands during 1850s led ppl to abandon idea of one large Indian Territory to policy of “concentration”- each tribe given negotiated reservation

    ii)In 1867 after bloody conflicts Congress created Indian peace Commission to make permanent Indian policy- move all Plains Indians into Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas. Failed b/c of poor administration by Bureau of Indian Affairs & killing of buffalo herds by whites + reduced Indian ability to resist white advance -led to violence

    b)The Indian Wars

    i)1850s-1880s showed nearly constant fighting as Indians struggled against threats to their civilizations- during Civil War conflict w/ Indians in Old Northwest and the Southwest

    ii)Not only military that threatened tribes; white vigilantes participated in “Indian hunting” killed tribes for sport or bounties, wanted retaliation after raids

    iii)Treaties made in 1867 saw temporary lull, but influx of settlers in 1870s penetrated Dakota Territory + change in govt policy to not recognize tribes as independent nations led to violence in 1875

    iv)Sioux rose up under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the Black Hills- at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 Indians killed Colonel George Custer and regiment, Indians became disunited after and forced to return to reservation

    v)Nez Perce Indians under Chief Joseph 1877 attempted to flee Idaho for Canada but caught by soldiers, forced to travel for years afterward to difft areas

    vi)Last organized resistance came from Apaches under Chiefs Mangas Colorados, Cochise, and finally Geronimo- unwilling to bow to white pressures Geronimo conducted raids on white outposts (“Apache Wars”), surrendered 1886

    vii)Atrocities against Indians had prompted much fighting- in 1890 Sioux religious revival under the prophet Wovoka led to “Ghost Dance” that celebrated vision of whites leaving + buffalo return- in Dec troops tried to round up some Indians at Wounded Knee, SD which turned into an Indian massacre

    c)The Dawes Act

    i)Efforts taken to destroy reservation + communal land ownership in order to force Indians to become farmers, landowners - abandon culture for white civili.

    ii)Dawes Act of 1887 eliminated tribal ownership and gave land to individual owners. Bureau of Indian Affairs promoted assimilation, sometimes by removing children and sending them to white boarding schools, build churches

    iii)Indians unprepared for capitalist individualism + corrupt administration led to abandonment of program, later Burke Act of 1906 also failed to divide lands

    5)The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer

    a)Farming on the Plains

    i)Before Civil War lands accessible only by wagon, transcontinental RR completed 1869 and subsidiary lines built afterward w/ land grants and loans

    ii)Easier access to Great Plains spurred agriculture- RRs offered cheap land and credit, rainfall allowed farming

    iii) Farmers faced problems: enclosing land expensive, but 1873 Joseph Glidden and IL Ellwood invited barbwire; arid land needed irrigation, especially after 1887 when series of dry spells followed- during 1880s booms credit easy, but arid weather of late 1880smany farmers unable to pay debt and forced to abandon farms

    b)Commercial Agriculture

    i)Commercial farmers specialized in cash crops sold on national/international markets. Relied on town stores for supplies and food, dependent on bankers’ interest rates, railroad freight rates, and US/Eur markets

    ii)During late 19th century agriculture became an international business- US commercial farmers relied on risky world market to absorb surpluses

    iii)Overproduction in 1880s led to price drops, economic crisis for small farmers

    c)The Farmers’ Grievances

    i)Farmers resented railroads and their higher freight rates for farm goods, credit institutions for their high interest rates and payments that had to be made in years when currency scarce, and prices that they had to pay for goods and the money they received- believed manufactures keeping farm good prices low

    d)The Agrarian Malaise

    i)Farmers isolated, lacked education for children, proper medical facilities, and community- this sense of obsolescence lead to growing malaise among farmers that created great political movement in 1890sSturdy yeoman farmers had viewed themselves as the backbone of American life, now they were becoming aware that their position was declining in relation to the rising urban-industrial society in the East

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Industrial Supremacy

    1)Sources of Industrial Growth

    a)Industrial Technologies

    i)Most impt tech development was new iron + steel production techniques- Henry Bessemer and William Kelly invented process to turn iron to steel, possible to produce large quantities and dimensions for construction, RRs

    ii)Steel industry emerged in Pennsylvania and Ohio (Pittsburgh notably)- iron industry existed, fuel could be found in PA coal

    iii)New transportation systems emerged to serve steel industry- freighters for the Great Lakes, RRs used steel to grow + transported it (sometimes merged w/ one another). Oil industry also grew b/c of need to lubricate mill machinery

    b)The Airplane and the Automobile

    i)Development of automobile dependent upon growth of two technologies: creation of gasoline from crude oil extraction, and 1870s Eur development of “internal combustion engine”. By 1910 car industry major role in economy

    ii)First gas-car built by Duryea brothers 1903, Henry For began production 1906

    iii)Search for flight by Wright Bros lead to famous 1903 flight. US govt created National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 1915 to match Eur research

    c)Research and Development

    i)New industrial technologies lead companies to sponsor own research- General Electric established first corp lab 1900, marked decentralization of govt-sponsored research. At same time cnxn began btwn university research + needs of industrial economy- partnership btwn academic + commercial

    d)The Science of Production

    i)Principles of “scientific management” began to be employed- fathered by Frederick Taylor who argued employers subdivide tasks to decrease need for highly skilled workers, increase efficiency by doing simple tasks w/ machines

    ii)Emphasis on industrial research led to corporate labs (e.g. Edison’s Menlo Park)

    iii)Most impt change in production was mass production + assembly line. First used by Henry Ford in automobile plant 1914- cut production time, prices

    e)Railroad Expansion

    i)Industrial development b/c of RR expansion- gave industrialists access to new markets + raw materials, spent large sums on construction and equipment

    ii)Possible b/c of govt subsidies, investment capital from abroad, and combinations of RRs by Cornelius Vanderbilt, James Hill, Collis Huntington

    f)The Corporation

    i)Modern corp emerged after Civil War when industrialists realized no person or group of limited partners able to finance great ventures

    ii)Businesses began to sell stock, appealing b/c “limited liability” meant lost only amt of investment + not liable for debts- allowed vast capital to be raised

    iii)Began in RR industry, spread to others- in steel industry Andrew Carnegie struck deals with RRs, bought up rivals, purchased coal mines w/ partner Henry Clay Frick controlled steel process from mine to market

    iv)Financed undertaking by selling stock. Bought out 1901 by JP Morgan who formed United States Steel- controlled 2/3 of nation’s steel production

    v)Corporate organizations developed new management techniques- division of responsibilities, control hierarchy, cost-accounting procedures, and “middle manager” btwn owners and labor introduced. Consolidation now a possibility

    g)Consolidating Corporate America

    i)Consolidation occurred thru “horizontal integration” (forming competing firms into single corporation) and “vertical integration” (control production from raw materials to distribution). Also thru pool arrangements (most failed)

    ii)Most famous corp empire John D Rockefeller’s Standard Oil- thru horizontal & vertical integration came to control 90% of refined oil in US

    iii)Consolidation used to cope w/ “cutthroat competition”- feared too much competition lead to instability, best was to eliminate/absorb competition

    h)The Trust and the Holding Company

    i)Failure of pools (informal agreements to stabilize rates, divide markets) led to less cooperation and more centralized control- “trust” emerged (stock transferred to group of trustees who made all decisions but shared profits)

    ii)Beginning w/ NJ 1889 states changed laws to allow companies to buy other companies, trust unnecessary—“holding companies” emerged as corporate body to buy up stock and establish formal ownership of corporations in trust

    iii)End of 19th cent 1% of corps controlled 33% of manufacturing, system where power in hands of a few men- NY bankers (JP Morgan), industrialists (Rockefeller), ect. 

    iv)Substantial economic growth ultimately from this arrangement- costs cut, industrial infrastructure formed, new markets stimulated, new unskilled jobs

    2)Capitalism and Its Critics

    a)The “Self-Made Man”

    i)Defenders argued capitalist economy expanding opportunities for individual advancement, and some tycoons were self-made men. But most came to be wealthy as a result of ruthlessness, arrogance, corruption (financial contributions to political, parties)

    ii)Many industrialists were modest entrepreneurs trying to carve role for their business in an unstable economy & fragmented, highly competitive industries

    b)Survival of the Fittest

    i)Assumptions that wealth earned thru hard work and thrift and that those who failed earned their failure became basis of Social Darwinism- only fittest individuals survived and flourished in the marketplace

    ii)English philosopher Herbert Spencer championed theory, in America William Graham Sumner promoted similar ideas- absolute freedom to struggle, compete, succeed, and fail

    iii)Appealed to businessmen b/c justified their tactics- efforts to raise wages by labor thru unions or govt regulation would fail, laws of supply and demand and “invisible hand” or market forces would determine wages and prices

    iv)Yet tycoons themselves thru monopolies tried to eliminate competition

    c)The Gospel of Wealth

    i)Gospel of Wealth (1901) by Andrew Carnegie advocated idea that w/ great wealth came great responsibility to use riches to advance social progress

    ii)Author Horatio Alger promoted stories of individual success in his works- anybody could become rich thru work, perseverance, and luck

    d)Alternative Visions

    i)Groups emerged challenging corporate and capitalistic ethos

    ii)Sociologist Lester Ward in Dynamic Sociology (1883) argued natural selection didn’t shape society, and active govt in positive planning best for society. Skeptical of laissez-fire, ppl should intervene to serve their needs

    iii)Famous dissidents emerged to challenge ideas: Socialist Labor Party founded 1870s by Daniel De Leon; Henry George and his Progress and Poverty (1879) argued poverty due to wealth of monopolists and their high land values; Edward Bellamy and his Looking Backward (1888) spoke of “fraternal cooperation” and of future society where govt distributed wealth equally

    e)The Problems of Monopoly

    i)Few questioned capitalism itself but movement grew in opposition to monopolies + economic concentrations- seen as creating artificially high prices, unstable economy. Recessions and havoc 1873 every 5-6 yrs

    ii)Resentment increased b/c of new class of conspicuously wealthy ppl who lived opulent lifestyle- flagrant wealth in face of 4/5 who lived modestly

    iii)Standard of living rising for everyone, but gap btwn rich + poor growing

    3)Industrial Workers in the New Economy

    a)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Industrial work force grew late 19th century b/c of migration to industrial cities from both rural areas and foreign immigration- late century most migrants from England, Ireland, N Eur, by end shit toward S and E Europeans

    ii)Immigrants came to escape poverty, lured by opportunity and advertisements by companies. Ethnic tensions increased b/c of job displacement, competition

    b)Wages and Working Conditions

    i)Average standard of living rose but wages low, little job security b/c boom-bust cycle, monotonous tasks that required little skill, long hours in unsafe conditions- loss of control over work conditions seen as worst part of factory labor as corporate efficiency and managers centralized workplace

    c)Women and Children at Work

    i)Decreasing need for skilled labor led to increase use of women and children who could be paid lower than men

    ii)Most women were young immigrants, concentrated in textile industry and domestic service. Some single, others supplemented husband’s earnings

    iii)Children employed in agriculture and factories w/ little regulation, dangerous

    d)The Struggle to Unionize

    i)Labor attempted to fight conditions by creating large combinations (unions) but had little success by century’s end. Fist attempt to federate separate unions came 1866 w/ National labor Union (disintegrated after Panic of 1873)

    ii)Unions faced difficulty during 1870s recessions b/c of high unemployment, hostility of middle class

    e)The Great Railroad Strike

    i)Railroad Strike of 1877 began after 10% wage cut announced. Strikers disrupted rail service, state militia mobilized and in July President Hayes ordered some federal troops. Strike collapsed eventually after many deaths

    ii)Showed disputes could no longer be localized in national economy, depth of resentment toward employers, frailty of labor movement

    f)The Knights of Labor

    i)First effort at national labor organization 1869 Noble Order of the Knights of Labor under Uriah Stephens- lacked strong central direction but local “assemblies” championed 8-hour workday, end to child labor, but also interested in long-range reform of economy. Allowed women to join

    ii)During 1870s under Terence Powderly rapid expansion, but by 1890 Knights had collapsed due to failure of strikes in the Gould railway system

    g)The AFL

    i)1880s American Federation of Labor created, became most impt +enduring national labor group- collection of autonomous craft unions of skilled workers

    ii)Led by Samuel Gompers- goal to secure greater share of capitalism’s material rewards to workers, opposed fundamental economic reform

    iii)Wanted creation of national 8-hour work day, national strike May 1, 1886 to achieve goal- in Chicago violence broke out btwn strikers and police after deaths in Haymarket Square bombing- “anarchism” became widely feared by middle class, associated it with radical labor

    h)The Homestead Strike

    i)The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (craft union in AFL) held large amt of power in steel industry b/c of reliance on skilled workers

    ii)By 1880s Efficient Carnegie process led management to want more control over labor + needed fewer skilled workers

    iii)Carnegie and Henry Frick began to cut wages at Homestead plant in Pittsburgh to break union. 1892 strike called after company stopped consulting the Amalgamated, Pinkerton Detective Agency security guards brought in as strikebreakers- were attacked, National Guard of PA called in

    iv)Eventually protected strikebreakers ended strike, by 1900 Amalgamated had lost nearly every major steel plant

    i)The Pullman Strike

    i)Strike at Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 after Pullman cut wages. Workers began to strike w/ the American Railway Union of Eugene V. Debs

    ii)Within few days thousands of railway workers struck and transportation nationwide frozen. General Manager’s Association asked Pres Grover Cleveland to send in federal troops b/c passage of mail being blocked

    iii)Pres complied and sent 2,000 troops to protect strikebreakers. Strike collapsed

    j)Sources of Labor Weakness

    i)Late 19th century labor suffered many losses- wages rose slowly, whatever progress made not enforced 

    ii)Reasons for failures included: leading labor organizations represented only small percentage of industrial work force; ethnic tensions; many immigrant workers planned to stay in country for short while and moved very often- eroded willingness to organize, believed not part of permanent working class; couldn’t match efforts of powerful + wealthy corporations


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Age of the City

    1)The Urbanization of America

    a)The Life of the City

    i)Urban pop increased 7x in 50 yrs after Civil War, by 1920 majority of ppl lived in urban areas. Occurred partly b/c of natural growth, mostly b/c immigrants and rural ppl flocked b/c offered better paying jobs than rural areas, cultural experiences available, transportation to cities easier than ever

    b)Migrations

    i)Late 19th century saw geographic mobility- Americans left declining Eastern agricultural regions for new farmlands in West and for cities of East

    ii)Women moved from farms where mechanization decreased their value; Southern blacks moved to cities to escape rural poverty, oppression, violence

    iii)Largest source of urban growth immigrants: until 1880s mainly educated N Europeans who were sometimes skilled laborers, businessmen or moved West to start farms. After 1880s largely S and E Europeans, lacked capital (like poor Irish immigrants before Civil War) so took mainly unskilled jobs

    c)The Ethnic City

    i)Not only was amt of immigrants tremendous, but so was diversity of immigrant population (no single national group dominated)

    ii)Most immigrants were rural ppl so formed close-knit ethnic communities to ease transition-offered native newspapers, food, links to national past

    iii)Assimilation of ethnic groups into capitalist economy depended on values of community, but also prejudices among employers, individual skills and capital

    d)Assimilation

    i)Most immigrants had desire to become true “Americans” and break with old national ways. Particular strain w/ women who in America shared more freedoms- adjust to more fluid life of American city

    ii)Assimilation encouraged by Natives thru public schools and employer requirement to learn English, religious leaders

    e)Exclusion

    i)Immigrant arrival provoked many fears + resentments of some native-born ppl. Reacted out of prejudice, foreign willingness to accept lower wages

    ii)Political response to these resentments- American Protective Association founded by Henry Bowers 1887, Immigration Restriction League sought to screen/reduce immigrants.  1882 Congress passed Chinese Exclusion Act, also denied entry to all “undesirables” and placed small tax on immigrants

    iii)New laws kept only small amt out. Literacy requirement vetoed by president Grover Cleveland—anti-immigrant measures failed mainly b/c many natives welcomed it, provided growing economy w/ cheap and plentiful labor 

    2)The Urban Landscape

    a)The Creation of Public Space

    i)By mid-19th century reformers and planners began to call for ordered vision of city, resulted in creation of public spaces and public services

    ii)Urban parks solution to congestion, allowed escape from strain of urban life. 1850s Central Park famously planned by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

    iii)Great public buildings (libraries, museums, theaters), spurred by wealthy residents who wanted amenities to match material and social aspirations

    iv)Urban leaders undertook massive city rebuilding projects- “City Beautiful Movement” inspired by architect Daniel Burnham- provide order and symmetry to disorderly life of city (faced opposition from private landowners)

    b)Housing the Well-to-Do

    i)Availability of cheap labor + materials lowered cost of building in late 19th century. Most wealthy lived in mansions, but later moderately well-to-do and wealthy both began to build and commute from suburban communities nearby

    c)Housing Workers and the Poor

    i)Most residentsforced to stay in city and rent- demand high and space scarce led to little bargaining power. Landlords tried to get most ppl in smallest space

    ii)“Tenements” came to refer to overcrowded slum dwellings. Poverty and rough tenement life showcased by reporter Jacob Riis in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives. Some immigrants also boarded in small family homes

    d)Urban Transportation

    i)Old, narrow dirty streets insufficient to deal w/ urban growth and need for ppl to move everyday to difft parts of city- new forms of mass transit needed

    ii)Cities experimented w/ elevated railways, cable cars, by 1895 electric trolley lines, and in 1897 Boston opened first subway in nation

    iii)New road, bridge tech also developed (e.g. John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge)

    e)The “Skyscraper”

    i)Inadequate structural materials and stairs prevented tall buildings until 1870s iron and steal beam development. After Civil War buildings grew successively taller, 1890s term “skyscraper” introduced

    ii)Steel girder construction allowed city’s w/ limited space to expand upward if not outward. Architect Louis Sullivan famous skyscraper designer

    3)Strains of Urban Life

    a)Fire and Disease

    i)Fires destroyed large parts of downtown areas w/ buildings made mainly of wood. “Great fires” led to fireproof buildings, professional fire departments

    ii)Diseases from poor neighborhoods w/ inadequate sanitation and sewage disposal threatened epidemics that could spread thru whole city

    b)Environmental Degradation

    i)Industrialization and rapid urbanization led to improper disposal of human and industrial waste that threatened waterways and drinking water, air quality suffered from burning of stoves and furnaces

    ii)By early 20th century reformers: seeking new sewage and drainage systems; Physician Alive Hamilton looked to identify and correct pollution in workplace; 1912 fed govt created Public Health Service created factory health standards to prevent occupational diseases (weak b/c no enforcement power)

    c)Urban Poverty

    i)Expansion of city created poverty, sheer number of ppl meant many unable to earn decent subsistence. Public agencies and private philanthropic groups offered limited relief, and if they did mostly only to the poorest

    ii)Some groups focused on religious revivalism as relief; others alarmed at great number of poor children in streets (some lives on their own)– “street arabs”

    d)Crime and Violence

    i)Poverty and crowding created violence, crime. Murder rate rose nationwide, and rising crime rates prompted cities to create larger, more professional police forces. Armories also developed b/c of fear of urban insurrections

    e)Fear of the City

    i)City offered allure and excitement, but also alienation and feelings of anonymity (e.g. Theodore Dreiser’s 1900 Sister Carrie about displaced single women)

    f)The Machine and the Boss

    i)Newly arrived immigrants sought assistance from political machines- created by power vacuum of cities, voting power of large immigrant communities

    ii)Urban “bosses” sought votes for his organization by winning loyalty of constituents thru relief, jobs for unemployed, patronage

    iii)Machines enriched politicians b/c of graft and corruption from contractors or investment from inside knowledge- most notorious was William Tweed of NY’s Tammany Hall during 1860s/1870s

    iv)In spite of middle class reformers citing machines as obstacles to progress, boss rule possible b/c immigrant voters wanted services first and foremost & weakness of city govts

    4)The Rise of Mass Consumption

    a)Patterns of Income and Consumption

    i)Growing markets and demand turn of century b/c of production and mass distribution made goods less expensive, also b/c of rising incomes of “white collar” professionals and working-class ppl despite union failures

    ii)Mass market also grew b/c affordable prices and new merchandising techniques allowed goods to reach more consumers (e.g. ready-made clothing after Civil War and rise of fashion)

    iii)Food transformed by tin cans, refrigerated RR cars for perishables, home iceboxes. Allowed for better diet and higher life expectancy

    b)Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses

    i)Way in which Americans bought goods altered- local stores faced competition from “chain stores” whose national network could sell manufactured goods at lower prices. Customers couldn’t resist great variety + lower prices of chains

    ii)Chain stores slow to rural areas but gained access thru mail-order houses-notably 1880s Montgomery Wary and Sears Roebuck mail order catalogues

    c)Department Stores

    i)Dept stores transformed shopping by bringing together many products under one roof (clothing, furniture) previously in separate shops; gave allure and excitement to shopping; economies of scale enabled lower prices than comp

    d)Women as Consumers

    i)Mass consumption affected women greatest b/c primary consumers in family. Spawned consumer protection movement w/ National Consumers League 1890s under Florence Kelley to force retainers for better wages, conditions

    5)Leisure in the Consumer Society

    a)Redefining Leisure

    i)Leisure had been previously scorned, but redefinition in late 19th century b/c economic expansion and greater worker time away from work leisure began to be a normal part of everyday life (economist Simon Pattern wrote of this in his 1902 The Theory of Prosperity and 1910 The New Basis of Civilization)

    ii)New forms of leisure had public character- time spent mostly in public spaces, part of appeal of leisure was time spent w/ large crowds

    b)Spectator Sports

    i)Search for public forms of leisure led to rise of organized spectator sports

    ii)Saw rise of baseball as “national pastime”, leagues formed in 1870s. Football became standardized 1870s and began to grew. Boxing grew in the 1880s after adoption of Marquis of Queensberry rules

    iii)Spectator sports had close association with gambling w/ elaborate betting syndicates. Prompted sports to “clean up” and regulate games

    c)Music and Theater

    i)Large market of cities allowed theaters to be maintained in ethnic communities, musical comedies developed, and vaudeville widely popular

    d)The Movies

    i)Thomas Edison and others laid tech for motion picture 1880s, soon projectors allowed showings on big screens in theaters w/ large audiences. By 1900 very popular, especially after DW Griffith introduced his silent epics

    e)Working-Class Leisure

    i)Workers spent great amt of leisure time on streets b/c had much time but little money. Also popular were neighborhood saloons (often ethnic), served as political centers b/c saloonkeepers often involved in political machines (largely b/c they had regular contact w/ many men in a neighborhood)

    ii)Boxing also emerged as a poplar sport- bare knuckle fights by ethnic clubs

    f)The Fourth of July

    i)B/c most ppl worked six-day workweek w/o vacations, 4th of July became a full day of leisure and an impt highlight in the year of ethnic, working-class communities. Massive neighborhood celebrations often w/ drinking

    g)Private Pursuits

    i)Reading remained popular as leisure activity, w/ Louisa Alcott’s Little Women (1869) capturing a large women audience

    ii)Public music performances popular, but also learning instrument w/in home

    h)Mass Communications

    i)Large urban market for transmitting news and information in urban industrial society- rise in publishing in journalism after Civil War w/ increase in newspaper circulation, rise of national press services using telegraph to supply news to papers across country

    ii)Rise of newspaper chains, especially competition btwn William Randolph Hearst + Joseph Pulitzer (rise of sensational “yellow journalism to sell papers)

    6)High Culture in the Age of the City

    a)The Literature of Urban America

    i)Some writers responded to new industrial civilization by evoking more natural world, others sought to use literature to recreate urban social reality

    ii)Realism led by Stephen Crane (famous for The Red Badge of Courage in 1895) who showed urban poverty and slum life. Theodore Dreiser highlighted social dislocations and injustices. There authors followed by Frank Norris’ The Octopus (1901) and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906) which showed depravity of capitalism by exposing abuses in meatpacking industry

    b)Art in the Age of the City

    i)By 1900 many American artists breaking from Old World traditions of Eur and experiment w/ new styles. Some turning away from traditional, academic style toward exploring grim aspects of modern life

    ii)Ashcan School produced stark portrayal of social realities, showcased expressionism and abstraction at famous 1913 art “Armory Show”

    iii)Beginning of modernism- rejected past and embraced new subjects, glorified the ordinary, coarse over genteel tradition +“dignified” aspects of civilization, embraced the future over “standards” of past- individual creativity

    c)The Impact of Darwinism

    i)Darwin argued evolution from earlier species thru “natural selection”, challenged traditional American religious faith. By end of century most urban professionals and members of educated classes converted; taught in schools

    ii)Darwinism led to schism btwn culture of city receptive to new ideas and the traditional, provincial culture of rural areas tied to religion and older values

    iii)Other intellectual movements included Social Darwinism of William Sumner, “pragmatism” of William James that valued scientific inquiry + experience

    iv)Relativism spawned by Darwinism led to growth of anthropology and study of other cultures (notably Native American culture)

    d)Toward Universal Schooling

    i)Dependence on specialized skills and scientific knowledge led to demand for education. Spread of free public primary and secondary education, compulsory attendance laws in many states. Rural education still lagged

    ii)Some reformers including Richard Pratt targeted native tribes to “civilize” them- urged practical “industrial” education. Failed b/c resistance, funding

    iii)Colleges grew late 19th century, benefited from Morrill Land Grant Act of Civil War era that donated large amt of land for colleges; also from contributions made by business and financial tycoons

    e)Education for Women

    i)Expansion of educational opportunities for women (although lagged behind that of men). Public high schools accepted women, and network of women’s colleges emerged that served to create distinctive women’s community

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - From Stalemate to Crisis

     1)The Politics of Equilibrium

    a)The Party System

    i)Party system of late 19th century very stable w/ little fluctuation in state loyalties. Repubs held most presidencies and Senate, Dems lead House

    ii)Public intensely loyal to parties, voter turnout was tremendous- loyalty result of region (Dems in S, Repubs in N), religion and ethnicity (Dems attracted Catholics, new immigrants, poor; Repubs middle class, N Protestants)

    iii)Party identification more cultural than of economic interest

    b)The National Government

    i)Federal govt held little power/responsibility- aside from supporting economic development (land grant subsidies, strike intervention), delivering pensions to Civil War veterans. Party leaders cared more about holding office than policy

    c)Presidents and Patronage

    i)President had little power save to make govt appointments (patronage used)

    ii)Pres Rutherford B. Hayes had to deal w/ factional Repub party split btwn Stalwarts (favored machine politics) and the Half-Breeds (favored reform). Patronage system overshadowed presidency, civil service system effort failed

    iii)Repubs won presidency in 1880 election, Pres James Garfield (Half-Breed) and VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart). Garfield attempted to defy Stalwarts, create civil service reform- assassinated 1881

    iv)New Pres Chester attempted supported civil service reform over Stalwarts- 1883 Congress passed Pendleton Act requiring exams for some govt jobs

    d)Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

    i)In 1884 election Repub nominee Sen James Blaine symbol of party politics, “liberal” Repubs flocked to Dem reform candidate Grover Cleveland

    ii)Cleveland opposed to graft and special interest, wished to see limited govt- asked Congress to reduce protective tariff rate 1887 to reduce govt surpluses and size. Dems passed bill, Republicans opposed it—>issue in 1888 elections

    iii)Dems renominated Cleveland; Repubs named Benjamin Harrison, won Pres

    e)New Public Issues

    i)Pres Harrison made little effort to influence Congress, but public opinion forced govt to begin to confront social and economic issues- especially trusts

    ii)By mid 1880s some states limiting combinations preventing competition, but reformers wanted nat’l movement- 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act passed, but little enforced, weakened by courts, and had little impact

    iii)Repubs main issue was dealing w/ tariff- passed McKinley Tariff 1890 (highest protective tariff ever).  Public opposed bill, by 1892 Pres election Repubs lost both House + Senate, Dem nominee Cleveland won Pres election

    iv)Cleveland’s 2nd term like 1st (devoted to minimal govt). Supported tariff reduction (Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed). Movement 1880s in may states to regulate RRs- after 1886 Supreme Court case Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad vs Illinois ruled only fed govt able to regulate interstate commerce

    v)To appease public Congress passed 1887 Interstate Commerce Act- banned rate discrimination + injustice, Interstate Commerce Commission formed

    2)The Agrarian Revolt

    a)The Grangers

    i)First major effort to organize farmers was Grange movement of 1860s (at firs goal to teach new scientific techniques), not until 1873 recession + fall of farm prices did it become highly political and large

    ii)Grange urged cooperative political action to fight monopolistic RR and warehouse practices, setup up co-op stores, insurance companies, and Montgomery Ward mail-order business (sought to challenge middle-men)

    iii)Elected Grange politicians 1870s to state legislatures to focus on RR reform; regulations destroyed by courts, temporary boom late-1870s destroyed Grange

    b)The Farmers’ Alliance

    i)Farmers’ Alliances formed in South, Northwest- like Grange focused on local problems (co-op banks, processing plants) but also larger goal to create society of cooperation. Like Grange cooperatives not very successful, harnessed frustrations into creating national political organization 1880s

    ii)1889 Southern and Northwestern Alliances merged, issued Ocala Demands (party platform), won seats in 1890 elections. Sentiments forming toward national third party, 1892 created People’s Party (Populists)

    iii)In 1892 elections Populists did surprising well, won seats in states + Congress

    c)The Populist Constituency

    i)Populism appealed mainly to small farmers, those whose farming becoming less viable in face of mechanized, consolidated commercial agriculture

    ii)Populists failed to attract much labor support, but attracted miners in Rocky Mountain states w/ “free silver” policy that allowed for silver to be currency, expand money supply. African Americans allowed limited involvement in S

    d)Populist Ideas

    i)Ocala platform 1892 outlined Populist reform programs- “subtreasuries” to strengthen cooperatives; govt warehouse system; abolish national banks; direct election of US Senators, other ways for ppl to influence political system; regulation and ownership of RRs, telephones; graduated income tax; currency inflation; silver remonetization. Populism associated w/ anti-Semitism

    ii)Rejection of laissez-faire, uphold absolutism of ownership

    3)The Crisis of the 1890s

    a)The Panic of 1893

    i)Panic of 1893 led to severe depression- caused by bankruptcy of few corporations that led to bank failure, led to credit contraction. Also caused by depressed farm prices of late 1880s, Eur depression, RR expansion beyond market demand- showed how dependent economy was on powerful RRs

    ii)Businesses, banks, RRs failed. Unemployment soared, led to social unrest- 1894 Populist Jacob Coxey called for massive public works program for unemployed + currency inflation, protested in D.C. w/ “Coxey’s Army”

    b)The Silver Question

    i)Financial panic weakened monetary system, Pres Cleveland believed currency instability cause of depression. Many ppl believed specie (precious metal) must back money to give it value

    ii)“Bimetal” standard discontinued 1873 by Congress b/c market value of silver high than 16:1 standard. Late 1870s silver became less valuable than standard but ppl unable to convert silver b/c of “Crime of ‘73”; opposition by silver-miners + farmers who wanted greater $ circulation (inflation) to ease debts

    iii)At same time decreasing govt gold reserves led Pres Cleveland 1893 to seek repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890- divided Dem party

    iv)Presidential of 1986 incredibly fierce b/c supporters of gold standard saw it as essential to national stability, supporters of “free silver” (guided by William Harvey’s 1894 Coin’s Financial School) saw gold standard as tyrannous and advantageous to wealthy, silver would decrease debt

    4)“A Cross of Gold”

    a)The Emergence of Bryan

    i)Repubs in 1896 election confident of victory b/c of Cleveland+ Dems failure to deal w/ depression nominated William McKinley w/ platform opposed to free coinage of silver 

    ii)Dems of West sought to weaken People’s Party by adopting Populist demands, debated platform of free silver, tariff reduction, income tax, RR and trust regulation- opposed by eastern Dems

    iii)William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech opposed to gold standard at convention, next day voted nominee

    iv)Populists split as to whether or not to fuse w/ Dem party b/c felt some of their unique needs addressed; concluded no other alternative, supported Bryan

    b)The Conservative Party

    i)Business + finance communities donated heavily to Repubs, Bryan’s national stump and camp-meeting style alienated Cath + ethnic voters who feared he embodied Protestants who so firmly opposed them

    ii)McKinley carried election b/c Dem platform had proved to be too narrow (sectional) to win nationally. B/c of “fusion” gamble w/ Democrats the People’s Party began to dissolve in wake of defeat

    c)McKinley and Recovery

    i)McKinley administration saw return to calm b/c labor unrest and agrarian protest had subsided by 1897, economic crisis gradually easing

    ii)McKinley focused on implementing high tariff rate, Congress soon passed Dingley Tariff. Repubs passed Currency (Gold Standard) Act of 1900 that confirmed nation’s gold standard, pegged dollar to specific gold value

    iii)Foreign crop failures resulted in economic uptick, nation entered period of expansion once again—clear trend btwn prosperity + gold standard support

    iv)Free-silver movement had failed- during late 19th century money supply had expanded much more slowly than increase in production and population, but by late 1890s increase in gold supply inflated money, satisfied free-silver ppl

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - The Imperial Republic

     1)Stirrings of Imperialism

    a)The New Manifest Destiny

    i)American attention shifted to foreign lands b/c “closing of the frontier” 1890s led some to fear natural resources would dwindle and must be found abroad, growing importance of foreign trade and desire for new markets, fears that Eur imperialism would lead America to be left out of spoils

    ii)Justifications provided by Social Darwinism- only fittest nations survive, therefore just for strong nations to dominate weaker ones

    iii) Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885) states Anglo-Saxon “race” represented liberty, Christianity and should spread them; John Burgess wrote that duty of A-S to uplift less fortunate ppl

    iv)Famous Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) that countries w/ sea power great nations of history- US needed to have foreign commerce, merchant marine, navy to defend routes, and colonies to provide raw materials and bases- claim Pacific Islands, HI

    b)Hemispheric Hegemony

    i)Sec of State James Blaine 1880s sought to expand US influence in Latin America to provide markets for surplus goods- 1889 organized Pan-American Congress. Pres Cleveland 1895 had dispute w/ GB over Venezuela border

    c)Hawaii and Samoa

    i)Hawaii appealing b/c Navy wanted Pearl Harbor as base, Americans who had settled on island had come to dominate political + economic life of islands

    ii)Hawaii had been series of islands w/ self-sufficient communities. After 1810 American traders, missionaries, planters began settling there. Disease decimated Native populations; by 1840s Americans spread thru islands

    iii)1887 US Navy negotiated to use Pearl Harbor as Navy base; by that time sugar exports to US basis of economy, American plantation system was displacing natives from their lands 

    iv)In response elevated nationalist Queen Liliuokalani 1891. 1890 US eliminated duty-free status of HI sugar, American planters felt only way to survive to join US- 1893 stages revolution. Pres Harrison signed annex agreement 1893 but delayed by Dem Senate and Dem Pres Cleveland until 1898 return of Repubs

    v)Samoa had served as station for US chips in Pacific trade; Pres Hayes 1878 got treaty to use harbor at Pago Pago for Navy. Power share btwn US, GB, Germany over islands- 1899 US and Germany split islands, compensated GB

    2)War with Spain

    a)Controversy Over Cuba

    i)Cubans had resisted Spanish rule of Cuba since 1868 for independence; in 1895 Cubans rose up violently again, Span under Gen Valeriano Weyler used harsh tactics + concentration camps in turn- US press skewered mainly Span

    ii)Pulitzer’s NY World and Hearst’s NY Journal catered to broad, economically lower audience- used sensational “yellow journalism” + Cuban crisis to fight each other for circulation; Cuban Americans urged Cuba Libre as well

    iii)Pres Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality; Pres McKinley took office 1897, protested Spanish conduct- withdrew Weyler

    iv)Two events Feb 1898 ruined peaceful settlement: the leak of a letter from Spain’s minister to Washington touting McKinley as “bidder…of the crowd; and the destruction of the US battleship The Maine in Havana Harbor- Spain initially blamed, Congress mobilized for war- war declared in April

    b)“A Splendid Little War”

    i)Sec of State John Hay called Spanish-American War “a splendid little war” b/c only lasted April-August, few US battle deaths (but 5000+ from disease)

    ii)War effort hampered by army supply problems, regular army w/o experience fighting large-scale war (used to Indian battles)- Nat’l Guard units used like in Civil War. Racial conflict w/ black army unites used in invasion

    c)Seizing the Philippines

    i)Sec of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened Pacific Fleet, ordered Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish forces in Philippines (Span colony) if war broke. May 1898 captured Manila Bay, later troops took city

    ii)War to free Cuba had become war to strip Spain of its colonies w/o any decisions as to what to do with them after capture

    d)The Battle for Cuba

    i)American forces staged landing in June after Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago harbor. US battled Spanish forces in on way to Santiago at Las Guasimos and then later El Caney and San Juan Hill in July

    ii)At Battle of Kettle Hill (part of Battle for San Juan Hill) unit called Rough Riders lead by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt (who had resigned as from Navy to fight in war) had famous charge

    iii)US forces soon took Santiago, later US army landed + captured Puerto Rico

    iv)Armistice w/ Spain in August ended war- recognized independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to US, accepted Manila (Philippines) occupation

    e)Puerto Rico and the United States

    i)Annexation of Puerto Rico produced little controversy- American military controlled island until 1900 Foraker Act created colonial got w/ American governor, 2-chamber legislature, and US could amend/veto any legislation

    ii)Puerto Ricans (who had history of demanding independence from Spanish) clamored for independence- 1917 Congress passed Jones Act that made PR US territory + PRicans American citizens

    iii)PR sugar economy flourished now w/o tariffs (as in HI); plantations formed, many PR farmers became paid laborers, dependent on int’l sugar prices

    f)The Debate over the Philippines

    i)Debate over Philippines difft b/c not in W. Hemisphere, densely populated and far away—McKinley reluctant but believed no other alternative (could not be retuned to Spain, given to other imperialist, and Filips “unfit for self govt”)

    ii)War w/ Spain ended 1898 w/ Treaty of Paris, US paid $20 million for Philippines. Fierce resistance in US to ratification

    iii)Anti-imperialists (under Anti-Imperialist League) opposed b/c imperialism immoral, industrial workers feared cheap labor

    iv)Ratification supported by imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt saw empire as means to reinvigorate nation, dominate Oriental trade, Repubs could come out of Repub war w/ new territory, and easy b/c US already occupied islands

    v)Ratified in 1899 b/c anti-imperialist Dem Williams Jennings Bryan wanted to make is issue in 1900 election. Bryan ran against McKinley, referendum on war showed American ppl supported imperialism- McKinley won decisively

    3)The Republic As Empire

    a)Governing the Colonies

    i)American dependents Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico got territory status (residents became US citizens)

    ii)US military remained in Cuba. After Cuban constitution failed to mention US, Congress passed 1901 Platt Amendment that would bar Cuba from making treaties, gave US right to intervene in Cuba (little political independence given). American capital bought up much of Cuban economy and dominated it

    b)The Philippine War

    i)US subjugation of natives led to long, bloody war w/ insurgent independence fighters. US used same brutal tactics that it had opposed Spain using in Cuba

    ii)Rebellion led by Emilio Aguinaldo w/ large popular following. By 1902 brutal and savage US tactics had changed American public opinion on war, but by then war already over (Aguinaldo captured 1901)

    iii)Power given to US administrator William Howard Taft who believed US mission to prepare Filipinos for independence, so gave broad local autonomy. Trade w/ US grew and islands came to almost depend on US markets

    c)The Open Door Policy

    i)Philippine occupation strengthened US interest in Asia and Chinese trade

    ii)Eur nations were carving up China for themselves; McKinley wanted to protect US interest in China w/o war. Sec of State John Hay proposed 1898 “Open Door notes” to Eur nations allowing access to China but give no nation special advantages. Allowed free trade w/o colony, military involvement

    iii)Boxer Rebellion arose against foreigners in China. Siege of foreign diplomatic corps resulted in McKinley and Hay participating in quelling rebellion

    d)A Modern Military System

    i)War w/ Spain showed weakness of US military system in training, supply, coordination. McKinley apptd Elihu Root as Sec of War to overhaul forces

    ii)Root enlarged army, federal standards for Nat’l Guard, created officer training schools, created Joint Chiefs of Staff to advise Sec of War, supervise military establishment, plan possible wars—modern military system by turn of century

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Rise of Progressivism

     1)The Progressive Impulse

    a)Varieties of Progressivism

    i)Progressives varied on how to intervene + reform- popular idea of “antimonopoly” (fear of concentrated power, limit + disperse wealth, power)

    ii)Social cohesion- welfare of single person dependent on welfare of society

    iii)Faith in knowledge, principles of natural + social sciences, modernized govt

    b)The Muckrakers

    i)Muckrakers were crusading journalists who exposed social, economic, political injustices and corruption

    ii)At first targeted trusts (particularly RR barons)- Ida Tarbell’s study on Standard Oil. Later, attention toward govt + political machines- writings of Lincoln Steffens helped arouse sentiment for urban reforms

    c)The Social Gospel

    i)Muckrakers moralistic tone prompted outrage at social + econ injustice, led to rise of Protestant Social Gospel- fusion of religion w/ reform

    ii)Salvation Army was Christian social welfare organization; ministers left parish to serve in troubled cities; Father John Ryan wrote of expanding scope of Cath social welfare groups

    iii)Religion w/ reform gave Progressivism moral component + commitment to redeem lives of even least favored citizens

    d)The Settlement House Movement

    i)Progressives believed env’t influenced individual development. To help distressed required improving their conditions

    ii)Ppl believed crowded immigrant neighbors created distress- creation of settlement houses a response. Most famous was Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago- sought to help immigrant families adapt to language + culture, belief that middle-class had responsibility to share values w/ immigrants

    iii)College educated women often involved in settlement house movement; movement helped spawn profession of social work

    e)The Allure of Expertise

    i)Progressivism values application of scientific methods, knowledge, expertise- well-designed bureaucracy needed. Some proposed civilization where science could solve social + econ problems- advocated in A Theory of The Leisure Class (1899) by Thorstein Veblen

    ii)Rise of social sciences- scientific methods used to study society + its institutions

    f)The Professions

    i)Late 19th century more ppl engaged in administrative + professional tasks (managers, scientists, teachers). This new middle class valued education, individual accomplishments

    ii)As demand for professionals increased so did their desire for reform to create organized professions

    iii)Doctors saw creation of professional American Medical Association1901- strict standards for admissions, govt passed laws requiring licensing; also rise of rigorous, scientific training and research

    iv)Similar movements in other professions- lawyers formed bar associations w/ central examining boards businessmen formed Chamber of Commerce

    g)Women and the Professions

    i)Some women encountered obstacles in entering professions, but many from women’s colleges did enter “appropriate professions”- settlement houses and social work, teaching, nursing (all had vague “domestic”/“helping” image)

    2)Women and Reform

    a)The “New Woman”

    i)“New woman” product of social + economic changes- wage earning activity had moved out of house and into factory or office, children enrolled in school at earlier ages, technology (running water, electricity) made housework less of a burden, declining family size; “Boston marriages”- women living w/ women

    b)The Clubwomen

    i)Late 19th/early 20th century rise of women’s clubs- network of associations that lead many reform movements. General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) at first cultural, later focused on social betterment

    ii)Clubs represented effort to extend women’s influence out of traditional role in home and create a public space for women. Worked to lobby legislatures for regulation of children + women work conditions, food inspection, temperance

    iii)Women’s Trade Union League rallied women to join unions, aid female labor

    c)Woman Suffrage

    i)Women’s suffrage movement at first advanced thru arguments that women deserved same “natural rights” as men, opponents said society needed distinct female “sphere”

    ii)Early 20th century suffragists more organized-- Anna Shaw + Carrie Chapman Catt formed National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

    iii)Began to make “safer” arguments for suffrage in that voting would not ruin distinct sphere but allow women to bring special virtues to society’s problems and contribute to politics. Some claimed could soothe male aggression (WWI)

    iv)1910 Washington extended suffrage to women, more hesitant in East b/c of associations w/ ethnic conflict (Catholics) over temperance movement

    v)1920 Nineteenth Amendment ratified guaranteeing female political rights; others (including Alice Paul’s Woman’s Party) wanted to fight on for an Equal Rights Amendment to prohibit all discrimination based on sex

    3)The Assault on the Parties

    a)Early Attacks

    i)Late 19th century populism and rise of Independent Republicans had attempted to break party lock on power- resulted in secret ballot

    ii)Argued party rule could be dealt w/ by increasing power of ppl + ability to express will at polls, also put more power in nonpartisan, nonelected officials

    b)Municipal Reform

    i)Many progressives believed party rule most powerful in cities. Muckrakers mobilized urban middle-class progressives against city bosses, special interests who benefited from machine organizations, immigrant laborers

    c)New Forms of Governance

    i)Commission Plan- replaced mayor and council replaced w/ nonpartisan commission. First used in Galveston, TX  in 1900, others followed

    ii)City-Manager Plan- elected officials hired outside expert to run govt, remain above corruption of politics

    iii)Successful reformer Cleveland Mayor Tom Johnson from conventional political structure controlled by progressives- fought special interests

    d)Statehouse Progressivism

    i)Failure of some attacks on city boss rule led reformers to turn to state govt for change- progressives looked to circumvent incompetent state legislatures

    ii)Initiative allowed reformers to submit legislation directly to voters in general election; Referendum put actions of legislature directly to the ppl for approval

    iii)Direct primary allowed ppl instead of bosses to choose candidates; Recall gave voters right to remove elected official thru special election

    iv)Famous state-level reformer was Gov Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin- regulated RRs, utilities, workplace, graduated taxes on inherited wealth

    e)Parties and Interest Groups

    i)Reform did not destroy parties but led to decline in their influence- seen by decreasing voter turnout. “Interest groups” emerged from professional organizations or labor to advance own demands directly to govt, not thru party

    4)Sources of Progressive Reform

    a)Labor, the Machine, and Reform

    i)Samuel Gompers’s American Federation of Labor mostly uninvolved in reform at time, but local unions played role in passing some state reform laws

    ii)Parties tried to preserve interest by adapting- some bosses allowed their machines to be vehicle of social reform (e.g. Charles Murphy of Tammany Hall supported legislation for working conditions, child labor)

    iii)Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 1911 in NY killed many women workers b/c bosses had locked emergency exits. Commission delivered report calling for reform in labor conditions- reform lead in legislature by Tammany Dems. Imposed regulation on factory owners and mechanisms for enforcement

    b)Western Progressives

    i)In Western states reformers targeted federal govt b/c powerful as it never had been in East (power over lands and resources, subsidies for RRs and water projects, issues transcended state borders). Weaker local + state govts political led to weaker W polit. parties, govts passed progressive reforms more quickly

    c)African Americans and Reform

    i)AAs faced large legal, social, economic, political obstacles in challenging their oppressed status and seeking reform- many embraced Booker T Washington’s message of self-improvement over long-term social change

    ii)1900s new Niagara Movement led by WEB Du Bois (author of 1903 The Souls of Black Folk)called for immediate civil rights, professional education

    iii)1909 joined w/ supportive white progressives to form National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), used federal lawsuits in pursuit of equal rights. In Guinn v. United States (1915) Supreme Court ruled grandfather clause illegal; Buchanan v. Worley (1917) Court outlawed some segregation—NAACP established itself as leading black organization

    5)Crusade for Social Order and Reform

    a)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Many progressives saw elimination of alcohol as way to restore societal order- women saw alcohol as source of problems for families, employers saw it as roadblock to efficiency, political reformers saw saloon as Machine institution

    ii)1873 temperance supporters formed Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) led by Frances Willard, together w/ Anti-Saloon League called for abolition of saloons and prohibition of manufacture and sale of alcohol

    iii)Opposition by immigrant and working-class voters; regardless, national effort and start of WWI moral fervor led to 1920 Eighteenth Amendment prohibition

    b)Immigration Restriction

    i)Reformers saw growing immigrant population as source of social problems- some wanted to help assimilation, others to limit flow of new immigrants

    ii)Early century pressure to slow immigration, heightened by growth of eugenics movement arguing human inequalities hereditary and immigration (especially of non-Anglo E. Eurs and Asians) resulting in growth of unfit peoples

    iii)Publicist Madison Grant’s 1916 The Passing of the Great Race tied together eugenics + Nativism; Congress’s Dillingham Report said new immigrants less assimilable than earlier groups, restrictions should be based on nationality

    iv)Others supported restrictions as means to solve urban overcrowding, unemployment, strained social services, and unrest

    6)Challenging the Capitalist Order

    a)The Dream of Socialism

    i)Radical opposition to capitalist system strongest btwn 1900-1914, Socialist Party under Eugene V. Debs grew during progressive era. Socialists wanted to change structure of economy, but disagreement as to extent and tactics

    ii)Some moderates favored nationalizing only major industries, use electoral politics; radicals including union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) under William Haywood wanted abolition of “wage slave” system, favored use of general strike, supported unskilled workers (strong force in West)

    iii)1917 strike by IWW led to federal government crackdown on union b/c needed materials in mobilization for war; IWW never fully recovered

    iv)Socialist Party refusal to support war + growing antiradicalism led to decline of socialism as powerful political force in America

    b)Decentralization and Regulation

    i)Most progressives also saw major problem in great corporate centralization + consolidation, but instead of nationalizing industries wanted federal govt to create balance btwn need for big business and need for competition

    ii)Lawyer Louis Brandeis argued about “curse of bigness”, saw it as threat to efficiency and freedom, limited individual control of own destiny

    iii)Others believed combinations sometimes helped efficiency, therefore govt should distinguish btwn “good” and “bad” trusts to protect against abuses by “bad” concentrations. Supported by “nationalist” Herbert Croly in 1909 The Promise of American Life

    iv)Movement growing for industry cooperation and self-regulation; others wanted active govt role in regulation and planning economy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Battle for National Reform

     1)Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency

    a)The Accidental President

    i)VP Theodore Roosevelt assumed presidency September 1901after Pres McKinley assassinated. Reputation as an independent and wild man; became champion of cautious an moderate change, reform to protect society against more radical changes

    b)Government, Capital, and Labor

    i)Roosevelt saw fed govt as mediator of the public good. Not opposed to industrial combinations but realized potential for abuse of power 

    ii)Supported regulation of trusts- created Department of Commerce and Labor 1903 to publicly investigate corporations. Did make effort to break up some trusts- used Sherman Antitrust Act to break up Northern Securities Company monopoly over RRs in Northwest

    iii)Saw govt as impartial regulator for labor as well- 1902 strike by United Mine workers led Roosevelt to ask labor and management to accept impartial federal arbitration, threatened to seize mines if management balked

    c)“The Square Deal”

    i)Reform not priority during first years as president, more concerned w/ winning reelection by not alienating conservative Republicans, winning support of businessmen and using patronage—won 1904 election

    ii)First targeted RR industry by asking Congress to increase fed power to oversee rates- Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 restored some govt regulatory power

    iii)Supported Congress passing Pure Food and Drug Act, after Upton Sinclair’s 1906 The Jungle supported Meat Inspection Act. Also favored 8 hour work day for labor, workmen’s compensation, and inheritance and income taxes

    d)Roosevelt and Conservation

    i)Concerned w/ unregulated exploitation of resources and wilderness- used executive power to restrict private development on govt land, saw goal of “conservation” to carefully manage development and to apply same scientific method of management being used in cities

    ii)President supported public reclamation and irrigation projects- 1902 Newlands Act funded dam construction, reservoirs, canals in West to open new lands for irrigation, cultivation and power development

    e)Roosevelt and Preservation

    i)Pres also sympathized w/ naturalists who wanted to protect land, wildlife from human intrusion- expanded National Forest System for “rational” lumbering, but also grew National Park System to protect lands from any development

    f)The Hetch Hetchy Controversy

    i)Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite seen as beautiful land by naturalists, but San Francisco residents + Roosevelt’s head of National Forest System Gifford Pinchot wanted land to build dam + reservoir for city’s growing water needs

    ii)Pinchot saw needs of city more important than claims of preservation; issue placed in 1908 referendum, dam approved by large margin in election

    g)The Panic of 1907

    i)Despite reforms govt still had little control over industrial economy; in 1907 production outgrew domestic + foreign demand, speculation + poor management led to panic. 

    ii)JP Morgan pooled assets of NY banks to prop up banks, made deal with Pres to allow US Steel to purchase Tennessee Coal and Iron Company shares

    iii)B/c of Panic of 1907 and promise made in 1904 to step down four years later, did not seek renomination and reelection for 1908 bid

    2)The Troubled Succession

    a)Taft and the Progressives

    i)During early administration called on Congress to lower tariff (a progressive demand), refused to oppose Repub Old Guard. Result was Payne-Aldrich Tariff - reduced tariffs little, raised others- progressives resented inaction

    ii)1909 Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute in which Head of Forest Service Gifford Pinchot was told that Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger had sold public lands in Alaska for personal profit. Taft thought charges groundless, Pinchot leaked info to press-- Taft fired Pinchot, progressives alienated 

    b)The Return of Roosevelt

    i)Roosevelt upset w/ Taft and believed only he was capable of reuniting Republican Party; 1910 outlined “New Nationalism” that moved away from conservatism + argued only effort of strong fed govt could bring social justice

    c)Spreading Insurgency

    i)In 1910 Congressional elections many conservative Repub candidates lost and progressives reelected; Dems gained maj in House, seats in Senate

    ii)Reform sentiment on the rise, but Roosevelt claimed he only wanted to pressure Taft into action; Roosevelt decided to run, however, after Taft charged US Steel acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company had been illegal and reform candidate Robert LaFollette’s campaign collapsed

    d)Roosevelt versus Taft

    i)Taft had support of conservative Repubs and party leaders, Roosevelt supported by progressives- at convention Republican National Committee gave nomination to Taft. Roosevelt left Repub Party and established own Progressive Party w/ himself as nominee (nicknamed Bull Moose Party)

    3)Woodrow Wilson and The New Freedom

    a)Woodrow Wilson

    i)Reform support growing in Democratic Party as well as Repub Party; Dems chose progressive Woodrow Wilson as 1912 Presidential election nominee

    ii)Wilson supported “New Freedom”- held that bigness was unjust and wanted to destroy, not regulate monopoly (whereas Roosevelt’s New Nationalism believed in govt regulation of concentration)

    iii)Roosevelt and Taft split Repub vote, Wilson elected

    b)The Scholar as President

    i)Wilson bold and forceful- used position as leader of Dems to build coalition to support his program (Dem majorities existed in both houses)

    ii)Greatly lowered tariff in Underwood-Simmons Tariff in order to introduce competition into market + breakup trusts; to make up for revenues past graduated income tax

    iii)1913 Congress passed Federal Reserve Act- regional Fed banks made up of regional banks + issued loans at “discount” rate, issued Fed Reserve notes backed by govt, shifted funds to meet credit demands + protect banks. Supervising Federal Reserve Board members selected by Pres

    iv)1914 Wilson began to deal w/ monopoly, Congress passed Federal Trade Commission Act and Clay Antitrust Act 

    (1)FTC was regulatory agency to help business determine whether their actions were legal, also power to prosecute “unfair trade practices”

    (2)Clayton Antitrust Bill to allow break up of trusts weakened by conservative opposition; ultimately administration decided that government supervision and regulation by FTC sufficient

    c)Retreat and Advance

    i)Pres believed New Freedom accomplished, therefore didn’t support progressive suffrage movement and efforts to halt segregation in federal agencies after Dems had heavy losses in Congress in 1914 elections to Repubs (who won support from Progressive party) Wilson began new reforms

    ii)Wilson supported appointment of progressive Louis Brandeis to Supreme Court; supported measured expanding role of federal govt 1916 Keating-Owen Act regulated child labor (struck down by Sup C b/c relied on interstate commerce clause in Const), 1914 Smith-Lever Act to help agricultural extension education

    4)The “Big Stick”: America and The World, 1901-1917

    a)Roosevelt and “Civilization”

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - America and the Great War

    1)The Road to War

    a)The Collapse of the European Peace

    i)Eur divided into alliances- “Triple Entente” of GB, France, Russia & “Triple Alliance” of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (GB-German tension notable)

    ii)After June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbs, A-H invaded Serbia who called on Russian help- b/c alliances other nations entered

    b)Wilson’s Neutrality

    i)1914 Wilson urged neutrality but many Americans sympathized w/ certain nations (German + Irish immigrants=Central, but most ppl= GB+Allies) 

    ii)Strong US-GB economic ties + blockade of Central Powers led US to continue trade w/ GB , shun trade w/ Central nations- “arsenal of Allies”

    iii)Germany began using submarine warfare 1915 to combat GB naval domination; 1915 sinking of Lusitania and 1916 Sussex sinking led Wilson to call on Germans to recognize rights of neutrals- Germans relented and stopped attacking merchant ships to stop  US entrance into war

    c)Preparedness vs Pacifism

    i)Wilson did not intervene for either side b/c of re-election + domestic division

    ii)Economic + militarily preparations debated by pacifists and interventionists. However, by 1916 military armament largely under way

    iii)Wilson won extremely close 1916 b/c of association w/ ability to keep US independent, although Dems barely held on to Congressional majorities

    d)A War for Democracy

    i)After election Wilson wanted country unified and justified if to enter war, should fight to create new progressive world order + not for material gains

    ii)January 1917 Germany began offensive + continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare to defeat Allies before US entrance; February Zimmerman Telegram urged Mex to join w/ Germany (increased public sentiment toward war); March Russian Revolution toppled czar for republican govt

    iii)April 1917 US officially declared war on side of Allies

    2)“War Without Stint”

    a)Entering the War

    i)Immediately w/ US entrance Allied navy able to dramatically reduce sinking’s in troop + supply convoys

    ii)1917 withdrawal of Russian forces after Bolshevik Revolution (Lenin) led Germans to put resources on Western Front, Allies needed US ground troops 

    b)The American Expeditionary Force

    i)US army too small to supply needed troops- April 1917 Wilson urged passage of Selective Service Act to draft soldiers into American Expeditionary Force

    ii)AEF was diverse-- women served as auxiliaries in non-combat roles; African-American soldiers served in segregated units or had menial roles

    c)The Military Struggle

    i)US ground forces insignificant until spring 1918; AEF under Gen John Pershing maintained command structure independent from other Allies

    ii)US forced tipped stalemate + balance of power to Allies--- June 1918 helped repel German offensive at Chateau-Thierry

    iii)Beginning Sept US forced fighting in Argonne Forest (as part of Allied Meuse-Argonne Offensive); pushed Germans back + cut off supply routes

    iv)11/11/1918 Great War ended w/ Allies on German border

    d)The New Technology of Warfare

    i)New military weapons + tactics more deadly (tanks, machine guns, trenches, chemical weapons). Logistics and materials transport gained increased importance. Rise of planes, dreadnought battleships, submarines

    ii)Casualties extremely high for war (British lost 1 million, Germany 2 million); even victors overwhelmed by sheer magnitude of deaths

    3)The War and American Society

    a)Organizing the Economy for War

    i)US appropriated $32 billion for war- to raise money sold “Liberty Bonds” to public & put new graduated taxes on income + inheritance

    ii)To organize economy Wilson created Council of National Defense; but emphasis Civilian Advisory Commission tasked w/ mobilizing at local level

    iii)CND members urged “scientific management” + centralization, proposed dividing economy based on function and not geography w/ “war boards” coordinating efforts in each sector

    iv)War Industries Board oversaw purchase of military supplies, under Bernard Baruch organized factories, set prices, and distributed needed materials. Instead of restricting profits, govt entered alliance w/ private sector

    b)Labor and the War

    i)National War Labor Board pressured industry for concessions to workers (8-hour day, living standards, collective bargaining) but workers forced to forgo strikes. Right before war Ludlow Massacre when striking miners killed

    c)Economic and Social Results of the War

    i)Economic boom during period from Eur demand, later US need. Industrial production expanded, opportunities for female + minorities b/c of men at war

    ii)War years saw “Great Migration” of hundreds of thousands of African- Americans from rural South to northern industrial cities. S poverty + racism and appeal of N factory jobs + freedom led to movement. Growing black communities near white neighborhoods sometimes resulted in race riots

    iii)Women took higher-paying industrial jobs that were unavailable in peace time

    4)The Search for Social Unity

    a)The Peace Movement

    i)Public sentiment divided over US involvement in war—peace movement supported by German Americans, Irish who opposed GB, religious pacifists, intellectuals and leftist groups

    ii) Peaces support also from women’s movement- maternal pacifism

    b)Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent

    i)Once America intervened most of country became patriotic and supportive of troops. Religious revivalism also became source of support for war

    ii)Govt concerned about minority in opposition to war, believed victory possible only thru united public opinion Committee on Public Information under George Creel distributed pro-war propaganda—portrayals of savage Germans

    iii)Espionage Act of 1917 gave govt power to punish spies and obstructers of war effort, respond to reports of disloyalty. Sabotage Act and Sedition Act of 1918 made any public expression of opposition illegal- targeted socialist groups

    iv)Local govts and private citizen groups worked to repress opposition- “vigilante mob” discipline, also American Protective League w/ thousands of members who spied on neighbors to ensure unity of opinion in communities

    v)Repressive efforts targeted socialists and labor leaders, but also largely immigrants (Germans, Irish, Jews)- “Loyalist” Americans called for “100 Percent Americanism”. German Americans faced fierce discrimination

    5)The Search for a New World Order

    a)The Fourteen Points

    i)Wilson’s Fourteen Poitns addressed three areas: self-determination and new boundaries; new international governance laws including freedom of the seas, end to secret treaties, free trade, determination of colonial claims; league of nations to implement points and resolve future disagreements

    ii)Fourteen Points also effort to combat Bolshevik (Lenin) aspiration to lead new postwar world order—US established itself thru the points

    b)Early Obstacles

    i)Wilson hoped popular support would help garner Allied support for Points, 

    ii)However, most Allies so decimated by war and so bitter against Germany that they did not with to be generous GB Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Premier Georges Clemenceau determined to gain compensation

    iii)At home Wilson + Dems lost control of Congress to Repub majorities in 1918 election, domestic economic issues + Repub opposition weakened his position

    c)The Paris Peace Conference

    i)Big Four nations to negotiate treaty were GB, France, Italy, US

    ii)Wilson’s idealism met by effort by other nations to improve own lot, concerns about eastern Europe and communism (US did not recognize Bolshevik govt until 1933). His economic + strategic demands suffered from conflict w/ cultural nationalism

    iii)Wilson initially rejected reparations from Central Powers, but Allies forced him to accept idea in order to keep Germany weak + unable to threaten Eur

    iv)Wilson was successful and placing some colonies under League of Nations “mandate” system, created Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia

    v)Allies accepted “covenant” of League of Nations-- to meet to resolve disputes + protect peace, Wilson believed problems w/ treaty could be fixed by League

    d)The Ratification Battle

    i)Americans used to isolation questioned international commitment, Wilson refused to compromise or modify League too much—when Treaty of Versailles introduced by Wilson to Senate in 1919 

    ii)Opposition lead by Repub Irreconcilables who wanted isolation, but also by personal hatred of Sen Henry Cabot Lodge for Wilson—wanted to delay so public approval would subside, make treaty issue in 1920 election

    e)Wilson’s Ordeal

    i)Wilson began traveling country to gain public support for treaty. The traveling and speaking tour exacerbated his already bad health and he suffered stroke that rendered him incapable for weeks

    ii)Condition made his views of world in moral terms and loathing for compromise stronger. When Treaty sent to Sen for approval w/ “reservations” (amendments) attached, Wilson urged Dems to vote against it- both amended treaty and original failed to reach 2/3 majority to be ratified

    6)A Society in Turmoil

    a)Industry and Labor

    i)After war govt began cancelling contracts. War boom continued for short while b/c of foreign demand + deficit spending

    ii)In 1920 bubble burst—GDP decreased, inflation and unemployment rose

    iii)In postwar env’t 1919 management sought to rescind worker rights that they had been forced to grant during war—use of union strikes increased to combat these moves: Boston Police Strike, great Steel Worker’s Strike failure

    b)The Demands of African-Americans

    i)Retruning blacks from war wanted social reward+ rights for service, black factory workers from war wanted to retain economic gains they had made

    ii)Racial tension increased as retrurning whites displaced black workers- contributed to large 1919 Chicago race riots

    iii)Marcus Garvey’s ideas of Black Nationalism gained popularity among blacks- advocated embracing heritage + return to Africa, reject white assimilation

    c)The Red Scare

    i)Industrial problems, racial violence, dissent, creation of Communist International in 1919 by Soviets to spread revolution, also bombings in US by radicals fueled middle class fears of instability + radicalism

    ii)Growing movement to fight radicalism + embrace “100 Percent Americanism” Red Scare

    iii)Antiradicals saw any instability or protest as radical threat; Jan 1920 Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer conducted nationwide raids in radical crackdown

    iv)1920 Sacco and Vanzetti murder trial showed American bias toward perceived radicals (they had been immigrant anarchists); they were executed in 1927

    d)The Retreat from Idealism

    i)Passage of 19th Amendment in 1920  (to give women suffrage) marked end of reform era—due to economic problems, labor unrest, and antiradicalism that all lead to sense of disillusionment

    ii)1920 Presidential election pitted idealists Dem James Cox (and VP Franklin Roosevelt) against conservative Republican Warren Harding who promised “return to normalcy”—Harding won by a large margin

    iii)Election a repudiation of League of Nation and postwar order of democratic ideals

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - “The New Era”

    1)The New Economy

    a)Technology and Economic Growth

    i)After 1921-1922 recession tremendous economic growth in output + income 

    ii)Growth result of collapse of Eur industry after war, important technological advances: rise of auto manufacturing (and in turn gas production, road construction), assembly line, rise of radio and commercial broadcasting, advances in air travel, development of electronics + synthetic materials

    iii)Maturation of electricity and telecommunications fields; work during 1920s and 1930s on primitive computer technologies

    b)Economic Organization

    i)Certain industries (e.g. steel) continued toward national organization and consolidation- these companies adopted new modern administrative systems w/ efficient division structures to allow subsidiary control + easier expansion

    ii)In industries w/ more competition stabilization reached thru cooperation—rise of trade association to coordinate production + marketing

    iii)Industrialists feared overproduction and recession, and efforts to curb competition thru either consolidation or cooperation reflected this

    c)Labor in the New Era

    i)Some employers 1920s used “welfare capitalism” to give workers more rights, improve safety, raise wages in order to avoid labor unrest + independent union growth. System survived only if industry prospering- collapsed in 1929

    ii)Welfare capitalism helped only a few workers, employers wage increases disproportional to their increase in profits. Ultimately workers still mainly impoverished and powerless, families relied on multiple wage earners

    iii)Organized labor + independent unions often failed to adapt to changing nature of modern economy. American Federation of Labor still used craft union system based on skills, did not allow growing unskilled industrial workers

    d)Women and Minorities in the Work Force

    i)Number of women in workforce increased, especially in “pink-collar” jobs- low-paying service jobs, most unions refused to organize them

    ii)African-Americans in cities after 1914 Great Migration largely excluded from unions (A. Philip Randolph’s Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters exception)

    iii)In West + Southwest unskilled and unorganized workers mainly Hispanics and Mexican immigrants, Asians (mainly Japanese who replaced Chinese after Exclusion Acts in menial jobs)

    e)The “American” Plan

    i)After 1919 economic uneasiness corporations rallied strongly against “subversive” unionism and wanted to protect idea of open shop (in which workers not forced to join union)—known as “American Plan”

    ii)Govt intervened on behalf of management, courts often ruled against striking workers. Btwn this and corporate efforts union membership saw large decline

    f)Agricultural Technology and the Plight of the Farmer

    i)American agriculture adopted new technolgoies (e.g. tractor, combine) allowed more crops w/ fewer workers; hybrid corn + fertilizers increased productivity led to overprodution and collapse in food prices

    ii)Farmers called on govt price support- idea of “parity” (govt set price, farmers reimbursed if good sold for less in fluctuating market) and high foreign crop tariffs introduced in Congress in McNary-Haugen Bill (vetoed by Coolidge)

    2)The New Culture

    a)Consumerism

    i)Industrial growth led to rise of consumer culture in which ppl had discretionary funds w/ which to buy items for pleasure (appliances, fashion)

    ii)Most revolutionary product was automobile- allowed rural ppl to escape isolation, city ppl to escape crowded urban life; rise of vacation traveling

    b)Advertising

    i)Techniques first used in wartime propaganda came of age in new age of advertising + work of publicists. Famous book of time The Man Nobody Knows by Bruce Burton about Jesus as “salesman”

    ii)Ads possible b/c of mass audience in national chains of newspapers, mass-circulation magazine growth

    c)The Movies and Broadcasting

    i)1920s saw rise of Hollywood, creation of Motion Picture Association and the Hays Code as industry self-ban on objectionable material

    ii)Phenomenal rise of radio beginning w/ first commercial station broadcasting in 1920. By 1929 12 million families owned radio sets

    d)Modernist Religion

    i)Growing consumer culture w/ emphasis on immediate self-fulfillment had influence on religion—abandonment by some of traditional + literal

    ii)Harry Emerson Fosdick spokesman for new liberal Protestantism of 1920s

    e)Professional Women

    i)Most employed women were working class b/c of professional struggle btwn career and family. Few professional women limited to mainly “feminine” fields of fashion, education, social work, nursing

    f)Changing Ideas of Motherhood

    i)Belief grew that maternal affection not adequate preparation for child rearing, advice and help of professionals needed instead 

    ii)Motherhood increasingly relied on institutions out of home, allowing time to devote to “companionate marriage”- involved more as wives, in social life

    iii)Growth of birth control related to sense of sex as recreation vs only creation

    g)The “Flapper”: Image and Reality

    i)Some women came to believe rigid and Victorian “feminism” unnecessary “flapper” women expressed themselves freely thru dress, speech, behavior

    h)Pressing for Women’s Rights

    i)Women formed League of Women Voters, many women helped growing consumer groups

    ii)1921 Sheppard-Towner Act gave federal funds to states for prenatal and child healthcare. Fought my American Medical Association, others; repealed in 1929--- showed women didn’t vote as single block, even on “female” issues 

    i)Education and Youth

    i)Growing secularism, emphasis on training and expertise manifested itself in growing upper education attendance rates, teaching of technical skills

    ii)Emergence of distinct youth culture w/ growing idea of adolescence, belief this was time for child to develop institutions w/ peers separate form family

    j)The Decline of the “Self-Made Man”

    i)Myth of “self-made man” who could gain wealth and fame thru hard work and natural talent gave way to belief that nothing possible without education and training (men felt losing independence, control, “masculinity”)

    ii)Idolized self-made men in Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh

    k)The Disenchanted

    i)New generation of artists and intellectuals viewed society w/ contempt; isolated themselves instead of playing reform role

    ii)Lost Generation’s critique American system in which individual had no means of personal fulfillment rose out of WWI experience and sense of deaths in vain, end of Wilsonian idealism, growing business + consumerism

    iii)Ernest Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) expressed contempt of war; other “debunkers” critical of society included H.L. Mencken, Sinclair Lewis

    iv)Many of these critics who rejected the “success ethics” of America became expatriates living abroad. Paris was center of American artistic life

    l)The Harlem Renaissance

    i)Other intellectuals saw solution to problems in exploration of own culture and its origins—great example Harlem during “Harlem Renaissance”

    ii)Harlem center of black artists and intellectuals; literature, poetry , and art drew on African roots—famously Alan Locke, Langston Hughes

    m)The Southern Agrarians

    i)Group of Southern intellectuals and poets known as the Fugitives rebelled against depersonalization and materialism due to industrialization by recalling the Southern nonindustrial, agrarian way of life

    ii)Wrote reactionary ideas in their 1930 agrarian manifesto I’ll Take My Stand

    3)A Conflict of Cultures

    a)Prohibition

    i)Prohibition took effect 1920; within a year “noble experiment” failing b/c even though some drinking rates fell alcohol still widely available and legitimate businesses being replaced by organized crime (famous Al Capone)

    ii)Prohibition supported by rural Protestants who they associated drinking w/ Catholic immigrants + new valueless culture

    b)Nativism and the Klan

    i)After war many Americans associated immigration w/ radicalism; efforts to restrict influx grew, 1921 Congress passed emergency law w/ quota system 

    ii)Nativists wanted harsher law--- National Origins Act of 1924 banned all east Asian immigration, reduced especially eastern Eur quotas

    iii)Ku Klux Klan re-emerged as force b/c of fear by some older Americans of disruption of culture by new peoples—“New Klan” emerged in 1915 after meeting in Stone Mountain, GA

    iv)At first targeted blacks, after the war targeted Catholics, Jews, and foreigners- purge “alien” influences; membership grew in S but also N industrial cities

    v) Wanted to threaten anyone who challenged “traditional values”- irreligion, drunkenness, ect. Defend racial homogeneity + defend traditional culture against modernity; provided disenfranchised w/ sense of community, power

    c)Religious Fundamentalism

    i)Fight over role of religion in modern society—split in Protestantism btwn urban, middle-class ppl who wanted to adapt religion to modern science and secular society vs traditional rural ppl who wanted to retain religious import

    ii)Fundamentalists wanted traditional interpretation of bible, opposed Darwinism; evangelical movement wanting to spread doctrine (famous preacher Billy Sunday)

    iii)When teaching Darwinism outlawed in Tennessee, ACLU promised to defend teacher John Scopes who defied law—Scopes trial isolated Fundamentalists from mainstream Protestants, ended their growing political activism

    d)The Democrat’s Ordeal

    i)Democrats split btwn urban and rural factions; party included prohibitionists, Klansmen, fundamentalists but also Caths, urban workers, immigrants

    ii)At 1924 Democratic National Convention in NY conflict btwn urban wing wanting prohibition repealed, denunciation of clan, and supported Alfred Smith for nominee; W + S supported William McAdoo. After deadlock both withdrew and John Davis chosen as nominee

    iii)In 1928 AL Smith won nomination, but party still divided b/c of southern anti-Catholicism; lost election to Herbert Hoover

    4)Republican Government

    a)Harding and Coolidge

    i)Pres Warren Harding elected 1920; appointed party elite who had helped win him nomination to positions in administration, ultimately this corrupt “Ohio Gang” committed fraud and corruption in Teapot Dome oil reserve scandal

    ii)Harding died of a heart attack 1923, VP Calvin Coolidge ascended to presidency (known for crushing Boston Police riot)

    iii)Coolidge a passive president like Harding, believed govt should not interfere little in life of nation; won re-election 1924 but did not seek office in 1928

    b)Government and Business

    i)Even though New Era presidents passive, fed govt as a whole worked to helped business + industry operate efficient and productively

    ii)Sec of Treasury Andrew Mellon reduced tax on corporate profits, personal incomes, inheritances, and cut federal budget

    iii)Sec of Commerce Herbert Hoover favored voluntary cooperation of businesses in private sector for stability. Supported business “Associationalism” in which businessmen in an industry worked together to promote stability, efficient production, and marketing

    iv)Hoover won the Presidential election of 1928, but nation entered Depression in 1929

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Great Depression

    1)The Coming of the Great Depression

    a)The Great Crash

    i)From Feb 1928 until October 1929 economic boom, stock prices rose dramatically w/ credit easily available

    ii)October 29, 1929- “Black Tuesday”- stock market crashed

    b)Unemployment and Relief

    i)In capitalist system recessions cyclical, but Great Depression direly severe 

    ii)Such large crash b/c lack of diversification (many overinvested in automobiles + construction), maldistribution of wealth resulting in consumers receiving too little money to spend to keep pace w/ growing markets + supplies (coupled w/ rising unemployment due to natural cycle + from technology)

    iii)Credit structures + indebtedness of farmers threatened banks, but banks also threatened by risky investments + loans in stock markets

    iv)US foreign exports declined b/c some Eur nations productivity increasing but others facing financial difficulties; international debt structure after WWI in which nations sought new loans to pay off existing Allied loans + Central nation reparations weakened US economy after 1929 left countries w/o source with which to repay loans, began to default 

    c)Progress of Depression

    i)Stock market crash triggered chain of events that further weakened economy over next 3 years

    ii)Banking system collapsed and billions of dollars in deposits lost; money supply contraction exacerbated by 1931 Fed Reserve interest raises

    iii)GDP, capital investment, gross farm product all down at least 25% by 1933; in 1932 national unemployment had risen to 25% (much more in some cities)

    2)The American People in Hard Times

    a)Unemployment and Relief

    i)Americans taught to believe that individual responsible for own fate, poverty sign of own failure; nevertheless the small relief system of the 1920s incapable of dealing w/ new demands and govts hesitant to increase support b/c of decreasing tax revenues + welfare stigma. Bread lines found in cities

    ii)In rural areas income declined 60%, 1/3 of farmers lost land, massive drought extended thru the “Dust Bowl” starting in 1930 lasting for a decade farm prices so low that many farmers left homes to seek employment (“Okies”)

    iii)Nationwide problems of malnutrition, homelessness; growth of shantytowns, massive migrations of ppl across country seeking jobs, better living conditions 

    b)African-Americans and the Depression

    i)Most S blacks were farmers, collapse of cotton + staple crop prices led them to leave land; menial jobs they had held in cities began to be given to whites (Black Shirts in Atlanta 1930 called for dismissal of all blacks from jobs so that they would be available for struggling whites to take)

    ii)Mass migration of jobless southern blacks to Northern urban centers

    iii)Segregation + black disenfranchisement remained, but famous Scottsboro case in which group of 7 blacks falsely accused of rape resulted in national attention b/c of NAACP support

    iv)NAACP began working to increase black participation in unions + organized labor

    c)Mexican Americans in Depression America

    i)Large Mex immigration population (known as Chicanos) centered mostly in Southwest, worked mainly menial jobs or as unskilled laborers in urban areas

    ii)When Depression hit many whites forced them from their jobs, relief to Mexicans severely limited + many rounded up to be sent back to Mexico—all highlighted the discrimination of Hispanics that swept region

    d)Asian Americans in Hard Times

    i)Depression strengthened pattern of economic marginalization of Asian American populations which were centered mainly on the West coast; frequently lost jobs to whites desperate for employment

    ii)Some Japanese sought to form clubs to advance political agendas: Japanese American Democratic Club worked for laws against discrimination; Japanese American Citizens League sought to make immigrants more assimilated

    e)Women and the Workplace in the Great Depression

    i)Ppl believed that b/c jobs so scarce whatever was available should go to men—this belief strengthened notion of women’s main role staying in home, also feelings that no woman with an employed husband should hold a job

    ii)Single and married women both continued to work during Depression b/c money so necessary- result of nonprofessional nature of “pink-collar” jobs as more secure than those in heavy industry, male stigma about taking them

    iii)Support for Reform Era ideas of women economically and professionally independent began to wane; Depression saw death of National Woman’s Party

    f)Depression Families

    i)Middle- and working-class families used to rising standard of living now uncertain b/c of unemployment or income reductions

    ii)Retreat from consumerism as women made clothes in home, home businesses established, banding together of extended family units

    3)The Depression and American Culture

    a)Depression Values

    i)Pre-Depression acceptance of affluence and consumerism remained unchanged as ppl worked even more hard to achieve ideals

    ii)Longstanding belief that individual controlled own fate and success thru hard work (“success ethic”) largely survived Depression as many unemployed simply blamed themselves and remained passive b/c felt ashamed

    iii)Masses responded messages that they themselves could restore own wealth + success—best-selling How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie

    b)Artists and Intellectuals in the Great Depression

    i)Just as urban poverty had received attention during Reform Era, during 1930s many shocked at “discovery” of rural poverty- photography of Farm Security Administration photographers highlighted impact of hostile env’t on ppl

    ii)Many writers began to highlight social injustices- Erskine Caldwell’s Tobacco Road(1932) of rural poverty; Richard Wright’s Native Son of urban ghettos; John Steinbeck’s novels of migrant workers; John Dos Passso’s USA trilogy attacked capitalism

    c)Radio

    i)Almost every family had radio, listening often a communal activity

    ii)Most radio programming was entertaining and escapist in nature (comedies or adventures, soap operas); live programming of performances also developed

    iii)Radio allowed access to major public events in news, sports, politics

    iv)Drew nation together b/c of widespread availability of same cultural and informational programming, gathered family together in the home

    d)The Movies

    i)Early 1930s movie attendance dropped b/c of economic hardship, but by mid-1930s many seeing them again

    ii)Most movies censored heavily and studio system kept projects largely uncontroversial; some films did manage to explore social and political questions, but most remained escapist in order to keep attention of audience away from troubles. Walt Disney movies emerged during 1930s

    e)Popular Literature and Journalism

    i)Literature more reflective of growing radicalism + discontentedness than radio and movies, although escapist and romantic works still widely popular (Mitchell’s 1936 Gone With The Wind; photographic Life Magazine)

    ii)Other works challenged American popular values: John Dos Passos’s U.S.A. trilogy (1930-1936) attacked American materialism; Nathanael West’s Miss Lonelyhearts(1933) of a woman overwhelmed by the life stories of others

    f)The Popular Front and the Left

    i)Late 1930s more literature more optimistic of society b/c of rise of Popular Front coalition lead by American Communist Party- supported Franklin Roosevelt and New Deal, mobilized intellectuals toward social criticism

    ii)Intellectual detachment of 1920s targeted by Popular Front- mobilized some men into Lincoln Brigade to fight in Spanish Civil War against the fascists

    iii)Communist Party organized unemployed, unions, supported racial justice; however party under control of Soviet Union- when Stalin signed 1939 nonaggression pact w/ Hitler Party abandoned Popular Front and returned to criticizing liberals

    iv)Socialist Party of America under Norman Thomas attempted to argue crisis failure of capitalist system and tried to win support for party, especially targeting rural poor—supported Southern Tenant Farmers Union but never gained strength

    v)Antiradicalism a strong force in 1930s and hostility existed toward Communist Party, yet at the same time Left widely respected amongst workers and intellectuals; temporary widening of mainstream culture

    vi)Famous accounts of social conditions of the era provided by James Agee’s Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941) and more famously John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath(1939)

    4)The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover

    a)The Hoover Program

    i)Hoover responded to Depression by trying to restore confidence in economy- tried to gather business into voluntary program of cooperation to aid recovery; by 1931 voluntarism had collapsed b/c of worsening economy

    ii)Hoover tried using govt spending to boost economy; spending not enough in face of huge economic problems, sought to raise taxes 1932 to balance budget

    iii)Offered Agricultural Marketing Act to help farmers w/ low crop prices, raised foreign agricultural tariffs in Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930- neither helped

    iv)Dems gained majority in House + increase in Senate in 1930 elections by promising government economic assistance; presidents unpopularity grew (shantytowns called “Hoovervilles”) especially after international financial panic in spring 1931 w/ Austrian bank collapse

    v)1932 Congress created Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to give loans to imperiled banks, RRs, businesses- RFC failed to improve economy b/c lent largely to big institutions, didn’t sponsor enough relief + public works

    b)Popular Protest

    i)By 1932 dissent beginning to come to a head: Farmers’ Holiday Association attempted farmer’s product strike; veterans in “Bonus Army” marched on Washington to protest withholding of bonuses, Hoover called on Army units under Gen Douglas MacArthur to clear Bonus Army out of city

    ii)Popular image of Hoover as unsympathetic + unable to act effectively

    c)The Election of 1932

    i)Repubs re-nominated Hover as candidate; Democrats nominated NY Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt

    ii)Roosevelt avoided religion and prohibition, focused on economic grievances of nation

    iii)Roosevelt won large majority of popular vote and even more overwhelmingly in electoral college; Dems majorities elected to House and Senate- signified mandate for change

    d)The “Interregnum”

    i)Period between election and inauguration one of increasing economic problems b/c of expanding banking crisis + more depositors seeking to withdraw money in a panic; more banks declared bankruptcy

    ii)Roosevelt refused to make public commitments asked of him by Hoover to maintain economic orthodoxy or not institute broad economic reforms


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The New Deal

     1)Launching the New Deal

    a)Restoring Confidence

    i)Roosevelt projected optimism- famous quote “all we have to fear is fear itself”

    ii)Two days after taking office issued “Bank Holiday” closing all banks for four days to give Congress time to discuss reforms; Emergency Banking Act required Treasury Dept inspection of banks, assistance to troubled institutions

    iii)Bank Holiday restored ¾ of closed banks; Economy Act passed a few days later forced balanced fed budget thru cutting govt salaries + veterans pensions

    b)Agricultural Adjustment

    i)Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 reduced crop production to end surpluses + raise prices; Agricultural Adjustment Administration would enforce industry limits + subsidize vacant lands to parity-- farm income began increasing 

    ii)1936 Agricultural Adjustment Act declared unconstitutional b/c it required farmers to limit production; new Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act passed to pay farmers to reduce production in order to “conserve soil”

    iii)Resettlement Administration and later Farm Security Administration gave loans to small farmers to help relocate to better lands; Rural Electrification Administration attempted to make power more available to farmers

    c)Industrial Recovery

    i)Administration allowed for relaxing of some antitrust laws to stabilize industry prices in return for concessions to labor to allow collective bargaining and unions led to 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act

    ii)Act created National Recovery Administration under Hugh Johnson called on adoption of labor codes + industrial codes to set floor prices-- sought to maintain employment + production

    iii)NRA weakened b/c codes poorly written and administered; Section 7(a) of NIR Act gave workers right to unionize but no enforcement so many corps. ignored it; Public Works Administration of NIR Act slow to distribute monies

    iv)NRA failed to raise production; 1935 Supreme C. held NRA unconstitutional

    d)Regional Planning

    i)AAA and NRA examples of economic planning that allowed private interests to dictate planning process; others wanted govt in charge of planning

    ii)Tennessee Valley Authority created after failure of electric utility companies to develop water resources for cheap power; 1933 TVA began building dams in Tennessee Valley region + sell electricity at reasonable rates

    iii)TVA revitalized region by improving transport, limiting flooding, making electricity more available, and lowered power rates nationwide

    e)Currency, Banks, and the Stock Market

    i)1933 president took president took nation off gold standard; govt began manipulating value of dollar by buying/selling large amts of silver

    ii)Efforts to increase govt regulation in 1933 Glass-Steagall Act- govt power to curb speculation, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to protect deposits

    iii)1933 Truth in Securities Act required corporations to give truthful disclosures

    iv)1934 Securities and Exchange Commission created to police stock market

    f)The Growth of Federal Relief

    i)Administration saw need to help impoverished until economy improved—Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave cash to state relief groups

    ii)Work relief provided by the Civil Works Administration that gave millions temporary work- built roads + schools, and pumped money into economy

    iii)Civilian Conservation Corps gave unemployed men jobs in national parks planting trees and improving irrigation

    iv)To aid in mortgage relief created Farm Credit Administration to help farmers refinance; 1933 Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act aided foreclosed farmers; 1933 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation refinanced households

    2)The new Deal in Transition

    a)Critics of the new Deal

    i)Conservatives and businesses leaders main opponents to New Deal, 1934 formed American Liberty League decrying “attacks” on free enterprise

    ii)Another threat to New Deal in Townsend Plan- proposed giving all over 60 monthly pension; idea gained much support older ppl, forerunner to Soc Sec

    iii)Father Charles Coughlin’s nat’l radio sermons called for banking + currency reform (recoining of silver, nationalization of banks) to restore economic justice, felt admin unresponsive so founded National Union for Social Justice

    iv)Sen Huey Long gained popularity for attacks on banks, oil companies, utilities and b/c of progressive voting record; like Coughlin felt administration not acting strongly enough so proposed Share-Our-Wealth Plan to redistribute wealth (and created Share-Our-Wealth Society)

    v)Growing dissident movements threat to president, so Roosevelt began to consider measures to counter their growing popularity

    b)The “Second New Deal”

    i)Second New Deal of 1935 marked beginning of open critique of big business

    ii)Holding Company Act sought to break up monopoly of utility industry; 1935 tax reforms established progressive tax w/ very high rate for wealthy

    iii)National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) gave enforcement to NIR Act’s Section 7(a) (right to unionize) in National Labor Relations Board

    c)Labor Militancy

    i)Trade union power increased dramatically in 1930s b/c of efforts to strengthen unions + growing labor militancy to challenge conservative groups

    ii)After Wagner Act attempts to find new forms of organization; American Federation of Labor still committed to organizing workers based on skill, but b/c mass of labor force unskilled industrial unionism gained popularity (all workers in industry organized regardless of role)

    iii)AFL hesitancy to adopt industrial unionism led John L Lewis in 1936 to create independent Congress of Industrial Organizations- grew into new areas

    d)Organizing Battles

    i)Laborers in auto industry increasingly joining unrecognized United Auto Workers; 1936 staged sit-down strike that stopped all production and prevented strikebreakers- most auto makers soon recognized union

    ii)In steel Steel Worker’s Organizing Committee recognized by US Steel 1937 to prevent costly stroke; “Little Steel” committed “Memorial Day Massacre” when strikers attempted protest- strike failed, SWOC not recognized for years

    iii)Period saw union membership increase by millions, growing recognition

    e)Social Security

    i)Lobbying for social insurance for elderly and unemployed led to 1935 Social Security Act—payroll tax created to create pension system for workers upon retirement, unemployment insurance paid by employers gave laid off workers temporary govt assistance, disability + dependent children aid created

    ii)Seen as insurance in which participants contributed and benefits for all

    f)New Directions in Relief

    i)SS for long term needs; to help currently unemployed created 1935 Works Progress Administration under Harry Hopkins to build + renovate public buildings, employ millions, pump money into economy

    ii)WPA replaced smaller CWA after 1934 fall- $5 billion budget vs $1 billion

    iii)Federal Writers Project of WPA (Music Proj, Theater Proj, ect.) provided govt salary to those ppl to continue work

    iv)Men often given relief in form of work relief and employment whereas women mainly given cash assistance

    g)The 1936 “Referendum”

    i)With 1936 revival of economy doubts about re-election from 1935 troubles largely dispelled. Repub nominee Alf Landon ran poor campaign, other Roosevelt dissidents (e.g. Coughlin and Townsend’s Union Party) very weak

    ii)Election largest landslide to date, Dems increased majorities in both Congressional houses; results highlighted Dem coalition of farmers, urban working ppl, unemployed and poor, progressive liberals, and blacks

    3)The New Deal in Disarray

    a)The Court Fight

    i)1936 landslide led Roosevelt to deal with Supreme Court whose conservative rulings (against NRA, AAA) he feared would ruin more legislation

    ii)1937 Roosevelt proposed overhaul of court system to Congress, including adding six new justices to Supreme Court so that he could appoint liberals and change ideological balance. Conservatives outraged as “Court-packing plan”

    iii)Legislation failed but more moderate court no longer a New Deal obstacle, although administration was damaged and Roosevelt viewed as power hungry

    b)Retrenchment and Recession

    i)In summer 1937 Roosevelt feared inflation so began to cut fed govt programs and reduce deficit—led to recession of 1937 (“Roosevelt’s Recession”); increased govt spending in 1938 for public works seemed to lead to recovery

    ii)Roosevelt began to denounce economic concentrations + sought antirust law reform- Congress formed Temporary National Economic Committee, apptd Thurman Arnold head of the antitrust division at the Justice Dept

    iii)1938 Fair Labor Standards Act established nat’l minimum wage, 40 hour work week, child labor limits

    iv)By end of 1938 New Deal largely over b/c of Congressional opposition + growing global crisis and Roosevelt’s concentration on war preparation

    4)Limits and Legacies of the New Deal

    a)The Idea of the “Broker State”

    i)New Deal backers originally sought to remake American capitalism and create new controls to make new economic order. Instead, transformation of government as “broker state” in which govt was a mediator in competition btwn interest groups rather than force to create universal harmony

    ii)Before 1930s main interest group corporations, but by end of 1930s business interests competing with labor, agricultural economy, and consumers

    b)African Americans and the New Deal

    i)New Deal did little to assist African Americans; Roosevelt himself not opposed to blacks- his “Black Cabinet” of blacks in second-level administrative positions, many blacks received govt relief or assistance

    ii)Electoral shift as blacks no longer overwhelmingly voted Republican but by 1936 90% voting Democratic- even though race not part of New Deal agenda

    iii)New Deal agencies reinforced discrimination by separating blacks in CCC and NRA codes, WPA gave minorities lower-paying jobs

    c)The new Deal and the “Indian Problem”

    i)Federal government sought to erase Indian problem by assimilating them and decreasing amt who identified as members of tribe

    ii)Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier proponent of cultural relativism and therefore supported legislation to reverse Native pressures to assimilate and instead be given right to live traditionally—Indian reorganization Act of 1934 advanced many of these goals by re-allowing collective ownership

    d)Women and the New Deal

    i)Administration mostly unconcerned w/ feminist movement b/c lack of popular support but nevertheless had symbolic gestures (Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins first female Cabinet member, other women appts in govt)

    ii)New Deal supported notion that women withdraw from working to open up positions for men—agencies offered women few jobs

    iii)Like with AAs New Deal not against women but still accepted cultural norms

    e)The New Deal in the West and the South

    i)West and South given special attention by New Deal relief and public works programs; these programs didn’t challenge racial and ethnic prejudices

    ii)New Deal had profound impact on West b/c farming central to economy and was a good site for and had the need for dams, electricity, other public works

    iii)New Deal programs profound in South b/c less economically developed than rest of nation in 1930s, gave federal attention to South that no previous administration had ever done b/c of view of S as “backward”

    f)The new Deal and the National Economy

    i)New Deal failed to end Depression, change drastically the maldistribution of wealth. New Deal did allow new groups previously unheld powers (labor, women, farmers), economically developed South and West, increased govt regulation, created welfare state thru relief and Social Security that broke w/ tradition of providing little public help to citizens deeply in need

    g)The New Deal and American Politics

    i)Roosevelt strengthened power of federal government as local govt took second seat to national govt, presidency established as center of power and shifted Congress to more secondary role

    ii)New Deal led to political shifts—Dem Party now strong coalition ready to dominate national politics; reawakened interest in economy over cultural issues; changed expectations American people had of government

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Global Crisis, 1921-1941

    1)The Diplomacy of the New Era

    a)Replacing the League

    i)Harding administration sought to negotiate separate peace treaties w/ Central Powers, find impermanent way to replace League as guarantor of world peace

    ii)Washington Conference of 1921 sought to deal w/ naval arms race btwn US, GB, Japan: Five-Power Pact limited armaments; Nine-Power Act continued Chinese Open Door policy; Four-Power Act acknowledged Pacific territories

    iii)Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 btwn 14 nations to outlaw war as policy measure

    iv)New Era efforts to protect peace w/o active international duties

    b)Debts and Diplomacy

    i)Diplomacy used to ensure free overseas trade thru reducing war and making financial arrangements w/ other nations

    ii)US prosperity depended on Eur economy, which was suffering from war destruction, Allied debt on US loans, Central reparations US acted to head off collapse thru 1924 Dawes Plan that created circular loan system where US loaned Germany money to pay GB + French debt who used $ to pay US debt

    iii)System led to increase in Eur debt, US banks and corporations took advantage of collapsed industries to assert themselves; high US tariffs under Republicans prevented Eur export of goods to earn money to repay loans

    iv)US economic expansion into Latin America during 1920s to better access rich natural resources, give loans to governments

    c)Hoover and the World Crisis

    i)Stock market crash of 1929 and worsening problems after 1931, growing nationalism + new hostile governments faced by Hoover administration

    ii)Hoover promised to recognize new Latin American govt if any collapsed, did not intervene some defaulted on US loans (against M. Doctrine + R.Corollary)

    iii)In efforts to restore Eur economic stability Pres refused to cancel debts- some nations defaulted; 1932 World Disarmament Conference ended in failure

    iv)Difficulties increased b/c of control by Benito Mussolini’s nationalistic Fascist Party in Italy & Adolf Hitler’s Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis)

    v)Crisis in Asia when in 1931 Japanese military staged coup against liberal govt b/c it had allowed China’s leader Chiang Kai-Shek to expand his power in Manchuria (which had been economically dominated by Japan) Japan invaded Manchuria + then China itself (Hoover refused to issue sanctions)

    vi)Interwar diplomacy of international voluntary cooperation and refusal to actively commit itself a failure; nation could now adopt internationalism or become even more nationalistic + isolated would try measures of both

    2)Isolationism and Internationalism

    a)Depression Diplomacy

    i)Early Roosevelt admin foreign policy concerned mainly w/ pressing economic issues- sought to differ from Hoover by solving war debts + adopting gold standard. However, 1933 World Economic Conference accomplished little

    ii)FDR forbid continuation of circular loan system, did little to stabilize international currencies; did adopt Reciprocal trade Agreement Act of 1934 to advance principles of free trade

    b)American and the Soviet Union

    i)FDR agreed to recognize Soviet Union in 1933 in hopes of increasing trade btwn nations (not b/c of lessening of hatred toward Communism)

    c)The Good Neighbor Policy

    i)“Good Neighbor Policy” toward Latin America focused on trade reciprocity (free trade);1933 Inter-American Conference administration officially pledged to not intervene in affairs of Latin nations. Closer economic ties emerged

    d)The Rise of Isolationism

    i)Geneva Conference on disarmament disbanded and Japan withdrew from 1921 Washington Conference; agreements of 1920s collapsed during 1930s

    ii)Many Americans supported isolationism b/c internationalism of League of Nations failed to restrain Japanese Asian aggression, belief US business interests had led to WW I involvement; FDR helpless to change tide

    iii)Neutrality Acts of 1935, ’36, ’37 meant to prevent issues of WWI from allowing US entrance into new war- “neutral rights” of US citizens defined, “cash-and-carry” policy allowed only nonmilitary goods to be sold to warring countries who had to provide own transportation

    iv)Military neutrality upheld after Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia and during Spain’s civil war btwn fascist Falangists + repub govt

    v)Alarm over Japan’s 1937 new assaults into China (after 1931 Manchuria invasion) led FDR to question isolationism, delivered “Quarantine speech” saying aggressors should be prevented from spreading war; speech unpopular

    e)The Failure of Munich

    i)In 1936 Hitler moved army into demilitarized Rhineland, 1938 invaded Austria to create union (anschluss) + demanded Czechoslovakia cede Sudetenland to increase lands for Germans to live (lebensraum); 1938 Munich Conference GB + France appeased Hitler for promise would be last expansion

    ii)1939 “appeasement” collapsed w/ German invasion of whole Czechoslovakia and then Poland- GB + France honored defense agreement w/ Poland, in September declared war against Germany

    3)From Neutrality to Intervention

    a)Neutrality Tested

    i)Most Americans supported Allies, FDR wanted to grant assistance by allowing arms sales to belligerents using “cash-and-carry” policy

    ii)Quiet “phony war” period shattered by spring 1940 German blitzkrieg invasion of W. Eur, by June France had fallen + GB retreated at Dunkirk

    iii)Roosevelt increased aid to Allies + monies for US self-defense, “scraped bottom of the barrel” to give GB’s Churchill war materials 

    iv)FDR able to take steps b/c public opinion shift after fall of France Germany now seen as threat to US by majority; debate still btwn “interventionists” who wanted increased US war involvement and “isolationist” America First Committee supported by many Repubs

    b)The Third-Term Campaign

    i)Roosevelt sought 3rd term in 1940 presidential election; Repubs nominated Wendell Willkie. Roosevelt won election w/ heavy measure of support

    c)Neutrality Abandoned

    i)After election Roosevelt changed US war role-- cash-short GB extended “lend-lease” agreement that allowed sale but also lending of armaments, began ensuring shipments reached GB by Navy patrolling Atlantic for subs

    ii)After Germany broke 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact by invading the USSR, US extended “lend-lease” to Russians; Nazi subs began attacking US ships, Congress voted to allow arming of merchants + US attacks on subs

    iii)1941 Churchill and Roosevelt released Atlantic Charter tying two nations together to war aims to destroy “Nazi tyranny”

    d)The Road to Pearl Harbor

    i)1940 Japan signed Tripartite Pact allying itself w/ Germany and Italy; in spite of Roosevelt denouncing Japanese aggression in 1941 it invaded Indochina

    ii)US froze Jap assets + placed trade embargo preventing Japan from buying impt supplies (including oil). Tokyo attempted to negotiate w/ US to continue flow of supplies, but Jap PM Konoye forced out of office by Gen Hideki Tojo

    iii)Tojo govt refused to recognize US calls to guarantee Chinese territorial rights so negotiations broke down, by November war imminent; on December 7, 1941 Jap aircraft carriers attacked US Pacific Navy HQ at Pearl Harbor

    iv)US lost 8 battleships, 2,000 soldiers dead, US Pacific forces weakened; resulted in unifying American ppl into commitment to war

    v)December 8, 1941 US declared war on Japan; December 11 Germany and Italy declared war on US, likewise same say us declared war on them

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - America In A World At War

     1)War on Two Fronts

    a)Containing the Japanese

    i)After Pearl Harbor US forces surrendered in the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island; to turn tide US lead 2 offensives- Gen Douglas MacArthur’s attacks from the south, and Admiral Chester Nimitz attacked from HI to the west

    ii)May 1942 Battle of Coral Sea weakened Jap navy; more important Battle of Midway Island June 1942 regained US central Pacific control

    iii)Mid-1943 after fighting in Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) US turned tide

    b)Holding Off the Germans

    i)US military plans in Europe influenced by Soviet Union and GB; FDR decided to delay invasion into France in favor of October 1942 counter-offensive in N. Africa against Nazi Gen Erwin Rommel; by May 1943 Gen George Patton and British Gen Montgomery had driven Germans from Africa

    ii)Soviet Red Army held off immense German 1942-1943 winter offensive at Stalingrad, Hitler’s forces exhausted and forced to abandon eastern advance

    iii)July 1943 US agreed to British plan to invade Sicily, Mussolini govt collapsed but German reinforcements prevented capture of Rome until June 1944; slow, costly Italy campaign delayed French channel invasion Soviets had called for

    c)America and the Holocaust

    i)By 1942 news of Holocaust (Nazi campaign to exterminate European Jews) prompting public cries to end killing, but US govt resisted calls for military aid + officials at the State Dept deliberately refused to let Jews enter US

    2)The American People In Wartime

    a)Prosperity

    i)WWII ended Great Depression problems of unemployment, deflation, production b/c of wartime economic expansion + massive govt spending (federal budget grew from 1939 $9 billion to 1945 $100 billion)

    b)The War and the West

    i)West shared disproportionally in massive govt capital investments; 

    ii)Businessman Henry Kaiser steered federal funds to make Pacific Coast major industrial center for shipbuilding, aircraft; launching stage for Japanese war

    c)Labor and the War

    i)Labor shortage caused by military recruitment; unemployed from Depression worked, but also women + other previously unused groups entered workforce 

    ii)Union membership increased; new govt limits on wage increases +“no-strike” promise, in return govt allowed all new workers to automatically join unions

    iii)Govt+ public sought to reduce inflation + guarantee production w/o disruption

    d)Stabilizing Boom

    i)1942 Congress passed Anti-Inflation Act which allowed Pres to freeze prices and wages, set rations; enforced by the Office of Price Administration

    ii)Govt spent 2X more $ btwn 1941-1945 than it had during whole existence; raised $ thru bond sales, Revenue Act of 1942 created new high tax brackets

    e)Mobilizing Production

    i)1942 War Production Board created to organize mobilization effort but was largely unable to direct military purchases + include small businesses; program later replaced by White House Office of War Mobilization

    ii)Nevertheless, US economy met all war needs; new factories were built, entire rubber industry created. By 1944 output 2X that of all Axis nations combined

    f)Wartime Science and Technology

    i)Govt stimulated new military technologies by funneling massive funds to National Defense Research Committee

    ii)Originally Germany (w/ sophisticated tanks + submarines) and Japan (w/ strong naval-air power) technologically ahead of Allies; US, however, had experience w/ mass production in auto industry and was able to convert many of these plants to produce armaments

    iii)Allied advances in radar + sonar beyond Axis capabilities helped limit effectiveness of U-Boats in Atlantic; Allies developed more effective anti-aircraft tech and produced large amount of powerful 4-engine aircraft (British Lancaster + US B17) able to attack military forces + industrial centers 

    iv)Greatest Allied advantage found in intelligence gathering—British Ultra project able to break German “Enigma” code and intercept info on enemy movements; American Magic operation broke Japanese “Purple” code

    g)African-Americans and the War

    i)Blacks wanted to use war as means of improving own conditions. A Philip Roth (head of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car porters) wanted all companies w/ war contracts to integrate work force

    ii)Fearing black workers strike, FDR created Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate labor discrimination. Later, Congress of Racial equality combated discrimination in society at large using popular resistance

    iii)War saw migration of blacks from rural South to industrial cities of North in greater numbers than those found of first Great Migration during WWI

    h)Native Americans and the War

    i)Some Native Americans served in military (some as famous “Code Talkers”), many others left reservations seeking work in war industries

    i)Mexican-American War Workers

    i)War labor shortages lead to large Mex immigration of braceros (contract laborers); ethnic tensions from growing immigrant neighborhoods w/ existing white communities led to “Zoot-Suit Riots” in Los Angeles in 1943

    j)Women and Children of War

    i)Large number of women entered roles they were previously excluded from

    ii)Many women worked in factories to replace men who had entered military, but some inequality existed in what jobs they could hold in factories

    iii)Most women took service-sector jobs in growing govt bureaucracies; limited others worked in “male” heavy-industry (famous Rosie the Riveter image)

    iv)Over 1/3 of teenagers took jobs during war; crime rate also rose during war

    k)Wartime Life and Culture

    i)Increased prosperity from war led to marked rise in theater and movie attendance, magazine and news circulation, hotel, casino, dance hall visits

    ii)War effort largely seen as means of protecting material comfort + consumer choice of “home”; visions of home and future women romanticized by troops

    l)The Internment of Japanese Americans

    i)WWII did not largely see restrictions of civil liberties + growth of hatred toward fringe groups as during WWI; little ethnic tension in part due to propaganda attacking enemy’s political system but not people

    ii)Glaring exception in treatment of Japanese Americans who were painted as scheming + cruel (re-enforced by Pearl Harbor); white Eur groups largely accepted by now, but assimilated Japs faced prejudice + viewed as “foreign”

    iii)Conspiracy theories of Jap-Americans aiding in Pearl Harbor attacks led govt + military to see them as a threat; 1942 Roosevelt created War Relocation Authority to move Japanese citizens to “relocation camps” for monitoring

    iv)Starting 1943 condition began to improve as some Japs allowed to got o college or take jobs on East Coast; although 1944 Supreme Court case Korematsu v U.S. ruled relocation constitutional, by that time most of internees had been allowed to leave camps

    m)Chinese Americans and the War

    i)US war alliance w/ China helped Chinese Americans advance legal + social position—1943 Congress repealed Chinese Exclusion acts

    ii)Many Chinese took jobs in industry or were drafted into the military

    n)The Retreat from Reform

    i)FDR wanted to shift priority from reform to war effort and victory

    ii)With massive unemployment no longer an issue + Republican gains, Congress dismantled relief programs and other New Deal programs

    iii)In 1944 Pres election Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey; Dems re-nominated Roosevelt but w/ new, less liberal VP candidate Harry Truman

    iv)Despite deteriorating health Roosevelt was popularly elected; Dems maintained control of both Houses of Congress

    3)The Defeat of the Axis

    a)The Liberation of France

    i)By 1944 devastating Allied strategic bombing against German industry at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin reduced production + complicated transport; German Luftwaffe forced to retreat to bases w/in Germany itself, weakened it

    ii)After 2 year buildup in England Supreme Allied Commander Gen Dwight Eisenhower ordered invasion across English Channel into Normandy, France on “D-Day” (June 6, 1944); Allies drove Germans from the coast, by September forced them to retreat from France, Belgium

    iii)In December Germany counter-attacked during Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes Forest, but soon repelled; with Soviet advances on Eastern front, Allies began moving into Germany across Rhine

    iv)April 30 Hitler commits suicide; May 8, 1945 full surrender + “V-E” Day

    b)The Pacific Offensive

    i)Thru 1944 American navy crippling Japanese shipping and economy in Pacific; on mainland Asia Japan attacking thru Chinese interior trying to cutoff Gen Stilwell’s Burma Road for supplies

    ii)June 1944 Americans captured Mariana Islands, in September Battle of Leyte Gulf Japanese navy decimated by US sinking of its aircraft carriers; in next few months Japanese fought desperate battles of resistance in Feb at Iwo Jima, in June at Okinawa (used Kamikaze suicide bombers throughout)

    iii)Many feared bloody island battles would ensue w/ invasion of Japanese mainland, but by 1945 Japanese weakened by firebombing in Tokyo, shelling of industrial centers; moderates in govt trying to sue peace against will of military leaders wanting to continue fight

    c)The Manhattan Project

    i)After news in 1939 that Nazis pursuing atomic bomb, US and +GB began race to develop one before them; work based on discovery of uranium radioactivity by Enrico Fermi 1930s, Einstein’s theory of relativity

    ii)Army took over control of research and poured billions of $ into Manhattan Project which gathered scientists to create nuclear chain reactions w/ a bomb

    iii)On July 16 1945 the plutonium bomb Trinity, created by scientist Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory, successfully tested

    d)Atomic Warfare

    i)Pres Truman issues ultimatum to Japanese for “unconditional surrender” by Aug 3rd or face annihilation; after Jap moderates unable to convince military leaders to accept Truman ordered use of atomic weapon

    ii)Some argue atomic weapon unnecessary b/c in time Japs would have sued for peace; others argue only atomic bomb could convince radical military leaders that surrender necessary. Truman saw weapon as military device that could end war quickly, but some say he used it to intimidate Stalin and Soviets

    iii)August 6, 1945 bomber Enola Gay dropped atomic weapon on Japanese city Hiroshima, killing 80,000 civilians; because Jap govt didn’t respond, on August 8 second atomic  bomb dropped on city of Nagasaki killing 100,000

    iv)By Aug 14 emperor agreed to surrender; September 2, 1945 Japan signed articles of surrender (“V-J Day”) marking end of WWII

    v)14 million combatants had died during war, even more civilians; threat of nuclear war loomed between two emerging super-powers in US and Soviet Union


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - The Cold War

    1)Origins of the Cold War

    a)Sources of Soviet-American Tensions

    i)Rivalry emerged b/c of difft visions of postwar world: US foresaw world where nations shed military alliances and used democratic international bodies as mediators; Soviet Union sought to control areas of strategic influence 

    b)Wartime Diplomacy

    i)Tensions began in 1943 b/c of Allied refusal to open second front w/ French invasion, dispute over governance of Poland unresolved at Tehran Conference

    c)Yalta

    i)Meeting of Big Three at Yalta in 1945 led to plan to create United Nations (w/ General Asembly and Security Council w/ permanent members)

    ii)Disagreement existed over future of Polish govt (independent + democratic vs Communist); US wanted to German reconstruction, Stalin wanted heavy reparations- finally agreed to commission and each Ally given German “zone”

    2)The Collapse of the Peace

    a)The Failure of Potsdam

    i)After Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, new Pres Truman decided US needed to “Get Tough” w Soviets to honor Yalta accords

    ii)Potsdam Conference in July ended w/ Stalin receiving increased land w/ new Polish-German border, US refusing to allow German reparations from Allied zones but US recognizing new communist Polish govt under Soviet influence

    b)The China Problem

    i)US had vision of open world “policed” by major powers; vision troubled by unpopular + corrupt Chinese govt under Chiang Kai-shek (supported by US aid during civil war) who battled communists under Mao Zedong

    ii)B/c Kai-shek govt sure to collapse, US sought to create new, Pro-West Japan by encouraging industrial development, lift trade restrictions

    c)The Containment Doctrine

    i)US no longer sought “open” world but rather “containment” of Soviet expansion; new Truman Doctrine sought aid for those forces in Turkey + Greece opposing take-over of Communist forces under Soviet influence

    d)The Marshall Plan

    i)Sec of State George Marshall 1947 plan to provide aid to all Eur nations (for humanitarian reasons, to rebuild to create markets for US goods, and to strengthen Pro-US govts against communists); 1948 created the Economic Cooperation Administration to channel billions of $ to aid economic revival

    e)Mobilization at Home

    i)US maintained wartime military levels, established Atomic Energy Commission to continue nuclear research 

    ii)National Security Act of 1947 restructured military by creating Department of Defense to combine all armed services, create National Security Council in White House and Central Intelligence Agency to collect information

    f)The Road to NATO

    i)Truman merged German “Western zones” into the West German republic; Stalin responded by blockading Western Berlin, Truman responded w/ airlift to re-supply inhabitants; Federal Republic became govt of west Germany, Democratic Republic of east

    ii)To strengthen military position US and Western Eur naions1949 created North Atlantic Treaty Organization as alliance to protect all members against threat of Soviet invasion (communists 1955 formed similar Warsaw Pact)

    g)Reevaluating Cold War Policy

    i)1949 saw Soviet Union explode atomic weapon and collapse of Nationalists in China to Mao’s Communists 

    ii)To reevaluate foreign policy, National Security Council released report NSC-68 that held US should lead noncommunist world and oppose communist expansion everywhere it existed, also expand US military power dramatically

    3)American Society and Politics After the War

    a)The Problems of Reconversion

    i)After end of war Truman attempted to quickly return nation to normal economic conditions, but problems ensued

    ii)No economic collapse b/c of increase in spending on consumer goods from savings, Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill) provided education + economic aid to returning soldiers that further increased spending

    iii)Problems arose w/ high inflation, union strikes in RR + mining industries, and displacement of some minorities and women b/c of returning soldiers to labor

    b)The Fair Deal Rejected

    i)After Jap surrender Truman proposed “Fair Deal” to enact liberal reforms—included raising minimum wage, enacting Fair Employment Practices Act, expanding Social Security, and creating nation health insurance plan

    ii)Fair Deal opposed by Repubs who gained majority in both Houses of Congress in 1946 elections; Repubs sought to reduce govt spending and economic controls, cut taxes for wealthy, refused to raise wages

    iii)Repubs wanted to decrease powers unions gained in 1935 Wagner Act by passing 1947 Labor-Management Relations Act of (Taft-Hartley Act)- made “closed-shop” illegal; limited efforts help those not yet organized (minorities)

    c)The Election of 1948

    i)Truman sought to make re-election about liberal reforms but electorate saw him as weak; Southern Dems (Dixiecrats) + progressives refused full support

    ii)Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey and seemed to be in strong position to win, but intense campaigning by Truman and his platform to reduce inflation + help common man allowed him to win Pres; Dems also won both Houses of C

    d)The Fair Deal Revivied

    i)New Dem Congress allowed for minimum wage increase + Social Security expansion, but hostile to Fair Deal programs expanding education aid, national healthcare, and civil rights

    ii)Truman did end govt hiring discrimination, desegregated armed forces; Supreme Court inSkelley v. Kraemer rules community “covenants” preventing movement of blacks unenforceable by courts

    e)The Nuclear Age

    i)Nuclear weapons viewed w/ fear b/c of threat from Soviet Union (expressed in pop culture,film noir, and govt preparations for nuclear attack), but public also awed by technological potential of nuclear power (Dreams of prosperity and unlimited + cheap electricity)

    4)The Korean War

    a)The Divided Peninsula

    i)Korea divided at 38th Parallel into Communist North and Southern government of capitalist Syngman Rhee (supported by US)

    ii)Nationalists in North invaded S in 1950 in effort to reunite countries; US won UN resolution calling for support of S. Korea armies (Russia unable to veto b/c boycotting Security Council at time)—“containment” but also “liberation”

    b)From Invasion to Stalemante

    i)Gen MacArthur (head of UN forces) able to advance far into North, but new communist Chinese govt feared American forces + entered conflict late 1950 

    ii)UN armies force dto retreat to 38th parallel long stalemate ensued until 1953

    iii)Truman wanted peace andnot new world war w/ China; Gen MacArthur publicly opposed peace effort and was relieved of command by Pres in 1951

    c)Limited Mobilization

    i)War led to only limited mobilization: Truman created Office of Defense Mobilization to combat rising inflation; govt seized RRs + steel mills during union strikes, increased govt spending stimulated economy

    ii)Inability of US to quickly end “small” war led to growth of fears of growth of communist  at home

    5)The Crusade Against Subversion

    a)HUAC and Alger Hiss

    i)“Red Scare” prompted by fear of Stalin, Communist growth (“loss” of China, Korean frustrations) many sought to blame US communist conspiracy

    ii)Repubs soguht to use anticommunist feeligns to win support against Dems; Congress created House Un-American Activities Committee 1947 to investigate communist subversion

    iii)Investigation into former State Dept official Alger Hiss revaled some complicity w/ communists increased fear of communist infiltrations

    b)The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case

    i)Truman began 1947 program to determine “loyalty” of fed employees; FBI monitored radicals; 1950 Congress passed McCarran Interal Secuity Act forcing communist groups to register w/ government

    ii)Explosion of atomic bomb by Soviets led to famous Rosenberg tiral to find out how Russia had learned of technology so quickly; Rosenbergs executed

    iii)HUAC, Rosenberg trial, “Loyalty” program, Hiss ordeal, McCarran Act all lead to national anticommunist hysteria at national, state, and local level

    c)McCarthyism

    i)Wisconsin Sen Joseph McCarthy 1951 began leveling charges of communist agents in State Dept and other agencies; his subcommittee was at the fore of anticommunist hysteria + partisan politics

    d)The Republican Revival

    i)Korean stalemate + anticommunist sentiments led to Dem disappointments

    ii)Dem nominated Adlai Stevenson (viewed as liberal and weak on Communism); Repubs nominated popular Gen Dwight Eisenhower and VP Richard Nixon (Eisenhower talked of Korean peace, Nixon of communist subversion)

    iii)Eisenhower won election by huge margin & Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Affluent Society

    Sources of Economic Growth
    ·By 1949, despite the continuing problems of postwar reconversion, an
    economic expansion had begun that would continue with only
    brief interruptions for almost twenty years
    · The causes of this growth varied
    1. Government spending continued to stimulate growth
    through public funding of schools, housing, veteran’s benefits,
    welfare, and the $100 billion interstate highway program
    ·Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    1. Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    a. There was the development of electronic
    computers
    b. The first modern computer emerged as a result of
    efforts during WWII to decipher enemy codes
    c. Not until the 1980s did most Americans come into
    direct and regular contact with computers, but the new
    machines were having a substantial effect on the
    economy long before that
    ·The national birth rate reversed a long pattern of decline with the socalled
    baby boom
    1. The baby boom meant increased consumer demand and
    expanding economic growth
    ·The rapid expansion of suburbs helped stimulate growth in several
    important sectors of the economy
    ·Because of this unprecedented growth, the economy grew nearly ten
    times as fast as the population in their thirty years after the war
    1. The American people had achieved the highest standard
    of living of any society in the history of the world
    The Rise of the Modern West
    · No region of the country experience more dramatic changes as a
    result of the new economic growth than the American West
    ·By the 1960s some parts of the West were among the most important
    industrial and cultural centers of the nation in their own right
    ·As during WWII much of the growth of the West was a result of federal
    spending and investment 1. Dams, power stations, highways,
    and other infrastructure projects
    ·The enormous increase in automobile use after WWII gave a large
    stimulus to the petroleum industry and contributed to the rapid
    growth of oil fields in Texas and Colorado
    ·State governments in the West invested heavily in their universities
    ·Climate also contributed
    The New Economics
    ·The exciting discovery of the power of the American economic system
    was a major cause of the confident, even arrogant tone of much
    American political life in the 1950s
    1. There was the belief that Keynesian economics made it
    possible for government to regulate and stabilize the
    economy without intruding directly into the private sector
    ·By the mid-1950s, Keynesian theory was rapidly becoming a
    fundamental article of faith
    1. Armed with these fiscal and monetary tools, many
    economists now believed, it was possible for the government to
    maintain a permanent prosperity
    ·If any doubters remained, there was ample evidence to dispel their
    misgivings during the era
    ·Accompanying the belief in the possibility of permanent economic
    stability was the equally exhilarating belief in permanent
    economic growth by the mid-1950s, reformers concerned about
    economic deprivation were arguing that the solution lay in
    increased production
    ·The Keynesians never managed to remake federal economic policy
    entirely to their liking
    1. Still, the new economics gave many Americans a
    confidence in their ability to solve economic problems that
    previous generations had never developed
    Captial and Labor
    ·A relatively small number or large-scale organizations controlled an
    enormous proportion oft eh nation’s economic activity
    ·A similar consolidation was occurring in the agricultural economy
    ·Corporations enjoying booming growth were reluctant to allow strikes
    to interfere with their operations
    ·By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of
    relationship with employers
    1. “Postwar Contract”
    ·Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries
    were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits
    1. In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising
    other issues
    ·The contract served the corporations and the union leadership well
    ·Many rank-and-file workers resented the abandonment of efforts to
    give them more control over the conditions of their labor
    ·The economic successes of the 1950s helped pave the way for a
    reunification of the labor movement
    1. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the
    Congress of Industrial Organizations ended their 20 year rivalry
    and merged to create the AFL- CIO
    ·But success also bread stagnation and corruption in some union
    bureaucracies
    ·While the labor movement enjoyed significant success in winning
    better wages and benefits for workers already organized in
    strong unions, the majority of laborers who were as yet
    unorganized made fewer advances
    1. New obstacles to organization
    a. Taft-Hartley Act and the state right-to-work laws
    ·In the American South impediments to unionization were enormous
    1. Antiunion sentiment was so powerful in the South that
    almost all organizing drives encountered crushing and usually
    fatal resistance
    The Explosion of Science and Technology
    Medical Breakthroughs
    ·The development of antibiotics had its origins=2 0in the discoveries of
    Louis Pasteur and Jules-Francois Joubert.
    ·Working in France in the 1870s they produced the first conclusive
    evidence that virulent bacterial infections could be defeated by
    other, more ordinary bacteria.
    ·In 1920, in the meantime, Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered
    the antibacterial properties of an organism that he named
    penicillin.
    ·There was also dramatic progress in immunization-the development of
    vaccines that can protect humans from contracting both
    bacterial and viral diseases.
    ·In 1954, the American scientist Jonas Salk introduced an effective
    vaccine against the disease that had killed and crippled
    thousands of children and adults.
    ·Average life expectancy in that same period rose by five years, to 71.
    Pesticides
    ·The most famous pesticides was dichlorodiphenyl-dichloromethane
    [DDT] a compound discovered in 1939 by Paul Muller.
    Postwar Electronic Research
    ·Researchers in the 1940s produced the first commercially viable
    televisions and created a technology that made it possible to
    broadcast programming over large areas.
    ·In 1948 bell Labs, the research arm of AT&T, produced=2 0the first
    transistor, a solid-state device capable of amplying electrical
    signals, which was much smaller and more efficient than the
    cumbersome vacuum tubes that had powered most electronic
    equipment in the past.
    ·Integrated circuits combined a number of once-separate electronic
    elements and embedded them into a single, microscopically
    small device.
    Postwar Computer Technology
    ·In the 1950s computers began to perform commercial functions for
    the first time, as data-processing devices used by businesses and
    other organizations.
    ·The first significant computer of the 1950s was the Universal
    Automatic Computer, which was developed initially for the U.S
    Bureau of the Census by the Remington Rand company.
    Bombs, Rockets, and Missles
    ·In 1952, the U.S successfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb.
    ·The development of the hydrogen bomb gave considerable impetus to
    a stalled scientific project in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
    The Space Program
    ·The Shock of Sputnik , th e united states had yet perform any similar
    feats , and the American government (and much of American
    society ) reacted to the announcement with alarm , as if the
    Soviet achievement was also a massive American failure .
    ·The centerpiece of space exploration , however . soon became the
    manned space program , established in 1958 through the
    creation of a new agency , the National Aeronautics and Space
    Administration (NASA ) and through the selection of the first
    American space pilots , or “astronauts”
    · They quickly became the nation’s most revered heroes .
    · The Apollo Program , Mercury and Gemini were followed by the Apollo
    program , whose purpose was to land men on the moon .
    · July 20 , 1969 , Neil Armstrong , Edwin Aldrin , and Michael Collins
    successfully traveled in a space capsule into orbit around the
    moon .
    · Armstrong and Aldrin , and Michael then detached a smaller craft from
    the capsule , landed on the surface of the moon , and became
    the first men to walk on a body other than earth .
    People of Plenty
    The Consumer Culture
    · At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing
    absorption with consumer goods
    · It was a result of:
    1. Increased prosperity
    2. Increasing variety and availability of products
    3. Advertiser’s adeptness in creating a demand for those
    product
    4. A growth of consumer credit
    To a striking degree, the prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s was
    consumer driven
    · Because consumer goods were so often marketed nationally, the
    1950s were notable for the rapid spread of creation national
    consumer crazes
    The Suburban Nation
    · By 1960 a third of the nation’s population was living in suburbs
    · The most famous of the postwar suburban developers, William Levitt,
    came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of
    mass-production techniques to construct a large housing
    development on Long Island, NY
    1. They helped to meet an enormous demand for housing
    that had been growing for more than a decade
    · Many Americans wanted to move to the suburbs
    1. One reason was the enormous importance postwar
    Americans place on family life after five years of war in which
    families had often been separated or otherwise disrupted
    2. They provided privacy
    3. A place to raise a large family
    4. They provided security from the noise and dangers of
    urban living
    5. They offered space for the new consumer goods
    6. Suburban life also helped provide a sense of community
    · Suburban neighborhoods
    1. They were not uniform
    The Suburban Family
    · For professional men, suburban life generally meant a rigid division
    between their working and personal worlds
    · For many middle-class married women, it meant an increase isolation
    from the workplace
    · One of the most influential books in postwar American life was a
    famous guide to child rearing
    1. Baby and Child Care
    a. Said that the needs of the child come before
    everything else
    b. Women who could afford not to work faced heavy
    pressures to remain in the home and concentrate on
    raising their children
    c.  Yet by 1960, nearly a third of all married women
    were in the paid workforce
    · The increasing numbers of women in the workplace laid the
    groundwork for demands for equal treatment by employers that
    became and important part of the feminist crusades of the 1960s
    and 1970s
    The Birth of Television
    · Television is perhaps the most powerful medium of mass
    communication in history
    · The television industry emerged directly out of the radio industry
    · Like radio, the television business was driven by advertising
    · The impact of television on American life was rapid, pervasive, and
    profound
    1. Television entertainment programming replace movies
    and radio as the principal source of diversion for American
    families
    · Much of the programming of the 1950s and early 1960s created a
    common image of American life
    1. An image that was predominately white, middle-class,
    and suburban
    2. Programming also reinforced the concept of gender roles
    3. Television inadvertently created conditions that could
    accentuate social conflict
    Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and Environmentalism
    ·
    Organized Society and Its Detractors
    · Large-scale organizations and bureaucracies increased their influence
    over American life in the postwar era
    ·More and more Americans were becoming convinced that the key to a
    successful future lay in acquiring the specialized training and
    skills necessary for work in large organizations
    1. The National Defense Education Act of 1958
    a. Provided federal funding for development of
    programs in those areas of science, mathematics, and
    foreign languages
    2. As in earlier eras, many Americans reacted to these
    developments with ambivalence, even hostility
    ·Novelists expressed misgivings in their work about the enormity and
    impersonality of modern society
    The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth
    ·The most derisive critics of bureaucracy, and of middle-class society
    in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists
    generally known as the “beats” – beatniks
    ·The beats were the most visible evidence of a widespread
    restlessness among young Americans in the 1950s
    ·In part, that restlessness was a result of prosperity itself
    1. Tremendous public attention was directed at the
    phenomenon of “juvenile delinquency” and in both politics and
    popular culture there were dire warnings about the growing
    criminality of American youth
    ·Also disturbing to many older Americans was the style of youth
    culture
    1. The culture of alienation that the beats so vividly
    represented had counterparts even in ordinary middle-class
    behavior
    a. Teenage rebelliousness toward parents, youthful
    fascination with fast cars and motorcycles, and an
    increasing visibility of teenage sex, assisted by the
    greater availability of birth-control devices and the
    spreading automobile culture that came to dominated the social
    lives of teenagers in much of the nation
    2. The popularity of James Dean was a particularly vivid
    sign of this aspect of youth culture in the 1950s
    a. Dean became an icon of the unfocused
    rebelliousness of American youth in his time
    Rock 'n' Roll
    ·One of the most powerful signs of the restiveness of American youth
    was the enormous popularity of rock ‘n’ roll and of the greatest
    early rock star
    1. Elvis Presley
    a. Presley became a symbol of a youthful
    determination to push at the borders of the
    conventional and acceptable
    b. Presley’s music, like that of most early white rock
    musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues
    traditions
    c. Rock also drew from country western music, gospel
    music, even from jazz
    ·The rise of such white rock musicians as Presley was a result in part of
    the limited willingness of white audience to accept black
    musicians
    ·The rapid rise and enormous popularity of rock owed a great deal to
    innovations in radio and television programming
    1. Early in the 1950s, a new breed of radio announcers
    began to create programming aimed specifically at young fans
    of rock music
    a. Disk Jockeys
    ·Radio and television were important to the recording industry because
    they encouraged the sale of records
    1. Also important were jukeboxes
    ·Rock music began in the 1950s to do what jazz and swing had done in
    the 1920s – 40s
    1. To define both youth culture as a whole and the
    experience of a generation
    The "Other America"
    On the Margins of the Affluent Society
    ·In 1962, The Other America was published
    a. Chronicles of the continuing existence of poverty in
    America
    ·The great economic expansion of the postwar years reduced poverty
    dramatically but did not eliminate it
    ·Most of the poor experience poverty intermittently and temporarily
    ·This poverty was a poverty that the growing prosperity of the postwar
    era seemed to affect hardly at all
    Rural Poverty
    ·Among those on the margins of the affluent society were many rural
    Americans
    ·Not all farmers were poor
    1. But the agrarian economy did produce substantial
    numbers of genuinely impoverished people
    ·Migrant farm workers and coal miners fell to the same kind of poverty
    The Inner Cities
    ·As white families moved from cities to suburbs in vast numbers, more
    and more inner-city neighborhoods became vast repositories for
    the poor
    1. Ghettos from which there was no easy escape
    a. African Americans helped this growth
    ·Similar migrations from Mexico and Puerto Rico expanded poor
    Hispanic barrios in many American cities at the same time
    ·For many years, the principal policy response to the poverty of inner
    cities was “urban renewal”
    1. The effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and
    most degraded areas
    a. In some cases, urban renewal provided new public
    housing for poor city residents
    b. In many cases, urban renewal projects replaced
    “slums” with middle and upper-income housing, office
    towers, or commercial buildings
    ·One result of inner-city poverty was a rising rate of juvenile crime
    The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement
    The Brown Decision and "Massive Resistance"
    ·On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court announced its decision in the
    case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
    1. Ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision was the culmination of many decades of effort by
    black opponents of segregation
    ·The Topeka suit involved the case of an African-American girl who had
    to travel several miles to a segregated public school every day
    even though she lived virtually next door to a white elementary
    school
    1. The Court concluded that school segregation inflicted
    unacceptable damage on those it affected
    ·The following year, the Court issued another decision to provide rules
    for implementing the 1954 order
    1. It ruled that communities must work to desegregate
    their schools “with all deliberate speed,” but it set no
    timetable and left specific decisions up to lower courts
    ·Strong local opposition produced long delays and bitter conflicts
    1. More than 100 southern members of Congress signed a
    “manifesto” in 1956 denouncing the Brown decision and
    urging their constituents to defy it
    ·Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (1958)
    1. Refused to declare “pupil placement laws”, placing a
    student in a school based on academic or social behaviors,
    unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision, far from ending segregation, had launched a
    prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local
    governments, and between those who believed in racial equality
    and those who did not
    ·In 1957, federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High
    School in Little Rick, Arkansas
    1. An angry white mob tried to prevent implementation of
    the order by blockading the entrances to the school
    2. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the
    National Guard and sending troops to Little Rock to restore
    order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed
    The Expanding Movement
    ·The Brown decision helped spark a growing number of popular
    challenges to segregation in the South
    ·December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama,
    when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a
    white passenger
    1. The arrest of this admired woman produced outrage in
    the city’s African-American community and helped local
    leaders organize a successful boycott of the bus system to
    demand an end to segregated seating
    2. The bus boycott put economic pressure not only on the
    bus company but on many Montgomery merchants
    a. The bus boycotters found it difficult to get to
    downtown stores and tended to shop instead in their own
    neighborhoods
    ·A Supreme Court decision in 1956 declared segregation in public
    transportation to be illegal
    ·More important than the immediate victories of the Montgomery
    boycott was its success in establishing a new form of racial
    protest and in elevating to prominence a new figure in the
    movement for civil rights
    1. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
    a. King’s approach to black protest was based on the
    doctrine of nonviolence
    b. He urged African Americans to engage in peaceful
    demonstrations
    2. The popular movement he came to represent soon
    spread throughout the South and throughout the country
    ·One important color line had been breached as early as 1947, when
    the Brooklyn Dodgers signed the great Jackie Robinson as the
    first African American to play Major League Baseball
    ·President Eisenhower signed a civil rights act in 1957
    1. Providing federal protection for blacks who wished to
    register to vote
    Cause of the Civil Rights Movement
    ·Several factors contributed to the rise of African-American protest in
    these years
    1. Millions of black men and women had served in the
    military or worked in war plants during the war and had
    derived from the experience a broader view of the world
    and their place in it
    2. Another factor was the growth of an urban black middle
    class
    3. Television and other forms of popular culture were
    another factor in the rising consciousness of racism among
    blacks
    ·Other forces were at work mobilizing many white Americans to
    support the movement once it began
    1. The Cold War
    2. Political mobilization of northern blacks
    3. Labor unions with substantial black memberships
    · By the early 1960s, this movement had made it one of the most
    powerful forces in America
    Eisenhower Republicanism
    "What was Good for...General Motors"
    · The first Republican administration in 20 years was staffed mostly
    with men drawn from the same quarter as those who had staffed
    Republican administrations in the 1920s
    1. The business community
    · Many of the nation's leading businessmen and financiers ha
    reconciled themselves to at least the broad outlines of the
    Keynesian welfare state the New Deal had launched and had
    come to see it as something that actually benefited them
    · To his cabinet, Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and
    business executives
    · Eisenhower’s leadership style helped enhance the power of his
    cabinet officers and others
    · Eisenhower’s consistent inclination was to limit federal activities and
    encourage private enterprise
    The Survival of the Welfare State
    · The president took few new initiatives in domestic policy
    · Perhaps the most significant legislative accomplishment of the
    Eisenhower administration was the Federal Highway Act of 1956
    1. Authorized $25 billion for a ten-year effort to construct
    over 40,000 miles of interstate highways
    2. The program was to be funded through a highway “trust
    fund” whose revenues would come from new taxes on the
    purchase of fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires
    · In 1956, Eisenhower ran for a second term
    1. Republicans – Adlai Stevenson
    2. Eisenhower won
    · Democrats still held power over Congress
    The Decline of McCarthyism
    · In its first years in office the Eisenhower administration did little to
    discourage the anticommunist furor that had gripped the nation
    · Among the most celebrated controversies of the new administration’s
    first year was the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer
    1. He opposed the building of the Hydrogen Bomb
    2. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar association
    with various left-wing groups
    a. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar
    association with various left-wing groups
    · But by 1954, such policies were beginning to produce significant
    opposition
    1. The clearest signal of that change was the political
    demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy
    a. He overstepped his boundaries when he charged
    Secretary of Army Robert Stevens
    b. Army-McCarthy hearings
    2. In December 1954, he was condemned for “conduct
    unbecoming a senator”
    Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War
    Dulles and "Massive Retaliation"
    · Eisenhower’s secretary of state, and the dominant figure in the
    nation’s foreign policy in the 1950s, was John Foster Dulles
    · He entered office denouncing the containment policies of the Truman
    years
    1. Arguing that the United States should pursue an active
    program of “liberation” which would lead to a “rollback” of
    communism expansion
    · “Massive Retaliation”
    1. The United States would, he explained, respond to
    communist threats to its allies not by using conventional forces
    to local conflicts but by relying on “the deterrent of massive
    retaliatory power” (nuclear weapons)
    · By the end of the decade, the United States had become a party to
    almost a dozen such treaties of mutual defense in NATO in all
    areas of the world
    France, America, and Vietnam
    ·
    Cold War Crisis
    ·
    Europe and the Soviet Union
    · Although the problems of the Third World were moving slowly to the
    center of American foreign policy, the direct relationship with the
    Soviet Union and the effort to resist communist expansion in
    Europe remained the principal concerns of the Eisenhower
    administration
    · In 1955, Eisenhower and other NATO leaders met with the Soviet
    premier, Nikolai Bulganin, at a cordial summit conference in
    Geneva
    1. They could find no basis for agreement
    · Relations between the Soviet Union and the West soured further in
    1956 in response to the Hungarian Revolution
    1. Hungarians were demanding democratic reforms
    a. Soviets came in to crush the uprising
    2. The suppression of the uprising convinced many
    American leaders that Soviet policies had not softened as much
    as the events of the previous two years had suggested
    ·The failure of conciliation brought renewed vigor to the Cold War and
    greatly intensified the Soviet-American arms race
    ·The arms race not only increased tensions between the United States
    and Russia
    1. It increased tensions within each nation as well
    The U-2 Crisis
    ·In this tense and fearful atmosphere, the Soviet Union raised new
    challenges to the West in Berlin
    ·In November 1958, Nikita Khrushchev renewed his predecessors’
    demands that NATO powers abandon the city
    1. The United States and its allies refused
    ·Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower discuss the issue
    personally
    1. The United States agreed
    ·Only days before Eisenhower was to leave for Moscow the Soviet
    Union announced that it had shot down an American U-2, a spy
    plane, over Russian territory
    ·By the spring of 1960, Khrushchev knew that no agreement was
    possible on the Berlin issue
    ·The events of 1960 provided a somber backdrop for the end of the
    Eisenhower administration
    ·He warned in his farewell address of 1961 of the “unwarranted
    influence” of a vast “military-industrial complex”
    1. His caution, in both domestic and international affairs,
    stood in marked contrast to the attitudes of his successors, who
    argued that the United States must act more boldly and
    aggressively on behalf of its goals at home and abroad
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - The Ordeal of Liberalism

    Expanding the Liberal State
    John Kennedy
    ·The campaign of 1960 produced two young candidates who claimed
    to offer the nation active leadership.
    ·The Republican nomination went almost uncontested to Vice President
    Richard Nixon, who promised moderate reform.
    ·John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the son of the wealthy powerful, and
    highly controversial Joseph P. Kennedy, former American
    ambassador to Britain.
    ·He premised his campaign, he said, “on the single assumption that
    the American people are uneasy at the present drift in our
    national course”.
    ·Kennedy had campaigned promising a set of domestic reforms more
    ambitious than any since the New Deal, a program he described
    as the “New Frontier”.
    ·Kennedy had traveled to Texas with his wife and Vice President Lyndon
    Johnson for a series of=2 0political appearances.
    ·While the presidential motorcade rode slowly through the streets of
    Dallas, shots rang out.
    ·He got shot in the throat and head, he was rushed to a hospital, where
    minutes later he was pronounced dead.
    ·Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested for the crime later that day, and
    then mysteriously murdered by a Dallas nightclub owner, Jack
    Ruby, 2 days later as he was being moved from one jail to
    another.
    ·In years later years many Americans came to believe that the Warren
    Commission report had ignored evidence of a wider conspiracy
    behind the murders.
    Lyndon Johnson
    ·The Kennedy assassination was a national trauma-a defining event for
    almost everyone old enough to be aware of it.
    ·Johnson was a native of the poor “hill country” of west Texas and had
    risen to become majority leader of the U.S. Senate by dint of
    extraordinary, even obsessive, effort and ambition.
    ·Between 1963 and 1966, he compiled the most impressive legislative
    record of any president since Franklin Roosevelt.
    ·He created the “Great Society”.
    ·Record Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, any of
    whose members had been swept into office=2 0only because of
    the margin of Johnson’s victory, ensured that the president would
    be able to fulfill many of his goals.
    The Assault on Poverty
    ·The most important welfare program was Medicare: a program to
    provide federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses.
    ·Its enactment in 1965 came at the end of a bitter, 20 year debate
    between those who believed in the concept of national health
    assistance and those who denounced it as “socialized medicine”.
    ·Medicare benefits available to all elderly Americans, regardless of
    need.
    ·Medicare simply shifted responsibility for paying those fees from the
    patient to the government.
    ·The centerpiece of this “war on poverty”, as Johnson called it, was the
    Office of economic Opportunity, which created an array of new
    educational, employment, housing, and health-care programs.
    ·The Community Action programs provided jobs for many poor people
    and gave them valuable experience in administrative and
    political work.
    ·The OEO spent nearly $3 billion during its first two years of existence,
    and it helped reduce poverty in some areas.
    Cities, Schools, and Immigration
    ·The Housing Act of 1961 offered $4.9 billion in federal grants to cities
    for the preservation of open spaces, the development of mass
    transit systems, and the subsidization of middle income housing.
    ·In 1966, Johnson established a new cabinet agency, the Department
    of Housing and Urban Development.
    ·Johnson also inaugurated the Model Cites program, which offered
    federal subsidies for urban redevelopment pilot programs.
    ·Johnson managed to circumvent both objections with the Elementary
    and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and a series of subsequent
    measures.
    ·Total federal expenditures for education and technical training rose
    from $5 billion to $12 billion between 1964 and 1967.
    ·The Immigration Act of 1965 maintained a strict limit on the number
    of newcomers admitted to the country each year (170,000), but
    it eliminated the “national origins” system established in the
    1920s, which gave preference to immigrants from northern
    Europe over those from other parts of the world.
    Legacies of the Great Society
    ·In 1964, Johnson managed to win passage of the $11.5 bill ion tax cut
    that Kennedy had first proposed in 1962.
    ·The cut increased the federal deficit, but substantial economic growth
    over the next several years made up for much of the revenue
    initially lost.
    ·The high costs of the Great Society programs, the deficiencies and
    failures of many of them, and the inability of the government to
    find the revenues to pay for them contributed to a growing
    disillusionment in later years with the idea of federal efforts to
    solve social problems.
    The Battle for the Racial Equality
    Expanding Protests
    ·John Kennedy had long been vaguely sympathetic to the cause of
    racial justice, but he was hardly a committed crusader.
    ·In February 1960, black college students in Greensboro, North
    Carolina, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch
    counter, and in the following weeks, similar demonstrations
    spread throughout the South, forcing many merchants to
    integrate their facilities.
    ·The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, worked to keep the
    spirit of resistance alive.
    ·In 1961, an interracial group of students, working with the Congress of
    Racial Equality, began what t hey called “freedom rides”.
    ·Traveling by bus throughout the South, the freedom riders tried to
    force the desegregation of bus stations.
    ·SNCC workers began fanning out through black communities and even
    into remote rural areas to encourage blacks to challenge the
    obstacles to voting that the Jim Crow laws had created and that
    powerful social custom sustained.
    ·In April, Martin Luther King, Jr., helped launch a series of nonviolent
    demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, a city unsurpassed in
    the strength of its commitment to segregation.
    ·Medgar Evers was murdered in Mississippi.
    A National Commitment
    ·To generate support for the legislation, and to dramatize the power of
    the growing movement, ore than 200,000 demonstrators
    marched down the Mall in Washington, D.C., in August 1963 and
    gathered before the Lincoln Memorial for the greatest civil rights
    demonstration in the nation’s history.
    ·Early in 1964, after Johnson applied both public and private pressure,
    supporters of the measure finally mustered the two-thirds
    majority necessary to close debate and end a filibuster by
    southern senators; and the Senate passed the most
    comprehensive civil rights bill in the nation’s history.
    The Battle for Voting Rights
    ·During the summer of 1964, thousands of civil rights workers, black
    and white, northern and southern, spread out through the South,
    but primarily in Mississippi.
    ·The campaign was known as “freedom summer”, and it produced a
    violent response from some southern whites.
    ·The “freedom summer” also produced the Mississippi Freedom
    Democratic Party, and integrated alternative to the regular state
    party organization.
    ·It permitted the MFDP to be seated as observers, with promises of
    party reforms later on, while the regular party retained its official
    standing.
    ·A year later, in March 1965, King helped organize a major
    demonstration in Selma, Alabama to press the demand for the
    right of blacks to register to vote.
    ·Two northern whites participating in the Selma march were murdered
    in the course of the effort there- one, a minister, beaten to death
    in the streets of the town; the other, a Detroit housewife, shot as
    she drove along a highway at night with a black passenger in her
    car.
    ·The Civil Rights Act of 1965, better known as the Voting Rights Act,
    which provided federal protection to blacks attempting to
    exercise their right to vote.
    The Changing Movement
    ·By 1966, 69 percent of American blacks were living in metropolitan
    areas and 45 percent outside the South.
    ·Well over half of all American non-whites lived in poverty at the
    beginning of the 1960s; black unemployment was twice that of
    whites.
    ·Over the next decade, affirmative action guidelines gradually
    extended to virtually all institutions doing business with or
    receiving funds from the federal government- and to many
    others as well.
    ·Organizers of the Chicago campaign hoped to direct national attention
    to housing and employment discrimination in northern industrial
    cities in much the same way similar campaigns had exposed
    legal racism in the South.
    Urban Violence
    ·Well before the Chicago campaign, the problem of urban poverty had
    thrust itself into national attention when violence broke out in
    black neighborhoods in major cities.
    ·The first large race riot since the end of World War II occurred the
    following summer in the Watts section of Los Angeles.
    ·The incident triggered a storm of anger and a week of violence.
    ·34 people died during the Watts uprising, which was eventually
    quelled by the National Guard; 28 of the dead were black.
    ·Televised reports of the violence alarmed millions of Americans and
    created both a new sense of urgency and a growing sense of
    doubt among many of those whites who had embraced the cause
    of racial justice only a few years before.
    ·A special Commission on Civil Disorders, created by the president in
    response to the disturbances, issued a celebrated report in the
    spring of 1968 recommending massive spending to eliminate the
    abysmal conditions of the ghettoes.
    Black Power
    ·Disillusioned with the ideal of peaceful change in cooperation with
    whites, an increasing number of African Americans were turning
    to a new approach to the racial issue: the philosophy of “black
    power”.
    ·The most enduring impact of the black-power ideology was a social
    and psychological one: instilling racial pride in African Americans,
    who lived in a society whose dominant culture generally
    portrayed blacks as inferior to whites.
    ·It encouraged the growth of black studies in schools and universities.
    ·Traditional black organizations that had emphasized cooperation=2
    0with sympathetic whites- groups such as the NAACP, the Urban
    League, and King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conferencenow
    faced competition from more radical groups.
    ·In Oakland, California the Black Panther Party promised to defend
    black rights even if that required violence.
    Malcolm X
    ·In Detroit, a once-obscure black nationalist group, the Nation of Islam,
    gained new prominence.
    ·Founded in 1931 by Wali Farad and Elijah Poole, the movement taught
    blacks to take responsibility for their own lives, to be disciplined,
    to live by strict codes of behavior, and to reject any dependence
    on whites.
    ·Malcolm became one of the movement’s most influential spokesmen,
    particularly among younger blacks, as a result of his intelligence,
    his oratorical skills, and his harsh, uncompromising opposition to
    all forms of racism and oppression.
    ·He did not advocate violence, but he insisted that black people had
    the right to defend themselves, violently if necessary from those
    who assaulted them.
    ·Malcolm died in 1965 when black gunmen, presumably under orders
    from rivals within the Nation of Islam, assassinated him in New
    York.
    "Flexible Response and the Cold War"
    Diversifying Foreign Policy
    · The Kennedy administration entered office convinced that the United
    States needed to be able to counter communist aggression in
    more flexible ways than the atomic weapons-oriented defense
    strategy of the Eisenhower years permitted.
    · Kennedy was unsatisfied with the nation’s ability to meet communist
    threats in “emerging areas” of the Third World- the areas in
    which, Kennedy believed, the real struggle against communism
    would be waged in the future.
    · Kennedy also inaugurated the Agency for International Development
    to coordinate foreign aid.
    · The Peace Corps, sent young American volunteers abroad to work in
    developing areas.
    · On April 17, 1961, with the approval of the new president, 2,000 of
    the armed exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, expecting
    first American air support and then a spontaneous uprising by
    the Cuban people on their behalf.
    Confrontations with the Soviet Union
    · In the grim aft ermath of the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy traveled to Vienna
    in June 1961 for his first meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita
    Khrushchev.
    · Before dawn on August 13, 1961, the East German government,
    complying with directives from Moscow, constructed a wall
    between East and West Berlin.
    · For nearly 30 years the Berlin Wall served as the most potent physical
    symbol of the conflict between the communist and
    noncommunist worlds.
    · On October 14, aerial reconnaissance photos produced clear evidence
    that the Soviets were constructing sites on the island for
    offensive nuclear weapons.
    · On October 22, he ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a
    “quarantine” against all offensive weapons.
    Johnson and the World
    · Lyndon Johnson entered the presidency lacking even John Kennedy’s
    limited prior experience with international affairs.
    · A 1961 assassination had toppled the repressive dictatorship of
    General Rafael Trujillo, and for the next four years various
    fascinations in the country had struggled for dominance.
    · In the spring of 1965, a conservative military regime began to
    collapse in the face of a revolt by a broad range of groups on
    behalf of the left-wing nationalist Juan Bosch.
    · Only after a conservative candidate defeated Bosch in a 1966 election
    were the forces withdrawn.
    The Agony of Vietnam
    The First Indochina War
    · Vietnam had a long history both as an independent kingdom and
    major power in its region, and as a subjugated province of China;
    its people were both proud of their past glory and painfully aware
    of their many years of subjugation.
    · In the mi-19th century, Vietnam became a colony of France.
    · The French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam.
    · In the fall of 1945, after the collapse of Japan and before the western
    powers had time to return, the Vietminh declared Vietnam an
    independent nation and set up a nationalist government under
    Ho Chi Mihn in Hanoi.
    · For the next 4 years, during what has become known as the First
    Indochina War, Truman and then Eisenhower continued to
    support the French military campaign against the Vietminh; by
    1954, by some calculations, the United States was paying 80
    percent of France’s war costs.
    Geneva and the Two Vietnams
    · An international conference at Geneva, planned many months before
    to settle the Korean dispute and other controversies, now took up
    the fate of Vietnam as well.
    · Secretary of State Dulles, who reluctantly attended but left early; the
    United States was not a party to the accords.
    · Vietnam would be temporarily portioned along the 17th parallel, with
    the Vietminh in control of North Vietnam, and a pro-western
    regime in control of the South.
    America and Diem
    · The U.S almost immediately stepped into the vacuum and became the
    principal benefactor of the new government in the South, led by
    NGO Dihn Diem.
    · The Buddhist crisis was alarming and embarrassing to the Kennedy
    Administration.
    From Aid to Intervention
    · Lyndon Johnson thus inherited what was already a substantial
    American commitment to the survival of an anticommunist South
    Vietnam.
    · Intervention in South Vietnam was fully consistent with nearly 20
    years of American foreign policy.
    · In August 1964, the president announced that American destroyers on
    patrol in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin had been
    attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats.
    The Quagmire
    · There was a continuous stream of optimistic reports from American
    military commanders, government officials, and others.
    · The “attrition” was a strategy premised on the belief that the Unites
    States could inflict so many causalities and so much damage on
    the enemy that eventually they would be unable and unwilling to
    continue the struggle.
    · By the end of 1967, virtually every identifiable target of any strategic
    importance in North Vietnam had been destroyed.
    · Another crucial part of the American strategy was the “pacification”
    program, which was intended to push the Viet Cong from
    particular regions and then pacify those regions by winning the
    “hearts and minds” of the people.
    The War at Home
    · A series of “teach-ins” on university campuses, beginning at the
    University of Michigan in 196 sparked a national debate over the
    war before such debate developed inside the government itself.
    · Opposition to the war had become a central issue in left-wing politics
    and in the culture of colleges and universities.
    The Traumas of 1968
    The Tet Offensive
    · On January 31, 1968, the 1st day of the Vietnamese New Year (TET),
    communist forces launched an enormous, concerted attack on
    American strongholds throughout South Vietnam.
    The Political Challenge
    · On March 31, Johnson went on television to announce a limited halt in
    the bombing of North Vietnam.
    The King and Kennedy Assassinations
    · On April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed while standing on
    the balcony of his motel.
    · In the days after the assassination, major riots broke out in more than
    60 American cities.
    · Rober t Kennedy shaped what some would later call the “Kennedy
    Legacy”, a set of ideas that would for a time become central to
    American liberalism.
    · The passions Kennedy had aroused made his violent death a
    particularly shattering experience for many Americans.
    The Conservation Response
    · George Wallace established himself in 1963 as one of the nation's
    leading spokesmen for the defense of segregation.
    · As a governor of Alabama, he attempted to block the admission of
    black students to the University of Alabama.
    · In 1964, he has run a few Democratic presidential primaries and
    although had done surprisingly well, standing in the polls with
    20%, he had no serious chance of winning the election.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - The Crisis of Authority

    The Youth Culture The New Left ·The postwar baby-boom generation, the unprecedented number of people born in a few years just after World War II, was growing up. ·One of the most visible results of the increasingly assertive youth movement was a radicalization of many American college and university students, who in the course of the 1960s formed what became known as the New Left- a large, diverse group of men and women energized by the polarizing developments of their time to challenge the political system. ·The New Left embraced the cause of African Americans and other minorities, but its own ranks consisted overwhelmingly of white people. ·The New Left drew from many sources. ·The New Left drew as well from the writings of some of the important social critics of the 1950s-among them C. Wright Mills, a soci ologist at Columbia University who wrote a series of scathing and brilliant critiques of modern bureaucracies. ·The New Left drew its inspiration above all from the civil rights movement, in which many idealistic young white Americans had become involved in the early 1960s. ·In 1962, a group of students, most of them from prestigious universities, gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give voice to their demands: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). ·A 1964 dispute at the University of California at Berkeley over the rights of students to engage in political activities on campus gained national attention. ·The Free Speech Movement, created turmoil at Berkeley as students challenged campus police, occupied administrative offices, and produced a strike in which nearly ¾ of the Berkeley students participated. ·The revolt at Berkeley was the first outburst of what was to be nearly a decade of campus turmoil. ·Also in 1969, Berkeley became the scene of perhaps the most prolonged and traumatic conflict of any American college campus in the 1960s: a battle over the efforts of a few students to build a “People’s Park” on a vacant lot the university planned to use to build a parking garage. ·By the end of the People’s Park battle, which lasted for more than a week, the Berkeley campus was completely polarized. ·Student radicals were, for the20first time, winning large audiences for their extravagant rhetoric linking together university administrators, the police, and the larger political and economic system, describing them all as part of one united, oppressive force. ·As time went on, moreover, the student fringe groups became increasingly militant. ·Student activists tried to drive out training programs for military officers (ROTC) and bar military recruiters from college campuses. ·The October 1967 march on the Pentagon, where demonstrators were met by a solid line of armed troops; the “spring mobilization” of April 1968, which attracted hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in cities around the country. ·Many draft-age Americans simply refused induction, accepting what occasionally what were long terms in jail as a result. The Counterculture ·The most visible characteristic of the counterculture was a change in lifestyle. ·Young Americans flaunted long hair, shabby or flamboyant clothing, and a rebellious disdain for traditional speech and decorum, which they replaced with their own “hippie” idiom. ·Also central to the counterculture were drugs: marijuana smokingwhich after 1966 became almost as common a youthful diversion as b eer drinking-and the less widespread but still substantial use of other, more potent hallucinogens, such as LSD. ·To some degree, the emergence of more relaxed approaches to sexuality was a result less of the counterculture than of the new accessibility of effective contraceptives, most notably the birthcontrol pill and, after 1973, legalized abortion. ·The counterculture’s rejection of traditional values and its open embrace of sensual pleasure sometimes masked its philosophy, which offered a fundamental challenge to the American middleclass mainstream. ·The most adherents of the counterculture-the hippies, who came to dominate the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco and other places, and the social dropouts, many of whom retreated to rural communes-rejected modern society altogether and attempted to find refuge in a simpler, more “natural” existence. ·Theodore Roszak, whose book the Making of a Counter Culture(1969) became a significant document of the era, captured much of the spirit of the movement in his frank admission that “the primary project of our counterculture is to proclaim a new heaven and a new earth so vast, so marvelous that the inordinate claims of technical expertise must of necessity withdraw to a subordinate and marginal status in the lives of men.” ·The use of marijuana, the freer attitudes toward sex, the iconoclastic (and sometimes obscene) language- all spread far beyond the realm of the true devotes of the counterculture. ·Rock n Roll first achieved wide popularity in the 1950s, on the strength of such early performers as Buddy Holly and Elvis Presley. ·Early in the 1960s, its influence began to spread, a result in large part of the phenomenal popularity of the Beatles, the English group whose first visit to the United States in 1964 created a remarkable sensation, “Beatlemania”. ·Other groups such as the Rolling Stones turned even more openly to themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness. ·Television began to turn to programming that reflected social and cultural conflict- as exemplified by the enormously popular All in the Family, whose protagonist, Archie Bunker, was a lowermiddle- class bigot. The Mobilization of Minorities Seeds of Indian Militancy ·Indians were the least prosperous, least healthy, and least stable group in the nation. ·They constituted less than one percent of the population. ·The Native American unemployment rate was ten times the national rate. ·Life expectancy among Indians was more than twenty years less than the national average. ·For much of the postwar era, and particularly after the resignation of John Collier as commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1946, federal policy toward the tribes had been shaped by a determination to incorporate Indians into mainstream American society, whether Indians wanted to assimilate or not. ·Through termination, the federal government withdrew all official recognition of the tribes as legal entities, administratively separate from state governments, and made them subject to the same local jurisdictions as white residents. ·Many Native Americans adapted to life in the cites, at least to a degree. The Indian Civil Rights Movement ·The National Indian Youth Council, created in the aftermath of the 1961 Chicago meeting, promoted the idea of Indian nationalism and intertribal unity. ·In 1968, a group of young of young militant Indian Movement, which drew its greatest support from those Indians who lived in urban areas but soon established a significant presence on the rese rvations as well. ·In 1968, Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act, which guaranteed reservation Indians many of the protections accorded other citizens by the Bill of Rights, but which also recognized the legitimacy of tribal laws within the reservations. ·The Indian civil rights movement fell far short of winning full justice and equality for its constituents. Latino Activism ·Latinos were the fastest-growing minority group in the United States. ·Large numbers of Puerto Ricans had migrated to eastern cities, particularly New York. ·In 1980, a second, much poorer wave of Cuban immigrants-the so called Marielitos, named for the port from which they left Cubaarrived in Florida when Castro temporarily relaxed exit restrictions. ·Large numbers of Mexican Americans had entered the country during the war in response to the labor shortage, and may had remained in the cities of the Southwest and the Pacific Coast. ·After the war, when the legal agreements that had allowed Mexican contract workers to enter the country expired, large numbers of immigrants continued to move to the United States illegally. ·By the late 1960s, therefore, Mexican Americans were one of the largest population=2 0groups in the West-outnumbering African Americans-and had established communities in most other parts of the nation as well. ·Young Mexican-American activist began themselves “Chicanos” as a way of emphasizing the shared culture of Spanish-speaking use among Mexican Americans. ·Cesar Chavez, created an effective union itinerant farm workers. ·In 1965 his United Farmers Workers (UFW), a largely Chicano organization, launched a prolonged strike against growers to demand, first, recognition of their union and, second, increased wages and benefits. ·Supporters of bilingualism in education argued that non-Englishspeaking Americans were entitled to schooling in their own language, that otherwise they would be at a grave disadvantage in comparison with native English speakers. Challenging the "Melting Pot" Ideal ·The efforts of blacks, Latinos, Indians, Asians, and others to forge a clearer group identity challenged a longstanding premise of American political thought: the idea of the “melting pot”. ·The newly assertive ethnic groups of the 1960s and after appeared less willing to accept the standards of the larger society and more likely to demand recognition of their own ethnic identities. Gay Liberation ·The last important liberation movement to make major gains in the 1960s, and the most surprising to many Americans, was the effort by homosexuals to win political and economic rights and, equally important, social acceptance. ·On June 27, 1969, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay nightclub in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and began arresting patrons simply for frequenting the place. ·The raid was not unusual. ·The “Stonewall Riot” marked the beginning of the gay liberation movement-one of the most controversial challenges to traditional values and assumptions of its time. ·Universities were establishing gay and lesbian studies programs. ·Laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual preference were making slow, halting progress at the local level. The New Feminism The Rebirth ·A few determined women kept feminist political demands alive in the National Woman’s Party and other organizations. ·The 1963 publication of Betty Friedan’s the Feminine Mystique is often cited as the first event of contemporary women’s liberation. ·In 1963 the Kennedy administration helped win passage of the Equal Pay Act, which barred the pervasive practice of paying women less than men for equal work. ·The conflict between the ideal and the reality was crucial to the rebirth of feminism. ·The National Organization for Women, which was to become the nation’s largest and most influential feminist organization. The new organization reflected the varying constituencies of the emerging feminist movement. Women's Liberation ·The new feminists were mostly younger, the vanguard of the bayboom generation. ·Many had found that even within those movements, they faced discrimination and exclusion or subordination to male leaders. ·In its most radical form, the new feminism rejected the whole notion of marriage. Expanding Achievements ·In 1971, the government extended its affirmative action guidelines to include women-linking sexism with racism as an officially acknowledged social problem. ·Nearly half of all married women held jobs by the mid-1970s, and almost 9/10 of all women with college degrees worked. ·There were also important symbolic changes, such as the refusal of many women to adopt their husbands’ names when they married and the use of the term “Ms.” in place of “Mrs.” or “Miss” to denote the irrelevance of a woman’s marital status. The Abortion Controversy · In least controversial form, this impulse helped produce an increasing awareness in the 1960s and 1970s of the problems of rape, sexual abuse, and wife beating. · There continued to be some controversy over the dissemination of contraceptives and birth-control inf ormation; but that issue, at least, seemed to have lost much of the explosive character it had had in the 1920s, when Margaret Sanger had become a heroine to some and a figure of public scorn to others for her efforts on its behalf. Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society The New Science of Ecology · Until the mid-twentieth century, most people who considered themselves environmentalists based their commitment on aesthetic or moral grounds. · They wanted to preserve nature because it was too beautiful to despoil, or because it was a mark of divinity on the world, or because it permitted humans a spiritual experience that would otherwise be unavailable to them. · They called it ecology. Funded by government agencies, by universities, by foundations, and eventually even by some corporations, ecological science gradually established itself as a significant field of its own- not, perhaps, with the same stature as such traditional fields as physics, chemistry, and biology, but certainly a field whose importance and appeal grew rapidly in the last decades of the  20th century Environmental Advocacy · Academic ecologists often have close ties to environmental organizations committed to public action and political lobbying. · The professional zed environmental advocacy they provided gave the movement a political strength it had never enjoyed in the past. · Lawyers fought battles with government agencies and in the courts. · When Congress or state legislatures considered environmental legislation, more often than not the environmental organizations played a critical role in drafting it. Environmental Degradation · Many other forces contributed as well in the 1960s and 1970s to create what became the environmental movement. · Water pollution- which had been a problem in some areas of the country for many decades- was becoming so widespread that almost every major city was dealing with the unpleasant sight and odor, as well as the very real health risks, of polluted rivers and lakes. · In some large cities-Los Angeles and Denver among them-smog became an almost perpetual fact of life,=2 0rising steadily through the day, blotting out the sun, and creating respiratory difficulties for many citizens. · Environmentalist also brought to public attention some longer-term dangers of unchecked industrial development: the rapid depletion of oil and other irreplaceable fossil fuels; the destruction of lakes and forests as a result of “acid rain”; the rapid destruction of vast rain forests, in Brazil and elsewhere, which limited the earth’s capacity to replenish its oxygen supply. Earth Day and Beyond · On April 22, 1970, people all over the United States gathered in schools and universities, in churches and clubs, in parks and auditoria, for the first “Earth Day”. · The Clean Air Act, also passed in 1970, and the Clean Water Act, passed in 1972, added additional tools to government’s arsenal of weapons against environmental degradation. · Different administrations displayed varying levels of support for environmental goals, and advocacy groups remained ready to spring into action to force them to change their positions. Nixon, Kissinger, and the War Vietnamization · Henry Kissinger, a Harvard professor whom the president appointed as his special assistance for national security affairs. · The new Vietnam policy moved along several fronts. · By 1973, the Selective Service System was on its way to least temporary extinction. · In the fall of 1969, Nixon announced reduction of American ground troops from Vietnam by 60,000 the first reduction in U.S. troop strength since the beginning of the war. Escalation ·By the end of their first year in office, Nixon and Kissinger had concluded that the most effective ay to tip the military balance in America’s favor was to destroy the bases in Cambodia from which the American military believed the North Vietnamese were launching many of their attacks. ·Four college students were killed and nine others injured when members of the National Guard opened fire on antiwar demonstrators at Kent State University in Ohio. ·The trail and conviction in 1971 of Lieutenant William Calley, who was charged wit h overseeing a massacre of more than 300 unharmed South Vietnamese civilians, attracted wide public attention. "Peace with Honor" ·In April 1972, the president dropped his longtime insistence on a removal of North Vietnamese troops from the south before any American withdrawal. ·On December 17, American B-52s began the heaviest and most destructive air raids of the entire war on Hanoi, Haiphong, and other North Vietnamese targets. Defeat in Indochina ·Late in April 1975, communist forces marched into Saigon, shortly after officials of the Thieu regime and the staff of the American embassy had fled the country in humiliating disarray. Nixon, Kissinger, and the World China and the Soviet Union ·Nixon and Kissinger wanted to forge a new relationship with the Chinese communists- in part to strengthen them as a counterbalance to the Soviet Union. ·In July 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to Beijing. ·In February 1972, Nixon paid a formal visits to China and, in a single stroke, erased much of the deep American animosity toward the Chinese communists regime, but in 1972 the United states and China began low-level diplomatic relations. ·In 1969, America and Soviet diplomats met in Helsinki, Finland, to begin talks on limiting nuclear weapons. In 1972, they produced the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which froze the nuclear missiles (ICBMs) of both sides at present levels. The Problems of Multipolarity ·In 1969 and 1970, the president described what became known as the Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would “participate in the defense and development of allies and friends” but would leave the “basic responsibility” for the future of those “friends” to the nations themselves. ·In practice, the Nixon Doctrine meant a declining American interest in contributing to Third World development; a growing contempt for the United Nations, where less-developed nations were gaining influence through their sheer numbers; and increasing support to authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand radical challenges from within. ·In 1973, a military junta seized power from Allende, who was subsequently murdered. ·In October 1973, on the Jewish High Holy day of Yom Kippur, Egyptian and Syrian forces attacked Israel. ·The imposed settlement of the Yom Kippur War demonstrated the growing dependence of the United States and its allies on Arab oil. ·The United States could no longer depend on cheap, easy access to raw materials as it had in the past. Politics and Economics Under Nixon Domestic Initiatives ·He forbade the department of Health, Education, and Welfare to cut off the federal funds from school districts that had failed to comply with court orders to integrate. In 1973, he abolished the Office of economic Opportunity, the centerpiece of the antipoverty program of the Office of economic Opportunity, the centerpiece of the antipoverty program20of the Johnson years. From the Warren Court to the Nixon Court ·In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the court had ruled that prayers in public schools were unconstitutional, sparking outrage among religious fundamentalists and others. The Election of 1972 ·Nixon was most fortunate in 1972, however, in his opposition. ·The possibility of such a campaign vanished in May, when a would-be assassin shot the Alabama governor during a rally at a Maryland shopping center. The Troubled Economy ·The American dollar had been the strongest currency in the world, and the American standard of living had risen steadily from its already substantial heights. ·Its most visible cause was significant increase in federal deficit spending in the 1960s, when the Johnson administration tried to fund the war in Vietnam and its ambitious social prog rams without raising taxes. ·Domestic petroleum reserves were no longer sufficient to meet this demand, and the nation was heavily dependent on imports from the Middle East and Africa. ·The U.S manufacturing now faced major completion from aboard-not only in world trade but also at home. The Nixon Response ·The government moved first to reduce spending and raises taxes. ·The United States was encountering a new and puzzling dilemma: “stagflation”, a combination of rising prices and general economic stagnation. In 1973, prices rose 9 percent; in 1974, after the Arab oil embargo and the OPEC price increases, they rose 12 percent-the highest rate since the relaxation of price controls shortly after World War II. The Watergate Crisis The Scandals ·Early on the morning of June 17, 1972 police arrested five men who had broken into the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C. Two others were seized a short time porters for the Washington Post began researching the backgrounds of the culprits, they discovered that among those involved in the burglary were former employees of the Committee for the Re-Election of the President. The Fall of Richard Nixon ·In April 1974, the president released some transcripts of relevent conversations, claiming that they proved his innocence, but investigators believed them to be edited for a cover-up. ·The Supreme Court ruled unanimously, in the United States v. Richard M. Nixon, that the president must relinquish the tapes to Special Prosecutor Jaworski. ·The House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend three articles of impeachment: 1. Charging that Nixon had obstructed justice in the Watergate cover-up. 2. Misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens. 3. Defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliever tapes and other materials suboenaed by the committee. ·On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation, the first president in American history to ever do so. ·Gerald Ford became president.  

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - From "The Age of Limits" to The Age of Reagan

     
    Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate
    The Ford Custodianship
    ·Gerald Ford had to try to rebuild confidence in government in the face of the widespread
    cynicism the Watergate scandals had produced.
    ·He had to try to restore prosperity in the face of major domestic and international
    challenges to the American economy.
    ·Ford explained that he was attempting to spare the nation the ordeal of years of litigation
    and to spare Nixon himself any further suffering.
    ·The Ford administration enjoyed less success in its effort to solve the problems of the
    American economy.
    ·In the aftermath of the Arab oil embargo of 1973, the OPEC cartel began to raise thr
    price of oil-by 400 percent in 1974 alone.
    ·Ford retained Henry Kissinger as secretary of state and continued the general policies of
    the Nixon years.
    ·Late in 1974, Ford met with Leonid Brezhnev at Vladivostok in Siberia and signed an
    arms control accord that was to serve as the basis for SALT II, thus achieving a
    goal the Nixon administration had long sought.
    In the republican primary campaign Ford faced a powerful challenge from former
    California governor Ronald Reagan, leader of the party’s conservative wing, who
    spoke for many on the right who were unhappy with any conciliation of
    communists.
    The Trials of Jimmy Carter
    ·Jimmy Carter assumed the presidency at a moment when the nation faced problems of
    staggering complexity and difficulty.
    ·He left office in 1981 one of the least popular presidents of the country.
    ·He surrounded himself in the White House with group of close-knit associates from
    Georgia; and in the beginning, at least, he seemed deliberately to spurn assistance
    from more experienced political figures.
    ·He moved first to reduce unemployment by raising public spending and cutting federal
    taxes.
    He appointed G. William Miller and then Paul Volcker, both conservative economists, to
    head the Federal Reserve Board, thus ensuring a policy of high interest rates and
    reduced currency supplies.
    Human Rights and National Interests
    ·Among Jimmy Carter’s most frequent campaign promises was a pledge to build a new
    basis for American foreign policy, one in which the defense of “human rights”
    would replace the pursuit of “selfish interest.
    ·Domestic opposition to the treaties was intense, especially among conservatives who
    viewed the new arrangements as part of a general American retreat from
    international power.
    ·Middle East negotiations had seemed hopelessly stalled when a dramatic breakthrough
    occurred in Nove mber 1977.
    ·In Tel Aviv, he announced that Egypt was now willing to accept the state of Israel as a
    legitimate political entity.
    ·On September 17, Carter escorted the two leaders into the White House to announce
    agreement on a “framework” for an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty.
    ·On December 15, 1978, Washington and Beijing announced the resumption of formal
    diplomatic relations between the two nations.
    ·The treaty set limits on the number of long-range missiles, bombers, and nuclear
    warheads on each side.
    By the fall of 1979, with the Senate scheduled to begin debate over the treaty shortly,
    ratification was already in jeopardy.
    The Year of the Hostages
    ·By 1979, the Shah of Iran, hoping to make his nation a bulwark against Soviet
    expansion in the Middle East.
    ·In January 1979, the Shah fled the country.
    ·By late 1979, revolutionary chaos in Iran was making any normal relations impossible.
    ·In late October 1979, the deposed Shah arrived in New York to be treated for cancer.
    Days later, on November 4, an armed mob invaded the American embassy in
    Teheran, seized the diplomats and military personnel inside, and demanded the
    return of the Shah to Iran in exchange for their freedom.
    ·53 Americans remained hostages in the embassy for over a year.
    ·Only weeks after the hostage seizure, on December 27, 1979, Soviet troops invaded
    Afghanistan, the mountaino us Islamic nation lying between the USSR and Iran.
    ·The combination of domestic economic troubles and international crises created
    widespread anxiety, frustration, and anger in the United States-damaging
    President Carter already low stranding with the public, and giving added strength
    to an alternative political force that had already made great strides.
    The Rise of the New American Right
    The Sunbelt and Its Politics
    ·The most widely discusses demographic phenomenon of the 1970s was the rise of what
    became known as the “Sunbelt”- a term coined by the political analyst Kevin
    Phillips to describe a collection of regions that emerged together in the postwar
    era to become the most dynamically growing parts of the country.
    ·By 1980, the population of the Sunbelt had risen to exceed that of the older industrial
    regions of the North and the East.
    ·White southerners equated the federal government’s effort to change racial norms in the
    region with what they believed was tyranny of Reconstruction.
    ·In the 1970s and early 1980s, the boom mentality of some of these rapidly growing
    areas conflicted sharply with the concerns of the older industrial states of the
    Northeast and Midwest.
    ·The so-called Sagebrush Rebellion, which emerged in parts of the West in the late
    1970s, mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restrictions
    on development.
    Suburbanization also fueled the rise of the right.
    Religious Revivalism
    ·In the 1960s, may critics had predicted the virtual extinction of religious influence in
    American life.
    ·By early 1980s, it was no longer possible to ignore them.
    ·More than 70 million Americans now described themselves as “born-again” Christiansmen
    and women who had established a “direct personal relationship with Jesus”.
    ·For Jimmy Carter and for some others, evangelical Christianity had formed the basis for
    a commitment to racial and economic justice and to world peace.
    The Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, and other organizations of similar
    inclination opposed federal interference in local affairs; denounced abortion,
    divorce, enterprise; and supported a strong American posture in the world.
    The Emergnece of the New Right
    ·Evangelical Christians were an important part, but only a part, of what became known
    as the new right- a diverse but powerful movement that enjoyed rapid growth in
    the 1970s and early 1980s.
    ·Conservative campaigns had for many years been less well funded and organized than
    those of their rivals.
    ·By the late 1970s, there were right-wing think tanks, consulting forms, lobbyists,
    foundations, and scholarly centers.
    ·In the early 1950s Roosevelt became a corporate spokesman for General Electric and
    won a wide following on the right with his smooth, eloquent speeches in defense
    of individual freedom and private enterprise.
    In 1966, with the support of a group of a group of wealthy conservatives, he won the first
    of two terms as governor of California-which gave him a much more visible
    platform for promoting himself and his ideas. [Ronald Reagan]
    The Tax Revolt
    ·At least equally important to the success of the new right was a new and potent
    conservative issue: the tax revolt.
    ·The biggest and most expensive programs-Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and
    others-had the broadest support.
    In Proposition 13 and similar initiatives, members of the right found a better way to
    discredit government than by attacking specific programs: attacking taxes.
    The Campaign of 1980
    ·Jimmy Carter's standing in popularity polls were lower than that of any
    president.
    ·On election day 1980, Reagan(R) won 51% of the vote to 41% for
    Jimmy Carter(D) and 7% for John Anderson(I)
    1. Electoral botes: Reagan 489, Carter 49.
    ·The Republican Party won control of the Senate for the first time since
    1952.
    The "Reagan Revolution"
    The Reagan Coalition
    ·Reagan owed his election to widespread disillusionment with Carter and to the crises
    and disappointments that many voters, perhaps unfairly, associated with him.
    ·The Reagan coalition included a relatively small but highly influential group of wealthy
    Americans associated with the corporate and financial world-the kind of people
    who had dominated American politics and government through much of the
    nations history until the New Deal began to challenge their preeminence.
    ·A second element of the Reagan coalition was even smaller, but also disproportionately
    influential: a group of intellectuals commonly known as “neo-conservatives,” who
    gave to the right something it had not had in may years-a firm base among
    “opinion leaders”, people with access to the most influential public forums for
    ideas.
    Neo-conservatives were sympathetic to the complaints and demands of capitalists, but
    their principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western
    democratic, anticommunists values and commitments.
    Reagan in the White House
    ·Reagan was the master of television, a gifted public speaker, and -in public at leastrugged,
    fearless, and seemingly impervious to danger or misfortune.
    ·He spent his many vacations on a California ranch, where he chopped wood and rode
    horses.
    At times, the president revealed a startling ignorance about the nature of his own policies
    or the actions of his subordinates.
    "Supply-Side" Economics
    ·Reagan’s 1980 campaign for the presidency had promised, among other things, to
    restore the economy to health by a bold experiment that became known as
    “supply-side” economics or, to some, “Reaganomics”.
    ·In its first months in office, accordingly , the new administration hastily assembled a
    legislative program based on the supply-side idea.
    ·The recession convinced many people, including some conservatives, that the Reagan
    economic program failed.
    ·The gross national product had grown 3.6 percent in a year, the largest increase since the
    -1970s.
    ·The economy continued to grow, a nd both inflation and unemployment remained low
    through most of the decade.
    A worldwide “energy glut” and the virtual collapse of the OPEC cartel had produced at
    least a temporary end to the inflationary pressures of spiraling fuel costs.
    The Fiscal Crisis
    ·By the mid-1980s, this growing fiscal crisis had become one of the central issues in
    American politics.
    ·Throughout the 1980s, the annual budget deficit consistently exceeded $100 billion.
    ·The 1981 tax cuts, the largest in American history, contributed to the deficit.
    ·There were reductions in funding for food stamps; a major cut in federal subsidies for
    low-income housing; strict new limitations on Medicare and Medicaid payments;
    reductions in student loans, school lunches, and other educational programs; and
    an end to many forms of federal assistance to the states and cities-which helped
    precipitate years of local fiscal crises as well.
    By the late 1980s, may fiscal conservatives were calling for a constitutional amendment
    mandating a balanced budget-a provision the president himself claimed to
    support.
    Reagan and the World
    ·Determined to restore American pride and prestige in the world, he argued that the
    United States should once again become active and assertive in opposing
    communism and in supporting friendly governments whatever their internal
    policies.
    ·The president spoke harshly of Soviet regime accusing it of sponsori ng world terrorism
    and declaring that any armaments negotiations must be linked to negotiations on
    Soviet behavior in other areas.
    ·Although the president had long denounced the SALT II arms control treaty as
    unfavorable to the United States, he continued to honor it provisions.
    ·The Soviet Union claimed that the new program would elevate the arms race to new and
    more dangerous levels and insisted that any arms control agreement begin with an
    American abandonment of SDI.
    ·The New Policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine, and it meant, above all, a new
    American activism came in Latin America.
    The Reagan administration spoke bravely about its resolve to punish terrorism; and at one
    point in 1986, the president ordered American planes to bomb site in Tripoli, the
    capital of Libya, whose controversial leader was widely believed to be a leading
    sponsor of terrorism.
    The Election of 1984
    ·Reagan was victorious in the election winning 59% of the vote,
    carrying every state but Mondale's native Minnesota and the
    District of Columbia.
    ·The election of 1984 was the first campaign of the Cold War.
    America and the Waning of the Cold War
    The Fall of the Soviet Union
    ·The first he called glasnost (openness): the dismantling many of the repressive
    mechanisms that had been conspicuous features of Soviet life for over half a
    century.
    ·The Communists Parties of Eastern Europe collapsed or redefined themselves into more
    conventional left-leaning social democratic parties.
    Among other things, it legalized the chief black party in the nation, the African National
    Congress, which had been banned for dec ades; and on February 11, 1990, it
    released from prison the leader of the ANC, and a revered hero too black south
    Africans, Nelson Mandela, who had been in jail for 27 years.
    Reagan and Gorbachev
    ·At a summit meeting with Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland, in 1986, Gorbachev proposed
    reducing the nuclear arsenals of both sides by 50 percent or more, although
    continuing disputes over Reagan’s commitment to the SDI program prevented
    agreements.
    The Fading of the Reagan Revolution
    ·There were revelations of illegality, corruption, and ethical lapses in the Environmental
    Protection Agency, the CIA, the Department of Defense, the Department of Labor,
    the Department of Justice, and the Department of Housing and Urban
    Development.
    The most politically damaging scandal of the Reagan years came to light in November
    1986, when the White House conceded that it had sold weapons to the
    revolutionary government of Iran as part of a largely unsuccessful effort to secure
    the release of several Americans being held hostage by radical Islamic groups in
    the Middle East.
    The Election of 1988
    ·The Bush campaign was almost the most negative of the 20th
    century, with Bush attacking Dukakis by tying him to all the
    unpopular social and cultural stances Americans had come to
    identify with "liberals."
    ·It was also one of the most effective, although the listless, indecisive
    character of the Dukakis effort contributed to the Republican
    cause as well.
    ·Bush won the election with 54% of the popular vote to Dukakis' 46%,
    and 426 electoral votes to Dukakis' 112.
    The Bush Presidency
    ·The Bush presidency was notable for the dramatic developments in international affairs
    with which it coincided and at times helped to advance, and for the absence of
    important initiatives or ideas on domestic issues.
    ·The broad popularity Bush enjoyed during his first three years in office was partly a res
    ult of his subdued, unthreading public image.
    ·On domestic issues, the Bush administration was less successful-partly because the
    president himself seemed to have little interest in promoting a domestic agenda
    and partly because he faced serious obstacles.
    In 1990, the president bowed to congressional pressure and agreed to a significant tax
    increase as part of a multiyear “budget package” designed to reduce the deficit.
    The Gulf War
    ·The events of 1989-1991 ad left the United States in the unanticipated position of being
    the only real superpower in the world.
    ·The United States would reduce its military strength dramatically and concentrate its
    energies and resources on pressing domestic problems.
    ·America would continue to use its power actively, not to fight communism but to defend
    its regional and economic interests.
    ·In 1989, that led the administration to order an invasion of Panama.
    ·On August 2, 1990, the armed forces of Iraq invaded and quickly overwhelmed their
    small, oil-rich neighbor, the emirate of Kuwait.
    On February 28 Iraq announced its acceptance of allied terms for a cease-fire, and the
    brief Persian Gulf War came to an end.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - The Age of Globalization

    A Resurgence of Partisanship
    Launching the Clinton Presidency
    ·The new administration compounded its problems with a series of missteps and
    misfortunes in its first months.
    ·A long time friend of the president, Vince Foster, serving in the office of the White
    House counsel, committed suicide in the summer of 1993.
    ·Despite its many problems the Clinton administration could boast of some significant
    achievements in its first year.
    ·Clinton was a committed advocate of free trade and a proponent of many aspects of
    what came to be known as globalism.
    ·He won approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which
    eliminated most trade barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
    ·Early in 1993, he appointed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, which proposed a
    sweeping reform designed to guarantee coverage to every American and hold
    down the costs of medical care.
    ·The foreign policy of the Clinton administration was at first cautious and even tentativea
    reflection, perhaps, of the president’s relative inexperience in international
    affairs, but also of the rapidly changing character of international politics.
    The United States was among the nations to send peaceke eping troops to Bosnia to
    police the fragile settlement, which-despite many pessimistic predictions-was still
    largely in place 7 years later, although terrible new conflicts soon emerged in
    other areas of the Balkans.
    The Republican Resurgence
    ·For the first time in 40 years, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress.
    ·Newt Gingrich of Georgia, released a set of campaign promises signed by almost all
    Republican candidates for he House and called it the “Contract with America”.
    ·It called for tax reductions, dramatic changes in federal spending to produce a balanced
    budget, and a host of other promises consistent with the long-time goals of the
    Republican Party’s conservative wing.
    ·The Republican Congress proposed a series of measures to transfer important powers
    from the federal government to the states.
    Medicare program to reduce costs.
    ·In November 1995 and again in January 1996, the federal government literally shut
    down for several days because the president and Congress could not agree on a
    budget.
    The Election of 1996
    ·The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while Europe was embroiled
    in World War I.
    · Public sentiment in the still neutral United States leaned towards the British and French
    (allied) forces, due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army, which
    had invaded and occupied large parts of Belgium and northern France.
    · Despite their sympathy with the allied forces most American voters wanted to avoid
    involvement in the war, and preferred to continue a policy of neutrality.
    Clinton Triumpant and Embattled
    ·He proposed a relatively modest domestic agenda, consisting primarily of tax cuts and
    tax credits targeted at middle-class Americans and designed to help them educate
    their children.
    ·In early 1998, inquiries associated with the Paula Jones case led to charges that the
    president had had a sexua l relationship with a young White House intern, Monica
    Lewinsky; that he had lied about it in his deposition before Jones’s attorneys; and
    that he had encouraged her to do the same.
    ·Clinton admitted that he had an “improper relationship” with Monica.
    The president seemed to have escaped his difficulties as a result of strong popular
    support.
    Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence
    ·House leaders resisted all calls for dismissal of the charges or compromise.
    ·First the House Judiciary Committee and then, on December 19, 1998, the full House,
    both voting on strictly partisan lines, approved 2 counts of impeachment: lying to
    the grand jury and obstructing justice.
    ·Expanding role of scandal in American politics driven by an increasingly sensationalist
    media culture, the legal device of independent counsels, and the intensely
    adversarial quality of partisan politics.
    ·Numerous reports of Serbian atrocities against the Kosovans, and an enormous refugee
    crisis spurred by Yugoslavian military action in the province, slowly roused world
    opinion.
    The Two-Tiered Economy
    ·The increasing attendance created enormous new wealth that enriched those talented, or
    luck, enough to profit from the areas of booming growth.
    ·Between 1980 and the mid-1990s, the average family incomes of he wealthiest 20
    percent of the population grew by nearly 20 percent.
    ·Poverty in America had declined steadily and at times dramatically in the years after
    World War II, so that by the end of the 1970s the percentage of people living in
    poverty had fallen 12 percent.
    Globalization
    ·The most important economic change, and certainly the one whose impact was the most
    difficult to gauge, was what became known as the “globalization” of the economy.
    ·As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in the American
    economy as a whole, which thrived on the basis of the huge domestic market in
    North America.
    ·Imports rose.
    ·The North American Free Trade Agreement and the General Agreement on Trade and
    Tariffs, were the boldest of a long series of treaties designed to lower trade
    barriers stretching back to the 1960s.
    Science and Technology in the New Economy
    The Personal Computer
    ·The most visible element of the technological revolution to most Americans was the
    dramatic growth in the use of computers in almost every area of life.
    ·The development of the microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel, which
    represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry.
    ·Apple launched its Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely
    available to the public.
    ·3 years later, Apple introduced its Macintosh computer technology, among other things.
    ·Computerized word processing replaced typewriters and spreadsheets revolutionized
    bookkeeping.
    ·The computer revolution created thousands of new, lucrative businesses: computer
    manufacturers themselves (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Sun, Digital,
    and many others).
    The Internet
    ·The Internet is, a vast, geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people
    connected to the network to communicate with others all over the world.
    ·In 1989, a laboratory in Geneva introduced the World Wide Web, through which
    individual users could publish information for the Internet, which helped establish
    an orderly system for both the distribution and retrieval of electronic information.
    ·Newspapers, magazines, and other publications have begun to publish on the Internet.
    Breakthroughs in Genetics
    ·The Human Genome Project set out to identify all of the more than 100,000 genes by
    2005.
    Anti-Abortion advocates20denounced the research, claiming that it exploited unborn
    children.
    A Changing Society
    The Graying of America
    ·The declining birth rate and a significant rise in life expectancy produced a substantial
    increase in proportion of elderly citizens.
    ·Increasing costliness of Social Security pensions.
    New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity
    ·The nation’s immigration quotas expanded significantly in those years, allowing more
    newcomers to enter the United States legally than at any point since the beginning
    of the 20h century.
    ·In 1965, 90 percent of the immigrants to the united States came from Europe.
    ·Mexico alone accounted for over one-fourth of all the immigrants living in the United
    States in 2000.
    ·In the 1980s and 1990s, Asian immigrants arrived in even greater numbers than Latinos,
    constituting more than 40 percent of the total of legal newcomers.
    ·Many of the new Asian immigrants were refugees, including Vietnamese driven from
    their homes in the aftermath of the diatoms war in which the United States had so
    long been involved.
    The Black Middle Class
    ·There were increased opportunities for advancement available to those in a position to
    take advantage of them.
    ·As the industrial economy declined and government services dwindled, there was a
    growing sense of helplessness and despair among the large groups of nonwhites
    who continued to find themselves barred from=2 0upward mobility.
    ·The percentage of black high-school graduates going on to college was virtually the
    same as that of white high0school graduates by the end of the 20th century.
    ·There were few areas of American life from which blacks were any longer entirely
    excluded.
    Poor and Working-Class African Americans
    ·The “underclass” made up as much as a third of the nation’s black population.
    ·The black family structure suffered as well from the dislocations of urban poverty.
    ·There was an increase in the number of single-parent, female-headed black households.
    ·A bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police officers beating a helpless black
    man, Rodney King.
    ·Black residents of South Central Los Angeles erupted in anger.
    Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS
    ·The new immigrants arrived in cities with a dramatic increase in drug use, which
    penetrated nearly every community in the nation.
    ·AIDS is the product of the HIV virus, which is transmitted by the exchange of bodily
    fluids (blood or semen).
    ·The first American victims of AIDS, group among whom cases remained the most
    numerous were homosexual men.
    ·In 2000, U.S. government agencies estimated that about 780,000 Americans were
    infected with the HIV virus and that another 427,000 had already died from the
    disease.
    The Decline in Crime
    ·There was a dramatic reduction in crime=2 0rates across most of the United States.
    ·New incarceration policies-longer, tougher sentences and fewer paroles and early
    releases for violent criminals-led to a radical. Increase in the prison population
    and a reduction in the number of criminals at liberty to commit crimes.
    A Contested Culture
    ·Battles over Feminism and Abortion
    ·Leaders of the New Right had campaigned successfully against the proposed Equal
    Rights Amendment to the Constitution.
    ·The played a central role over the controversy over abortion rights.
    ·The opposition of some other anti-abortion activists had less to do with religion than
    with their commitment to traditional notions of family and gender relations.
    ·The Reagan and Bush administrations imposed further restrictions on federal funding
    and even on the right of doctors in federally funded clinics to give patients any
    information on abortion.
    The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism
    ·The environmental movement continued to expand in the last decades of the 20th
    century.
    ·They blocked the construction of roads, airports, and other projects that they claimed
    would be ecologically dangerous, taking advantage of new legislations protecting
    endangered species and environmentally fragile regions.
    The Fragmentation of Mass Culture
    ·The institutions of the media, news, entertainment grew more powerful.
    ·Fast food chains became the most widely known restaurants in America.=0 A
    ·Viewers could now rent or buy videotapes.
    The Perils of Globalization
    Opposing the "New World Order"
    ·Environmentalists argued that globalization, in exporting industry to low-wage
    countries, also exported industrial pollution and toxic waste into nations that had
    no effective laws to control them.
    ·In November 1999, when the leaders of the 7 nations gathered for their meeting many of
    them clashed with police.
    Defending Orthodoxy
    ·The Iranian Revolution of 1979, in which orthodox Muslims ousted a despotic
    government whose leaders had embraced many aspects of modern western
    culture, was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that
    would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten the stability
    of the globe.
    The Rise of Terrorism
    ·The U.S has experienced terrorism for many years.
    ·Due to the events on September 11, 2001, new security measures began to change the
    way Americans traveled.
    ·A puzzling and frightening epidemic of anthrax began in the weeks after 9/11.
    ·The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, government intelligence
    indicated, had been planned and orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of a
    powerful terrorist network known as Al Qaeda led by Osama Bin Laden.
    ·In his State of the Union address to Congress in January 2002, Bush spoke of an “axis of
    evil”.
    The New Era
    ·In the immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001, may Americans came to believe that
    they had entered a new era in their history.
    The reaction to the catastrophe exposed a side of American life and culture that had
    always existed but that had not always been visible.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American History: A Survey, 13th Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the American History: A Survey, 13th Edition notes. These American History: A Survey outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 922 pages
    • Publisher: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill; 13 edition (January 22, 2009)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0078916976
    • ISBN-13: 978-0078916977

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - Transplantations and Borderlands

     1)The Early Chesapeake

    a)The Founding of Jamestown

    i)Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed, Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607

    ii)Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indians

    b)Reorganization

    i)London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to planters

    ii)Winter of 1609-1610= starving time

    iii)First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline w/ work gangs

    iv)Communal system didn’t work well, Governor Dale thought better off with personal incentive to work and private ownership

    c)Tobacco

    i)1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansion

    d)Expansion

    i)Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlers

    ii)Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of others

    iii)Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)

    iv)1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundant

    v)Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644

    vi)By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crown

    e)Exchanges of Agricultural Tech

    i)Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soil

    f)Maryland and the Calverts

    i)Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture + retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius (second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new land

    ii)1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Maryland

    iii)Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), “Act Concerning Religion” granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655

    iv)Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright system

    g)Turbulent Virginia

    i)Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indians

    ii)Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwell’s victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony

    (1)Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westward

    iii)At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led to recent settlers in “back country” to be underrepresented

    h)Bacon’s Rebellion

    i)Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in west

    ii)Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govt

    iii)Bacon’s army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenly

    iv)Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with natives, also potential for instability in colony’s large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentry—common interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing

    2)The Growth of New England

    a)Plymouth Plantation

    i)1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch society

    ii)Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would “not molest them”. William Bradford was their leader and historian

    iii)Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 “saints” (members of church) and 67 “strangers”, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Cod

    iv)Land outside of London Company’s territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to king

    v)Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur trade

    vi)William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debt

    b)The Massachusetts Bay Experiment

    i)Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.

    ii)Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. 

    iii)Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didn’t separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, “congregation church”

    iv)Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, “city upon a hill” (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a “theocracy”

    v)Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quickly

    c)Expansion of New England

    i)As more ppl arrived many didn’t accept all religious tenets of colony’s leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religious

    ii)Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold off

    iii)Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)

    iv)Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, “liberty in religious concernments”

    v)Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt

    (1)Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, 

    vi)Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)

    d)Settlers and Natives

    i)Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly extinguished by epidemics

    ii)Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops + technique, trade with Indians created fortune

    iii)Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as “heathens” and “savages’

    e)The Pequot War, King Philip’s War, and Technology of Battle

    i)First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped out

    ii)Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law

    (1)for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back

    (2)1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerless

    iii)Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutch

    iv)Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower

    3)The Restoration Colonies

    a)The English Civil War

    i)Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeated

    ii)After Cromwell’s death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary ventures

    b)The Carolinas

    i)Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failed

    ii)Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order

    (1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal crop

    iii)SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation society

    iv)Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolina

    c)New Netherland, New York, and New Jersey

    i)1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New York

    ii)Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch “patrons” (large landowners”, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois ties

    iii)Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valley

    iv)Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crown

    d)The Quaker Colonies

    i)Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fell

    ii)Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylum

    iii)Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authority

    iv)Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a “holy experiment”

    (1)Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land

    (2)PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive.  1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, “lower counties” allowed own rep assembly—result was later Delaware

    4)Borderland and Middle Grounds

    a)The Caribbean Islands

    i)Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly deserted

    ii)Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch

    iii)Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers

    (1)Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumbered

    b)Masters and Slaves in the Caribbean

    i)Small white, successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt, 1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves

    (1)Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves than to protect well-being, worked them to death

    ii)Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community

    (1)Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditions

    iii)Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoples

    c)The Southwestern Borderlands

    i)In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiers

    ii)New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areas

    iii)Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborers

    iv)Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. 

    (1)Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 

    (2)North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success though

    v)Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing them

    d)The Southeast Borderlands

    i)Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas. Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span French

    ii)By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarried

    iii)Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundary

    e)The Founding of Georgia

    i)Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe, interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anew

    ii)Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Anne’s War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713

    iii)Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colony

    iv)1732 King George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholics—all to prevent revolt/conflict

    v)1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colony

    vi)Strict rules stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trustees

    vii)1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assembly

    f)Middle Grounds

    i)Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populations

    ii)In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precarious

    iii)In western borders neither side dominant, in “middle grounds” frequent conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribes

    iv)To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer gifts

    v)17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur traders

    vi)By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw force

    vii)As British and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by 19th century “middle grounds” collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption

    5)The Evolution of the British Empire

    a)The Drive for Reorganization

    i)Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excluded

    ii)Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English markets

    iii)@ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwell’’s Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies,  Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts

    (1)First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third 1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Acts

    iv)Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English needed

    b)The Dominion of New England

    i)1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colony

    ii)James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688  NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims “rights of Englishmen”, strengthened Anglican church

    c)The “Glorious Revolution”

    i)James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688 daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coup

    ii)Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + office

    iii)Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn “Leislerians” and “anti-Laslerians” dominated NY poitics for years

    iv)Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balt’s officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715  5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Church

    v)Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Society and Culture in Provincial America

     1)The Colonial Population

    a)Indentured Servitude

    i)Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at end—in reality left with nothing at all

    (1)Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselves

    ii)Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrest

    iii)1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rate

    b)Birth and Death

    i)Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number  early deaths. But growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growth

    ii)N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigration

    iii)By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growth

    c)Medicine in the Colonies

    i)17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbs

    ii)Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselves

    d)Women and families in the Chesapeake

    i)B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratio

    ii)High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whites

    e)Women and Families in New England

    i)Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young, children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearing

    ii)Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of society

    f)The Beginnings of Slavery in British America

    i)Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies- Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch

    (1)Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)

    ii)Mid 1690s Royal African Company’s monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stopped

    iii)Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force

    (1)Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of masters

    g)Changing Sources of European Immigration

    i)BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased

    (1)French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there

    2)The Colonial Economies

    a)The Southern Economy

    i)Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthy

    ii)South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white

    (1)Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in England

    iii)B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communities

    b)Northern Economic and Technological Life

    i)Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheat

    ii)Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing England

    iii)Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy supplies

    iv)Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to trade

    c)The Extent and Limits of Technology

    i)Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolation

    ii)Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce them

    d)The Rise of Colonial Commerce

    i)At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroad

    ii)Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficult

    iii)Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies, expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. 

    iv)“Triangular trade”, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goods

    v)New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goods

    vi)During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expanded

    e)The Rise of Consumerism

    i)Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goods

    ii)Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealth

    iii)Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertising

    iv)Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educated

    v)Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display

    3)Patterns of Society

    a)The Plantation

    i)Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 ppl

    ii)Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldn’t control markets, when prices fell faced ruin

    iii)Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of town

    iv)Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majority

    b)Plantation Slavery

    i)By mid-18th cent ¾ blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, ½ lived w/ 50+

    ii)In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African lore

    iii)Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run away

    iv)Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedom

    c)The Puritan Community

    i)Social unit of NE was town, “covenant” of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a “common”, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govt

    ii)English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritance

    iii)Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new town

    iv)Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.

    d)The Witchcraft Phenomenon

    i)Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690s

    ii)Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for “independent women”

    iii)Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstream

    e)Cities

    i)Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)

    ii)Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.

    iii)Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas

    4)Awakenings and Enlightenments

    a)The Pattern of Religions

    i)Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Rome

    ii)Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despair

    b)The Great Awakening

    i)Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with God

    ii)Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edward

    c)The Enlightenment

    i)Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledge

    ii)Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didn’t challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianity

    d)Education

    i)Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647 law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, women’s rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to education

    ii)Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans)  created to train ministers, William and  Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutions

    e)The Spread of Science

    i)Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. 

    ii)Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation, spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common procedure

    f)Concepts of Law and Politics

    i)Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurate

    ii)Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limited

    iii) Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Empire in Transition

     1)Loosening Ties

    a)A Tradition of Neglect

    i)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profits

    ii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritism

    iii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor power

    b)The Colonies Divided

    i)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service

    ii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies

    2)The Struggle for the Continent

    a)New France and the Iroquois Nation

    i)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior

    ii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy 

    iii)“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships

    iv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground

    b)Anglo-French Conflicts

    i)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French

    ii)King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to English

    iii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748

    iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated

    v)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender

    c)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War

    i)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. 

    (1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English

    ii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction

    iii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760

    iv)Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. R

    v)War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions

    vi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs

    vii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble

    3)The New Imperialism

    a)Burdens of Empire

    i)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable

    ii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new colonies

    iii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way

    iv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure

    (1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire

    b)The British and the Tribes

    i)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line

    (1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists

    ii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs

    iii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well

    c)The Colonial Response

    i)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing

    ii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners

    iii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies

    iv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents 

    v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over “backcountry” settlers

    vi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor

    vii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problems

    viii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance

    (1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed

    4)Stirrings of Revolt

    a)The Stamp Act Crisis

    i)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval

    ii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as “Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own reps

    iii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.

    iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological

    v)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)

    b)The Townshend Program

    i)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real power

    ii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refused

    iii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed “external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax

    iv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent

    v)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA

    vi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement

    vii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on tea

    c)The Boston Massacre

    i)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market

    ii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl

    iii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd

    iv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s

    d)The Philosophy of Revolt

    i)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, “radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments

    ii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked

    iii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powers

    iv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community

    v)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority

    e)The Tea Excitement

    i)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideas

    ii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants

    iii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed

    iv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty

    v)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”

    vi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses

    vii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion

    viii)Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance

    5)Cooperation and War

    a)New Sources of Authority

    i)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycotts

    ii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress

    iii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions

    (1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority

    (2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation

    (3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston

    (4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements

    (5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organization

    iv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired

    b)Lexington and Concord

    i)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training “minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775

    ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British army

    iii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The American Revolution

     1)The States United

    a)Defining American War Aims

    i)2nd  Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle ground

    ii)“Olive Branch Petition” conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms”

    iii)Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted “Prohibitory Act” w/ naval blockade

    iv)January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruption

    b)The Decision for Independence

    i)After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish independent govt’s from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independence

    ii)Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament 

    iii)Dec. inspired French Revolution’s Dec. of the rights of Men, claimed sovereign “United States of America”, led to increased foreign aid

    c)Responses to Independence

    i)At news of Dec many rejoiced others disapproved b/c still had great loyalty to king, called themselves Loyalists but independents called them Tories

    ii)States drafted constitutions to replace loyal govts by 1781, states considered centers of authority but war required central direction

    iii)1777 Articles of Confederation passed to confirm weak, decentralized system in place. Continental Congress was main coordinator of war effort

    d)Mobilizing for War

    i)Nation needed to raise, organize, equip, and pay for army. W/o British markets shortages of materials, gunsmiths couldn’t meet demand for funs and ammunition. Most supplies captured from Brits or supplied by Eur nations

    ii)Financing problematic, Congress had no power to tax ppl + had to ask states for funds. Eventually issued paper money, led to inflation, value of money plummeted. Most farmers + merchants preferred business w/ British who could pay for goods in gold and silver. Govt forced to borrowed $ from other nations

    iii)After patriotic surge 1775 few American army volunteers. States used persuasion, force, drafts. To correct problem of states controlling army units 1775 created Continental army w/ single commander, George Washington. In new nation unsure of structure and govt, he provided the army and the ppl a symbol of stability around which they could rally, held nation together

    2)The War for Independence

    a)The First Phase: New England

    i)After Concord and Lexington American forces besieged army of General Thomas Gage in Boston, Battle of Bunker Hill fought June 1775. Heaviest British casualties of entire war occurred

    ii)By 1776 Brits concluded Boston not best place to wage war from b/c of geography and fervor. March 1776 withdrew to Halifax, Nova Scotia

    iii)In south Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists February 1776 at Moore’s Creek Bridge, NC. In north Americans invaded Canada, Patriot General Benedict Arnold + Richard Montgomery threatened Quebec in order to remove British threat and recruit Canadians. Siege failed, Canada not to become part of US

    iv)British evacuation not so much victory as changing English assumptions about war. Clear conflict not local phenomenon around Boston but larger war

    b)The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region

    i)During summer 1776 British army of 32,000 landed in New York City under William Howe. Americans rejected Howe’s offer or royal pardon, Washington’s 19,000 man army pushed backed from LI, thru NJ, to PA

    ii)Eur warfare was seasonal activity, British settled for winter in NJ leaving outpost of Hessians at Trenton. Christmas 1776 Washington attacked across Deleware

    iii)British 1777 sought to capture Philadelphia to discourage Patriots, rally Loyalists, end war quickly. Captured city September, Washington defeated at Germanton in October, went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. CC, dislodged from capital, met in York, PA

    iv)British John Burgoyne led British campaign in north, at first successful- captured supplies of Fort Ticonderoga. Defeats led Congress to remove General Philip Schuyler and replace with Horatio Gates. But series of Patriot victories followed, Burgoyne forced to withdraw to Saratoga where Gates surrounded him and forced surrender of 5,000 man army

    v)Campaign Patriot success, led to alliance btwn US and France

    vi)British failure due to William Howe abandoning northern campaign and letting Burgoyne fight alone, allowed Washington to retreat and regroup instead of finishing him, left Continental army unmolested in Valley Forge

    c)The Iroquois and the British

    i)Iroquois Confederacy declared neutrality in 1776, but Joseph and Mary Brant persuaded some tribes to support British (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga). Belived British victory would stem white movement onto tribal lands

    ii)Only 3 of 6 nations supported British(Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga split)

    d)Securing Aid From Abroad

    i)Failure of Brits to crush Continental army in mid-Atlandtic states + rebel victory at Saratoga was turning point

    ii)After Dec of Indep, US sent reps to Europe’s capitals to negotiate commercial treaties. Most promising potential Ally was France where King Louis XVI and his Count de Vergennes eager to see Britain lose part of empire

    iii)Thru covert deals French supplied Americans supplies but would not officially recognize US diplomatically. Ben Franklin went to France, after news of Saratoga in February France formally recognized US as nation. Allowed for expanded assistance- money, munitions, navy

    e)The Final Phase: The South

    i)After defeat at Saratoga and French intervention British govt put limit on commitment to conflict, tried to enlist loyalist dissidents believed to be centered in South to fight from within

    ii)British forced moved from battle to battle 1778-1781, but much less Loyalist sentiment than predicted. Some refused to rise up b/c of fear of Patriot reprisal + British attempts to free slaves in order to fight. Patriots=no threat to slavery

    iii)British had disadvantage of enemy in hostile territory, new form of combat. Segments of population previously apathetic now forced to involve themselves

    iv)In North fighting stalemate after British moved forces to New York. Benedict Arnold became traitor, scheme to betray Patriot fort at West Point was foiled

    v)In South British captured Savannah 1778, Port of Charleston 1780. Won conventional battles but harassed as they moved thru countryside by Patriot guerillas. Lord Cornwallis (Brit general for South) defeated Patriot Horatio Gates, led Washing to give command to Gen. Nathanael Greene

    vi)Battle of King’s Mountain 1780 a Patriot victory, Greene split army into small, fast contingents and refrained from open battles. British had to abandon Southern campaign after battle at Guilford Courth House, NC in 1781

    vii)Cornwalis ordered by Clinton to wait for ships at Yorktown. Washington, French Count Jean Baptiste de Rochambeau, and Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse all coordinated army and navy to surround British on peninsula

    viii)Cornwallis surrendered October 17, 1781. Fighting over, but Brits continued to hold seaports of Savannah, Charleston, Wilmington, & New York

    f)Winning the Peace

    i)Cornwallis’s defeat let to outcry aginsnt war, Lord North resigned and Lord Shelbrune succeeded. British emissaries in France began speaking to diplomats there (Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay). Final settlement Peace of Paris signed Sept 1783 when France and Spain also agreed to end hostilities

    ii)Treaty recognized US independence, gave land from southern Canada to north boundary of Florida, from Atlantic to Mississippi River

    3)War and Society

    a)Loyalists and Minorities

    i)Up to 1/5 of white population Loyalists- some officeholders in imperial govt, others merchants engaged in trade tied to imperial system, others who had lived in isolation of revolutionary ideas, others expected Brits to be victors

    ii)Hounded by Patriots, harassed by legislative and judicial actions- fled to Canada or to England. Most Loyalists of average means but many were wealthy, after they left estates and social and economic leadership vacancies

    iii)Anglicans were mostly Loyalists, in colonies where it was official religion (such as MA and VA). Taxes to church halted, support from England ceased, few ministers remained. Quakers weakened b/c their pacifism unpopular

    iv)Catholic Church gained respect b/c most American Caths supported Patriot cause, French alliance brought Cath troops and ministers. Gratitude eroded hostility, after war Vatican named Father John Caroll American archbishop

    b)The War and Slavery

    i)War led to some slaves to escape due to British presence in South + their policies meant to disrupt American war effort. Revolutionary ideas introduced slaves to idea of liberty. This situation put slave dominated states like SC and Georgia to be ambivalent to revolution b/c opposed British emancipation efforts but feared revolution would foment slave rebellions

    c)Native Americans and the Revolution

    i)Patriots and Brits wanted Indians to remain neutral, and by and large they did. Some supported British b/c feared replacing ruling class whom they had developed limited trust with and who had fought against white expansion

    ii)Patriot victory weaked natvies bc increased white demand for western lands, many Americans resented Mohawk and other Indians assistance to British and wanted to treat them as conquered people

    iii)Revolution increased deep divisions and made it difficult for tribes to form common front for resistance b/c of neutral and pro-Brit alliances

    iv)After war Indian and American fighting continued w/ Indian raids against froneir whites, white militia responded with attacks into Indian territories

    d)Women’s Rights and the Women’s Roles

    i)Patriot men going off to fight eft wives, mothers, sisters in charge of farms and businesses- sometimes successful and other times not so much. In many cities and towns impoverished women class emerged

    ii)Sometimes women chose, other times forced to join camps of Patriot armies, raised morale and performed necessary tasks on cooking, nursing, cleaning. Some women ended up in combat (legendary Molly Pitcher)

    iii)After revolution certain assumptions about women questioned- some like  Abigail Adams called for modest expansion of women’s rights and protections. Others such as Judith Sargent Murray wanted equal education and rights

    iv)New era for women did not arrive, legal doctrines of English common law gave married women barely any rights, Rev did not change these legal customs

    v)Revolution encouraged ppl to reevaulate contributions of women b/c of womens participation in revolution and part general reevalutaion of American life after struggle- search for a cultural identity

    e)The War Economy

    i)No longer protection of trade by British navy, no more access to markets of the empire including Britain itself. Privateering used by Americans to pretty on Brit commerce. 

    ii)End of imperial relation in long run opened up enormous new areas of trade for nation b/c no more Brit regulations. Trade w/ Asia, South America, Caribbean

    iii)End of English imports thru prewar boycotts and war itself led to stimulation of domestic manufacturing of necessities, desire for sufficiency grew

    4)The Creation of State Governments

    a)The Assumptions of Republicanism

    i)Republicanism meant all power came from ppl, active citizenry important and could not be just a few powerful aristocrats and mass of dependent workers- idea of independent landowner was basic political ideology

    ii)Opposed Eur ideas of inherited aristocracy- talents and energies of individuals and not birth would determine role in society- equality of opportunity

    b)The First State Constitutions

    i)States decided tat constitutions had to be written b/c believed vagueness of England’s unwritten constitution produced corruption, believed power of executive had to be limited, separation of executive from legislature

    ii)Except GA and PA upper and lower chambers, property requirements for voters

    c)Revising State Governments

    i)By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they were too democratic—steps taken to limit popular power

    ii)To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet again

    iii)Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppl

    d)Toleration and Slavery

    i)New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and state

    ii)Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives

    5)The Search for A National Government

    a)The Confederation

    i)Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781

    b)Diplomatic Failures

    i)GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empire’s markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refused

    ii)Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Florida’s borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articles

    c)The Confederation and the Northwest

    i)Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of 1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schools

    ii)Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibited

    iii)S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolved

    d)Indians and the Western Lands

    i)Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement, but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indians

    ii)Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s. Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded lands

    e)Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shays

    i)Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested funds

    ii)Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederation

    iii)To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New England

    iv)Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Constitution and The New Republic

    1)Framing A New Government

    a)Advocates of Centralization

    i)Confederation had averted the danger of remote and tyrannical authority, but during 1780s powerful groups began to want a national govt capable of dealing with nation’s problems- mainly economic that affected themselves

    ii)Artisans wanted a single high national duty, merchants wanted a single, national commercial policy, people owed money wanted states to stop issuing paper money and causing inflation, land owners wanted protection from mobs

    iii)Reformers led by Alexander Hamilton called for convention. Inter-state conference on trade held in MA advised congress to call a convention to “render the constitution… adequate to the exigencies of the union” in 1786

    iv)George Washington’s support of new convention in Philadelphia 1787 gave it credibility, feared disorders like Shay’s Rebellion spreading

    b)A Divided Convention

    i)55 delegates from all but RI, mainly young, educated, and propertied

    ii)Washington chosen as presiding officer, sessions closed to public and press

    iii)VA delegation led by James Madison, had plan drafted. Edmund Randolph proposed a new nat’t govt with executive, judiciary, legislature

    iv)VA Plan called for 2 house legislature w/  lower house based on population and upper house elected by lower house

    v)Proposal opposed by Delaware, NJ, other small states. Proposal by William Paterson of NJ would reform Confederation + give it power to tax. Tabled, VA Plan remained basis for discussion

    vi)VA Plan supporters realized concessions to small states needed for agreement, conceded upper house be elected by state legislatures, each state at least 1 rep

    vii)Questions of equal rep in upper house, of slaves counted in states population but feared would be taxed if states taxed based on population

    c)Compromise

    i)In July grand committee established with Franklin as head, produced basis of “Great Compromise” where lower house would be based on populating with each slave counted as 3/5 o of a person in representation and direct taxation, in upper house each state had 2 reps- July 16, 1787 compromise accepted

    ii)Reps agreed legislature forbidden to tax exports b/c of Southern fear of interfering with cotton economy, slave trade couldn’t be stopped for 20 years

    iii)Constitution provided no definition of citizenship, absence of list of individual rights that would restrain powers of nat’l govt

    d)The Constitution of 1787

    i)James Madison created VA Plan, helped resolve question of sovereignty and of limiting power

    ii)Sovereignty at all levels, nat’l and state, came from people. States and nat’l govt both had sovereignty from ppl and therefore Constitution could distribute powers btwn federal govt and states- but Constitution was “supreme law”

    iii)Federal govt had power to tax, regulate commerce, control currency, pass laws

    iv)Leaders frightened of creating a tyrannical govt, believed small nation needed to stop corruption. Madison convinced others that large nation would produce less tyranny b/c many factions would check one from being too powerful

    v)Separation of powers + checks and balances forced branches to compete, federal structure divided power btwn states and nation

    vi)Fear of despotism, but also fear of the “mob” and “excess of democracy”, only House of Reps elected directly by ppl. 

    vii)Constitution signed on September 17, 1787

    e)Federalists and Antifederalists

    i)Delegates decided that Constitution would come into existence when 9 of 13 states had ratified it thru conventions instead of unanimous state legislature approval required by Articles

    ii)Supporters of Const well organized, supported by Washington and Franklin, called themselves Federalists. Had best political philosophers in Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay. Wrote Federalist Papers arguing for Const under pseudonym Publius

    iii)Antifederalists believed Const would betray principles of Revolution by establish a strong, potentially tyrannical central govt that would increase taxies, obliterate states, favor the “well born”. 

    (1)Biggest complaint was that Const lacked a bill of rights, any govt with central authority could not be trusted to protect citizens’ liberties, therefore natural rights had to be enumerated in order to be preserved

    iv) Federalists feared disorder, anarchy, power of masses, Antifederalists feared the state more than they did the ppl, feared concentrated power

    v)Delaware first to ratify, New Hampshire 9th state in June 1788. New govt could not flourish w/o participation of VA and NY. VA, NY, MA ratified on assumption that bill of rights would be added

    f)Completing the Structure

    i)First elections took place 1789, George Washington elected first president unanimously, John Adams became VP- inauguration April 30, 1789

    ii)First Congress passed bill of rights 1789, 10 ratified by states by end of 1791. Nine forbid Congress from infringing basic rights, 10th reserved powers to states unless specifically withheld from them or delegated to fed govt

    iii)Judiciary Act of 1789 created 6 member Supreme court, 13 district courts, 3 courts of appeal, Sup Court had final decision in constitutionality of state laws

    iv)Congress created departments of executive- State led by Jefferson, Treasury by Hamilton, War by Henry Knox, attorney general Edmund Randolph

    2)Federalists and Republicans

    a)Hamilton and the Federalists

    i)Federalists dominated govt for 12 years under leadership of Treasurer Alexander Hamilton (Washington supported, but avoided direct involvement)

    ii)Believed stable and effective govt required enlightened ruling class, therefore rich and powerful needed stake in its success

    iii)To do so made govt responsible for existing debt + states debts, would create new large national debt w/ continuous bonds issued to give wealthy stake

    iv)Creation of federal bank would fill absence of developed banking system, safe place for deposit of federal funds, collect taxes and pay expenses

    v)Funding of debts required new revenue to pay bonds interest, govt sales of Western land not enough. Hamilton proposed tax on alcohol distillers- heavy toll on whiskey distillers of backcountry PA, VA, NC- & tariff on imports to raise $ + stimulate growth of industry- his 1791 “Report on Manufactures

    b)Enacting the Federalist Program

    i)Few members opposed plan for funding nat’l debt, but disagreement over whether payment should be to original holders or to speculators who bought many bonds from originals during hard times of 1780s. James Madison proposed dividing btwn two. Hamilton won out and current bondholders paid

    ii)Hamilton faced stiffer opposition to fed’l assumption of state debts b/c ppl of states with few debts (such as VA) would pay taxes to service large debts of other states (like MA). Compromise w/ Virginians moved capital from Philadelphia to a southern location along Potomac R.  for VA support of bill

    iii)Bank bill most heated debate, Madison, Jefferson, Randolph, others argued Congress should exercise no powers Const did not assign it. Bill passed House and Senate, Bank of United States began operating 1791 under 20 yr charter

    iv)Passage of excise tax and tariff 1792. Whole program won support of the influential population- restored public credit, speculators, manufacturing + merchants prospered. However, small farmers (maj of pop) complained of tax burden, taxes to state, excise tax on distillation, + tariff- feeling Federalist program served interests not of ppl but of wealthy elites

    c)The Republican Opposition

    i)Framers believed organized political parties dangerous, should be avoided would lead to factions (Madison Fed Papers #10), but eventually Madison and others convinced that Hamilton and Federalists had become a majority and used their power to control appts, offices, and rewards to supporters

    ii)B/c Federalist structures thought to resemble corrupt Brit govt and menacing structure, critics felt only alternative vigorous opposition thru emergence of alternative political organization- the Republican Party

    iii)By late 1790s Republicans creating even greater apparatus of partisan influence- correspondence btwn groups, influenced state and local elections

    iv)Both groups believed represented only legitimate interest group, neither conceded right of other to exist- factionalism known as “first party system”

    v)Leaders of Repubs James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson believed in an agrarian republic w/ independent farmer-citizens tilling own soil. Didn’t oppose commerce, trade or industry, but feared cities, urban mobs, and advanced industrial economy b/c of increase of propertyless workers

    3)Establishing National Sovereignty

    a)Securing the Frontier

    i)1791 PA farmers refused to pay whiskey excise tax, Washington called militia from 3 states, Whiskey Rebellion collapsed- intimidation won allegiance

    ii)Fed govt won loyalty of frontiersmen by accept territories as new states (NC 1789, RI 1791 last of 13 colonies)- VT 1791, Kentucky 1792, Tennessee 1796

    b)Native Americans and the New Nation

    i)Clashes with natives raised question of Indians’ place of in federal structure. Constitution recognized tribes as legal entities, but not outright nations

    ii)Constitution did not address main issue of land, Indians lived within US boundaries but offered some measure of sovereignty

    c)Maintaining Neutrality

    i)In 1791 GB sent first minister to US, question of US neutrality arose in 1793 when French govt from revolution of 1789 went to war with GB

    ii)French rep to US Edmond Genet violated Neutrality Act and tried to recruit Americans to French cause- US ships as privateers, raids against Spanish

    iii)GB Royal Navy began seizing US ships trading w/ French in West Indies1794, anti-British feelings high, Hamilton concerned b/c war meant end to English imports- main revenue for financial system dependent from duties

    d)Jay’s Treaty and Pinckney’s Treaty

    i)Hamilton feared pro-French State Dept, had Washington send Chief Justice and Federalist John Jay to negotiate treaty with GB

    ii)Jay’s Treaty in 1794 failed to compensate Brit assaults on ships and withdrawal of Brit forces from frontier, but prevented war, established American sovereignty over Northwest, satisfactory commercial relationship

    iii)American backlash followed b/c not enough Brit promises, Republicans and some Federalists offered opposition but ultimately ratified by Senate

    iv)Jay’s treaty allowed peace to be made with Spain b/c raised fears of Brit/American alliance in North America, Pinckney’s treaty 1795 recognized US right to Mississippi, Florida border, control of Indian raids from FL

    4)The Downfall of the Federalists

    a)The Election of 1796

    i)Washington retired 1797, in “Farewell” worried over foreign influence on gov’t, including French efforts to frustrate Federalist diplomatic program

    ii)Open expression of political rivalries after Washington- Jefferson running for Republicans, Hamilton too many enemies so VP John Adams Fed candidate

    iii)Federalists could win majority of electors 1796 pres. election for Adams but factional fighting within party caused second candidate Thomas Pinckney to receive many votes- resulted in Jefferson finishing second, became VP. 

    iv)Federalists divided, strong Republicans opposition, Hamilton still lead party

    b)The Quasi War with France

    i)US relations w/ GB + Spain improved after treaties, deteriorated w/ France b/c of impressments of US ships and sailors

    ii)President Adam’s pursued reconciliation by appointing bi-partisan commission of Charles Pinckney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry to negotiate

    iii)French foreign minister Talleyrand demanded loan and bribe, Adams turned over report of this to Congress w/ names deleted- “XYZ Affair” caused outrage at France, Federalist gained support for response

    iv)Adams asked Congress to cut off trade, 1798 created Dept of Navy (very successful capturing French ships), cooperated w/ GB

    v)France reconciled, new govt of Napoleon 1800 new commercial arrangements

    c)Repression and Protest

    i)Conflict w/ France led to Federalist majority 1798, to silence Republican opposition passed the Alien and Sedition Acts

    ii)Alien Acts restricted places obstacles for foreigners becoming citizens, Sedition Act allowed govt to prosecute libelous or treasonous activity- but definitions allowed govt to stifle any opposition—Repubs fought back

    iii)Adams cautious in implementation but still repressive, Republican leaders hoped for reversal from state legislatures 

    iv)Jefferson + Madison had VA, KY adopt resolutions arguing when govt exercised undelegated powers, its acts “void”. Used Locke’s “compact theory”: states were part of contract, fed govt had breached contract, therefore states could “nullify” the appropriate laws—only VA and KY did so

    v)By late 1790s national crisis b/c nation so politically divided

    d)The “Revolution” of 1800

    i)1800 pres election saw same candidates- Adams’ and Jefferson’s supporters showed no restraint or dignity in their assaults against other 

    ii)Crucial contest in New York where Aaron Burr (candidate for VP) mobilized Rev War veterans, the Tammany Society, to serve as Repub political machine- Repubs eventually won the state and election

    iii)In partisan atmosphere Jefferson and Burr votes tied, the previous Federalist Congress had to choose between the two in a vote (H of Reps decides when no majority), ultimately Hamilton and Federalists elected Jefferson

    iv)After election only judiciary branch still Federalist, Judiciary Act of 1801 had created many new positions which Adams had filled before leaving office

    v)Republican viewed victory as savior from tyranny, believed new era would begin where true founding principles would govern

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Jeffersonian Era

    1)The Rise of Cultural Nationalism

    a)Patterns of Education

    i)Republican vision included enlightened citizenry, wanted nationwide system of free public schools to create educated electorate required by republic

    ii)By 1815 no state had a comprehensive public school system, schooling primary by private institutions open only to those who could pay. Most were aristocratic in outlook, trained students to become elite. Few schools for poor

    iii)Idea of “republican mother” to train new generation could not be ignorant, late 18thcentury women began to have limited education to make them better wives and mothers- no professional training

    iv)Attempts to educate “noble savages” in white culture and reform tribes, African Americans very little schooling- literacy rate very small

    v)Higher education not public, private contribution + tuition necessary, students mostly from prosperous, propertied families. Little professional education

    b)Medicine and Science

    i)Most doctors learned from established practitioners, struggled w/ introduction of science and combating superstition. Doctors often used dangerous and useless treatments. 

    ii)Medical profession used its new “scientific” method to justify expanding control to new care- childbirths by doctor and not midwives

    c)Cultural Aspirations in the New Nation

    i)After Eur independence ppl wanted cultural independence, literary and artistic achievements to rival those of Europe

    ii)Nationalism could be found in early American schoolbooks, Noah Webster wanted patriot education- American Spelling Book and American Dictionary of the English Languageestablished national standard of words and usage, simplified and Americanized system of spelling created

    iii)High literacy rate and large reading public due to wide circulation of newspapers and political pamphlets. Most printers used cheaper English material, American writers struggled to create strong native literature

    (1)Charles Brockden Brown used novels to voice American themes

    (2)Washington Irving wrote American fold tales, fables- Rip Van Winkle

    (3)Histories that glorified past- Mercy Otis Warren History of the Revolution 1805 emphasized heroism, Mason Weems Life of Washington 1806. History used to instill sense of nationalism

    d)Religious Skepticism

    i)Revolution detached churches from govt + elevated liberty and reason, by 1790s few members of formal churches, some embraced “deism”

    ii)Books and articles attacking religious “superstitions” popular, Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason.

    iii)Skepticism led to “universalism” + “unitarianism”, @ first within New England Congregational Church, later separate- rejected predestination, salvation for all, Jesus only great religious teacher not son of God

    iv)Spread of rationalism led to less commitment to organized churches + denominations considered too formal and traditional, comeback starting 1801

    e)The Second Great Awakening

    i)Origin 1790s from efforts to fight spread of religious rationalism. Baptists, Presbyterian, Methodists (founded by John Wesley) successful at combating New Light dissenters (ppl who made religion more compatible w/ rationalism)

    ii)By 1800 awakening that began at Yale had spread throughout country and to the west, “camp meetings” by evangelical ministers produced religious frenzy

    iii)Second Great Awakening called individuals to readmit God + Christ into daily life, reject skeptical rationalism. New sects rejected predestination, combined piety w/ belief of God as active force whose grace achieved thru faith + works

    iv)Accelerated growth of new sects as opposed to return to established churches, provided sense of order + social stability to ppl searching for identity

    v)Women particularly drawn to revivalism b/c women more numerous in certain regions, movement of industrial work out of home led to personal and social strains that religion was used to compensate for

    vi)Revival led to rise of black preachers who interpreted religious message of salvation available to all into right to freedom

    vii) Native American dislocation and defeats after Revolution created sense of crisis and led to Indian religious fervor- missionaries active in south led to conversion, in North prophet Handsome Lake  encouraged Christian missionaries and restoration of traditional Iroquois culture

    2)Stirrings of Industrialism

    a)Technology in America

    i)America imported technological advances from England. Brit govt attempted to prevent spread of their tech, but immigrants introduced new machines to America. Samuel Slater built mill in RI 1790, first factory in America

    ii)American inventor Oliver Evans created automated flower mill, Eli Whitney revolutionized weapons making and 

    iii)Invented cotton gin in 1793. Growth of textile industry in England created great demand for cotton, cotton gin allowed for easy separation of cotton seed from cotton allowed tremendous amount of cotton to be cleaned, new business led slavery became more important than ever. 

    iv)In North cotton supply led NE entrepreneurs to create American textile industry in 1820s/30s- as N became increasingly industrial S more firmly wedded to agriculture

    v)His interchangeable parts for weapons invented during Quasi War w/ France adopted by other manufactures for other complicated products

    b)Transportation Innovations

    i)Industrialization required transporting raw materials to factories and finished goods to create large domestic market for mass-production, US lacked system

    ii)To enlarge American market US merchants looked to expand overseas trade, Congress 1789 passed tariff bills that favored American ships in American ports, stimulated growth of domestic shipping. War in Eur in 1790s led US merchants to take over most of trade btwn Eur and Western hemisphere

    iii)Improvement in inter-state and interior transport led by improved river transport by new steamship

    iv)Oliver Evans had invented efficient steam engine for boats and machinery, Robert Fulton + Robert Livingston perfected steamboat and brought it to national attention w/ theirClermont

    v)Turnpike era began 1792 w/ corporate construction of turnpikes, but b/c needed to turn profit were generally short and only in densely populated areas

    c)The Rising Cities

    i)America remained largely rural and agrarian nation, only 3% lived in towns of more than 8,000 in 1800 census—yet there were signs of change

    ii)Major US cities such as New York + Philadelphia large and complex enough to rival secondary cities of Europe

    iii)Urban lifestyle produced affluent people who sought amenities, elegance, dress, and diversions- music, theater, dancing, horse racing

    3)Jefferson the President

    a)The Federal City and the “People’s President”

    i)French architect Pierre L’Enfant designed city on grand scale, but Washington remained little more than provincial village w/ few public buildings

    ii)Jefferson acted in spirit of democratic simplicity, made his image plain, disdain for pretension. Eliminated aura of majesty surrounding presidency

    iii)Political genius, worked as leader of his party to give Republicans in Congress direction, used appointments as political weapon. Won 1804 reelection easily

    b)Dollars and Ships

    i)Washington and Adams had increased expenditures, debt, taxation. Jefferson 1802 had Congress abolish all internal taxes leaving only land sales and customs duties, cut govt spending, halved debt

    ii) Scaled down armed forces, cut navy due to fear of limiting civil liberty + civilian govt, promoting overseas commerce instead of agriculture 

    iii)At same time established US Military Academy @ West Point 1802, built up navy after 1801 threats by pasha of Tripoli in Mediterranean following Jefferson’s end to paying ransom demanded by Barbary pirates

    c)Conflict With The Courts

    i)Judiciary remained in hands of Federalist judges, congress repealed Judiciary Act of 1801 eliminating judgeships Adam’s filled before leaving office 

    ii)Case of Marbury v. Madison 1803 btwn Justice of Peace William Marbury and Sec of State James Madison 

    (1)Supreme Court ruled Congress exceeded its authority in creating a statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 b/c Constitution had already defined judiciary

    (2)Court asserted that the act of Congress was void. Enlarged courts power

    iii)Chief Justice John Marshall presided over case, battled to give fed govt unity and strength, established judiciary as branch coequal w/ exec and legislature

    iv)Jefferson assaulted last Federalist stronghold, urged Congress to impeach obstructive judges. Tried to impeach justice Samuel Chase in 1805 but Republican Senate could not get 2/3 vote necessary- acquittal set precedent impeachment not purely a political weapon, above partisan disagreement

    4)Doubling the National Domain

    a)Jefferson and Napoleon

    i)After failing to seize India Napoleon wanted power in New World. Spain held areas west of Mississippi, 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso granted French this Louisiana. Also held sugar-rich West Indian islands Guadeloupe, Martinique, Santo Domingo (where slave revolt led by Toussaint L’ouverture put down)

    ii)Jefferson unaware of Napoleon’s imperial agenda, pursued pro-French foreign policy- apptd pro-French Robert Livingston minister, secured Franco-American settlement of 1800, disapproved of black Santo Domingo uprising 

    iii)Reconsidered position when heard of secret transfer of Louisiana and seizure of New Orleans, alarmed n 1802 when Spanish intendant at New Orleans forbade transfer of American cargo to ocean going vessels (which was guaranteed in Pikcney Treaty of 1795)- this closed lower Miss. to US shippers

    iv)Westerners demanded govt reopen river, Jefferson ordered Livingston negotiate purchase of New Orleans, in meantime expanded military and river fleet to give impression of New Orleans attack

    v)Nap offered sale of whole Louisiana Territory. Plans for American empire awry b/c army decimated by yellow fever, reinforcements frozen

    b)The Louisiana Purchase

    i)Livingston and James Monroe in Paris decided to proceed with sale of whole territory even though not authorized to do so by govt, treaty signed April 1803

    ii)US paid $15 million to France, had to incorporate N.O. residents into Union

    iii)Jefferson unsure US had authority to accept offer b/c power not specifically granted in Constitution, ultimately agreed constituted as treaty power. December 1803 territory handed over from Spain to France then US

    iv)Govt organized Louisiana territory like Northwest territory w/ various territories to eventually to become states- Louisiana first, admitted 1812

    c)Lewis and Clark Explore the West

    i)Jefferson planned expedition across continent to Pacific Ocean in 1803 to gather geographical fats and investigate trade w/ Indians

    ii)Lewis and Clark set out 1804 from Mississippi R. in St Louis w/ Indian Sacajawea as guide, reached pacific fall 1805

    iii)Jefferson dispatched other explorers to other parts of Louisiana Territory, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led two expeditions btwn Mississppi and Rocky Mts

    d)The Burr Conspiracy

    i)Reelection of 1804 suggested nation approved of Jefferson’s acquisitions, but some NE Federalists known as Essex Junto felt expansion weakened power of Federalists + region . Felt only answer secession and “Northern Confederacy”

    ii)Plan required support of NY, NJ, New England, but leading NY Federalist Alexander Hamilton refused support 

    iii)Turned to Vice President Aaron Burr (who had no prospect in own party after 1800 election deadlock) to be Federalist candidate for NY governor in 1804

    iv)Hamilton accused Burr of treason and negative remarks about character, when Burr lost election blamed defeat on Hamilton’s malevolence

    v)Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel 1804, Hamilton mortally wounded

    vi)Burr, now political outcast, fled NY for West and along with General James Wilkinson, governor of Louisiana Territory, planned capture of Mexico from Spanish and possibly make his own empire. 1806 tried for treason, acquitted

    vii)“Conspiracy” showed perils of central govt that remained deliberately weak w/ vast tracts of nominally controlled land, state of US as stable and united nation

    5)Expansion and War

    a)Conflict on the Seas

    i)US shipping expanded to control trade btwn Eur and W. Indies 

    ii)Napoleon’s Continental system forbade ships that had docked at any point in British ports from landing on continent- Berlin (1806) + Milan (1807) Decrees

    iii) Britain’s “orders in council” required goods to continent be in ships that had at least stopped in British ports- response to Nap’s “Continental System”

    iv)American ships caught btwn countries, but England greater threat b/c greater sea power and the worse offender

    b)Impressment

    i)Brit Navy had terrible conditions, forced service called “impressments” used, many deserted when possible and joined Americans- to stop loss Brit claimed right to stop and search American merchant ships + reimpress deserters

    ii)1807 Chesapeake-Leopard incident: Brit fired on US ship that refused search, US Minister James Monroe protested, GB refused to renounce impressments

    c)“Peaceable Coercion”

    i)To prevent future incidents that might bring war Jefferson proposed The Embargo 1807- prohibited US ship from leaving for any foreign port

    ii)Created national depression, ship-owners + merchants of NE (mainly Federalists) hardest hit-before

    iii)James Madison, Jefferson’s Sec of State, won election of 1808 but fierce opposition- led Jefferson to end Embargo, replaced with Non-Intercourse Act- reopened trade w/ all nations except GB + France

    iv)1810 new Macon’s Bill No. 2 opened trade w/ GB + France but pres had power to prohibit commerce for belligerent behavior against neutral shipping

    v)Napoleon announced France would no longer interfere, Madison issued embargo against GB 1811 until it renounced restrictions of American shipping

    d)The “Indian Problem” and the British

    i)After dislodgement by Americans, Indians looked to Brits for protection

    ii)William Henry Harrison had been a promoter of Western expansion (Harrison Land Law 1800), named governor of Indiana 1801 by Jefferson. Offered Indians ultimatum: become farmers and assimilate or move to West of Miss. 

    iii)By 1807 tribes mainly ceding land. After Chesapeake incident, however, Brits began to renew Indian friendships to begin defense of invasion into Can

    e)Tecumseh and the Prophet

    i)The Prophet was Indian leader inspired religious revival, rejection of white culture. Attracted thousands from many tribes at Tippecanoe Creek. Prophet’s brother Tecumseh led joint effort to oppose white civilization

    ii)Starting 1809 began to unite tribes of Miss. valley, 1811 traveled south to add tribes of the South to alliance

    iii)1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison defeated Prophet’s followers and destroyed tribal confederacy. However, thru 1812 continued to attack settlers, encouraged by Brit agents—Americans believed end only thru Can. Invasion

    f)Florida and War Fever

    i)“Frontiersman” in N wanted Canada, those in S wanted to acquire Spanish Florida in order to stop Indian attacks, gain access to rivers w/ port access

    ii)1810 setters in W. Florida captured Spanish fort at Baton Rouge, President Madison agreed to annex territory- Spain Britain’s ally, made pretext for war

    iii)By 1812 “war harks” elected during 1810 elections eager for war- some ardent nationalists seeking territorial expansion, others defense of Republican values

    iv)Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Calhoun of SC led Republicans in pressing for Canadian invasion- Madison declared war June 18, 1812

    6)The War of 1812

    a)Battles with the Tribes

    i)Americans forced to surrender Detroit and Fort Dearborn (Chicago) in first months. On seas American frigates and privateers successful, but by 1813 Brit navy (less occupied w/ Napoleon) devoted resources and imposed blockade

    ii)US began to have success in Great Lakes- Oliver Perry beat Brits at Put-In-Bay 1813, burned capital at York. William Henry Harrison victorious at Battle of the Thames- disheartened Natives of Northwest and diminished ability to defend claims

    iii)Andrew Jackson defeated Creek Indians @ Battle of Horseshoe Bend 1814, continued invasion into Florida and captured Pensacola Sept 1814

    b)Battles With the British

    i)After Nap surrendered 1814 England prepared to invade US, landed armada in Chesapeake region. Aug 1814 captured and burned Washington

    ii)Americans at Fort McHenry in Baltimore repelled Brit attack in Sept. This battle is what Francis Scott Key witnessed, wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner”

    iii)Brit also repelled in NY at Battle of Plattsburgh in Sept. January 1815 Andrew Jackson wildly successful at Battle of New Orleans- after treaty signed

    c)The Revolt of New England

    i)US failures 1812-1815 led to increased govt opposition. In NE opposition to war and Repub govt, Federalists led by Daniel Webtser led Congressional opposition. Federalists in NE dreamed of separate nation to escape tyranny of slaveholders and backwoodsmen

    ii)Dec 1814 convention at Hartford led to nothing b/c of news of Jackson’s smashing success at New Orleans. Two days later news of peace treaty arrived

    d)The Peace Settlement

    i)Aug 1814 John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Albert Gallatin met in Ghent, Belgium w/ Brit diplomats. Final treaty did little but end fighting- US dropped call to end impressments, Brit dropped call for Indian buffer in NW

    ii)Brit accepted b/c exhausted + indebted after Napoleonic conflict, US believed w/ end of Eur conflict less commercial interference would occur

    iii)Treaty of Gent signed Dec 1814, free trade agreement 1815later Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817 led to disarmament on Great Lakes

    iv)War disastrous to Natives, lands captured in fighting never restored, most important allies now gone from NW

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Varieties of American Nationalism

     1)A Growing Economy

    a)Banking, Currency, and Protection

    i)War of 1812 stimulated manufacturing, but after war produced chaos in shipping and banking- need for new Bank of the United States charter its expiration 1811 and not renewed, protecting new industries, transport systems

    ii)After expiration of charter state banks offered difft currencies at difft values- confusion and counterfeiting. Congress passed new charter for Bank of US 1816- its size and power essentially forced state banks to issue safer currency

    iii)Manufacturing had grown tremendously due to imports being cut off, textile industry increased exponentially btwn Embargo of 1807 and War. Factories in NE no longer family operations. Francis Lowell developed new loom 1813 in Boston Manufacturing Company- first process of both spinning and weaving

    iv)After war English ships swarmed American ports, wanted to reclaim old markets with prices below cost. 1816 Congress passed tariff to protect “infant industries” from competition aboard- farmers objected b/c paid higher price

    b)Transportation

    i)W/o transport network manufacturers couldn’t access raw materials and send finished goods to markets in US- should fed govt finance roads?

    ii)1807 Jefferson’s Sec Treasury Albert Gallatin proposed revenue from Ohio land sale go to fund National Road. Crucial Lancaster Pike built in PA- both allowed for the beginning of transport of commodities like textiles

    iii)Steam-powered shipping (advancements of Robert Fulton) expanded on rivers and Great Lakes. Steamboats on Miss. stimulated already agricultural economy of South & West b/c cost to transport products to market lowered

    iv)Despite progress of turnpikes + steamships serious gaps in trasportation. 1815 John Calhoun introduced bill to use federal funds to finance internal improvements, but Madison vetoed it in 1817 b/c believed unconstitutional

    v)Remained to state govts + private enterprise to build needed transit networks

    2)Expanding Westward

    a)The Great Migrations

    i)Westward movement affected economy, factor in Civil War, peoples thrusted together. Pop. + econ. pressures, land availability, decreased Indian resistance

    ii)Immigration and natural growth increased Eastern population, agricultural lands occupied. Slaves in S limited work opportunity. West attractive b/c War of 1812 lessened Native opposition by pushing Indians west + establishing forts on Great Lakes and Miss. R., govt “factor system” of goods to Indians

    b)White Settlers in the Old Northwest

    i)Shelters primitive, clearings in forest for crops to supplement game and domestic animals, rough existence w/ poverty and loneliness

    ii)Migrants journeyed westward in groups, some formed communities and schools, churches, other institutions. Mobility a large part of life

    iii)Farm economy based on modest seized farms w/ grain cultivation + livestock

    c)The Plantation System in the Southwest

    i)Cotton longs in Old South had lost much fertility but market continued to grow for it, Black Belt of SW lands could support thriving cotton

    ii)First arrivals small farmers, wealthier planters followed buying and clearing smaller lands. Brought w/ them slaves, eventually mansions grew up from simpler log cabins symbolizing emergence of a newly rich class

    iii)Rapid growth in NW and SW resulted in new states after War of 1812: Indiana 1816, Mississippi 1817, Illinois 1818, Alabama 1819

    d)Trade and Trapping in the Far West

    i)Trade began to develop btwn western regions in US in 19th century + beyond

    ii)Mexico (controlled Texas, CA, Southwest) won independence from Spain 1821, opened territories to trade in order to grow their fortunes. US merchants such as William Becknell displaced Indian traders and inferior Mexican products lost out to new US traders- Mexico lost its markets it in own colonies

    iii)Fur traders such as Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company eventually extended to Rockies, instead of pelts from Indians increasingly trapped their own

    iv)Trappers (“mountain men”) first wedge of white movement, changed society by interacting with Indians and Mexicans. 1822 Andrew and William Ashley founded Rocky Mountain Fur Company, recruited trappers to live permanently in Rockies (Utah, New Mexico)

    v)Lives of trappers bound up with expanding market economy- relied on fur companies for credit, depended on Eastern merchants for livelihood

    e)Eastern Images of the West

    i)Ppl in East only dimly aware of trappers’ world and their reshaping of it

    ii)Explorers dispatched by US govt to chart territories. 1819/1820 Steven Long sent by War Dept to explore, wrote influential report with dismissive conclusions for future settlement (like Zebulon Pike 15 yrs before)

    3)The Era of Good Feelings

    a)The End of the First Party System

    i)James Monroe, Madison’s Sec of State, elected Republican president 1816. W/ Federalist decline faced party faced no serious opposition, after War of 1812 no serious international threat- wanted republic w/o partisan factions

    ii)For Sec of State chose New Englander and former Federalist John Quincy Adams, John Calhoun named Sec of War- Monroe took pains to include northerners, southerners, easterners, westerners, Feds and Repubs in Cabinet

    iii)After election national goodwill tour, re-elected 1820 w/o any opposition

    b)John Quincy Adams

    i)Committed nationalist, important task promotion of American expansion

    ii)US already annexed W Florida, 1817 began negotiations w/ Spanish minister Lius de Onis. Meanwhile, American commander in Florida Andrew Jackson used orders from Sec of War Calhoun to invade Florida to stop Seminole raids—known as Seminole war. Adams wanted to use as excuse to annex

    iii)Onis realized he had little choice, Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 ceded Florid and lands north of 42nd parallel to US, US gave up Texas claims

    c)The Panic of 1819

    i)Panic followed period of high foreign demand for US goods, rising prices had stimulated land boom in western US. Availability for easy credit to settlers and speculators- from govt, state and wildcat banks

    ii)1819 management at Bank of US tightened credit, led to series of state bank failures, led to financial panic- those in West blamed it on bank

    iii)Depression for 6 years followed, but growth ultimately continued

    4)Sectionalism and Nationalism

    a)The Missouri Compromise

    i)Missouri applied for statehood 1819, although slavery already established NY Rep James Tallmadge’s Amendment gradual emancipation- controversial

    ii)Since beginning new states had come into Union in pairs (1 from N, 1 from S), Missouri entrance would increase power of North over South

    iii)Maine had also applied for statehood, Henry Clay threatened South would block entrance in Missouri not permitted to be a slave state

    iv)Compromise in Maine-Missouri Bill, Senator Jesse Thomas’s Amendment to ban slavery in rest of Louisiana Ter. north of MO’s 3630’ border also passed

    b)Marshall and the Court

    i)John Marshall chief justice from 1801-1835. Strengthened judicial system at expense of executive and legislature, increased fed power over states, advanced interest of propertied and commercial classes

    ii)Supported inviolability contracts in Fletcher v. Peck (1810) which held GA legislature could not repeal contract acts of previous legislature. Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) affirmed constitutionality of federal review of state court decisions- states had given up some sovereignty by ratifying Constitution, therefore their courts must submit to federal jurisdiction

    iii)“Implied powers” of Congress upheld in McCulloch v Maryland (1819) by upholding Bank of United States, attorney Daniel Webster argued establishment legal under “necessary and proper” clause, power to tax involved “power to destroy”. States therefore could not tax now-legal Bank

    iv)Strengthened Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce in Gibbons v Ogden(1824)- Fed govt gave license to Thomas Gibbons for ferry even transport btwn NY and NJ even though NY state had granted Aaron Ogden monopoly- Marshall argued that Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce + navigation “complete in itself” + could exercise to the utmost

    v)Decisions established primacy of fed govt over states in regulating economy, protected corporations + private economic institutions from local govt 

    c)The Court and the Tribes

    i)Marshall court decisions w/ Natives affirmed supremacy of US and carved out position for Native Americans within the constitutional structure

    ii)In Johnson v McIntosh (1825) Marshall described the basic right of Natives to tribal lands that preceded all other American law. Individual Americans could not buy or take land from tribes, only fed govt could do that

    iii)Worchester v Georgia (1832) invalidated law to regulate citizen access to Cherokee lands. Only fed govt had power to do that, tribes described as sovereign entities w/ exclusive authority and territorial boundaries

    iv)Marshall court did what Const had not- establish place for Indian tribes in American political system. Sovereign, but fed govt “guardian” over its “ward” 

    d)The Latin American Revolution and the Monroe Doctrine

    i) US foreign policy mainly centered on Eur, but after War of 1812 Spanish Empire in decline w/ new revolutions, US developing profitable trade w/ Latin America rivaling GB as principal trading pattern

    ii)1815 US proclaimed neutrality in wars btwn Spain and rebellious colonies, 1822 President Monroe established diplomatic relations w/ 5 new nations

    iii)1823 Monroe announced policy (later known as “Monroe Doctrine”) that American continent not be considered subject of future colonization by European powers, any foreign challenge would be unfriendly

    iv)Monroe Doctrine developed b/c Americans feared Spanish allies (such as France) would aid it in retaking lost empire, fear of GB taking over Cuba

    5)The Revival of Opposition

    a)The “Corrupt Bargain”

    i)In 1824 Republican caucus nominated William Crawford of Georgia for presidency, but other candidates received nominations from state legislatures

    ii)Candidates included: Sec of State John Quincy Adams had little popular appeal, Speaker of the House Henry Clay had personal following and strong program in the “American System” to strengthen home industry and Bank, Andrew Jackson little political experience but a military hero and TN allies

    iii)Jackson received more popular and electoral votes tan other candidates but not majority, Twelfth Amendment (passed after contested 1800 election) required House of Reps to choose among top three candidates- Clay threw endorsement behind Adams b/c Jackson a political rival in West + Adams a nationalist and likely American system supporter

    iv) Adams named Clay Sec of State, Jackson’s followers enraged at seeming “corrupt bargain”- haunted Adams throughout presidency

    b)The Second President Adams

    i)Adams proposed nationalist program reminiscent of Clay’s American System but Jacksonians in Congress blocked most of it. Southerners in Congress blocked delegates to international conference called by Simon Bolivar in Panama in 1826 b/c Haiti was sending black delegates

    ii)Georgia wished to remove remaining Creek and Cherokee Indians from state to gain more land for cotton planters. Adams refused to enforce treaty made btwn Indians + Georgia. Governor defied president and proceeded w/ removal

    iii)Adams supported tariff on imported goods 1828 b/c NE textile manufacturers complained of competition. To be passed concessions made to middle + west states on other tariffs—bill signed hated by all, called “tariff of abominations”

    c)Jackson Triumphant

    i)By 1828 presidential election new 2-party system had begun to emerge from divisions btwn Republicans. National Republicans supported John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism, opposing them was Democratic Republicans of Andrew Jackson who called for assault on privilege and widening of opportunity

    ii)Campaign of personal charges, Jackson’s wife Rachel accused of bigamy, she was so upset that she ultimately died- Jackson blamed opponents

    iii)Jackson won decisive but sectional victory. Adams strong in New England & mid-Atlantic. Jackson believed victory similar to Jefferson’s 1800 win

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - Jacksonian America

    1)The Rise of Mass Politics

    a)The Expanding Electorate

    i)No economic equality, but transformation of American politics to extend the right to vote to new groups. Until 1820s most states limited franchise to white landowners. Changes began in West w/ Constitutions guaranteeing right to vote to all white males- E. states did likewise in order to stop exodus of ppl

    ii)Change provoked resistance- MA conservatives wanted property requirement, state eventually required voters to be taxpayers + Gov had to own large lands

    iii)State reforms generally peaceful but in RI instability when 1840 group led by Thomas Dorr and the “People’s Party” submitted and won a new state Const. by the ppl. 1842 2 simultaneous govts, Dorr rebellion quickly failed

    iv)In S election laws favored planters and politicians from older counties, limited influence of newly settled western areas

    v)Everywhere women could not vote, no secret ballots—despite limitations numbers of voters increased faster than population 

    vi)Originally electors chosen by legislature, by 1828 popularly elected except SC

    b)The Legitimization of Party

    i)Higher levels of voter participation due to expanded electorate but also strengthening of party organization and loyalty

    ii)1820s/1830s saw permanent, institutionalized parties become desirable part of political process. Began at state level in NY w/ Martin Van Buren’s factional “Bucktails”. Party’s preservation thru favors, rewards, patronage leaders goals

    iii)Parties would check/balance one other, politicians forced 2 rep. will of the ppl

    iv)By late 1820s new idea of party spreading beyond NY, Jackson’s 1828 election seemed to legitimize new system. By 1830s national 2-party system: anti-Jackson forces called Whigs, his followers called Democrats

    c)“President of the Common Man”

    i)Democratic party embraced no uniform ideological position, committed to offer equal protection and benefits by assaulting eastern aristocracy to extend opportunity to rising classes of the W + S, preserve white-male democracy thru subjugation of African Americans and Indians

    ii)Jackson’s first targets entrenched officeholders of fed govt, wanted to simplify official duties to make office more accessible. Removed nearly 1/5 of office-holders removed b/c misuse of govt funds or corruption

    iii)Jackson’s supporters embraced “spoils system”, making right of elected officials to appt followers to office established feature of American politics

    iv)Supporters worked to transform presidential nomination system- 1832 national party convention held to replace congressional caucus, considered democratic triumph b/c power from ppl and not aristocratic caucus

    v)Spoils system and convention limited power of entrenched elites (permanent officeholders, caucus elite), but neither really transferred true power to the ppl

    2)“Our Federal Union”

    a)Calhoun and Nullification

    i)Late 1820s many in SC came to see “tariff of abominations” as responsible for stagnation of state economy (really due to exhausted farmland unable to compete with new western lands). Some considered remedy thru secession

    ii)Vice President Calhoun offered alternative in theory of nullification- idea like Madison and Jefferson’s KY + VA Resolutions of 1798-1799. Argued fed govt created by states, therefore states final arbiter (not Congress or courts) of constitutionality. Convention could be held to null and void law within state

    b)The Rise of Van Buren

    i)Apptd Sec of State 1829 by Jackson, also member of president’s of unofficial circle of allies in “Kitchen Cabinet”. After supporting Peggy Eaton in affair over acceptance into cabinet wife social circle gained favor w/ President

    ii)By 1831 Jackson had chosen Van Buren to succeed him in WH, Calhoun’s presidential dream ended

    c)The Webster-Hayne Debate

    i)January 1830 proposal to temporarily stop western land sales led SC Sen. Robert Hayne to claim slowing down W growth means for east to retain political and economic power. Hinted at uniting S + W against “tyranny”

    ii)Nationalist and Whig Sen. Daniel Webster attacked Hayne + Calhoun for challenging integrity of the Union. Debate ensued over issue of states rights vs national power

    iii)Jackson announced at Democratic Party banquet “Our Federal Union-It must be preserved”, lines drawn btwn Jackson and Calhoun

    d)The Nullification Crisis

    i)1832 tariff bill in Congress gave SC no relief from “tariff of abominations”, state convention held- voted for nullification of tariffs of 1828 & 1832, duties collection w/in state. Calhoun resigned VP became Sen., Hayne now Gov

    ii)Jackson insisted nullification treason, strengthened federal forts in SC. 1833 Pres. proposed bill to authorize use of military to see acts of Congress obeyed

    iii)No states supported SC, state itself divided. Sen Henry Clay offered compromise that tariff would be gradually lowered so that by 1842 it would be at same level as in 1816. Compromise + force bill passed March 1833

    iv)SC state convention met and repealed its nullification of the tariffs, but also nullified the force act (symbolic of null. legitimacy)

    3)The Removal of the Indians

    a)White Attitudes Toward the Tribes

    i)In 18th century many whites considered Indians “noble savages” who had inherent dignity, by 19th century more hostile attitude especially among whites in W and territories, simply “savages”

    ii)White westerners wanted removal b/c feared continued contact + expanding white settlements would lead to endless violence, & Indian lands valuable

    iii)Only fed govt had power to deal w/ Indians after Sup. Court decisions. Indians created new large political entities to deal w/ whites

    b)The Black Hawk War

    i)In Old Northwest Black Hawk War 1831-1832 to expel last of Indians there

    ii)Conflict notable for violence of white military efforts, attacked even when Chief Black Hawk was surrendering and killed Indians fleeing battle

    c)The “Five Civilized Tribes”

    i)1830s govt worried about remaining “Five Civilized Tribes” in South- successful agricultural society, Constitution forming Cherokee Nation 1827

    ii)Fed govt worked in early 19th century thru treaties to remove tribes to West and open lands to white settlement. Negotiation process unsatisfying + slow

    iii)Congress passed Removal Act 1830 to finance def negotiations w/ tribes in order to relocate them West, pressure from state govts to move as well

    iv)In GA Sup. Court decisions of Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) and Worcester v Georgia (1832) seemed to protect tribal lands

    v)1835 treaty signed with minority tribe in Cherokee nation ceding all land to GA, but majority of Cherokees refused to recognize its legitimacy. Jackson sent army under General Winfield Scott to drive them westward to reservation  

    d)Trials of Tears

    i)Forced trek to “Indian Territory” began winter 1838. Thousands died before destination, dubbed “Trail of Tears”

    ii)Cherokees not alone: btwn 1830-1838 nearly all “Five Civilized Tribes” expelled from Southern states & relocated to Indian Territory created by Congress in Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. Undesirable land far from whites

    iii)Only Seminoles in Florida resisted relocation. Under pressure had agreed to cede land and move to Ind. Territory, many members of tribe moved

    (1)But 1835 minority led by chief Osceola staged uprising. Jackson sent army, conducted campaign of systematic extermination but successful guerilla warfare forced govt to abandon war in 1842

    e)The Meaning of Removal

    i)By end of 1830s almost all major Indian societies relocated to far less hospitable lands west of Mississippi on reservations surrounded by forts

    ii)White movement west impossible to have stopped, but alternative to removal could have been some form of co-existence like in NW trading posts, TX

    iii)BY mid-19th century Americans believed western lands had no pre-existing civilization. Natives could not be equal partners, were obstacles to be removed, “lacked intelligence, industry and moral habits for improvement”

    4)Jackson and the Bank War

    a)Biddle’s Institution

    i)Bank of United States in 1830s had HQ in Philadelphia, branches in 19 cities, by law only place govt could deposit its funds

    ii)Conducted private business issuing credit, bank notes used throughout country, restrained less well-managed state banks. Pres Nicholas Biddle had made bank sound + prosperous. Regardless, Jackson wanted to destroy it

    iii)Opposition came from “soft-money” faction who wanted more currency in circulation. Made up of state banks, resisted Bank of US’s efforts to restrain free issue of notes from state banks

    iv)“Hard money” faction wanted gold and silver to back currency, suspicious of expansion and speculation. Jackson supported hard-money

    v)Jackson did not favor renewal of bank charter after 1836 expiration. Biddle tried to save bank by granting financial favors to influential men, named Daniel Webster made legal counsel (gained Clay’s support). Recommended renewal bill 1832 to make bank issue in 1832 elections. 

    vi)Bill passed Congress but Jackson vetoed it, could not be overridden. In 1832 Jackson + Van Buren elected despite opposition to bank over opposition Clay

    b)The “Monster” Destroyed

    i)Jackson determined to destroy “monster” Bank quickly. To weaken it removed govt deposits (two Tres. Secretaries fired b/c feared financial destabilization, third Roget Taney complied)

    ii)When administration transferred funds from Bank to pet banks, Biddle called in loans and raised interest rates- hoped would cause financial distress and recession that would persuade Congress to recharter Bank

    iii)Financial conditions worsened winter 1833/1834, two sides blamed it on each other. Finally Biddle contracted credit too far for his own allies in the business community, began to fear his efforts to save ban threatening their own

    iv)Biddle forced to grant credit in abundance on reasonable terms, tactics ended change of re-charter. End in 1836 empowered unstable bank system

    c)The Taney Court

    i)Jackson moved against economic nationalism support of Supreme Court, after Marshall died 1835 named Roger Taney chief justice

    ii)Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge (1837) btwn company chartered by state for toll bridge monopoly and company applying to legislature to pay for toll-free bridge. Taney ruled that govt’s goal to promote general happiness took precedence over right of contract and property, therefore state had right to amend contract o advance well-being of community

    iii)Reflected Jacksonian ideal that key to democracy expansion of economic opportunity that could not occur if corporations maintained monopolies and choked off competition from newer companies

    5)The Changing Face of American Politics

    a)Democrats and Whigs

    i)Democrats in 1830s envisioned expanding economic and political opportunity for white males, limited govt but one that removed obstacles to opportunity, defense of Union, attacking corruption, radical branch called Locofocos

    ii)Whigs favored expanding power of fed govt, industrial and commercial development, knit country into consolidated economic system, cautious westward expansion b/c feared territorial growth would produce instability, embraced industrial future and commercial and manufacturing greatness

    iii)Whigs supported by merchants and manufactures of NE, wealthy Southern planters, western commercialists. Democrats supported by smaller merchants and workingmen of NE, S planters suspicious of industry, agrarian westerners

    iv)Above all wanted to win elections: Whigs connected w/ Anti-Masons to resent “undemocratic” Freemasons (such as Jackson and Van Buren). Irish and German Catholic immigrants supported Democrats b/c aversion to commercial development, Evangelical Protestants supported Whigs

    v)Whigs led by “Great Triumvirate” of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John Calhoun. 1836 election Dems united behind Jackson’s choice of Van Buren for candidate, but Whigs could not agree on single candidate. Clay, White, and William Henry Harrison ran for regional interests, defeated by Van Buren

    b)Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

    i)Van Buren elected on economic boom that reached height 1836- canals and railroads being built, easy credit, land business booming, govt revenues from sales + 1833 tariff created surpluses that allowed reduction of nat’l debt

    ii)Congress passed 1836 “distribution” act to return surplus to states, used to fund highways, railroads, canals, created economic boom

    iii)Withdrawal of fed funds strained state “pet” banks, forced to call in loans. Jackson issued “specie circular” that required payment for public land sales be in gold or silver or currency backed by them b/c feared rampant speculation

    iv)Circular produced financial panic during Van Buren’s presidency banks and business failed, food riots- largest depression in American history to that point

    v)Both parties responsible for panic- surplus redistribution a Whig measure, Jackson’s circular, but also panics in England and W. Eur that caused those investors to withdraw funds from American banks, also crop failures

    vi)Panic of 1837 led Democrats + Van Buren administration to pay price for no govt intervention. Only success of VB creation of “subtreasury system” to replace Bank of US- govt funds placed in independent treasury in Washington, no private banks could use money to fund loans and speculation

    c)The Log Cabin Campaign

    i)To win 1840 election Whigs supported only one candidate- William Henry Harrison for pres and John Tyler for VP

    ii)1840 campaign first in which “penny press” carried news of candidates to larger audience of workers and tradespeople. Whigs, although represented affluent elements of pop, presented themselves as party of the common people

    iii)Whig campaign effective at portraying the wealthy Harrison as a simple log cabin and cider man and VB as an aloof aristocrat--- Harrison won election

    d)The Frustration of the Whigs

    i)Harrison died of pneumonia 1 month after inauguration, new President Tyler was a former Democrat who refused to let Clay and Webster control policy

    ii)Pres supported bills abolishing independent treasury system and raising tariff rate, but refused Clay’s attempt to recharter Bank and vetoed internal improvement bills sponsored by Whigs. 

    iii)Whigs kicked Tyler out of party, entire cabinet resigned. Tyler and some conservative southern Whigs who supported slavery and states rights prepared to join the Democratic Party

    e)Whig Diplomacy

    i)Canada uprising caused tension leading to burning of an American steamship carrying arms and the subsequent arrest of a British citizen for burning 1837. Tension over Canada-Maine boundary led to small “Aroostook War” 1838

    ii)Finally negotiations to reduce all tensions occurred btwn Sec of State Webster and British Lord Ashburton. 1842 Webster Ashburton treaty established new Maine border, GB refused to interfere w/ American ships-- relations improved

    iii)Tyler administration established first diplomatic relations with China, Americans received same privileges as British such as “extraterritoriality” and port use

    iv)Whigs lost White House in 1844 elections

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - America’s Economic Revolution

     1)The Changing American Population

    a)The American Population, 1820-1840

    i)Population dramatically increased, began to concentrate in industrial centers of Northeast and Northwest, provided labor force for factory system

    ii)Growth b/c of improvements in public health (decrease in number and intensity of epidemics), high birth rate, lower infant mortality rates

    iii)Immigration did not contribute greatly until 1830s b/c of Eur wars & US economic problems. Immigrant boom caused by lower transport costs, increased US economic opportunity + less econ opportunity in some Eur areas

    iv)Immigrant + internal migration led to growth of cities b/c agriculture in New England less profitable (some moved West also). By 1810 NY largest city

    b)Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840-1860

    i)By 1860 26% of free state populations lived in towns or cities

    ii)Booming agricultural economy of west led small villages and trading posts to become cities. Benefited from Mississippi R, centers of Midwest trade

    iii)By 1860 American population greater than that of GB and approaching France and Germany. Urban growth from flow of ppl from Northeast farms (competition from Eur farms + Western farms) & influx of immigrants abroad

    iv)Majority of immigrants from Ireland and Germany. German industrial revolution had caused poverty, & b/c of collapse of liberal 1848 revolution. In Ireland unpopular English rule & “potato famine” of 1845-1849 

    v)Most Irish settled in eastern cities + became unskilled laborers (had little $, many were young women- domestic/factory work in cities). Most Germans moved to Northwest, farming or business in towns (many were single men)

    c)Rise of Nativism

    i)Some native-born Americans saw opportunity in immigration. Industrialists & employers wanted cheap labor, land speculators and politicians hoped would populate west + increase demand for goods, increase influence

    ii)Some (Nativists) hostile to foreigners and immigration. Some racist, some argued newcomers socially unfit and did not have sufficient standards of civilization, workers feared low immigrant wages would steal their jobs, Protestants feared Irish Catholics & Rome, many upset b/c voted Democratic

    iii)Tension and prejudice led to secret societies to combat “alien menace”, Native American Association 1837, 1845 Native American Party, peak in 1850s with combination in Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. Wanted to ban Catholics form office, restrict naturalization, force literacy tests for voting

    iv)Secret order known as Know-Nothings turned to party politics, after 1852 election formed American Party, success in 1854 East elections, declined after

    2)Transportation, Communications, and Technology

    a)The Canal Age

    i)1790-1820s “turnpike era”, but roads not adequate for nation’s growing needs

    ii)Traffic on large rivers such as Miss. and Ohio had been mainly flat barges that could not travel upstream, by 1820s steamboats and riverboats carried western and southern crops quickly, from New Orleans ocean ships to Eastern ports

    iii)Farmers and merchants unhappy b/c more direct route could lower transport costs and product costs. By 1820s economic advantages of canals had generated boom in expanding water routes to West. Too expensive for private companies, states of Northeast constructed them

    iv)NY’s Erie Canal began July 4, 1817 to connect Hudson R and Lake Erie. Opened 1825, tolls repaid construction costs, gave NY access to Great Lakes, Chicago, growing Western markets. NY now competed with New Orleans  

    v)Water transport system expanded when Ohio + Indiana connected Lake Erie & Ohio R. Increased white settlement, but primacy of NY power + hinterland control alarmed other Atlantic cities. Most attempts limited successes or failed

    b)The Early Railroads

    i)Railroads played secondary role in 1820s/30s, but laid groundword for mid-century surge. Emerged form technological (tracks, steam-powered locomotive) and entrepreneurial innovations

    ii)In 1830s no real rial system, most lines simply connected water routes and not links to other rail systems. Some states and corporations also limited their ability to compete effectively against canals

    c)The Triumph of the Rails

    i)After 1840 rail gradually supplanted canals. 1850’s trackage tripled. Most comprehensive and efficient system in northeast, but no region untouched

    ii)Trend toward consolidation of short lines into longer lines (“trunk lines”), connected Northeast w/ Northwest, from these other railroads traveled into interior of nation. Main Northwest hub was Chicago

    iii)Lessened dependence of West on Miss. R, weakening N + S economic cnxn

    iv)Capital to finance railroads came from private investors, abroad, and local governments. Fed govt gave public land grants to railroads, states for RRs

    d)Innovations in Communications

    i)Magnetic telegraph lines along tracks aided train routing, but also allowed instant communication btwn cities, linked N and NW at exclusion of S

    ii)1844 Samuel Morse first transmitted. Low cost of construction made it ideal solution to long-distance communication. By 1860 Western Union Telegraph company had been founded linking most independent telegraph lines

    iii)In journalism Richard Hoe’s 1846 steam cylinder rotary press allowed rapid and cheap newspapers, telegraph increased news speed. 1846 Associated Press formed to promote cooperate wire transmission

    iv)NY’s major papers Horace Greeley’s Tribune, James Bennett’s Herald, Henry Raymond’s Times. In 1840s/50s journalism fed sectional discord, most major magazines and newspapers located in North. New awareness of differences

    3)Commerce and Industry

    a)The Expansion of Business, 1820-1840

    i)Business grew b/c population, transportation revolution, and new practices

    ii)Retain distribution became more efficient w/ specialty stores in cities

    iii) Individual + small merchant capitalist companies dominated, but some larger businesses gave way to corporations- combined resources of large number of shareholders. Grew 1830s b/c states passed easy incorporation laws. Limited liability meant stockholder risked only value of investment if corp failed

    iv)Great demand for capital led businesses to rely on credit, but gold and silver standards of govt led to too little $, led private banks to issue less stable notes

    v)Bank failures frequent, insecure deposits. Credit difficulty limited growth

    b)The Emergence of the Factory

    i)Before War of 1812 most manufacturing occurred in private households in small workshops. Technology and demand led to factories- began in New England textile industry, large water-driven machines increased production

    ii)1820s factory system in shoe industry, by 1830s spread throughout Northeast. By 1860 value of manufactured goods roughly equal to agricultural goods. Largest manufacturers located in the Northeast, large amt of ppl employed

    c)Advances in Technology

    i)Developed industries relatively immature, fine items came from England. But by 1840s rapid machine technology advances, sophisticated textile industry 

    ii)Manufacture of machine tools (tools used to make machinery) improved by govt supported research for military (at Springfield Armory, MA)- turret lathe and universal milling machine in early 19th century. Later precision grinder

    iii)Better machine tools allowed for wide use of interchangeable parts, new uses

    iv)Industrialization aided by new energy sources: coal replacing wood + water in factories. Allowed mills to be located away from streams, easier expansion 

    v)Technological advances due to American inventors, increasing number of patents. Included Howe-Singer sewing machine, Goodyear vulcanized rubber

    d)Innovations in Corporate Organization

    i)Merchant capitalists still prominent 1840s, their clippers were fastest sailing ships afloat at time. By mid-century merchant capitalism declining b/c British competition stealing export trade, greater profits found in manufacturing than trade. Industry grew in NE b/c this merchant class could finance factories

    ii)By 1840s corporations spreading rapidly, especially in textile industry. Ownership moving form families and individuals to many shareholders

    4)Men and Women At Work

    a)Recruiting A Native Work Force

    i)In factory system’s early years recruiting labor difficult b/c of farms and small cities. New farmlands in Midwest + new farm machinery and techniques increased food production, decreased need for labor. Transport allowed importation of food from other regions—ppl in New Eng left for factories

    ii)Some recruitment brought whole families form farm to the mill w/ parents and children, but Lowell/Waltham system enlisted young women 

    iii)Labor conditions relatively good in early years of system, better than Eur. Lowell system used young, unmarried women but had good housing + food

    iv)Even well-treated workers found transition from life on farm to in factory difficult- regimented env’t, repetitive tasks. Women had little other choice b/c barred from manual labor, unthinkable to travel in search of opportunity

    v)Competitive textile market of 1830s/40s manufactures had difficulty maintaining high standards + conditions, wages fell. Union of Factory Girls Association struck twice, but both failed. Eventually immigrants filled jobs

    b)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Increasing supply of immigrant workers after 1840 boom for manufacturers- large and inexpensive labor source. Little leverage with employers, lack of skills and native prejudice led to low, intermittent wages—great poverty

    ii)Irish workers predominated 1840s textile industry, arrival led to deteriorating working conditions. Less social pressure on owners to maintain decent env’t, piece rates instead of daily wages to speed production

    iii)Factories becoming large, noisy, unsanitary, dangerous places to work, hours long, wages declining. Still however, condition better than England and Eur

    c)The Factory System and the Artisan Trade

    i)Factory system displaced skilled artisans- had been embodiment of republican independent worker. Unable to compete w/ factory-made goods for fraction of artisan’s prices. Early 19th century began to form organizations and first labor unions to protect position. 1820s/30s trade unions developed in cities

    ii)Interconnected economies of cities made national unions or federations of local unions logical. 1834 National Trade’s Union

    iii)Labor leaders struggled w/ hostile laws and courts, common law made worker combination as illegal conspiracy. Panic of 1837 also weakened movement

    d)Fighting for Control

    i)Workers at all levels in industrial economy tried to improve position by making 10-hour workday or restricting child labor. Laws changed little

    ii)1842 MA Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v Hunt that unions were legal and strikes lawful, other states gradually agreed. Unions still largely ineffective 1840s/50s

    iii)Artisans + skilled workers unions more successful 1850s, but their unions more like preindustrial guilds that restricted admission to skilled trades

    iv)Working class of 1840s/50s had only modest power- limited by numerous immigrant laborers who could replace strikers, ethnic division led to worker disunity. Industrial capitalists had great economic, political and social power

    5)Patterns of Industrial Society

    a)The Rich and the Poor

    i)Commercial +industrial growth raised average income of Americans, but wealth distributed unequally – for slaves, Indians, landless farmers, many unskilled workers little change. Small % of families owned majority of wealth

    ii)There had always been wealthy classes from beginning but extent and character was changing. Newly wealthy merchants & industrialists settled in cities- found new ways to display wealth in mansions, social clubs, clothing…

    iii)Large population of destitute ppl in growing urban areas- little resources, often homeless. Included recent immigrants, widows, orphans, ppl w/ mental illness. Free blacks=only menial jobs, little pay, no vote, no public schools 

    b)Social Mobility

    i)Class conflict quelled b/c working standards declined but living standard improving, opportunity for social mobility for workers captured imagination

    ii)Geographic mobility more extensive than Eur, Western lands “safety valve” for discontent. Also travel form city to city to search for new opportunity

    iii)Opportunity to participate in politics expanded, ballot tied ppl to community

    c)Middle-Class Life

    i)Fastest growing group in America middle class. Economic development offered opportunity to own and work for businesses, land no longer=wealth

    ii)Middle class life most influential cultural form of urban America, good neighborhoods, women stayed in home to care for children, cast-iron stoves used to cook, diets improved w/ new access to meats, grains, dairy

    d)The Changing Family

    i)Movement of families from farms to cities where jobs, not land, most important.  Patriarchal system of inherited farm land disappeared

    ii)Work moved out of home and into shop, mill, factory. Family as principal economic unit gave way to individual wage earners. Even farms became commercialized b/c larger lands required more labor than just family

    iii)Changing family role led to decline in birth rate by mid-19th century. Deliberate effort to limit family size result of future planning. Secular, rational

    e)Women and the “Cult of Domesticity”

    i)Growing distinction btwn workplace and home led to distinction in societal roles of men + women. Women had long been denied legal + political rights, little access to business, less access to education at high levels

    ii)Middle class husband seen as wage earner, wife to engage in domestic activities- “guardians of domestic virtues”, central role to nurture young

    iii)“Separate sphere” female culture emerged. Women seen as having special qualities difft than men-custodians of morality and shape home to be refuge from competitive marketplace. Provide religious, moral instruction to kids

    iv)By 1840s few genteel women considered working, seen as “lower class”, owners rarely hired women anyway b/c of “cult”. But Working-class women couldn’t afford to stay home, many went into domestic service 

    f)Leisure Activities

    i)Leisure time scarce for all but wealthy, vacations rare, Sunday often only day of rest + Church. Reading expanded, new newspapers, magazines, books for affluent. Theaters, minstrel shows, public sporting events increasingly popular

    ii)Circus amazed ppl (PT Barnum), lectures also very popular

    6)The Agricultural North

    a)Northeastern Agriculture

    i)After 1840 decline and transformation- farmers couldn’t compete with new rich soil of Northwest. Rural population declined. Some farmers moved west for new farms, others moved to mill towns and became laborers. Others turned to providing eastern urban centers vegetables, fruit, profitable dairy products

    b)The Old Northwest

    i)Some industry (more than in South), industrial growth, before Civil War- much served agriculture or relied on agricultural products

    ii)Lands from urban centers primarily agricultural, owned by workers. Rising world farm prices gave incentive for commercial agriculture: growing single crop for market, international market for American food

    iii)Growth of factories + cities increased demand for farm goods. Northwest farmers sold most goods to ppl in Northeast + dependent on their purchasing power, Eastern industry found market for products in prosperous West

    iv)To expand production Western expansion into prairie regions during 1840s/50s, new farm techniques and inventions used- John Deere’s steel plow

    v)Automatic reaper by Cyrus McCormick + thresher revolutionized grain production

    vi)NW democracy based on defense of economic freedom and rights of property

    c)Rural Life

    i)Religion powerful force drawing farm communities together. Also joined together to share tasks difficult for single family (such as barn raising)

    ii)Rural life not always isolated, but less contact w/ popular culture and public social life than in towns and cities. Cherished farm life autonomy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South

    1)The Cotton Economy

    a)The Rise of King Cotton

    i)19th century upper South (VA, MD, NC) cultivated tobacco, but unstable prices and exhaustive of soil. By 1830s upper South began to grow wheat, tobacco growing shifted westward. Southern regions of South (SC, GA, FL) continued growing rice, Gulf some sugar—crops limited b/c hard to cultivate

    ii)Decline of tobacco in upper South led not to industrialization but growing of short-staple cotton- could grow in difft env’ts, w/ cotton gin now profitable. Demand for cotton growing b/c of rise of textile industry in GB 1820s/30s and New England 1840s/50s—new lands and expansion to meet new demand

    iii)Beginning 1820s production of cotton moved westward into Alabama, Mississippi, LA, TX, AK. By 1850s dominated economy

    iv)“Lower South”/ “Cotton Kingdom” attracted many seeking profits, also slaves

    b)Southern Trade and Industry

    i)Business classes and manufacturers unimportant, slow growth + mainly in upper South. Non-farm commercial sectors mainly served needs of plantation economy- brokers who marketed crops, acted as merchants and lenders

    ii)Primitive banking system did not allow for structures necessary for industrial development. Inadequate transport system: few roads, canals, nat’l railroads

    iii)Some southerners recognized economic subordination to north and advocated for economic independence- New Orlean James De Bow- De Bow’s Review

    c)Sources of Southern Difference

    i)Despite “colonial dependency” South did little to industrialize b/c agricultural system + cotton so profitable, little incentive to look beyond. Wealthy had already invested much of their capital into land + slaves

    ii)Lack of commercial growth also b/c traditional values distinctive to South discouraged cities + industry- elegance, more refined life than rapid growth

    2)White Society in The South

    a)The Planter Class

    i)Majority of ppl didn’t own slaves (only ¼ did), of those small % owned many

    ii)Planter aristocracy (those earning 40+ slaves and 800+ acres of land) exercised power and influence greater than their number. Political economic, social control. Saw themselves as aristocracy, though most wealth was recent

    iii)Growing crops profitable but as competitive and risky as industry in North

    iv)After struggling to reach their position in society they were determined to defend it—perhaps why defense of slavery and South’s “rights” stronger in booming lower South and weaker in more established areas

    b)“Honor”

    i)White males adopted code of chivalry that obligated them to defend their “honor”. Ethical ideal and bravery but also public appearance of dignity & authority- anything to challenge dignity or social station a challenge

    c)The “Southern Lady”

    i)Lives of affluent centered in home, little role in public activities or as wage earners. White men more dominant + women subordinate than in North- solitary farm life w/ no access to “public world” led to main role wife, mother

    ii)Less educational opportunities, higher birth rate and infant mortality rate

    d)The Plain Folk

    i)Typical person not planter + slaveholder but modest yeoman farmer. Mainly subsistence farming- lacked resources for cotton or to expand operations

    ii)Little prospect of bettering position b/c southern educational system provided poor whites with little opportunity to learn and therefore advance

    iii)Majority excluded from planter society, but opposition to elite limited mainly to “hill” and “backcountry” ppl who were secluded, unconnected to commercial economy, and loyal to whole nation and above sectional fighting

    iv)Most nonslave-owning whites lived in middle of plantation system and were tied to it, relied on planters for markets, credit, and linked thru kinship. Also large sense of democracy + political participation gave sense of cnxn to societal order. Cotton boom of 1850s gave them hope of economic betterment

    v)Belief that assault on one hierarchical system (slavery) would threaten another hierarchical system (patriarchy)

    vi)Even the south’s poorest members (“clay eaters”) who owned no profitable land did not offer great opposition to society—greatest factor binding all classes together was perception of race and members of ruling race

    3)Slavery: The “Peculiar Institution”

    a)Varieties of Slavery

    i)Called “peculiar” by Southerners b/c was distinctive from N., Western world

    ii)Slavery regulated by law, slave codes forbade property, congregation, teaching a slave. Anyone suspected w/ trace of African blood defined as black

    iii)Despite provisions of law variety within slave system b/c white owners handled most transgressions, conditions. Size of farm, # of slaves varied

    iv)Majority of slave-owners small farmers, but majority of slaves lived on medium + large plantations-less intimate owner/slave relationship

    b)Life Under Slavery

    i)Generally received enough necessities to enable them to live and work; lived in slave quarters. Slaves worked hard, women labored in fields w/ men and had other chores, often single b/c husbands sold away (single parents)

    ii)High death rate and less children survived to adulthood than whites

    iii)Some say material condition of slavery may have been better than some northern factory workers, less sever than slaves in Caribbean + South Amer. Law preventing slave import incentive to Southern elite to provide some care

    iv)Other cheap laborer (such as Irish) used to perform most dangerous and least healthy tasks to protect investment. Still overseers hired by owners often treated slave badly, and household servants often sexually abused by master

    c)Slavery in the Cities

    i)On isolated plantations masters maintained direct control. Slaves in cities were often hired out to do labor and unskilled jobs in cities + towns

    ii)In cities line btwn slavery + freedom less clear, white southerners viewed slavery incompatible w/ city life- sold slaves to countryside, used segregation

    d)Free African Americans

    i)About 250,000 free African Americans in slaveholding states before Civil War, most in VA and MD. Some had earned money and bought freedom for themselves and family- mostly urban blacks able to do this

    ii)Some slaves freed by master for moral reasons, other after master died

    iii)During 1830s state laws for slaves tightened b/c growing number of free blacks, abolition movement in North—made manumission of slaves harder

    iv)Most free blacks very poor, limited opportunity, only quasi-free

    e)The Slave Trade

    i)Transfer of slaves from one part of South to another important consequence of development of Southwest. Sometimes moved with master, more often transferred thru slave traders

    ii)Domestic slave trade impt to growth and prosperity of system, but dehumanizing- children separated from parents

    f)Slave Resistance

    i)Most slaves unhappy with being slaves, wanted freedom- but dealt w/ slavery thru adaptation (slaves who acted as white world expected him, charade for whites) or resistance (those who could not come to accommodate their status)

    ii)1831 Nat Turner, a slave preacher, led armed African Americans in VA, overpowered by state + federal troops. Only actual slave insurrection 19th century, but fear of slave conspiracies renewed violence + led to stricter laws

    iii)Some attempted to resist by running away, escaping to the North or Canada using underground railroad + sympathetic whites. Odds of success low

    iv)Resisted also by refusing to work hard, stealing from master

    4)The Culture of Slavery

    a)Language and Music

    i)Slaves incorporated African speech w/ English- called “pidgin”

    ii)Songs very impt- to pass time, some political, emotional, religious

    b)African-American Religion

    i)By 19th century nearly all slaves Christians. Black congregations illegal, most went to master’s church led by Baptist or Methodist white minister

    ii)A.A. religion more emotional, reflected influence of African customs and practices- chanting, emphasized dream of freedom and deliverance. Christian images central to revel leaders Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, Nat Turner

    c)The Slave Family

    i)Blacks deprived of legal marriage, but “nuclear family” dominant kinship model nevertheless. Up to 1/3 of black families broken apart by slave trade- led to strong extended kinship networks

    ii)Black women often bore children to white masters who didn’t recognize kids

    iii)Slaves had complex relationships w/ masters b/c depended on them for material means of existence, sense of security and protection. This paternalism was used as an instrument of white control, sense of mutual dependence reduced resistance to institution that only benefited ruling white race


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Antebellum Culture and Reform

    1)The Romantic Impulse

    a)Nationalism and Romanticism in American Painting

    i)Eurs felt that they alone at center of artistic world, but paintings w/in US popular b/c felt they had artistic traditions of their own: wonder of nation’s landscape, shoe power of nature thru wild outdoor scenes- “awe & wonder”

    ii)First great school of American painters from Hudson River School in NY: Frederic Church, Thomas Cole, Thomas Doughty, Asher Durand. Hoped to express “wild nature” that existed in America but not Eur

    b)Literature and the Quest for Liberation

    i)Early 19th century American literature unpopular, British novelist Sir Walter Scott was. But even during 1820s great American novelist James Fenimore Cooper- evocation of wilderness, adventure, westward expansion- his “Leatherstocking Tales were The Last of the Mohicans & The Deerslayer

    ii)Cooper’s novels showed effort to produce truly American literature, ideal of independent individual with natural inner goodness, fear of disorder

    iii)Later American romantic works included: poet Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1855)- celebration of democracy, individual liberty. Other works more bleak- Herman Melville’sMoby Dick (1851) of individual will but tragedy of pride and revenge, writer Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” (1845) established him as literary figure- humans exploring deeper world of spirit and emotions

    c)Literature in the Antebellum South

    i)Southern writers wanted to create American literary culture as well, but often produced historical romances for eulogies of plantation system of Upper South. Most famous William Gilmore Simms- believed duty of intellectual to defend southern lifestyle + slavery, sectional

    ii)Augustus Longstreet, Joseph Baldwin, Johnson Hooper focused not on “cavaliers” but on ordinary ppl and poor whites

    d)The Transcendentalists

    i)New England writers who focused on distinction btwn “reason” and inner capacity to grasp beauty and emotional expression vs “understanding” and repression of instinct and imposed learning- goal to cultivate “reason”

    ii)Centered in Concord, MA. Leader Ralph Waldo Emerson- essays “Nature” (1836) argued self-fulfillment thru communion w/ nature, “Self-Reliance” (1841) called for individual fully explore inner capacity, unity w/ universe

    iii)Emerson a nationalist, lecture “The American Scholar” (1837), argued beauty from instant vs learning, therefore Americans can still have artistic greatness

    iv)Henry David Thoreau- ppl should seek self-realization by not conforming to society’s expectations & responding to own instincts. His Walden (1845) of him living simply in the woods, essay “Resistance to Civil Government” (1849)- govt that required violation of personal mortality not legitimate

    e)The Defense of Nature

    i)Some uneasy w/ rapid economic development, feared impact on natural world. Nature not just for economic activity (farmers, miners) or for study by scientists- but vehicle for human inspiration, realize truth within the soul

    f)Visions of Utopia

    i)Transcendentalism spawned communal living experiments

    ii)Brook Farm established by George Ripley 1841 in MA, create community that would permit full opportunity for self-realization, equal labor, share leisure

    iii)Conflict btwn individual freedom & communal society led to dissenters: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance (1852) submission equals oppression, The Scarlet Letter (1850)- price ind. pay for not being in society

    iv)French philosopher Charles Fourier’s idea of socialist communities led Robert Owen 1825 to create experiment New Harmony in Ind, economic failure

    g)Redefining Gender Roles

    i)Transcendentalism + utopian communities led to some sense of feminism

    ii)Margaret Fuller’s Women of the Nineteenth Century (1844)- feminist ideas

    iii)Johm Humphrey’s Oneida Community “Perfectionists” rejected traditional ideas of family and marriage, communal raising of children. An Lee’s Shaker Society committed to celibacy, equality of sexes, God neither male or female

    h)The Mormons

    i)Mormons effort to create new and more ordered society thru Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Began upstate NY by Joseph Smith w/ his 1830 Book of Mormon. Began looking for sanctuary for follower “New Jerusalem”

    ii)Ideas of polygamy and secrecy led surrounding communities to fear them. Mob killed Smith, his protégé Brigham Young led exodus to new community in present Salt Lake City, Utah. Family structure very impt

    iii)Belief in human perfectibility, but not individual liberty. Organized, centrally directed society- refuge from disorder and insecurity of secular world

    iv)Members mostly ppl dislodged by economic growth & social progress of era

    2)Remaking Society

    a)Revivalism, Mortality, and Order

    i)Reform b/c rejection of Calvinist doctrines + preached divinity of individual (Unitarians, Universalism), and b/c of Protestant revivalism

    ii)New Light revivalists believed every individual capable of salvation. Charles Finney impt leader- predestination and human helplessness obsolete

    iii)Revivals in “burned-over district” in upstate NY (economic change b/c where Erie Canal had been built). Successful among those who felt threatened by change (including the prosperous worried about social changes), and women

    b)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Alcohol seen as responsible for crime, disorder, poverty. Large problem in West where farmers made extra grain into whiskey, in East as leisure activity

    ii)Earlier temperance movement revived by new reformers- 1826 American Society for the Promotion of Temperance, 1840 Western Temperance Society. 

    iii)Growth led to factions: which alcohol to ban, method (law v. conscience)

    iv)Trying to impose discipline on society- Protestants vs Catholic immigrants for which drinking social ritual, disturbing to old residents of communities 

    c)Health Fads and Phrenology

    i)Interest in individual + social perfection led to new health theories, also threat to public health by cholera epidemics 1830s/40s led to city health boards

    ii)B/c boards found few solutions Americans turned toward nonscientific theories to improve health: “water cure (hydrotherapy)”, Sylvester Graha’s new diet theories, German “phrenology” 1830s thru efforts of Fowler brothers- shape and regions of skull impt indicator of character + intelligence

    d)Medical Science

    i)Science of medicine lagged behind other tech. + scientific advances b/c lack of regulation led many poorly educated ppl to be physicians, absence of basic knowledge of disease- vaccination, anesthesia result of luck vs study

    ii)W/o appetence of scientific methods + experimentation little learned about treating + transmission of disease

    e)Reforming Education

    i)Reform toward universal public education-by 1830 no state had system (some limited state versions [MA, ect.])- reflection of new belief on innate capacity of every person, society’s obligation to tap that, expose kids to social values

    ii)Greatest reformer Horace Mann- educated electorate essential to work free political system. Academic year lengthened, better teacher salaries + training

    iii)By 1850s tax-supported elementary schools in all states. Quality of education varied widely- Horace Mann’s MA professional + trained, elsewhere some barely literate, limited funding. West dispersed pop=less opportunity, South blacks barred from formal education, only 1/3 children nationwide in school

    iv)School reform achievements: US literacy rate highest in world, new emphasis led to new institutions to help handicapped- greater Benevolent

    v)School efforts to impose set of social values on children seen as impt in industrial nation- thrift, order, discipline, punctuality, respect for authority

    f)Rehabilitation

    i)“Asylums” for criminals + mentally ill. Antiquated jails replaced w/ new penitentiaries and mental institutions, jailing debtors + paupers decreased

    ii)Reform & rehabilitate inmates- rigid discipline to curb criminal “laxness”, solitary confinement to contemplate crimes. Overcrowding became problem

    iii)Idea properly structured institution to prevent moral failure + rescue ppl from failure led to orphanages, almshouses for poor, homes for “friendless” women

    g)The Indian Reservation

    i)Main US Indian policy had been relocation to make way for expanding white civilization. Reform led to idea of reservation- enclosed area for Indians to live in isolation from white society. Served economic interest of whites, but also attempt to teach ways of civilization in protected setting

    h)The Rise of Feminism

    i)Women 1830s/40s had to deal w/ traditional limitations + new role in family to focus energy on home and children, leave income-earning to husbands

    ii)Resentment over limitations. Leaders of women’s movement (Grimke sisters, Stowe sisters, Lucrecia Matt, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dorothy Dix) began to draw cnxn btwn their abolitionist ideas and plight of women

    iii)1848 organized convention at Seneca Falls, NY to discuss women’s rights- led to “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” stating all men + women equal, call for women’s suffrage. Many women in feminist movement Quaker 

    iv)Progress limited in antebellum yrs- only few became physicians, ministers 

    v)Women benefited from association w/ other reform movements (very impt abolition), but led some to consider their demands secondary to slave rights

    3)The Crusade Against Slavery

    a)Early Opposition to Slavery

    i)Early 19th century opposition by genteel lot. 1817 American Colonization Society- Virginians who wanted manumission & transportation out of country but also maintain property rights by compensating slaveholder—1830 Liberia

    ii)Failed b/c not enough private + state funding, too many slaves to be possible, opposition from 3rd/4th generation Africans far removed from society + lands

    iii)By 1830 movement losing strength- colonization not viable, cotton boom in Deep South + planter commitment to “peculiar institution” led to dead end

    b)Garrison and Abolitionism

    i)William Lloyd Garrison employed by antislavery newspaper (Genius of Universal Emancipation), but impatient w/ moderate tone + reform proposals

    ii)1831 founded his own Liberator, should look from black perspective, shouldn’t talk in terms of damage to white society. Reject “gradualism”, extend African Americans full rights of American citizens

    iii)Gained Northern following, founded New England Antislavery Society 1832, year later American Antislavery Society- membership grew rapidly

    iv)Growth b/c like other reform movements committed to unleashing individual human spirit, eliminate artificial social barriers

    c)Black Abolitionists

    i)Abolitionism appealed to Northern free blacks who were poor, had little access to education, suffered mob violence, only menial occupations

    ii)P of their freedom, realized own position in society tied to existence of slavery. David Walker came to be a leader w/ violent rhetoric, most blacks less violent speech- Sojourner Truth became antislavery spokesman

    iii)Greatest abolitionist Frederick Douglass- escaped slavery, lectured in NE. His newspaperNorth Star, autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Demanded freedom, but also social + economic equality

    d)Anti-Abolitionism

    i)White southerners opposed abolition, but also many in the North. Seen as threat to social system, feared war btwn sections & influx of blacks to North

    ii)Escalating violence against abolitionists 1830s- abolitionist headquarters “Temple of Liberty” in Philadelphia burned by mob, Garrison seized

    iii)Yet movement grew despite, suggesting members strong-willed + passionate, great courage and moral strength. Majority sentiment ambivalent to slavery

    e)Abolitionism Divided

    i)By 1830s abolitionists faced serious internal strains + divisions. Prompted b/c anti-abolitionist violence made some favor moderation, radicalism of William Garrison and his attacks on slavery, opposition to slavery, call for full equality for women, extreme pacifism, call for northern disunion from South. Moderates called for “moral suasion” of slaveholders, later political action

    ii)1839 Amistad- slaves seized ship tried to return to Africa. US navy captured ship. Supreme Court 1841 declared the Africans free 1

    iii)842 Prigg v. Pennsylvania ruled states need not enforce 1793 law requiring return of fugitive slaves, “personal liberty laws” in northern states forbade officials to assist in capture + return of runaways 

    iv)Nat’t govt pressured to abolish slavery in areas of federal govt jurisdiction, prohibit interstate slave trade. No political party ever founded, but “free-soil” movement to keep slave out of territories became popular

    v)Some abolitionists violent, American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of A Thousand Witnesses (1839) distorted images of slavery

    vi)Most powerful abolitionist propaganda Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin(1851)- combined sentimental novel w/ political ideas of abolitionist. Story of good, kindly blacks victimized by cruel system movement. Brought message to new audience, but also inflamed sectional tensions to new level

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Impending Crisis

     1)Looking Westward

    a)Manifest Destiny

    i)Reflected pride of American nationalism + idealistic vision of social perfection that had fueled reform movements- US destined by God &  history- to expand over a vast area that included North America. 

    ii)Extend liberty + US political system to others, but also racist justifications- superiority of “American” race, ppl of territories unfit for republican system

    iii)By 1840s idea of Manifest Destiny had spread thru “penny press” (mass audience).  Almost all but not everyone embraced- Henry Clay feared tension

    b)Americans in Texas

    i)1820s Mexican govt encouraged American immigration into Texas hoping to strengthen territory’s economy and increase tax revenues, buffer against Indians, would prevent US expansion- 1824 Mex bill offered cheap land

    ii)Thousands took deal, land suitable for cotton, soon American population larger than Mexican. American intermediaries to Mex govt brought settlers- most famous Stephen Austin. Later attempts to stem US immigration failed

    c)Tensions Between the United States and Mexico

    i)Tension btwn US settlers and Mex govt grew b/c immigrants continued cultural + economic ties to US, also b/c desire to legalize slavery after it was outlawed in 1830

    ii)Mid 1830s Mex General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power as dictator- new law increased power of nat’l govt over state govts, Austin imprisoned. 1835 Mex sent more troops, 1836 Texans declared independence

    iii)Santa Anna led large army into TX, Americans unorganized and easily defeated (Battle of the Alamo in San Antonio). Then General Sam Houston defeated Mexicans 1836 at Battle of San Jacinto, the captured Santa Anna signed treaty making TX independent.      [MXs living in TX called tejanos]

    iv)Texans wanted to be annexed by US, delegation sent to D.C. had expansionist support, but northerners feared large new slave state + empowering the south w/ more Congressional/electoral votes- incl. Andrew Jackson who feared sectional controversy, Pres Van Buren and Pres Harrison also ignored issue

    v)TX sought allies in Eur who wanted to check US power, Pres Tyler sought TX to reapply for statehood 1844, rejected by Senateissue in 1844 election

    d)Oregon

    i)Both GB and US claimed sovereignty over Oregon region. 1818 treaty allowed citizens equal access to area-“joint occupation” for 20 yrs

    ii)US interest grew 1820s/30s b/c desire to convert Indians and oppose Canadian Cath. Missionaries- native rejection Christianity=repudiating right to land

    iii)Large amt of Americans began emigrating to Oregon early 1840s, soon outnumbered GB’s settlers, destroyed native pop. Mid-1840s desire for annex.

    e)The Westward Migration

    i)Growth of TX and Oregon population part of greater movement of population westward 1840-1860. Southerners went mainly to TX, largest numbers from Old Northwest – majority sought mainly new economic opportunity

    ii)Some wanted riches after CA gold discovery 1848, others take advance of cheap land fed govt selling, others on religious mission (Mormons)

    f)Life on the Trail

    i)Most migrants gathered major depots in Iowa or MI, joined wagon trains led by hired guides. Main route Oregon Trail to CA + WA, others Santa Fe Trail

    ii)Trip very difficult, especially in mountain and desert terrain. Fear of conflict w/ Indians (although very little fighting occurred), trade developed w/ Natives

    2)Expansion and War

    a)The Democrats and Expansion

    i)Two candidates for 1844 election Whig Henry Clay and the Democrat/former president Martin Van Buren. Clay chosen, but many Southern democrats supported TX annexation, chose stronger support James K. Polk

    ii)Polk able to win b/c wished to occupy Oregon and annex TX, thereby appealing to both northern and southern expansionists

    iii)Outgoing Pres John Tyler saw election as mandate for annexing TX, did so in 1845. Polk proposed Oregon border @ 49th parallel, GB refused, led to US cry “Fifty-four forty or fight!”. 1846 GB accepted treaty w/ border at 49th parallel

    b)The Southwest and California

    i)Oregon treaty accepted readily by Pres b/c tension growing in Southwest with Mex. After TX became state 1845 dispute over border- TX and Polk believed it to be at Rio Grande, sent Gen Zachary Taylor to protect from invasion

    ii)Part of disputed area was New Mexico where Mex had originally invited American settlers into. Interest in California growing as well as US fur traders gave way to merchants and farmers arriving. Settlers dreamed of annexation

    iii)Polk wanted California and New Mexico for US. At same time ordered Gen Taylor to TX, ordered navy seize CA ports if Mexico declared war

    c)The Mexican War

    i)Polk attempted diplomacy by sending special minister to Mex to purchase lands. When Polk heard MX rejected offer sent Gen. Taylor’s army from Nueces R to Rio Grande R January 1846

    ii)May 1846 US declaration of war. Whig critics of war b/c thought Polk instigated, intensified as war cont and public aware of casualties and expense

    iii)American forces successful in capturing NE Mexico, Polk ordered offensive against New Mexico and California. Col Stephen Kearny captured Santa Fe, then aided US forces in CA’s “Bear Flag Revolution”, captured CA

    iv)When Mex refused to cede defeat Polk sent Gen Winfield Scott to capture Mexico City. After taking city new Mex govt took power that was willing to negotiate treaty. Some in US wanted to annex part of Mexico, but w/ election soon Polk wanted war ended quickly. Sent envoy Nicolas Trist for settlement

    v)Feb 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo agreed to where Mex ceded CA and NM to US and acknowledged Rio Grande boundary of TX. US agreed to pay Mex $15 million. Despite to Mex annexations Polk accepted treaty

    3)The Sectional Debate

    a)Slavery and the Territories

    i)Rep David Wilmot’s “Wilmot Proviso”: prohibit slavery from territories acquired by Mex- failed Senate. Polk extended Missouri Compromise line to territory on West coast. Alternative- “popular sovereignty”- states decided 

    ii)1848 election Polk didn’t run again. Dem candidate Lewis Cass, Whig General Zachary Taylor. Slavery opponents formed “Free-Soil” Party w/ Van Buren for pres. Showed inability of existing parties to contain slavery passions

    b)The California Gold Rush

    i)Taylor won 1848 election, pressure to resolve slavery in territories urgent b/c of events in CA- 1848 Gold Rush lead to dramatic increase in CA’s population, migrants known as “Forty-niners” mainly men

    ii)Gold Rush led to many Chinese migrants to Western US. Labor shortage in CA (due to ppl flocking to fold fields) created opportunities for ppl who needed work. Also led to exploitation of Natives, “Indian hunters”

    iii)Most didn’t find gold, but many sated in CA and swelled agricultural + urban populations. Population diverse- white Americans, Eurs, Chinese, Mexicans, free blacks, slaves of southern migrants—tension led territory to be a turbulent place, therefore pressure to create a stable and effective govt to bring order

    c)Rising Sectional Tensions

    i)Taylor believed statehood solution to territory issue b/c territories controlled by fed govt, but states govt could settle slave issue w/in own state

    ii)Taylor 1849 proposed CA (which had constitution banning slavery) and New Mexico apply for statehood, decide slavery w/in state. Congress refused b/c at time 15 free and 15 slave states existed, South feared admission of New states would upset balance, make South minority in Sen. Tempers rising

    d)The Compromise of 1850

    i)Henry Clay proposed compromise to Congress in 1850- admitted CA as free state, new territorial govts w/o slave restrictions, new tough fugitive slave law

    ii)First phase of debating comp led by older voices of Clay, Calhoun, Webster and broad ideal of settling slave issue once and for all 

    iii)After Clay proposal defeated, second phase of debate led by younger group: William Seward of NY opposed compromise, Jefferson Davis of MI saw slavery in terms of South’s economic self-interest, Stephen Douglas of IL

    iv)W/ death of Taylor in 1850 (who refused compromise until CA admitted), new Pres Millard Fillmore supported compromise, rallied N Whig support

    v)Douglas proposed Clay compromise split into smaller measured and voted on (difft sections could vote for measures that they supported), used govt bonds and railroad construction to gain support. Comp passed in September- less widespread agreement on ideals then victory of self-interest

    4)The Crisis of the 1850s

    a)The Uneasy Truce

    i)1852 pres election candidates very sectional. Dem Franklin Pierce, Whig Gen Winfield Scott, Free-Soil John Hale. Whigs suffered from massive defection from antislavery members, Democrats won

    ii)Pres Pierce tried to ignore divisive issues, but N opposition to Fugitive Slave Act after 1850 as mobs prevented slave catchers in cities. S angered, alarmed

    b)“Young America”

    i)Pierce supported Democrat’s “Young America”- saw expansion of US democracy throughout world as way of diverting attention from slavery

    ii)Efforts to expand entangled in sectionalism- attempts to capture Cuba opposed by antislavery northerners who feared administration trying to bring new slave state to Union, south opposed acquiring Hawaii b/c prohibited slavery

    c)Slavery, Railroads, and the West

    i)1850s settlers began moving into plains to areas suitable for farming, dislodge Indians from reservations there. Settlement led to issue of railroad and slavery

    ii) RR used to solve communication problems btwn old states + areas W of Miss. R., movement for transcontinental RR. Disagreement over whether eastern terminus should be in North’s Chicago or in the South. Jefferson Davis organized Gadsden Purchase 1853 from Mex to make S route possible

    d)The Kansas-Nebraska Controversy

    i)Stephen Douglas 1854 proposed opening Nebraska Territory for white settlement (to clear Indians in way of possible transcont. RR from Chicago)

    ii)Nebraska North of Missouri Compromise line, therefore had to be free

    iii)To gain passage Douglas proposed dividing Nebraska in two (Nebraska and Kansas) and each would decide slavery by “popular sovereignty” (state legislature), repealed Missouri Compromise entirely

    iv)Kansas-Nebraska Act passed 1854 w/ Pres Pierce support. Had immediate, sweeping consequences: divided and destroyed Whig Party (disappeared by 1856), divided northern Democrats (disagreed w/ repealing Miss. Comp)

    v)Ppl in both parties opposed to bill formed Republican Party 1854

    e)“Bleeding Kansas”

    i)Settlers from N + S settling Kansas, but for 1855 elections southerners from Missouri traveled to Kansas to vote. Pro-slavery legislature elected, legalized slavery. Free-state supporters in state formed own Const, applied statehood

    ii)Pro-slave forces burned down anti-slave govt, abolitionist John Brown then killed 5 pro-slave settlers (Pottawatomie Massacre). Led to armed warfare by armed bands, “Bleeding Kansas” became symbol of sectional controversy

    iii)1856 anti-slavery Charles Sumner of MA gave speech entitled “The Crime Against Kansas” critical of slavery defender Sen Butler of SC. Butler’s nephew Preston Brooks came to Sen, beat Sumner w/ cane- both became hero

    f)The Free-Soil Ideology

    i)Tension from economic, territorial interest, but also sectional vision of US

    ii)North believed in “free soil” + “free labor”. Slavery not so much immoral but wrong b/c threatened whites- every citizen had right to own property, control labor, access to opportunity. To them South closed, static society where slavery preserved entrenched aristocracy & common white had no opportunity

    iii)North growing + prospering, S stagnant + rejecting individualism, progress. Believed S conspiring to extend slavery thru whole nation and thus destroy N capitalism, replace it with closed aristocracy of S- “slave power conspiracy”

    iv)This ideology @ heart of Repub Party. Committed to Union b/c growth + prosperity central to free-labor vision, breakup= smaller size+ less econ power

    g)The Pro-Slavery Argument

    i)Incompatible Southern ideology result of desire for security after Nat Turner 1831 uprising, lucrative nature of cotton economy into Deep South and expansion there, growth of Garrisonian abolition movement against S society

    ii)Intellectual defense of slavery begun by Professor Thomas Dew, others later gave ideology name The Pro-Slavery Argument- said that S should not apologize for slavery b/c was a good thing, slaved enjoyed better conditions than industrial workers in N, allowed for peace btwn races, helped nat’l econ

    iii)Also argued slavery good b/c basis of way S way of life, which was superior to any other. N greedy, destructive, factories horrific, cities crowded + immigrant filled- but S stable, orderly, protected worker welfare

    iv)Defense also on biological inferiority of blacks, inherently unfit to care for themselves and be citizens. Clergy also gave religious + biblical justification

    h)Buchanan and Depression

    i)In 1856 pres election Dems wanted candidate unassociated w/ “Bleeding Kansas” so chose James Buchanan, Repubs chose John Fremont (platform against Kansas-Nebraska Act and of Whiggish internal improvements reflecting N economic aspirations), Know-Nothings chose Millard Fillmore

    ii)Buchanan won, but proved indecisive at critical moment in history. After taking office financial panic + depression hit country

    iii)In N Repubs strengthened b/c manufacturers, workers, farmers joined--depression seen as result of unsound policies of southern Dem administrations

    i)The Dred Scott Decision

    i)March 1857 Supreme Court ruled in Dred Scott v Sandford- Scott was slave who after masters death sued widow for freedom on grounds that master had moved residence to a free state, but John Sanford (brother of deceased owner, Sup C. misspelled name) claimed ownership of Scott

    ii)Defeat for antislavery movement. Supreme Court had multiple decisions, Chief Justice Roger Taney: Scott could not bring suit in fed court b/c was not a citizen, blacks had virtually no rights under Const, slaves property & 5th Amendment forbid taking property w/o “due process” and therefore Congress had no authority to pass law depriving persons of slave property in territories (thereby ruling Missouri Compromise had been unconstitutional)

    iii)Did not challenge rights of state to limit slavery, but fed govt now powerless

    j)Deadlock Over Kansas

    i)Pres Buchanan endorsed Dred Scott decision, to solve Kansas problem supported admission to Union as slave state. 1857 new KS Const legalized slavery, but election of new legislature saw antislavery majority who put Const to ppl to vote on- widely rejected

    ii)1858 Buchanan pressured Congress to admit it as slave state anyway but Cong rejected, compromise allowed KS to vote on Const again—rejected again

    iii)1861, after sever S states had already seceded, KS entered Union as free state

    k)The Emergence of Lincoln

    i)In 1858 Congressional elections Repub Abraham Lincoln ran against famed Dem Stephen Douglas. Lincoln-Douglas debates attracted attention 

    ii)Lincoln’s attacks on slavery prominent- argued if nation didn’t accept blacks had human rights then it could accept other groups such as immigrant laborers could be deprived of rights too. Also, extension of slavery in territories would lead to lost opportunity for betterment by poor white laborers

    iii)Lincoln opposed slavery but not abolitionist b/c did not see easy alternative to slavery in areas where it existed. Prevent spread of slavery to territories, trust institution would gradually die out in areas where it existed

    iv)Douglas won but Lincoln gained following. Dems lost maj in House, kept Sen

    l)John Brown’s Raid

    i)1859 antislavery zealot from KS John Brown led followers to capture fort in Harpers Ferry VA hoping to lead slave rebellion. Uprising never occurred, Brown surrendered, tried for treason by VA and hanged

    ii)Convinced white southerners that they could not live safely in Union, believed raid supported by Repub party and that North now wanted slave insurrection

    m)The Election of Lincoln

    i)In Pres election of 1860 Dems torn btwn southerners (who demanded strong endorsement of slavery) & westerners (who supported popular sovereignty) 

    ii)After popular sovereignty endorsed by convention southern states walked out, eventually nominated John Breckinridge of KY, rest chose Stephen Douglas

    iii)Still others formed Constitutional Union Party w/ John Bell as candidate- endorsed Union but remained silent regarding slavery

    iv)Republicans tried to broaden appeal to earn majority in North who feared S blocking its economic interests. Platform endorsed high tariff, internal improvements, homestead bill, Pacific railroad, popular sovereignty but Congress nor territory legislatures could legalize slavery in territories

    v)Repubs chose Abraham Lincoln as nominee b/c moderate positions on slavery, relative obscurity, and western origins to attract votes from region

    vi)Lincoln won presidency w/ majority of electoral votes but only 2/5 of popular vote but failed to win maj in Congress

    vii)Election of Lincoln final signal for many southerners that their position in Union hopeless, within weeks process of disunion began

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Civil War

    1)The Secession Crisis

    a)The Withdrawal of the South

    i)South Carolina voted Dec 1860 to secede, by time Lincoln came to office six more states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, TX) seceded

    ii)Seceded states formed Confederate States of America Feb1861. These states started seizing federal property but at first lacked power to seize the military instillations at Fort Sumter, SC and For Pickens, FL

    b)The Failure of Compromise

    i)Compromise proposed by Sen John Crittenden of KY proposed constitutional amdts w/ permanent slavery in slave states, fugitive slave returned. At heart was plan to reinstitute Missouri Compromise Line for western lands

    ii)Repubs rejected compromise. Lincoln came to office, stated: Union older than Const therefore no state could leave it, supporting secession= insurrection

    c)Fort Sumter

    i)Forces in fort running out of supplies, Lincoln informed SC govt that supply ships were being sent. South feared looking weak, ordered General PGT Beauregard to capture fort. Bombarded April 12-12,1861. Fort surrendered

    ii)After defeat of fort Lincoln began mobilizing for war, but 4 more slave states also seceded- VA, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina. Other 4 slave states remained in Union- MD, Delaware, KY, Missouri)

    iii)Ppl in N&S had come to believe two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in US, both incapable of living together in peace

    d)The Opposing Sides

    i)North held all the important material advantages- N had more than double the population (manpower for army and work force) advanced industrial system to manufacture war material (S had to rely on Eur imports), N had better transportation systems + more railroads

    ii)Advantages tempered b/c at first South fighting defensive war on own land w/ strong support of population. N more divided and support shaky throughout

    2)The Mobilization of the North

    a)Economic Measures

    i)W/o Southern forces in Congress it enacted nationalistic program to promote econ development- Homestead Act of 1862 gave public land to settlers for small fee, Morrill Land Grant Act gave land to state govts to sell for $ for public education. High tariffs passed- boom to domestic industries, protect from foreign producers

    ii)To build transcontinental RR created the Union Pacific RR Company to build westward from Omaha + Central Pacific to build east from CA

    iii) National Bank Acts of 1863-1864 created new bank system- banks could join if they invested in govt, in turn could issue US Treasure notes as currency

    iv)Govt financed war thru taxes, paper currency, and borrowing. 1861 first ever income tax levied, govt “greenbacks” (paper money) issued (not on gold or silver standard), but mostly thru bonds sold to individuals and larger financial bodies

    b)Raising Union Armies

    i)To increase army Congress authorized enlisting 500,000 volunteers- produced adequate forces only briefly. By March 1863 govt had to pass national draft law (but ppl could avoid service by hiring someone in his place or paying $)

    ii)Ppl were accustomed to remote, inactive nat’l govt so conscription had widespread opposition- mainly from laborers, immigrants, “Peace Democrats”

    c)Wartime Politics

    i)Lincoln moved to assert his authority- apptd cabinet representing every faction of Repub party, used war powers of president and disregarded parts of Const- e.x. never asking Congress for declaration of war (believed declaration would recognize Confederacy as an independent nation)

    ii)Lincoln’s greatest problem was popular opposition to war mobilized by parts of Democratic Party (“Copperheads”) who feared agriculture and Northwest losign influence + deterioration of states rights by strong nat’l govt

    iii)Lincoln suppressed opposition by ordering military arrests of civilian dissenters, suspending habeas corpus, stating all ppl who discouraged enlistment or disloyal practices subject to martial law. Lincoln defied Supreme Court when ordered to release secession leader (Ex parte Merryman), military courts declared unconst after war (Ex parte Milligan)

    iv)In1864 presidential election coalition formed btwn Repubs & War Democrats in Union Party- nominated Lincoln. Dems nominated Gen George McClellan, platform for truce. N victories (e.x. Sept capture of Atlanta) led to Lincoln win

    d)The Politics of Emancipation

    i)Republicans disagreed on slavery- Radicals incl. Sen Charles Sumner wanted to use war to abolish slavery, Conservatives= gradual, less destructive process

    ii)Lincoln cautious of emancipation but momentum gathered behind it- 1861 Confiscation Act freed all slaves used for “insurrectionary” purposes, second Confiscation Act in 1862 freed all slaves of ppl supporting the insurrection

    iii)North began to accept emancipation as central war aim b/c nothing less would justify sacrifices of struggle, Radical Repub influence on the rise

    iv)Lincoln seized leadership of antislavery sentiment- Sept 1862 after success at Battle of Antietam issued Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in all Confederate areas (but not Union slave states). Established war not only to maintain Union but also to eliminate slavery

    v)1865 Congress ratified 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all parts of US

    e)African Americans and the Union Cause

    i)About 180,000 emancipated blacks and more free blacks from North served as soldiers and laborers for Union forces. At start of war African Americans excluded from war, but after Emancipation Proc joined in great numbers

    f)The War and Economic Development

    i)War slowed some growth by cutting manufactueres off from Southern markets and raw materials and diverting labor, but mostly the war sped economic development in the North

    ii)Econ growth from Repub nationalistic legislation + new sectors of economy. Difficult for workers though purchasing power declined, mechanization 

    g)Women, Nursing, and the War

    i)Women entered new roles b/c of need for money and labor needs to fill positions vacated by men

    ii)Nursing (previously dominated by men) taken up by women, staffed field hospitals thru US Sanitary Commission. Countered resistance from doctors by associating care with women’s role as maternal + nurturing wife and mother

    iii)Many found war liberating, seen as opportunity to win support for own goals. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded National Woman’s Loyal League in 1863- worked for abolition and suffrage to women

    3)The Mobilization of the South

    a)The Confederate Government

    i)Confederate const similar to US Const but acknowledged sovereignty of individual states, sanctioned slavery and made abolition nearly impossible. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi named president, led like Union by moderates of new Western aristocracy as opposed to entrenched Eastern elements

    b)Money and Manpower

    i)To finance war South needed to create national revenue system in society not used to tax burdens. Small banking system, little liquid capital b/c of investments in land + slaves. Govt requested funds from state govts who issued questionable bonds

    ii)1863 Income tax created but raised little revenue, borrowing from Eur and bonds to citizens unsuccessful. Turned to issuing paper money but created inflation of over 9,000% vs North’s 80%, no uniform currency

    iii)To raise military called for volunteers, but decline in enlistment led to April 1862 Conscription Act. N capture of Confederate lands led to loss of source for manpower, 1864 shortage so desperate draft widened but still ineffective

    c)States’ Rights versus Centralization

    i)States’ rights supporters obstructed war effort by limiting Davis’ ability to declare martial law and obstructed conscription

    ii)Confed did centralize power in S- bureaucracy larger than that of Washington, impressed slaves to work for military, regulated industry + profits

    d)Economic and Social Effects of the War

    i)War devastating on S economy- cut off planters from markets in S, overseas cotton sales more difficult, industries w/o large slave forces suffered. Production declined by 1/3, fighting on S land destroyed RRs, farmland

    ii)N naval blockade led to shortages of everything- agriculture had focused on cotton and not enough food to meet needs, few doctors b/c of conscription

    iii)Like in N, w/ men leaving farms to fight the role of women changed- led slaves and family, became nurses. Led women to question S assumption that females unsuited for certain activities and to be in public sphere. War created gender imbalance w/ many more women, unmarried + widowed sought work

    iv)Whites feared slave revolts + enforced slave codes severely, but many slaves tried to escape or resisted authority of women and boys overseeing plantations

    4)Strategy and Diplomacy

    a)The Commanders

    i)Most impt Union commander was commander-in-chief Abraham Lincoln- realized N material advantages, goal defeat of Confed armies,  not occupation

    ii)Lincoln had trouble finding a competent chief of staff for war- Gen Winifield Scott, Gen George McCllellan, Gen Henry Halleck. Finally found commander in Gen Ulysses S. Grant- goal to target enemy army + resources, not territory

    iii)Lincoln and Grant scrutinized by Congress’ Committee on the Conduct of the War chaired by OH Sen Benjamin Wade - complained of lack of ruthlessness by of N generals

    iv)Southern command centered on Pres Davis, 1862 named Gen Robert E. Lee principal military adviser (w/ Lee in field Davis controlled strategy). 1864 Gen Braxton Bragg named military adviser, later 1865 Confed Congress created position of general in chief, Davis named Lee, but Davis still decider

    v)Most commanders from both N & S had attended one of the US service academies- US Military Academy at West Point, US Naval Acad at Annapolis

    b)The Role of Sea Power

    i)Union had overwhelming naval advantage- used to enforce blockade of S coast, assisted Union army in field operations especially on large rivers

    ii)Blockade prevented most ships out of Confed ports. Confederates tried to break blockade w/ new weapons such as the ironclad warship the Merrimac, which the Union stopped with one of their ironclads the Monitor

    c)Europe and the Disunited States

    i)Judith P Benjamin was Confed secretary of state, counterpart in Washington was the great William Seward

    ii)At start of war ruling classes of England + France sympathetic to Confed b/c imported cotton for textile industries from S, wanted to see a weaker US, admired aristocratic social order of S. France waited to take sides until England did, English didn’t act b/c of popular support of ppl for the Union

    iii)S countered w/ “King Cotton diplomacy” arguing S cotton vital for these nations textile industries. Surpluses in these nations allowed S to be ignored, later imports from mills from Egypt and India

    iv)No Eur nation diplomatically recognized Confed, no nation wanted to antagonize US unless Confed seemed likely to win- never reached that point

    v)Still, there was tension btwn US and GB + France b/c these nations had declared neutrality. Also 1861 Trent affair over arrest of Confed diplomats aboard English steamer from Cuba, later crisis over sale of Brit ships to S

    d)The American West and the War

    i)Most states and territories of West remained loyal to Union except TX, although Southerners and S sympathizers active in organizing opposition

    ii)Fighting occurred btwn Unionists and secessionists in Kansas and Missouri. Confed William Quantrill led guerilla fighters, Union Jayhawkers in KS

    iii)Confed tried to ally w/ Five Civilized Tribes in Indian territory to recruit support against Union, Indians divided. Never formally allied w/ either side

    5)The Course of Battle

    a)The Technology of Battle

    i)Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat

    ii)Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt’s 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester’s 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon

    iii)Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war

    iv)Railroad impt in war where millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight

    b)The Opening Clashes, 1861

    i)First major battle of war occurred in northern VA btwn Union Gen Irvin McDowell and Confed Gen PGT Beauregard at First Battle of Bull Run

    ii)Union lost, forced to retreat to Washington, dispelled illusion of quick war

    iii)1863 Union army under Gen George McClellan “liberated” anti-secessionists in western VA, area admitted to Union as West Virginia 1863

    c)The Western Theater

    i)Stalemate in East led to 1862 military operations in West. April 1862 Union forced surrender of New Orleans, closed Mississippi R to Confed trade and took away South’s largest city and most impt banking center

    ii)Gen Ulysses S. Grant captured forts under command of Confed Gen Albert Johnston. In doing so Grant forced Confed out of Kentucky and Tennessee

    iii)Grant then marched south, fought forced of Gen Sidney and Gen Beauregard at Battle of Shiloh April 1862. Narrow Union victory allowed capture of several impt railroad lines vital to the Confederacy

    d)The Virginia Front, 1862

    i)Union operations 1862 directed by Gen McClellan (commander of the Army of the Potomac), he was controversial b/c often reluctant to put troops in battle

    ii)McClellan planned Peninsular Campaign- use navy to transport troops, attack Confed capital at Richmond from behind. Gen McDowell left to defend D.C. 

    iii)Then Confed Gen Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson looked as if planning to cross Potomac to Washington, defeated Union forces in Valley campaign, withdrew

    iv)Meanwhile, McClellan battled and defeated Confed Gen Joseph Johnston at Battle of Fair Oaks. Johnston replaced by Gen Robert E. Lee who battled McClellan at Battle of the Seven Days. Union able to advance near Richmond

    v)When McClellan delayed attack Lincoln ordered him to move to northern VA to forces under Gen John Pope. But as Army of Potomac moved Lee attacked Pope with his Army of Northern Virginia at 2nd Battle of Bull Run (August)

    vi)Lincoln replaced Pope and McClellan led all forces. Lee planned offensive, resulted in Battle of Antietam Creek- bloodiest single-day of war w/ 6,000 dead & 17,000 injured. Confed withdrew but McClellan could have defeated Lee w/ last assault. Lincoln relieved McClellan from command in November, his replacement Gen Ambrose Burnside relieved in December after failures

    e)1863: Year of Decision

    i)New commander of Army of the Potomac Gen Joseph Hooker attacked by Lee + Jackson at Battle of Chancellorsville, barely able to escape w/ army

    ii)While Union frustrated in East won impt victories in the West

    iii)In July besieged Confed stronghold at Vicksburg, MI surrendered to Grant

    iv)Union now controlled entire Mississippi R, Confederacy split in two- Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas cut off from other seceded states

    v)To divert Union forces away from Missippi and Vicksburg and to gain major victory on N soil to get English and French aid, Lee proposed PA invasion

    vi)New Army of the Potomac commander Gen George Meade battled Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Meade defeated Lee w/ surrender on July 4, same day as Vicksburg defeat

    vii) Weakened Confed forced now unable to seriously threaten N territory

    viii)In September Gen Braxton Braggfought Union army under William Rosecrans, Union defeated at Battle of Chickamauga

    ix)Bragg then fought remaining Union forces at Battle of Chattanooga (Tennessee) in November. Grant reinforced the Union army, Union won and occupied most of eastern TN and controlled important Tennessee River

    x)Confed could not only hope to win independence thru holding on and exhausting N will to fight, not thru decisive military victory

    f)The Last Stage, 1864-1865

    i)Beginning 1864 Grant named general-in-chief of all Union armies. Planned two offensives: use Army of Potomac in VA to fight Lee near Richmond, and use western army under Gen William Sherman to advance toward Atlanta

    ii)Grant’s Overland campaign in VA led Lee to win three battles (Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Battle of Cold Harbor)

    iii)Grant then decided to bypass Richmond to railroad center at Petersburg- strong defenses and reinforcement by Lee led to 9-month siege

    iv)In Georgia Gen Sherman fought Gen Johnston and his replacement Gen Hood, took Atlanta in Sept- electrified N + united Repub Party behind Lincoln

    v)Sherman defeated Confed at Battle of Nashville, while beginning his March to the Sea- sought to deprive Confed army of war materials and railroad but also break will of Southern ppl by burning towns and plantations along route

    vi)Sherman captured Savannah, GA in Dec, turned north thru SC and NC

    vii)April 1865 Grant’s Army of the Potomac captured vital railroad juncture in Petersburg. W/o rail access to South and cut off rom other Confed forces Lee no longer able to defend Richmond

    viii)Lee attempted to move army around Union in hope of meeting forces with Gen Johnston in North Carolina, but Union blocked and pursued him

    ix) Realizng more bloodshed was futile Lee met w/ Grant in town of Appomattox Courthouse, VA- surrendered there on April 9

    x)Nine days later Gen Johnston surrendered to Sherman in North Carolina

    xi)In military war was effectively over even though Jefferson Davis refused to accept defeat. He fled Richmond but was captured in Georgia

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Reconstruction and the New South

     1)The Problems of Peacemaking

    a)The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation

    i)Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property. Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop) had died, ppl wanted to preserve what was left

    ii)Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family, work. Almost none owned land or possessions

    b)Competing Notions of Freedom

    i)Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice, humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also desired

    ii)AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some wanted economic redistribution including land, others wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted independence from white control

    iii)Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal govt. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be tied to plantations

    iv)March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr

    c)Issues of Reconstruction

    i)Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for suffering rebellion caused

    ii)Repubs split btwn Conservatives and Radicals- Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confed leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property confiscation. Moderates in between

    d)Plans for Reconstruction

    i)Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan- favored recruiting former Whigs to Repubs, amnesty to white Southerners other than high Confed officials. When 10% of ppl took loyalty oath state govt could be established. Questions of future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid reunification

    ii)The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee rejoined under plan in 1864

    iii)Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 proposed governor for each state, when majority of ppl took allegiance oath constitutional convention could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confed leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed

    e)The Death of Lincoln

    i)April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth

    ii)Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a mild plan would not come soon

    f)Johnson and “Restoration”

    i)Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress in recess during summer 1865

    ii)Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance oath, Confed officials + wealthy planters needed special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had provisional governors, constitutional convention had to revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amdt. State govts, then readmission

    iii)By end of 1865 all seceded states has new govts, waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to recognize Johnson govts b/c public sentiment more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confed Alexander Stephens as Sen)

    2)Radical Reconstruction

    a)The Black Codes

    i)1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves, prevent farm ownership or certain jobs

    ii)Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866 passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens, gave fed govt power to intervene to protect rights of citizens

    iii)Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden

    b)The Fourteenth Amendment

    i)14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former Confed members couldn’t hold state or fed office unless pardoned by Congress

    ii)Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified amendment, only TN did so

    iii)S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional elections, could now act over President’s objections

    c)The Congressional Plan

    i)Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867, established coherent plan

    ii)TN readmitted, but other state govts rejected. Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in rebellion) for const convention that must include black suffrage

    iii)After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state legislature had to ratify 14thAmdt. By 1868 10 former Confed states fulfilled these conditions (14th Amdt now part of Const) and readmitted to Union

    iv)Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act (forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military orders except thru commanding general of army or w/ Sen approval)

    v)Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared military tribunals where civil courts existed unconst, Radicals feared same ruling would apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2 years

    d)The Impeachment of President Johnson

    i)Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868 Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1 vote

    3)The South in Reconstruction

    a)The Reconstruction Governments

    i)In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to ¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These restrictions later lifted, but Repubs kept control w/ support of many southern whites called “scalawags” (most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman), felt Repub better for their economic interests

    ii)“Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals or veterans) who moved South after war to take advantage of new opportunity

    iii)Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who held conventions and created black churches that gave them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates to const conventions, held office- although white charges of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false

    iv)Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there were charges of corruption and extravagance. But corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic expansion of govt services that put new strains on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed services previous govts had not offered: public education, public works, and poor relief

    b)Education

    i)Education improvement benefited whites and blacks- large network of schools for former slaves created (over white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school system led to great percentage of white and black population attending school 

    ii)System divided into black and white system, integration efforts failed

    c)Landownership and Tenancy

    i)Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but Pres Johnson and govt returned most confiscated land to returning plantation owners

    ii)White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on help of failed Freedman’s Bank

    iii)Most ppl did not own land during Reconstruction, worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop

    d)The Crop-Lien System

    i)Postwar years saw economic progress for African Americans, great increase in income. Result of black profit share increasing, greater return on labor

    ii)Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty- black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then grew little more afterward

    iii)Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit institutions such as banks returned, new credit system centered on local country stores 

    iv)Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien (claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in debt cycle

    v)Effects included leading some blacks who had gained land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to decline in agric economy

    e)The African-American Family in Freedom

    i)Major black response during Reconstruction was effort to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and family

    ii)Women began performing more domestic work + child caring, less field labor

    iii)Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of slave activities: domestic servants, laundry

    4)The Grant Administration

    a)The Soldier President

    i)Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868 election. Had no political experience, apptd incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption

    ii)Opposing Repubs formed faction called Liberal Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection

    b)The Grant Scandals

    i)Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and Repubs. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier construction company helping build Union Pacific RR. Company heads steered contracts to company costing fed govt and Union Pacific millions, stock given to Congress members to stop investigation

    ii)Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that “Grantism” brought corruption to govt

    c)The Greenback Question

    i)Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of 1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors wanted govt to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks (paper currency) 

    ii)Grant and other Repubs wanted “sound” currency based on gold that would favor banks and other creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation

    iii)1875 Repubs passed Specie Resumption Act- pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supply grew little

    iv)National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept money issue alive

    d)Republican Diplomacy

    i)Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William Seward and Hamilton Fish

    ii)Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”), annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against GB of violating neutrality by building ships for Confed. Treaty of Washington allowed for arbitration of claims

    5)The Abandonment of Reconstruction

    a)The Southern States “Redeemed”

    i)By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked as majority to overthrow Repubs. In areas of black majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity

    ii)Klan led by former Confed Gen Nathan Forrest. Worked to advance interest of those who would gain from white supremacy- mainly planter class and Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic pressure used

    b)The Ku Klux Klan Acts

    i)Repubs tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)- prohibited states from discriminating against voters on race, fed govt given power to prosecute violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations

    ii)Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC

    c)Waning Northern Commitment

    i)Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amdt many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves. Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into Democratic Party

    ii)Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this light, favored little govt intervention to help. Depleted treasury led ppl to want to spend little on freedmen, poor state govts cut back on social services

    iii)In Congressional elections of 1874 Dems won majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA

    d)The Compromise of 1877

    i)In 1876 elections Repubs sought new candidate to distance from corruption and attract Liberals back- chose Rutherford B Hayes, Dems chose Sam Tilden

    ii)Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress created special electoral commission to judge disputed votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won election

    iii)Resolution result of compromises btwn Repubs w/ southern Dems- Hayes would withdraw last fed troops from S if Dems abandoned filibuster of bill

    iv)“Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to help Dems grow business and industrialize, withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state govts

    e)The Legacies of Reconstruction

    i)Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such bitterness that solution not attempted for another century. Failure b/c of ppl directing it, unwillingness to infringe on rights of states and individuals

    6)The New South

    a)The “Redeemers”

    i)By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern state govt “redeemed” (white Dems held power).  “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants, industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”, social conservatism, economic development

    ii)Dem govts lowered taxes, reduced services (incl. public education)

    iii)By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and Redeemer govt commitment to pay off prewar and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster movement)

    b)Industrialization and the “New South”

    i)Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop industrial economy, New South of industry, progress, thrift

    ii)Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’ 1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows

    iii)New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco-processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also grew

    iv)Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886 greater integration with rest of country when changed its gauge

    v)However, growth of South merely regained what it had done before war, average income in the South substantially lower than that of North

    vi)Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force. Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill towns restricted by company w/ labor unions suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of community

    c)Tenants and Sharecroppers

    i)S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop-lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of ppl in S became tenant farmers

    ii)“Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence laws” (prevented ppl from raising livestock) led to decline in living self-sufficiently

    iii)Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to follow in 1880s/1890s

    d)African Americans and the New South

    i)Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress + self improvement, entered middle class by becoming professionals, owning land or business

    ii)This small rising group of blacks believed education vital to future of race- supported black colleges

    iii)Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington (founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win respect of white population by adopting middle class standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement and economic gains to earn recognition

    e)The Birth of Jim Crow

    i)Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th & 15th Amdts (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented state discrimination but not private organizations of individuals)

    ii)Court validated separation of races- Plessy v Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were equal.Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)- laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable school for blacks existed

    iii)White policies shifted from subordination to segregation- black voting rights had been used by Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when poor white farmers saw this they sought to disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amdt thru “poll tax”/property requirement or “literacy”/understanding test

    iv)Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynchings, ect) to inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti-lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to pass national law enabling fed got to punish those responsible for lynchings

    v)White supremacy diluted class animosities btwn poor whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played secondary role to race, distracting ppl from social inequalities that affected blacks and whites

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Conquest of the Far West

     1)The Societies of the Far West

    a)The Western Tribes

    i)Some dislocated eastern tribes in “Indian Territory”, others western tribes such as Pueblos had permanent settlements/farms + interaction w/ Spanish & Mexicans- caste system over other Ind tribes (genizaros=Ind w/o tribes)

    ii)Plains Indians- some nomadic, some farmers. Many (including Sioux) hunted buffalo as main source of food + materials

    iii)Warriors unable to defeat white settlers b/c disunited, internal conflict, disease

    b)Hispanic New Mexico

    i)American capitalist integration led Spanish-speaking to erosion of communal society + economies, land aristocracy from Santa Fe + Span/Mex peasants

    ii)Territorial govt in 1850, in 1870s govt dominated by “territorial ring” where business ppl took advantage of impending statehood, used fed money for profit

    iii)Arrival of RRs in in SW during 1880s/1890s brought new ranching, farming, mining brought new Mexican migrants

    c)Hispanic California and Texas

    i)Most Spanish missions that employed Ind as near slaves until 1830s. White settlers expelled Hispanic californios from the land. Market for cattle allowed some rancheros to continue to own land, but most Mexs became working class

    ii)In Texas Mexs also unable to compete with enormous Anglo-American ranching kingdoms- most relegated to unskilled farm + industrial labor

    d)The Chinese Migration

    i)After 1848 gold rush, Chinese migration dramatically increased, settling mostly in CA. White sentiment soon turned negative b/c Chinese industrious and successful

    ii)Chinese excluded from gold mining by CA 1852 “foreign miner tax”, other laws 1850s discouraged immigration—Chinese began to work on transcontinental Central Pacific RR

    iii)After RR completion 1869 many Chinese moved to cities- formed “Chinatowns” w/ benevolent societies, “tongs”-secret criminal societies

    iv)Many Chinese occupied lower jobs- unskilled laborers. Many started laundries

    e)Anti-Chinese Sentiment

    i)“Anti-coolie” clubs in 1860s/1870s sought ban on employing Chinese, formed b/c some whites felt Chinese laborers accepted low wages + undercut unions

    ii)In CA, Democratic Party + Denis Kearney’s Workingmen’s Party attacked Chinese interest- based on economic tension, cultural + racial- “inassimilable”

    iii)1882 Congress responded to pressure, passed Chinese Exclusion Act- halted Chinese migration, barred naturalization- aimed to help “American” labor

    f)Migration from the East

    i)Extremely great postwar migration to empty and settled areas alike. Most white Anglo-Americans, others foreign-born Eur immigrants—attracted by metal deposits, lands for farming and ranching

    ii)Fed land policies encouraged settlement: Homestead Act of 1862 gave 160 acres of land for small fee, in return would improve land, create new markets mechanization + rising farm costs forced some small farmers off this land

    iii)In response Congress passed Timber Culture Act (1863), Desert Land Act (1877), Timber and Stone Act (1878) to allow ppl to buy/develop more cheap land

    g)1860s saw development of territorial govt, statehood soon followed for most

    2)The Changing Western Economy

    a)Labor in the West

    i)Labor shortage led to higher wages than in East, but job instability (after harvest or RR completion, ect) led to communities of jobless in cities. Workers mostly mobile, single men

    ii)Working class highly multiracial, but whites generally occupied higher job levels (management + skilled labor) than nonwhites in unskilled labor. Dual labor system reinforced by racial assumptions that held nonwhites more suited for worse conditions + harder labor- allowed whites greater social mobility

    b)The Arrival of the Miners

    i)First Western economic boom came from mining strikes in 1860s-1890s. During Pike’s Peak strike 1858 mining camps blossomed into “cities”, later Comstock Lode silver found in Nevada, 1874 Black Hill strike in Dakota Terr.

    ii)After surface wealth used up, eastern capitalists often bought claims of pioneer prospectors, began retrieving from deeper veins w/ corporate mines

    iii)In boom towns vigilantism used to combat outlaws. Men outnumbered women, prostitution very common. After boom most remained in town as wage laborer in corporate mine

    c)The Cattle Kingdom

    i)Economy also affected by the open range- provided cattle raisers w/ free lands to graze, RRs gave access to markets. Largest herds found in Texas

    ii)After success of the long drive proven, easier routes to access rest of country sought- market facility grew up at Abilene, KS as railhead of cattle kingdom. Agricultural development in 1870s in W. Kansas led other routes to grow

    iii)As settlement of plans increased new forms of competition emerged- sheep breeders used range to feed flock, farmers from the East fenced in their lands—“range wars” developed btwn ranchers and farmers

    iv)Large profits in cattle business led cattle economy to become more corporate. This expansion onto already shrunken ranges from RRs and farmers became overstocked, and combined with bad winters from 1885-1887, thousands of cattle died—open-range industry never recovered, but ranches survived + grew

    v)Although cattle industry mostly male, large number of women led them to have impt political presence- women won vote earlier in West than rest of nation (some states to swell population for statehood, bring “morals” to politics)

    3)The Romance of the West

    a)The Western Landscape

    i)Painters of the “Rocky Mountain School
    “ celebrated the West in grandiose paintings that attracted great crowds- emphasized ruggedness and variety of region, awe toward land that had been previously expressed by Hudson River valley painters

    b)The Cowboy Culture

    i)Cowboy life romanticized in contrast to stable, orderly world of the East. Owen Wister’sThe Virginian (1902) showed freedom from social contraints, only one example of magazine articles, novels, ect. about Western life

    c)The Idea of the Frontier

    i)Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Mark Twain wrote about (mostly early) frontier life is Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

    ii)Painter/sculptor Frederic Turner captured romance of West in his works comparing it to the East

    iii)Theodore Roosevelt wrote history of West- The Winning of the West (1890s)

    d)Frederick Jackson Turner

    i)The historian Turner contended that by 1890s no single frontier line existed and the end of an era had come. Expansion has stimulated individualism, nationalism, democracy, American uniqueness. Mirrored sentiments of US

    ii)Turner inaccurate and premature- ppl had always lived in “empty, uncivilized” lands and had been displaced, also in coming years much land still available

    e)The Loss of Utopia

    i)With nation feeling that there had been a “passing of the frontier”, ppl felt opportunities closing and with it ability to control own destiny

    ii)“Myth of the garden” (West as Garden of Eden) lost

    4)The Dispersal of the Tribes

    a)White Tribal Policies

    i)Traditional policy was to regard tribes as nations and wards of the president, therefore negotiate treaties w/ them ratified by Senate. As white settlers demanded more lands during 1850s led ppl to abandon idea of one large Indian Territory to policy of “concentration”- each tribe given negotiated reservation

    ii)In 1867 after bloody conflicts Congress created Indian peace Commission to make permanent Indian policy- move all Plains Indians into Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Dakotas. Failed b/c of poor administration by Bureau of Indian Affairs & killing of buffalo herds by whites + reduced Indian ability to resist white advance -led to violence

    b)The Indian Wars

    i)1850s-1880s showed nearly constant fighting as Indians struggled against threats to their civilizations- during Civil War conflict w/ Indians in Old Northwest and the Southwest

    ii)Not only military that threatened tribes; white vigilantes participated in “Indian hunting” killed tribes for sport or bounties, wanted retaliation after raids

    iii)Treaties made in 1867 saw temporary lull, but influx of settlers in 1870s penetrated Dakota Territory + change in govt policy to not recognize tribes as independent nations led to violence in 1875

    iv)Sioux rose up under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the Black Hills- at Battle of Little Bighorn 1876 Indians killed Colonel George Custer and regiment, Indians became disunited after and forced to return to reservation

    v)Nez Perce Indians under Chief Joseph 1877 attempted to flee Idaho for Canada but caught by soldiers, forced to travel for years afterward to difft areas

    vi)Last organized resistance came from Apaches under Chiefs Mangas Colorados, Cochise, and finally Geronimo- unwilling to bow to white pressures Geronimo conducted raids on white outposts (“Apache Wars”), surrendered 1886

    vii)Atrocities against Indians had prompted much fighting- in 1890 Sioux religious revival under the prophet Wovoka led to “Ghost Dance” that celebrated vision of whites leaving + buffalo return- in Dec troops tried to round up some Indians at Wounded Knee, SD which turned into an Indian massacre

    c)The Dawes Act

    i)Efforts taken to destroy reservation + communal land ownership in order to force Indians to become farmers, landowners - abandon culture for white civili.

    ii)Dawes Act of 1887 eliminated tribal ownership and gave land to individual owners. Bureau of Indian Affairs promoted assimilation, sometimes by removing children and sending them to white boarding schools, build churches

    iii)Indians unprepared for capitalist individualism + corrupt administration led to abandonment of program, later Burke Act of 1906 also failed to divide lands

    5)The Rise and Decline of the Western Farmer

    a)Farming on the Plains

    i)Before Civil War lands accessible only by wagon, transcontinental RR completed 1869 and subsidiary lines built afterward w/ land grants and loans

    ii)Easier access to Great Plains spurred agriculture- RRs offered cheap land and credit, rainfall allowed farming

    iii) Farmers faced problems: enclosing land expensive, but 1873 Joseph Glidden and IL Ellwood invited barbwire; arid land needed irrigation, especially after 1887 when series of dry spells followed- during 1880s booms credit easy, but arid weather of late 1880smany farmers unable to pay debt and forced to abandon farms

    b)Commercial Agriculture

    i)Commercial farmers specialized in cash crops sold on national/international markets. Relied on town stores for supplies and food, dependent on bankers’ interest rates, railroad freight rates, and US/Eur markets

    ii)During late 19th century agriculture became an international business- US commercial farmers relied on risky world market to absorb surpluses

    iii)Overproduction in 1880s led to price drops, economic crisis for small farmers

    c)The Farmers’ Grievances

    i)Farmers resented railroads and their higher freight rates for farm goods, credit institutions for their high interest rates and payments that had to be made in years when currency scarce, and prices that they had to pay for goods and the money they received- believed manufactures keeping farm good prices low

    d)The Agrarian Malaise

    i)Farmers isolated, lacked education for children, proper medical facilities, and community- this sense of obsolescence lead to growing malaise among farmers that created great political movement in 1890sSturdy yeoman farmers had viewed themselves as the backbone of American life, now they were becoming aware that their position was declining in relation to the rising urban-industrial society in the East

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Industrial Supremacy

    1)Sources of Industrial Growth

    a)Industrial Technologies

    i)Most impt tech development was new iron + steel production techniques- Henry Bessemer and William Kelly invented process to turn iron to steel, possible to produce large quantities and dimensions for construction, RRs

    ii)Steel industry emerged in Pennsylvania and Ohio (Pittsburgh notably)- iron industry existed, fuel could be found in PA coal

    iii)New transportation systems emerged to serve steel industry- freighters for the Great Lakes, RRs used steel to grow + transported it (sometimes merged w/ one another). Oil industry also grew b/c of need to lubricate mill machinery

    b)The Airplane and the Automobile

    i)Development of automobile dependent upon growth of two technologies: creation of gasoline from crude oil extraction, and 1870s Eur development of “internal combustion engine”. By 1910 car industry major role in economy

    ii)First gas-car built by Duryea brothers 1903, Henry For began production 1906

    iii)Search for flight by Wright Bros lead to famous 1903 flight. US govt created National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 1915 to match Eur research

    c)Research and Development

    i)New industrial technologies lead companies to sponsor own research- General Electric established first corp lab 1900, marked decentralization of govt-sponsored research. At same time cnxn began btwn university research + needs of industrial economy- partnership btwn academic + commercial

    d)The Science of Production

    i)Principles of “scientific management” began to be employed- fathered by Frederick Taylor who argued employers subdivide tasks to decrease need for highly skilled workers, increase efficiency by doing simple tasks w/ machines

    ii)Emphasis on industrial research led to corporate labs (e.g. Edison’s Menlo Park)

    iii)Most impt change in production was mass production + assembly line. First used by Henry Ford in automobile plant 1914- cut production time, prices

    e)Railroad Expansion

    i)Industrial development b/c of RR expansion- gave industrialists access to new markets + raw materials, spent large sums on construction and equipment

    ii)Possible b/c of govt subsidies, investment capital from abroad, and combinations of RRs by Cornelius Vanderbilt, James Hill, Collis Huntington

    f)The Corporation

    i)Modern corp emerged after Civil War when industrialists realized no person or group of limited partners able to finance great ventures

    ii)Businesses began to sell stock, appealing b/c “limited liability” meant lost only amt of investment + not liable for debts- allowed vast capital to be raised

    iii)Began in RR industry, spread to others- in steel industry Andrew Carnegie struck deals with RRs, bought up rivals, purchased coal mines w/ partner Henry Clay Frick controlled steel process from mine to market

    iv)Financed undertaking by selling stock. Bought out 1901 by JP Morgan who formed United States Steel- controlled 2/3 of nation’s steel production

    v)Corporate organizations developed new management techniques- division of responsibilities, control hierarchy, cost-accounting procedures, and “middle manager” btwn owners and labor introduced. Consolidation now a possibility

    g)Consolidating Corporate America

    i)Consolidation occurred thru “horizontal integration” (forming competing firms into single corporation) and “vertical integration” (control production from raw materials to distribution). Also thru pool arrangements (most failed)

    ii)Most famous corp empire John D Rockefeller’s Standard Oil- thru horizontal & vertical integration came to control 90% of refined oil in US

    iii)Consolidation used to cope w/ “cutthroat competition”- feared too much competition lead to instability, best was to eliminate/absorb competition

    h)The Trust and the Holding Company

    i)Failure of pools (informal agreements to stabilize rates, divide markets) led to less cooperation and more centralized control- “trust” emerged (stock transferred to group of trustees who made all decisions but shared profits)

    ii)Beginning w/ NJ 1889 states changed laws to allow companies to buy other companies, trust unnecessary—“holding companies” emerged as corporate body to buy up stock and establish formal ownership of corporations in trust

    iii)End of 19th cent 1% of corps controlled 33% of manufacturing, system where power in hands of a few men- NY bankers (JP Morgan), industrialists (Rockefeller), ect. 

    iv)Substantial economic growth ultimately from this arrangement- costs cut, industrial infrastructure formed, new markets stimulated, new unskilled jobs

    2)Capitalism and Its Critics

    a)The “Self-Made Man”

    i)Defenders argued capitalist economy expanding opportunities for individual advancement, and some tycoons were self-made men. But most came to be wealthy as a result of ruthlessness, arrogance, corruption (financial contributions to political, parties)

    ii)Many industrialists were modest entrepreneurs trying to carve role for their business in an unstable economy & fragmented, highly competitive industries

    b)Survival of the Fittest

    i)Assumptions that wealth earned thru hard work and thrift and that those who failed earned their failure became basis of Social Darwinism- only fittest individuals survived and flourished in the marketplace

    ii)English philosopher Herbert Spencer championed theory, in America William Graham Sumner promoted similar ideas- absolute freedom to struggle, compete, succeed, and fail

    iii)Appealed to businessmen b/c justified their tactics- efforts to raise wages by labor thru unions or govt regulation would fail, laws of supply and demand and “invisible hand” or market forces would determine wages and prices

    iv)Yet tycoons themselves thru monopolies tried to eliminate competition

    c)The Gospel of Wealth

    i)Gospel of Wealth (1901) by Andrew Carnegie advocated idea that w/ great wealth came great responsibility to use riches to advance social progress

    ii)Author Horatio Alger promoted stories of individual success in his works- anybody could become rich thru work, perseverance, and luck

    d)Alternative Visions

    i)Groups emerged challenging corporate and capitalistic ethos

    ii)Sociologist Lester Ward in Dynamic Sociology (1883) argued natural selection didn’t shape society, and active govt in positive planning best for society. Skeptical of laissez-fire, ppl should intervene to serve their needs

    iii)Famous dissidents emerged to challenge ideas: Socialist Labor Party founded 1870s by Daniel De Leon; Henry George and his Progress and Poverty (1879) argued poverty due to wealth of monopolists and their high land values; Edward Bellamy and his Looking Backward (1888) spoke of “fraternal cooperation” and of future society where govt distributed wealth equally

    e)The Problems of Monopoly

    i)Few questioned capitalism itself but movement grew in opposition to monopolies + economic concentrations- seen as creating artificially high prices, unstable economy. Recessions and havoc 1873 every 5-6 yrs

    ii)Resentment increased b/c of new class of conspicuously wealthy ppl who lived opulent lifestyle- flagrant wealth in face of 4/5 who lived modestly

    iii)Standard of living rising for everyone, but gap btwn rich + poor growing

    3)Industrial Workers in the New Economy

    a)The Immigrant Work Force

    i)Industrial work force grew late 19th century b/c of migration to industrial cities from both rural areas and foreign immigration- late century most migrants from England, Ireland, N Eur, by end shit toward S and E Europeans

    ii)Immigrants came to escape poverty, lured by opportunity and advertisements by companies. Ethnic tensions increased b/c of job displacement, competition

    b)Wages and Working Conditions

    i)Average standard of living rose but wages low, little job security b/c boom-bust cycle, monotonous tasks that required little skill, long hours in unsafe conditions- loss of control over work conditions seen as worst part of factory labor as corporate efficiency and managers centralized workplace

    c)Women and Children at Work

    i)Decreasing need for skilled labor led to increase use of women and children who could be paid lower than men

    ii)Most women were young immigrants, concentrated in textile industry and domestic service. Some single, others supplemented husband’s earnings

    iii)Children employed in agriculture and factories w/ little regulation, dangerous

    d)The Struggle to Unionize

    i)Labor attempted to fight conditions by creating large combinations (unions) but had little success by century’s end. Fist attempt to federate separate unions came 1866 w/ National labor Union (disintegrated after Panic of 1873)

    ii)Unions faced difficulty during 1870s recessions b/c of high unemployment, hostility of middle class

    e)The Great Railroad Strike

    i)Railroad Strike of 1877 began after 10% wage cut announced. Strikers disrupted rail service, state militia mobilized and in July President Hayes ordered some federal troops. Strike collapsed eventually after many deaths

    ii)Showed disputes could no longer be localized in national economy, depth of resentment toward employers, frailty of labor movement

    f)The Knights of Labor

    i)First effort at national labor organization 1869 Noble Order of the Knights of Labor under Uriah Stephens- lacked strong central direction but local “assemblies” championed 8-hour workday, end to child labor, but also interested in long-range reform of economy. Allowed women to join

    ii)During 1870s under Terence Powderly rapid expansion, but by 1890 Knights had collapsed due to failure of strikes in the Gould railway system

    g)The AFL

    i)1880s American Federation of Labor created, became most impt +enduring national labor group- collection of autonomous craft unions of skilled workers

    ii)Led by Samuel Gompers- goal to secure greater share of capitalism’s material rewards to workers, opposed fundamental economic reform

    iii)Wanted creation of national 8-hour work day, national strike May 1, 1886 to achieve goal- in Chicago violence broke out btwn strikers and police after deaths in Haymarket Square bombing- “anarchism” became widely feared by middle class, associated it with radical labor

    h)The Homestead Strike

    i)The Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (craft union in AFL) held large amt of power in steel industry b/c of reliance on skilled workers

    ii)By 1880s Efficient Carnegie process led management to want more control over labor + needed fewer skilled workers

    iii)Carnegie and Henry Frick began to cut wages at Homestead plant in Pittsburgh to break union. 1892 strike called after company stopped consulting the Amalgamated, Pinkerton Detective Agency security guards brought in as strikebreakers- were attacked, National Guard of PA called in

    iv)Eventually protected strikebreakers ended strike, by 1900 Amalgamated had lost nearly every major steel plant

    i)The Pullman Strike

    i)Strike at Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 after Pullman cut wages. Workers began to strike w/ the American Railway Union of Eugene V. Debs

    ii)Within few days thousands of railway workers struck and transportation nationwide frozen. General Manager’s Association asked Pres Grover Cleveland to send in federal troops b/c passage of mail being blocked

    iii)Pres complied and sent 2,000 troops to protect strikebreakers. Strike collapsed

    j)Sources of Labor Weakness

    i)Late 19th century labor suffered many losses- wages rose slowly, whatever progress made not enforced 

    ii)Reasons for failures included: leading labor organizations represented only small percentage of industrial work force; ethnic tensions; many immigrant workers planned to stay in country for short while and moved very often- eroded willingness to organize, believed not part of permanent working class; couldn’t match efforts of powerful + wealthy corporations


     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Age of the City

     1)The Urbanization of America

    a)The Life of the City

    i)Urban pop increased 7x in 50 yrs after Civil War, by 1920 majority of ppl lived in urban areas. Occurred partly b/c of natural growth, mostly b/c immigrants and rural ppl flocked b/c offered better paying jobs than rural areas, cultural experiences available, transportation to cities easier than ever

    b)Migrations

    i)Late 19th century saw geographic mobility- Americans left declining Eastern agricultural regions for new farmlands in West and for cities of East

    ii)Women moved from farms where mechanization decreased their value; Southern blacks moved to cities to escape rural poverty, oppression, violence

    iii)Largest source of urban growth immigrants: until 1880s mainly educated N Europeans who were sometimes skilled laborers, businessmen or moved West to start farms. After 1880s largely S and E Europeans, lacked capital (like poor Irish immigrants before Civil War) so took mainly unskilled jobs

    c)The Ethnic City

    i)Not only was amt of immigrants tremendous, but so was diversity of immigrant population (no single national group dominated)

    ii)Most immigrants were rural ppl so formed close-knit ethnic communities to ease transition-offered native newspapers, food, links to national past

    iii)Assimilation of ethnic groups into capitalist economy depended on values of community, but also prejudices among employers, individual skills and capital

    d)Assimilation

    i)Most immigrants had desire to become true “Americans” and break with old national ways. Particular strain w/ women who in America shared more freedoms- adjust to more fluid life of American city

    ii)Assimilation encouraged by Natives thru public schools and employer requirement to learn English, religious leaders

    e)Exclusion

    i)Immigrant arrival provoked many fears + resentments of some native-born ppl. Reacted out of prejudice, foreign willingness to accept lower wages

    ii)Political response to these resentments- American Protective Association founded by Henry Bowers 1887, Immigration Restriction League sought to screen/reduce immigrants.  1882 Congress passed Chinese Exclusion Act, also denied entry to all “undesirables” and placed small tax on immigrants

    iii)New laws kept only small amt out. Literacy requirement vetoed by president Grover Cleveland—anti-immigrant measures failed mainly b/c many natives welcomed it, provided growing economy w/ cheap and plentiful labor 

    2)The Urban Landscape

    a)The Creation of Public Space

    i)By mid-19th century reformers and planners began to call for ordered vision of city, resulted in creation of public spaces and public services

    ii)Urban parks solution to congestion, allowed escape from strain of urban life. 1850s Central Park famously planned by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

    iii)Great public buildings (libraries, museums, theaters), spurred by wealthy residents who wanted amenities to match material and social aspirations

    iv)Urban leaders undertook massive city rebuilding projects- “City Beautiful Movement” inspired by architect Daniel Burnham- provide order and symmetry to disorderly life of city (faced opposition from private landowners)

    b)Housing the Well-to-Do

    i)Availability of cheap labor + materials lowered cost of building in late 19th century. Most wealthy lived in mansions, but later moderately well-to-do and wealthy both began to build and commute from suburban communities nearby

    c)Housing Workers and the Poor

    i)Most residentsforced to stay in city and rent- demand high and space scarce led to little bargaining power. Landlords tried to get most ppl in smallest space

    ii)“Tenements” came to refer to overcrowded slum dwellings. Poverty and rough tenement life showcased by reporter Jacob Riis in his 1890 How the Other Half Lives. Some immigrants also boarded in small family homes

    d)Urban Transportation

    i)Old, narrow dirty streets insufficient to deal w/ urban growth and need for ppl to move everyday to difft parts of city- new forms of mass transit needed

    ii)Cities experimented w/ elevated railways, cable cars, by 1895 electric trolley lines, and in 1897 Boston opened first subway in nation

    iii)New road, bridge tech also developed (e.g. John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge)

    e)The “Skyscraper”

    i)Inadequate structural materials and stairs prevented tall buildings until 1870s iron and steal beam development. After Civil War buildings grew successively taller, 1890s term “skyscraper” introduced

    ii)Steel girder construction allowed city’s w/ limited space to expand upward if not outward. Architect Louis Sullivan famous skyscraper designer

    3)Strains of Urban Life

    a)Fire and Disease

    i)Fires destroyed large parts of downtown areas w/ buildings made mainly of wood. “Great fires” led to fireproof buildings, professional fire departments

    ii)Diseases from poor neighborhoods w/ inadequate sanitation and sewage disposal threatened epidemics that could spread thru whole city

    b)Environmental Degradation

    i)Industrialization and rapid urbanization led to improper disposal of human and industrial waste that threatened waterways and drinking water, air quality suffered from burning of stoves and furnaces

    ii)By early 20th century reformers: seeking new sewage and drainage systems; Physician Alive Hamilton looked to identify and correct pollution in workplace; 1912 fed govt created Public Health Service created factory health standards to prevent occupational diseases (weak b/c no enforcement power)

    c)Urban Poverty

    i)Expansion of city created poverty, sheer number of ppl meant many unable to earn decent subsistence. Public agencies and private philanthropic groups offered limited relief, and if they did mostly only to the poorest

    ii)Some groups focused on religious revivalism as relief; others alarmed at great number of poor children in streets (some lives on their own)– “street arabs”

    d)Crime and Violence

    i)Poverty and crowding created violence, crime. Murder rate rose nationwide, and rising crime rates prompted cities to create larger, more professional police forces. Armories also developed b/c of fear of urban insurrections

    e)Fear of the City

    i)City offered allure and excitement, but also alienation and feelings of anonymity (e.g. Theodore Dreiser’s 1900 Sister Carrie about displaced single women)

    f)The Machine and the Boss

    i)Newly arrived immigrants sought assistance from political machines- created by power vacuum of cities, voting power of large immigrant communities

    ii)Urban “bosses” sought votes for his organization by winning loyalty of constituents thru relief, jobs for unemployed, patronage

    iii)Machines enriched politicians b/c of graft and corruption from contractors or investment from inside knowledge- most notorious was William Tweed of NY’s Tammany Hall during 1860s/1870s

    iv)In spite of middle class reformers citing machines as obstacles to progress, boss rule possible b/c immigrant voters wanted services first and foremost & weakness of city govts

    4)The Rise of Mass Consumption

    a)Patterns of Income and Consumption

    i)Growing markets and demand turn of century b/c of production and mass distribution made goods less expensive, also b/c of rising incomes of “white collar” professionals and working-class ppl despite union failures

    ii)Mass market also grew b/c affordable prices and new merchandising techniques allowed goods to reach more consumers (e.g. ready-made clothing after Civil War and rise of fashion)

    iii)Food transformed by tin cans, refrigerated RR cars for perishables, home iceboxes. Allowed for better diet and higher life expectancy

    b)Chain Stores and Mail-Order Houses

    i)Way in which Americans bought goods altered- local stores faced competition from “chain stores” whose national network could sell manufactured goods at lower prices. Customers couldn’t resist great variety + lower prices of chains

    ii)Chain stores slow to rural areas but gained access thru mail-order houses-notably 1880s Montgomery Wary and Sears Roebuck mail order catalogues

    c)Department Stores

    i)Dept stores transformed shopping by bringing together many products under one roof (clothing, furniture) previously in separate shops; gave allure and excitement to shopping; economies of scale enabled lower prices than comp

    d)Women as Consumers

    i)Mass consumption affected women greatest b/c primary consumers in family. Spawned consumer protection movement w/ National Consumers League 1890s under Florence Kelley to force retainers for better wages, conditions

    5)Leisure in the Consumer Society

    a)Redefining Leisure

    i)Leisure had been previously scorned, but redefinition in late 19th century b/c economic expansion and greater worker time away from work leisure began to be a normal part of everyday life (economist Simon Pattern wrote of this in his 1902 The Theory of Prosperity and 1910 The New Basis of Civilization)

    ii)New forms of leisure had public character- time spent mostly in public spaces, part of appeal of leisure was time spent w/ large crowds

    b)Spectator Sports

    i)Search for public forms of leisure led to rise of organized spectator sports

    ii)Saw rise of baseball as “national pastime”, leagues formed in 1870s. Football became standardized 1870s and began to grew. Boxing grew in the 1880s after adoption of Marquis of Queensberry rules

    iii)Spectator sports had close association with gambling w/ elaborate betting syndicates. Prompted sports to “clean up” and regulate games

    c)Music and Theater

    i)Large market of cities allowed theaters to be maintained in ethnic communities, musical comedies developed, and vaudeville widely popular

    d)The Movies

    i)Thomas Edison and others laid tech for motion picture 1880s, soon projectors allowed showings on big screens in theaters w/ large audiences. By 1900 very popular, especially after DW Griffith introduced his silent epics

    e)Working-Class Leisure

    i)Workers spent great amt of leisure time on streets b/c had much time but little money. Also popular were neighborhood saloons (often ethnic), served as political centers b/c saloonkeepers often involved in political machines (largely b/c they had regular contact w/ many men in a neighborhood)

    ii)Boxing also emerged as a poplar sport- bare knuckle fights by ethnic clubs

    f)The Fourth of July

    i)B/c most ppl worked six-day workweek w/o vacations, 4th of July became a full day of leisure and an impt highlight in the year of ethnic, working-class communities. Massive neighborhood celebrations often w/ drinking

    g)Private Pursuits

    i)Reading remained popular as leisure activity, w/ Louisa Alcott’s Little Women (1869) capturing a large women audience

    ii)Public music performances popular, but also learning instrument w/in home

    h)Mass Communications

    i)Large urban market for transmitting news and information in urban industrial society- rise in publishing in journalism after Civil War w/ increase in newspaper circulation, rise of national press services using telegraph to supply news to papers across country

    ii)Rise of newspaper chains, especially competition btwn William Randolph Hearst + Joseph Pulitzer (rise of sensational “yellow journalism to sell papers)

    6)High Culture in the Age of the City

    a)The Literature of Urban America

    i)Some writers responded to new industrial civilization by evoking more natural world, others sought to use literature to recreate urban social reality

    ii)Realism led by Stephen Crane (famous for The Red Badge of Courage in 1895) who showed urban poverty and slum life. Theodore Dreiser highlighted social dislocations and injustices. There authors followed by Frank Norris’ The Octopus (1901) and Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle (1906) which showed depravity of capitalism by exposing abuses in meatpacking industry

    b)Art in the Age of the City

    i)By 1900 many American artists breaking from Old World traditions of Eur and experiment w/ new styles. Some turning away from traditional, academic style toward exploring grim aspects of modern life

    ii)Ashcan School produced stark portrayal of social realities, showcased expressionism and abstraction at famous 1913 art “Armory Show”

    iii)Beginning of modernism- rejected past and embraced new subjects, glorified the ordinary, coarse over genteel tradition +“dignified” aspects of civilization, embraced the future over “standards” of past- individual creativity

    c)The Impact of Darwinism

    i)Darwin argued evolution from earlier species thru “natural selection”, challenged traditional American religious faith. By end of century most urban professionals and members of educated classes converted; taught in schools

    ii)Darwinism led to schism btwn culture of city receptive to new ideas and the traditional, provincial culture of rural areas tied to religion and older values

    iii)Other intellectual movements included Social Darwinism of William Sumner, “pragmatism” of William James that valued scientific inquiry + experience

    iv)Relativism spawned by Darwinism led to growth of anthropology and study of other cultures (notably Native American culture)

    d)Toward Universal Schooling

    i)Dependence on specialized skills and scientific knowledge led to demand for education. Spread of free public primary and secondary education, compulsory attendance laws in many states. Rural education still lagged

    ii)Some reformers including Richard Pratt targeted native tribes to “civilize” them- urged practical “industrial” education. Failed b/c resistance, funding

    iii)Colleges grew late 19th century, benefited from Morrill Land Grant Act of Civil War era that donated large amt of land for colleges; also from contributions made by business and financial tycoons

    e)Education for Women

    i)Expansion of educational opportunities for women (although lagged behind that of men). Public high schools accepted women, and network of women’s colleges emerged that served to create distinctive women’s community

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - From Stalemate to Crisis

     1)The Politics of Equilibrium

    a)The Party System

    i)Party system of late 19th century very stable w/ little fluctuation in state loyalties. Repubs held most presidencies and Senate, Dems lead House

    ii)Public intensely loyal to parties, voter turnout was tremendous- loyalty result of region (Dems in S, Repubs in N), religion and ethnicity (Dems attracted Catholics, new immigrants, poor; Repubs middle class, N Protestants)

    iii)Party identification more cultural than of economic interest

    b)The National Government

    i)Federal govt held little power/responsibility- aside from supporting economic development (land grant subsidies, strike intervention), delivering pensions to Civil War veterans. Party leaders cared more about holding office than policy

    c)Presidents and Patronage

    i)President had little power save to make govt appointments (patronage used)

    ii)Pres Rutherford B. Hayes had to deal w/ factional Repub party split btwn Stalwarts (favored machine politics) and the Half-Breeds (favored reform). Patronage system overshadowed presidency, civil service system effort failed

    iii)Repubs won presidency in 1880 election, Pres James Garfield (Half-Breed) and VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart). Garfield attempted to defy Stalwarts, create civil service reform- assassinated 1881

    iv)New Pres Chester attempted supported civil service reform over Stalwarts- 1883 Congress passed Pendleton Act requiring exams for some govt jobs

    d)Cleveland, Harrison, and the Tariff

    i)In 1884 election Repub nominee Sen James Blaine symbol of party politics, “liberal” Repubs flocked to Dem reform candidate Grover Cleveland

    ii)Cleveland opposed to graft and special interest, wished to see limited govt- asked Congress to reduce protective tariff rate 1887 to reduce govt surpluses and size. Dems passed bill, Republicans opposed it—>issue in 1888 elections

    iii)Dems renominated Cleveland; Repubs named Benjamin Harrison, won Pres

    e)New Public Issues

    i)Pres Harrison made little effort to influence Congress, but public opinion forced govt to begin to confront social and economic issues- especially trusts

    ii)By mid 1880s some states limiting combinations preventing competition, but reformers wanted nat’l movement- 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act passed, but little enforced, weakened by courts, and had little impact

    iii)Repubs main issue was dealing w/ tariff- passed McKinley Tariff 1890 (highest protective tariff ever).  Public opposed bill, by 1892 Pres election Repubs lost both House + Senate, Dem nominee Cleveland won Pres election

    iv)Cleveland’s 2nd term like 1st (devoted to minimal govt). Supported tariff reduction (Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed). Movement 1880s in may states to regulate RRs- after 1886 Supreme Court case Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railroad vs Illinois ruled only fed govt able to regulate interstate commerce

    v)To appease public Congress passed 1887 Interstate Commerce Act- banned rate discrimination + injustice, Interstate Commerce Commission formed

    2)The Agrarian Revolt

    a)The Grangers

    i)First major effort to organize farmers was Grange movement of 1860s (at firs goal to teach new scientific techniques), not until 1873 recession + fall of farm prices did it become highly political and large

    ii)Grange urged cooperative political action to fight monopolistic RR and warehouse practices, setup up co-op stores, insurance companies, and Montgomery Ward mail-order business (sought to challenge middle-men)

    iii)Elected Grange politicians 1870s to state legislatures to focus on RR reform; regulations destroyed by courts, temporary boom late-1870s destroyed Grange

    b)The Farmers’ Alliance

    i)Farmers’ Alliances formed in South, Northwest- like Grange focused on local problems (co-op banks, processing plants) but also larger goal to create society of cooperation. Like Grange cooperatives not very successful, harnessed frustrations into creating national political organization 1880s

    ii)1889 Southern and Northwestern Alliances merged, issued Ocala Demands (party platform), won seats in 1890 elections. Sentiments forming toward national third party, 1892 created People’s Party (Populists)

    iii)In 1892 elections Populists did surprising well, won seats in states + Congress

    c)The Populist Constituency

    i)Populism appealed mainly to small farmers, those whose farming becoming less viable in face of mechanized, consolidated commercial agriculture

    ii)Populists failed to attract much labor support, but attracted miners in Rocky Mountain states w/ “free silver” policy that allowed for silver to be currency, expand money supply. African Americans allowed limited involvement in S

    d)Populist Ideas

    i)Ocala platform 1892 outlined Populist reform programs- “subtreasuries” to strengthen cooperatives; govt warehouse system; abolish national banks; direct election of US Senators, other ways for ppl to influence political system; regulation and ownership of RRs, telephones; graduated income tax; currency inflation; silver remonetization. Populism associated w/ anti-Semitism

    ii)Rejection of laissez-faire, uphold absolutism of ownership

    3)The Crisis of the 1890s

    a)The Panic of 1893

    i)Panic of 1893 led to severe depression- caused by bankruptcy of few corporations that led to bank failure, led to credit contraction. Also caused by depressed farm prices of late 1880s, Eur depression, RR expansion beyond market demand- showed how dependent economy was on powerful RRs

    ii)Businesses, banks, RRs failed. Unemployment soared, led to social unrest- 1894 Populist Jacob Coxey called for massive public works program for unemployed + currency inflation, protested in D.C. w/ “Coxey’s Army”

    b)The Silver Question

    i)Financial panic weakened monetary system, Pres Cleveland believed currency instability cause of depression. Many ppl believed specie (precious metal) must back money to give it value

    ii)“Bimetal” standard discontinued 1873 by Congress b/c market value of silver high than 16:1 standard. Late 1870s silver became less valuable than standard but ppl unable to convert silver b/c of “Crime of ‘73”; opposition by silver-miners + farmers who wanted greater $ circulation (inflation) to ease debts

    iii)At same time decreasing govt gold reserves led Pres Cleveland 1893 to seek repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890- divided Dem party

    iv)Presidential of 1986 incredibly fierce b/c supporters of gold standard saw it as essential to national stability, supporters of “free silver” (guided by William Harvey’s 1894 Coin’s Financial School) saw gold standard as tyrannous and advantageous to wealthy, silver would decrease debt

    4)“A Cross of Gold”

    a)The Emergence of Bryan

    i)Repubs in 1896 election confident of victory b/c of Cleveland+ Dems failure to deal w/ depression nominated William McKinley w/ platform opposed to free coinage of silver 

    ii)Dems of West sought to weaken People’s Party by adopting Populist demands, debated platform of free silver, tariff reduction, income tax, RR and trust regulation- opposed by eastern Dems

    iii)William Jennings Bryan delivered “Cross of Gold” speech opposed to gold standard at convention, next day voted nominee

    iv)Populists split as to whether or not to fuse w/ Dem party b/c felt some of their unique needs addressed; concluded no other alternative, supported Bryan

    b)The Conservative Party

    i)Business + finance communities donated heavily to Repubs, Bryan’s national stump and camp-meeting style alienated Cath + ethnic voters who feared he embodied Protestants who so firmly opposed them

    ii)McKinley carried election b/c Dem platform had proved to be too narrow (sectional) to win nationally. B/c of “fusion” gamble w/ Democrats the People’s Party began to dissolve in wake of defeat

    c)McKinley and Recovery

    i)McKinley administration saw return to calm b/c labor unrest and agrarian protest had subsided by 1897, economic crisis gradually easing

    ii)McKinley focused on implementing high tariff rate, Congress soon passed Dingley Tariff. Repubs passed Currency (Gold Standard) Act of 1900 that confirmed nation’s gold standard, pegged dollar to specific gold value

    iii)Foreign crop failures resulted in economic uptick, nation entered period of expansion once again—clear trend btwn prosperity + gold standard support

    iv)Free-silver movement had failed- during late 19th century money supply had expanded much more slowly than increase in production and population, but by late 1890s increase in gold supply inflated money, satisfied free-silver ppl

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - The Imperial Republic

    1)Stirrings of Imperialism

    a)The New Manifest Destiny

    i)American attention shifted to foreign lands b/c “closing of the frontier” 1890s led some to fear natural resources would dwindle and must be found abroad, growing importance of foreign trade and desire for new markets, fears that Eur imperialism would lead America to be left out of spoils

    ii)Justifications provided by Social Darwinism- only fittest nations survive, therefore just for strong nations to dominate weaker ones

    iii) Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885) states Anglo-Saxon “race” represented liberty, Christianity and should spread them; John Burgess wrote that duty of A-S to uplift less fortunate ppl

    iv)Famous Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) that countries w/ sea power great nations of history- US needed to have foreign commerce, merchant marine, navy to defend routes, and colonies to provide raw materials and bases- claim Pacific Islands, HI

    b)Hemispheric Hegemony

    i)Sec of State James Blaine 1880s sought to expand US influence in Latin America to provide markets for surplus goods- 1889 organized Pan-American Congress. Pres Cleveland 1895 had dispute w/ GB over Venezuela border

    c)Hawaii and Samoa

    i)Hawaii appealing b/c Navy wanted Pearl Harbor as base, Americans who had settled on island had come to dominate political + economic life of islands

    ii)Hawaii had been series of islands w/ self-sufficient communities. After 1810 American traders, missionaries, planters began settling there. Disease decimated Native populations; by 1840s Americans spread thru islands

    iii)1887 US Navy negotiated to use Pearl Harbor as Navy base; by that time sugar exports to US basis of economy, American plantation system was displacing natives from their lands 

    iv)In response elevated nationalist Queen Liliuokalani 1891. 1890 US eliminated duty-free status of HI sugar, American planters felt only way to survive to join US- 1893 stages revolution. Pres Harrison signed annex agreement 1893 but delayed by Dem Senate and Dem Pres Cleveland until 1898 return of Repubs

    v)Samoa had served as station for US chips in Pacific trade; Pres Hayes 1878 got treaty to use harbor at Pago Pago for Navy. Power share btwn US, GB, Germany over islands- 1899 US and Germany split islands, compensated GB

    2)War with Spain

    a)Controversy Over Cuba

    i)Cubans had resisted Spanish rule of Cuba since 1868 for independence; in 1895 Cubans rose up violently again, Span under Gen Valeriano Weyler used harsh tactics + concentration camps in turn- US press skewered mainly Span

    ii)Pulitzer’s NY World and Hearst’s NY Journal catered to broad, economically lower audience- used sensational “yellow journalism” + Cuban crisis to fight each other for circulation; Cuban Americans urged Cuba Libre as well

    iii)Pres Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality; Pres McKinley took office 1897, protested Spanish conduct- withdrew Weyler

    iv)Two events Feb 1898 ruined peaceful settlement: the leak of a letter from Spain’s minister to Washington touting McKinley as “bidder…of the crowd; and the destruction of the US battleship The Maine in Havana Harbor- Spain initially blamed, Congress mobilized for war- war declared in April

    b)“A Splendid Little War”

    i)Sec of State John Hay called Spanish-American War “a splendid little war” b/c only lasted April-August, few US battle deaths (but 5000+ from disease)

    ii)War effort hampered by army supply problems, regular army w/o experience fighting large-scale war (used to Indian battles)- Nat’l Guard units used like in Civil War. Racial conflict w/ black army unites used in invasion

    c)Seizing the Philippines

    i)Sec of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened Pacific Fleet, ordered Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish forces in Philippines (Span colony) if war broke. May 1898 captured Manila Bay, later troops took city

    ii)War to free Cuba had become war to strip Spain of its colonies w/o any decisions as to what to do with them after capture

    d)The Battle for Cuba

    i)American forces staged landing in June after Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago harbor. US battled Spanish forces in on way to Santiago at Las Guasimos and then later El Caney and San Juan Hill in July

    ii)At Battle of Kettle Hill (part of Battle for San Juan Hill) unit called Rough Riders lead by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt (who had resigned as from Navy to fight in war) had famous charge

    iii)US forces soon took Santiago, later US army landed + captured Puerto Rico

    iv)Armistice w/ Spain in August ended war- recognized independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to US, accepted Manila (Philippines) occupation

    e)Puerto Rico and the United States

    i)Annexation of Puerto Rico produced little controversy- American military controlled island until 1900 Foraker Act created colonial got w/ American governor, 2-chamber legislature, and US could amend/veto any legislation

    ii)Puerto Ricans (who had history of demanding independence from Spanish) clamored for independence- 1917 Congress passed Jones Act that made PR US territory + PRicans American citizens

    iii)PR sugar economy flourished now w/o tariffs (as in HI); plantations formed, many PR farmers became paid laborers, dependent on int’l sugar prices

    f)The Debate over the Philippines

    i)Debate over Philippines difft b/c not in W. Hemisphere, densely populated and far away—McKinley reluctant but believed no other alternative (could not be retuned to Spain, given to other imperialist, and Filips “unfit for self govt”)

    ii)War w/ Spain ended 1898 w/ Treaty of Paris, US paid $20 million for Philippines. Fierce resistance in US to ratification

    iii)Anti-imperialists (under Anti-Imperialist League) opposed b/c imperialism immoral, industrial workers feared cheap labor

    iv)Ratification supported by imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt saw empire as means to reinvigorate nation, dominate Oriental trade, Repubs could come out of Repub war w/ new territory, and easy b/c US already occupied islands

    v)Ratified in 1899 b/c anti-imperialist Dem Williams Jennings Bryan wanted to make is issue in 1900 election. Bryan ran against McKinley, referendum on war showed American ppl supported imperialism- McKinley won decisively

    3)The Republic As Empire

    a)Governing the Colonies

    i)American dependents Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico got territory status (residents became US citizens)

    ii)US military remained in Cuba. After Cuban constitution failed to mention US, Congress passed 1901 Platt Amendment that would bar Cuba from making treaties, gave US right to intervene in Cuba (little political independence given). American capital bought up much of Cuban economy and dominated it

    b)The Philippine War

    i)US subjugation of natives led to long, bloody war w/ insurgent independence fighters. US used same brutal tactics that it had opposed Spain using in Cuba

    ii)Rebellion led by Emilio Aguinaldo w/ large popular following. By 1902 brutal and savage US tactics had changed American public opinion on war, but by then war already over (Aguinaldo captured 1901)

    iii)Power given to US administrator William Howard Taft who believed US mission to prepare Filipinos for independence, so gave broad local autonomy. Trade w/ US grew and islands came to almost depend on US markets

    c)The Open Door Policy

    i)Philippine occupation strengthened US interest in Asia and Chinese trade

    ii)Eur nations were carving up China for themselves; McKinley wanted to protect US interest in China w/o war. Sec of State John Hay proposed 1898 “Open Door notes” to Eur nations allowing access to China but give no nation special advantages. Allowed free trade w/o colony, military involvement

    iii)Boxer Rebellion arose against foreigners in China. Siege of foreign diplomatic corps resulted in McKinley and Hay participating in quelling rebellion

    d)A Modern Military System

    i)War w/ Spain showed weakness of US military system in training, supply, coordination. McKinley apptd Elihu Root as Sec of War to overhaul forces

    ii)Root enlarged army, federal standards for Nat’l Guard, created officer training schools, created Joint Chiefs of Staff to advise Sec of War, supervise military establishment, plan possible wars—modern military system by turn of century

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Rise of Progressivism

    1)The Progressive Impulse

    a)Varieties of Progressivism

    i)Progressives varied on how to intervene + reform- popular idea of “antimonopoly” (fear of concentrated power, limit + disperse wealth, power)

    ii)Social cohesion- welfare of single person dependent on welfare of society

    iii)Faith in knowledge, principles of natural + social sciences, modernized govt

    b)The Muckrakers

    i)Muckrakers were crusading journalists who exposed social, economic, political injustices and corruption

    ii)At first targeted trusts (particularly RR barons)- Ida Tarbell’s study on Standard Oil. Later, attention toward govt + political machines- writings of Lincoln Steffens helped arouse sentiment for urban reforms

    c)The Social Gospel

    i)Muckrakers moralistic tone prompted outrage at social + econ injustice, led to rise of Protestant Social Gospel- fusion of religion w/ reform

    ii)Salvation Army was Christian social welfare organization; ministers left parish to serve in troubled cities; Father John Ryan wrote of expanding scope of Cath social welfare groups

    iii)Religion w/ reform gave Progressivism moral component + commitment to redeem lives of even least favored citizens

    d)The Settlement House Movement

    i)Progressives believed env’t influenced individual development. To help distressed required improving their conditions

    ii)Ppl believed crowded immigrant neighbors created distress- creation of settlement houses a response. Most famous was Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago- sought to help immigrant families adapt to language + culture, belief that middle-class had responsibility to share values w/ immigrants

    iii)College educated women often involved in settlement house movement; movement helped spawn profession of social work

    e)The Allure of Expertise

    i)Progressivism values application of scientific methods, knowledge, expertise- well-designed bureaucracy needed. Some proposed civilization where science could solve social + econ problems- advocated in A Theory of The Leisure Class (1899) by Thorstein Veblen

    ii)Rise of social sciences- scientific methods used to study society + its institutions

    f)The Professions

    i)Late 19th century more ppl engaged in administrative + professional tasks (managers, scientists, teachers). This new middle class valued education, individual accomplishments

    ii)As demand for professionals increased so did their desire for reform to create organized professions

    iii)Doctors saw creation of professional American Medical Association1901- strict standards for admissions, govt passed laws requiring licensing; also rise of rigorous, scientific training and research

    iv)Similar movements in other professions- lawyers formed bar associations w/ central examining boards businessmen formed Chamber of Commerce

    g)Women and the Professions

    i)Some women encountered obstacles in entering professions, but many from women’s colleges did enter “appropriate professions”- settlement houses and social work, teaching, nursing (all had vague “domestic”/“helping” image)

    2)Women and Reform

    a)The “New Woman”

    i)“New woman” product of social + economic changes- wage earning activity had moved out of house and into factory or office, children enrolled in school at earlier ages, technology (running water, electricity) made housework less of a burden, declining family size; “Boston marriages”- women living w/ women

    b)The Clubwomen

    i)Late 19th/early 20th century rise of women’s clubs- network of associations that lead many reform movements. General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) at first cultural, later focused on social betterment

    ii)Clubs represented effort to extend women’s influence out of traditional role in home and create a public space for women. Worked to lobby legislatures for regulation of children + women work conditions, food inspection, temperance

    iii)Women’s Trade Union League rallied women to join unions, aid female labor

    c)Woman Suffrage

    i)Women’s suffrage movement at first advanced thru arguments that women deserved same “natural rights” as men, opponents said society needed distinct female “sphere”

    ii)Early 20th century suffragists more organized-- Anna Shaw + Carrie Chapman Catt formed National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)

    iii)Began to make “safer” arguments for suffrage in that voting would not ruin distinct sphere but allow women to bring special virtues to society’s problems and contribute to politics. Some claimed could soothe male aggression (WWI)

    iv)1910 Washington extended suffrage to women, more hesitant in East b/c of associations w/ ethnic conflict (Catholics) over temperance movement

    v)1920 Nineteenth Amendment ratified guaranteeing female political rights; others (including Alice Paul’s Woman’s Party) wanted to fight on for an Equal Rights Amendment to prohibit all discrimination based on sex

    3)The Assault on the Parties

    a)Early Attacks

    i)Late 19th century populism and rise of Independent Republicans had attempted to break party lock on power- resulted in secret ballot

    ii)Argued party rule could be dealt w/ by increasing power of ppl + ability to express will at polls, also put more power in nonpartisan, nonelected officials

    b)Municipal Reform

    i)Many progressives believed party rule most powerful in cities. Muckrakers mobilized urban middle-class progressives against city bosses, special interests who benefited from machine organizations, immigrant laborers

    c)New Forms of Governance

    i)Commission Plan- replaced mayor and council replaced w/ nonpartisan commission. First used in Galveston, TX  in 1900, others followed

    ii)City-Manager Plan- elected officials hired outside expert to run govt, remain above corruption of politics

    iii)Successful reformer Cleveland Mayor Tom Johnson from conventional political structure controlled by progressives- fought special interests

    d)Statehouse Progressivism

    i)Failure of some attacks on city boss rule led reformers to turn to state govt for change- progressives looked to circumvent incompetent state legislatures

    ii)Initiative allowed reformers to submit legislation directly to voters in general election; Referendum put actions of legislature directly to the ppl for approval

    iii)Direct primary allowed ppl instead of bosses to choose candidates; Recall gave voters right to remove elected official thru special election

    iv)Famous state-level reformer was Gov Robert LaFollette in Wisconsin- regulated RRs, utilities, workplace, graduated taxes on inherited wealth

    e)Parties and Interest Groups

    i)Reform did not destroy parties but led to decline in their influence- seen by decreasing voter turnout. “Interest groups” emerged from professional organizations or labor to advance own demands directly to govt, not thru party

    4)Sources of Progressive Reform

    a)Labor, the Machine, and Reform

    i)Samuel Gompers’s American Federation of Labor mostly uninvolved in reform at time, but local unions played role in passing some state reform laws

    ii)Parties tried to preserve interest by adapting- some bosses allowed their machines to be vehicle of social reform (e.g. Charles Murphy of Tammany Hall supported legislation for working conditions, child labor)

    iii)Triangle Shirtwaist Fire 1911 in NY killed many women workers b/c bosses had locked emergency exits. Commission delivered report calling for reform in labor conditions- reform lead in legislature by Tammany Dems. Imposed regulation on factory owners and mechanisms for enforcement

    b)Western Progressives

    i)In Western states reformers targeted federal govt b/c powerful as it never had been in East (power over lands and resources, subsidies for RRs and water projects, issues transcended state borders). Weaker local + state govts political led to weaker W polit. parties, govts passed progressive reforms more quickly

    c)African Americans and Reform

    i)AAs faced large legal, social, economic, political obstacles in challenging their oppressed status and seeking reform- many embraced Booker T Washington’s message of self-improvement over long-term social change

    ii)1900s new Niagara Movement led by WEB Du Bois (author of 1903 The Souls of Black Folk)called for immediate civil rights, professional education

    iii)1909 joined w/ supportive white progressives to form National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), used federal lawsuits in pursuit of equal rights. In Guinn v. United States (1915) Supreme Court ruled grandfather clause illegal; Buchanan v. Worley (1917) Court outlawed some segregation—NAACP established itself as leading black organization

    5)Crusade for Social Order and Reform

    a)The Temperance Crusade

    i)Many progressives saw elimination of alcohol as way to restore societal order- women saw alcohol as source of problems for families, employers saw it as roadblock to efficiency, political reformers saw saloon as Machine institution

    ii)1873 temperance supporters formed Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) led by Frances Willard, together w/ Anti-Saloon League called for abolition of saloons and prohibition of manufacture and sale of alcohol

    iii)Opposition by immigrant and working-class voters; regardless, national effort and start of WWI moral fervor led to 1920 Eighteenth Amendment prohibition

    b)Immigration Restriction

    i)Reformers saw growing immigrant population as source of social problems- some wanted to help assimilation, others to limit flow of new immigrants

    ii)Early century pressure to slow immigration, heightened by growth of eugenics movement arguing human inequalities hereditary and immigration (especially of non-Anglo E. Eurs and Asians) resulting in growth of unfit peoples

    iii)Publicist Madison Grant’s 1916 The Passing of the Great Race tied together eugenics + Nativism; Congress’s Dillingham Report said new immigrants less assimilable than earlier groups, restrictions should be based on nationality

    iv)Others supported restrictions as means to solve urban overcrowding, unemployment, strained social services, and unrest

    6)Challenging the Capitalist Order

    a)The Dream of Socialism

    i)Radical opposition to capitalist system strongest btwn 1900-1914, Socialist Party under Eugene V. Debs grew during progressive era. Socialists wanted to change structure of economy, but disagreement as to extent and tactics

    ii)Some moderates favored nationalizing only major industries, use electoral politics; radicals including union Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) under William Haywood wanted abolition of “wage slave” system, favored use of general strike, supported unskilled workers (strong force in West)

    iii)1917 strike by IWW led to federal government crackdown on union b/c needed materials in mobilization for war; IWW never fully recovered

    iv)Socialist Party refusal to support war + growing antiradicalism led to decline of socialism as powerful political force in America

    b)Decentralization and Regulation

    i)Most progressives also saw major problem in great corporate centralization + consolidation, but instead of nationalizing industries wanted federal govt to create balance btwn need for big business and need for competition

    ii)Lawyer Louis Brandeis argued about “curse of bigness”, saw it as threat to efficiency and freedom, limited individual control of own destiny

    iii)Others believed combinations sometimes helped efficiency, therefore govt should distinguish btwn “good” and “bad” trusts to protect against abuses by “bad” concentrations. Supported by “nationalist” Herbert Croly in 1909 The Promise of American Life

    iv)Movement growing for industry cooperation and self-regulation; others wanted active govt role in regulation and planning economy

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Battle for National Reform

     1)Theodore Roosevelt and the Modern Presidency

    a)The Accidental President

    i)VP Theodore Roosevelt assumed presidency September 1901after Pres McKinley assassinated. Reputation as an independent and wild man; became champion of cautious an moderate change, reform to protect society against more radical changes

    b)Government, Capital, and Labor

    i)Roosevelt saw fed govt as mediator of the public good. Not opposed to industrial combinations but realized potential for abuse of power 

    ii)Supported regulation of trusts- created Department of Commerce and Labor 1903 to publicly investigate corporations. Did make effort to break up some trusts- used Sherman Antitrust Act to break up Northern Securities Company monopoly over RRs in Northwest

    iii)Saw govt as impartial regulator for labor as well- 1902 strike by United Mine workers led Roosevelt to ask labor and management to accept impartial federal arbitration, threatened to seize mines if management balked

    c)“The Square Deal”

    i)Reform not priority during first years as president, more concerned w/ winning reelection by not alienating conservative Republicans, winning support of businessmen and using patronage—won 1904 election

    ii)First targeted RR industry by asking Congress to increase fed power to oversee rates- Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act of 1906 restored some govt regulatory power

    iii)Supported Congress passing Pure Food and Drug Act, after Upton Sinclair’s 1906 The Jungle supported Meat Inspection Act. Also favored 8 hour work day for labor, workmen’s compensation, and inheritance and income taxes

    d)Roosevelt and Conservation

    i)Concerned w/ unregulated exploitation of resources and wilderness- used executive power to restrict private development on govt land, saw goal of “conservation” to carefully manage development and to apply same scientific method of management being used in cities

    ii)President supported public reclamation and irrigation projects- 1902 Newlands Act funded dam construction, reservoirs, canals in West to open new lands for irrigation, cultivation and power development

    e)Roosevelt and Preservation

    i)Pres also sympathized w/ naturalists who wanted to protect land, wildlife from human intrusion- expanded National Forest System for “rational” lumbering, but also grew National Park System to protect lands from any development

    f)The Hetch Hetchy Controversy

    i)Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite seen as beautiful land by naturalists, but San Francisco residents + Roosevelt’s head of National Forest System Gifford Pinchot wanted land to build dam + reservoir for city’s growing water needs

    ii)Pinchot saw needs of city more important than claims of preservation; issue placed in 1908 referendum, dam approved by large margin in election

    g)The Panic of 1907

    i)Despite reforms govt still had little control over industrial economy; in 1907 production outgrew domestic + foreign demand, speculation + poor management led to panic. 

    ii)JP Morgan pooled assets of NY banks to prop up banks, made deal with Pres to allow US Steel to purchase Tennessee Coal and Iron Company shares

    iii)B/c of Panic of 1907 and promise made in 1904 to step down four years later, did not seek renomination and reelection for 1908 bid

    2)The Troubled Succession

    a)Taft and the Progressives

    i)During early administration called on Congress to lower tariff (a progressive demand), refused to oppose Repub Old Guard. Result was Payne-Aldrich Tariff - reduced tariffs little, raised others- progressives resented inaction

    ii)1909 Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute in which Head of Forest Service Gifford Pinchot was told that Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger had sold public lands in Alaska for personal profit. Taft thought charges groundless, Pinchot leaked info to press-- Taft fired Pinchot, progressives alienated 

    b)The Return of Roosevelt

    i)Roosevelt upset w/ Taft and believed only he was capable of reuniting Republican Party; 1910 outlined “New Nationalism” that moved away from conservatism + argued only effort of strong fed govt could bring social justice

    c)Spreading Insurgency

    i)In 1910 Congressional elections many conservative Repub candidates lost and progressives reelected; Dems gained maj in House, seats in Senate

    ii)Reform sentiment on the rise, but Roosevelt claimed he only wanted to pressure Taft into action; Roosevelt decided to run, however, after Taft charged US Steel acquisition of Tennessee Coal and Iron Company had been illegal and reform candidate Robert LaFollette’s campaign collapsed

    d)Roosevelt versus Taft

    i)Taft had support of conservative Repubs and party leaders, Roosevelt supported by progressives- at convention Republican National Committee gave nomination to Taft. Roosevelt left Repub Party and established own Progressive Party w/ himself as nominee (nicknamed Bull Moose Party)

    3)Woodrow Wilson and The New Freedom

    a)Woodrow Wilson

    i)Reform support growing in Democratic Party as well as Repub Party; Dems chose progressive Woodrow Wilson as 1912 Presidential election nominee

    ii)Wilson supported “New Freedom”- held that bigness was unjust and wanted to destroy, not regulate monopoly (whereas Roosevelt’s New Nationalism believed in govt regulation of concentration)

    iii)Roosevelt and Taft split Repub vote, Wilson elected

    b)The Scholar as President

    i)Wilson bold and forceful- used position as leader of Dems to build coalition to support his program (Dem majorities existed in both houses)

    ii)Greatly lowered tariff in Underwood-Simmons Tariff in order to introduce competition into market + breakup trusts; to make up for revenues past graduated income tax

    iii)1913 Congress passed Federal Reserve Act- regional Fed banks made up of regional banks + issued loans at “discount” rate, issued Fed Reserve notes backed by govt, shifted funds to meet credit demands + protect banks. Supervising Federal Reserve Board members selected by Pres

    iv)1914 Wilson began to deal w/ monopoly, Congress passed Federal Trade Commission Act and Clay Antitrust Act 

    (1)FTC was regulatory agency to help business determine whether their actions were legal, also power to prosecute “unfair trade practices”

    (2)Clayton Antitrust Bill to allow break up of trusts weakened by conservative opposition; ultimately administration decided that government supervision and regulation by FTC sufficient

    c)Retreat and Advance

    i)Pres believed New Freedom accomplished, therefore didn’t support progressive suffrage movement and efforts to halt segregation in federal agencies after Dems had heavy losses in Congress in 1914 elections to Repubs (who won support from Progressive party) Wilson began new reforms

    ii)Wilson supported appointment of progressive Louis Brandeis to Supreme Court; supported measured expanding role of federal govt 1916 Keating-Owen Act regulated child labor (struck down by Sup C b/c relied on interstate commerce clause in Const), 1914 Smith-Lever Act to help agricultural extension education

    4)The “Big Stick”: America and The World, 1901-1917

    a)Roosevelt and “Civilization”

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - America and the Great War

    1)The Road to War

    a)The Collapse of the European Peace

    i)Eur divided into alliances- “Triple Entente” of GB, France, Russia & “Triple Alliance” of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (GB-German tension notable)

    ii)After June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbs, A-H invaded Serbia who called on Russian help- b/c alliances other nations entered

    b)Wilson’s Neutrality

    i)1914 Wilson urged neutrality but many Americans sympathized w/ certain nations (German + Irish immigrants=Central, but most ppl= GB+Allies) 

    ii)Strong US-GB economic ties + blockade of Central Powers led US to continue trade w/ GB , shun trade w/ Central nations- “arsenal of Allies”

    iii)Germany began using submarine warfare 1915 to combat GB naval domination; 1915 sinking of Lusitania and 1916 Sussex sinking led Wilson to call on Germans to recognize rights of neutrals- Germans relented and stopped attacking merchant ships to stop  US entrance into war

    c)Preparedness vs Pacifism

    i)Wilson did not intervene for either side b/c of re-election + domestic division

    ii)Economic + militarily preparations debated by pacifists and interventionists. However, by 1916 military armament largely under way

    iii)Wilson won extremely close 1916 b/c of association w/ ability to keep US independent, although Dems barely held on to Congressional majorities

    d)A War for Democracy

    i)After election Wilson wanted country unified and justified if to enter war, should fight to create new progressive world order + not for material gains

    ii)January 1917 Germany began offensive + continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare to defeat Allies before US entrance; February Zimmerman Telegram urged Mex to join w/ Germany (increased public sentiment toward war); March Russian Revolution toppled czar for republican govt

    iii)April 1917 US officially declared war on side of Allies

    2)“War Without Stint”

    a)Entering the War

    i)Immediately w/ US entrance Allied navy able to dramatically reduce sinking’s in troop + supply convoys

    ii)1917 withdrawal of Russian forces after Bolshevik Revolution (Lenin) led Germans to put resources on Western Front, Allies needed US ground troops 

    b)The American Expeditionary Force

    i)US army too small to supply needed troops- April 1917 Wilson urged passage of Selective Service Act to draft soldiers into American Expeditionary Force

    ii)AEF was diverse-- women served as auxiliaries in non-combat roles; African-American soldiers served in segregated units or had menial roles

    c)The Military Struggle

    i)US ground forces insignificant until spring 1918; AEF under Gen John Pershing maintained command structure independent from other Allies

    ii)US forced tipped stalemate + balance of power to Allies--- June 1918 helped repel German offensive at Chateau-Thierry

    iii)Beginning Sept US forced fighting in Argonne Forest (as part of Allied Meuse-Argonne Offensive); pushed Germans back + cut off supply routes

    iv)11/11/1918 Great War ended w/ Allies on German border

    d)The New Technology of Warfare

    i)New military weapons + tactics more deadly (tanks, machine guns, trenches, chemical weapons). Logistics and materials transport gained increased importance. Rise of planes, dreadnought battleships, submarines

    ii)Casualties extremely high for war (British lost 1 million, Germany 2 million); even victors overwhelmed by sheer magnitude of deaths

    3)The War and American Society

    a)Organizing the Economy for War

    i)US appropriated $32 billion for war- to raise money sold “Liberty Bonds” to public & put new graduated taxes on income + inheritance

    ii)To organize economy Wilson created Council of National Defense; but emphasis Civilian Advisory Commission tasked w/ mobilizing at local level

    iii)CND members urged “scientific management” + centralization, proposed dividing economy based on function and not geography w/ “war boards” coordinating efforts in each sector

    iv)War Industries Board oversaw purchase of military supplies, under Bernard Baruch organized factories, set prices, and distributed needed materials. Instead of restricting profits, govt entered alliance w/ private sector

    b)Labor and the War

    i)National War Labor Board pressured industry for concessions to workers (8-hour day, living standards, collective bargaining) but workers forced to forgo strikes. Right before war Ludlow Massacre when striking miners killed

    c)Economic and Social Results of the War

    i)Economic boom during period from Eur demand, later US need. Industrial production expanded, opportunities for female + minorities b/c of men at war

    ii)War years saw “Great Migration” of hundreds of thousands of African- Americans from rural South to northern industrial cities. S poverty + racism and appeal of N factory jobs + freedom led to movement. Growing black communities near white neighborhoods sometimes resulted in race riots

    iii)Women took higher-paying industrial jobs that were unavailable in peace time

    4)The Search for Social Unity

    a)The Peace Movement

    i)Public sentiment divided over US involvement in war—peace movement supported by German Americans, Irish who opposed GB, religious pacifists, intellectuals and leftist groups

    ii) Peaces support also from women’s movement- maternal pacifism

    b)Selling the War and Suppressing Dissent

    i)Once America intervened most of country became patriotic and supportive of troops. Religious revivalism also became source of support for war

    ii)Govt concerned about minority in opposition to war, believed victory possible only thru united public opinion Committee on Public Information under George Creel distributed pro-war propaganda—portrayals of savage Germans

    iii)Espionage Act of 1917 gave govt power to punish spies and obstructers of war effort, respond to reports of disloyalty. Sabotage Act and Sedition Act of 1918 made any public expression of opposition illegal- targeted socialist groups

    iv)Local govts and private citizen groups worked to repress opposition- “vigilante mob” discipline, also American Protective League w/ thousands of members who spied on neighbors to ensure unity of opinion in communities

    v)Repressive efforts targeted socialists and labor leaders, but also largely immigrants (Germans, Irish, Jews)- “Loyalist” Americans called for “100 Percent Americanism”. German Americans faced fierce discrimination

    5)The Search for a New World Order

    a)The Fourteen Points

    i)Wilson’s Fourteen Poitns addressed three areas: self-determination and new boundaries; new international governance laws including freedom of the seas, end to secret treaties, free trade, determination of colonial claims; league of nations to implement points and resolve future disagreements

    ii)Fourteen Points also effort to combat Bolshevik (Lenin) aspiration to lead new postwar world order—US established itself thru the points

    b)Early Obstacles

    i)Wilson hoped popular support would help garner Allied support for Points, 

    ii)However, most Allies so decimated by war and so bitter against Germany that they did not with to be generous GB Prime Minister Lloyd George and French Premier Georges Clemenceau determined to gain compensation

    iii)At home Wilson + Dems lost control of Congress to Repub majorities in 1918 election, domestic economic issues + Repub opposition weakened his position

    c)The Paris Peace Conference

    i)Big Four nations to negotiate treaty were GB, France, Italy, US

    ii)Wilson’s idealism met by effort by other nations to improve own lot, concerns about eastern Europe and communism (US did not recognize Bolshevik govt until 1933). His economic + strategic demands suffered from conflict w/ cultural nationalism

    iii)Wilson initially rejected reparations from Central Powers, but Allies forced him to accept idea in order to keep Germany weak + unable to threaten Eur

    iv)Wilson was successful and placing some colonies under League of Nations “mandate” system, created Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia

    v)Allies accepted “covenant” of League of Nations-- to meet to resolve disputes + protect peace, Wilson believed problems w/ treaty could be fixed by League

    d)The Ratification Battle

    i)Americans used to isolation questioned international commitment, Wilson refused to compromise or modify League too much—when Treaty of Versailles introduced by Wilson to Senate in 1919 

    ii)Opposition lead by Repub Irreconcilables who wanted isolation, but also by personal hatred of Sen Henry Cabot Lodge for Wilson—wanted to delay so public approval would subside, make treaty issue in 1920 election

    e)Wilson’s Ordeal

    i)Wilson began traveling country to gain public support for treaty. The traveling and speaking tour exacerbated his already bad health and he suffered stroke that rendered him incapable for weeks

    ii)Condition made his views of world in moral terms and loathing for compromise stronger. When Treaty sent to Sen for approval w/ “reservations” (amendments) attached, Wilson urged Dems to vote against it- both amended treaty and original failed to reach 2/3 majority to be ratified

    6)A Society in Turmoil

    a)Industry and Labor

    i)After war govt began cancelling contracts. War boom continued for short while b/c of foreign demand + deficit spending

    ii)In 1920 bubble burst—GDP decreased, inflation and unemployment rose

    iii)In postwar env’t 1919 management sought to rescind worker rights that they had been forced to grant during war—use of union strikes increased to combat these moves: Boston Police Strike, great Steel Worker’s Strike failure

    b)The Demands of African-Americans

    i)Retruning blacks from war wanted social reward+ rights for service, black factory workers from war wanted to retain economic gains they had made

    ii)Racial tension increased as retrurning whites displaced black workers- contributed to large 1919 Chicago race riots

    iii)Marcus Garvey’s ideas of Black Nationalism gained popularity among blacks- advocated embracing heritage + return to Africa, reject white assimilation

    c)The Red Scare

    i)Industrial problems, racial violence, dissent, creation of Communist International in 1919 by Soviets to spread revolution, also bombings in US by radicals fueled middle class fears of instability + radicalism

    ii)Growing movement to fight radicalism + embrace “100 Percent Americanism” Red Scare

    iii)Antiradicals saw any instability or protest as radical threat; Jan 1920 Attorney General A Mitchell Palmer conducted nationwide raids in radical crackdown

    iv)1920 Sacco and Vanzetti murder trial showed American bias toward perceived radicals (they had been immigrant anarchists); they were executed in 1927

    d)The Retreat from Idealism

    i)Passage of 19th Amendment in 1920  (to give women suffrage) marked end of reform era—due to economic problems, labor unrest, and antiradicalism that all lead to sense of disillusionment

    ii)1920 Presidential election pitted idealists Dem James Cox (and VP Franklin Roosevelt) against conservative Republican Warren Harding who promised “return to normalcy”—Harding won by a large margin

    iii)Election a repudiation of League of Nation and postwar order of democratic ideals

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - “The New Era”

    1)The New Economy

    a)Technology and Economic Growth

    i)After 1921-1922 recession tremendous economic growth in output + income 

    ii)Growth result of collapse of Eur industry after war, important technological advances: rise of auto manufacturing (and in turn gas production, road construction), assembly line, rise of radio and commercial broadcasting, advances in air travel, development of electronics + synthetic materials

    iii)Maturation of electricity and telecommunications fields; work during 1920s and 1930s on primitive computer technologies

    b)Economic Organization

    i)Certain industries (e.g. steel) continued toward national organization and consolidation- these companies adopted new modern administrative systems w/ efficient division structures to allow subsidiary control + easier expansion

    ii)In industries w/ more competition stabilization reached thru cooperation—rise of trade association to coordinate production + marketing

    iii)Industrialists feared overproduction and recession, and efforts to curb competition thru either consolidation or cooperation reflected this

    c)Labor in the New Era

    i)Some employers 1920s used “welfare capitalism” to give workers more rights, improve safety, raise wages in order to avoid labor unrest + independent union growth. System survived only if industry prospering- collapsed in 1929

    ii)Welfare capitalism helped only a few workers, employers wage increases disproportional to their increase in profits. Ultimately workers still mainly impoverished and powerless, families relied on multiple wage earners

    iii)Organized labor + independent unions often failed to adapt to changing nature of modern economy. American Federation of Labor still used craft union system based on skills, did not allow growing unskilled industrial workers

    d)Women and Minorities in the Work Force

    i)Number of women in workforce increased, especially in “pink-collar” jobs- low-paying service jobs, most unions refused to organize them

    ii)African-Americans in cities after 1914 Great Migration largely excluded from unions (A. Philip Randolph’s Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters exception)

    iii)In West + Southwest unskilled and unorganized workers mainly Hispanics and Mexican immigrants, Asians (mainly Japanese who replaced Chinese after Exclusion Acts in menial jobs)

    e)The “American” Plan

    i)After 1919 economic uneasiness corporations rallied strongly against “subversive” unionism and wanted to protect idea of open shop (in which workers not forced to join union)—known as “American Plan”

    ii)Govt intervened on behalf of management, courts often ruled against striking workers. Btwn this and corporate efforts union membership saw large decline

    f)Agricultural Technology and the Plight of the Farmer

    i)American agriculture adopted new technolgoies (e.g. tractor, combine) allowed more crops w/ fewer workers; hybrid corn + fertilizers increased productivity led to overprodution and collapse in food prices

    ii)Farmers called on govt price support- idea of “parity” (govt set price, farmers reimbursed if good sold for less in fluctuating market) and high foreign crop tariffs introduced in Congress in McNary-Haugen Bill (vetoed by Coolidge)

    2)The New Culture

    a)Consumerism

    i)Industrial growth led to rise of consumer culture in which ppl had discretionary funds w/ which to buy items for pleasure (appliances, fashion)

    ii)Most revolutionary product was automobile- allowed rural ppl to escape isolation, city ppl to escape crowded urban life; rise of vacation traveling

    b)Advertising

    i)Techniques first used in wartime propaganda came of age in new age of advertising + work of publicists. Famous book of time The Man Nobody Knows by Bruce Burton about Jesus as “salesman”

    ii)Ads possible b/c of mass audience in national chains of newspapers, mass-circulation magazine growth

    c)The Movies and Broadcasting

    i)1920s saw rise of Hollywood, creation of Motion Picture Association and the Hays Code as industry self-ban on objectionable material

    ii)Phenomenal rise of radio beginning w/ first commercial station broadcasting in 1920. By 1929 12 million families owned radio sets

    d)Modernist Religion

    i)Growing consumer culture w/ emphasis on immediate self-fulfillment had influence on religion—abandonment by some of traditional + literal

    ii)Harry Emerson Fosdick spokesman for new liberal Protestantism of 1920s

    e)Professional Women

    i)Most employed women were working class b/c of professional struggle btwn career and family. Few professional women limited to mainly “feminine” fields of fashion, education, social work, nursing

    f)Changing Ideas of Motherhood

    i)Belief grew that maternal affection not adequate preparation for child rearing, advice and help of professionals needed instead 

    ii)Motherhood increasingly relied on institutions out of home, allowing time to devote to “companionate marriage”- involved more as wives, in social life

    iii)Growth of birth control related to sense of sex as recreation vs only creation

    g)The “Flapper”: Image and Reality

    i)Some women came to believe rigid and Victorian “feminism” unnecessary “flapper” women expressed themselves freely thru dress, speech, behavior

    h)Pressing for Women’s Rights

    i)Women formed League of Women Voters, many women helped growing consumer groups

    ii)1921 Sheppard-Towner Act gave federal funds to states for prenatal and child healthcare. Fought my American Medical Association, others; repealed in 1929--- showed women didn’t vote as single block, even on “female” issues 

    i)Education and Youth

    i)Growing secularism, emphasis on training and expertise manifested itself in growing upper education attendance rates, teaching of technical skills

    ii)Emergence of distinct youth culture w/ growing idea of adolescence, belief this was time for child to develop institutions w/ peers separate form family

    j)The Decline of the “Self-Made Man”

    i)Myth of “self-made man” who could gain wealth and fame thru hard work and natural talent gave way to belief that nothing possible without education and training (men felt losing independence, control, “masculinity”)

    ii)Idolized self-made men in Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh

    k)The Disenchanted

    i)New generation of artists and intellectuals viewed society w/ contempt; isolated themselves instead of playing reform role

    ii)Lost Generation’s critique American system in which individual had no means of personal fulfillment rose out of WWI experience and sense of deaths in vain, end of Wilsonian idealism, growing business + consumerism

    iii)Ernest Hemmingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) expressed contempt of war; other “debunkers” critical of society included H.L. Mencken, Sinclair Lewis

    iv)Many of these critics who rejected the “success ethics” of America became expatriates living abroad. Paris was center of American artistic life

    l)The Harlem Renaissance

    i)Other intellectuals saw solution to problems in exploration of own culture and its origins—great example Harlem during “Harlem Renaissance”

    ii)Harlem center of black artists and intellectuals; literature, poetry , and art drew on African roots—famously Alan Locke, Langston Hughes

    m)The Southern Agrarians

    i)Group of Southern intellectuals and poets known as the Fugitives rebelled against depersonalization and materialism due to industrialization by recalling the Southern nonindustrial, agrarian way of life

    ii)Wrote reactionary ideas in their 1930 agrarian manifesto I’ll Take My Stand

    3)A Conflict of Cultures

    a)Prohibition

    i)Prohibition took effect 1920; within a year “noble experiment” failing b/c even though some drinking rates fell alcohol still widely available and legitimate businesses being replaced by organized crime (famous Al Capone)

    ii)Prohibition supported by rural Protestants who they associated drinking w/ Catholic immigrants + new valueless culture

    b)Nativism and the Klan

    i)After war many Americans associated immigration w/ radicalism; efforts to restrict influx grew, 1921 Congress passed emergency law w/ quota system 

    ii)Nativists wanted harsher law--- National Origins Act of 1924 banned all east Asian immigration, reduced especially eastern Eur quotas

    iii)Ku Klux Klan re-emerged as force b/c of fear by some older Americans of disruption of culture by new peoples—“New Klan” emerged in 1915 after meeting in Stone Mountain, GA

    iv)At first targeted blacks, after the war targeted Catholics, Jews, and foreigners- purge “alien” influences; membership grew in S but also N industrial cities

    v) Wanted to threaten anyone who challenged “traditional values”- irreligion, drunkenness, ect. Defend racial homogeneity + defend traditional culture against modernity; provided disenfranchised w/ sense of community, power

    c)Religious Fundamentalism

    i)Fight over role of religion in modern society—split in Protestantism btwn urban, middle-class ppl who wanted to adapt religion to modern science and secular society vs traditional rural ppl who wanted to retain religious import

    ii)Fundamentalists wanted traditional interpretation of bible, opposed Darwinism; evangelical movement wanting to spread doctrine (famous preacher Billy Sunday)

    iii)When teaching Darwinism outlawed in Tennessee, ACLU promised to defend teacher John Scopes who defied law—Scopes trial isolated Fundamentalists from mainstream Protestants, ended their growing political activism

    d)The Democrat’s Ordeal

    i)Democrats split btwn urban and rural factions; party included prohibitionists, Klansmen, fundamentalists but also Caths, urban workers, immigrants

    ii)At 1924 Democratic National Convention in NY conflict btwn urban wing wanting prohibition repealed, denunciation of clan, and supported Alfred Smith for nominee; W + S supported William McAdoo. After deadlock both withdrew and John Davis chosen as nominee

    iii)In 1928 AL Smith won nomination, but party still divided b/c of southern anti-Catholicism; lost election to Herbert Hoover

    4)Republican Government

    a)Harding and Coolidge

    i)Pres Warren Harding elected 1920; appointed party elite who had helped win him nomination to positions in administration, ultimately this corrupt “Ohio Gang” committed fraud and corruption in Teapot Dome oil reserve scandal

    ii)Harding died of a heart attack 1923, VP Calvin Coolidge ascended to presidency (known for crushing Boston Police riot)

    iii)Coolidge a passive president like Harding, believed govt should not interfere little in life of nation; won re-election 1924 but did not seek office in 1928

    b)Government and Business

    i)Even though New Era presidents passive, fed govt as a whole worked to helped business + industry operate efficient and productively

    ii)Sec of Treasury Andrew Mellon reduced tax on corporate profits, personal incomes, inheritances, and cut federal budget

    iii)Sec of Commerce Herbert Hoover favored voluntary cooperation of businesses in private sector for stability. Supported business “Associationalism” in which businessmen in an industry worked together to promote stability, efficient production, and marketing

    iv)Hoover won the Presidential election of 1928, but nation entered Depression in 1929

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Great Depression

    1)The Coming of the Great Depression

    a)The Great Crash

    i)From Feb 1928 until October 1929 economic boom, stock prices rose dramatically w/ credit easily available

    ii)October 29, 1929- “Black Tuesday”- stock market crashed

    b)Unemployment and Relief

    i)In capitalist system recessions cyclical, but Great Depression direly severe 

    ii)Such large crash b/c lack of diversification (many overinvested in automobiles + construction), maldistribution of wealth resulting in consumers receiving too little money to spend to keep pace w/ growing markets + supplies (coupled w/ rising unemployment due to natural cycle + from technology)

    iii)Credit structures + indebtedness of farmers threatened banks, but banks also threatened by risky investments + loans in stock markets

    iv)US foreign exports declined b/c some Eur nations productivity increasing but others facing financial difficulties; international debt structure after WWI in which nations sought new loans to pay off existing Allied loans + Central nation reparations weakened US economy after 1929 left countries w/o source with which to repay loans, began to default 

    c)Progress of Depression

    i)Stock market crash triggered chain of events that further weakened economy over next 3 years

    ii)Banking system collapsed and billions of dollars in deposits lost; money supply contraction exacerbated by 1931 Fed Reserve interest raises

    iii)GDP, capital investment, gross farm product all down at least 25% by 1933; in 1932 national unemployment had risen to 25% (much more in some cities)

    2)The American People in Hard Times

    a)Unemployment and Relief

    i)Americans taught to believe that individual responsible for own fate, poverty sign of own failure; nevertheless the small relief system of the 1920s incapable of dealing w/ new demands and govts hesitant to increase support b/c of decreasing tax revenues + welfare stigma. Bread lines found in cities

    ii)In rural areas income declined 60%, 1/3 of farmers lost land, massive drought extended thru the “Dust Bowl” starting in 1930 lasting for a decade farm prices so low that many farmers left homes to seek employment (“Okies”)

    iii)Nationwide problems of malnutrition, homelessness; growth of shantytowns, massive migrations of ppl across country seeking jobs, better living conditions 

    b)African-Americans and the Depression

    i)Most S blacks were farmers, collapse of cotton + staple crop prices led them to leave land; menial jobs they had held in cities began to be given to whites (Black Shirts in Atlanta 1930 called for dismissal of all blacks from jobs so that they would be available for struggling whites to take)

    ii)Mass migration of jobless southern blacks to Northern urban centers

    iii)Segregation + black disenfranchisement remained, but famous Scottsboro case in which group of 7 blacks falsely accused of rape resulted in national attention b/c of NAACP support

    iv)NAACP began working to increase black participation in unions + organized labor

    c)Mexican Americans in Depression America

    i)Large Mex immigration population (known as Chicanos) centered mostly in Southwest, worked mainly menial jobs or as unskilled laborers in urban areas

    ii)When Depression hit many whites forced them from their jobs, relief to Mexicans severely limited + many rounded up to be sent back to Mexico—all highlighted the discrimination of Hispanics that swept region

    d)Asian Americans in Hard Times

    i)Depression strengthened pattern of economic marginalization of Asian American populations which were centered mainly on the West coast; frequently lost jobs to whites desperate for employment

    ii)Some Japanese sought to form clubs to advance political agendas: Japanese American Democratic Club worked for laws against discrimination; Japanese American Citizens League sought to make immigrants more assimilated

    e)Women and the Workplace in the Great Depression

    i)Ppl believed that b/c jobs so scarce whatever was available should go to men—this belief strengthened notion of women’s main role staying in home, also feelings that no woman with an employed husband should hold a job

    ii)Single and married women both continued to work during Depression b/c money so necessary- result of nonprofessional nature of “pink-collar” jobs as more secure than those in heavy industry, male stigma about taking them

    iii)Support for Reform Era ideas of women economically and professionally independent began to wane; Depression saw death of National Woman’s Party

    f)Depression Families

    i)Middle- and working-class families used to rising standard of living now uncertain b/c of unemployment or income reductions

    ii)Retreat from consumerism as women made clothes in home, home businesses established, banding together of extended family units

    3)The Depression and American Culture

    a)Depression Values

    i)Pre-Depression acceptance of affluence and consumerism remained unchanged as ppl worked even more hard to achieve ideals

    ii)Longstanding belief that individual controlled own fate and success thru hard work (“success ethic”) largely survived Depression as many unemployed simply blamed themselves and remained passive b/c felt ashamed

    iii)Masses responded messages that they themselves could restore own wealth + success—best-selling How to Win Friends and Influence People by Dale Carnegie

    b)Artists and Intellectuals in the Great Depression

    i)Just as urban poverty had received attention during Reform Era, during 1930s many shocked at “discovery” of rural poverty- photography of Farm Security Administration photographers highlighted impact of hostile env’t on ppl

    ii)Many writers began to highlight social injustices- Erskine Caldwell’s Tobacco Road(1932) of rural poverty; Richard Wright’s Native Son of urban ghettos; John Steinbeck’s novels of migrant workers; John Dos Passso’s USA trilogy attacked capitalism

    c)Radio

    i)Almost every family had radio, listening often a communal activity

    ii)Most radio programming was entertaining and escapist in nature (comedies or adventures, soap operas); live programming of performances also developed

    iii)Radio allowed access to major public events in news, sports, politics

    iv)Drew nation together b/c of widespread availability of same cultural and informational programming, gathered family together in the home

    d)The Movies

    i)Early 1930s movie attendance dropped b/c of economic hardship, but by mid-1930s many seeing them again

    ii)Most movies censored heavily and studio system kept projects largely uncontroversial; some films did manage to explore social and political questions, but most remained escapist in order to keep attention of audience away from troubles. Walt Disney movies emerged during 1930s

    e)Popular Literature and Journalism

    i)Literature more reflective of growing radicalism + discontentedness than radio and movies, although escapist and romantic works still widely popular (Mitchell’s 1936 Gone With The Wind; photographic Life Magazine)

    ii)Other works challenged American popular values: John Dos Passos’s U.S.A. trilogy (1930-1936) attacked American materialism; Nathanael West’s Miss Lonelyhearts(1933) of a woman overwhelmed by the life stories of others

    f)The Popular Front and the Left

    i)Late 1930s more literature more optimistic of society b/c of rise of Popular Front coalition lead by American Communist Party- supported Franklin Roosevelt and New Deal, mobilized intellectuals toward social criticism

    ii)Intellectual detachment of 1920s targeted by Popular Front- mobilized some men into Lincoln Brigade to fight in Spanish Civil War against the fascists

    iii)Communist Party organized unemployed, unions, supported racial justice; however party under control of Soviet Union- when Stalin signed 1939 nonaggression pact w/ Hitler Party abandoned Popular Front and returned to criticizing liberals

    iv)Socialist Party of America under Norman Thomas attempted to argue crisis failure of capitalist system and tried to win support for party, especially targeting rural poor—supported Southern Tenant Farmers Union but never gained strength

    v)Antiradicalism a strong force in 1930s and hostility existed toward Communist Party, yet at the same time Left widely respected amongst workers and intellectuals; temporary widening of mainstream culture

    vi)Famous accounts of social conditions of the era provided by James Agee’s Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941) and more famously John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath(1939)

    4)The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover

    a)The Hoover Program

    i)Hoover responded to Depression by trying to restore confidence in economy- tried to gather business into voluntary program of cooperation to aid recovery; by 1931 voluntarism had collapsed b/c of worsening economy

    ii)Hoover tried using govt spending to boost economy; spending not enough in face of huge economic problems, sought to raise taxes 1932 to balance budget

    iii)Offered Agricultural Marketing Act to help farmers w/ low crop prices, raised foreign agricultural tariffs in Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930- neither helped

    iv)Dems gained majority in House + increase in Senate in 1930 elections by promising government economic assistance; presidents unpopularity grew (shantytowns called “Hoovervilles”) especially after international financial panic in spring 1931 w/ Austrian bank collapse

    v)1932 Congress created Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to give loans to imperiled banks, RRs, businesses- RFC failed to improve economy b/c lent largely to big institutions, didn’t sponsor enough relief + public works

    b)Popular Protest

    i)By 1932 dissent beginning to come to a head: Farmers’ Holiday Association attempted farmer’s product strike; veterans in “Bonus Army” marched on Washington to protest withholding of bonuses, Hoover called on Army units under Gen Douglas MacArthur to clear Bonus Army out of city

    ii)Popular image of Hoover as unsympathetic + unable to act effectively

    c)The Election of 1932

    i)Repubs re-nominated Hover as candidate; Democrats nominated NY Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt

    ii)Roosevelt avoided religion and prohibition, focused on economic grievances of nation

    iii)Roosevelt won large majority of popular vote and even more overwhelmingly in electoral college; Dems majorities elected to House and Senate- signified mandate for change

    d)The “Interregnum”

    i)Period between election and inauguration one of increasing economic problems b/c of expanding banking crisis + more depositors seeking to withdraw money in a panic; more banks declared bankruptcy

    ii)Roosevelt refused to make public commitments asked of him by Hoover to maintain economic orthodoxy or not institute broad economic reforms

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The New Deal

     1)Launching the New Deal

    a)Restoring Confidence

    i)Roosevelt projected optimism- famous quote “all we have to fear is fear itself”

    ii)Two days after taking office issued “Bank Holiday” closing all banks for four days to give Congress time to discuss reforms; Emergency Banking Act required Treasury Dept inspection of banks, assistance to troubled institutions

    iii)Bank Holiday restored ¾ of closed banks; Economy Act passed a few days later forced balanced fed budget thru cutting govt salaries + veterans pensions

    b)Agricultural Adjustment

    i)Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 reduced crop production to end surpluses + raise prices; Agricultural Adjustment Administration would enforce industry limits + subsidize vacant lands to parity-- farm income began increasing 

    ii)1936 Agricultural Adjustment Act declared unconstitutional b/c it required farmers to limit production; new Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act passed to pay farmers to reduce production in order to “conserve soil”

    iii)Resettlement Administration and later Farm Security Administration gave loans to small farmers to help relocate to better lands; Rural Electrification Administration attempted to make power more available to farmers

    c)Industrial Recovery

    i)Administration allowed for relaxing of some antitrust laws to stabilize industry prices in return for concessions to labor to allow collective bargaining and unions led to 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act

    ii)Act created National Recovery Administration under Hugh Johnson called on adoption of labor codes + industrial codes to set floor prices-- sought to maintain employment + production

    iii)NRA weakened b/c codes poorly written and administered; Section 7(a) of NIR Act gave workers right to unionize but no enforcement so many corps. ignored it; Public Works Administration of NIR Act slow to distribute monies

    iv)NRA failed to raise production; 1935 Supreme C. held NRA unconstitutional

    d)Regional Planning

    i)AAA and NRA examples of economic planning that allowed private interests to dictate planning process; others wanted govt in charge of planning

    ii)Tennessee Valley Authority created after failure of electric utility companies to develop water resources for cheap power; 1933 TVA began building dams in Tennessee Valley region + sell electricity at reasonable rates

    iii)TVA revitalized region by improving transport, limiting flooding, making electricity more available, and lowered power rates nationwide

    e)Currency, Banks, and the Stock Market

    i)1933 president took president took nation off gold standard; govt began manipulating value of dollar by buying/selling large amts of silver

    ii)Efforts to increase govt regulation in 1933 Glass-Steagall Act- govt power to curb speculation, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to protect deposits

    iii)1933 Truth in Securities Act required corporations to give truthful disclosures

    iv)1934 Securities and Exchange Commission created to police stock market

    f)The Growth of Federal Relief

    i)Administration saw need to help impoverished until economy improved—Federal Emergency Relief Administration gave cash to state relief groups

    ii)Work relief provided by the Civil Works Administration that gave millions temporary work- built roads + schools, and pumped money into economy

    iii)Civilian Conservation Corps gave unemployed men jobs in national parks planting trees and improving irrigation

    iv)To aid in mortgage relief created Farm Credit Administration to help farmers refinance; 1933 Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act aided foreclosed farmers; 1933 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation refinanced households

    2)The new Deal in Transition

    a)Critics of the new Deal

    i)Conservatives and businesses leaders main opponents to New Deal, 1934 formed American Liberty League decrying “attacks” on free enterprise

    ii)Another threat to New Deal in Townsend Plan- proposed giving all over 60 monthly pension; idea gained much support older ppl, forerunner to Soc Sec

    iii)Father Charles Coughlin’s nat’l radio sermons called for banking + currency reform (recoining of silver, nationalization of banks) to restore economic justice, felt admin unresponsive so founded National Union for Social Justice

    iv)Sen Huey Long gained popularity for attacks on banks, oil companies, utilities and b/c of progressive voting record; like Coughlin felt administration not acting strongly enough so proposed Share-Our-Wealth Plan to redistribute wealth (and created Share-Our-Wealth Society)

    v)Growing dissident movements threat to president, so Roosevelt began to consider measures to counter their growing popularity

    b)The “Second New Deal”

    i)Second New Deal of 1935 marked beginning of open critique of big business

    ii)Holding Company Act sought to break up monopoly of utility industry; 1935 tax reforms established progressive tax w/ very high rate for wealthy

    iii)National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) gave enforcement to NIR Act’s Section 7(a) (right to unionize) in National Labor Relations Board

    c)Labor Militancy

    i)Trade union power increased dramatically in 1930s b/c of efforts to strengthen unions + growing labor militancy to challenge conservative groups

    ii)After Wagner Act attempts to find new forms of organization; American Federation of Labor still committed to organizing workers based on skill, but b/c mass of labor force unskilled industrial unionism gained popularity (all workers in industry organized regardless of role)

    iii)AFL hesitancy to adopt industrial unionism led John L Lewis in 1936 to create independent Congress of Industrial Organizations- grew into new areas

    d)Organizing Battles

    i)Laborers in auto industry increasingly joining unrecognized United Auto Workers; 1936 staged sit-down strike that stopped all production and prevented strikebreakers- most auto makers soon recognized union

    ii)In steel Steel Worker’s Organizing Committee recognized by US Steel 1937 to prevent costly stroke; “Little Steel” committed “Memorial Day Massacre” when strikers attempted protest- strike failed, SWOC not recognized for years

    iii)Period saw union membership increase by millions, growing recognition

    e)Social Security

    i)Lobbying for social insurance for elderly and unemployed led to 1935 Social Security Act—payroll tax created to create pension system for workers upon retirement, unemployment insurance paid by employers gave laid off workers temporary govt assistance, disability + dependent children aid created

    ii)Seen as insurance in which participants contributed and benefits for all

    f)New Directions in Relief

    i)SS for long term needs; to help currently unemployed created 1935 Works Progress Administration under Harry Hopkins to build + renovate public buildings, employ millions, pump money into economy

    ii)WPA replaced smaller CWA after 1934 fall- $5 billion budget vs $1 billion

    iii)Federal Writers Project of WPA (Music Proj, Theater Proj, ect.) provided govt salary to those ppl to continue work

    iv)Men often given relief in form of work relief and employment whereas women mainly given cash assistance

    g)The 1936 “Referendum”

    i)With 1936 revival of economy doubts about re-election from 1935 troubles largely dispelled. Repub nominee Alf Landon ran poor campaign, other Roosevelt dissidents (e.g. Coughlin and Townsend’s Union Party) very weak

    ii)Election largest landslide to date, Dems increased majorities in both Congressional houses; results highlighted Dem coalition of farmers, urban working ppl, unemployed and poor, progressive liberals, and blacks

    3)The New Deal in Disarray

    a)The Court Fight

    i)1936 landslide led Roosevelt to deal with Supreme Court whose conservative rulings (against NRA, AAA) he feared would ruin more legislation

    ii)1937 Roosevelt proposed overhaul of court system to Congress, including adding six new justices to Supreme Court so that he could appoint liberals and change ideological balance. Conservatives outraged as “Court-packing plan”

    iii)Legislation failed but more moderate court no longer a New Deal obstacle, although administration was damaged and Roosevelt viewed as power hungry

    b)Retrenchment and Recession

    i)In summer 1937 Roosevelt feared inflation so began to cut fed govt programs and reduce deficit—led to recession of 1937 (“Roosevelt’s Recession”); increased govt spending in 1938 for public works seemed to lead to recovery

    ii)Roosevelt began to denounce economic concentrations + sought antirust law reform- Congress formed Temporary National Economic Committee, apptd Thurman Arnold head of the antitrust division at the Justice Dept

    iii)1938 Fair Labor Standards Act established nat’l minimum wage, 40 hour work week, child labor limits

    iv)By end of 1938 New Deal largely over b/c of Congressional opposition + growing global crisis and Roosevelt’s concentration on war preparation

    4)Limits and Legacies of the New Deal

    a)The Idea of the “Broker State”

    i)New Deal backers originally sought to remake American capitalism and create new controls to make new economic order. Instead, transformation of government as “broker state” in which govt was a mediator in competition btwn interest groups rather than force to create universal harmony

    ii)Before 1930s main interest group corporations, but by end of 1930s business interests competing with labor, agricultural economy, and consumers

    b)African Americans and the New Deal

    i)New Deal did little to assist African Americans; Roosevelt himself not opposed to blacks- his “Black Cabinet” of blacks in second-level administrative positions, many blacks received govt relief or assistance

    ii)Electoral shift as blacks no longer overwhelmingly voted Republican but by 1936 90% voting Democratic- even though race not part of New Deal agenda

    iii)New Deal agencies reinforced discrimination by separating blacks in CCC and NRA codes, WPA gave minorities lower-paying jobs

    c)The new Deal and the “Indian Problem”

    i)Federal government sought to erase Indian problem by assimilating them and decreasing amt who identified as members of tribe

    ii)Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier proponent of cultural relativism and therefore supported legislation to reverse Native pressures to assimilate and instead be given right to live traditionally—Indian reorganization Act of 1934 advanced many of these goals by re-allowing collective ownership

    d)Women and the New Deal

    i)Administration mostly unconcerned w/ feminist movement b/c lack of popular support but nevertheless had symbolic gestures (Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins first female Cabinet member, other women appts in govt)

    ii)New Deal supported notion that women withdraw from working to open up positions for men—agencies offered women few jobs

    iii)Like with AAs New Deal not against women but still accepted cultural norms

    e)The New Deal in the West and the South

    i)West and South given special attention by New Deal relief and public works programs; these programs didn’t challenge racial and ethnic prejudices

    ii)New Deal had profound impact on West b/c farming central to economy and was a good site for and had the need for dams, electricity, other public works

    iii)New Deal programs profound in South b/c less economically developed than rest of nation in 1930s, gave federal attention to South that no previous administration had ever done b/c of view of S as “backward”

    f)The new Deal and the National Economy

    i)New Deal failed to end Depression, change drastically the maldistribution of wealth. New Deal did allow new groups previously unheld powers (labor, women, farmers), economically developed South and West, increased govt regulation, created welfare state thru relief and Social Security that broke w/ tradition of providing little public help to citizens deeply in need

    g)The New Deal and American Politics

    i)Roosevelt strengthened power of federal government as local govt took second seat to national govt, presidency established as center of power and shifted Congress to more secondary role

    ii)New Deal led to political shifts—Dem Party now strong coalition ready to dominate national politics; reawakened interest in economy over cultural issues; changed expectations American people had of government

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Global Crisis, 1921-1941

    1)The Diplomacy of the New Era

    a)Replacing the League

    i)Harding administration sought to negotiate separate peace treaties w/ Central Powers, find impermanent way to replace League as guarantor of world peace

    ii)Washington Conference of 1921 sought to deal w/ naval arms race btwn US, GB, Japan: Five-Power Pact limited armaments; Nine-Power Act continued Chinese Open Door policy; Four-Power Act acknowledged Pacific territories

    iii)Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928 btwn 14 nations to outlaw war as policy measure

    iv)New Era efforts to protect peace w/o active international duties

    b)Debts and Diplomacy

    i)Diplomacy used to ensure free overseas trade thru reducing war and making financial arrangements w/ other nations

    ii)US prosperity depended on Eur economy, which was suffering from war destruction, Allied debt on US loans, Central reparations US acted to head off collapse thru 1924 Dawes Plan that created circular loan system where US loaned Germany money to pay GB + French debt who used $ to pay US debt

    iii)System led to increase in Eur debt, US banks and corporations took advantage of collapsed industries to assert themselves; high US tariffs under Republicans prevented Eur export of goods to earn money to repay loans

    iv)US economic expansion into Latin America during 1920s to better access rich natural resources, give loans to governments

    c)Hoover and the World Crisis

    i)Stock market crash of 1929 and worsening problems after 1931, growing nationalism + new hostile governments faced by Hoover administration

    ii)Hoover promised to recognize new Latin American govt if any collapsed, did not intervene some defaulted on US loans (against M. Doctrine + R.Corollary)

    iii)In efforts to restore Eur economic stability Pres refused to cancel debts- some nations defaulted; 1932 World Disarmament Conference ended in failure

    iv)Difficulties increased b/c of control by Benito Mussolini’s nationalistic Fascist Party in Italy & Adolf Hitler’s Nationalist Socialist Party (Nazis)

    v)Crisis in Asia when in 1931 Japanese military staged coup against liberal govt b/c it had allowed China’s leader Chiang Kai-Shek to expand his power in Manchuria (which had been economically dominated by Japan) Japan invaded Manchuria + then China itself (Hoover refused to issue sanctions)

    vi)Interwar diplomacy of international voluntary cooperation and refusal to actively commit itself a failure; nation could now adopt internationalism or become even more nationalistic + isolated would try measures of both

    2)Isolationism and Internationalism

    a)Depression Diplomacy

    i)Early Roosevelt admin foreign policy concerned mainly w/ pressing economic issues- sought to differ from Hoover by solving war debts + adopting gold standard. However, 1933 World Economic Conference accomplished little

    ii)FDR forbid continuation of circular loan system, did little to stabilize international currencies; did adopt Reciprocal trade Agreement Act of 1934 to advance principles of free trade

    b)American and the Soviet Union

    i)FDR agreed to recognize Soviet Union in 1933 in hopes of increasing trade btwn nations (not b/c of lessening of hatred toward Communism)

    c)The Good Neighbor Policy

    i)“Good Neighbor Policy” toward Latin America focused on trade reciprocity (free trade);1933 Inter-American Conference administration officially pledged to not intervene in affairs of Latin nations. Closer economic ties emerged

    d)The Rise of Isolationism

    i)Geneva Conference on disarmament disbanded and Japan withdrew from 1921 Washington Conference; agreements of 1920s collapsed during 1930s

    ii)Many Americans supported isolationism b/c internationalism of League of Nations failed to restrain Japanese Asian aggression, belief US business interests had led to WW I involvement; FDR helpless to change tide

    iii)Neutrality Acts of 1935, ’36, ’37 meant to prevent issues of WWI from allowing US entrance into new war- “neutral rights” of US citizens defined, “cash-and-carry” policy allowed only nonmilitary goods to be sold to warring countries who had to provide own transportation

    iv)Military neutrality upheld after Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia and during Spain’s civil war btwn fascist Falangists + repub govt

    v)Alarm over Japan’s 1937 new assaults into China (after 1931 Manchuria invasion) led FDR to question isolationism, delivered “Quarantine speech” saying aggressors should be prevented from spreading war; speech unpopular

    e)The Failure of Munich

    i)In 1936 Hitler moved army into demilitarized Rhineland, 1938 invaded Austria to create union (anschluss) + demanded Czechoslovakia cede Sudetenland to increase lands for Germans to live (lebensraum); 1938 Munich Conference GB + France appeased Hitler for promise would be last expansion

    ii)1939 “appeasement” collapsed w/ German invasion of whole Czechoslovakia and then Poland- GB + France honored defense agreement w/ Poland, in September declared war against Germany

    3)From Neutrality to Intervention

    a)Neutrality Tested

    i)Most Americans supported Allies, FDR wanted to grant assistance by allowing arms sales to belligerents using “cash-and-carry” policy

    ii)Quiet “phony war” period shattered by spring 1940 German blitzkrieg invasion of W. Eur, by June France had fallen + GB retreated at Dunkirk

    iii)Roosevelt increased aid to Allies + monies for US self-defense, “scraped bottom of the barrel” to give GB’s Churchill war materials 

    iv)FDR able to take steps b/c public opinion shift after fall of France Germany now seen as threat to US by majority; debate still btwn “interventionists” who wanted increased US war involvement and “isolationist” America First Committee supported by many Repubs

    b)The Third-Term Campaign

    i)Roosevelt sought 3rd term in 1940 presidential election; Repubs nominated Wendell Willkie. Roosevelt won election w/ heavy measure of support

    c)Neutrality Abandoned

    i)After election Roosevelt changed US war role-- cash-short GB extended “lend-lease” agreement that allowed sale but also lending of armaments, began ensuring shipments reached GB by Navy patrolling Atlantic for subs

    ii)After Germany broke 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact by invading the USSR, US extended “lend-lease” to Russians; Nazi subs began attacking US ships, Congress voted to allow arming of merchants + US attacks on subs

    iii)1941 Churchill and Roosevelt released Atlantic Charter tying two nations together to war aims to destroy “Nazi tyranny”

    d)The Road to Pearl Harbor

    i)1940 Japan signed Tripartite Pact allying itself w/ Germany and Italy; in spite of Roosevelt denouncing Japanese aggression in 1941 it invaded Indochina

    ii)US froze Jap assets + placed trade embargo preventing Japan from buying impt supplies (including oil). Tokyo attempted to negotiate w/ US to continue flow of supplies, but Jap PM Konoye forced out of office by Gen Hideki Tojo

    iii)Tojo govt refused to recognize US calls to guarantee Chinese territorial rights so negotiations broke down, by November war imminent; on December 7, 1941 Jap aircraft carriers attacked US Pacific Navy HQ at Pearl Harbor

    iv)US lost 8 battleships, 2,000 soldiers dead, US Pacific forces weakened; resulted in unifying American ppl into commitment to war

    v)December 8, 1941 US declared war on Japan; December 11 Germany and Italy declared war on US, likewise same say us declared war on them

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - America In A World At War

    1)War on Two Fronts

    a)Containing the Japanese

    i)After Pearl Harbor US forces surrendered in the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island; to turn tide US lead 2 offensives- Gen Douglas MacArthur’s attacks from the south, and Admiral Chester Nimitz attacked from HI to the west

    ii)May 1942 Battle of Coral Sea weakened Jap navy; more important Battle of Midway Island June 1942 regained US central Pacific control

    iii)Mid-1943 after fighting in Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal) US turned tide

    b)Holding Off the Germans

    i)US military plans in Europe influenced by Soviet Union and GB; FDR decided to delay invasion into France in favor of October 1942 counter-offensive in N. Africa against Nazi Gen Erwin Rommel; by May 1943 Gen George Patton and British Gen Montgomery had driven Germans from Africa

    ii)Soviet Red Army held off immense German 1942-1943 winter offensive at Stalingrad, Hitler’s forces exhausted and forced to abandon eastern advance

    iii)July 1943 US agreed to British plan to invade Sicily, Mussolini govt collapsed but German reinforcements prevented capture of Rome until June 1944; slow, costly Italy campaign delayed French channel invasion Soviets had called for

    c)America and the Holocaust

    i)By 1942 news of Holocaust (Nazi campaign to exterminate European Jews) prompting public cries to end killing, but US govt resisted calls for military aid + officials at the State Dept deliberately refused to let Jews enter US

    2)The American People In Wartime

    a)Prosperity

    i)WWII ended Great Depression problems of unemployment, deflation, production b/c of wartime economic expansion + massive govt spending (federal budget grew from 1939 $9 billion to 1945 $100 billion)

    b)The War and the West

    i)West shared disproportionally in massive govt capital investments; 

    ii)Businessman Henry Kaiser steered federal funds to make Pacific Coast major industrial center for shipbuilding, aircraft; launching stage for Japanese war

    c)Labor and the War

    i)Labor shortage caused by military recruitment; unemployed from Depression worked, but also women + other previously unused groups entered workforce 

    ii)Union membership increased; new govt limits on wage increases +“no-strike” promise, in return govt allowed all new workers to automatically join unions

    iii)Govt+ public sought to reduce inflation + guarantee production w/o disruption

    d)Stabilizing Boom

    i)1942 Congress passed Anti-Inflation Act which allowed Pres to freeze prices and wages, set rations; enforced by the Office of Price Administration

    ii)Govt spent 2X more $ btwn 1941-1945 than it had during whole existence; raised $ thru bond sales, Revenue Act of 1942 created new high tax brackets

    e)Mobilizing Production

    i)1942 War Production Board created to organize mobilization effort but was largely unable to direct military purchases + include small businesses; program later replaced by White House Office of War Mobilization

    ii)Nevertheless, US economy met all war needs; new factories were built, entire rubber industry created. By 1944 output 2X that of all Axis nations combined

    f)Wartime Science and Technology

    i)Govt stimulated new military technologies by funneling massive funds to National Defense Research Committee

    ii)Originally Germany (w/ sophisticated tanks + submarines) and Japan (w/ strong naval-air power) technologically ahead of Allies; US, however, had experience w/ mass production in auto industry and was able to convert many of these plants to produce armaments

    iii)Allied advances in radar + sonar beyond Axis capabilities helped limit effectiveness of U-Boats in Atlantic; Allies developed more effective anti-aircraft tech and produced large amount of powerful 4-engine aircraft (British Lancaster + US B17) able to attack military forces + industrial centers 

    iv)Greatest Allied advantage found in intelligence gathering—British Ultra project able to break German “Enigma” code and intercept info on enemy movements; American Magic operation broke Japanese “Purple” code

    g)African-Americans and the War

    i)Blacks wanted to use war as means of improving own conditions. A Philip Roth (head of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car porters) wanted all companies w/ war contracts to integrate work force

    ii)Fearing black workers strike, FDR created Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate labor discrimination. Later, Congress of Racial equality combated discrimination in society at large using popular resistance

    iii)War saw migration of blacks from rural South to industrial cities of North in greater numbers than those found of first Great Migration during WWI

    h)Native Americans and the War

    i)Some Native Americans served in military (some as famous “Code Talkers”), many others left reservations seeking work in war industries

    i)Mexican-American War Workers

    i)War labor shortages lead to large Mex immigration of braceros (contract laborers); ethnic tensions from growing immigrant neighborhoods w/ existing white communities led to “Zoot-Suit Riots” in Los Angeles in 1943

    j)Women and Children of War

    i)Large number of women entered roles they were previously excluded from

    ii)Many women worked in factories to replace men who had entered military, but some inequality existed in what jobs they could hold in factories

    iii)Most women took service-sector jobs in growing govt bureaucracies; limited others worked in “male” heavy-industry (famous Rosie the Riveter image)

    iv)Over 1/3 of teenagers took jobs during war; crime rate also rose during war

    k)Wartime Life and Culture

    i)Increased prosperity from war led to marked rise in theater and movie attendance, magazine and news circulation, hotel, casino, dance hall visits

    ii)War effort largely seen as means of protecting material comfort + consumer choice of “home”; visions of home and future women romanticized by troops

    l)The Internment of Japanese Americans

    i)WWII did not largely see restrictions of civil liberties + growth of hatred toward fringe groups as during WWI; little ethnic tension in part due to propaganda attacking enemy’s political system but not people

    ii)Glaring exception in treatment of Japanese Americans who were painted as scheming + cruel (re-enforced by Pearl Harbor); white Eur groups largely accepted by now, but assimilated Japs faced prejudice + viewed as “foreign”

    iii)Conspiracy theories of Jap-Americans aiding in Pearl Harbor attacks led govt + military to see them as a threat; 1942 Roosevelt created War Relocation Authority to move Japanese citizens to “relocation camps” for monitoring

    iv)Starting 1943 condition began to improve as some Japs allowed to got o college or take jobs on East Coast; although 1944 Supreme Court case Korematsu v U.S. ruled relocation constitutional, by that time most of internees had been allowed to leave camps

    m)Chinese Americans and the War

    i)US war alliance w/ China helped Chinese Americans advance legal + social position—1943 Congress repealed Chinese Exclusion acts

    ii)Many Chinese took jobs in industry or were drafted into the military

    n)The Retreat from Reform

    i)FDR wanted to shift priority from reform to war effort and victory

    ii)With massive unemployment no longer an issue + Republican gains, Congress dismantled relief programs and other New Deal programs

    iii)In 1944 Pres election Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey; Dems re-nominated Roosevelt but w/ new, less liberal VP candidate Harry Truman

    iv)Despite deteriorating health Roosevelt was popularly elected; Dems maintained control of both Houses of Congress

    3)The Defeat of the Axis

    a)The Liberation of France

    i)By 1944 devastating Allied strategic bombing against German industry at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin reduced production + complicated transport; German Luftwaffe forced to retreat to bases w/in Germany itself, weakened it

    ii)After 2 year buildup in England Supreme Allied Commander Gen Dwight Eisenhower ordered invasion across English Channel into Normandy, France on “D-Day” (June 6, 1944); Allies drove Germans from the coast, by September forced them to retreat from France, Belgium

    iii)In December Germany counter-attacked during Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes Forest, but soon repelled; with Soviet advances on Eastern front, Allies began moving into Germany across Rhine

    iv)April 30 Hitler commits suicide; May 8, 1945 full surrender + “V-E” Day

    b)The Pacific Offensive

    i)Thru 1944 American navy crippling Japanese shipping and economy in Pacific; on mainland Asia Japan attacking thru Chinese interior trying to cutoff Gen Stilwell’s Burma Road for supplies

    ii)June 1944 Americans captured Mariana Islands, in September Battle of Leyte Gulf Japanese navy decimated by US sinking of its aircraft carriers; in next few months Japanese fought desperate battles of resistance in Feb at Iwo Jima, in June at Okinawa (used Kamikaze suicide bombers throughout)

    iii)Many feared bloody island battles would ensue w/ invasion of Japanese mainland, but by 1945 Japanese weakened by firebombing in Tokyo, shelling of industrial centers; moderates in govt trying to sue peace against will of military leaders wanting to continue fight

    c)The Manhattan Project

    i)After news in 1939 that Nazis pursuing atomic bomb, US and +GB began race to develop one before them; work based on discovery of uranium radioactivity by Enrico Fermi 1930s, Einstein’s theory of relativity

    ii)Army took over control of research and poured billions of $ into Manhattan Project which gathered scientists to create nuclear chain reactions w/ a bomb

    iii)On July 16 1945 the plutonium bomb Trinity, created by scientist Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory, successfully tested

    d)Atomic Warfare

    i)Pres Truman issues ultimatum to Japanese for “unconditional surrender” by Aug 3rd or face annihilation; after Jap moderates unable to convince military leaders to accept Truman ordered use of atomic weapon

    ii)Some argue atomic weapon unnecessary b/c in time Japs would have sued for peace; others argue only atomic bomb could convince radical military leaders that surrender necessary. Truman saw weapon as military device that could end war quickly, but some say he used it to intimidate Stalin and Soviets

    iii)August 6, 1945 bomber Enola Gay dropped atomic weapon on Japanese city Hiroshima, killing 80,000 civilians; because Jap govt didn’t respond, on August 8 second atomic  bomb dropped on city of Nagasaki killing 100,000

    iv)By Aug 14 emperor agreed to surrender; September 2, 1945 Japan signed articles of surrender (“V-J Day”) marking end of WWII

    v)14 million combatants had died during war, even more civilians; threat of nuclear war loomed between two emerging super-powers in US and Soviet Union


    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - The Cold War

    1)Origins of the Cold War

    a)Sources of Soviet-American Tensions

    i)Rivalry emerged b/c of difft visions of postwar world: US foresaw world where nations shed military alliances and used democratic international bodies as mediators; Soviet Union sought to control areas of strategic influence 

    b)Wartime Diplomacy

    i)Tensions began in 1943 b/c of Allied refusal to open second front w/ French invasion, dispute over governance of Poland unresolved at Tehran Conference

    c)Yalta

    i)Meeting of Big Three at Yalta in 1945 led to plan to create United Nations (w/ General Asembly and Security Council w/ permanent members)

    ii)Disagreement existed over future of Polish govt (independent + democratic vs Communist); US wanted to German reconstruction, Stalin wanted heavy reparations- finally agreed to commission and each Ally given German “zone”

    2)The Collapse of the Peace

    a)The Failure of Potsdam

    i)After Roosevelt’s death in April 1945, new Pres Truman decided US needed to “Get Tough” w Soviets to honor Yalta accords

    ii)Potsdam Conference in July ended w/ Stalin receiving increased land w/ new Polish-German border, US refusing to allow German reparations from Allied zones but US recognizing new communist Polish govt under Soviet influence

    b)The China Problem

    i)US had vision of open world “policed” by major powers; vision troubled by unpopular + corrupt Chinese govt under Chiang Kai-shek (supported by US aid during civil war) who battled communists under Mao Zedong

    ii)B/c Kai-shek govt sure to collapse, US sought to create new, Pro-West Japan by encouraging industrial development, lift trade restrictions

    c)The Containment Doctrine

    i)US no longer sought “open” world but rather “containment” of Soviet expansion; new Truman Doctrine sought aid for those forces in Turkey + Greece opposing take-over of Communist forces under Soviet influence

    d)The Marshall Plan

    i)Sec of State George Marshall 1947 plan to provide aid to all Eur nations (for humanitarian reasons, to rebuild to create markets for US goods, and to strengthen Pro-US govts against communists); 1948 created the Economic Cooperation Administration to channel billions of $ to aid economic revival

    e)Mobilization at Home

    i)US maintained wartime military levels, established Atomic Energy Commission to continue nuclear research 

    ii)National Security Act of 1947 restructured military by creating Department of Defense to combine all armed services, create National Security Council in White House and Central Intelligence Agency to collect information

    f)The Road to NATO

    i)Truman merged German “Western zones” into the West German republic; Stalin responded by blockading Western Berlin, Truman responded w/ airlift to re-supply inhabitants; Federal Republic became govt of west Germany, Democratic Republic of east

    ii)To strengthen military position US and Western Eur naions1949 created North Atlantic Treaty Organization as alliance to protect all members against threat of Soviet invasion (communists 1955 formed similar Warsaw Pact)

    g)Reevaluating Cold War Policy

    i)1949 saw Soviet Union explode atomic weapon and collapse of Nationalists in China to Mao’s Communists 

    ii)To reevaluate foreign policy, National Security Council released report NSC-68 that held US should lead noncommunist world and oppose communist expansion everywhere it existed, also expand US military power dramatically

    3)American Society and Politics After the War

    a)The Problems of Reconversion

    i)After end of war Truman attempted to quickly return nation to normal economic conditions, but problems ensued

    ii)No economic collapse b/c of increase in spending on consumer goods from savings, Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill) provided education + economic aid to returning soldiers that further increased spending

    iii)Problems arose w/ high inflation, union strikes in RR + mining industries, and displacement of some minorities and women b/c of returning soldiers to labor

    b)The Fair Deal Rejected

    i)After Jap surrender Truman proposed “Fair Deal” to enact liberal reforms—included raising minimum wage, enacting Fair Employment Practices Act, expanding Social Security, and creating nation health insurance plan

    ii)Fair Deal opposed by Repubs who gained majority in both Houses of Congress in 1946 elections; Repubs sought to reduce govt spending and economic controls, cut taxes for wealthy, refused to raise wages

    iii)Repubs wanted to decrease powers unions gained in 1935 Wagner Act by passing 1947 Labor-Management Relations Act of (Taft-Hartley Act)- made “closed-shop” illegal; limited efforts help those not yet organized (minorities)

    c)The Election of 1948

    i)Truman sought to make re-election about liberal reforms but electorate saw him as weak; Southern Dems (Dixiecrats) + progressives refused full support

    ii)Repubs nominated Thomas Dewey and seemed to be in strong position to win, but intense campaigning by Truman and his platform to reduce inflation + help common man allowed him to win Pres; Dems also won both Houses of C

    d)The Fair Deal Revivied

    i)New Dem Congress allowed for minimum wage increase + Social Security expansion, but hostile to Fair Deal programs expanding education aid, national healthcare, and civil rights

    ii)Truman did end govt hiring discrimination, desegregated armed forces; Supreme Court inSkelley v. Kraemer rules community “covenants” preventing movement of blacks unenforceable by courts

    e)The Nuclear Age

    i)Nuclear weapons viewed w/ fear b/c of threat from Soviet Union (expressed in pop culture,film noir, and govt preparations for nuclear attack), but public also awed by technological potential of nuclear power (Dreams of prosperity and unlimited + cheap electricity)

    4)The Korean War

    a)The Divided Peninsula

    i)Korea divided at 38th Parallel into Communist North and Southern government of capitalist Syngman Rhee (supported by US)

    ii)Nationalists in North invaded S in 1950 in effort to reunite countries; US won UN resolution calling for support of S. Korea armies (Russia unable to veto b/c boycotting Security Council at time)—“containment” but also “liberation”

    b)From Invasion to Stalemante

    i)Gen MacArthur (head of UN forces) able to advance far into North, but new communist Chinese govt feared American forces + entered conflict late 1950 

    ii)UN armies force dto retreat to 38th parallel long stalemate ensued until 1953

    iii)Truman wanted peace andnot new world war w/ China; Gen MacArthur publicly opposed peace effort and was relieved of command by Pres in 1951

    c)Limited Mobilization

    i)War led to only limited mobilization: Truman created Office of Defense Mobilization to combat rising inflation; govt seized RRs + steel mills during union strikes, increased govt spending stimulated economy

    ii)Inability of US to quickly end “small” war led to growth of fears of growth of communist  at home

    5)The Crusade Against Subversion

    a)HUAC and Alger Hiss

    i)“Red Scare” prompted by fear of Stalin, Communist growth (“loss” of China, Korean frustrations) many sought to blame US communist conspiracy

    ii)Repubs soguht to use anticommunist feeligns to win support against Dems; Congress created House Un-American Activities Committee 1947 to investigate communist subversion

    iii)Investigation into former State Dept official Alger Hiss revaled some complicity w/ communists increased fear of communist infiltrations

    b)The Federal Loyalty Program and the Rosenberg Case

    i)Truman began 1947 program to determine “loyalty” of fed employees; FBI monitored radicals; 1950 Congress passed McCarran Interal Secuity Act forcing communist groups to register w/ government

    ii)Explosion of atomic bomb by Soviets led to famous Rosenberg tiral to find out how Russia had learned of technology so quickly; Rosenbergs executed

    iii)HUAC, Rosenberg trial, “Loyalty” program, Hiss ordeal, McCarran Act all lead to national anticommunist hysteria at national, state, and local level

    c)McCarthyism

    i)Wisconsin Sen Joseph McCarthy 1951 began leveling charges of communist agents in State Dept and other agencies; his subcommittee was at the fore of anticommunist hysteria + partisan politics

    d)The Republican Revival

    i)Korean stalemate + anticommunist sentiments led to Dem disappointments

    ii)Dem nominated Adlai Stevenson (viewed as liberal and weak on Communism); Repubs nominated popular Gen Dwight Eisenhower and VP Richard Nixon (Eisenhower talked of Korean peace, Nixon of communist subversion)

    iii)Eisenhower won election by huge margin & Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Affluent Society

     Sources of Economic Growth
    ·By 1949, despite the continuing problems of postwar reconversion, an
    economic expansion had begun that would continue with only
    brief interruptions for almost twenty years
    · The causes of this growth varied
    1. Government spending continued to stimulate growth
    through public funding of schools, housing, veteran’s benefits,
    welfare, and the $100 billion interstate highway program
    ·Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    1. Technological progress also contributed to the boom
    a. There was the development of electronic
    computers
    b. The first modern computer emerged as a result of
    efforts during WWII to decipher enemy codes
    c. Not until the 1980s did most Americans come into
    direct and regular contact with computers, but the new
    machines were having a substantial effect on the
    economy long before that
    ·The national birth rate reversed a long pattern of decline with the socalled
    baby boom
    1. The baby boom meant increased consumer demand and
    expanding economic growth
    ·The rapid expansion of suburbs helped stimulate growth in several
    important sectors of the economy
    ·Because of this unprecedented growth, the economy grew nearly ten
    times as fast as the population in their thirty years after the war
    1. The American people had achieved the highest standard
    of living of any society in the history of the world
    The Rise of the Modern West
    · No region of the country experience more dramatic changes as a
    result of the new economic growth than the American West
    ·By the 1960s some parts of the West were among the most important
    industrial and cultural centers of the nation in their own right
    ·As during WWII much of the growth of the West was a result of federal
    spending and investment 1. Dams, power stations, highways,
    and other infrastructure projects
    ·The enormous increase in automobile use after WWII gave a large
    stimulus to the petroleum industry and contributed to the rapid
    growth of oil fields in Texas and Colorado
    ·State governments in the West invested heavily in their universities
    ·Climate also contributed
    The New Economics
    ·The exciting discovery of the power of the American economic system
    was a major cause of the confident, even arrogant tone of much
    American political life in the 1950s
    1. There was the belief that Keynesian economics made it
    possible for government to regulate and stabilize the
    economy without intruding directly into the private sector
    ·By the mid-1950s, Keynesian theory was rapidly becoming a
    fundamental article of faith
    1. Armed with these fiscal and monetary tools, many
    economists now believed, it was possible for the government to
    maintain a permanent prosperity
    ·If any doubters remained, there was ample evidence to dispel their
    misgivings during the era
    ·Accompanying the belief in the possibility of permanent economic
    stability was the equally exhilarating belief in permanent
    economic growth by the mid-1950s, reformers concerned about
    economic deprivation were arguing that the solution lay in
    increased production
    ·The Keynesians never managed to remake federal economic policy
    entirely to their liking
    1. Still, the new economics gave many Americans a
    confidence in their ability to solve economic problems that
    previous generations had never developed
    Captial and Labor
    ·A relatively small number or large-scale organizations controlled an
    enormous proportion oft eh nation’s economic activity
    ·A similar consolidation was occurring in the agricultural economy
    ·Corporations enjoying booming growth were reluctant to allow strikes
    to interfere with their operations
    ·By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of
    relationship with employers
    1. “Postwar Contract”
    ·Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries
    were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits
    1. In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising
    other issues
    ·The contract served the corporations and the union leadership well
    ·Many rank-and-file workers resented the abandonment of efforts to
    give them more control over the conditions of their labor
    ·The economic successes of the 1950s helped pave the way for a
    reunification of the labor movement
    1. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the
    Congress of Industrial Organizations ended their 20 year rivalry
    and merged to create the AFL- CIO
    ·But success also bread stagnation and corruption in some union
    bureaucracies
    ·While the labor movement enjoyed significant success in winning
    better wages and benefits for workers already organized in
    strong unions, the majority of laborers who were as yet
    unorganized made fewer advances
    1. New obstacles to organization
    a. Taft-Hartley Act and the state right-to-work laws
    ·In the American South impediments to unionization were enormous
    1. Antiunion sentiment was so powerful in the South that
    almost all organizing drives encountered crushing and usually
    fatal resistance
    The Explosion of Science and Technology
    Medical Breakthroughs
    ·The development of antibiotics had its origins=2 0in the discoveries of
    Louis Pasteur and Jules-Francois Joubert.
    ·Working in France in the 1870s they produced the first conclusive
    evidence that virulent bacterial infections could be defeated by
    other, more ordinary bacteria.
    ·In 1920, in the meantime, Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered
    the antibacterial properties of an organism that he named
    penicillin.
    ·There was also dramatic progress in immunization-the development of
    vaccines that can protect humans from contracting both
    bacterial and viral diseases.
    ·In 1954, the American scientist Jonas Salk introduced an effective
    vaccine against the disease that had killed and crippled
    thousands of children and adults.
    ·Average life expectancy in that same period rose by five years, to 71.
    Pesticides
    ·The most famous pesticides was dichlorodiphenyl-dichloromethane
    [DDT] a compound discovered in 1939 by Paul Muller.
    Postwar Electronic Research
    ·Researchers in the 1940s produced the first commercially viable
    televisions and created a technology that made it possible to
    broadcast programming over large areas.
    ·In 1948 bell Labs, the research arm of AT&T, produced=2 0the first
    transistor, a solid-state device capable of amplying electrical
    signals, which was much smaller and more efficient than the
    cumbersome vacuum tubes that had powered most electronic
    equipment in the past.
    ·Integrated circuits combined a number of once-separate electronic
    elements and embedded them into a single, microscopically
    small device.
    Postwar Computer Technology
    ·In the 1950s computers began to perform commercial functions for
    the first time, as data-processing devices used by businesses and
    other organizations.
    ·The first significant computer of the 1950s was the Universal
    Automatic Computer, which was developed initially for the U.S
    Bureau of the Census by the Remington Rand company.
    Bombs, Rockets, and Missles
    ·In 1952, the U.S successfully detonated the first hydrogen bomb.
    ·The development of the hydrogen bomb gave considerable impetus to
    a stalled scientific project in both the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
    The Space Program
    ·The Shock of Sputnik , th e united states had yet perform any similar
    feats , and the American government (and much of American
    society ) reacted to the announcement with alarm , as if the
    Soviet achievement was also a massive American failure .
    ·The centerpiece of space exploration , however . soon became the
    manned space program , established in 1958 through the
    creation of a new agency , the National Aeronautics and Space
    Administration (NASA ) and through the selection of the first
    American space pilots , or “astronauts”
    · They quickly became the nation’s most revered heroes .
    · The Apollo Program , Mercury and Gemini were followed by the Apollo
    program , whose purpose was to land men on the moon .
    · July 20 , 1969 , Neil Armstrong , Edwin Aldrin , and Michael Collins
    successfully traveled in a space capsule into orbit around the
    moon .
    · Armstrong and Aldrin , and Michael then detached a smaller craft from
    the capsule , landed on the surface of the moon , and became
    the first men to walk on a body other than earth .
    People of Plenty
    The Consumer Culture
    · At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing
    absorption with consumer goods
    · It was a result of:
    1. Increased prosperity
    2. Increasing variety and availability of products
    3. Advertiser’s adeptness in creating a demand for those
    product
    4. A growth of consumer credit
    To a striking degree, the prosperity of the 1950s and 1960s was
    consumer driven
    · Because consumer goods were so often marketed nationally, the
    1950s were notable for the rapid spread of creation national
    consumer crazes
    The Suburban Nation
    · By 1960 a third of the nation’s population was living in suburbs
    · The most famous of the postwar suburban developers, William Levitt,
    came to symbolize the new suburban growth with his use of
    mass-production techniques to construct a large housing
    development on Long Island, NY
    1. They helped to meet an enormous demand for housing
    that had been growing for more than a decade
    · Many Americans wanted to move to the suburbs
    1. One reason was the enormous importance postwar
    Americans place on family life after five years of war in which
    families had often been separated or otherwise disrupted
    2. They provided privacy
    3. A place to raise a large family
    4. They provided security from the noise and dangers of
    urban living
    5. They offered space for the new consumer goods
    6. Suburban life also helped provide a sense of community
    · Suburban neighborhoods
    1. They were not uniform
    The Suburban Family
    · For professional men, suburban life generally meant a rigid division
    between their working and personal worlds
    · For many middle-class married women, it meant an increase isolation
    from the workplace
    · One of the most influential books in postwar American life was a
    famous guide to child rearing
    1. Baby and Child Care
    a. Said that the needs of the child come before
    everything else
    b. Women who could afford not to work faced heavy
    pressures to remain in the home and concentrate on
    raising their children
    c.  Yet by 1960, nearly a third of all married women
    were in the paid workforce
    · The increasing numbers of women in the workplace laid the
    groundwork for demands for equal treatment by employers that
    became and important part of the feminist crusades of the 1960s
    and 1970s
    The Birth of Television
    · Television is perhaps the most powerful medium of mass
    communication in history
    · The television industry emerged directly out of the radio industry
    · Like radio, the television business was driven by advertising
    · The impact of television on American life was rapid, pervasive, and
    profound
    1. Television entertainment programming replace movies
    and radio as the principal source of diversion for American
    families
    · Much of the programming of the 1950s and early 1960s created a
    common image of American life
    1. An image that was predominately white, middle-class,
    and suburban
    2. Programming also reinforced the concept of gender roles
    3. Television inadvertently created conditions that could
    accentuate social conflict
    Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and Environmentalism
    ·
    Organized Society and Its Detractors
    · Large-scale organizations and bureaucracies increased their influence
    over American life in the postwar era
    ·More and more Americans were becoming convinced that the key to a
    successful future lay in acquiring the specialized training and
    skills necessary for work in large organizations
    1. The National Defense Education Act of 1958
    a. Provided federal funding for development of
    programs in those areas of science, mathematics, and
    foreign languages
    2. As in earlier eras, many Americans reacted to these
    developments with ambivalence, even hostility
    ·Novelists expressed misgivings in their work about the enormity and
    impersonality of modern society
    The Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth
    ·The most derisive critics of bureaucracy, and of middle-class society
    in general, were a group of young poets, writers, and artists
    generally known as the “beats” – beatniks
    ·The beats were the most visible evidence of a widespread
    restlessness among young Americans in the 1950s
    ·In part, that restlessness was a result of prosperity itself
    1. Tremendous public attention was directed at the
    phenomenon of “juvenile delinquency” and in both politics and
    popular culture there were dire warnings about the growing
    criminality of American youth
    ·Also disturbing to many older Americans was the style of youth
    culture
    1. The culture of alienation that the beats so vividly
    represented had counterparts even in ordinary middle-class
    behavior
    a. Teenage rebelliousness toward parents, youthful
    fascination with fast cars and motorcycles, and an
    increasing visibility of teenage sex, assisted by the
    greater availability of birth-control devices and the
    spreading automobile culture that came to dominated the social
    lives of teenagers in much of the nation
    2. The popularity of James Dean was a particularly vivid
    sign of this aspect of youth culture in the 1950s
    a. Dean became an icon of the unfocused
    rebelliousness of American youth in his time
    Rock 'n' Roll
    ·One of the most powerful signs of the restiveness of American youth
    was the enormous popularity of rock ‘n’ roll and of the greatest
    early rock star
    1. Elvis Presley
    a. Presley became a symbol of a youthful
    determination to push at the borders of the
    conventional and acceptable
    b. Presley’s music, like that of most early white rock
    musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues
    traditions
    c. Rock also drew from country western music, gospel
    music, even from jazz
    ·The rise of such white rock musicians as Presley was a result in part of
    the limited willingness of white audience to accept black
    musicians
    ·The rapid rise and enormous popularity of rock owed a great deal to
    innovations in radio and television programming
    1. Early in the 1950s, a new breed of radio announcers
    began to create programming aimed specifically at young fans
    of rock music
    a. Disk Jockeys
    ·Radio and television were important to the recording industry because
    they encouraged the sale of records
    1. Also important were jukeboxes
    ·Rock music began in the 1950s to do what jazz and swing had done in
    the 1920s – 40s
    1. To define both youth culture as a whole and the
    experience of a generation
    The "Other America"
    On the Margins of the Affluent Society
    ·In 1962, The Other America was published
    a. Chronicles of the continuing existence of poverty in
    America
    ·The great economic expansion of the postwar years reduced poverty
    dramatically but did not eliminate it
    ·Most of the poor experience poverty intermittently and temporarily
    ·This poverty was a poverty that the growing prosperity of the postwar
    era seemed to affect hardly at all
    Rural Poverty
    ·Among those on the margins of the affluent society were many rural
    Americans
    ·Not all farmers were poor
    1. But the agrarian economy did produce substantial
    numbers of genuinely impoverished people
    ·Migrant farm workers and coal miners fell to the same kind of poverty
    The Inner Cities
    ·As white families moved from cities to suburbs in vast numbers, more
    and more inner-city neighborhoods became vast repositories for
    the poor
    1. Ghettos from which there was no easy escape
    a. African Americans helped this growth
    ·Similar migrations from Mexico and Puerto Rico expanded poor
    Hispanic barrios in many American cities at the same time
    ·For many years, the principal policy response to the poverty of inner
    cities was “urban renewal”
    1. The effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and
    most degraded areas
    a. In some cases, urban renewal provided new public
    housing for poor city residents
    b. In many cases, urban renewal projects replaced
    “slums” with middle and upper-income housing, office
    towers, or commercial buildings
    ·One result of inner-city poverty was a rising rate of juvenile crime
    The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement
    The Brown Decision and "Massive Resistance"
    ·On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court announced its decision in the
    case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
    1. Ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision was the culmination of many decades of effort by
    black opponents of segregation
    ·The Topeka suit involved the case of an African-American girl who had
    to travel several miles to a segregated public school every day
    even though she lived virtually next door to a white elementary
    school
    1. The Court concluded that school segregation inflicted
    unacceptable damage on those it affected
    ·The following year, the Court issued another decision to provide rules
    for implementing the 1954 order
    1. It ruled that communities must work to desegregate
    their schools “with all deliberate speed,” but it set no
    timetable and left specific decisions up to lower courts
    ·Strong local opposition produced long delays and bitter conflicts
    1. More than 100 southern members of Congress signed a
    “manifesto” in 1956 denouncing the Brown decision and
    urging their constituents to defy it
    ·Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (1958)
    1. Refused to declare “pupil placement laws”, placing a
    student in a school based on academic or social behaviors,
    unconstitutional
    ·The Brown decision, far from ending segregation, had launched a
    prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local
    governments, and between those who believed in racial equality
    and those who did not
    ·In 1957, federal courts had ordered the desegregation of Central High
    School in Little Rick, Arkansas
    1. An angry white mob tried to prevent implementation of
    the order by blockading the entrances to the school
    2. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the
    National Guard and sending troops to Little Rock to restore
    order and ensure that the court orders would be obeyed
    The Expanding Movement
    ·The Brown decision helped spark a growing number of popular
    challenges to segregation in the South
    ·December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama,
    when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus to a
    white passenger
    1. The arrest of this admired woman produced outrage in
    the city’s African-American community and helped local
    leaders organize a successful boycott of the bus system to
    demand an end to segregated seating
    2. The bus boycott put economic pressure not only on the
    bus company but on many Montgomery merchants
    a. The bus boycotters found it difficult to get to
    downtown stores and tended to shop instead in their own
    neighborhoods
    ·A Supreme Court decision in 1956 declared segregation in public
    transportation to be illegal
    ·More important than the immediate victories of the Montgomery
    boycott was its success in establishing a new form of racial
    protest and in elevating to prominence a new figure in the
    movement for civil rights
    1. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
    a. King’s approach to black protest was based on the
    doctrine of nonviolence
    b. He urged African Americans to engage in peaceful
    demonstrations
    2. The popular movement he came to represent soon
    spread throughout the South and throughout the country
    ·One important color line had been breached as early as 1947, when
    the Brooklyn Dodgers signed the great Jackie Robinson as the
    first African American to play Major League Baseball
    ·President Eisenhower signed a civil rights act in 1957
    1. Providing federal protection for blacks who wished to
    register to vote
    Cause of the Civil Rights Movement
    ·Several factors contributed to the rise of African-American protest in
    these years
    1. Millions of black men and women had served in the
    military or worked in war plants during the war and had
    derived from the experience a broader view of the world
    and their place in it
    2. Another factor was the growth of an urban black middle
    class
    3. Television and other forms of popular culture were
    another factor in the rising consciousness of racism among
    blacks
    ·Other forces were at work mobilizing many white Americans to
    support the movement once it began
    1. The Cold War
    2. Political mobilization of northern blacks
    3. Labor unions with substantial black memberships
    · By the early 1960s, this movement had made it one of the most
    powerful forces in America
    Eisenhower Republicanism
    "What was Good for...General Motors"
    · The first Republican administration in 20 years was staffed mostly
    with men drawn from the same quarter as those who had staffed
    Republican administrations in the 1920s
    1. The business community
    · Many of the nation's leading businessmen and financiers ha
    reconciled themselves to at least the broad outlines of the
    Keynesian welfare state the New Deal had launched and had
    come to see it as something that actually benefited them
    · To his cabinet, Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and
    business executives
    · Eisenhower’s leadership style helped enhance the power of his
    cabinet officers and others
    · Eisenhower’s consistent inclination was to limit federal activities and
    encourage private enterprise
    The Survival of the Welfare State
    · The president took few new initiatives in domestic policy
    · Perhaps the most significant legislative accomplishment of the
    Eisenhower administration was the Federal Highway Act of 1956
    1. Authorized $25 billion for a ten-year effort to construct
    over 40,000 miles of interstate highways
    2. The program was to be funded through a highway “trust
    fund” whose revenues would come from new taxes on the
    purchase of fuel, automobiles, trucks, and tires
    · In 1956, Eisenhower ran for a second term
    1. Republicans – Adlai Stevenson
    2. Eisenhower won
    · Democrats still held power over Congress
    The Decline of McCarthyism
    · In its first years in office the Eisenhower administration did little to
    discourage the anticommunist furor that had gripped the nation
    · Among the most celebrated controversies of the new administration’s
    first year was the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer
    1. He opposed the building of the Hydrogen Bomb
    2. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar association
    with various left-wing groups
    a. In 1953, the FBI distributed a dossier within the
    administration detailing Oppenheimer’s prewar
    association with various left-wing groups
    · But by 1954, such policies were beginning to produce significant
    opposition
    1. The clearest signal of that change was the political
    demise of Senator Joseph McCarthy
    a. He overstepped his boundaries when he charged
    Secretary of Army Robert Stevens
    b. Army-McCarthy hearings
    2. In December 1954, he was condemned for “conduct
    unbecoming a senator”
    Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War
    Dulles and "Massive Retaliation"
    · Eisenhower’s secretary of state, and the dominant figure in the
    nation’s foreign policy in the 1950s, was John Foster Dulles
    · He entered office denouncing the containment policies of the Truman
    years
    1. Arguing that the United States should pursue an active
    program of “liberation” which would lead to a “rollback” of
    communism expansion
    · “Massive Retaliation”
    1. The United States would, he explained, respond to
    communist threats to its allies not by using conventional forces
    to local conflicts but by relying on “the deterrent of massive
    retaliatory power” (nuclear weapons)
    · By the end of the decade, the United States had become a party to
    almost a dozen such treaties of mutual defense in NATO in all
    areas of the world
    France, America, and Vietnam
    ·
    Cold War Crisis
    ·
    Europe and the Soviet Union
    · Although the problems of the Third World were moving slowly to the
    center of American foreign policy, the direct relationship with the
    Soviet Union and the effort to resist communist expansion in
    Europe remained the principal concerns of the Eisenhower
    administration
    · In 1955, Eisenhower and other NATO leaders met with the Soviet
    premier, Nikolai Bulganin, at a cordial summit conference in
    Geneva
    1. They could find no basis for agreement
    · Relations between the Soviet Union and the West soured further in
    1956 in response to the Hungarian Revolution
    1. Hungarians were demanding democratic reforms
    a. Soviets came in to crush the uprising
    2. The suppression of the uprising convinced many
    American leaders that Soviet policies had not softened as much
    as the events of the previous two years had suggested
    ·The failure of conciliation brought renewed vigor to the Cold War and
    greatly intensified the Soviet-American arms race
    ·The arms race not only increased tensions between the United States
    and Russia
    1. It increased tensions within each nation as well
    The U-2 Crisis
    ·In this tense and fearful atmosphere, the Soviet Union raised new
    challenges to the West in Berlin
    ·In November 1958, Nikita Khrushchev renewed his predecessors’
    demands that NATO powers abandon the city
    1. The United States and its allies refused
    ·Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower discuss the issue
    personally
    1. The United States agreed
    ·Only days before Eisenhower was to leave for Moscow the Soviet
    Union announced that it had shot down an American U-2, a spy
    plane, over Russian territory
    ·By the spring of 1960, Khrushchev knew that no agreement was
    possible on the Berlin issue
    ·The events of 1960 provided a somber backdrop for the end of the
    Eisenhower administration
    ·He warned in his farewell address of 1961 of the “unwarranted
    influence” of a vast “military-industrial complex”
    1. His caution, in both domestic and international affairs,
    stood in marked contrast to the attitudes of his successors, who
    argued that the United States must act more boldly and
    aggressively on behalf of its goals at home and abroad
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - The Ordeal of Liberalism

    Expanding the Liberal State
    John Kennedy
    ·The campaign of 1960 produced two young candidates who claimed
    to offer the nation active leadership.
    ·The Republican nomination went almost uncontested to Vice President
    Richard Nixon, who promised moderate reform.
    ·John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the son of the wealthy powerful, and
    highly controversial Joseph P. Kennedy, former American
    ambassador to Britain.
    ·He premised his campaign, he said, “on the single assumption that
    the American people are uneasy at the present drift in our
    national course”.
    ·Kennedy had campaigned promising a set of domestic reforms more
    ambitious than any since the New Deal, a program he described
    as the “New Frontier”.
    ·Kennedy had traveled to Texas with his wife and Vice President Lyndon
    Johnson for a series of=2 0political appearances.
    ·While the presidential motorcade rode slowly through the streets of
    Dallas, shots rang out.
    ·He got shot in the throat and head, he was rushed to a hospital, where
    minutes later he was pronounced dead.
    ·Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested for the crime later that day, and
    then mysteriously murdered by a Dallas nightclub owner, Jack
    Ruby, 2 days later as he was being moved from one jail to
    another.
    ·In years later years many Americans came to believe that the Warren
    Commission report had ignored evidence of a wider conspiracy
    behind the murders.
    Lyndon Johnson
    ·The Kennedy assassination was a national trauma-a defining event for
    almost everyone old enough to be aware of it.
    ·Johnson was a native of the poor “hill country” of west Texas and had
    risen to become majority leader of the U.S. Senate by dint of
    extraordinary, even obsessive, effort and ambition.
    ·Between 1963 and 1966, he compiled the most impressive legislative
    record of any president since Franklin Roosevelt.
    ·He created the “Great Society”.
    ·Record Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, any of
    whose members had been swept into office=2 0only because of
    the margin of Johnson’s victory, ensured that the president would
    be able to fulfill many of his goals.
    The Assault on Poverty
    ·The most important welfare program was Medicare: a program to
    provide federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses.
    ·Its enactment in 1965 came at the end of a bitter, 20 year debate
    between those who believed in the concept of national health
    assistance and those who denounced it as “socialized medicine”.
    ·Medicare benefits available to all elderly Americans, regardless of
    need.
    ·Medicare simply shifted responsibility for paying those fees from the
    patient to the government.
    ·The centerpiece of this “war on poverty”, as Johnson called it, was the
    Office of economic Opportunity, which created an array of new
    educational, employment, housing, and health-care programs.
    ·The Community Action programs provided jobs for many poor people
    and gave them valuable experience in administrative and
    political work.
    ·The OEO spent nearly $3 billion during its first two years of existence,
    and it helped reduce poverty in some areas.
    Cities, Schools, and Immigration
    ·The Housing Act of 1961 offered $4.9 billion in federal grants to cities
    for the preservation of open spaces, the development of mass
    transit systems, and the subsidization of middle income housing.
    ·In 1966, Johnson established a new cabinet agency, the Department
    of Housing and Urban Development.
    ·Johnson also inaugurated the Model Cites program, which offered
    federal subsidies for urban redevelopment pilot programs.
    ·Johnson managed to circumvent both objections with the Elementary
    and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and a series of subsequent
    measures.
    ·Total federal expenditures for education and technical training rose
    from $5 billion to $12 billion between 1964 and 1967.
    ·The Immigration Act of 1965 maintained a strict limit on the number
    of newcomers admitted to the country each year (170,000), but
    it eliminated the “national origins” system established in the
    1920s, which gave preference to immigrants from northern
    Europe over those from other parts of the world.
    Legacies of the Great Society
    ·In 1964, Johnson managed to win passage of the $11.5 bill ion tax cut
    that Kennedy had first proposed in 1962.
    ·The cut increased the federal deficit, but substantial economic growth
    over the next several years made up for much of the revenue
    initially lost.
    ·The high costs of the Great Society programs, the deficiencies and
    failures of many of them, and the inability of the government to
    find the revenues to pay for them contributed to a growing
    disillusionment in later years with the idea of federal efforts to
    solve social problems.
    The Battle for the Racial Equality
    Expanding Protests
    ·John Kennedy had long been vaguely sympathetic to the cause of
    racial justice, but he was hardly a committed crusader.
    ·In February 1960, black college students in Greensboro, North
    Carolina, staged a sit-in at a segregated Woolworth’s lunch
    counter, and in the following weeks, similar demonstrations
    spread throughout the South, forcing many merchants to
    integrate their facilities.
    ·The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, worked to keep the
    spirit of resistance alive.
    ·In 1961, an interracial group of students, working with the Congress of
    Racial Equality, began what t hey called “freedom rides”.
    ·Traveling by bus throughout the South, the freedom riders tried to
    force the desegregation of bus stations.
    ·SNCC workers began fanning out through black communities and even
    into remote rural areas to encourage blacks to challenge the
    obstacles to voting that the Jim Crow laws had created and that
    powerful social custom sustained.
    ·In April, Martin Luther King, Jr., helped launch a series of nonviolent
    demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama, a city unsurpassed in
    the strength of its commitment to segregation.
    ·Medgar Evers was murdered in Mississippi.
    A National Commitment
    ·To generate support for the legislation, and to dramatize the power of
    the growing movement, ore than 200,000 demonstrators
    marched down the Mall in Washington, D.C., in August 1963 and
    gathered before the Lincoln Memorial for the greatest civil rights
    demonstration in the nation’s history.
    ·Early in 1964, after Johnson applied both public and private pressure,
    supporters of the measure finally mustered the two-thirds
    majority necessary to close debate and end a filibuster by
    southern senators; and the Senate passed the most
    comprehensive civil rights bill in the nation’s history.
    The Battle for Voting Rights
    ·During the summer of 1964, thousands of civil rights workers, black
    and white, northern and southern, spread out through the South,
    but primarily in Mississippi.
    ·The campaign was known as “freedom summer”, and it produced a
    violent response from some southern whites.
    ·The “freedom summer” also produced the Mississippi Freedom
    Democratic Party, and integrated alternative to the regular state
    party organization.
    ·It permitted the MFDP to be seated as observers, with promises of
    party reforms later on, while the regular party retained its official
    standing.
    ·A year later, in March 1965, King helped organize a major
    demonstration in Selma, Alabama to press the demand for the
    right of blacks to register to vote.
    ·Two northern whites participating in the Selma march were murdered
    in the course of the effort there- one, a minister, beaten to death
    in the streets of the town; the other, a Detroit housewife, shot as
    she drove along a highway at night with a black passenger in her
    car.
    ·The Civil Rights Act of 1965, better known as the Voting Rights Act,
    which provided federal protection to blacks attempting to
    exercise their right to vote.
    The Changing Movement
    ·By 1966, 69 percent of American blacks were living in metropolitan
    areas and 45 percent outside the South.
    ·Well over half of all American non-whites lived in poverty at the
    beginning of the 1960s; black unemployment was twice that of
    whites.
    ·Over the next decade, affirmative action guidelines gradually
    extended to virtually all institutions doing business with or
    receiving funds from the federal government- and to many
    others as well.
    ·Organizers of the Chicago campaign hoped to direct national attention
    to housing and employment discrimination in northern industrial
    cities in much the same way similar campaigns had exposed
    legal racism in the South.
    Urban Violence
    ·Well before the Chicago campaign, the problem of urban poverty had
    thrust itself into national attention when violence broke out in
    black neighborhoods in major cities.
    ·The first large race riot since the end of World War II occurred the
    following summer in the Watts section of Los Angeles.
    ·The incident triggered a storm of anger and a week of violence.
    ·34 people died during the Watts uprising, which was eventually
    quelled by the National Guard; 28 of the dead were black.
    ·Televised reports of the violence alarmed millions of Americans and
    created both a new sense of urgency and a growing sense of
    doubt among many of those whites who had embraced the cause
    of racial justice only a few years before.
    ·A special Commission on Civil Disorders, created by the president in
    response to the disturbances, issued a celebrated report in the
    spring of 1968 recommending massive spending to eliminate the
    abysmal conditions of the ghettoes.
    Black Power
    ·Disillusioned with the ideal of peaceful change in cooperation with
    whites, an increasing number of African Americans were turning
    to a new approach to the racial issue: the philosophy of “black
    power”.
    ·The most enduring impact of the black-power ideology was a social
    and psychological one: instilling racial pride in African Americans,
    who lived in a society whose dominant culture generally
    portrayed blacks as inferior to whites.
    ·It encouraged the growth of black studies in schools and universities.
    ·Traditional black organizations that had emphasized cooperation=2
    0with sympathetic whites- groups such as the NAACP, the Urban
    League, and King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conferencenow
    faced competition from more radical groups.
    ·In Oakland, California the Black Panther Party promised to defend
    black rights even if that required violence.
    Malcolm X
    ·In Detroit, a once-obscure black nationalist group, the Nation of Islam,
    gained new prominence.
    ·Founded in 1931 by Wali Farad and Elijah Poole, the movement taught
    blacks to take responsibility for their own lives, to be disciplined,
    to live by strict codes of behavior, and to reject any dependence
    on whites.
    ·Malcolm became one of the movement’s most influential spokesmen,
    particularly among younger blacks, as a result of his intelligence,
    his oratorical skills, and his harsh, uncompromising opposition to
    all forms of racism and oppression.
    ·He did not advocate violence, but he insisted that black people had
    the right to defend themselves, violently if necessary from those
    who assaulted them.
    ·Malcolm died in 1965 when black gunmen, presumably under orders
    from rivals within the Nation of Islam, assassinated him in New
    York.
    "Flexible Response and the Cold War"
    Diversifying Foreign Policy
    · The Kennedy administration entered office convinced that the United
    States needed to be able to counter communist aggression in
    more flexible ways than the atomic weapons-oriented defense
    strategy of the Eisenhower years permitted.
    · Kennedy was unsatisfied with the nation’s ability to meet communist
    threats in “emerging areas” of the Third World- the areas in
    which, Kennedy believed, the real struggle against communism
    would be waged in the future.
    · Kennedy also inaugurated the Agency for International Development
    to coordinate foreign aid.
    · The Peace Corps, sent young American volunteers abroad to work in
    developing areas.
    · On April 17, 1961, with the approval of the new president, 2,000 of
    the armed exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba, expecting
    first American air support and then a spontaneous uprising by
    the Cuban people on their behalf.
    Confrontations with the Soviet Union
    · In the grim aft ermath of the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy traveled to Vienna
    in June 1961 for his first meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita
    Khrushchev.
    · Before dawn on August 13, 1961, the East German government,
    complying with directives from Moscow, constructed a wall
    between East and West Berlin.
    · For nearly 30 years the Berlin Wall served as the most potent physical
    symbol of the conflict between the communist and
    noncommunist worlds.
    · On October 14, aerial reconnaissance photos produced clear evidence
    that the Soviets were constructing sites on the island for
    offensive nuclear weapons.
    · On October 22, he ordered a naval and air blockade around Cuba, a
    “quarantine” against all offensive weapons.
    Johnson and the World
    · Lyndon Johnson entered the presidency lacking even John Kennedy’s
    limited prior experience with international affairs.
    · A 1961 assassination had toppled the repressive dictatorship of
    General Rafael Trujillo, and for the next four years various
    fascinations in the country had struggled for dominance.
    · In the spring of 1965, a conservative military regime began to
    collapse in the face of a revolt by a broad range of groups on
    behalf of the left-wing nationalist Juan Bosch.
    · Only after a conservative candidate defeated Bosch in a 1966 election
    were the forces withdrawn.
    The Agony of Vietnam
    The First Indochina War
    · Vietnam had a long history both as an independent kingdom and
    major power in its region, and as a subjugated province of China;
    its people were both proud of their past glory and painfully aware
    of their many years of subjugation.
    · In the mi-19th century, Vietnam became a colony of France.
    · The French wanted to reassert their control over Vietnam.
    · In the fall of 1945, after the collapse of Japan and before the western
    powers had time to return, the Vietminh declared Vietnam an
    independent nation and set up a nationalist government under
    Ho Chi Mihn in Hanoi.
    · For the next 4 years, during what has become known as the First
    Indochina War, Truman and then Eisenhower continued to
    support the French military campaign against the Vietminh; by
    1954, by some calculations, the United States was paying 80
    percent of France’s war costs.
    Geneva and the Two Vietnams
    · An international conference at Geneva, planned many months before
    to settle the Korean dispute and other controversies, now took up
    the fate of Vietnam as well.
    · Secretary of State Dulles, who reluctantly attended but left early; the
    United States was not a party to the accords.
    · Vietnam would be temporarily portioned along the 17th parallel, with
    the Vietminh in control of North Vietnam, and a pro-western
    regime in control of the South.
    America and Diem
    · The U.S almost immediately stepped into the vacuum and became the
    principal benefactor of the new government in the South, led by
    NGO Dihn Diem.
    · The Buddhist crisis was alarming and embarrassing to the Kennedy
    Administration.
    From Aid to Intervention
    · Lyndon Johnson thus inherited what was already a substantial
    American commitment to the survival of an anticommunist South
    Vietnam.
    · Intervention in South Vietnam was fully consistent with nearly 20
    years of American foreign policy.
    · In August 1964, the president announced that American destroyers on
    patrol in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin had been
    attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats.
    The Quagmire
    · There was a continuous stream of optimistic reports from American
    military commanders, government officials, and others.
    · The “attrition” was a strategy premised on the belief that the Unites
    States could inflict so many causalities and so much damage on
    the enemy that eventually they would be unable and unwilling to
    continue the struggle.
    · By the end of 1967, virtually every identifiable target of any strategic
    importance in North Vietnam had been destroyed.
    · Another crucial part of the American strategy was the “pacification”
    program, which was intended to push the Viet Cong from
    particular regions and then pacify those regions by winning the
    “hearts and minds” of the people.
    The War at Home
    · A series of “teach-ins” on university campuses, beginning at the
    University of Michigan in 196 sparked a national debate over the
    war before such debate developed inside the government itself.
    · Opposition to the war had become a central issue in left-wing politics
    and in the culture of colleges and universities.
    The Traumas of 1968
    The Tet Offensive
    · On January 31, 1968, the 1st day of the Vietnamese New Year (TET),
    communist forces launched an enormous, concerted attack on
    American strongholds throughout South Vietnam.
    The Political Challenge
    · On March 31, Johnson went on television to announce a limited halt in
    the bombing of North Vietnam.
    The King and Kennedy Assassinations
    · On April 4, Martin Luther King Jr. was shot and killed while standing on
    the balcony of his motel.
    · In the days after the assassination, major riots broke out in more than
    60 American cities.
    · Rober t Kennedy shaped what some would later call the “Kennedy
    Legacy”, a set of ideas that would for a time become central to
    American liberalism.
    · The passions Kennedy had aroused made his violent death a
    particularly shattering experience for many Americans.
    The Conservation Response
    · George Wallace established himself in 1963 as one of the nation's
    leading spokesmen for the defense of segregation.
    · As a governor of Alabama, he attempted to block the admission of
    black students to the University of Alabama.
    · In 1964, he has run a few Democratic presidential primaries and
    although had done surprisingly well, standing in the polls with
    20%, he had no serious chance of winning the election.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - The Crisis of Authority

    The Youth Culture
    The New Left
    ·The postwar baby-boom generation, the unprecedented number of
    people born in a few years just after World War II, was growing
    up.
    ·One of the most visible results of the increasingly assertive youth
    movement was a radicalization of many American college and
    university students, who in the course of the 1960s formed what
    became known as the New Left- a large, diverse group of men
    and women energized by the polarizing developments of their
    time to challenge the political system.
    ·The New Left embraced the cause of African Americans and other
    minorities, but its own ranks consisted overwhelmingly of white
    people.
    ·The New Left drew from many sources.
    ·The New Left drew as well from the writings of some of the important
    social critics of the 1950s-among them C. Wright Mills, a soci
    ologist at Columbia University who wrote a series of scathing and
    brilliant critiques of modern bureaucracies.
    ·The New Left drew its inspiration above all from the civil rights
    movement, in which many idealistic young white Americans had
    become involved in the early 1960s.
    ·In 1962, a group of students, most of them from prestigious
    universities, gathered in Michigan to form an organization to give
    voice to their demands: Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
    ·A 1964 dispute at the University of California at Berkeley over the
    rights of students to engage in political activities on campus
    gained national attention.
    ·The Free Speech Movement, created turmoil at Berkeley as students
    challenged campus police, occupied administrative offices, and
    produced a strike in which nearly ¾ of the Berkeley students
    participated.
    ·The revolt at Berkeley was the first outburst of what was to be nearly
    a decade of campus turmoil.
    ·Also in 1969, Berkeley became the scene of perhaps the most
    prolonged and traumatic conflict of any American college
    campus in the 1960s: a battle over the efforts of a few students
    to build a “People’s Park” on a vacant lot the university planned
    to use to build a parking garage.
    ·By the end of the People’s Park battle, which lasted for more than a
    week, the Berkeley campus was completely polarized.
    ·Student radicals were, for the20first time, winning large audiences for
    their extravagant rhetoric linking together university
    administrators, the police, and the larger political and economic
    system, describing them all as part of one united, oppressive
    force.
    ·As time went on, moreover, the student fringe groups became
    increasingly militant.
    ·Student activists tried to drive out training programs for military
    officers (ROTC) and bar military recruiters from college
    campuses.
    ·The October 1967 march on the Pentagon, where demonstrators were
    met by a solid line of armed troops; the “spring mobilization” of
    April 1968, which attracted hundreds of thousands of
    demonstrators in cities around the country.
    ·Many draft-age Americans simply refused induction, accepting what
    occasionally what were long terms in jail as a result.
    The Counterculture
    ·The most visible characteristic of the counterculture was a change in
    lifestyle.
    ·Young Americans flaunted long hair, shabby or flamboyant clothing,
    and a rebellious disdain for traditional speech and decorum,
    which they replaced with their own “hippie” idiom.
    ·Also central to the counterculture were drugs: marijuana smokingwhich
    after 1966 became almost as common a youthful diversion
    as b eer drinking-and the less widespread but still substantial use
    of other, more potent hallucinogens, such as LSD.
    ·To some degree, the emergence of more relaxed approaches to
    sexuality was a result less of the counterculture than of the new
    accessibility of effective contraceptives, most notably the birthcontrol
    pill and, after 1973, legalized abortion.
    ·The counterculture’s rejection of traditional values and its open
    embrace of sensual pleasure sometimes masked its philosophy,
    which offered a fundamental challenge to the American middleclass
    mainstream.
    ·The most adherents of the counterculture-the hippies, who came to
    dominate the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco and
    other places, and the social dropouts, many of whom retreated to
    rural communes-rejected modern society altogether and
    attempted to find refuge in a simpler, more “natural” existence.
    ·Theodore Roszak, whose book the Making of a Counter Culture(1969)
    became a significant document of the era, captured much of the
    spirit of the movement in his frank admission that “the primary
    project of our counterculture is to proclaim a new heaven and a
    new earth so vast, so marvelous that the inordinate claims of
    technical expertise must of necessity withdraw to a subordinate
    and marginal status in the lives of men.”
    ·The use of marijuana, the freer attitudes toward sex, the iconoclastic
    (and sometimes obscene) language- all spread far beyond the
    realm of the true devotes of the counterculture.
    ·Rock n Roll first achieved wide popularity in the 1950s, on the
    strength of such early performers as Buddy Holly and Elvis
    Presley.
    ·Early in the 1960s, its influence began to spread, a result in large part
    of the phenomenal popularity of the Beatles, the English group
    whose first visit to the United States in 1964 created a
    remarkable sensation, “Beatlemania”.
    ·Other groups such as the Rolling Stones turned even more openly to
    themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness.
    ·Television began to turn to programming that reflected social and
    cultural conflict- as exemplified by the enormously popular All in
    the Family, whose protagonist, Archie Bunker, was a lowermiddle-
    class bigot.
    The Mobilization of Minorities
    Seeds of Indian Militancy
    ·Indians were the least prosperous, least healthy, and least stable
    group in the nation.
    ·They constituted less than one percent of the population.
    ·The Native American unemployment rate was ten times the national
    rate.
    ·Life expectancy among Indians was more than twenty years less than
    the national average.
    ·For much of the postwar era, and particularly after the resignation of
    John Collier as commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1946, federal
    policy toward the tribes had been shaped by a determination to
    incorporate Indians into mainstream American society, whether
    Indians wanted to assimilate or not.
    ·Through termination, the federal government withdrew all official
    recognition of the tribes as legal entities, administratively
    separate from state governments, and made them subject to the
    same local jurisdictions as white residents.
    ·Many Native Americans adapted to life in the cites, at least to a
    degree.
    The Indian Civil Rights Movement
    ·The National Indian Youth Council, created in the aftermath of the
    1961 Chicago meeting, promoted the idea of Indian nationalism
    and intertribal unity.
    ·In 1968, a group of young of young militant Indian Movement, which
    drew its greatest support from those Indians who lived in urban
    areas but soon established a significant presence on the rese
    rvations as well.
    ·In 1968, Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act, which
    guaranteed reservation Indians many of the protections accorded
    other citizens by the Bill of Rights, but which also recognized the
    legitimacy of tribal laws within the reservations.
    ·The Indian civil rights movement fell far short of winning full justice
    and equality for its constituents.
    Latino Activism
    ·Latinos were the fastest-growing minority group in the United States.
    ·Large numbers of Puerto Ricans had migrated to eastern cities,
    particularly New York.
    ·In 1980, a second, much poorer wave of Cuban immigrants-the so
    called Marielitos, named for the port from which they left Cubaarrived
    in Florida when Castro temporarily relaxed exit
    restrictions.
    ·Large numbers of Mexican Americans had entered the country during
    the war in response to the labor shortage, and may had
    remained in the cities of the Southwest and the Pacific Coast.
    ·After the war, when the legal agreements that had allowed Mexican
    contract workers to enter the country expired, large numbers of
    immigrants continued to move to the United States illegally.
    ·By the late 1960s, therefore, Mexican Americans were one of the
    largest population=2 0groups in the West-outnumbering African
    Americans-and had established communities in most other parts
    of the nation as well.
    ·Young Mexican-American activist began themselves “Chicanos” as a
    way of emphasizing the shared culture of Spanish-speaking use
    among Mexican Americans.
    ·Cesar Chavez, created an effective union itinerant farm workers.
    ·In 1965 his United Farmers Workers (UFW), a largely Chicano
    organization, launched a prolonged strike against growers to
    demand, first, recognition of their union and, second, increased
    wages and benefits.
    ·Supporters of bilingualism in education argued that non-Englishspeaking
    Americans were entitled to schooling in their own
    language, that otherwise they would be at a grave disadvantage
    in comparison with native English speakers.
    Challenging the "Melting Pot" Ideal
    ·The efforts of blacks, Latinos, Indians, Asians, and others to forge a
    clearer group identity challenged a longstanding premise of
    American political thought: the idea of the “melting pot”.
    ·The newly assertive ethnic groups of the 1960s and after appeared
    less willing to accept the standards of the larger society and
    more likely to demand recognition of their own ethnic identities.
    Gay Liberation
    ·The last important liberation movement to make major gains in the
    1960s, and the most surprising to many Americans, was the
    effort by homosexuals to win political and economic rights and,
    equally important, social acceptance.
    ·On June 27, 1969, police officers raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay
    nightclub in New York City’s Greenwich Village, and began
    arresting patrons simply for frequenting the place.
    ·The raid was not unusual.
    ·The “Stonewall Riot” marked the beginning of the gay liberation
    movement-one of the most controversial challenges to traditional
    values and assumptions of its time.
    ·Universities were establishing gay and lesbian studies programs.
    ·Laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual preference were
    making slow, halting progress at the local level.
    The New Feminism
    The Rebirth
    ·A few determined women kept feminist political demands alive in the
    National Woman’s Party and other organizations.
    ·The 1963 publication of Betty Friedan’s the Feminine Mystique is often
    cited as the first event of contemporary women’s liberation.
    ·In 1963 the Kennedy administration helped win passage of the Equal
    Pay Act, which barred the pervasive practice of paying women
    less than men for equal work.
    ·The conflict between the ideal and the reality was crucial to the
    rebirth of feminism.
    ·The National Organization for Women, which was to become the
    nation’s largest and most influential feminist organization.
    The new organization reflected the varying constituencies of the
    emerging feminist movement.
    Women's Liberation
    ·The new feminists were mostly younger, the vanguard of the bayboom
    generation.
    ·Many had found that even within those movements, they faced
    discrimination and exclusion or subordination to male leaders.
    ·In its most radical form, the new feminism rejected the whole notion
    of marriage.
    Expanding Achievements
    ·In 1971, the government extended its affirmative action guidelines to
    include women-linking sexism with racism as an officially
    acknowledged social problem.
    ·Nearly half of all married women held jobs by the mid-1970s, and
    almost 9/10 of all women with college degrees worked.
    ·There were also important symbolic changes, such as the refusal of
    many women to adopt their husbands’ names when they married
    and the use of the term “Ms.” in place of “Mrs.” or “Miss” to
    denote the irrelevance of a woman’s marital status.
    The Abortion Controversy
    · In least controversial form, this impulse helped produce an increasing
    awareness in the 1960s and 1970s of the problems of rape,
    sexual abuse, and wife beating.
    · There continued to be some controversy over the dissemination of
    contraceptives and birth-control inf ormation; but that issue, at
    least, seemed to have lost much of the explosive character it had
    had in the 1920s, when Margaret Sanger had become a heroine
    to some and a figure of public scorn to others for her efforts on
    its behalf.
    Environmentalism in a Turbulent Society
    The New Science of Ecology
    · Until the mid-twentieth century, most people who considered
    themselves environmentalists based their commitment on
    aesthetic or moral grounds.
    · They wanted to preserve nature because it was too beautiful to
    despoil, or because it was a mark of divinity on the world, or
    because it permitted humans a spiritual experience that would
    otherwise be unavailable to them.
    · They called it ecology.
    Funded by government agencies, by universities, by foundations, and
    eventually even by some corporations, ecological science
    gradually established itself as a significant field of its own- not,
    perhaps, with the same stature as such traditional fields as
    physics, chemistry, and biology, but certainly a field whose
    importance and appeal grew rapidly in the last decades of the
     20th century
    Environmental Advocacy
    · Academic ecologists often have close ties to environmental
    organizations committed to public action and political lobbying.
    · The professional zed environmental advocacy they provided gave the
    movement a political strength it had never enjoyed in the past.
    · Lawyers fought battles with government agencies and in the courts.
    · When Congress or state legislatures considered environmental
    legislation, more often than not the environmental organizations
    played a critical role in drafting it.
    Environmental Degradation
    · Many other forces contributed as well in the 1960s and 1970s to
    create what became the environmental movement.
    · Water pollution- which had been a problem in some areas of the
    country for many decades- was becoming so widespread that
    almost every major city was dealing with the unpleasant sight
    and odor, as well as the very real health risks, of polluted rivers
    and lakes.
    · In some large cities-Los Angeles and Denver among them-smog
    became an almost perpetual fact of life,=2 0rising steadily
    through the day, blotting out the sun, and creating respiratory
    difficulties for many citizens.
    · Environmentalist also brought to public attention some longer-term
    dangers of unchecked industrial development: the rapid
    depletion of oil and other irreplaceable fossil fuels; the
    destruction of lakes and forests as a result of “acid rain”; the
    rapid destruction of vast rain forests, in Brazil and elsewhere,
    which limited the earth’s capacity to replenish its oxygen supply.
    Earth Day and Beyond
    · On April 22, 1970, people all over the United States gathered in
    schools and universities, in churches and clubs, in parks and
    auditoria, for the first “Earth Day”.
    · The Clean Air Act, also passed in 1970, and the Clean Water Act,
    passed in 1972, added additional tools to government’s arsenal
    of weapons against environmental degradation.
    · Different administrations displayed varying levels of support for
    environmental goals, and advocacy groups remained ready to
    spring into action to force them to change their positions.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the War
    Vietnamization
    · Henry Kissinger, a Harvard professor whom the president appointed
    as his special assistance for national security affairs.
    · The new Vietnam policy moved along several fronts.
    · By 1973, the Selective Service System was on its way to least
    temporary extinction.
    · In the fall of 1969, Nixon announced reduction of American ground
    troops from Vietnam by 60,000 the first reduction in U.S. troop
    strength since the beginning of the war.
    Escalation
    ·By the end of their first year in office, Nixon and Kissinger had
    concluded that the most effective ay to tip the military balance in
    America’s favor was to destroy the bases in Cambodia from
    which the American military believed the North Vietnamese were
    launching many of their attacks.
    ·Four college students were killed and nine others injured when
    members of the National Guard opened fire on antiwar
    demonstrators at Kent State University in Ohio.
    ·The trail and conviction in 1971 of Lieutenant William Calley, who was
    charged wit h overseeing a massacre of more than 300
    unharmed South Vietnamese civilians, attracted wide public
    attention.
    "Peace with Honor"
    ·In April 1972, the president dropped his longtime insistence on a
    removal of North Vietnamese troops from the south before any
    American withdrawal.
    ·On December 17, American B-52s began the heaviest and most
    destructive air raids of the entire war on Hanoi, Haiphong, and
    other North Vietnamese targets.
    Defeat in Indochina
    ·Late in April 1975, communist forces marched into Saigon, shortly
    after officials of the Thieu regime and the staff of the American
    embassy had fled the country in humiliating disarray.
    Nixon, Kissinger, and the World
    China and the Soviet Union
    ·Nixon and Kissinger wanted to forge a new relationship with the
    Chinese communists- in part to strengthen them as a
    counterbalance to the Soviet Union.
    ·In July 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to Beijing.
    ·In February 1972, Nixon paid a formal visits to China and, in a single
    stroke, erased much of the deep American animosity toward the
    Chinese communists regime, but in 1972 the United states and
    China began low-level diplomatic relations.
    ·In 1969, America and Soviet diplomats met in Helsinki, Finland, to
    begin talks on limiting nuclear weapons.
    In 1972, they produced the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT
    I), which froze the nuclear missiles (ICBMs) of both sides at present
    levels.
    The Problems of Multipolarity
    ·In 1969 and 1970, the president described what became known as the
    Nixon Doctrine, by which the United States would “participate in
    the defense and development of allies and friends” but would
    leave the “basic responsibility” for the future of those “friends”
    to the nations themselves.
    ·In practice, the Nixon Doctrine meant a declining American interest in
    contributing to Third World development; a growing contempt for
    the United Nations, where less-developed nations were gaining
    influence through their sheer numbers; and increasing support to
    authoritarian regimes attempting to withstand radical challenges
    from within.
    ·In 1973, a military junta seized power from Allende, who was
    subsequently murdered.
    ·In October 1973, on the Jewish High Holy day of Yom Kippur, Egyptian
    and Syrian forces attacked Israel.
    ·The imposed settlement of the Yom Kippur War demonstrated the
    growing dependence of the United States and its allies on Arab
    oil.
    ·The United States could no longer depend on cheap, easy access to
    raw materials as it had in the past.
    Politics and Economics Under Nixon
    Domestic Initiatives
    ·He forbade the department of Health, Education, and Welfare to cut
    off the federal funds from school districts that had failed to
    comply with court orders to integrate.
    In 1973, he abolished the Office of economic Opportunity, the
    centerpiece of the antipoverty program of the Office of economic
    Opportunity, the centerpiece of the antipoverty program20of the
    Johnson years.
    From the Warren Court to the Nixon Court
    ·In Engel v. Vitale (1962), the court had ruled that prayers in public
    schools were unconstitutional, sparking outrage among religious
    fundamentalists and others.
    The Election of 1972
    ·Nixon was most fortunate in 1972, however, in his opposition.
    ·The possibility of such a campaign vanished in May, when a would-be
    assassin shot the Alabama governor during a rally at a Maryland
    shopping center.
    The Troubled Economy
    ·The American dollar had been the strongest currency in the world, and
    the American standard of living had risen steadily from its
    already substantial heights.
    ·Its most visible cause was significant increase in federal deficit
    spending in the 1960s, when the Johnson administration tried to
    fund the war in Vietnam and its ambitious social prog rams
    without raising taxes.
    ·Domestic petroleum reserves were no longer sufficient to meet this
    demand, and the nation was heavily dependent on imports from
    the Middle East and Africa.
    ·The U.S manufacturing now faced major completion from aboard-not
    only in world trade but also at home.
    The Nixon Response
    ·The government moved first to reduce spending and raises taxes.
    ·The United States was encountering a new and puzzling dilemma:
    “stagflation”, a combination of rising prices and general
    economic stagnation.
    In 1973, prices rose 9 percent; in 1974, after the Arab oil embargo and
    the OPEC price increases, they rose 12 percent-the highest rate since
    the relaxation of price controls shortly after World War II.
    The Watergate Crisis
    The Scandals
    ·Early on the morning of June 17, 1972 police arrested five men who
    had broken into the offices of the Democratic National
    Committee in the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C.
    Two others were seized a short time porters for the Washington Post
    began researching the backgrounds of the culprits, they discovered
    that among those involved in the burglary were former employees of
    the Committee for the Re-Election of the President.
    The Fall of Richard Nixon
    ·In April 1974, the president released some transcripts of relevent
    conversations, claiming that they proved his innocence, but
    investigators believed them to be edited for a cover-up.
    ·The Supreme Court ruled unanimously, in the United States v. Richard
    M. Nixon, that the president must relinquish the tapes to Special
    Prosecutor Jaworski.
    ·The House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend three articles of
    impeachment:
    1. Charging that Nixon had obstructed justice in the
    Watergate cover-up.
    2. Misused federal agencies to violate the rights of citizens.
    3. Defied the authority of Congress by refusing to deliever
    tapes and other materials suboenaed by the committee.
    ·On August 8, 1974, Nixon announced his resignation, the first
    president in American history to ever do so.
    ·Gerald Ford became president.
     
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - From "The Age of Limits" to The Age of Reagan

    Politics and Diplomacy After Watergate The Ford Custodianship ·Gerald Ford had to try to rebuild confidence in government in the face of the widespread cynicism the Watergate scandals had produced. ·He had to try to restore prosperity in the face of major domestic and international challenges to the American economy. ·Ford explained that he was attempting to spare the nation the ordeal of years of litigation and to spare Nixon himself any further suffering. ·The Ford administration enjoyed less success in its effort to solve the problems of the American economy. ·In the aftermath of the Arab oil embargo of 1973, the OPEC cartel began to raise thr price of oil-by 400 percent in 1974 alone. ·Ford retained Henry Kissinger as secretary of state and continued the general policies of the Nixon years. ·Late in 1974, Ford met with Leonid Brezhnev at Vladivostok in Siberia and signed an arms control accord that was to serve as the basis for SALT II, thus achieving a goal the Nixon administration had long sought. In the republican primary campaign Ford faced a powerful challenge from former California governor Ronald Reagan, leader of the party’s conservative wing, who spoke for many on the right who were unhappy with any conciliation of communists. The Trials of Jimmy Carter ·Jimmy Carter assumed the presidency at a moment when the nation faced problems of staggering complexity and difficulty. ·He left office in 1981 one of the least popular presidents of the country. ·He surrounded himself in the White House with group of close-knit associates from Georgia; and in the beginning, at least, he seemed deliberately to spurn assistance from more experienced political figures. ·He moved first to reduce unemployment by raising public spending and cutting federal taxes. He appointed G. William Miller and then Paul Volcker, both conservative economists, to head the Federal Reserve Board, thus ensuring a policy of high interest rates and reduced currency supplies. Human Rights and National Interests ·Among Jimmy Carter’s most frequent campaign promises was a pledge to build a new basis for American foreign policy, one in which the defense of “human rights” would replace the pursuit of “selfish interest. ·Domestic opposition to the treaties was intense, especially among conservatives who viewed the new arrangements as part of a general American retreat from international power. ·Middle East negotiations had seemed hopelessly stalled when a dramatic breakthrough occurred in Nove mber 1977. ·In Tel Aviv, he announced that Egypt was now willing to accept the state of Israel as a legitimate political entity. ·On September 17, Carter escorted the two leaders into the White House to announce agreement on a “framework” for an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty. ·On December 15, 1978, Washington and Beijing announced the resumption of formal diplomatic relations between the two nations. ·The treaty set limits on the number of long-range missiles, bombers, and nuclear warheads on each side. By the fall of 1979, with the Senate scheduled to begin debate over the treaty shortly, ratification was already in jeopardy. The Year of the Hostages ·By 1979, the Shah of Iran, hoping to make his nation a bulwark against Soviet expansion in the Middle East. ·In January 1979, the Shah fled the country. ·By late 1979, revolutionary chaos in Iran was making any normal relations impossible. ·In late October 1979, the deposed Shah arrived in New York to be treated for cancer. Days later, on November 4, an armed mob invaded the American embassy in Teheran, seized the diplomats and military personnel inside, and demanded the return of the Shah to Iran in exchange for their freedom. ·53 Americans remained hostages in the embassy for over a year. ·Only weeks after the hostage seizure, on December 27, 1979, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan, the mountaino us Islamic nation lying between the USSR and Iran. ·The combination of domestic economic troubles and international crises created widespread anxiety, frustration, and anger in the United States-damaging President Carter already low stranding with the public, and giving added strength to an alternative political force that had already made great strides. The Rise of the New American Right The Sunbelt and Its Politics ·The most widely discusses demographic phenomenon of the 1970s was the rise of what became known as the “Sunbelt”- a term coined by the political analyst Kevin Phillips to describe a collection of regions that emerged together in the postwar era to become the most dynamically growing parts of the country. ·By 1980, the population of the Sunbelt had risen to exceed that of the older industrial regions of the North and the East. ·White southerners equated the federal government’s effort to change racial norms in the region with what they believed was tyranny of Reconstruction. ·In the 1970s and early 1980s, the boom mentality of some of these rapidly growing areas conflicted sharply with the concerns of the older industrial states of the Northeast and Midwest. ·The so-called Sagebrush Rebellion, which emerged in parts of the West in the late 1970s, mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restrictions on development. Suburbanization also fueled the rise of the right. Religious Revivalism ·In the 1960s, may critics had predicted the virtual extinction of religious influence in American life. ·By early 1980s, it was no longer possible to ignore them. ·More than 70 million Americans now described themselves as “born-again” Christiansmen and women who had established a “direct personal relationship with Jesus”. ·For Jimmy Carter and for some others, evangelical Christianity had formed the basis for a commitment to racial and economic justice and to world peace. The Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, and other organizations of similar inclination opposed federal interference in local affairs; denounced abortion, divorce, enterprise; and supported a strong American posture in the world. The Emergnece of the New Right ·Evangelical Christians were an important part, but only a part, of what became known as the new right- a diverse but powerful movement that enjoyed rapid growth in the 1970s and early 1980s. ·Conservative campaigns had for many years been less well funded and organized than those of their rivals. ·By the late 1970s, there were right-wing think tanks, consulting forms, lobbyists, foundations, and scholarly centers. ·In the early 1950s Roosevelt became a corporate spokesman for General Electric and won a wide following on the right with his smooth, eloquent speeches in defense of individual freedom and private enterprise. In 1966, with the support of a group of a group of wealthy conservatives, he won the first of two terms as governor of California-which gave him a much more visible platform for promoting himself and his ideas. [Ronald Reagan] The Tax Revolt ·At least equally important to the success of the new right was a new and potent conservative issue: the tax revolt. ·The biggest and most expensive programs-Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and others-had the broadest support. In Proposition 13 and similar initiatives, members of the right found a better way to discredit government than by attacking specific programs: attacking taxes. The Campaign of 1980 ·Jimmy Carter's standing in popularity polls were lower than that of any president. ·On election day 1980, Reagan(R) won 51% of the vote to 41% for Jimmy Carter(D) and 7% for John Anderson(I) 1. Electoral botes: Reagan 489, Carter 49. ·The Republican Party won control of the Senate for the first time since 1952. The "Reagan Revolution" The Reagan Coalition ·Reagan owed his election to widespread disillusionment with Carter and to the crises and disappointments that many voters, perhaps unfairly, associated with him. ·The Reagan coalition included a relatively small but highly influential group of wealthy Americans associated with the corporate and financial world-the kind of people who had dominated American politics and government through much of the nations history until the New Deal began to challenge their preeminence. ·A second element of the Reagan coalition was even smaller, but also disproportionately influential: a group of intellectuals commonly known as “neo-conservatives,” who gave to the right something it had not had in may years-a firm base among “opinion leaders”, people with access to the most influential public forums for ideas. Neo-conservatives were sympathetic to the complaints and demands of capitalists, but their principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western democratic, anticommunists values and commitments. Reagan in the White House ·Reagan was the master of television, a gifted public speaker, and -in public at leastrugged, fearless, and seemingly impervious to danger or misfortune. ·He spent his many vacations on a California ranch, where he chopped wood and rode horses. At times, the president revealed a startling ignorance about the nature of his own policies or the actions of his subordinates. "Supply-Side" Economics ·Reagan’s 1980 campaign for the presidency had promised, among other things, to restore the economy to health by a bold experiment that became known as “supply-side” economics or, to some, “Reaganomics”. ·In its first months in office, accordingly , the new administration hastily assembled a legislative program based on the supply-side idea. ·The recession convinced many people, including some conservatives, that the Reagan economic program failed. ·The gross national product had grown 3.6 percent in a year, the largest increase since the -1970s. ·The economy continued to grow, a nd both inflation and unemployment remained low through most of the decade. A worldwide “energy glut” and the virtual collapse of the OPEC cartel had produced at least a temporary end to the inflationary pressures of spiraling fuel costs. The Fiscal Crisis ·By the mid-1980s, this growing fiscal crisis had become one of the central issues in American politics. ·Throughout the 1980s, the annual budget deficit consistently exceeded $100 billion. ·The 1981 tax cuts, the largest in American history, contributed to the deficit. ·There were reductions in funding for food stamps; a major cut in federal subsidies for low-income housing; strict new limitations on Medicare and Medicaid payments; reductions in student loans, school lunches, and other educational programs; and an end to many forms of federal assistance to the states and cities-which helped precipitate years of local fiscal crises as well. By the late 1980s, may fiscal conservatives were calling for a constitutional amendment mandating a balanced budget-a provision the president himself claimed to support. Reagan and the World ·Determined to restore American pride and prestige in the world, he argued that the United States should once again become active and assertive in opposing communism and in supporting friendly governments whatever their internal policies. ·The president spoke harshly of Soviet regime accusing it of sponsori ng world terrorism and declaring that any armaments negotiations must be linked to negotiations on Soviet behavior in other areas. ·Although the president had long denounced the SALT II arms control treaty as unfavorable to the United States, he continued to honor it provisions. ·The Soviet Union claimed that the new program would elevate the arms race to new and more dangerous levels and insisted that any arms control agreement begin with an American abandonment of SDI. ·The New Policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine, and it meant, above all, a new American activism came in Latin America. The Reagan administration spoke bravely about its resolve to punish terrorism; and at one point in 1986, the president ordered American planes to bomb site in Tripoli, the capital of Libya, whose controversial leader was widely believed to be a leading sponsor of terrorism. The Election of 1984 ·Reagan was victorious in the election winning 59% of the vote, carrying every state but Mondale's native Minnesota and the District of Columbia. ·The election of 1984 was the first campaign of the Cold War. America and the Waning of the Cold War The Fall of the Soviet Union ·The first he called glasnost (openness): the dismantling many of the repressive mechanisms that had been conspicuous features of Soviet life for over half a century. ·The Communists Parties of Eastern Europe collapsed or redefined themselves into more conventional left-leaning social democratic parties. Among other things, it legalized the chief black party in the nation, the African National Congress, which had been banned for dec ades; and on February 11, 1990, it released from prison the leader of the ANC, and a revered hero too black south Africans, Nelson Mandela, who had been in jail for 27 years. Reagan and Gorbachev ·At a summit meeting with Reagan in Reykjavik, Iceland, in 1986, Gorbachev proposed reducing the nuclear arsenals of both sides by 50 percent or more, although continuing disputes over Reagan’s commitment to the SDI program prevented agreements. The Fading of the Reagan Revolution ·There were revelations of illegality, corruption, and ethical lapses in the Environmental Protection Agency, the CIA, the Department of Defense, the Department of Labor, the Department of Justice, and the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The most politically damaging scandal of the Reagan years came to light in November 1986, when the White House conceded that it had sold weapons to the revolutionary government of Iran as part of a largely unsuccessful effort to secure the release of several Americans being held hostage by radical Islamic groups in the Middle East. The Election of 1988 ·The Bush campaign was almost the most negative of the 20th century, with Bush attacking Dukakis by tying him to all the unpopular social and cultural stances Americans had come to identify with "liberals." ·It was also one of the most effective, although the listless, indecisive character of the Dukakis effort contributed to the Republican cause as well. ·Bush won the election with 54% of the popular vote to Dukakis' 46%, and 426 electoral votes to Dukakis' 112. The Bush Presidency ·The Bush presidency was notable for the dramatic developments in international affairs with which it coincided and at times helped to advance, and for the absence of important initiatives or ideas on domestic issues. ·The broad popularity Bush enjoyed during his first three years in office was partly a res ult of his subdued, unthreading public image. ·On domestic issues, the Bush administration was less successful-partly because the president himself seemed to have little interest in promoting a domestic agenda and partly because he faced serious obstacles. In 1990, the president bowed to congressional pressure and agreed to a significant tax increase as part of a multiyear “budget package” designed to reduce the deficit. The Gulf War ·The events of 1989-1991 ad left the United States in the unanticipated position of being the only real superpower in the world. ·The United States would reduce its military strength dramatically and concentrate its energies and resources on pressing domestic problems. ·America would continue to use its power actively, not to fight communism but to defend its regional and economic interests. ·In 1989, that led the administration to order an invasion of Panama. ·On August 2, 1990, the armed forces of Iraq invaded and quickly overwhelmed their small, oil-rich neighbor, the emirate of Kuwait. On February 28 Iraq announced its acceptance of allied terms for a cease-fire, and the brief Persian Gulf War came to an end.  

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - The Age of Globalization

    A Resurgence of Partisanship Launching the Clinton Presidency ·The new administration compounded its problems with a series of missteps and misfortunes in its first months. ·A long time friend of the president, Vince Foster, serving in the office of the White House counsel, committed suicide in the summer of 1993. ·Despite its many problems the Clinton administration could boast of some significant achievements in its first year. ·Clinton was a committed advocate of free trade and a proponent of many aspects of what came to be known as globalism. ·He won approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which eliminated most trade barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. ·Early in 1993, he appointed his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, which proposed a sweeping reform designed to guarantee coverage to every American and hold down the costs of medical care. ·The foreign policy of the Clinton administration was at first cautious and even tentativea reflection, perhaps, of the president’s relative inexperience in international affairs, but also of the rapidly changing character of international politics. The United States was among the nations to send peaceke eping troops to Bosnia to police the fragile settlement, which-despite many pessimistic predictions-was still largely in place 7 years later, although terrible new conflicts soon emerged in other areas of the Balkans. The Republican Resurgence ·For the first time in 40 years, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress. ·Newt Gingrich of Georgia, released a set of campaign promises signed by almost all Republican candidates for he House and called it the “Contract with America”. ·It called for tax reductions, dramatic changes in federal spending to produce a balanced budget, and a host of other promises consistent with the long-time goals of the Republican Party’s conservative wing. ·The Republican Congress proposed a series of measures to transfer important powers from the federal government to the states. Medicare program to reduce costs. ·In November 1995 and again in January 1996, the federal government literally shut down for several days because the president and Congress could not agree on a budget. The Election of 1996 ·The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while Europe was embroiled in World War I. · Public sentiment in the still neutral United States leaned towards the British and French (allied) forces, due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army, which had invaded and occupied large parts of Belgium and northern France. · Despite their sympathy with the allied forces most American voters wanted to avoid involvement in the war, and preferred to continue a policy of neutrality. Clinton Triumpant and Embattled ·He proposed a relatively modest domestic agenda, consisting primarily of tax cuts and tax credits targeted at middle-class Americans and designed to help them educate their children. ·In early 1998, inquiries associated with the Paula Jones case led to charges that the president had had a sexua l relationship with a young White House intern, Monica Lewinsky; that he had lied about it in his deposition before Jones’s attorneys; and that he had encouraged her to do the same. ·Clinton admitted that he had an “improper relationship” with Monica. The president seemed to have escaped his difficulties as a result of strong popular support. Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence ·House leaders resisted all calls for dismissal of the charges or compromise. ·First the House Judiciary Committee and then, on December 19, 1998, the full House, both voting on strictly partisan lines, approved 2 counts of impeachment: lying to the grand jury and obstructing justice. ·Expanding role of scandal in American politics driven by an increasingly sensationalist media culture, the legal device of independent counsels, and the intensely adversarial quality of partisan politics. ·Numerous reports of Serbian atrocities against the Kosovans, and an enormous refugee crisis spurred by Yugoslavian military action in the province, slowly roused world opinion. The Two-Tiered Economy ·The increasing attendance created enormous new wealth that enriched those talented, or luck, enough to profit from the areas of booming growth. ·Between 1980 and the mid-1990s, the average family incomes of he wealthiest 20 percent of the population grew by nearly 20 percent. ·Poverty in America had declined steadily and at times dramatically in the years after World War II, so that by the end of the 1970s the percentage of people living in poverty had fallen 12 percent. Globalization ·The most important economic change, and certainly the one whose impact was the most difficult to gauge, was what became known as the “globalization” of the economy. ·As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in the American economy as a whole, which thrived on the basis of the huge domestic market in North America. ·Imports rose. ·The North American Free Trade Agreement and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs, were the boldest of a long series of treaties designed to lower trade barriers stretching back to the 1960s. Science and Technology in the New Economy The Personal Computer ·The most visible element of the technological revolution to most Americans was the dramatic growth in the use of computers in almost every area of life. ·The development of the microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel, which represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry. ·Apple launched its Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely available to the public. ·3 years later, Apple introduced its Macintosh computer technology, among other things. ·Computerized word processing replaced typewriters and spreadsheets revolutionized bookkeeping. ·The computer revolution created thousands of new, lucrative businesses: computer manufacturers themselves (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Sun, Digital, and many others). The Internet ·The Internet is, a vast, geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people connected to the network to communicate with others all over the world. ·In 1989, a laboratory in Geneva introduced the World Wide Web, through which individual users could publish information for the Internet, which helped establish an orderly system for both the distribution and retrieval of electronic information. ·Newspapers, magazines, and other publications have begun to publish on the Internet. Breakthroughs in Genetics ·The Human Genome Project set out to identify all of the more than 100,000 genes by 2005. Anti-Abortion advocates20denounced the research, claiming that it exploited unborn children. A Changing Society The Graying of America ·The declining birth rate and a significant rise in life expectancy produced a substantial increase in proportion of elderly citizens. ·Increasing costliness of Social Security pensions. New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity ·The nation’s immigration quotas expanded significantly in those years, allowing more newcomers to enter the United States legally than at any point since the beginning of the 20h century. ·In 1965, 90 percent of the immigrants to the united States came from Europe. ·Mexico alone accounted for over one-fourth of all the immigrants living in the United States in 2000. ·In the 1980s and 1990s, Asian immigrants arrived in even greater numbers than Latinos, constituting more than 40 percent of the total of legal newcomers. ·Many of the new Asian immigrants were refugees, including Vietnamese driven from their homes in the aftermath of the diatoms war in which the United States had so long been involved. The Black Middle Class ·There were increased opportunities for advancement available to those in a position to take advantage of them. ·As the industrial economy declined and government services dwindled, there was a growing sense of helplessness and despair among the large groups of nonwhites who continued to find themselves barred from=2 0upward mobility. ·The percentage of black high-school graduates going on to college was virtually the same as that of white high0school graduates by the end of the 20th century. ·There were few areas of American life from which blacks were any longer entirely excluded. Poor and Working-Class African Americans ·The “underclass” made up as much as a third of the nation’s black population. ·The black family structure suffered as well from the dislocations of urban poverty. ·There was an increase in the number of single-parent, female-headed black households. ·A bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police officers beating a helpless black man, Rodney King. ·Black residents of South Central Los Angeles erupted in anger. Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS ·The new immigrants arrived in cities with a dramatic increase in drug use, which penetrated nearly every community in the nation. ·AIDS is the product of the HIV virus, which is transmitted by the exchange of bodily fluids (blood or semen). ·The first American victims of AIDS, group among whom cases remained the most numerous were homosexual men. ·In 2000, U.S. government agencies estimated that about 780,000 Americans were infected with the HIV virus and that another 427,000 had already died from the disease. The Decline in Crime ·There was a dramatic reduction in crime=2 0rates across most of the United States. ·New incarceration policies-longer, tougher sentences and fewer paroles and early releases for violent criminals-led to a radical. Increase in the prison population and a reduction in the number of criminals at liberty to commit crimes. A Contested Culture ·Battles over Feminism and Abortion ·Leaders of the New Right had campaigned successfully against the proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution. ·The played a central role over the controversy over abortion rights. ·The opposition of some other anti-abortion activists had less to do with religion than with their commitment to traditional notions of family and gender relations. ·The Reagan and Bush administrations imposed further restrictions on federal funding and even on the right of doctors in federally funded clinics to give patients any information on abortion. The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism ·The environmental movement continued to expand in the last decades of the 20th century. ·They blocked the construction of roads, airports, and other projects that they claimed would be ecologically dangerous, taking advantage of new legislations protecting endangered species and environmentally fragile regions. The Fragmentation of Mass Culture ·The institutions of the media, news, entertainment grew more powerful. ·Fast food chains became the most widely known restaurants in America.=0 A ·Viewers could now rent or buy videotapes. The Perils of Globalization Opposing the "New World Order" ·Environmentalists argued that globalization, in exporting industry to low-wage countries, also exported industrial pollution and toxic waste into nations that had no effective laws to control them. ·In November 1999, when the leaders of the 7 nations gathered for their meeting many of them clashed with police. Defending Orthodoxy ·The Iranian Revolution of 1979, in which orthodox Muslims ousted a despotic government whose leaders had embraced many aspects of modern western culture, was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten the stability of the globe. The Rise of Terrorism ·The U.S has experienced terrorism for many years. ·Due to the events on September 11, 2001, new security measures began to change the way Americans traveled. ·A puzzling and frightening epidemic of anthrax began in the weeks after 9/11. ·The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, government intelligence indicated, had been planned and orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of a powerful terrorist network known as Al Qaeda led by Osama Bin Laden. ·In his State of the Union address to Congress in January 2002, Bush spoke of an “axis of evil”. The New Era ·In the immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001, may Americans came to believe that they had entered a new era in their history. The reaction to the catastrophe exposed a side of American life and culture that had always existed but that had not always been visible.  

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Enduring Vision Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the Enduring Vision Textbook Notes. These outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1023 pages
    • Publisher: Cengage Learning; 5 edition (February 4, 2003)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0618280642
    • ISBN-13: 978-0618280643

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - The Rise of the Atlantic World 1400-1625

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 2 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 02 - The Rise of the Atlantic World 1400-162573 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Expansion and Diversity: The Rise of Colonial America, 1625-1700

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 3 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 03 - Expansion and Diversity: The Rise of Colonial America, 1625-170095 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - The Bonds of Empire, 1660-1750

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 4 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 04 - The Bonds of Empire, 1660-175044.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The Triumph of the British Empire

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 5 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 05 - The Triumph of the British Empire116 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - Securing Independence, Defining Nationhood, 1776-88

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 6 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 06 - Securing Independence, Defining Nationhood, 1776-8888.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - Launching the New Republic, 1789-1800

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 7 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 07 - Launching the New Republic, 1789-180033.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Jeffersonianism and the Era of Good Feelings

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 8 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 08 - Jeffersonianism and the Era of Good Feelings61.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 – The Transformation of American Society, 1815-1840

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 9 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 09 – The Transformation of American Society, 1815-184062 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Democratic Politics, Religions Revival, and Reform, 1824-1840

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 10 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 10 - Democratic Politics, Religions Revival, and Reform, 1824-184076 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Technology, Culture, and Everyday Life

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 11 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    PDF icon Chapter 11 - Technology, Culture, and Everyday Life78.02 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - The old south and slavery 1830-1860

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 12 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 12 - The old south and slavery 1830-186049.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - Immigration, Expansion, and Sectional Conflict, 1840-1848

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 13 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 13 - Immigration, Expansion, and Sectional Conflict, 1840-184843 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - From Compromise to Secession

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 14 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 14 - From Compromise to Secession66.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Crucible of Freedom: Civil War

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 15 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 15 - Crucible of Freedom: Civil War206 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Crises of Reconstruction

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 16 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 16 - The Crises of Reconstruction47.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - The Transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1860-1900

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 17 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 17 - The Transformation of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1860-190035 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 – The Rise of Industrial America 1865-1900

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 18 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 18 – The Rise of Industrial America 1865-190029 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - The New American City

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 19 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 19 - The New American City26.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Politics and Expansion in an Industrializing Age, 1877-1900

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 20 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 20 - Politics and Expansion in an Industrializing Age, 1877-1900 85.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Progressive Era (1900-1917)

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 21 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    File Chapter 21 - The Progressive Era (1900-1917)31.06 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - Global Involvements and World War I

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 22 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 22 - Global Involvements and World War I57.54 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - The 1920s: Coping with Change (1920-1929)

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 23 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 23 - The 1920s: Coping with Change (1920-1929)50.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - The Great Depression and the New Deal, 1929-1939

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 24 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    File Chapter 24 - The Great Depression and the New Deal, 1929-193924.95 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - Americans and a World in Crisis

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 25 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 25 - Americans and a World in Crisis106 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Cold War Abroad and at Home, 1945-1952

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 26 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 26 - The Cold War Abroad and at Home, 1945-195252 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - The Eisenhower Years-Study Guide

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 27 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 27 - The Eisenhower Years-Study Guide47.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - The Liberal Era (1960-1968)

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 28 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 28 - The Liberal Era (1960-1968)75 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29: A Time of Upheaval, 1968-1974

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 29 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    File Chapter 29: A Time of Upheaval, 1968-197468.61 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - Beyond the Cold War: Charting a New Course, 1988-1885

    Please find the Enduring Vision Chapter 31 outline attached below.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter 31 - Beyond the Cold War: Charting a New Course, 1988-188580 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Give Me Liberty! An American History 2nd Edition Textbook Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the Give Me Liberty! An American History 2nd Edition Textbook. These Give Me Liberty! An American History 2nd Edition Notes will help you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 696 pages
    • Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company; 2nd edition (September 16, 2008)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0393932567
    • ISBN-13: 978-0393932560

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - A New World

    1. First Americans
      1. Arrival of Native Americans
        1. Gradual settlement across Americas
        2. Environmental change and rise of agriculture
      2. Aztec and Inca empires
      3. North American Indians
        1. Wide-ranging and evolving societies
          1. Mississippi Valley
          2. Ohio River Valley
          3. Southwest
          4. West Coast
          5. Great Plains
          6. Southeast
          7. Northeast
        2. Interrelations among Indian societies
          1. Trade
          2. Diplomacy
          3. War
        3. Distinguishing factors among Indian societies
          1. Political organization
          2. Religious beliefs
          3. Language
          4. Absence of shared identity
        4. Common characteristics among Indian societies
          1. Spiritual outlook
            1. Place of ritual
            2. Views on natural and supernatural
            3. Views on secular and religious
          2. Conceptions of property
          3. Relative lack of material inequality
          4. Systems of gender relations
        5. European disdain for Indian customs and values
    2. Indian Freedom, European Freedom
      1. Indian conceptions of freedom
        1. Basis in collective belonging, self-determination, mutuality
        2. Absence of basis in individual autonomy, private property
        3. European incomprehension of
      2. European conceptions of freedom
        1. Christian liberty
          1. Freedom from sin
          2. No freedom of religious choice
        2. Freedom and inequality in early modern England
          1. Emphasis on ordered, hierarchical society
            1. Gender hierarchies
            2. Class hierarchies
          2. Unequal distribution of freedoms
    3. Start of European expansion
      1. Initial aims
        1. Commercial sea route to Asia
        2. Circumvention of Islamic middlemen
      2. Eastward expansion
        1. Portugal's exploration, extension of trading empire
          1. West Africa
          2. Cape of Good Hope
          3. India
          4. Far East
        2. Portugal's colonization of Atlantic islands
          1. Sugar plantations
          2. Slaves from Africa
      3. Slavery and Africa
        1. Traditional patterns of African slavery
        2. Acceleration of slave trade following European arrival
      4. Westward expansion
        1. Voyages of Christopher Columbus
          1. Quest for westward route to Asia
          2. Sponsorship of Spain
        2. First Spanish presence in New World
          1. Settlements at Hispaniola
          2. Explorations by Amerigo Vespucci
        3. First English and Portuguese presence in New World
          1. John Cabot (Newfoundland)
          2. Pedro Cabral (Brazil)
    4. Spanish conquest of New World
      1. Motivations
        1. Acquisition of wealth
        2. National glory
        3. Spread of Catholicism
      2. The Conquistadores
        1. Vasco Núñez de Balboa's expedition to Panama, the Pacific
        2. Ferdinand Magellan's expedition around the world
        3. Hernán Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs
          1. Background on Aztec empire
          2. Defeat, devastation, subjugation of the Aztecs
        4. Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Incas
          1. Background on Inca empire
          2. Defeat, devastation, subjugation of the Incas
    5. Demographic consequences of European arrival in the Americas
      1. "Columbian Exchange" of goods and people
      2. Devastation of Indian population
        1. Breadth and magnitude
        2. Causes
          1. War
          2. Enslavement
          3. Disease
    6. The Spanish Empire (sixteenth century)
      1. Breadth
      2. System of colonial government
        1. Curbing of conquistador aggression
        2. Establishment of top-down royal governance
        3. Emergence of locally based governance
      3. Exploitation of Indian labor
        1. Gold and silver mines
        2. Large-scale farms (haciendas)
      4. Emigration from Spain
        1. Volume
        2. Social composition
      5. Impact of native societies on empire's prospects
      6. Gestation of a hybrid culture; Mestizos
      7. Justifications for conquest
        1. Perception of cultural superiority
        2. Old-World precedent for violent crusades
        3. Papal bull dividing New World between Spain and Portugal
        4. Imperative to spread Catholicism
          1. Versus heathenism
          2. Versus Protestantism
      8. Spain and the Indians
        1. Dual agenda of saving souls and exploiting labor
        2. External restraints on brutalization of Indians
          1. Pope Paul III's ban on Indian enslavement
          2. Bartolomé de Las Casas's Destruction of the Indies
          3. Spanish reforms of colonist–Indian relations
            1. Abolition of Indian enslavement
            2. Abolition of encomienda system
            3. Implementation of repartimiento system
        3. Continuing abuse of Indians
      9. Colonial labor system at end of sixteenth century
        1. Involuntary wage labor by Indians
        2. Slave labor by Africans
      10. Emergence of Black Legend image of Spanish colonizers
      11. Spanish explorations of North America
        1. Motivations
          1. Riches
          2. Strategic bases
          3. Religious conversion
        2. Exploratory expeditions
          1. Juan Ponce de León
          2. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
          3. Hernando de Soto
          4. Cabeza de Vaca
          5. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
        3. Devastation of Indian communities
        4. Establishment of Spanish settlements
          1. In present-day Southeast
          2. In present-day Southwest
      12. Pueblo revolt
        1. Sources of Pueblo resentment of colonial authorities
          1. Labor exploitation
          2. Pressure to convert to Catholicism
          3. Assault on Pueblo religious traditions
          4. Failure to protect Pueblos from drought, external attacks
        2. The 1680 revolt
          1. Popé
            1. Background
            2. Leadership
          2. Unity of Pueblo rebels
          3. Defeat and ouster of Spanish colonizers
        3. Aftermath of revolt
          1. Eradication of Spanish cultural presence
          2. Collapse of Pueblo unity
          3. Return of Spanish colonial rule
          4. Easing of colonial practices toward Pueblos
    7. The French and Dutch empires
      1. Overall significance
        1. As part of Atlantic rivalry with Spain
        2. Modesty of, compared to Spanish empire
      2. The French empire
        1. Initial aims
        2. Initial obstacles
        3. Establishment and scope of
        4. Relations with Indians
        5. Social and economic arrangements
        6. Limits of growth
      3. The Dutch empire
        1. Establishment and scope of
        2. Place within Dutch commercial empire
        3. Conceptions of liberty and toleration
        4. Social and economic arrangements
        5. Limits of growth
        6. Relations with Indians

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - American Beginnings, 1607-1650

    1. England and the New World
      1. Reasons for England's late entry
        1. Protracted religious strife
        2. Continuing struggle to subdue Ireland
      2. Awakening of English attention to North America
        1. Early ventures
          1. Humphrey Gilbert's failed Newfoundland colony
          2. Walter Raleigh's failed Roanoke colony
        2. Impetus for North American colonization
          1. National rivalry
            1. Opposition to (Spanish) Catholicism
            2. Spain's attempted invasion of England
            3. Desire to match Spanish and French presence in the New World
          2. Sense of divine mission
            1. Image of Spanish brutality in the New World
            2. England's self-conception as beacon of freedom
          3. Material possibilities
            1. Prospects for trade-based empire in North America
            2. Solution to English social crisis
            3. Chance for laboring classes to attain economic independence
      3. English social crisis of late sixteenth century
        1. Roots of
          1. Population explosion
          2. Rural displacement
        2. Elements of
          1. Urban overcrowding
          2. Falling wages
          3. Spread of poverty
          4. Social instability
        3. Government answers to
          1. Punishment of dispossessed
          2. Dispatching of dispossessed to the New World
    2. Overview of seventeenth-century English settlement in North America
      1. Challenges of life in North America
      2. Magnitude of English emigration
        1. Chesapeake
        2. New England
        3. Middle colonies
      3. Indentured servitude
        1. Similarities to slavery
        2. Differences from slavery
      4. Significance of access to land
        1. As basis of English liberty
        2. As lure to settlement
        3. As resource for political patronage
        4. As source of wealth
      5. Englishmen and Indians
        1. Displacement of Indians
          1. Preference over subjugation or assimilation
          2. Limits of constraints on settlers
          3. Recurring warfare between colonists and Indians
        2. Trading
        3. Impact of trade and settlement on Indian life
    3. Settling of the Chesapeake
      1. Virginia
        1. Initial settlement at Jamestown
        2. Rocky beginnings
          1. High death rate
          2. Inadequate supplies
          3. Inadequate labor
        3. Virginia Company measures to stabilize colony
          1. Forced labor
          2. Headright system
          3. "Charter of grants and liberties"
        4. Indians and Jamestown settlers
          1. Initial cooperation and trade
          2. Key figures in early Indian-settler relations
            1. Powhatan
            2. John Smith
            3. iii Pocahontas
          3. Sporadic conflict
          4. War of 1622
            1. Opechancanough attack on settlers
            2. Settlers' retaliation
            3. Aftermath
          5. War of 1644
            1. Defeat of Opechancanough rebellion
            2. Removal of surviving Indians to reservations
          6. Continuing encroachment on Indian land
        5. Take-off of tobacco cultivation
          1. Introduction and spread
          2. Effects
            1. Issuance of royal colonial charter
            2. Rise of tobacco planter elite
            3. Spread of settler agriculture
            4. Rising demand for land and labor
        6. Emerging strata of white Virginia
          1. Wealthy gentry
          2. Small farmers
          3. Poor laborers
            1. Indentured servants
            2. Free
        7. Women settlers
          1. Quest for
          2. Status of
          3. Hardships
      2. Maryland
        1. Similarities to Virginia colony
        2. Distinctive features
          1. Proprietary structure
            1. Cecilius Calvert
            2. Absolute power of proprietor vs. rights of colonists
            3. Resulting conflict
          2. Religious and political tensions
            1. Calvert's Catholic leanings vs. settlers' Protestant leanings
            2. Reverberations of English Civil War
          3. Diminishing prospects for the landless
    4. Settling of New England
      1. Puritanism
        1. Emergence in England
        2. Variations within
        3. Common outlooks
          1. Central importance of the sermon
          2. John Calvin's ideas
            1. The elect and the damned
            2. Salvation
            3. Worldly behavior
          3. Zealousness
      2. Puritan separatists
        1. Growth under Charles I
        2. Aims
        3. Conceptions of freedom
          1. Denunciation of "natural liberty"
          2. Embrace of "moral liberty"
      3. Founding of Plymouth Colony
        1. The Pilgrims
        2. Arrival at Plymouth
        3. Mayflower Compact
        4. Rocky beginnings
        5. Help from Indians
        6. Thanksgiving
      4. Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony
        1. Massachusetts Bay Company
        2. Great Migration
        3. Unique features of New England settlement
      5. The Puritan family
        1. Elements of patriarchy
        2. The place of women
      6. Government and society in Puritan Massachusetts
        1. Attitudes toward individualism, social unity
        2. Organization of towns
          1. Self-government
            1. Civic
            2. Religious
          2. Subdivision of land
          3. Institutions
        3. Colonial government
          1. Emphasis on colonial autonomy
          2. Principle of consent
          3. "Visible Saints"
        4. Lines of hierarchy
          1. Access to land
          2. Status within church
          3. Social stature
          4. Claim to "liberties"
        5. Relation of church and state
      7. New Englanders divided
        1. Prevailing Puritan values
          1. Emphasis on conformity to communal norms
          2. Intolerance of individualism, dissent
        2. Roger Williams
          1. Critique of status quo
          2. Banishment
          3. Establishment of Rhode Island
            1. Religious toleration
            2. Democratic governance
        3. Other breakaway colonies
          1. Hartford
          2. New Haven
        4. Anne Hutchinson
          1. Challenge to Puritan leadership
          2. Challenge to gender norms
          3. Trial and banishment
      8. Puritans and coastal Indians
        1. Balance of power
          1. Settlers' numerical supremacy
          2. Indians' lack of central political structure
        2. Settlers' views of Indians
          1. As savages
          2. As dangerous temptation
          3. As obstacle to be removed
        3. Rising frontier tensions
        4. Settler war with and extermination of Pequots
        5. Aftereffects of Pequot War
          1. Opening of Connecticut River valley to white settlement
          2. Intimidation of other Indians
          3. Affirmation of Puritan sense of mission
      9. New England economy
        1. Economic motives behind New England settlement
          1. Aspiration for a "competency"
            1. Land ownership
            2. Craft status
          2. Aspiration for mercantile success
          3. Blending of religious and profit motives
        2. Emerging New England economy
          1. Family-based agriculture
            1. Chiefly subsistence orientation
            2. Broad distribution of land
          2. Exports to other colonies and Europe
          3. Rise of Boston merchant elite
        3. Tensions within political/religious order
          1. Merchant challenge to Puritan policies
          2. Old-guard Puritan concern over "declension"
          3. Half-Way Covenant
    5. Religion, politics, and freedom
      1. Gradually expanding "rights of Englishmen"
        1. Magna Carta
        2. English Civil War
          1. Parliament vs. Stuart monarchs
          2. Commonwealth and restoration
          3. Levellers and Diggers
      2. Repercussions of English Civil War in colonial North America
        1. In New England
          1. Ambivalence of Puritans
          2. Quakers
            1. Emergence of
            2. Persecution of
        2. In Maryland
          1. Religious-political crisis
          2. Initiatives to stabilize colony
            1. Calvert's pre-Protestant gestures
            2. Enactment of religious toleration measure

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Crisis and Expansion: North American Colonies, 1650-1750

    1. Introduction
      1. Social turmoil of late-seventeenth century North America
      2. Illustration: King Philip's War
        1. Indian attacks on southern New England colonial settlements
        2. Defeat of Indian rebellion
        3. Devastation of southern New England Indians
    2. Expansion of England's empire
      1. Mercantilism
        1. Principles
        2. Adoption by England
        3. Place of North America in
      2. New York
        1. Origins
        2. Growth and significance
          1. Military
          2. Commercial
          3. Population
        3. Status of inhabitants
          1. Religious groups
          2. Ethnic groups
          3. Women
          4. Blacks
          5. Landed elite
          6. Iroquois Confederacy
          7. Charter of Liberties and Privileges
      3. Carolina
        1. Origins
        2. Relations with Indians
        3. Lures for settlers
        4. Introduction of plantation slavery
      4. Pennsylvania
        1. Origins
        2. William Penn
        3. Quaker principles
        4. Relations with Indians
        5. Lures for settlers
        6. Growth
    3. Origins of American slavery
      1. Reasons for rise of black slavery in British colonies
        1. Growing demand for plantation labor
        2. Practical advantages over other alternatives
        3. English cultural perceptions
          1. Of "alien peoples" in general
          2. Of Africans in particular
      2. Slavery in world history
      3. Slavery in the West Indies
        1. Rapid rise during seventeenth century
        2. Centrality of sugar production
      4. Rise of Chesapeake slavery
        1. Early decades
          1. Predominance of servants from England
          2. Ambiguities of lines between black and white, slavery and freedom
            1. In custom
            2. In law
        2. Mid-seventeenth century
          1. Gradual divergence in status of blacks and whites
          2. Growing practice of slavery
        3. Bacon's Rebellion
          1. Background
            1. Governor William Berkeley's favoritism toward wealthy planters
            2. Diminishing prospects, rising hardships of small farmers
            3. Berkeley's restraints on white settlement
          2. Narrative
            1. Frontier attacks on Indians
            2. Mobilization of diverse rebels by Nathaniel Bacon
            3. Grievances and objectives
            4. Burning of Jamestown
            5. Attacks on governor's supporters
            6. Suppression of rebellion
          3. Long-term consequences
            1. Expanded freedoms and opportunities for white Virginians
            2. Accelerated shift from white indentured servitude to black slavery
        4. Early eighteenth century
          1. Legal codification of slavery, white supremacy
          2. Consolidation of slavery as basis of Virginia economy
        5. Slave resistance
    4. Colonies in crisis
      1. The Glorious Revolution and repercussions for colonial America
        1. The Glorious Revolution in England
          1. Establishment of Parliamentary supremacy
          2. Entrenchment of Protestant succession to throne
          3. Affirmation of English rights and liberties
        2. Reassertion of colonial autonomy; new charters
          1. Abolition of Dominion of New England; restoration of New England colonial governments
          2. Maryland
          3. New York
          4. Massachusetts
      2. Witchcraft in New England
        1. Seventeenth-century belief in supernatural
          1. Generally around Europe and America
          2. Among Puritans
        2. Customary conceptions and treatment of "witches"
        3. Salem witch trials
          1. Mounting hysteria
          2. Accusations, trials, and punishment
          3. Ebbing of hysteria
          4. Discrediting of witch-hunting; growing commitment to scientific explanation
    5. Trends in eighteenth-century colonial America
      1. Population growth
        1. Remarkable pace
        2. Causes
      2. Increasing diversity of population
        1. Higher rate of non-English to English arrivals
          1. Efforts by London to stem outflow of skilled English
          2. Efforts by London to encourage settlement by others
        2. Africans
        3. English convicts
        4. Scots and Scots-Irish
        5. Germans
      3. Lures to settlement
        1. Religious diversity
        2. Availability of land
        3. Demand for skills
        4. Other freedoms and opportunities
      4. Indians and the colonies
        1. Place in imperial system as traders, consumers, military allies
        2. Growing conflict with backcountry settlers
      5. Patterns of agriculture
        1. New England
        2. Backcountry
        3. Middle Colonies
      6. Place of colonies in consumer revolution
        1. As producer of goods
        2. As consumer of goods
      7. Colonial cities
        1. Growth
        2. Functions
          1. Financial
          2. Commercial
          3. Cultural
        3. Merchants
        4. Artisans
    6. Social classes in the colonies
      1. Elites
        1. Rising dominance
        2. Regional variants
          1. Mercantile elite of New England and Middle Colonies
          2. Planter elite of Chesapeake and Lower South
        3. Means of social and political hegemony
        4. "Anglicization"
          1. Aristocratic lifestyle
          2. Hierarchical worldview
      2. The poor
        1. Spread of poverty
          1. Slaves
          2. Landless tenants and wage earners
        2. Attitudes and policies toward the poor
          1. Image as responsible for own poverty
          2. Workhouses
          3. Apprenticeship
          4. "Warning out" of and expulsion from communities
      3. Middling ranks
        1. Predominance of
        2. Basis in land ownership
        3. Gender divisions of labor

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Slavery, Freedom, and the Struggle for Empire to 1763

    1. Slavery in eighteenth-century colonial America
      1. Slavery and the British empire
        1. British control of slave trade
        2. Triangular trading routes
        3. Slaveowning as an element of "freedom"
      2. Africa and the slave trade
        1. Participation of African rulers
        2. Introduction of European goods
        3. Consequences for West African societies
          1. Opportunities for rulers, merchants
          2. Impact of imported textiles on craft production
          3. Impact of imported guns on slave trade, relations among kingdoms
          4. Depletion of African population
      3. Middle passage
      4. Regional patterns of slavery
        1. In the Tobacco Kingdom (Virginia, Maryland)
          1. Breadth and importance of slavery
          2. Forms of slave labor
          3. Social hierarchy of slave society
        2. In the Rice Kingdom (South Carolina, Georgia)
          1. Breadth and importance of slavery
          2. Forms of slave labor
          3. Social hierarchy of slave society
        3. In the northern colonies
          1. Breadth and importance of slavery
          2. Forms of slave labor
      5. Slave culture and resistance
        1. The making of an African-American people
        2. Regional patterns of African-American culture
          1. In the Chesapeake
          2. In South Carolina and Georgia
            1. On the rice plantations
            2. In the port towns
          3. In the northern colonies
        3. Resistance to slavery
          1. Running away
          2. Collective rebellion
            1. New York City uprising of 1712
            2. Uprisings around Caribbean and Gulf coast of 1730s and '40s
            3. Stono rebellion of 1739
            4. New York City plot of 1741
    2. Eighteenth-century British patriotism
      1. Shared embrace of by Britons and colonists
      2. Sources
        1. Common culture and institutions
        2. Military power
        3. Expanding commercial economy
        4. Concept of British liberty
    3. Eighteenth-century British liberty
      1. Elements of
        1. "Rights of Englishmen"
        2. "Balanced Constitution"
        3. Protestantism
        4. As distinctively British
      2. Language of
        1. Expanding currency in Britain and colonial America
        2. From class-based privilege to general rights
        3. As emerging battle cry for the rebellious
      3. Republican liberty ("republicanism")
        1. Principles
          1. Supreme value of public service
          2. Property as key to independence and public virtue
        2. Appeal to landed elites of Britain and America
      4. Liberal freedom ("liberalism")
        1. Principles (derived from John Locke's "social contract")
          1. Natural, universal rights of the individual
          2. Consent of the governed
          3. Rule of law
          4. Government as protector of life, liberty, property
          5. Right of rebellion
        2. Relation to social order
          1. Compatibility with material inequality
          2. Inspiration for challenges by excluded groups
      5. Overlaps between republicanism and liberalism
    4. The public sphere in eighteenth-century colonial America
      1. Extent and limits of democracy
        1. The right to vote
          1. High levels of white male suffrage
          2. Exclusions on the basis of sex, religion, race, wealth
        2. Uneven competitiveness of elections
        3. Appointive vs. elective office
        4. Powers of governors or crown
          1. To appoint officials
          2. To veto colonial legislation
        5. The right to hold office
        6. Traditions of class deference
      2. Influence of colonial elites in local governance
        1. British policy of "salutary neglect"
        2. Growing assertiveness of colonial assemblies
        3. Issues between elected assemblies and crown-appointed officials
      3. Expanding realm of public debate
        1. Clubs
        2. Taverns and coffee houses
        3. Pamphlets and broadsides
        4. Books, circulating libraries
        5. Newspapers
      4. Freedom of expression
        1. Absence from traditional English rights
        2. Growing point of conflict between press and assemblies
        3. Trial of John Peter Zenger
      5. The Enlightenment in America
        1. Principles of Enlightenment
        2. Benjamin Franklin as embodiment of American Enlightenment
        3. Arminianism and Deism
    5. The Great Awakening
      1. Spread of religious revivals
        1. Precursors: Theodore Frelinghuysen, William and Gilbert Tennent, Jonathan Edwards
        2. George Whitefield
      2. Driving concerns
        1. Diminished religious devotion
        2. Rising commercialism
      3. Style and themes
        1. Emotional, personal style of Christianity
        2. Evangelical preaching
        3. Power of individuals over their own salvation or damnation
      4. Impacts
        1. Congregational splits into Old Light and New Light factions
        2. Proliferation of new churches
        3. Broadening of debate over established churches and religious freedom
        4. Reassessment of power relations and central values in America
    6. Imperial rivalries
      1. Spanish and French empires in North America
        1. Breadth of territory, sparseness of settlement
        2. Impulses to reinvigorate
      2. The Spanish
        1. Meager settlements in New Mexico, Texas, and Florida
        2. California
          1. Spread of missions and presidios
          2. Relations with Indians
            1. Conversion to Christianity
            2. Transformation from hunters and gatherers to farmers and craftsmen
            3. Exploitation of forced labor
            4. Consequences for Indian society
      3. The French
        1. Expansion of French traders into Mississippi Valley
          1. From Great Lakes
          2. From Mobile and New Orleans
        2. Farming communities in French Canada
        3. Louisiana
          1. Sugar plantations
          2. New Orleans
      4. Forts and trading posts along western frontier of British colonies
    7. The Seven Years'War (French and Indian War)
      1. Background
        1. Multi-sided contests for power in Ohio Valley ("middle ground")
          1. France
          2. England
          3. Rival Indian communities
          4. Settlers
          5. Land companies
        2. Ohio Company land claims
      2. The War
        1. Outbreak
        2. Initial French and Indian successes
        3. Turning of tide by British forces; surrender of New France outposts
        4. 1763 Peace of Paris
      3. Repercussions
        1. For international balance of power
          1. Ouster of French empire from North America
          2. Global reshuffling of imperial alliances and possessions
        2. For financial situations of Britain, France
        3. For relations between Indians and colonies
          1. Loss of diplomatic middle path for frontier Indians
          2. Development of pan-Indian identity
          3. Pontiac's rebellion
          4. Proclamation of 1763
          5. Rise of anti-Indian hostility from frontier colonists
            1. Resignation of Quakers from Pennsylvania assembly
            2. Paxton Boys
        4. For colonial identities
          1. Stronger bonds among the colonies
          2. Stronger bond to British empire

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The American Revolution, 1763-1783

    1. Onset of crisis
      1. Pre-1763 consolidation of imperial authority
      2. Emerging split over British-colonial relations
        1. British perspective
          1. Subordinate position of colonies
          2. Obligation of colonies to share in cost of empire
          3. "Virtual representation"
        2. American perspective
          1. Equality of colonies and mother country
          2. No taxation without representation
      3. Initial skirmishes
        1. Writs of assistance against smuggling
        2. Proclamation of 1763
        3. Sugar Act
        4. Revenue Act
        5. Currency Act
      4. Stamp Act crisis
        1. Provisions of Stamp Act
        2. Indignation in colonies
        3. Coalescence of opposition
          1. Virginia resolutions
          2. Stamp Act Congress
          3. Boycott of British goods
          4. Public demonstrations
          5. Committees of Correspondence
          6. Sons of Liberty
          7. Crowd actions
        4. Breadth of opposition
          1. Colonial elites
          2. Middling ranks
          3. Laboring classes
        5. Repeal of Stamp Act; passage of Declaratory Act
      5. Internal colonial disputes
        1. South Carolina Regulators
        2. North Carolina Regulators
        3. Hudson Valley rent wars
        4. Green Mountain land wars
    2. The road to revolution
      1. Townshend crisis
        1. Provisions of Townshend duties
        2. Colonial response
          1. Revival of boycott on British goods
          2. American-made goods as symbol of resistance
          3. Reawakening of popular protest
      2. Boston Massacre
        1. Stationing of troops in Boston
        2. The Massacre
        3. Popular indignation
      3. An uneasy calm
        1. Repeal of Townshend duties; withdrawal of troops from Boston
        2. Lifting of boycott
        3. Persisting suspicions of Britain
        4. John Wilkes controversy
        5. Anglican church rumors
      4. Tea and Intolerable Acts
        1. Tea Act
          1. Roots in global commercial developments
          2. Contents
        2. Colonial response
          1. Resistance in ports
          2. Boston Tea Party
        3. Intolerable Acts
        4. Quebec Act
    3. The coming of independence
      1. Suffolk Resolves
      2. First Continental Congress
        1. Prominence of participants
        2. Patrick Henry
        3. Endorsement of Suffolk Resolves
        4. Adoption of Continental Association
        5. Authorization of Committees of Safety
      3. Committees of Safety
        1. Displacement of established governments by extralegal bodies
        2. Expansion of "political nation"
      4. Edging toward independence
        1. Pervasive talk of liberty
        2. From "rights of Englishmen" to "natural rights"
      5. Outbreak of war
        1. Battles of Lexington and Concord
        2. Surrender of Fort Ticonderoga
        3. Boston
          1. Siege
          2. Battle of Bunker Hill
          3. British withdrawal
        4. Establishment of Continental Army, under Washington's command
        5. Dispatch of British troops to suppress rebellion
      6. Colonial ambivalence over independence
      7. Thomas Paine's Common Sense
        1. Content
          1. Denunciation of hereditary rule, monarchical government, colonial subordination
          2. Promotion of independence, political democracy, citizens' rights, free trade, insulation from imperial wars
        2. Impact
          1. Mass appeal
          2. Groundswell for independence
      8. Declaration of Independence
        1. Issuance
        2. Content
          1. Grievances against crown
          2. Defining principles
            1. National sovereignty
            2. Human equality
            3. Natural rights
            4. Government by consent of governed
            5. Right of revolution
            6. From property to "happiness"
      9. America as beacon of universal freedom
    4. Progress of the war
      1. Balance of power
        1. British advantages
          1. Military superiority
          2. Divisions among Americans
        2. American advantages
          1. Military experience
          2. Home turf
          3. Passion for independence
          4. Limits of British resolve
          5. Popular resentment against predatory Redcoats
          6. Aid from Britain's rivals
      2. Black soldiers in the Revolutionary War
        1. On American side
        2. On British side
      3. First years of the war
        1. General William Howe's pursuit of Washington
        2. Washington's eluding of Howe at New York City
        3. Washington's surprise attacks at Trenton and Princeton
        4. American victory at Saratoga
        5. British occupation of Philadelphia
        6. Washington at Valley Forge
        7. American alliance with France and Spain
      4. Sagging fortunes of revolutionary cause
        1. British recruitment of southern loyalists, slaves
        2. British occupations of Savannah, Charleston
        3. Shortage of funds
        4. Defection of Benedict Arnold
        5. Disgruntlement among soldiers
      5. Toward victory
        1. American victories at Cowpens, South Carolina, and Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina
        2. Siege and surrender of Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown
        3. Opening of peace negotiations
        4. Treaty of Paris, recognizing American independence

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Revolution Within

    1. Democratizing freedom
      1. Challenges to hereditary privilege, fixed status
      2. Expansion of political democracy
        1. Popular engagement in public debate
        2. Rolling back of property qualifications
        3. One-house vs. two-house legislatures
        4. The new constitutions
        5. Radical patriots and conservative patriots
    2. Toward religious toleration
      1. Broadening of religious toleration
      2. The founders and religion
        1. Separating church and state
          1. Thinking behind
          2. Implementation of
        2. Jefferson and religious liberty
      3. Revolution and the churches
        1. Challenges to church authority
        2. Boost to influence of religion
    3. Defining economic freedom
      1. Sharpening of the line between free labor and slavery
        1. Decline of intermediate forms of unfree labor
          1. Indentured servitude
          2. Apprenticeship
        2. Causes of decline
      2. Points of consensus
        1. Excessive dependency and inequality subversive to a free republic
        2. America well-poised to foster liberty and equality
      3. Points of debate
        1. Equality of condition vs. equality of opportunity
        2. Regulation of prices vs. free trade
    4. The limits of liberty
      1. Colonial loyalists
        1. Social profiles
        2. Motivations
        3. Experiences
          1. Suppression and assaults
          2. Seizure of property
          3. Banishment or voluntary departure
          4. Gradual fading of stigma
      2. Indians
        1. Accelerated dispossession, pre-revolutionary
        2. Wartime dilemmas and disruptions
          1. Futile efforts at neutrality
          2. Divided allegiances
          3. Losses and hardships
        3. Accelerated dispossession, post-independence
    5. Slavery and the Revolution
      1. Use of "slavery" in rhetoric of revolution
        1. As metaphor for political status of colonists
        2. As direct critique of slavery
        3. Alleged hypocrisy of slaveholders crying "slavery"
      2. Obstacles to abolition
        1. Importance of slave system in the colonies
        2. Perception of slavery as basis for white freedom
        3. Conception of property rights as essential to liberty
      3. Impetus for abolition
        1. Growing debate over slavery in America
        2. Black initiatives against slavery
          1. Invocations of freedom as universal right
          2. Legal action
          3. Escape
      4. British emancipators
        1. Invitations to slaves to escape to British lines
          1. Lord Dunmore's proclamation
          2. Henry Clinton's proclamation
        2. Magnitude of slave response
        3. Long-term outcomes for slaves who escaped to British
      5. The first emancipation
        1. Curbs on slave importation
        2. Upper South manumissions
        3. Abolition in northern states
      6. Emergence of free black communities
    6. Women and the Revolution
      1. Participation in revolutionary cause
      2. Limits on access to American freedom
        1. Maintenance of legal subordination of women
        2. Male supremacy as element of revolutionary thought
        3. View of women as wives and mothers, unfit for citizenship
      3. Improvements in status of women
        1. Ideology of "republican motherhood"
        2. Perception of women as trainers of citizens, meriting education
        3. Notion of "companionate marriage"
      4. Changes in structure of family life
    7. Repercussions of American independence struggle throughout Atlantic world
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - Founding a Nation, 1783-1789

    1. America under the Articles of Confederation
      1. The Articles of Confederation
        1. Origins
          1. Drafting
          2. Ratification
        2. Structure
        3. Extent and limits of powers
      2. Disposition of the West
        1. Competing agendas
          1. Indians
          2. Settlers
          3. Land companies and speculators
        2. Congressional measures
          1. Acquisition of Indian lands
            1. Northern
            2. Southern
          2. Ordinance of 1784
          3. Ordinance of 1785
          4. Sale of frontier lands to private groups
          5. Northwest Ordinance of 1787
            1. Plan for future states
            2. Recognition of Indian claim to land
            3. Prohibition of slavery in region
      3. Confederation government under fire
        1. Points of controversy
          1. Unredeemed wartime bonds
          2. Glut of imported goods
          3. State tariffs
          4. State debt relief measures
          5. State issuance of paper money
        2. Shays's Rebellion
          1. Objectives and spirit
          2. Suppression
          3. Upper-class alarm
        3. Nationalist impulse
          1. Concerns
            1. Lack of national economic policy
            2. Popular infringement on property rights
            3. Social disorder
          2. Leading figures
            1. James Madison
            2. Alexander Hamilton
          3. Main sources of support
            1. Bondholders
            2. Large landholders
            3. Merchants
            4. Urban artisans
          4. Initial mobilization
    2. A new constitution
      1. Delegates to Constitutional Convention
        1. Elite backgrounds
        2. Shared experience in struggle for independence
        3. Shared aims
          1. Stronger national authority
          2. Curbs on "excesses of democracy"
      2. Structure of government
        1. Points of agreement
          1. Creation of legislative, executive, and judicial branches
          2. Congressional power to raise revenue
          3. Protection of property rights from state infringement
          4. Middle ground between excessive central power and excessive democracy
        2. Debate over structure of Congress
          1. Underlying issues
            1. Balance between state and federal power
            2. Balance between large and small state interests
          2. Competing proposals
            1. Virginia plan
            2. New Jersey plan
          3. Compromise solution
      3. Extent and limits of democracy
        1. Expansions of democracy
          1. Popular election of House of Representatives
          2. Absence of property qualifications for voting
        2. Limits of democracy
          1. Small size of House of Representatives
          2. Indirect election of Senate
          3. Indirect election of president and vice-president
          4. Life appointments to Supreme Court
      4. Division of powers; federalism
        1. Expanded national authority
          1. Presidential powers
          2. Congressional powers
          3. Supremacy of national over state legislation
        2. Remaining areas of state power
      5. Separation of powers; checks and balances
      6. The slavery question
        1. Controversy over
        2. Outcomes
          1. Absence of mention in constitution
          2. Slave trade clause
          3. Fugitive slave clause
          4. Three-fifths clause
      7. Conclusion of Constitutional Convention
        1. Approval of final draft
        2. Transmission to states for ratification
    3. Ratification debate and Bill of Rights
      1. Federalists
        1. Mobilization
          1. Leadership of Madison, Hamilton, Jay; The Federalist
          2. Support among urban and commercial agricultural interests
        2. Positions
          1. Strong national government as guarantor of liberty
          2. Urgency of balancing democracy and property rights
          3. Securing rights by "extending the sphere"
          4. "Liberal" self-interest over "republican" virtue
      2. Anti-Federalists
        1. Mobilization
          1. Diffuse leadership
          2. Support among small farmers, state politicians
        2. Positions
          1. Strong national government as threat to liberty
            1. Specter of domination by elite interests
            2. Specter of denial of rights
          2. Locally based democracy over "extended sphere"
      3. Ratification
      4. Bill of Rights
        1. Impetus behind
        2. Key provisions
        3. Significance and legacy
    4. National identity in the new republic
      1. Ethnic vs. civil criteria
      2. Indians in the new nation
        1. Conflicting approaches of white Americans
          1. Exclusion
          2. Incorporation
        2. Early national policies
          1. Marginalization of Indians in constitution
          2. Appropriation of Indian lands under treaty system
          3. Ohio Valley conflicts and Treaty of Greenville
            1. Indian relinquishment of Ohio and Indiana lands
            2. Establishment of "annuity system"
          4. Program to encourage American-style agriculture
            1. Prescriptions for "male" and "female" labor
            2. Widespread rejection by tribes
      3. Blacks in the new nation
        1. Access to rights of citizenship
          1. Ambiguous status of free blacks
          2. Unambiguous exclusion of enslaved blacks
          3. Explicit denial of black eligibility for naturalization
        2. Growing view of blacks as inassimilable
          1. Hector St. John Crèvecoeur's Letters from an American Farmer
          2. Thomas Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - Securing the Republic, 1790-1815

    1. Politics during the Washington presidency
      1. Outset of the Washington administration
        1. George Washington as symbol of national unity, virtue
        2. Key figures
      2. The Hamiltonians
        1. Vision for the republic
          1. Robust economic development
          2. Close commercial ties to Europe
          3. Military power
          4. Strong national government
        2. Program
          1. Federal assumption of national and state debts
          2. Creation of new national debt
          3. Establishment of Bank of the United States
          4. Whiskey tax
          5. Government promotion of industrial manufacture
            1. Tariffs
            2. Subsidies
          6. National army
        3. Bases of support
      3. The Jeffersonians
        1. Vision for the republic
          1. Westward expansion
          2. Land for independent farmers
          3. Free trade
        2. Critique of Hamilton program
          1. Threat to liberty from a standing army
          2. Favoritism toward speculators at expense of small farmers
          3. Favoritism toward diversified North at expense of agrarian South
        3. Bases of support
      4. 1790 compromise between Hamiltonians and Jeffersonians
      5. Divisions over foreign affairs
        1. Mixed response to French Revolution
          1. Enthusiasm (Jeffersonians)
          2. Alarm (Washington, Hamilton)
        2. Aggravating developments
          1. War between France and Britain
          2. Edward Genêt tour of America
          3. British encroachments on American ships
          4. Jay Treaty
      6. Emergence of political parties
        1. The Federalist Party
          1. Agenda and philosophy
            1. Hamilton's economic program
            2. Close ties with Britain
            3. Suppression of popular unrest (Whiskey Rebellion)
            4. Fixed social hierarchy
          2. Bases of support
        2. The Republican party
          1. Agenda and philosophy
            1. Democratic self-government
            2. Aversion to social and economic inequality
          2. Bases of support
        3. Intensity of partisan debate
      7. Expansion of popular involvement in public debate
        1. Contributing factors
          1. Partisan divisions
          2. British radicalism
            1. Emigrants to America
            2. Thomas Paine's Rights of Man
        2. Manifestations
          1. Political meetings, pamphlets, newspapers
          2. Democratic-Republican societies
          3. Emerging principle of democratic rights
        3. Implications for partisan politics
          1. Federalist alarm
          2. Republican receptiveness
      8. Renewed discussion of women's rights
        1. Expanding participation in public discussion
        2. Influential voices
          1. Mary Wollstonecraft
          2. Judith Sargent Murray
    2. The Adams years
      1. Election of 1796
        1. Washington's retirement and farewell
        2. Federalist Adams's victory over Republican Jefferson
        3. Sectional division of the vote
      2. Adams's troubled presidency
        1. Embroilment in British-French conflict
          1. Seizure of American ships by each side
          2. "XYZ Affair"
          3. "Quasi-war" with France
          4. Negotiated peace of 1800
        2. Crackdown on political dissent
          1. Background
            1. Rural unrest
            2. Dissent against Federalists
          2. Provisions of Alien and Sedition Acts
          3. Arrest and conviction of Republican opponents
          4. Forms of protest
            1. Republican press
            2. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions
          5. Themes of protest
            1. Free expression as essential to liberty
            2. Limits of federal power over the states
      3. Election of 1800
        1. Republican mobilization; "Jefferson and Liberty"
        2. Constitutional crisis over election
          1. Particulars
          2. Outcome
            1. Jefferson over Adams
            2. Twelfth Amendment
        3. Peaceful transfer of power
    3. The slavery question
      1. Debate in first Congress over emancipation
      2. Passage of fugitive slave law
      3. Impact of Saint-Domingue slave revolt
        1. Inspiration among slaves
        2. Alarm among whites
      4. Gabriel's Rebellion
        1. Features of the conspiracy
          1. Artisanal makeup
          2. Roots in Richmond's black community
          3. Language of liberty
        2. Discovery and defeat
        3. Aftereffects
          1. Awareness of slaves' aspiration for freedom
          2. Increased control over black population (slave and free) in South
    4. The Jefferson years
      1. Goals of new administration
        1. Conciliatory tone toward opponents
        2. Reduction in expense, size, and power of national government
        3. Unrestricted trade
        4. Freedom of press and religion
        5. Avoidance of "entangling alliances" with foreign powers
      2. Establishment of judicial review of federal and state laws
        1. Chief Justice John Marshall
        2. Marbury v. Madison
        3. Fletcher v. Peck
      3. Louisiana Purchase
        1. Napoleon's motivations for selling
        2. Jefferson's motivations for buying
          1. Unimpeded access to port of New Orleans
          2. "Extending the sphere" of the republic
          3. Ensuring the future of American agriculture
          4. Tension between benefits of purchase and principle of limited government
        3. Federalist alarm
        4. Lewis and Clark expedition
          1. Objects
            1. Scientific exploration
            2. Trade relations with western Indians
            3. Commercial route to Asia
          2. Outcome
            1. Abundant information on newly acquired territory
            2. Achievement of overland travel to Pacific
        5. Incorporation of Louisiana
          1. Significance of New Orleans area
          2. Rights of blacks and women under Spanish and French rule
          3. Declining status of blacks under American rule
    5. Foreign entanglements
      1. Barbary coast conflict
      2. Renewed embroilment in British-French conflict
        1. Impact of war between Britain and France on America
          1. Blockade on American shipping by each side
          2. Impressment of Americans by British navy
        2. Jefferson's embargo on American exports
          1. Terms
          2. Purposes
          3. Results
            1. Memories of Intolerable Acts
            2. Minimal impact on British and French
            3. Devastation of American port economies
          4. Scaling back of embargo
            1. Non-Intercourse Act
            2. Macon's Bill No. 2
    6. Recent trends in U.S.-Indian relations
      1. Varied U.S. policies toward Indians
        1. Removal
        2. Assimilation
      2. Varied responses by Indians
        1. Endorsement of assimilation
        2. Call for preservation of autonomy
          1. Non-confrontational approach
          2. Militant, pan-Indian approach
            1. Tenskwatawa at Prophetstown
            2. Tecumseh in Mississippi Valley
      3. Battle of Tippecanoe
    7. The War of 1812
      1. Prelude
        1. Persisting British attacks on American vessels
        2. Reinstatement of embargo by President Madison
        3. Emergence of War Hawks
          1. Leading figures
            1. Henry Clay
            2. John C. Calhoun
          2. Themes
            1. National honor
            2. Unimpeded foreign trade
            3. Expansion of republic
        4. Reports of British encouragement of Tecumseh
      2. Outbreak of war
        1. Madison's call for war
        2. National divisions over
          1. Strong opposition in North
          2. Strong support in South and West
      3. Course of war
        1. Britain's material advantages
        2. British successes
          1. Repulsion of U.S. invasions of Canada
          2. Destruction by blockade of American commerce
          3. Invasion of Washington, D.C.
        3. American successes
          1. Battle of Lake Erie
          2. Repulsion of British assault on Baltimore
          3. Battle of the Thames (defeat of Tecumseh)
          4. Battle of Horseshoe Bend (defeat of hostile Creeks)
          5. Battle of New Orleans
      4. Conclusion and aftermath
        1. Treaty of Ghent
        2. Celebration of republic's virtue and resilience
        3. Completion of U.S. conquest of eastern land
        4. Setbacks to Indian power
          1. In Old Northwest
          2. In South
        5. Acceleration of white westward settlement
        6. Demise of Federalist Party
          1. Costs of antiwar stance
          2. Hartford Convention
          3. Modest size of commercial and financial base
          4. Elitism
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - The Market Revolution

    1. A new economy
      1. Situation at outset of nineteenth century
        1. Market revolution already underway
        2. Widespread isolation from markets
          1. Reasons for
          2. Young Lincoln's illustration of
      2. Transportation and communication revolutions
        1. Forms
          1. Toll roads; "turnpikes"
          2. Steamboats
          3. Canals
            1. Erie Canal
            2. Competing canal projects
          4. Railroads
          5. Telegraph
        2. Consequences
          1. Opening of interior to settlement, commerce
          2. Lower transportation costs
          3. Spread of instant, long-distance communication
          4. Linkage of western farmers to distant markets
      3. Westward expansion
        1. Contributing impact of transportation and communications revolutions
        2. Pace and magnitude
        3. Streams of migration
          1. From Lower South
          2. From Upper South
          3. From New England
        4. Regional patterns
          1. Old Northwest
          2. Old Southwest
      4. Rise of the Cotton Kingdom
        1. Pace and magnitude
        2. Contributing factors
          1. Industrial demand for cotton
          2. Invention of cotton gin
          3. Opening of Deep South to white settlement
        3. Revitalization and spread of plantation slavery
          1. Growth of domestic slave trade
          2. Consequences for slaves
          3. Consequences for South's social and economic development
    2. Market Society
      1. Commercialization of northwest farming
        1. Eastern markets
        2. Transportation networks
        3. Availability of credit
        4. Improved farm machinery
      2. Growth of cities
        1. Place on western frontier
        2. Pace of growth
      3. From craft production to mass production
        1. Decline of artisan tradition
          1. Larger workshops
          2. Subdivision of tasks
          3. Increased supervision
        2. The factory system
          1. Early enterprises
            1. Slater factory (Rhode Island)
            2. Waltham and Lowell mills (Massachusetts)
            3. Spread of industrial towns
          2. Initial features
            1. Large concentrations of workers
            2. Centralized supervision
            3. Water power
            4. Power-driven machinery
            5. "Outwork"
          3. Evolving features
            1. Steam power
            2. Widening range of locations
            3. Widening range of goods
            4. Interchangeable parts
            5. Standardized products
          4. Regional variations
            1. Concentration of early industry in New England
            2. Small-scale manufacturing elsewhere in North
            3. Minimal industrialization in South
      4. The industrial worker
        1. Sharpening of line between work time and leisure time
        2. From labor's "price" to labor's "wage"
        3. Early aversion of working men to wage labor
        4. Women at Lowell
      5. Growth of Immigration to America
        1. Flow of
        2. Factors behind
          1. Access to jobs and land in North
          2. Displacement of peasants and craft workers in Europe
          3. Advances in long-distance travel
          4. Appeal of American freedoms
          5. Irish potato famine
        3. Experience of
          1. Irish
          2. Germans
          3. Others
        4. Rise of Nativism
          1. Chapter in ongoing American anxiety over immigration
          2. Perception of Irish as subversive to ideals of democratic republic
          3. Anti-immigrant initiatives
            1. Riots
            2. Electoral campaigns
      6. Legal foundation for business growth
        1. Corporate charters
        2. Limited liability
        3. Charters as contracts
        4. Rejection of state-sponsored monopoly
        5. Support for state-sponsored competition
        6. Exculpation of companies for property damage
        7. Affirmation of employer power at workplace
        8. Criminalization of strikes
    3. The free individual
      1. Reinforcement of link between West and "freedom"
        1. "Manifest Destiny"
        2. Economic mobility
      2. Transcendentalists
        1. Leading figures
          1. Ralph Waldo Emerson
          2. Henry David Thoreau
        2. Individualist ethos
          1. Self-realization
          2. Self-reliance
          3. Privacy
        3. Relation to market revolution
          1. Affirmation
          2. Critique
      3. Second Great Awakening
        1. Manifestations
          1. Wave of revivals
          2. Surging numbers of ministers, church members, evangelical sects
          3. Rev. Charles Grandison Finney
        2. Themes and features
          1. Doctrines of human free will, salvation through good works
          2. Democratic sensibility
          3. Popular embrace of Christianity
        3. Relation to market revolution
          1. Affirmation
          2. Critique
    4. Visions, realities, and limits of prosperity
      1. Ideals of market revolution
        1. Competition and material advancement as measures of "freedom"
        2. The "self-made man"
      2. Beneficiaries of market revolution
        1. Wealthy bankers, merchants, industrialists, planters
        2. Middle-class employees
        3. Successful farmers
        4. Successful craftsmen
        5. Professionals
      3. Free blacks and the market revolution
        1. Discriminatory barriers to opportunity
          1. Forms
          2. Impetus behind
          3. Impact on black status
        2. Black institutional life
      4. Women and the market revolution
        1. Decline of home as realm of economic production
        2. The "cult of domesticity"
          1. Separate spheres
          2. Distinctive ideals of femininity and masculinity
        3. Wage-earning women
          1. Limited rights and options
          2. Meager terms of labor
        4. Middle-class women
          1. Domestic respectability
          2. Freedom from household labor
      5. Growing concern over effects of market revolution
        1. Acquisitiveness as threat to public good
        2. Cycle of boom and bust
        3. Irregular employment
        4. Widening inequalities of living standards
        5. Erosion of craft skills
        6. Specter of wage dependency; "wage slavery"
      6. The early labor movement
        1. Forms
          1. Workingmen's parties
          2. Unions and strikes
        2. Demands
          1. Access to land, public education
          2. Higher wages, shorter hours
          3. Right to organize
        3. Underlying values
          1. Economic autonomy
          2. Public-spirited virtue
          3. Social equality

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Democracy in America, 1815-1840

    1. Triumph of democracy
      1. Elimination of property qualifications for voting
        1. Enfranchisement of wage-earning men
        2. Popular pressures behind
        3. Uneven pace of, state by state
        4. Dorr War
      2. Elements of democracy
        1. Mass participation in politics
        2. Liveliness of the public sphere
        3. Democracy as "habit of the heart" (Alexis de Tocqueville)
        4. Democracy as hallmark of American freedom
        5. Democratic ideal as radical departure in Western thought
      3. Boundaries of the political nation
        1. Inclusion of laboring white men, immigrants
        2. Exclusion of women, non-whites
        3. Shift in criteria from economic status to natural capacity
      4. Information revolution
        1. Manifestations
          1. Mass circulation of "penny press"
          2. Variety of popular publications
          3. "Alternative" newspapers
        2. Contributing factors
          1. New printing technologies
          2. Low postal rates
          3. Rise of political party organizations
        3. New style of journalism
      5. Women and public sphere
        1. Areas of involvement
        2. Areas of exclusion
      6. Racial democracy
        1. Growing equation of democracy and whiteness
        2. Rise of racist stereotypes
        3. Contraction of black rights
    2. Nationalism and its discontents
      1. The American System
        1. Underlying vision
          1. Enhancement of nation's financial, transportation, and manufacturing sectors
          2. Active role of federal government
        2. Leading architects
          1. Henry Clay
          2. John C. Calhoun
        3. Precursors
          1. Congressional approval of National Road
          2. Gallatin plan for federal road and canal construction
        4. 1815 blueprint
          1. National bank
          2. Tariff on imported manufactured goods
          3. "Internal improvements" (road and canals)
        5. Outcome
          1. Enactment of tariff
          2. Chartering of Second Bank of the United States ("Bank")
          3. Veto of internal improvements
      2. Functions and mission of Bank
      3. Panic of 1819
        1. Causes
          1. Post-war speculative fever
            1. Markets for American cotton and grain
            2. Land boom in West
            3. Easy credit from local banks and Bank
          2. Ebbing demand for American exports, land
        2. Material repercussions
          1. Mass bankruptcy
          2. Rising unemployment
        3. Political repercussions
          1. Growing popular distrust of banks
          2. State measures to protect debtors, challenge Bank
          3. McCulloch v. Maryland
      4. Missouri controversy
        1. Narrative
          1. Missouri quest for statehood
          2. Tallmadge proposal limiting slavery
          3. Stalemate
          4. First Missouri Compromise
            1. Dual admission of Missouri and Maine
            2. Prohibition of slavery above 36°30'
          5. Second Missouri Compromise
        2. Significance
          1. Sectional conflict amid "Era of Good Feelings"
          2. Harbinger of future crises over slavery
    3. Nation, section, and party
      1. Monroe Doctrine
        1. Background
          1. Latin American rebellions against Spanish colonial rule
          2. Establishment of independent Latin American nations
        2. Principles
          1. No further European colonization in Americas
          2. Noninterference by European powers in Latin American republics
          3. Noninvolvement of United States in European wars
        3. Motivations
      2. Election of 1824
        1. Candidates and their constituencies
          1. Andrew Jackson
          2. John Quincy Adams
          3. William H. Crawford
          4. Henry Clay
        2. Outcome
          1. Attainment by Jackson of first place in popular vote
          2. Attainment by Adams of electoral vote majority (in House)
          3. Charges of "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay
      3. Presidency of Adams
        1. Background on Adams
        2. Vision for nation
          1. Domestic
            1. American System
            2. Activist national state
          2. Foreign
            1. Dynamic commerce around world
            2. U.S. hegemony in Western Hemisphere
        3. Achievements
          1. Acceleration of internal
          2. Increase in tariff
      4. Gathering Jacksonian challenge
        1. Themes
          1. Individual liberty
          2. States' rights
          3. Limited government
        2. Mobilization of Democratic party
          1. Martin Van Buren's approach to party politics
          2. Quest for revived Jeffersonian coalition
      5. Election of 1828
        1. Old politics (Adams) vs. new politics (Jackson)
        2. Scurrilous campaigning
        3. Jackson's victory
        4. Affirmation of a new American politics
    4. Age of Jackson
      1. Contradictions of Andrew Jackson
      2. New mode of politics
        1. Political contests as public spectacle, mass entertainment
        2. Politicians as popular heroes
        3. The party machine
          1. Source of jobs for constituents
          2. Mobilizer of voter turnout
          3. "Spoils system"
        4. National party conventions
        5. Party newspapers
      3. The Democratic party
        1. Agenda and philosophy
          1. Concern over gulf between social classes
          2. Aversion to federal promotion of economic development, "special interests"
          3. Vision of broad access to self-regulating market
          4. Belief in limits on federal power
          5. Counterposing of "producing classes" and "non-producers"
          6. Individual morality as private concern
        2. Bases of support
          1. Farmers remote from markets
          2. Urban workers
          3. Aspiring entrepreneurs
          4. Catholic and immigrants
          5. South and West
      4. The Whig party
        1. Agenda and philosophy
          1. Receptiveness to hierarchy of social classes
          2. Federal promotion of economic development; "American System"
          3. Individual morality as public concern
        2. Bases of support
          1. Established businessmen and bankers
          2. Market-oriented farmers
          3. Large planters
          4. Evangelical Protestants
          5. Northeast
      5. Nullification crisis
        1. Growing concern of southern planters over national authority
        2. 1828 "tariff of abominations"
        3. Emergence of "nullification" threat
          1. South Carolina planter elite
          2. Vice President Calhoun
        4. "States' rights" vs. "liberty and union"
        5. Climax and resolution
          1. 1832 tariff
          2. Repudiation by South Carolina
          3. Enactment of Force Bill by Congress
          4. Engineering of compromise by Clay
      6. Indian removal
        1. Ongoing displacement
          1. 1832 defeat of Black Hawk in Old Northwest (Illinois)
          2. 1820s expulsion of Indians from Missouri
        2. 1830 Indian Removal Act
          1. Provision for removal of "Five Civilized Tribes" from southern states
          2. Support from Jackson
          3. Implications
            1. Repudiation of Jeffersonian idea of assimilation
            2. Rebuff of Indian efforts to assimilate
          4. Cherokee appeals to Congress, courts
          5. Mixed response from Supreme Court
            1. Johnson v. M'Intosh
            2. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
            3. Worcester v. Georgia
          6. Jackson defiance of Supreme Court
          7. Trail of Tears
        3. Responses of remaining southern tribes
          1. Widespread acquiescence, voluntary departure
          2. Resistance by Seminoles
            1. Leadership of Osceola
            2. Assistance from fugitive slaves
            3. Second Seminole War
        4. William Apess's A Son of the Forest
        5. Receding of Indian presence east of the Mississippi
      7. Bank War
        1. Background
          1. Bank as controversial symbol of market revolution
          2. Nicholas Biddle and the Bank
          3. View of Bank as union of political authority and economic privilege
        2. Jackson vs. Bank
          1. 1832 bill extending Bank charter
          2. Veto by Jackson
        3. Significance
          1. Populist themes of veto message
          2. Affirmation of presidential power
        4. Aftermath
          1. Sweeping reelection of Jackson
          2. Gradual death of Bank
          3. Shift of government funds to local banks
            1. Victory of "soft-money" over "hard-money" Jacksonians
            2. "Pet banks"
          4. Expansion of paper currency
          5. Speculative boom
          6. Decline in real wages
    5. Post-Jackson era
      1. Panic of 1837 and subsequent depression
        1. Causes
          1. Specie Circular
          2. Bank of England demand for repayment in gold or silver
          3. Economic downturn in Britain
        2. Material repercussions
          1. Business failures
          2. Farmers' loss of land
          3. Urban unemployment
          4. Collapse of labor movement
          5. Defaults on state debts
      2. Economic policy under Van Buren administration
        1. Ascendancy of hard-money Democrats
        2. Shift of government funds from pet banks to Independent Treasury
        3. Split within Democratic party
      3. Election of 1840
        1. Fragmenting of Democratic coalition
        2. Maturation of Whig party
          1. Adoption of Democratic party methods of organization
          2. Nomination of William Henry Harrison
          3. "Log Cabin" campaign
        3. Harrison's defeat of Van Buren
        4. Death of Harrison
      4. Presidency of John Tyler
        1. Veto of Whig's American System program
        2. Whig repudiation of Tyler
        3. Weakness of Tyler without party backing

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - The Peculiar Institution

    1. The Old South
      1. Emergence of slavery as "peculiar institution"
      2. Cotton and the growth of southern slavery
        1. Central place of cotton in world economy
        2. Southern dominance of world cotton supply
        3. Emergence of United States as center of new world slavery
      3. Rise of internal slave trade
        1. Pace and magnitude
        2. Geographical patterns
        3. Public visibility
        4. Integral place in southern commerce
        5. Importance to Cotton Kingdom
      4. Slavery's impact on national life
        1. Political
        2. Economic
        3. In North
          1. Commerce
          2. Manufacturing
        4. In South
          1. Vitality of plantation economy
          2. Limits on industrialization, immigration, and urban growth
          3. The New Orleans exception
      5. Plain folk
        1. Remoteness from market revolution; self-sufficiency
        2. Class strata
          1. Isolated poor
          2. Yeomanry
        3. Relation to planter elite
          1. Alienation
          2. Bonds
            1. Racial
            2. Familial
            3. Political
            4. Regional
        4. Investment in slave system
          1. Material
          2. Ideological
      6. Planter elite
        1. Measures of regional dominance
          1. Scale of slave ownership
          2. Size and quality of landholding
          3. Income
          4. Political power
        2. Economic engagement in world market
        3. Paternalistic, non-competitive ethos
          1. Defining features
          2. Contributing factors
          3. Influence on southern values
        4. Intellectual life
      7. Proslavery argument
        1. Rising currency in southern thought
        2. Elements of
          1. Racial assumptions
          2. Biblical themes
          3. Notions of human progress
          4. Prospects for equality among whites
        3. Shift to more hierarchical defense of slavery
    2. Life under slavery
      1. Slaves and the law
        1. General patterns
          1. Status as property
          2. Pervasive denial of legal rights
          3. Power of slave owners over enforcement
          4. Law as mechanism of master's control
        2. Nineteenth-century trends
          1. Legislation to humanize bondage
            1. Features
            2. Contributing factors
          2. Legislation to tighten bondage
            1. Features
            2. Contributing factors
      2. Free black population
        1. Size
        2. Social and civil stature
          1. Blurry line between slavery and freedom
          2. Broad denial of legal rights
        3. Growing reputation as threat to slave system
        4. Regional variations
          1. Lower South
            1. Small numbers
            2. Concentration in cities
            3. Free black elite
          2. Upper South
            1. Concentration in farmlands
            2. Ties to slave community
      3. Slave labor
        1. Diversity of occupations
        2. Agricultural
          1. Small farms vs. plantations
          2. Gang labor (cotton, sugar) vs. task labor (rice)
        3. Urban
          1. Relative autonomy and independence
          2. Growing reputation as threat to slave system
      4. Modes of order and discipline
        1. Physical punishment
        2. Manipulation of divisions
        3. Material incentives
        4. Threat of sale
    3. Slave culture
      1. General features
        1. Central arenas
          1. Family
          2. Church
        2. Chief functions
          1. Survival of bondage
          2. Preservation of self-esteem
          3. Transmission of collective values across generations
        3. Sources
          1. African heritage
          2. American values and experiences
      2. Slave family
        1. Demographic foundation
        2. Legal constraints
        3. Resiliency
        4. Distinctive kinship patterns
        5. Vulnerability to break-up through sale
        6. Gender roles
          1. "Equality of powerlessness"
          2. Assertion of gender roles where possible
      3. Slave religion
        1. Practices
          1. Black preachers on plantations
          2. Urban black churches
        2. Influences
          1. Fusion of African and Christian traditions
          2. Religious revivals in South
        3. Slaves' version of Christianity
          1. Solace amid bondage
          2. Hope for liberation
          3. Sympathy for the oppressed
          4. Brotherhood and equality
        4. Negation of masters' pro-slavery version
      4. Desire for freedom and justice
        1. As expressed in folk tales, spirituals
        2. Reflection of American language of freedom
    4. Resistance to slavery
      1. "Day-to-day"; "silent sabotage"
      2. Escape
        1. Obstacles
        2. Destinations
          1. Southern cities
          2. Remote areas within South
          3. North
        3. Underground Railroad
          1. Resourcefulness
          2. Harriet Tubman
        4. Large-scale collective escape
          1. Infrequency of
          2. Amistad episode
      3. Slave revolts
        1. Major nineteenth-century episodes
          1. Gabriel's Rebellion
          2. Louisiana sugar plantation slave rebellion
          3. Denmark Vesey conspiracy
          4. Nat Turner's Rebellion
        2. Notable patterns
          1. Infrequency
          2. Blend of African and American influences
          3. Link between open rebellion and quieter resistance
          4. Bleak prospects for success in South
        3. Aftermath of Nat Turner's rebellion in South
          1. White panic
          2. Widespread assaults on slaves
          3. Tightening of restrictions on blacks (slave and free)
          4. Stifling of slavery debate, abolitionism

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - An Age of Reform, 1820-1840

    1. The reform impulse
      1. Overall patterns
        1. Voluntary associations
        2. Wide-ranging targets and objectives
        3. Activities and tactics
        4. Breadth of appeal
      2. Utopian communities
        1. Overall patterns
          1. Varieties of structures and purposes
          2. Common visions
            1. Cooperative organization of society
            2. Social harmony
            3. Narrowing of gap between rich and poor
            4. Gender equality
        2. Spiritual communities
          1. Shakers
            1. Outlooks on gender and property
            2. Outcome
          2. Oneida
            1. John Humphrey Noyes
            2. Outlooks on gender and property
            3. Outcome
        3. Worldly communities
          1. Brook Farm
            1. Transcendentalist origins
            2. Influence of Charles Fourier
            3. Outlooks on labor and leisure
            4. Outcome
          2. New Harmony
            1. Communitarianism of Robert Owen
            2. Forerunner at New Lanark, Scotland
            3. Outlooks on labor, education, gender, and community
            4. Outcome
          3. Utopia and Modern Times
            1. Anarchism of Josiah Warren
            2. Outlooks on labor, exchange, and gender
            3. Outcome
        4. Limits of mainstream appeal
      3. Mainstream reform movements
        1. Visions of liberation
          1. From external "servitudes" (e.g. slavery, war)
          2. From internal "servitudes" (e.g. drink, illiteracy, crime)
        2. Influence of Second Great Awakening
        3. "Perfectionism"
        4. Appeal in "burnt-over districts"
        5. Radicalization of reform causes
        6. Badge of middle-class respectability
      4. Opposition to reform
        1. Leading sources
          1. Workers
          2. Catholics
          3. Immigrants
        2. Points of controversy
          1. Temperance crusade
          2. Perfectionism
          3. Imposition of middle-class Protestant morality
      5. Ambiguities of reform
        1. Impulse for liberation, individual freedom
        2. Impulse for moral order, social control
      6. Program of institution building
        1. Jails
        2. Poorhouses
        3. Asylums
        4. Orphanages
        5. Common schools
          1. Thomas Mann
          2. As embodiment of reform agenda
          3. Reception and outcome
    2. Crusade against slavery
      1. American Colonization Society
        1. Founding
        2. Principles
          1. Gradual abolition
          2. Removal of freed blacks to Africa
        3. Establishment of Liberia
        4. Skepticism over
        5. Following
          1. In North
          2. In South
        6. Black response
          1. Emigration to Liberia
          2. Opposition
            1. First black national convention
            2. Insistence on equal rights, as Americans
      2. Take-off of militant abolitionism
        1. Distinctive spirit and themes
          1. Demand for immediate abolition
          2. Explosive denunciations of slavery
            1. As a sin
            2. As incompatible with American freedom
          3. Rejection of colonization
          4. Insistence on racial equality, rights for blacks
          5. Active role of blacks in movement
          6. Mobilization of public opinion
          7. Moral suasion
        2. Initiatives and methods
          1. Founding of American Anti-Slavery Society (AAAS)
          2. Printed propaganda
          3. Oratory; public meetings
          4. Petitions
        3. Pioneering figures and publications
          1. David Walker; An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World
          2. William Lloyd Garrison
            1. The Liberator
            2. Thoughts on African Colonization
          3. Theodore Weld; Slavery As It Is
          4. Lydia Maria Child; An Appeal In Favor of That Class of Americans Called Africans
        4. Spread and growth
        5. Strongholds of support
        6. Visions of American freedom
          1. Self-ownership as basis of freedom
          2. Priority of personal liberty over rights to property or local self-government
          3. Freedom as universal entitlement, regardless of race
          4. Right to bodily integrity
        7. Identification with revolutionary heritage
      3. Black and white abolitionism
        1. Prominence of blacks in movement
          1. As opponents of colonization
          2. As readers and supporters of The Liberator
          3. As members and officers of AAAS
          4. As organizers and speakers
          5. As writers
        2. Racial strains within movement
          1. Persistence of prejudice among white abolitionists
          2. White dominance of leadership positions
          3. Growing black quest for independent role
        3. Remarkable degree of egalitarianism among white abolitionists
          1. Anti-discrimination efforts in North
          2. Spirit of interracial solidarity
        4. Black abolitionists' distinctive stands on freedom and Americanness
          1. Exceptional hostility to racism
          2. Exceptional impatience with celebrations of American liberty; "Freedom celebrations"
          3. Exceptional commitment to color-blind citizenship
          4. Exceptional insistence on economic dimension to freedom
        5. Frederick Douglass's historic Fourth of July oration
      4. Slavery and civil liberties
        1. Assault on abolitionism
          1. Mob violence
            1. Attack on Garrison in Boston
            2. Attack on James G. Birney in Cincinnati
            3. Fatal attack on Elijah P. Lovejoy in Alton, Illinois
          2. Suppression
            1. Removal of literature from mails
            2. "Gag rule" on petitions to House of Representatives
        2. Resulting spread of antislavery sentiment in North
      5. Split within AAAS
        1. Points of conflict
          1. Role of women in movement
          2. Garrisonian radicalism
          3. Relationship of abolitionism to American politics
        2. Outcome
          1. Formation of rival American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
          2. Founding of Liberty party
          3. Weak performance of Liberty party in 1840 election
    3. Origins of feminism
      1. Rise of the public woman
        1. Importance of women at grassroots of abolitionism
        2. Forms of involvement in public sphere
          1. Petition drives
          2. Meetings
          3. Parades
          4. Oratory
        3. Range of reform movements involving women
      2. Abolitionism as seedbed for feminist movement
        1. New awareness of women's subordination
        2. Path-breaking efforts of Angelina and Sarah Grimké
          1. Impassioned antislavery addresses
          2. Controversy over women lecturers
          3. Sarah Grimké's Letters on the Equality of the Sexes
      3. Launching of women's rights movement; Seneca Falls Convention
        1. Roots in abolitionism
          1. Influence of Grimké sisters
          2. Leadership of antislavery veterans Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
        2. Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments
          1. Echoes of Declaration of Independence
          2. Demand for suffrage
          3. Denunciation of wide-ranging inequalities
      4. Characteristics of feminism
        1. International scope
        2. Middle-class orientation
      5. Themes of feminism
        1. Self-realization
          1. Transcendentalist sensibility
          2. Margaret Fuller's Woman in the Nineteenth Century
        2. Right to participate in market revolution
          1. Denial that home is women's "sphere"
          2. Amelia Bloomer's new style of dress
        3. Analogy between marriage and slavery; "slavery of sex"
          1. Laws governing wives' economic status
          2. Law of domestic relations
      6. Tensions within feminist thought
        1. Belief in equality of the sexes
        2. Belief in natural differences

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13: A House Divided, 1840-1861

    1. Westward migration
      1. Oregon
      2. Utah (Mormons)
      3. Mexican frontier
    2. Roots of Mexican War
      1. Pre-American settlers
        1. Mexican independence from Spain
        2. Mexicans and Indians
        3. California's commercial links to the United States
      2. From arrival of U.S. settlers to Texas revolt
        1. Initial emigration to Texas
        2. Mexican efforts to check American presence
        3. Texas revolt
          1. Demand by U.S. settlers and "Tejano" allies for greater autonomy
          2. Clamp-down by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
          3. Declaration of Independence
          4. Battle of the Alamo; "Remember the Alamo"
          5. Defeat of Santa Anna by Sam Houston at San Jacinto
        4. Republic of Texas
          1. Establishment
          2. Election of Houston as first president
          3. Early quest for U.S. annexation; opposition by President Jackson
          4. Swelling of American emigration
      3. 1844 election
        1. Revival of annexation issue
          1. Texas
            1. Relation to slavery question
            2. Support from John Tyler, James K. Polk
            3. Opposition from Henry Clay, Martin Van Buren
          2. Oregon; "Fifty-four forty or fight"
        2. Democrat Polk vs. Whig Clay
        3. Election of Polk
      4. Annexations under Polk
        1. Texas
        2. Oregon up to forty-ninth parallel
        3. Pursuit of California
    3. Mexican War
      1. Immediate causes
        1. Impasse over California
        2. Texas-Mexico border dispute
        3. Polk declaration of war on Mexico
      2. Response among Americans
        1. Broad support
          1. Spirit of Manifest Destiny
          2. America as bearer of liberty
        2. Themes of dissent
          1. War will promote expansion of slavery
          2. War undermines democratic values
          3. Thoreau and principle of civil disobedience
          4. Lincoln's opposition to president's war-making power
      3. Course of war
        1. California
          1. American rebels' declaration of independence from Mexico
          2. Announcement of Bear Flag Republic under John C. Frémont
          3. Arrival of U.S. Navy, superseding Bear Flag Republic
        2. Santa Fe
          1. Occupation by U.S. troops under Stephen W. Kearney
          2. Subsequent suppression by Kearney of Mexican resistance in southern California
        3. Mexico
          1. Defeat of Santa Anna by Zachary Taylor at Battle of Buena Vista
          2. Occupation of Mexico City by Winfield Scott
      4. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
        1. Confirmation of U.S. annexation of Texas
        2. Ceding to the United States of California and present-day New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah
        3. Payment by the United States to Mexico of $15 million
      5. Mexico's lasting resentment over war
      6. "Race" and legacy of U.S. victory
        1. Affirmation of Manifest Destiny assumptions
          1. "Anglo-Saxon race" as innately superior
          2. Association of Anglo-Saxon Protestants with civilization, progress, liberty
        2. Social inequalities of newly acquired territories
          1. Introduction of slavery
          2. Ethnic discrimination
    4. Gold Rush California
      1. Rise of mining frontier
        1. Discovery of gold
        2. Influx of migrants from around nation and world
        3. Growth of San Francisco
        4. Spread of mining communities
      2. Character of mining frontier
        1. Social diversity
        2. Shift from surface to underground mining
        3. Vigilantism
        4. Marginalization of non-whites
        5. Destruction of Indian communities
    5. Revival of slavery question
      1. Wilmot Proviso
        1. Provisions and outcome
        2. Impact
          1. Reawakening of slavery controversy
          2. Sectional fragmentation of Democratic and Whig parties
      2. 1848 election
        1. Whig Taylor vs. Democrat Lewis Cass
        2. Election of Taylor
        3. Significance of Free Soil party's showing
      3. Appeal of Free Soil program to northerners
        1. Resentment of southern domination of federal government
        2. Vision of West as haven for economic independence
        3. White aversion to contact and competition with blacks
      4. White South's case for westward expansion of slavery
        1. Regional pride
        2. Need for fresh soil
        3. Economic imperative
        4. Preservation of political balance between North and South
    6. Compromises and discord
      1. Compromise of 1850
        1. Backdrop
          1. Sectional clash over slavery question
          2. 1848: revolution and reaction across Europe
        2. Proposals and debates
          1. Clay plan
          2. Senate debate
            1. Daniel Webster; pro-compromise
            2. John C. Calhoun; uncompromising defense of slavery
            3. William Seward; uncompromising assault on slavery
        3. Outcome
          1. Death of President Taylor
          2. President Millard Fillmore's support for Clay plan
          3. Adoption of Compromise of 1850
      2. Fugitive slave controversy
        1. Terms of Fugitive Slave Act
        2. Outrage over Fugitive Slave Act in North
        3. Federal tribunals and return of fugitives to South
        4. Resistance to recapture
        5. Black flight to Canada
      3. Kansas-Nebraska controversy
        1. Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska bill
          1. Nullification of Missouri Compromise
          2. Principle of "popular sovereignty"
        2. Broad antislavery reaction in North
        3. Outcome
          1. Passage of bill
          2. Collapse of Whigs
          3. Fracturing of northern Democrats
          4. Birth of Republican party
    7. Rise of Republican party
      1. Underlying economic and political trends
        1. Maturation of market revolution across North
          1. Economic growth of 1840s and 1850s
          2. Integration of Northwest and Northeast within a dynamic economy
            1. Expanded railroad network
            2. Western agriculture
            3. Industrial production
            4. Spread and growth of cities
        2. Rise and fall of Know-Nothing Party
          1. Nativist hostility to immigrants, Catholics
          2. Links between anti-Catholic and antislavery sentiment
          3. Limits of nativist crusade
      2. Republican party appeal
        1. Free labor ideal
          1. Opposition to expansion of slavery; "Freedom national"
          2. Juxtaposition of "free labor North" and "slave South"
          3. Depiction of free labor and slavery as incompatible
          4. Broad appeal in North
        2. Further factors behind rise of Republican party
          1. "Bleeding Kansas"
          2. Preston Brooks's assault on Charles Sumner
      3. Election of 1856
        1. Victory of Democrat James Buchanan
        2. Emergence of Republicans as dominant in North, Democrats as dominant in South
    8. Toward disunion
      1. Dred Scott decision
        1. Key elements (Taney opinion)
          1. African-Americans devoid of citizenship rights
          2. Congress powerless to restrict slavery in territories
        2. Aftermath
          1. Indignation in North
          2. Lecompton Constitution controversy
      2. Lincoln-Douglas senate campaign of 1858
        1. Abraham Lincoln
          1. Personal background
          2. Political outlook
            1. Moral denunciation of slavery
            2. Call for containment, but not abolition, of slavery
            3. Personification of Republican free labor ideology
            4. Racial perspective
        2. Lincoln-Douglas debates
        3. Outcome
      3. John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
        1. Background on Brown
        2. The raid
        3. Trial and execution
        4. Vilification and martyrization
        5. Continuing inspiration for activists
      4. Rise of southern nationalism
        1. Secessionist impulse
        2. Imperial impulse
          1. Ostend Manifesto
          2. William Walker expeditions
            1. Baja California
            2. Nicaragua
        3. Measures to fortify slavery
      5. Election of 1860
        1. Democratic party split
          1. Stephen A. Douglas as nominee for northern wing
          2. John C. Breckinridge as nominee for southern wing
        2. Republican nomination of Lincoln
        3. Newly formed Constitutional Union party nomination of John Bell
        4. Lincoln victory, based on sweep of northern states
    9. From secession to war
      1. Secession of seven Deep South states
      2. Crittenden compromise effort
      3. Formation of Confederate States of America
        1. Seven Deep South states
        2. President Jefferson Davis
        3. Centrality of slavery and white supremacy to Confederate pronouncements
      4. Inauguration of Lincoln
      5. Lincoln's balancing act
      6. Confederate attack on Fort Sumter
      7. Lincoln's call for troops to suppress insurrection
      8. Secession of four more southern states

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - A New Birth of Freedom: The Civil War, 1861-1865

    1. First modern war
      1. Industrial-era weaponry
      2. Mobilization of society against society
    2. Initial outlook
      1. Union's material advantages
      2. Confederacy's strategic advantages
      3. Spirit and composition of respective armies
    3. Modern challenges of war
      1. Technological
        1. Transportation
        2. Communication
        3. Warships
        4. Arms
        5. Medical care
      2. Public opinion
        1. Propaganda
          1. Union
          2. Confederate
        2. War coverage
          1. News correspondence
          2. Photography
      3. Mobilization of resources
        1. Areas in need of
          1. Rail
          2. Banking
          3. Tax
          4. Military supplies
        2. Comparative performance of Union and Confederacy
          1. Initial unpreparedness of each side
          2. Eventual supremacy of Union military provision
          3. Defensive strategy of Confederacy, under Robert E. Lee
          4. Union's early failure to exploit military advantages
          5. Lincoln's strategic insights
            1. Need to pursue South's armies
            2. Need to target slavery
    4. Progress of the war (1861–62)
      1. In the East
        1. Major battles
          1. First Bull Run
          2. Seven Days' Campaign
          3. Second Bull Run
          4. Antietam
          5. Fredericksburg
        2. Top generals
          1. George B. McClellan (Army of the Potomac)
          2. Robert E. Lee (Army of Northern Virginia)
      2. In the West
        1. General Ulysses S. Grant
        2. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson
        3. Occupation of New Orleans by Admiral David G. Farragut
        4. Battle of Shiloh
    5. Coming of emancipation
      1. Initial Union disclaimers
        1. Abraham Lincoln
        2. Congress
        3. Military commanders
      2. Adoption of "contraband of war" policy
      3. Slave responses to war
        1. Perception of "freedom war"
        2. Escape to Union lines
        3. Provision of intelligence to Union army
        4. Disruption of plantations
      4. Steps toward emancipation
        1. Growing support in North
        2. Congressional measures
          1. Ban on return of fugitive slaves
          2. Abolition in District of Columbia and territories
          3. Second Confiscation Act
        3. Lincoln's shifting position
          1. Rescinding of John C. Frémont's emancipation decree (Missouri)
          2. Proposal for gradual, compensated emancipation in border states
          3. Endorsement of colonization
      5. Emancipation Proclamation
        1. Lincoln's decision
          1. Reasoning behind
          2. Timing of announcement
        2. Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation
          1. Terms
          2. Northern reaction
            1. Racial alarm by Democrats
            2. Republican setbacks in fall elections
            3. Lincoln response
        3. Issuance of Emancipation Proclamation
          1. Terms
            1. Extent of emancipation
            2. Limits of emancipation
          2. Implications
            1. Merging of war goals of union and abolition
            2. Commitment of North to black enlistment
            3. Recognition that freedpeople's future lay in America
      6. Black soldiers in Union army
        1. Steps toward black enlistment
          1. Initial refusal to accept black volunteers
          2. Employment of escaped slaves in non-combat positions
          3. Recruitment of black soldiers
        2. Black military performance
          1. Numbers who served and died
          2. Record of bravery
          3. Impact on public consciousness
        3. Impact on black participants
          1. Experience of freedom
          2. Seedbed for postwar black leadership
        4. Unequal treatment of black troops
          1. Kinds of inequality in Army
          2. Contrast to practice in Navy
          3. Exceptional brutality from Confederate captors
        5. Legacies of black military effort
          1. Heightened black sense of entitlement to citizenship
          2. Expanded northern commitment to equal rights
          3. Impact on Lincoln
    6. State and society in the North
      1. New conceptions of American nation
        1. As embodiment of universal ideals
          1. Political democracy
          2. Human liberty
          3. Equal rights
        2. Basis in religious and secular ideas of freedom
        3. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address
        4. From "union" to "nation"
      2. New American nation-state
        1. Expansion of government power and responsibilities
        2. Shift in balance of power from state to federal government
      3. Liberty in wartime
        1. Limits of wartime dissent
          1. Arrests of critics of war effort or government
          2. Suspension of habeas corpus
        2. Limits of wartime suppression
          1. Continued presence of Democratic press
          2. Continued holding of contested elections
      4. Economic prosperity and expansion
        1. Areas of
          1. Industry
          2. Agriculture
        2. Federal contribution to
          1. Homestead Act
          2. Land Grant College Act
          3. Land grant for transcontinental railroad
            1. Terms of grant
            2. Scale of project
            3. Impact of project
        3. New financial system
          1. Increased tariffs
          2. New taxes
            1. On production and consumption of goods
            2. On income
          3. Government borrowing
          4. New national paper currency; "greenbacks"
            1. Issued by federal government
            2. Issued by federally chartered banks
        4. Forging of industrial fortunes
      5. Women and the war
        1. New job opportunities
          1. In factories
          2. In professions
          3. In government offices
        2. Involvement in military campaigns
        3. Participation in voluntary associations
          1. United States Sanitary Commission
          2. Expanded sense of public role
          3. Leading figures
            1. Clara Barton
            2. Mary Livermore
      6. Social and political tensions
        1. Targets of resentment
          1. "Copperhead" opposition
          2. Expanded federal power
          3. Inequalities of draft system
          4. Business profits
          5. Prospect of racial equality
        2. New York City draft riots
    7. State and society in the South
      1. Limitations of Confederate governance
        1. President Jefferson Davis
        2. "King Cotton Diplomacy"
          1. Failed effort to compel British recognition
          2. Prod to expanded production overseas
        3. Obstructionist governors
      2. Southern white sentiment
        1. Initial wave of enthusiasm for Confederacy
        2. Points of growing disaffection
          1. Inequalities of draft system
          2. Material shortages
          3. Material devastation
          4. "Impressment" of farmers' goods
          5. Impoverishment of yeomen
        3. Manifestations of disaffection
          1. Food riots
          2. Desertion
          3. Southern Unionists
            1. Organized movements
            2. Secret societies
            3. Suppression of
      3. Southern white women and the Confederacy
        1. Wartime burdens on the homefront
        2. Increasing disgruntlement with war
      4. Initiative to bring slaves into Confederate army
        1. Backing for plan by Confederate authorities
        2. Rejection by Confederate Senate
        3. Eventual approval by Lee, Confederate Congress
    8. Progress of the war (1863–64)
      1. Continued momentum of Confederacy
        1. Victory at Chancellorsville
        2. Lee's invasion of the North
      2. Turning point
        1. Union victory at Gettysburg
        2. Confederate surrender at Vicksburg
      3. Grant's war of attrition
        1. The Wilderness
        2. Spotsylvania
        3. Cold Harbor
        4. Petersburg
      4. William T. Sherman's march to Atlanta
    9. Election of 1864
      1. Initial doubts about Lincoln's prospects
      2. Radical Republican groundswell for Frémont candidacy
      3. Democratic nomination of McClellan
      4. Late surge for Lincoln
      5. Lincoln victory
    10. Wartime rehearsals for Reconstruction
      1. Emerging questions concerning transition from slavery to freedom
      2. Sea Island experiment
        1. Participants
        2. Range of perspectives and agendas
      3. Louisiana and Mississippi Valley
        1. Participants
        2. Range of perspectives and agendas
      4. Northern debate over terms of southern readmission
        1. Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan
        2. Radical Republicans' Wade-Davis Plan
    11. Conclusion of War (1864–65)
      1. Sherman's March to the Sea, then South Carolina
      2. Congressional passage of Thirteenth Amendment
      3. Lincoln's second inaugural
      4. Union occupation of Richmond
      5. Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox
      6. Assassination of Lincoln
        1. Story of
        2. Scope of national mourning

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15: "What Is Freedom?": Reconstruction, 1865-1877

    1. Contested meanings of freedom at end of Civil War
      1. For southern blacks, an expansive quest
        1. Self-ownership
        2. Autonomous institutions
          1. Family
            1. Reuniting families separated under slavery
            2. Adopting separate gender roles
          2. Church
            1. Worship
            2. Social events
            3. Political meetings
          3. Schools
            1. Motivations
            2. Backgrounds of students and instructors
            3. Establishment of black colleges
        3. Political participation
          1. Right to vote
          2. Engagement in political events
        4. Land ownership
      2. For southern whites, an imperiled birthright
        1. Postwar demoralization
          1. Loss of life
          2. Destruction of property
          3. Draining of planters' wealth and privilege
          4. Psychic blow of emancipation
            1. Inability to accept
            2. Intolerance of black autonomy or equality
      3. For northern Republicans, "free labor"
        1. Middle approach between aspirations of freedpeople and planters
        2. Ambiguous role of federal government; Freedmen's Bureau
          1. Achievements in education and health care
          2. Betrayal of commitment to land reform
      4. Post-emancipation labor systems
        1. Task system (rice)
        2. Wage labor (sugar)
        3. Sharecropping (cotton, tobacco)
      5. Subversion of independent white yeomanry
        1. Spread of indebtedness, dependence on cotton production
        2. Sharecropping and crop lien systems
      6. Urban growth
    2. Presidential Reconstruction
      1. Andrew Johnson
        1. Background and character
          1. Humble origins
          2. "Honest yeoman" identity
          3. Political career
          4. Hostility to southern secession and racial equality
        2. Approach to Reconstruction
          1. Pardons
          2. Reserving of political power to whites
      2. Southern white response
        1. Restoration of Confederate leaders and Old South elite
        2. Violence against freedpeople and northerners
        3. Black Codes
      3. Northern reaction
        1. Johnson satisfaction
        2. Republican outrage
      4. Republican goals and principles
        1. Moderate and Radical Republicans
          1. Equality of races before the law
          2. Federal enforcement
        2. Radical Republicans only
          1. Dissolution of Confederate-run state governments
          2. Enfranchisement of blacks
          3. Redistribution of land to former slaves
      5. Congressional Republicans vs. Johnson
        1. Passage of bill extending life of Freedmen's Bureau
        2. Passage of Civil Rights Bill
        3. Vetoes and override
        4. Fourteenth Amendment
          1. Terms and significance
          2. Approval by Congress, transmission to states
          3. Controversy in North
            1. Democrats vs. Republicans
            2. Congress vs. Johnson
        5. 1866 midterm election
          1. Bitter campaign
          2. Republican sweep
          3. Growing breach between Johnson and Republicans
    3. Radical Reconstruction
      1. Reconstruction Act
        1. Placement of South under federal military authority
        2. Call for new state governments, entailing black right to vote
      2. Tenure of Office Act
      3. Impeachment of Johnson
        1. Charges
        2. Acquittal
      4. 1868 presidential election
        1. Republican waving of "bloody shirt"
        2. Democratic race-baiting
        3. Ulysses S. Grant victory
      5. Fifteenth Amendment
    4. Significance of "Great Constitutional Revolution"
      1. Idea of national citizenry, equal before the law
      2. Expansion of citizenry to include blacks
      3. Empowerment of federal government to protect citizens' rights
      4. New boundaries of American citizenship
        1. Exclusion of Asian immigrants
        2. Exclusion of women
          1. Unfulfilled campaigns for women's emancipation
          2. Split within feminism over Reconstruction amendments
    5. Radical Reconstruction in the South
      1. Black initiatives
        1. Mass public gatherings
        2. Grassroots protests against segregation
        3. Labor strikes
        4. Political mobilization
        5. Forming of local Republican organizations
          1. Union League
          2. Voter registration
      2. Reconstructed state governments
        1. Composition
          1. Predominance of Republicans
          2. Black Republicans
            1. Officeholding at federal, state, and local levels
            2. Varied backgrounds
          3. White Republicans
            1. Carpetbaggers
            2. Scalawags
            3. Varied motivations of each
        2. Achievements
          1. Public education
          2. Affirmation of civil and political equality
          3. More equal allocation of public services and resources
          4. Measures to protect free labor
          5. Fairer system of justice
          6. Improvement in public facilities
        3. Shortcomings
          1. Uneven enforcement of laws
          2. Economic stagnation
          3. Persistence of black poverty
    6. Overthrow of Reconstruction
      1. Southern white opposition
        1. Grievances expressed
          1. Corruption
          2. Incompetence
          3. High taxes
          4. Black supremacy
        2. Underlying motivations
          1. Antipathy for racial equality
          2. Desire for controllable labor
        3. Use of terror
          1. Against any perceived threat to white supremacy
          2. Against Republicans, black and white
          3. Ku Klux Klan and other secret societies
      2. Northern response
        1. Measures to protect blacks' rights
          1. Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871
          2. Civil Rights Act of 1875
        2. Waning commitment to Reconstruction
          1. Liberal Republicans; Horace Greeley
          2. Resurgence of northern racism
          3. Economic depression
          4. Supreme Court decisions
            1. Slaughterhouse Cases
            2. U.S. v. Cruikshank
      3. Death throes of Reconstruction
        1. 1874 Democratic gains in South; "Redeemers"
        2. Resurgence of terror
        3. Rise of electoral fraud
        4. Election of 1876 and Bargain of 1877

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - America's Gilded Age, 1870–1890

    1. Second industrial revolution
      1. Astounding pace and magnitude
      2. Emergence of factory as foremost realm of industrial production
      3. Emergence of wage labor as prevalent source of livelihood
      4. Emergence of city as chief setting for manufacture
        1. Leading industrial cities
          1. New York
          2. Chicago
          3. Pittsburgh
        2. Single-industry cities
      5. Expansion of national market
        1. Eastern markets for western goods (agricultural, extractive)
        2. Western markets for eastern goods (manufactured)
        3. Central role of railroad
        4. National brands, chains, mail order firms
      6. Technological innovations
        1. Leading breakthroughs
        2. Thomas A. Edison's research laboratories
      7. Competition and consolidation
        1. Volatility of marketplace
        2. Downward pressure on prices; Great Depression of 1873–1897
        3. Ruthless competition among businesses
        4. Corporate initiatives to stabilize marketplace
          1. Pools
          2. Trusts
          3. Mergers
      8. Industrial giants
        1. Vast accumulations of wealth and power
        2. Leading business figures
          1. Thomas A. Scott (railroad)
            1. Size and scope of Pennsylvania Railroad
            2. Prototype of modern business organization
          2. Andrew Carnegie (steel)
            1. Personal rise
            2. Vertical integration
            3. Blend of philanthropy and dictatorial management
          3. John D. Rockefeller (oil)
            1. Cutthroat competition
            2. Horizontal integration
            3. Blend of philanthropy and dictatorial management
        3. Popular perceptions of
          1. Favorable; "captains of industry"
          2. Unfavorable; "robber barons"
      9. Workers' conditions in industrial America
        1. Advantages for skilled labor elite
          1. High wages
          2. Areas of control
            1. Process of production
            2. Pace of production
            3. Training of apprentices
        2. Hardships for growing ranks of semi-skilled workers
          1. Economic insecurity
            1. Unreliability of employment and wage rates
            2. Lack of pensions
            3. Lack of compensation for injury or unemployment
          2. Working conditions
            1. Length of workday
            2. Dangers of workplace
          3. Odds against collective action
        3. Breadth and depth of poverty
      10. Growing signs of class division
        1. New urban middle-class neighborhoods
        2. Exclusive world of the rich
          1. Home and neighborhood
          2. Resorts, social clubs, schools
          3. "Conspicuous consumption" (Thorstein Veblen)
          4. 1897 Waldorf-Astoria costume ball
        3. Contrasts of wealth and poverty
          1. Matthew Smith's Sunshine and Shadow
          2. Jacob Riis's How the Other Half Lives
    2. Transformation of the West
      1. Overall themes
        1. Variety of regions within West
        2. Variant on global patterns of political and economic incorporation
          1. Displacement of indigenous peoples
          2. Promotion of business development
          3. Promotion of population settlement
          4. Vital role of government
      2. Farming empire
        1. Spread of land under cultivation
        2. Pace and diversity of settlement
        3. Wheat and corn production on Middle Border
        4. Hardships of Great Plains farming
          1. Hazards of nature
          2. Hard labor and solitude (especially for women)
        5. Call for large-scale irrigation
          1. John Wesley Powell
          2. Implications for small-scale farmers
        6. Increasing market orientation of small farmers
          1. Forms
            1. Sale of crops
            2. Purchase of manufactured goods
          2. Impacts
            1. Dependence on loans
            2. Vulnerability to shifts in world markets
        7. Budding trend toward large-scale farming
          1. Features
          2. California precedent
      3. Cowboys
        1. Diversity
        2. Myth vs. reality
        3. Rise and decline of cattle drives
      4. Corporate West
        1. Prominent manufacturing and trading centers
          1. San Francisco
          2. Los Angeles
        2. Large corporate enterprises
          1. Lumber
          2. Mining
          3. Railroad
        3. Displacement of independent prospectors, farmers
      5. Subjugation of Indians
        1. Earlier transformations of Plains Indians
          1. Eighteenth-century shift to hunting and farming
          2. Arrival and coalescence of rival tribes
        2. U.S.-Indian conflict on the Plains
          1. Emergence in 1850s
          2. During Civil War
          3. President Ulysses S. Grant's "peace policy"
          4. Systematic onslaught on Indian life
            1. By army, hunters
            2. On villages, horses, buffalo
        3. U.S.-Indian conflict further west
          1. Defeat of the Navajo
            1. Destruction of orchards and sheep
            2. Removal to reservation
          2. Defeat of the Nez Percé
            1. Pursuit of and capture by U.S. Army
            2. Removal to reservation
            3. Chief Joseph's Washington speech
        4. Continuation of Indian resistance
          1. Sioux-Cheyenne victory at Little Big Horn
          2. Apache escapes and raids
        5. Ongoing white encroachment
          1. New western states
          2. Railroads, soldiers, settlers
          3. Indian reservations
            1. Spread of
            2. Impoverishment, exploitation
          4. Reduction of Sitting Bull to popular spectacle
        6. Federal assault on Indian culture
          1. Imposition of white American values
          2. Elimination of treaty system
          3. Dawes Act
            1. Provisions
            2. Outcomes
        7. Indian citizenship
          1. Conditional offers of American citizenship in nineteenth century
          2. Judicial obstructions to equal citizenship for Indians
            1. Western courts
            2. Supreme Court
          3. Gradual expansion of Indian citizenship
        8. Closing act
          1. Ghost Dance
          2. Wounded Knee massacre
    3. Politics in a Gilded Age
      1. Origins and meanings of "Gilded Age"
      2. Political corruption
        1. Widespread unease over
        2. Manifestations of
        3. Corporate lobbyists
        4. Urban political machines; "Boss" Tweed
        5. Crédit Mobilier scandal
      3. The political parties
        1. Imprint of Civil War on each
        2. Social and regional bases of support
          1. Republican
          2. Democratic
        3. Close division of popular support
          1. Presidential elections
          2. Congressional elections
          3. Political stalemate
      4. The state of American political democracy
        1. Indications of vitality
          1. Closely contested elections
          2. Intense party loyalty
          3. High voter turnout
          4. Spectacular rallies and oratory
        2. Meager response to social problems of industrial era
          1. Minimal nature of federal government
            1. Size
            2. Scale of activity
          2. Deference of both parties to business interests
          3. Divergence of parties over tariff policy
          4. Convergence of parties over fiscal policy
        3. Achievements of national politics (and their limits)
          1. Civil Service Act
          2. Interstate Commerce Act
          3. Sherman Antitrust Act
      5. Political ferment in the states
        1. Debate over role of government at state and local levels
          1. Potential points of intervention
          2. Actual points of intervention
        2. Popular campaigns for government action
          1. Greenback-Labor party
          2. Grange
          3. Labor movement
        3. Legacies of popular campaigns
          1. Mixed results in short-term
          2. Sowing of long-term debate on political and economic freedom
    4. Freedom in the Gilded Age
      1. Debate over aspects of new social order
        1. Relations between classes
        2. Coexistence of poverty and wealth
        3. Advent of "permanent factory population"
      2. Defenses of Gilded Age inequalities
        1. Justifications for concentration of wealth, low wages
        2. Uncoupling of principles of freedom and equality
      3. New "liberal" reformers
        1. Fear of lower-class democracy
        2. Commitment to individual liberty and property rights
      4. Social Darwinism
        1. Application of evolutionary science to social problems
        2. Implications for social policy
          1. Acceptance of poverty, material inequality
          2. Rejection of public relief, economic regulation
          3. Notion of "undeserving" poor
        3. William Graham Sumner; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other
      5. Liberty of contract
        1. Link to Social Darwinism
        2. Themes
          1. Freedom as limited government and unrestrained market
          2. Sanctity of labor contract
            1. As arbiter of free labor
            2. As beyond reach of public intervention
        3. Promotion by the courts; overturning or distortion of regulatory legislation
          1. Munn v. Illinois
          2. Wabash v. Illinois
          3. Pro-business slant in ICC cases
          4. U.S. v. E.C. Knight Co.
          5. Use of Sherman Antitrust Act against labor
          6. Lochner v. New York
    5. Labor and the republic
      1. 1877 railroad strike and emergence of "labor question"
      2. Resurgence of labor movement
        1. Knights of Labor
          1. Size and diversity
          2. Range of activities
        2. Variety of programs
        3. Common targets
          1. Ideologies of Social Darwinism and liberty of contract
          2. Growing loss of economic independence
          3. Inequalities of wealth and power
          4. Corruption of democracy by concentrated capital
      3. Middle-class reformers
        1. Unease over social conditions, concentrated capital, class conflict
        2. Range of social prescriptions
      4. Leading works of social criticism
        1. Henry George's Progress and Poverty
          1. Statement of problem
          2. "Single tax" solution
          3. Conceptions of freedom
          4. Mass popularity
        2. Laurence Gronlund's The Cooperative Commonwealth
          1. Popularization of socialist ideal in America
          2. Core socialist principles
          3. Socialism as outcome of peaceful evolution
        3. Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward
          1. Futuristic utopian novel
          2. Themes
            1. Embrace of cooperation, interdependence, equality, economic security, powerful state
            2. Rejection of class strife, individualism, inequality, competition
          3. Impact
            1. Inspiration for Nationalist clubs
            2. Influence on reform thought
      5. Social Gospel movement
        1. Seedbed
          1. Emerging strain within Protestantism
          2. Variant within Catholicism
        2. Themes and initiatives
          1. Critique of Social Darwinism, laissez-faire doctrine, Gospel of Wealth
          2. Vision of equalization of wealth and power, checks on competition
          3. Efforts to ameliorate working-class conditions
          4. Promotion of cooperative organization of economy
      6. 1886: Labor's great upheaval
        1. Explosive growth of Knights of Labor
        2. Nationwide May Day demonstration for eight-hour day
        3. Haymarket Affair (Chicago)
          1. Background
            1. Iron moulders' strikes of 1885 and 1886
            2. Killing of strikers by police
          2. Bloodshed at Haymarket Square
          3. Scapegoating of labor movement
            1. As violent
            2. As vehicle of immigrant radicals
          4. "Haymarket martyrs"
            1. Arrests, trial, and conviction of anarchists
            2. Hangings, imprisonment, commutations
            3. Albert and Lucy Parsons
      7. Labor and politics
        1. Spread of independent labor political campaigns
          1. Connection to Knights of Labor
          2. Major goals
          3. Electoral successes
        2. New York mayoral campaign of Henry George
        3. Decline of Knights of Labor

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Freedom's Boundaries, at Home and Abroad, 1890–1900

    1. Agrarian revolt
      1. The farmers' plight
        1. Generally
          1. Falling agricultural prices
          2. Growing economic dependency
        2. Regional variants
          1. In trans-Mississippi West
          2. In South
      2. Farmers Alliance
        1. Origins and spread
        2. Strategies
          1. Initial cooperative approach; "exchanges"
          2. Turn to "subtreasury plan," political engagement
      3. Advent of People's (Populist) party
        1. Scope of following
        2. Grassroots mobilization
        3. Guiding vision
          1. Commonwealth of small producers as fundamental to freedom
          2. Restoration of democracy and economic opportunity
          3. Expansion of federal power
        4. Omaha platform
      4. Populist coalition
        1. Interracial alliance
          1. Extent
          2. Limits
        2. Involvement of women
          1. Mary Elizabeth Lease
          2. Support for women's suffrage
        3. Electoral showing for 1892
      5. Prospects for Populist-labor alliance
        1. Context
          1. Economic collapse of 1893
          2. Resurgence of conflict between labor and capital
          3. Sharpening of government repression of labor
        2. Key episodes
          1. Miners strike at Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
          2. Coxey's Army
          3. Pullman strike
        3. Populist appeals to industrial workers in 1894
          1. Some success among miners
          2. Minimal success among urban workers; preference for Republicans
      6. Election of 1896
        1. Campaign of William Jennings Bryan
          1. Joint support by Democrats and Populists
          2. Electrifying rhetoric
          3. Themes
            1. "Free silver"
            2. Social Gospel overtones
            3. Vision of activist government
          4. National tour to rally farmers and workers
        2. Campaign of William McKinley
          1. Insistence on gold standard
          2. Massive financial support from big business
          3. National political machine; Mark Hanna
        3. Outcome
          1. Sharp regional divide
          2. McKinley victory
        4. Significance and legacy
          1. Emergence of modern campaign tactics
          2. Launching of Republican political dominance
          3. Fading of Populism
    2. The segregated South
      1. Redeemers in power
        1. Dismantling of Reconstruction programs
        2. Convict lease system
      2. Failures of the New South
        1. Limits of economic development
        2. Persistence of regional poverty
      3. Black life
        1. Rural
          1. Varied prospects around region
          2. Elusive quest for land
        2. Urban
          1. Network of community institutions
          2. The black middle class
          3. Racially exclusive labor markets
            1. For black men
            2. For black women
        3. Pockets of interracial unionism
        4. Kansas Exodus
      4. Decline of black politics
        1. Narrowing of political opportunity for black men
        2. Shifting of political initiative to black women
          1. National Association of Colored Women
          2. Middle-class orientation
          3. Pursuit of equal rights and racial uplift
          4. Range of activities
      5. Disfranchisement
        1. Persistence of black voting following Reconstruction
        2. Mounting alarm over specter of biracial insurgency
        3. Elimination of black vote, state by state
        4. Justifications and motivations
        5. Effects
          1. Massive purging of blacks from voting rolls
          2. Widespread disfranchisement of poor whites as well
          3. Emergence of southern white demagogues
        6. The North's blessing
          1. Senate
          2. Supreme Court
      6. Segregation
        1. Fluidity of race relations following Reconstruction
        2. Green light from Supreme Court for legal segregation
          1. Civil Rights Cases
          2. Plessy v. Ferguson
            1. "Separate but equal" doctrine
            2. Justice Harlan dissent
        3. Spread of segregation laws across South
        4. Unreality of "separate but equal"
        5. Segregation as component of overall white domination
        6. Social etiquette of segregation
        7. Effects on other "non-white" groups
      7. Rise of lynching
        1. Motivations
        2. Shocking brutality
        3. The "rape" myth
        4. Ida B. Wells's antilynching crusade
        5. A distinctively American phenomenon
      8. Uses of historical memory
        1. Civil War as "family quarrel" among white Americans
        2. Reconstruction as horrible time of "Negro rule"
        3. Erasure of blacks as historical actors
    3. Contrasting notions of nationhood
      1. New nativism
        1. Against "new immigrants" from southern and eastern Europe
          1. Depictions of "new immigrants"
            1. As lower "races"
            2. As threat to American democracy
          2. Campaigns to curtail
            1. Immigration Restriction League
            2. Efforts to bar entry into United States
            3. State disfranchisement measures
        2. Against immigrants from China
          1. Congressional exclusion of Chinese women
          2. Congressional exclusion of all Chinese
            1. Passage in 1882
            2. Renewal in 1892, 1902
          3. Discrimination and violence against Chinese-Americans
          4. Uneven positions of Supreme Court on rights of Chinese
            1. Yick Wo v. Hopkins
            2. United States v. Wong Kim Ark
            3. Fong Yue Ting
          5. Precedent for legal exclusion of other groups
      2. Booker T. Washington and the scaling back of black demands
        1. Background on Washington
        2. 1895 Atlanta address
        3. Washington approach
          1. Repudiation of claim to full equality
          2. Acceptance of segregation
          3. Emphasis on material self-help, individual advancement, alliance with white employers
      3. American Federation of Labor and the scaling back of labor's outlook
        1. Rise of the AFL, Samuel Gompers
        2. AFL-Gompers approach
          1. Repudiation of broad reform vision, political engagement, direct confrontation with capital
          2. Emphasis on bargaining with employers over wages and conditions; "business unionism"
          3. Narrower ideal of labor solidarity
            1. Concentration on skilled labor sectors
            2. Exclusion of blacks, women, new immigrants
      4. Ambiguities of the "women's era"
        1. Widening prospects for economic independence
        2. Expanding role in public life
          1. Growing network of women's organizations, campaigns
          2. Women's Christian Temperance Union
        3. Growing elitism of women's suffrage movement
          1. Ethnic
          2. Racial
    4. Becoming a world power
      1. The new imperialism
        1. Traditional empires
        2. Consolidation and expansion of imperial powers
        3. Cultural justifications for imperial domination
      2. Abstention of United States from scramble for empire before 1890s
        1. Continuing status as second-rate power
        2. Confinement of national expansion to North American continent
        3. Minimal record of overseas territorial acquisition
        4. Preference for expanded trade over colonial holdings
      3. Emerging calls for American expansion
        1. Leading advocates
          1. Josiah Strong (Our Country)
          2. Alfred T. Mahan (The Influence of Sea Power Upon History)
        2. Themes
          1. Moral
            1. Global application of manifest destiny
            2. Uplift of "inferior races"
          2. Economic
            1. Expanded markets for American goods
            2. Protection of international trade
          3. Strategic
        3. Influence
      4. Intervention in Hawaii
        1. American trade and military agreements
        2. Economic dominance of American sugar planters
        3. Overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani
      5. Rise of assertive nationalism
        1. Contributing factors
          1. Depression-era quest for foreign markets
          2. Concern over economic and ethnic disunity
        2. Manifestations
          1. Rituals
            1. Pledge of Allegiance
            2. "Star-Spangled Banner"
            3. Flag Day
          2. Yellow journalism
      6. Spanish-American War
        1. Background
          1. Long Cuban struggle for independence from Spain
          2. Renewal of struggle in 1895
            1. Harsh Spanish response
            2. Growing American sympathy for Cuban cause
        2. Toward intervention
          1. Destruction of battleship Maine
          2. War fever, fanned by yellow press
          3. U.S. declaration of war; Teller Amendment
        3. The war
          1. In Philippines
            1. Admiral George Dewey's victory at Manila Bay
            2. Landing of American troops
          2. In Cuba and Puerto Rico
            1. Landing of American troops
            2. Naval victory off Santiago
            3. Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders; legendary charge up San Juan Hill
          3. Swift defeat of Spain
      7. From liberator to imperial power
        1. Postwar attainment of overseas empire
          1. Varied arrangements
            1. Annexation of Hawaii
            2. Acquisition of Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam
            3. Qualified sovereignty for Cuba; Platt Amendment
          2. Value as outposts for U.S. naval and commercial power
        2. Open Door policy
        3. Initial welcome in former Spanish colonies for U.S. forces
          1. As agent of expanded trade and social order
          2. As agent of social reform and national self-rule
        4. Growing disenchantment in Philippines
          1. Founding of provisional government by Emilio Aguinaldo
          2. U.S. failure to recognize; insistence on retaining possession
        5. Philippine war
          1. Bloodiness and brutality
          2. Controversy in United States
          3. Outcome
        6. Legacy of poverty and inequality in American possessions
      8. Status of territorial peoples
        1. Limits on claims to American freedom
          1. Foraker Act
          2. Insular Cases
        2. Divergent futures for American territories
          1. Hawaii (statehood)
          2. Philippines (independence)
          3. Guam ("unincorporated" territory)
          4. Puerto Rico (commonwealth)
      9. American debate over imperial expansion
        1. Opponents (Anti-Imperialist League): "republic or empire?"
        2. Proponents: "benevolent" imperialism
    5. America at dawn of twentieth century

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - The Progressive Era, 1900–1916

    1. Introduction
      1. Progressive era
        1. Surge in production, consumption, urban growth
        2. Persistence of social problems
      2. Progressivism
        1. Broad-based elements
        2. Loosely-defined meanings
        3. Varied and contradictory character
      3. New notions of American freedom
    2. An urban age
      1. Early-twentieth-century economic explosion
        1. "Golden age" for agriculture
        2. Growth in number and size of cities
        3. Stark contrasts of opulence and poverty
      2. Popular attention to dynamism and ills of the city
        1. Painters and photographers
        2. Muckrakers
          1. Lewis Hine's photography
          2. Lincoln Steffens's The Shame of the Cities
          3. Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company
        3. Novelists
          1. Theodore Dreiser's Sister Carrie
          2. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle
      3. Immigrants and immigration
        1. Height of "new immigration" from southern and eastern Europe
        2. Immigration from agrarian to industrial centers as a global process
          1. Volume and flows
          2. Causes
          3. Circumstances of immigrants
        3. Ellis Island
        4. Influx of Asian and Mexican immigrants in West
        5. Immigrant presence in industrial cities
        6. Aspirations of new immigrants
          1. Social and legal equality, freedom of conscience, economic opportunity, escape from poverty
          2. Means to acquire land back home
          3. Material prosperity as central to "freedom"
        7. Circumstances of new immigrants
          1. Close-knit "ethnic" neighborhoods
            1. Social institutions
            2. Preservation of native languages
            3. Churches
          2. Low pay, harsh working conditions
      4. The new mass-consumption society
        1. Outlets for consumer goods
          1. Department stores
          2. Neighborhood chain stores
          3. Retail mail order houses
        2. Expanding range and availability of consumer goods
        3. Leisure activities
          1. Amusement parks
          2. Dance halls
          3. Theaters; vaudeville
          4. Movies; "nickelodeons"
      5. Women in urban public life
        1. Employment
          1. Racial and ethnic stratification
          2. Working woman as symbol of female emancipation; Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Women and Economics
        2. Leisure, entertainment
      6. "Fordism"
        1. Background on Henry Ford, Ford Motor Company
        2. Production innovations
          1. Standardized output
          2. Lower prices
          3. Assembly line
        3. Strategies to attract and discipline labor
          1. Five-dollar day
          2. Anti-union espionage
        4. Linking of mass production and mass consumption
      7. Impact of mass-consumption ideal
        1. Recasting of "American way of life," "freedom"
        2. Challenges to material inequalities
          1. Labor unionism
          2. Critique of corporate monopoly
          3. Doctrine of "a living wage"; Father John A. Ryan
    3. Changing ideas of freedom
      1. Varieties of Progressivism
      2. Industrial labor and the meanings of freedom
        1. Frederick W. Taylor's "scientific management"
          1. Principles of
          2. Mixed response to
            1. Favorable: as way to enhance efficiency
            2. Unfavorable: as threat to worker independence
        2. New talk of "industrial freedom," "industrial democracy"
      3. Socialist party
        1. High watermark of American socialism
          1. Membership
          2. Elected officials
          3. Newspapers
          4. Eugene V. Debs
        2. Program
          1. Immediate reforms
          2. Public ownership of railroads and factories
          3. Democratic control of economy
        3. Breadth of following
          1. Urban immigrant communities
          2. Western farming and mining regions
          3. Native-born intelligentsia
        4. Rising presence of socialism throughout Atlantic world
      4. Labor movement
        1. American Federation of Labor
          1. Surge of growth
          2. Boundaries of membership
            1. Skilled industrial and craft laborers
            2. White, male, and native-born
          3. Moderate ideology; ties with business Progressives
            1. National Civic Federation
            2. Collective bargaining for "responsible" unions
            3. Alternative strain of rigid employer anti-unionism
        2. Industrial Workers of the World
          1. Inclusion of workers from all stations and backgrounds
          2. Trade union militancy
          3. Advocate of workers' revolution
          4. William "Big Bill" Haywood
          5. Support and guidance for mass, multiethnic strikes
        3. High points of broad-based labor struggle
          1. Lawrence "Bread and Roses" textile strike; march of strikers' children
          2. New Orleans dock workers strike
          3. Paterson silk workers strike; Paterson pageant
          4. Colorado Fuel and Iron miners strike; Ludlow Massacre
        4. Suppression of labor radicalism and emergence of "civil liberties" issue
      5. Shadings of feminism
        1. Appearance of term "feminism"
        2. "Lyrical Left"
          1. New cultural "bohemia"
          2. Radical reassessments of politics, the arts, sexuality
        3. Rise of personal freedom
          1. Freudian psychology
          2. Free sexual expression and choice
          3. Pockets of open gay culture
        4. Birth control movement
          1. Emma Goldman
          2. Margaret Sanger
    4. The Politics of Progressivism
      1. Global scope of Progressive impulse
        1. Common strains arising from industrial and urban growth
        2. International networks of social reformers
        3. Influence of European "social legislation" on American reformers
      2. Shared premises
        1. Commitment to activist government
        2. View of freedom as a positive concept
          1. "Effective freedom"; "power to do things"
          2. John Dewey, Randolph Bourne
        3. Trans-Atlantic scope of Progressive impulse
      3. Progressivism in municipal and state politics
        1. Agendas
          1. Curbing of political machines
          2. Regulation of public utilities, railroads, and other business interests
          3. Taxation of property and corporate wealth
          4. Improvement and enhancement of public space
          5. Humanizing of working and living conditions
        2. Significant municipal and state Progressives
          1. Mayors Hazen Pingree (Detroit) and Samuel "Golden Rule" Jones (Toledo)
          2. Governors Hiram Johnson (California) and Robert M. La Follette (Wisconsin)
      4. Progressive democracy
        1. Expansion and empowerment of electorate
          1. Popular election of U.S. senators, judges
          2. Primary elections
          3. Initiatives, referendums, recalls
          4. Women's suffrage
        2. Contraction and curtailment of electorate
          1. Disfranchisement of southern blacks
          2. Spread of appointed city commissions or managers
          3. Narrowing of voting rights for the poor
          4. Preference for government by experts; Walter Lippmann's Drift and Mastery
      5. Women reformers
        1. Challenge to political exclusion
        2. Crusades to uplift condition of immigrant poor, women, and child laborers
          1. Settlement house movement
          2. Government measures to alleviate problems of housing, labor, health
          3. Racist aspect
        3. Leading figures
          1. Jane Addams (Hull House)
          2. Julie Lathrop (Children's Bureau)
          3. Florence Kelley (National Consumers' League)
      6. Revival of suffrage movement
        1. National American Woman Suffrage Association
        2. Scattered progress at state and local levels
        3. Gathering focus on constitutional amendment
      7. Ambiguities of "maternalist" reform
        1. Drive to improve conditions of working women while reconfirming their dependent status
          1. Mothers' pensions
          2. Maximum working hours for women (Muller v. Oregon; Brandeis brief)
        2. Stamping of gender inequality into foundation for welfare state
      8. Native American Progressivism
        1. Profile of Indian reformers
          1. Intellectuals
          2. Pan-Indian
          3. Society of American Indians
        2. Shared aims
          1. Highlight plight of Native Americans
          2. Promote justice for Native Americans
        3. Differing aims
          1. Endorsement of federal Indian policy
          2. Full citizenship rights
          3. Self-determination
        4. Carlos Montezuma
    5. Progressive presidents
      1. Progressivism and the rise of the national state
      2. Theodore Roosevelt
        1. Succession to presidency; reelection in 1904
        2. Limits on corporate power
          1. "Good trusts" and "bad trusts"
          2. Northern Securities case
        3. Mediation between labor and capital; 1902 coal strike arbitration
        4. Regulation of business
          1. Hepburn Act
          2. Pure Food and Drug Act
          3. Meat Inspection Act
        5. Mixed reaction from business
        6. Conservation movement
          1. Late-nineteenth-century antecedents
            1. Early national parks
            2. Sierra Club; John Muir
          2. Wildlife preserves and national parks
          3. Balance between development and conservation; Gifford Pinchot
          4. Water as a key point of contention
      3. William Howard Taft
        1. Anointment as successor by Roosevelt; electoral victory over Bryan
        2. Partial continuation of Progressive agenda
          1. Antitrust initiatives
            1. Standard Oil case
            2. American Tobacco case
            3. Upholding of "good trust"/"bad trust" distinction by Supreme Court
          2. Support for graduated income tax (Sixteenth Amendment)
        3. Conservative drift; Pinchot-Ballinger affair
      4. Election of 1912
        1. Distinctive outlooks on political and economic freedom
          1. Woodrow Wilson (Democrat; "New Freedom")
          2. Theodore Roosevelt (Progressive; "New Nationalism")
          3. William Howard Taft (Republican; conservative wing)
          4. Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)
        2. Wilson victory
      5. Wilson's first-term program
        1. Underwood tariff
        2. Labor
          1. Clayton Act
          2. Keating-Owen Act
          3. Adamson Act
        3. Farmers: Warehouse Act
        4. Supervision of economy
          1. Federal Reserve System
          2. Federal Trade Commission

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - Safe for Democracy: The United States and World War I, 1916–1920

    1. An era of intervention
      1. Theodore Roosevelt and Roosevelt Corollary
        1. Panama
          1. U.S.-backed separation of Panama from Colombia
          2. U.S. acquisition of Panama Canal Zone
          3. Construction of Panama Canal
        2. Dominican Republic
        3. Cuba
      2. William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy
        1. Nicaragua
        2. Honduras
        3. Dominican Republic
      3. Woodrow Wilson and "moral imperialism"
        1. Haiti
        2. Dominican Republic
        3. Mexico
          1. Mexican Revolution under leadership of Francisco Madero
          2. Assassination of Madero and outbreak of Civil War
          3. Wilson dispatch of troops, skirmishes with Pancho Villa
    2. America and the Great War
      1. Outbreak of European war
        1. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
        2. Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Japan) versus Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire)
        3. Protracted, bloody stalemate
      2. Implications of European war
        1. Undermining of faith in human progress and reason
        2. Indication of power of nationalism in modern world
      3. American response
        1. Mixed sentiments
          1. Sympathy for Allied Powers
            1. British roots
            2. Association of Britain with democracy, Germany with tyranny
          2. Opposition to Allied Powers, and/or U.S. involvement
            1. German, Irish, Russian (anti-czarist) roots
            2. Antiwar feminists, pacifists, social reformers
        2. The road to American involvement
          1. Initial declaration of neutrality
          2. British and German blockades
          3. American business ties to Britain
          4. Sinking of Lusitania
          5. "Preparedness" policy
          6. German suspension of submarine warfare against neutrals
          7. Reelection of Wilson; "He Kept Us Out of War"
          8. German resumption of open submarine warfare
          9. Zimmerman Note
          10. First Russian Revolution (Menshevik); overthrow of czar
          11. American declaration of war against Germany
      4. From American entry to Armistice
        1. Second Russian Revolution (Bolshevik)
          1. Vladimir Lenin's break with Allies
          2. Withdrawal of Russia from war
        2. Wilson's Fourteen Points
        3. Defeat of German advance; Allied counteroffensive
        4. German surrender
    3. The war at home
      1. Perceived prospects for fulfillment of Progressive vision
        1. Economic rationalization
        2. Spirit of national unity and purpose
        3. Social justice
      2. Expansion of federal powers
        1. Military conscription
        2. Economic intervention
          1. Areas
            1. War production (War Industries Board)
            2. National transportation (Railroad Administration)
            3. Coal and oil (Fuel Administration)
            4. Farming and food preparation (Food Administration)
            5. Labor relations (National War Labor Board)
          2. Varied degrees of intervention
            1. Coordination of overall war production (WIB)
            2. Control of some sectors (railroads)
            3. Regulation of some sectors (coal, oil, labor relations)
          3. Partnership between business and government
            1. Guaranteed profit
            2. Suspension of antitrust
          4. Labor-management-government cooperation
            1. Uninterrupted production
            2. Federal mediation
            3. Labor's right to organize
            4. Improved wages and working conditions
        3. Raising of revenue
          1. Corporate and income tax increases
          2. Liberty bonds
      3. Propaganda war
        1. Widespread opposition to American entry
          1. Industrial Workers of the World
          2. Socialist party
        2. Committee on Public Information; George Creel
          1. Modes of propaganda
            1. Pamphlets
            2. Posters
            3. Advertisements
            4. Motion pictures
            5. Four-Minute speeches
          2. Themes
            1. Social cooperation
            2. Expanded democracy and freedom
            3. Demonization of Germans
      4. Revitalization of Progressive causes
        1. Women's suffrage
          1. Optimism that wartime patriotism will gain women the vote
          2. Insistence that women should enjoy "democracy" at home
            1. National Women's party
            2. Alice Paul
          3. Support from Wilson
          4. Postwar ratification of Nineteenth Amendment
        2. Prohibition
          1. Sources of support
            1. Employers
            2. Urban reformers
            3. Women
            4. Anti-immigrant Protestants
            5. Anti-Germans
          2. Progress
            1. Passage of state laws
            2. Postwar ratification of Eighteenth Amendment
      5. Repression of dissent
        1. Instruments
          1. Federal government
            1. Espionage Act
            2. Sedition Act
          2. State governments
          3. Vigilante organizations
        2. Themes
          1. Definition of "patriotism" as support for government, war, economic status quo
          2. Definition of "un-Americanism" as labor radicalism, opposition to war
        3. Means
          1. Criminalization of dissent; conviction of Eugene V. Debs
          2. Investigations of suspected dissidents
          3. Mass arrests
          4. Public harassment and intimidation
          5. Suppression of labor protest
          6. Terror
        4. Minimal reaction from Progressives
      6. The "race problem"
        1. Progressive-era conceptualization
          1. Ethnic groups as "races"
          2. Inbred "racial" characteristics
          3. Racial diversity as threat to American civilization
        2. Progressive solutions
          1. Mainstream
            1. "Americanization"
            2. Eugenics
          2. Insistence by some on respect for other cultures
        3. Wartime Americanization
          1. Government-sponsored
          2. Pressure on immigrants to demonstrate patriotism
          3. Suppression of German-American culture
        4. Heightened interest in immigration restriction, eugenics
      7. Ambiguous status of groups neither black nor white
        1. Mexicans in Southwest
        2. Puerto Ricans
        3. Asian-Americans
      8. Status and response of African-Americans
        1. Progressive era
          1. Barriers to political rights, employment opportunity, consumer economy
          2. Progressives' indifference or aversion to black freedom
            1. Activists
            2. Intellectuals
            3. Presidents
          3. W. E. B. Du Bois and revival of black protest
            1. Du Bois background
            2. The Souls of Black Folk
            3. Challenge to Booker T. Washington accommodationism
            4. "Talented tenth"
            5. Niagara movement
            6. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
        2. World War I era
          1. Optimism that wartime patriotism would gain blacks equal rights
            1. "Close ranks"
            2. Minimal gains
          2. Great migration
            1. Scale and direction
            2. Motivations and aspirations
            3. Disappointing realities
          3. Anti-black violence, North and South
          4. New spirit of militancy
            1. Silent Protest Parade
            2. Garveyism
    4. 1919
      1. Upheaval around world
        1. Inspirations and manifestations
          1. Russian Revolution
          2. Spread of communist-led governments
          3. General strikes
          4. Peasant movements
          5. Anti-colonial campaigns
        2. Underlying aspirations
          1. Socialism
          2. "Industrial democracy"
          3. National self-determination
        3. Counter-mobilization
          1. Allied intervention in Soviet Union
          2. Limits of Wilson's internationalism
        4. Receding of postwar radicalism around world
      2. Labor upheaval in America
        1. Breadth and magnitude
        2. Spirit and themes
          1. Appropriation of wartime rhetoric of freedom and democracy
          2. Social and ideological diversity
        3. Leading instances
          1. Seattle general strike
          2. Boston police strike
          3. Coal strike
          4. Steel strike
        4. Anti-union mobilization
          1. Employers
          2. Government
          3. Private organizations
        5. Defeats of postwar strikes
        6. Red Scare
          1. Methods
            1. Federal raids on offices of labor and radical organizations; Palmer Raids
            2. Arrests
            3. Deportations
            4. Secret files
          2. Outcomes
            1. Devastation of labor and radical organizations
            2. Broad outrage over abuse of civil liberties
    5. Forging of postwar international order
      1. Wilson's performance abroad
        1. Rapturous reception in Paris
        2. Hardheaded diplomacy at Versailles
      2. Treaty of Versailles
        1. Wilsonian elements
          1. League of Nations
          2. New sovereign nations in Europe
        2. Harsher elements
          1. French occupation of Saar basin and Rhineland
          2. Restrictions on German military
          3. Crippling reparations for Germany
        3. Limits of national sovereignty
          1. Denial of independence for French and British colonies
          2. League of Nations "mandates" for former Ottoman lands
          3. Reallotment of former German colonies
      3. Seeds of instability for twentieth-century world
      4. Wilsonian internationalism in postwar America
        1. Short-term setbacks
          1. League of Nations debate
          2. Wilson's stroke, incapacity
          3. Senate rejection of Versailles treaty
          4. Eclipse of Progressivism; "return to normalcy"
        2. Long-term legacy for American foreign policy
          1. Blend of idealism and power politics
          2. Appeals to democracy, open markets, global mission
          3. Impulse for military intervention abroad

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - From Business Culture to Great Depression: The Twenties, 1920–1932

    1. Decade of prosperity
      1. Prevalence of business values
      2. Industrial boom
        1. Surging productivity and output
        2. Emergence of new industries
        3. Central role of automobile
      3. Consumer society
        1. Consumer goods
          1. Proliferation
          2. Marketing
          3. Impact on daily life
            1. Telephone
            2. Household appliances
        2. Leisure activities
          1. Vacations
          2. Movies
            1. Popularity of
            2. Hollywood's rising dominance of global film industry
          3. Sporting events
          4. Radio and phonograph
          5. Celebrity culture
        3. New values
          1. Growing acceptance of consumer debt
          2. Shifting ideas of purpose and value of work
      4. Limits of prosperity
        1. Unequal distribution of wealth, income
        2. Ongoing concentration of industry
        3. Scale of poverty, unemployment
        4. Deindustrialization in the North
        5. Rural depression
          1. Passing of wartime "golden age" for agriculture
          2. Drop in farm incomes, rise in foreclosures
          3. Decline in number of farms and farmers
          4. Rural outmigration
      5. Celebration of business
        1. Themes
          1. "American way of life"
          2. Permanent prosperity
          3. Christ as business prototype
        2. Promoters
          1. Hollywood
          2. Photographers and painters
          3. Writers
          4. Corporate public relations departments
        3. Signs of impact
          1. Idolization of business figures
          2. Growing trust for business, stock market
      6. Decline of labor
        1. Postwar business campaign against unions
          1. Appropriation of "Americanism," "industrial freedom"
          2. "Welfare capitalism"
          3. American Plan
            1. Open shop
            2. Rejection of collective bargaining
            3. Depiction of unionism and socialism as sinister, alien
          4. Use of strikebreakers, spies, blacklists
        2. Ebbing of labor movement
          1. Decline in numbers organized
          2. Union concessions to employers
          3. Fading of union strongholds
          4. Diminishing prospects of labor strikes
      7. Fragmentation of feminism
        1. Aftermath of suffrage amendment
        2. Social and ideological fault lines
        3. Debate over Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
          1. Terms of ERA
          2. Feminist support
            1. Alice Paul, National Women's Party
            2. Commitment to individual autonomy, equal opportunity
          3. Feminist opposition
            1. Other leading women's organizations
            2. Commitment to motherhood, protective legislation for women
          4. Defeat of ERA
      8. "Women's freedom" in the Twenties
        1. Mixed legacy of prewar feminism
          1. Fading of links to political and economic radicalism, social reform
          2. Survival and recasting of call for personal freedom
        2. Themes and images
          1. Consumer lifestyle
          2. Sexual freedom as individual autonomy, rebellion
          3. Youthful "flapper"; Clara Bow
          4. "Modernizing Mothers"
        3. Continued stress on marriage, homemaking as ultimate goals
    2. Business and government
      1. Decline of Progressive-era faith in mass democracy
        1. Themes of disillusionment
          1. Popular ignorance, irrationality, disengagement
          2. Shift from public concerns to private (leisure, consumption)
        2. Voices of disillusionment
          1. Walter Lippmann (Public Opinion, The Phantom Public)
          2. Robert and Helen Lynd (Middletown)
      2. Republican era
        1. Pro-business agenda
          1. Content of
            1. Low income and business taxes
            2. High tariffs
            3. Support for employer antiunionism
            4. Business-friendly appointees to regulatory agencies
          2. Support for in Washington
            1. Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge
            2. Supreme Court
        2. Harding administration
          1. Harding's indifference, lack of dignity
          2. Rampant corruption; Teapot Dome
        3. Election of 1924
          1. Coolidge victory over divided Democrats
          2. Robert La Follette's third-party Progressive campaign
      3. Economic diplomacy
        1. Retreat from Wilson's foreign policy principles
          1. Internationalism
          2. Free trade
        2. Close interlinking of business interests and foreign policy
          1. Government initiatives
            1. Diplomatic pressure for access to foreign markets
            2. Increased tariffs; Fordney-McCumber Act
            3. Military interventions to protect U.S. business interests
          2. Private initiatives
            1. Loans to foreign governments
            2. Expansion of industrial production overseas
            3. Acquisition of raw materials overseas
    3. Birth of civil liberties
      1. Persistence of WWI-era repression, censorship into 1920s
        1. Targets of
          1. Political dissent
          2. Sexual themes in the arts
        2. Agents of
          1. Mob violence
          2. Government agencies
          3. Local crusades
          4. Self-censorship; Hollywood's Hays code
        3. Disaffection of Lost Generation
      2. Wartime formation of Civil Liberties Bureau
        1. Reaction to Espionage and Sedition Acts
        2. Predecessor to American Civil Liberties Union
      3. Evolving position of Supreme Court
        1. Initial blows to civil liberties
          1. Upholding of Espionage Act (Schenck case); Oliver Wendell Holmes's "clear and present danger" doctrine
          2. Upholding of Eugene V. Debs conviction
          3. Further cases
        2. Signs of a shift
          1. Defenses of free speech by individual justices
            1. Holmes: marketplace of ideas doctrine
            2. Louis Brandeis: democratic citizenship doctrine
          2. Pro–civil liberties rulings
    4. Culture wars
      1. Fundamentalist reaction against modern urban culture
        1. Sources of alarm
          1. Religious and ethnic pluralism
          2. Urban vice
            1. Mass entertainment
            2. Alcohol
            3. New sexual mores
          3. Entry of "modernist" outlook into Protestant mainstream
        2. Manifestations
          1. Billy Sunday
          2. Nationwide presence
          3. Prohibition
      2. Scopes trial
        1. Clash of traditional and modern perspectives
          1. Fundamentalism vs. secularism
          2. Darwinian science vs. scripture
          3. "Moral" liberty vs. freedom of thought
        2. Face-off of Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan
        3. Outcome and aftermath
      3. Resurgence of Ku Klux Klan
        1. Roots in wartime "Americanism" obsession
        2. Profile and influence
          1. Rapid growth
          2. Wide following among white, native-born Protestants
          3. Nationwide presence
        3. Diverse range of targets
      4. Immigration restriction
        1. Earlier legislative precedents
        2. 1921 temporary restriction measure
        3. 1924 permanent restriction measure
          1. National quotas for Europeans
          2. Exclusion of Asians (exception for Filipinos)
          3. Admittance and curtailing of Mexicans
          4. Emergence of "illegal alien" classification
        4. Ideological underpinnings
          1. Conservative nativism
          2. Progressive assumptions about "race"
      5. Pluralism
        1. Scholarly challenges to prevailing racial thought
          1. Pioneering voices
            1. Horace Kallen; "cultural pluralism"
            2. Anthropologists Franz Boas, Alfred Kroeber, Ruth Benedict
          2. Minimal immediate impact
        2. New immigrants and the pluralist impulse
          1. Urban ethnic enclaves, community institutions
          2. Self-reinvention as "ethnic" Americans
          3. Resentment of cultural hostility and coercion
          4. Claims to equal rights, mainstream acceptance, cultural autonomy
          5. Antidiscriminatory campaigns
        3. Antidiscriminatory rulings by Supreme Court, federal courts
      6. Black urban life and Harlem Renaissance
        1. Ongoing migration from South, West Indies
        2. Emergence of Harlem; "capital" of black America
        3. "Exotic" Harlem vs. real Harlem
        4. Harlem Renaissance
          1. Poets, novelists
          2. Actors, dancers, musicians
          3. "New Negro"
            1. In politics
            2. In art
        5. New black assertiveness; Henry O. Sweet case
      7. Election of 1928
        1. Republican candidate Herbert Hoover
          1. Background and career
          2. Embodiment of "new era" of American capitalism
        2. Democratic candidate Alfred E. Smith
          1. Background and career
          2. Embodiment of urban, Catholic, Progressive outlook
        3. Outcome and significance
          1. Hoover victory
          2. Reflection of "culture wars"
          3. Preview of new Democratic coalition
    5. The Great Depression
      1. Stock market crash of 1929
        1. Black Thursday
        2. Onset of Great Depression
      2. Precursors of Depression
        1. Frenzied speculation
        2. Unequal distribution of income, wealth
        3. Rural depression
        4. Stagnating demand for consumer goods
      3. Repercussions of crash
        1. Magnitude
        2. Scope of devastation
          1. Business and consumer confidence
          2. Solvency of investment companies, businesses, banks
          3. Gross national product
          4. Life savings
          5. Employment
          6. Wages
        3. Persistence of downward slide
      4. Americans and the Depression
        1. Material hardship
          1. Hunger; breadlines
          2. Homelessness; Hoovervilles
          3. Meagerness of public relief
          4. Reversal of movement from farm to city
        2. Patterns of popular response
          1. Collapse of faith in big business
          2. Personal resignation, self-blame
          3. Stirrings of protest
            1. Spontaneous incidents
            2. Bonus March
            3. Rallies for jobs and relief, against evictions
            4. Farmers' Holiday campaign
            5. Communist party
      5. Hoover and the Depression
        1. Hoover's approach
          1. Acceptance of business cycle
          2. Aversion to government relief
          3. Preference for voluntary, "associational" initiatives
          4. Regular forecasts of recovery
        2. Perception of Hoover as indifferent, out of touch
        3. Ill-fated remedies
          1. Hawley-Smoot tariff
          2. Tax increase
        4. Eventual turn to recovery measures
          1. Reconstruction Finance Corporation
          2. Federal Home Loan Bank System

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The New Deal, 1932–1940

    1. First New Deal (the "Hundred Days")
      1. Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) and election of 1932
        1. Roosevelt background
        2. "New deal" promise
          1. Vagueness
          2. Popular reception
        3. Outcome
          1. FDR landslide victory over Herbert Hoover
          2. Strong Democratic gains in Congress
      2. Initial approach to economic crisis
        1. New Deal as alternative to socialist, Nazi, and laissez-faire solutions
        2. Lack of initial blueprint
        3. Circle of advisors
          1. Leading figures
          2. Outlooks
            1. Roots in Progressive reform
            2. Dominant preference for regulated "bigness"
      3. FDR inaugural
      4. Financial program
        1. Initiatives
          1. "Bank holiday"
          2. Emergency Banking Act
          3. Glass-Steagall Act
          4. Removal of United States from gold standard
        2. Aim: reversal of banking crisis
        3. Outcome: rescue of financial system
      5. National Recovery Administration (NRA)
        1. Elements
          1. Business-government cooperation
          2. Industry codes for output, prices, working conditions
          3. Recognition of labor's right to organize
          4. Blue Eagle campaign
        2. Aims
          1. Restoration of economic vitality, stability
          2. Labor-management peace
        3. Outcomes
          1. Ebbing of public enthusiasm; growth of controversy
          2. Corporate domination
          3. Weak enforcement
          4. Minimal effectiveness
      6. Relief and jobs programs
        1. Initiatives
          1. Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)
          2. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
          3. Public Works Administration (PWA)
          4. Civil Works Administration (CWA)
          5. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
        2. Aims
          1. Direct relief for needy (FERA)
          2. Public employment (CCC, PWA, CWA, TVA)
          3. Improvement of nation's infrastructure (CCC, PWA, CWA, TVA)
          4. Expansion of electric power (TVA)
        3. Outcomes
          1. Mass participation
          2. Widespread relief
          3. Emerging opposition
          4. Long-term effects
      7. Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
        1. Elements
          1. Production quotas
          2. Subsidies for removal of land from cultivation
          3. Destruction of crops, livestock
        2. Aims: revival of farm prices and incomes
        3. Outcomes
          1. Revival of farm prices and incomes
          2. Uneven impact on farmers
            1. Gains for landowning farmers
            2. Exclusion and displacement of tenants, sharecroppers
        4. Worsening of rural hardship
          1. Dust Bowl and mass displacement of farmers
          2. John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath
      8. Housing program
        1. Initiatives
          1. Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)
          2. Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
          3. Federal construction of low-rent housing
        2. Aims
          1. Protection of homeowners from foreclosure
          2. Expanded access to home ownership
          3. Inexpensive rental housing
          4. New construction
        3. Outcomes
          1. Preservation or attainment of home ownership for millions
          2. Affirmation of "security of the home" as fundamental right
      9. Further initiatives
        1. Repeal of Prohibition
        2. Federal Communications Commission
        3. Securities and Exchange Commission
      10. Overall impact
        1. Transformation of role of federal government
        2. Scale of relief, public projects
        3. Failure to end Depression
      11. Gathering Supreme Court assault
        1. Invalidation of NRA; Schecter Poultry case
        2. Invalidation of AAA; United States v. Butler
    2. Grassroots revolt
      1. Reawakening of American labor movement
        1. Preconditions
          1. Encouraging signals from federal government
            1. Election of FDR
            2. Section 7a of National Industrial Recovery Act
            3. Wagner Act
          2. Receding of ethnic differences
          3. Militant leadership
        2. Aspirations
          1. Better wages
          2. Check on employer power
          3. Labor rights
          4. Union recognition
        3. Labor upheaval of 1934
          1. Nationwide wave of strikes
          2. Major strikes
            1. Toledo auto workers
            2. Minneapolis truck drivers
            3. San Francisco dockworkers
            4. Textile workers (New England to Deep South)
      2. Rise of Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
        1. Origins
          1. Split within American Federation of Labor (AFL)
          2. Walkout of insurgent AFL leaders; John L. Lewis
        2. Agenda
          1. Organization of industrial bastions
          2. "Economic freedom and industrial democracy"
        3. Landmark struggles
          1. United Auto Workers sit-down strikes (Cleveland, Flint)
            1. Spirit of militancy, unity
            2. Victory, recognition by General Motors
          2. Steel Workers Organizing Committee
            1. Recognition by U.S. Steel
            2. Continued resistance from small firms; Republic strike bloodshed
        4. Overall progress
          1. Explosion of union membership
          2. Achievement of workplace power, dignity
          3. Impact on politics
        5. Political vision
          1. Activist federal government
          2. Economic and social security
          3. Redistribution of wealth
      3. Other crusaders for economic justice
        1. Upton Sinclair; End Poverty in California movement
        2. Huey Long; Share-Our-Wealth movement
        3. Father Charles E. Coughlin
        4. Dr. Francis Townsend; Townsend Clubs
    3. Second New Deal
      1. Triggering factors
        1. Persistence of Depression
        2. Popular unrest
        3. Democratic gains of 1934
      2. Underlying aims
        1. Economic security
        2. Redistribution of income; broadening of purchasing power
      3. Central initiatives
        1. Tax on wealth, corporate profits
        2. Rural Electrification Agency
          1. Electric power to farmers
          2. Soil conservation
          3. Minimal benefits for non-landholders
        3. Works Projects Administration (WPA)
          1. Mass participation
          2. Impact on national life
          3. Infrastructure
          4. The arts
        4. Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act)
          1. Provisions
          2. Rights to organize, union representation, collective bargaining
          3. Federal enforcement; National Labor Relations Board
          4. Democratization of workplace; "Labor's Magna Carta"
        5. Social Security Act
          1. Provisions
            1. Unemployment insurance
            2. Old-age pensions
            3. Aid to disabled, elderly poor, and families with dependent children
          2. Key features
            1. System of taxes on employers and workers
            2. Mix of national and local funding, control, and eligibility standards
          3. Significance: launching of American welfare state
          4. In comparison with European versions
    4. Reckoning with liberty
      1. Contested meanings of freedom
        1. New Deal version
          1. Expanded power of national state
          2. Social and industrial freedom
          3. Economic security over liberty of contract
          4. FDR and modern liberalism
        2. Anti-New Deal version
          1. Freedom from government regulation, fiscal responsibility
          2. Individual freedom
          3. American Liberty League
          4. Hoover's The Challenge to Liberty
      2. Election of 1936
        1. FDR vs. Republican Alfred Landon
        2. Sharp divisions between classes, conceptions of freedom
        3. Outcome: Roosevelt landslide
        4. Significance
          1. Seeds of anti-government conservatism
          2. "New Deal coalition"
        5. FDR's second inaugural
      3. FDR's court-packing plan
        1. Motivations
        2. Widespread alarm over
        3. Ultimate success
          1. New receptiveness of Supreme Court to New Deal regulation
          2. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes conversion
      4. Winding down of Second New Deal
        1. Last major New Deal measures
          1. United States Housing Act
          2. Fair Labor Standards Act
        2. 1937 economic downturn
        3. Shift in New Deal approach to economic crisis
          1. Adoption of Keynesian, public spending tool
          2. Discontinuation of economic planning, redistribution
    5. Limits of change
      1. New Deal and American women
        1. Expanded presence of women in federal government
        2. Political decline of feminism
        3. Depression-era resistance to women's employment
          1. From government
          2. From labor movement
        4. Uneven access to New Deal benefits
      2. Exclusion of blacks from key entitlements of welfare state
        1. Reflection of southern Democrats' power
        2. Confinement to public assistance portion of Social Security Act
          1. Dismal provisions
          2. Stigma of welfare dependency
      3. "Indian New Deal"
        1. Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier
        2. Transformation of Indian policy
          1. Shift from forced assimilation to cultural autonomy
          2. Indian Reorganization Act
        3. Limits of progress
          1. Legal
          2. Material
      4. Hardships for Mexican-Americans
        1. Meager opportunity for work
        2. Mass departure for Mexico (voluntary and forced)
        3. Situation of California farmworkers
          1. Grim conditions
          2. Exclusion from Social Security and Wagner Acts
          3. Suppression of unionism
      5. Hardships for African-Americans
        1. "Last hired and first fired"
        2. Disproportionate rates of unemployment
        3. Growing black focus on economic survival
      6. New Deal for blacks
        1. Egalitarian current in New Deal
        2. Shift of black voters to Democratic party
        3. Preservation/reinforcement of racial order by New Deal
          1. FDR failure to support federal antilynching law
          2. Discriminatory aspects of New Deal
    6. New conception of America
      1. Absorption of new immigrants into public mainstream
        1. Prominence among framers and supporters of New Deal
        2. "Little New Deals"; Fiorello LaGuardia
        3. Cultural assimilation
        4. Americanization via labor and political activism
      2. Ascendancy of American left
        1. Elements
          1. Communists
          2. Socialists
          3. Labor radicals, CIO
          4. New Deal liberals
        2. Growth
          1. In numbers
          2. In impact on political culture, conceptions of freedom
        3. Activities and appeal of Communist Party
          1. Range of causes
            1. The unemployed
            2. Industrial unionism; CIO
            3. Civil rights; Scottsboro case
            4. Civil liberties
          2. Popular Front vision
            1. Coalition with wider left
            2. Broadening and energizing of New Deal liberalism
            3. Promotion of social and economic radicalism, ethnic and racial diversity, unionism and social citizenship
          3. Growing size, respectability
        4. Breadth of Popular Front vision
          1. FDR and the "common man"
          2. Manifestations in the arts
          3. Militant, inclusive unionism of CIO
          4. Spreading condemnations of racial, ethnic, religious intolerance
          5. Widening commitment to civil liberties, labor rights
            1. American Civil Liberties Union
            2. Robert M. La Follette, Jr. committee exposés
            3. Department of Justice's Civil Liberties Unit
            4. Supreme Court decisions
      3. End of New Deal
        1. Mounting opposition of southern Democrats
          1. Reasons: alarm over specters of unionization, racial equality, radicalism
          2. Key provocations
            1. "Report on Economic Conditions in the South"
            2. Southern Conference for Human Welfare
            3. FDR's crusade to liberalize southern Democratic party
        2. Consolidation of southern Democrat-northern Republican coalition
        3. Exhaustion of New Deal momentum
        4. Shifting focus from domestic to foreign affairs
      4. Historical significance of New Deal
        1. Limits of
        2. Extent of

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - Fighting for the Four Freedoms: World War II, 1941–1945

    1. Fighting World War II (WWII)
      1. Prewar trends in U.S. foreign policy
        1. Recognition of Soviet Union
        2. Good Neighbor Policy toward Latin America
      2. Aggression and repression abroad
        1. Japanese invasions of Manchuria, China
        2. Adolf Hitler's Germany
          1. Nazism
          2. Rearmament
          3. Annexation of Austria, Czechoslovakia
          4. Persecution of Jews
          5. Policy of appeasement toward
            1. Adoption by Britain, France, United States
            2. Munich conference; "peace in our time"
        3. Benito Mussolini's Italy
          1. Fascism
          2. Invasion of Ethiopia
        4. Francisco Franco's Spain
          1. Spanish Civil War
          2. Overthrow of democracy; establishment of fascist regime
          3. Support from Hitler
      3. American isolationism; reluctance to confront overseas aggression
        1. Sources
          1. Pro-Nazi sentiment
          2. Business ties to Japan, Germany
          3. Memory of World War I
          4. Pacifism
          5. Ethnic allegiances
        2. Manifestations
          1. Neutrality Acts
          2. Even-handed arms embargo on Spanish belligerents
      4. Outbreak of WWII
        1. Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact
        2. German invasion of Poland
        3. British and French declarations of war on Germany
        4. German conquests across Europe, North Africa
        5. Formation of German-Italian-Japanese Axis
        6. Battle of Britain
      5. America's shifting response
        1. Persisting popular ambivalence
        2. Steps toward involvement
          1. Arms sale to Britain
          2. Military rearmament
        3. Reelection of Franklin Roosevelt (FDR)
          1. Unprecedented quest for third term
          2. Victory over Wendell Willkie
        4. Toward intervention
          1. America as "arsenal of democracy"
          2. Lend Lease Act
          3. Interventionist mobilization efforts
      6. Pearl Harbor; U.S. entry into war
      7. War in the Pacific
        1. Early setbacks for Allies
          1. Japanese conquests
          2. Bataan "death march"
        2. Turning of the tide
          1. Battles of Coral Sea, Midway
          2. Island campaigns
      8. War in Europe
        1. Allied advances
          1. North Africa
          2. The Atlantic
          3. Italy
          4. D-Day
        2. Eastern front
          1. German invasion of Russia
          2. Siege of Stalingrad
          3. German surrender
          4. Magnitude of bloodshed
        3. The Holocaust
    2. Home front
      1. Government mobilization of economy
        1. Wartime federal agencies
        2. Areas of impact
          1. Allocation of labor
          2. Types and labels of production
          3. Wages, prices, rents
          4. Public revenue
          5. Employment rate
      2. Business in wartime
        1. New relationship with government
          1. Prominence of business leaders in federal bureaucracy
          2. Federal funding for large corporations
        2. Achievements of wartime manufacturing
          1. Scale of production
          2. Scientific advances
          3. Restoration of public esteem for business
        3. Geography of manufacturing boom
          1. Revival of old industrial centers
          2. Emergence of new industrial centers
            1. West
            2. South
          3. Centrality of military-related production
      3. Organized labor in wartime
        1. Government-business-labor collaboration
          1. Terms and impact
            1. Surge in union membership
            2. Spread of union recognition
            3. No-strike pledge
            4. Acceptance of employer "prerogatives," "fair profit"
          2. Junior position of labor
        2. Rolling back of New Deal programs
        3. Rise of labor walkouts
      4. The Four Freedoms
        1. "Freedom" as ideological focus of wartime mobilization
        2. Content and implications
          1. Freedoms of speech and religion
          2. Freedoms from fear and want
        3. Points of controversy
          1. "Freedom from want"
          2. Office of War Information (OWI)
            1. New Deal liberalism of
            2. Conservative curtailment of
        4. Freedom as "free enterprise," material consumption (the "fifth freedom")
      5. Women in wartime labor force
        1. Entry into traditionally "male" jobs
          1. Industry
          2. Other professions
        2. "Rosie the Riveter"
        3. Steps toward workplace equality, entitlements
        4. Experience of wartime labor; "taste of freedom"
        5. Postwar reversals
    3. Visions of postwar freedom
      1. Alternative outlooks
        1. Conservative: Henry Luce's American Century
          1. Free enterprise, material abundance
          2. America as world's dominant power
        2. New Deal liberal: Henry Wallace's "Price of Free World Victory"
          1. "Century of the common man"
          2. International cooperation
          3. Global New Deal
        3. Shared conception of America as world model
      2. Liberal economic program
        1. National Resources Planning Board (NRPB); wartime blueprints
          1. Goals and principles
            1. Economic security, full employment
            2. Expanded welfare state
            3. Mass consumption
            4. Keynesian emphasis on government spending
          2. Strongholds of support
          3. Congressional opposition
        2. FDR's Economic Bill of Rights
          1. Goals and principles
          2. Failure to pass in Congress
        3. Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights)
          1. Provisions
          2. Impact and significance
        4. Full Employment Bill
          1. Goals and principles
          2. Passage of watered-down version
      3. Renewal of economic conservatism: Friedrich A. Hayek's The Road to Serfdom
        1. Themes
          1. Economic planning as threat to liberty
          2. Superior effectiveness of free market
          3. Critiques of absolute laissez-faire dogma, social hierarchy, authoritarianism
        2. Basis for modern conservatism
    4. Race and ethnicity in wartime America
      1. Discrediting of ethnic and racial inequality, intolerance
      2. Broad assimilation of ethnic outsiders
        1. Diversity of army, industrial work force
        2. Shift from forced Americanization (WWI) to patriotic assimilation (WWII)
      3. Promotion of pluralism, group equality
        1. Government
          1. FDR
          2. OWI; other government agencies
        2. Scholars
          1. Ruth Benedict's Races and Racism
          2. Ashley Montagu's Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race
        3. Hollywood
      4. Ongoing barriers to assimilation
        1. Anti-Semitism
        2. Racism
      5. Mexican-Americans
        1. Bracero program
          1. Purposes
          2. Promise and reality
        2. New employment opportunities
        3. Emergence of Chicano culture
        4. Intolerance and discrimination
          1. Zoot Suit riots
          2. Discrimination
        5. Mexican-American response
          1. Heightened civil rights consciousness
          2. Challenges to workplace discrimination
      6. American Indians
        1. Participation in military, war industry
        2. Exposure to urban life
        3. Marginality of reservations
      7. Chinese-Americans
        1. Easing of traditional stereotypes
        2. Participation in military, war industry
      8. Japanese-Americans
        1. Dehumanizing portrayals
        2. Internment policy
          1. FDR's Executive Order 9066
          2. Expulsion to internment camps
          3. Negation of civil liberties
          4. Dearth of public protest
          5. Supreme Court affirmation: Korematsu v. United States
          6. Japanese-American response
          7. Eventual apology
      9. African-Americans
        1. On the home front
          1. Accelerated migration to industrial heartland
          2. Hostile reception; Detroit race riot, "hate strike"
          3. Persistence of lynching
        2. In the military
          1. Scale of service
          2. Racial practices
            1. Discrimination
            2. Abuse
        3. Birth of civil rights movement
          1. March on Washington initiative
            1. A. Philip Randolph
            2. Demands
            3. FDR's Executive Order 8802; establishment of Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)
          2. Performance and impact of FEPC
          3. Growth of NAACP
          4. Congress of Racial Equality sit-ins
          5. Organized labor
          6. "Double-V" campaign
      10. Broadening opposition to racial inequality
        1. Black-Jewish collaboration
        2. Organized labor; CIO
        3. Growing dilemma for white southern moderates
        4. In government
          1. Federal agencies
          2. Supreme Court
          3. Armed forces
        5. Landmark publications
          1. What the Negro Wants
          2. Wendell Willkie's One World
          3. Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dilemma
    5. Toward victory and beyond
      1. Winding down of war
        1. In Europe
          1. Battle of the Bulge
          2. Allied invasion of Germany
          3. Fall of Hitler; V-E Day
        2. In the Pacific: advance of U.S. forces toward Japan
      2. Changing of guard in Washington
        1. Replacement of Wallace by Harry S. Truman as FDR's running mate
        2. FDR reelection victory over Thomas E. Dewey
        3. Death of FDR; Truman succession to presidency
      3. The atomic bomb
        1. Development
          1. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity
          2. Manhattan Project
          3. Testing in New Mexico
        2. Use on Hiroshima, Nagasaki
          1. Devastating impact
            1. Immediate
            2. Long-term
          2. Surrender of Japan
        3. Lasting controversy over use
          1. Justifications
          2. Criticism
        4. Context for decision to use
          1. WWII practice of targeting civilian populations
          2. Dehumanization of Japanese in wartime propaganda
      4. Postwar planning by Allied leaders (Britain, United States, Soviet Union)
        1. Summit meetings at Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam
        2. Emerging points of tension among Allies
          1. Timing of Allied invasion of France
          2. Soviet intentions in eastern Europe
          3. Prospects for dissolution of British empire
      5. New economic order: Bretton Woods conference
        1. Initiatives
          1. Eclipse of British pound by dollar in global trade
          2. Linking of dollar's value to price of gold
          3. Creation of World Bank, International Monetary Fund
        2. Significance for postwar capitalist economic system
          1. Trend toward removal of barriers to free trade
          2. Recognition of United States as world's financial leader
      6. The United Nations (UN)
        1. Founding
          1. Planning conference at Dumbarton Oaks
          2. Adoption of United Nations Charter at San Francisco
          3. Endorsement of United Nations Charter by U.S. Senate
        2. Structure and mission

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - The United States and the Cold War, 1945–1953

    1. Origins of the Cold War
      1. Rival postwar powers
        1. United States
          1. Measures of power
          2. Global agenda
        2. Soviet Union
          1. Measures of power
          2. Global agenda
      2. Roots of "containment"
        1. Projection of Soviet dominance in eastern Europe
        2. George Kennan's Long Telegram
        3. Winston Churchill's "iron curtain" speech
      3. Truman Doctrine
        1. Background
          1. President Truman's perspective on world
            1. Lack of experience
            2. Black-and-white outlook
          2. Greece and Turkey questions
            1. Internal conflicts
            2. Strategic significance
            3. Disengagement of Britain
          3. Unveiling by Truman
        2. Themes and significance
          1. Presidential embrace of containment policy
          2. Division of globe between "free" and "communist"
          3. America's ongoing mission to lead, defend "free world"
        3. Impact on popular conception of postwar world
        4. Broad bipartisan support
        5. Implementation
          1. Aid to anticommunist regimes
          2. Forging of global military alliances
          3. Founding of new national security bodies
            1. Atomic Energy Commission
            2. National Security Council (NSC)
            3. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
      4. Marshall Plan
        1. Provisions
        2. Underlying motivations and vision
        3. Achievements
      5. Berlin crisis
        1. Emerging East-West conflict over Berlin
        2. Soviet blockade
        3. Western airlift
        4. Lifting of blockade
      6. Escalation of Cold War
        1. Division of Germany into East Germany and West Germany
        2. Soviet acquisition of atomic bomb
        3. Establishment of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
          1. Avowed mission
          2. Varied agendas
        4. Establishment of Warsaw Pact
        5. Communist revolution in China
          1. Mao Zedong
          2. Political repercussions in United States
          3. American response
        6. NSC-68
      7. Korean War
        1. Postwar division of Korea
        2. North Korean invasion of south
        3. Mobilization of U.S. military response
          1. Perception of Cold War test
          2. Obtainment of United Nations authorization
        4. Initial American military progress
        5. Intervention by China
        6. Removal of General Douglas MacArthur
        7. Protracted stalemate; eventual death toll
        8. Armistice and aftermath
      8. Concerns raised by Cold War critics
        1. Simplistic East-West dichotomies
        2. Inability to see foreign developments on case-by-case basis
        3. Continual intervention abroad
        4. Tendency to side with undemocratic regimes
        5. Aversion to colonial independence
    2. Ideological mobilization for Cold War
      1. Effect on notions of freedom
      2. Realms
        1. Depictions of U.S. history
        2. The arts
          1. Areas
            1. Film
            2. Painting
            3. Music
            4. Dance
          2. Secret involvement of national security agencies
        3. Political discourse
      3. Themes
        1. America as land of pluralism, tolerance, equality, free expression, individual liberty
        2. Communist regimes as "totalitarian"
        3. "Socialized" resources (medicine, housing) as communistic, negation of freedom
      4. Rise of "human rights"
        1. Background
          1. Historical origins of concept
          2. Impact of World War II
        2. Drafting of UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
          1. Eleanor Roosevelt
          2. Range of rights identified
            1. Civil and political liberties
            2. Social and economic entitlements
          3. Affirmation of global accountability of nations
        3. Cold War contest over
          1. U.S. emphasis on political rights
          2. Soviet emphasis on social, economic rights
          3. Compromise: two separate "covenants"
    3. Truman presidency
      1. Postwar domestic situation
        1. Rapid demobilization; return of soldiers to civilian life
        2. Abolition of wartime regulatory agencies
      2. Fair Deal
        1. Aims
          1. Revive momentum of New Deal
          2. Improve social safety net and living standards
        2. Program
      3. Strike wave of 1946
        1. Contributing factors
        2. Scope and magnitude
          1. Range of industries affected
          2. Operation Dixie
        3. Truman response
          1. Concern over economic effect
          2. Threat to draft striking railroad workers
          3. Court order against striking miners
          4. Outcomes
      4. Republican congressional gains of 1946
        1. Causes
          1. Middle-class alarm over strike wave
          2. Labor disappointment over Truman
          3. Failure of Operation Dixie
        2. Consequences
          1. Rejection of Fair Deal program
          2. Tax cuts for wealthy
          3. Taft-Hartley Act
            1. Provisions
            2. Impact on organized labor
      5. Steps toward civil rights
        1. Anti-discrimination measures, state and local
        2. Vitality of civil rights coalition
        3. Growing response to lynching
        4. Integration of major league baseball; Jackie Robinson
        5. Commission on Civil Rights's To Secure These Rights
        6. Truman's civil rights initiatives
          1. Program presented to Congress
            1. Content
            2. Defeat
          2. Desegregation of armed forces
          3. Underlying considerations
            1. Personal sentiments
            2. Cold War implications
            3. Political strategy
      6. Election of 1948
        1. Truman and the Democrats
          1. Drive to revive and broaden New Deal coalition
          2. Progressive program
          3. Assault on "do-nothing Congress"
        2. Strom Thurmond and the States' Rights ("Dixiecrat") party
          1. Break from Democratic party
          2. Call for segregation, "states' rights"
        3. Henry A. Wallace and Progressive party
          1. Program
            1. Expansion of social welfare
            2. Desegregation
            3. De-escalation of Cold War
          2. Support from communists; abandonment by liberals
        4. Thomas A. Dewey and the Republicans
          1. Colorlessness of candidate
          2. Complacency and vagueness of campaign
        5. Truman's upset victory
    4. Anticommunist crusade
      1. Wide-ranging impact of Cold War on American life
        1. Permanent military-industrial establishment
        2. Federal projects
          1. Weapons development
          2. Military bases
          3. Higher education
          4. Interstate highway system
        3. Culture of secrecy, dishonesty
        4. Revised immigration policy
        5. Dismantling of segregation
        6. Assault on right to dissent
      2. Emergence of anticommunist crusade
        1. Truman's loyalty review system
        2. House Un-American Activities Committee hearings on Hollywood
          1. Pressure to testify about beliefs, "name names"
          2. Cooperation and resistance
          3. Hollywood Ten; blacklist
        3. Legal cases
          1. Trial, conviction, and imprisonment of Alger Hiss
          2. Trial, conviction, and imprisonment of Communist Party leaders
          3. Trial, conviction, and execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
      3. McCarthyism
        1. Joseph R. McCarthy
          1. Background
          2. Emergence with sensational Wheeling speech
        2. McCarthy's Senate committee hearings
          1. Wild allegations regarding disloyalty, communist presence
          2. Growing Republican ambivalence
        3. McCarthy's downfall
          1. Army-McCarthy hearings
            1. Television exposure
            2. Scolding by Joseph Welch
          2. Senate censure
        4. Genesis of term "McCarthyism"
      4. Breadth of anticommunist crusade around country
        1. Initiatives of government (national, state, and local)
          1. Investigative committees
          2. Police department "red squads"
          3. Laws to ban, monitor communist presence
          4. Loyalty oaths
        2. Initiatives of private organizations
        3. Ideological "cleansing" of public libraries, universities
        4. Acquiescence of judiciary: Dennis v. United States
        5. Acquiescence of liberals
        6. Cost to the persecuted
      5. Anticommunism as popular mass movement
        1. Strength among those of eastern European descent
        2. Strength among Catholics
      6. Multiple uses of anticommunism
        1. Bureaucratic self-promotion
        2. Political self-preservation
        3. Discrediting of political, social targets
          1. New Deal legacy
          2. Economic regulation
          3. Organized labor
          4. Civil rights
          5. Feminism
          6. Homosexuality
      7. Anticommunist politics
        1. Republican use of anticommunism to block Truman program
        2. McCarran Internal Security Act
        3. McCarran-Walter Act
        4. Operation Wetback
        5. Confinement of social welfare benefits to unionized workers
        6. Ideological taming of organized labor
          1. CIO expulsion of left-wing leaders and unions
          2. Labor's support for Cold War foreign policy
      8. Response of civil rights movement to anticommunist crusade
        1. Outspoken opposition (Paul Robeson, W. E. B. Du Bois)
        2. Shifting approach of mainstream groups (NAACP, NUL)
          1. Initial resistance
          2. Growing accommodation
            1. Purges of Communist members
            2. Silence about political persecution
            3. Embrace of Cold War rhetoric
          3. Use of Cold War rhetoric to promote civil rights
        3. Demise of left-leaning organizations (Southern Conference for Human Welfare)
      9. Lull in momentum for civil rights
        1. Dampening effect of Cold War
        2. Diminishing of efforts from Truman administration, Democrats
        3. Legacy for black postwar prospects
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - An Affluent Society, 1953–1960

    1. Trends in postwar economy
      1. "Golden age" of American capitalism
        1. Economic expansion, growth
        2. Wide-ranging improvements in living standards
        3. Breadth of access to a better life
          1. Low unemployment
          2. Decline in poverty rate
        4. Industrial supremacy around world
      2. Emergence of West and South as centers of military production, mobilization
      3. Twilight of industrial age
        1. Gathering decline in manufacturing
        2. Shift toward white-collar occupations
      4. Transformations in agricultural America
        1. Acceleration of trend toward fewer and larger farms
        2. Mechanization of southern farming
        3. Expansion of corporate farming out West
          1. Fruits and vegetables
          2. Migrant labor
    2. Suburbia
      1. Rise
        1. Pace and magnitude
        2. Central role in economic expansion
        3. Symbols and manifestations
          1. Levittown
          2. Malls
          3. California
            1. Los Angeles; "centerless city"
            2. Freeways, cars
            3. Shopping centers
            4. Lawns
      2. Consumer culture
        1. Growth and spread
        2. Ideology of American consumerism
          1. As core of freedom
          2. As measure of American superiority
        3. Key elements
          1. Television
            1. Spreading presence
            2. Growing prominence as leisure activity
            3. Themes of programming, advertising
          2. Automobile
            1. Place in "standard consumer package"
            2. Role in economic boom
            3. Impact on American landscape, travel habits
            4. Emergence as symbol of freedom
      3. Female sphere
        1. Place in labor force
          1. Rising numbers
          2. Limited aims
        2. Ideal of male as breadwinner, woman as homemaker
        3. Affirmation of family ideal
          1. Younger marriage age
          2. Fewer divorces
          3. Baby boom
        4. Separate spheres as Cold War weapon
        5. Receding of feminism
      4. Exclusion of blacks; racial wall between city and suburbs
        1. Pervasiveness
        2. Sources and mechanisms
          1. Federal government
          2. Banks and developers
          3. Residents
        3. Resulting patterns
          1. Suburbs for whites
            1. Fading of ethnic divisions
            2. Fear of black encroachment
          2. Urban ghettoes for blacks, Puerto Ricans
            1. Bleakness of conditions and opportunities
            2. Barriers to escape
          3. Self-reinforcing dynamic of racial exclusion
    3. Celebratory perspectives on postwar America
      1. "End of ideology"; liberal consensus
      2. "Judeo-Christian" heritage
        1. Themes
          1. Group pluralism
          2. Freedom of religion
        2. Underlying trends
          1. Fading of religious bigotry
          2. Secularization of American life
      3. "Free enterprise" as essential part of freedom
        1. Marketing of "free enterprise"
        2. Varieties of "free enterprise" outlooks
          1. Conservative wing
          2. Liberal wing
      4. "People's capitalism"
        1. Receptiveness to big business
        2. Heralding of classless society
      5. Two strains of conservative renewal
        1. Libertarians
          1. Ideas
            1. Individual autonomy
            2. Limited government
            3. Unregulated capitalism
          2. Special appeal among businessmen of South and West
          3. Leading voice: Milton Friedman
        2. New conservatives
          1. Ideas
            1. Free World vs. communism
            2. Absolute truth vs. toleration of difference
            3. Christian values vs. moral decay
            4. Community and tradition vs. excessive individualism
            5. Government as agent of moral regulation
          2. Leading voices: Russell Kirk, Richard Weaver
        3. Central points of divergence: "free man" vs. "good man"
        4. Common targets during the Fifties
          1. Soviet Union
          2. "Big government"
    4. Eisenhower era
      1. Election of 1952
        1. Republican ticket
          1. Dwight D. Eisenhower
            1. Political appeal
            2. Decision to run as Republican
            3. Nomination
          2. Richard M. Nixon
            1. Political rise
            2. Anticommunist style
            3. Reputation for opportunism, dishonesty
            4. Populist brand of free-market conservatism
        2. Nixon scandal
          1. "Checkers speech"
          2. Demonstration of television's significance
        3. Eisenhower victory over Adlai Stevenson (first of two)
      2. Eisenhower's domestic policy: Modern Republicanism
        1. Pro-business administration
        2. Fiscal and budgetary conservatism
        3. Retention, expansion of New Deal programs
        4. Avoidance of European-style nationalization
        5. Use of government to spur productivity, employment
          1. Key examples
            1. Interstate highway system
            2. National Defense Education Act
          2. Motivations
            1. Cold War
            2. Economic prosperity
      3. Labor-management "social contract"
        1. Preconditions
          1. Taming of organized labor; Taft-Hartley Act
          2. Consolidation of organized labor; merger of AFL-CIO
        2. Terms
        3. Outcome for working-class America
          1. Prosperity for union workers
          2. Mixed outcome for nonunion workers
            1. Indirect benefits
            2. Marginalization
        4. Fraying of social contract; 1959 steel strike
      4. Ebb and flow of U.S.-Soviet tensions
        1. Acquisition by each side of hydrogen bomb; subsequent nuclear arms race
        2. Doctrine of "massive retaliation"; "mutually assured destruction (MAD)"
          1. Announcement by John Foster Dulles
          2. Themes
          3. Characterization by critics as "brinksmanship"
          4. Legacy
            1. Sobering effects on superpowers
            2. Climate of fear
        3. Eisenhower-Khrushchev thaw
          1. First steps
            1. Korean armistice
            2. Death of Stalin; succession by Nikita Khrushchev
            3. Geneva summit
            4. Khrushchev denunciation of Stalin, call for "coexistence"
          2. Setback: Hungary crisis
            1. Soviet repression of uprising
            2. Eisenhower refusal to intervene
          3. Resumption of thaw
            1. Weapons testing halt
            2. Khrushchev visit
          4. Setback: U-2 spy plane
      5. Cold War in Third World
        1. Emergence of Third World
          1. Origins of term
          2. Impulse toward nonalignment with Cold War superpowers
          3. Bandung Conference
        2. Decolonization
          1. Pace
            1. India, Pakistan
            2. British Gold Coast (Ghana)
            3. Subsequent spread of independence
          2. Cold War context
            1. U.S. fear of communist influence
            2. Participation of communists, socialists in independence struggles
            3. Third World aversion to Cold War alignment
        3. Cold War as determinant of U.S. alliances, interventions
          1. Covert subversion of sovereign governments
            1. Guatemala
            2. Iran
          2. Extension of containment to Middle East
            1. Suez crisis
            2. Eisenhower Doctrine
            3. Lebanon intervention
          3. Vietnam
            1. Postwar support for French colonialism
            2. Defeat of French by Ho Chi Minh's nationalists
            3. Geneva agreement for 1956 elections
            4. U.S.-backed scuttling of elections
            5. Support for unpopular Ngo Dinh Diem regime
          4. Long-term legacies of interventions
            1. Guatemala
            2. Iran
            3. Vietnam
      6. Mass society and its critics
        1. Leading voices
          1. Hans J. Morgenthau, "new accumulations" of corporate power
          2. C. Wright Mills, "power elite"
          3. David Riesman's The Lonely Crowd
          4. John Kenneth Galbraith's The Affluent Society
          5. William Whyte's The Organization Man
          6. Vance Packard's The Hidden Persuaders
        2. Limited impact on popular consciousness
      7. Cultural rebels
        1. Youth
          1. Themes
            1. Alienation from middle-class norms
            2. Sexual provocativeness; rock and roll
          2. Leading examples
            1. J. D. Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye
            2. Blackboard Jungle, Rebel Without a Cause
            3. Elvis Presley
          3. Mainstream reaction
            1. "Juvenile delinquency" panic
            2. Codes of conduct
        2. Playboy sensibility
        3. Gay and lesbian subcultures
        4. The Beats
          1. Themes
            1. Rejection of materialism, conformity, Cold War militarization
            2. Embrace of spontaneity, immediate pleasure, sexual experimentation
          2. Key works
            1. Jack Kerouac's On the Road
            2. Allen Ginsberg's Howl
    5. Emergence of civil rights movement
      1. Preconditions
        1. World War II challenge to racial system
        2. Black migration North
        3. Postwar global developments
          1. Cold War
          2. Decolonization
      2. Segregation and inequality in 1950s America
        1. Breadth of black poverty, barriers to opportunity
        2. Breadth of segregation
          1. In South
          2. In North, West
      3. Legal assault on segregation
        1. Main actors
          1. League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC)
          2. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
            1. Leadership of Thurgood Marshall
            2. Step-by-step strategy
        2. Key steps (pre-Brown case)
          1. LULAC: Méndez v. Westminster in California
          2. NAACP
            1. 1938 University of Missouri Law School case
            2. 1950 University of Texas Law School case
        3. Brown v. Board of Education
          1. Background
          2. NAACP legal argument
            1. Direct challenge to separate but equal doctrine
            2. Emphasis on stigmatization, subversion of black selfesteem
          3. Earl Warren's desegregation decision
          4. Import of decision
            1. Limitations
            2. Broader significance and impact
      4. Montgomery bus boycott
        1. Rosa Parks
          1. Activist past
          2. Arrest on bus
        2. Year-long black boycott of segregated buses
        3. Supreme Court ruling against segregation in public transportation
        4. Victory
        5. Significance
          1. Launching of nonviolent southern crusade for racial justice
          2. Achievement of attention and support around country, world
          3. Emergence of Martin Luther King Jr.
      5. Language of freedom
        1. Pervasiveness in movement
        2. Range of meanings
      6. Leadership of King
        1. Themes
          1. Fusing of meanings of freedom
          2. Merging of black cause and experience with those of nation
          3. Capacity to reach both blacks and whites
          4. Philosophies of nonviolence, civil disobedience, Christian love, forgiveness
          5. Connections between struggles of African-Americans and non-whites overseas
        2. Formation of Southern Christian Leadership Conference
      7. Southern white intransigence; "massive resistance"
        1. Contributing factor: lack of federal backing
          1. Supreme Court's "all deliberate speed" ruling
          2. Eisenhower's ambivalence, reluctance to act
        2. Forms
          1. Southern Manifesto
          2. Anti-desegregation laws
          3. Banning of NAACP
          4. Revival of Confederate flag
      8. Little Rock crisis
        1. Governor Orville Faubus's obstruction of court-ordered integration
        2. Eisenhower's deployment of federal troops
    6. Toward the Sixties
      1. Election of 1960
        1. Republican nominee: Nixon
        2. Democratic nominee: John F. Kennedy
          1. Background
          2. Choice of Lyndon B. Johnson as running mate
          3. Catholic issue
          4. Cold War outlook
          5. "Missile gap" claim
          6. Glamorous style
        3. Nixon-Kennedy debate
        4. Kennedy victory
      2. Eisenhower's farewell address; "military-industrial complex"
      3. Social problems on horizon

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - The Sixties, 1960–1968

    1. Escalation of civil rights protest
      1. High points
        1. Sit-in campaigns
          1. Origins at Greensboro
          2. Spread across South
        2. Founding of Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
        3. Freedom Rides
          1. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
          2. Purpose
          3. Experience
          4. Outcome: desegregation of interstate bus travel
        4. Birmingham desegregation campaign
          1. Climax of region-wide demonstrations
          2. Leadership of Martin Luther King Jr.
            1. Letter from Birmingham Jail
            2. Deployment of black school children
          3. Brutal response of "Bull" Connor; widespread revulsion over
          4. Impact on public opinion
            1. Growing sympathy for civil rights
            2. Presidential endorsement of movement
          5. Outcome: adoption of desegregation plan
      2. Themes and characteristics
        1. Growing involvement of college students, youth
        2. Vision of empowerment of ordinary blacks
        3. Commitment to nonviolent resistance
        4. Multiplicity of organizations, settings, and strategies
      3. Escalation of violent response
        1. Perpetrators
          1. Ordinary citizens
          2. Local and state officials
        2. Targets, episodes
          1. Firebombing, beatings of Freedom Riders
          2. Mob violence against desegregation of University of Mississippi
          3. Use of fire hoses, dogs, beatings against Birmingham protesters
          4. Assassination of Medgar Evers
          5. Deadly bombing of Birmingham church
      4. March on Washington
        1. Magnitude
        2. As peak of nonviolent civil rights coalition
        3. Breadth of demands
        4. King's "I Have a Dream" speech
        5. Glimpses of movement's limitations and fault lines
          1. All-male roster of speakers
          2. Toning down of John Lewis's speech
    2. The Kennedy presidency
      1. John F. Kennedy (JFK)
        1. Image of glamour, dynamism
        2. Inaugural themes
          1. ". . . new generation . . ."
          2. ". . . pay any price . . ."
          3. ". . . do for your country."
      2. JFK and the world
        1. New Cold War initiatives
          1. Peace Corps
          2. Space race; call for moon landing
          3. Alliance for Progress
        2. Bay of Pigs fiasco
        3. Berlin crisis; construction of Berlin Wall
        4. Cuban missile crisis
          1. Narrative
            1. Discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba
            2. U.S. "quarantine" of Cuba
            3. Soviet withdrawal of missiles
          2. Significance and aftermath
            1. Imminence of nuclear war
            2. Sobering effect on JFK; American University speech
            3. Nuclear test ban treaty
      3. JFK and civil rights
        1. Initial disengagement
        2. Growing support
      4. Assassination of JFK
        1. Shock to nation
        2. Succession of Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) to presidency
    3. The Johnson presidency
      1. LBJ
        1. Personal background
        2. New Deal outlook
      2. Civil rights under LBJ
        1. Civil Rights Act
          1. Support from LBJ
          2. Provisions
        2. Voter registration drive in Mississippi: Freedom Summer
          1. Concerted civil rights initiative
          2. Influx of white college students
          3. Violent reception
            1. Bombings, beatings
            2. Murder of three activists
            3. Widespread revulsion over
        3. Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
          1. Crusade for representation at Democratic convention
          2. Fannie Lou Hamer
          3. Bitterness over Democrats' response
        4. Voting Rights Act
          1. Background
            1. Selma-to-Montgomery march
            2. LBJ address to Congress
          2. Provisions
        5. Twenty-Fourth Amendment
        6. Immigration reform: Hart-Cellar Act
          1. Links to civil rights reform
          2. Provisions
          3. Long-term consequences
      3. 1964 election
        1. Right-wing views of Republican Barry Goldwater
        2. Emergence of Sixties conservatism
          1. Young Americans for Freedom
            1. Sharon Statement
            2. Ideas
            3. Prominence in Barry Goldwater's 1964 campaign
          2. New conservative constituencies
            1. Expanding suburbs of southern California, Southwest
            2. Sun Belt entrepreneurs
            3. Deep South whites
          3. Racial overtones of conservative appeal
        3. LBJ's landslide reelection victory
        4. Seeds of conservative resurgence
      4. Great Society
        1. Goals and philosophies
          1. Government action to promote general welfare
          2. Fulfillment and expansion of New Deal agenda
          3. Eradication of poverty
          4. Broadening of opportunity
          5. Lessening of inequality
          6. New conception of freedom
        2. Key measures
          1. Medicaid and Medicare
          2. Increased funding for education, urban development
          3. Increased funding for the arts, humanities, public broadcasting
        3. War on Poverty
          1. Outlook
            1. Influence of Michael Harrington's The Other America
            2. Emphasis on fostering skills, work habits
            3. De-emphasis on direct aid, structural remedies
            4. Input of poor into local programs
          2. Key measures
            1. Food stamps
            2. Office of Economic Opportunity initiatives
        4. Achievements
          1. Affirmation of social citizenship
          2. Substantial reduction of poverty
        5. Limitations
          1. Inadequate funding
          2. Long-term persistence of poverty, inequality
    4. Evolution of black movement
      1. Emerging challenges to civil rights movement
        1. Persistence of racial inequality and injustice, North and South
        2. Diverging perspectives of whites and blacks on racial issues
        3. Ghetto uprisings around nation
          1. Leading episodes: Harlem, Watts, Newark, Detroit
          2. Kerner Report
      2. Growing attention to economic issues
        1. King's "Bill of Rights for the Disadvantaged"
        2. A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin's Freedom Budget
        3. King's Chicago Freedom Movement
          1. Demands
          2. Mayor Richard J. Daley's political machine
          3. Ineffectiveness of mass protest tactics
          4. Radicalization of King
      3. Malcolm X
        1. Background
        2. Black Muslims
        3. Message
          1. Black self-determination
          2. Rejection of integration, nonviolence
        4. Assassination
        5. Legacy
          1. Lack of consistent ideology or coherent movement
          2. Enduring appeal of call for black self-reliance
      4. Black Power
        1. Introduction by Stokely Carmichael
        2. Imprecision and multiplicity of meanings
        3. Resonance among militant youth
        4. Place in wider spirit of self-assertion; "black is beautiful"
        5. Militant directions of SNCC, CORE
        6. Black Panther Party
          1. Emergence
          2. Demands and programs
          3. Demise
            1. Internal divisions
            2. Assault by government
    5. Birth of New Left
      1. Arena: college campuses
      2. Following: white middle-class youth
      3. Spirit and ideology
        1. Departure from Old Left and New Deal liberal models
        2. Aspects of postwar society brought under challenge
          1. Personal alienation
          2. Social and political conformity
          3. Bureaucratization
          4. Corporate, Cold War outlook of American institutions
          5. Material acquisitiveness
          6. Social and economic inequality
          7. Gulfs between national values and realities
        3. Visions and inspirations
          1. "Authenticity"
          2. "Participatory democracy"
          3. Black freedom struggle
      4. Key moments
        1. Influential social critiques
          1. James Baldwin's The Fire Next Time
          2. Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
          3. Michael Harrington's The Other America
          4. Jane Jacobs' The Death and Life of Great American Cities
        2. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
          1. Emergence and growth
          2. Port Huron Statement
        3. Free Speech Movement at Berkeley
    6. War in Vietnam
      1. America's growing involvement (pre-LBJ)
        1. Outlook of policymakers
          1. Cold War assumptions
          2. Ignorance of Vietnamese history, culture
          3. Fear of "losing" Vietnam
        2. Key developments
          1. Defeat of French colonialism
          2. Fostering of Ngo Dinh Diem regime in South Vietnam
          3. Dispatch of counter-insurgency "advisers"
          4. Collapse of Diem regime; U.S.-backed coup
      2. Johnson's war
        1. LBJ's initial outlook
        2. Escalation
          1. Gulf of Tonkin resolution
          2. Initiation of air strikes
          3. Introduction of ground troops
          4. Increasing magnitude of troop presence, bombing
        3. Brutality
          1. Bombing
          2. Chemical defoliation, napalm
          3. "Search and destroy" missions; "body counts"
        4. Lack of progress
          1. Resilience of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces
          2. Failings of South Vietnamese government
      3. Opposition at home
        1. Emerging critiques
        2. Antiwar movement
          1. Early stirrings
            1. SDS rallies
            2. Themes
          2. Growth
            1. Draft resistance
            2. 1967 Washington rally
    7. Wider currents of dissent
      1. Counterculture
        1. Spread among youth
          1. College students
          2. Working class
        2. Spirit and vision
          1. Rejection of mainstream values
          2. Challenge to authority
          3. Community, creativity, pleasure over pursuit of wealth
          4. Cultural "liberation"
          5. "Sexual revolution"
        3. Symbols and manifestations
          1. Physical appearance, fashion
          2. "Sex, drugs, rock and roll"
          3. Be-Ins
            1. Timothy Leary; LSD
            2. "Turn on, tune in, drop out"
          4. New forms of radical action
            1. Underground newspapers
            2. Youth International Party ("Yippies")
          5. Communes
          6. Rock festivals; Woodstock
          7. Hair
      2. Reawakening of feminism
        1. Status of women at outset of 1960s
          1. Legal subordination
          2. Barriers to power, opportunity
        2. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique
        3. Steps toward equal rights
          1. Equal Pay Act
          2. Civil Rights Act of 1964
          3. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
          4. Founding of National Organization for Women
            1. Range of demands
            2. Middle-class character
        4. Rise of "women's liberation"
          1. Roots in civil rights and student movements
            1. Inspiration of movements' ideals
            2. Indignation against movements' inequalities
          2. Key initiatives
            1. Protests within SNCC, SDS
            2. "Consciousness-raising" groups
            3. Miss America beauty pageant protest
          3. Impact on public consciousness
            1. Expansion of idea of freedom
            2. Introduction of "sexism," "sexual politics," "the personal is political"
          4. Campaigns and demands
            1. Abortion rights; reproductive freedom
            2. Wide-ranging issues; Sisterhood is Powerful
        5. Growing acceptance of feminist ideas
      3. Rise of gay liberation
        1. Traditional oppression of gays
          1. Legal and cultural stigmatization
          2. Harassment of gay subcultures
        2. Stonewall revolt
        3. Emergence of militant movement
          1. "Out of the closet"
          2. Gay pride marches
      4. Latino activism
        1. Chicano pride movement
        2. United Farm Workers
          1. Cesar Chavez
          2. Blend of civil rights and labor struggles
          3. Grape strike, boycott
        3. Young Lords Organization (New York)
        4. Feminist current
      5. Indian militancy
        1. Background: shifting Indian policies of postwar administrations
        2. Demands
          1. Material aid
          2. Self-determination
        3. Initiatives
          1. Founding of American Indian Movement
          2. Occupation of Alcatraz; Red Power movement
        4. Impact
      6. New environmentalism
        1. Themes
          1. Critique of prevailing notions of progress, social welfare
          2. Activist, youth-oriented style
          3. Language of citizen empowerment
        2. Initiatives
          1. Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
          2. Campaign to ban DDT
          3. Expanding range of causes, organizations
        3. Progress
          1. Bipartisan appeal
          2. Clean Air and Clean Water Acts
          3. Endangered Species Act
          4. Inauguration of Earth Day
      7. Consumer activism
        1. Ralph Nader
          1. Unsafe at Any Speed
          2. Subsequent investigations
        2. Spread of consumer protection laws, regulations
    8. Rights revolution under Warren Court
      1. Warren Court
      2. Reaffirmation of civil liberties
        1. Curtailing of McCarthyite persecution
        2. Intertwining of civil liberties and civil rights
          1. NAACP v. Alabama
          2. New York Times v. Sullivan
          3. Loving v. Virginia
          4. Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
        3. Imposition of Bill of Rights protections on states
          1. Bars on illegal search and seizure, cruel and unusual punishment
          2. Right of defendant to speedy trial, legal representation
          3. Miranda v. Arizona
      3. Political reapportionment: Baker v. Carr
      4. Reinforcement of separation of church and state
      5. Establishment of right to privacy
        1. Griswold v. Connecticut
        2. Roe v. Wade
          1. Implications for women's rights
          2. Source of ongoing controversy
    9. 1968: climax of Sixties turmoil
      1. Momentous events around nation
        1. Tet offensive; repercussions at home
        2. Eugene McCarthy's challenge to LBJ for nomination
          1. New Hampshire primary
          2. Withdrawal of LBJ
        3. Assassination of King; subsequent urban unrest
        4. Student revolt at Columbia University
        5. Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy
        6. Antiwar protests, police riot at Chicago Democratic convention
      2. Momentous events around the world
        1. Worker-student uprising in France
        2. Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia
        3. Killing of student protesters at Mexico City Olympics
      3. Comeback of Richard Nixon
        1. Stages
          1. Attainment of Republican nomination
          2. Narrow election victory over Hubert Humphrey
          3. Independent campaign of George Wallace
        2. Sources
          1. Conservative backlash
          2. Resonance of appeals to "silent majority," "law and order"

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Triumph of Conservatism, 1969–1988

    1. Nixon years
      1. Sporadic conservatism of President Richard Nixon
      2. Nixon's domestic policy
        1. Liberal side
          1. New regulatory agencies
            1. Environmental Protection Agency
            2. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
            3. National Transportation Safety Board
          2. Lavish spending on social services
          3. Environmental protection legislation
            1. Endangered Species Act
            2. Clean Air Act
          4. Family Assistance Plan
          5. Promotion of affirmative action: Philadelphia Plan
        2. Conservative side
          1. New Federalism: "block grants" to states
          2. Nomination of jurists with segregationist pasts to Supreme Court
          3. Abandonment of Philadelphia Plan; courting of working-class whites
      3. Racial policy and the Burger Court
        1. Burger Court
          1. Appointment of Chief Justice Warren Burger by Nixon
          2. Burger's surprisingly moderate tenure
        2. Rulings on school desegregation measures
          1. Approval
            1. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
            2. Subsequent spread of court-ordered busing plans
            3. Local controversies; Boston crisis
          2. Limits on extent: Milliken v. Bradley
        3. Rulings on affirmative action
          1. Background on affirmative action
          2. Approval
            1. Griggs v. Duke Power Company
            2. United Steelworkers of America v. Weber
          3. Mixed: Bakke v. University of California
            1. Rejection of racial quotas, approval of consideration of race
            2. Ambiguous legacy
      4. Mainstream acceptance of sexual revolution
        1. Premarital sex
        2. Rising divorce rate
        3. Declining birth rate
      5. Expanding opportunities for women
        1. Title IX
        2. Equal Credit Opportunity Act
        3. Influx of women into workforce
          1. Professional
          2. Pink collar
      6. Strides of gay and lesbian movement
        1. Growing political presence
        2. Gay rights measures
        3. Coming out
      7. The Seventies as "me decade"
      8. Nixon's foreign policy
        1. Hard-line side
          1. Support for pro-U.S. dictatorships
          2. Chilean coup
            1. U.S. role
            2. Brutal outcome
        2. "Realist" side
          1. New approach to communist powers
            1. Break from monolithic conception
            2. Pursuit of "peaceful coexistence"; "détente"
          2. China initiative
            1. Nixon visit
            2. Broadening of diplomatic and trade relations
          3. Soviet Union initiative
            1. Nixon visit
            2. Trade agreements
            3. Arms control treaties: SALT, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
      9. Vietnam
        1. Nixon initiatives
          1. "Secret plan"
          2. "Vietnamization"
          3. Invasion of Cambodia
        2. Swelling of antiwar sentiment
          1. Indications
            1. Magnitude of campus protest
            2. Social breadth of protest
            3. Spread of alienation among troops
            4. War Powers Act
          2. Contributing factors
            1. Killings at Kent State, Jackson State
            2. Revelations of My Lai massacre
            3. Publication of Pentagon Papers
        3. Winding down of war
          1. Paris peace agreement
            1. Provisions
            2. Unresolved issues
          2. Collapse of South Vietnam
      10. Nixon's landslide reelection over George McGovern
      11. Watergate and fall of Nixon
        1. Background: Nixon's obsession with secrecy, thwarting opposition
          1. "Enemies list"
          2. Pattern of illegal actions
            1. Wiretapping, break-ins, political sabotage
            2. "Plumbers": Ellsberg break-in
        2. Watergate break-in
        3. White House cover-up
        4. Unraveling of cover-up
          1. Trial of burglars
          2. Investigative journalism
          3. Congressional hearings
          4. Special prosecutor
          5. Revelations of White House tapes
          6. Supreme Court ruling on tapes
        5. House Judiciary Committee call for impeachment
        6. Resignation of Nixon
        7. Significance and aftermath
          1. Convictions, imprisonment of top administration figures
          2. Measures to address government abuse of power
            1. Church Committee hearings
            2. Congressional restrictions on FBI, CIA
            3. Freedom of Information Act
          3. Corrosion of public faith in government, liberal outlook
    2. End of Golden Age
      1. Economic slowdown
        1. Indications
          1. Decline of manufacturing
          2. Slow growth rate
          3. Inflation
          4. Trade deficit
          5. Federal deficit
          6. Unemployment
          7. Interest rates
          8. "Stagflation"; "misery index"
        2. Causes
          1. Competition from foreign manufacture
          2. Cost of Vietnam War
          3. Surge in oil prices
            1. 1973 Middle East war
            2. Oil embargo
            3. "Oil shocks" in America
            4. Growth of western energy production
        3. Nixon economic responses
          1. United States off gold standard
          2. Wage and price controls
      2. Social impact on industrial areas
        1. New hardships
          1. Accelerated decline of manufacturing jobs; shift to lowerpaying service jobs
          2. Decline of public services
          3. Rise in poverty rate
          4. Weakening and shrinking of labor movement
        2. New opportunities
          1. Growth of Sunbelt
          2. Remaking of city centers
      3. Ford years
        1. Gerald Ford's ascension to presidency
        2. Domestic record
          1. Nixon pardon
          2. Anti-inflation campaign
          3. Economic recession; rise in unemployment
        3. Foreign policy record: Helsinki Accord
      4. Carter years
        1. Jimmy Carter
          1. Background
          2. Reputation for honesty, piety; "outsider" status
          3. Political orientation
            1. Shades of old "Progressive" approach
            2. Embrace of black aspirations
          4. Electoral victory over Ford
        2. Domestic record
          1. Conservative economic approach
            1. Elements: spending cuts, deregulation, higher interest rates
            2. Conflict with Congress over
            3. Persistence of inflation
          2. Call for expanded use of nuclear energy
            1. Argument for
            2. Impact of Three Mile Island
          3. "Crisis of confidence" speech
        3. Foreign policy record
          1. Humanitarian philosophy
            1. De-emphasis of Cold War thinking
            2. Emphasis on Third World poverty, nuclear proliferation, human rights
          2. Manifestations of humanitarian philosophy
            1. Camp David accord
            2. Panama Canal treaty
            3. Limits on support for Central American dictators (Nicaragua, El Salvador)
            4. SALT II agreement
          3. Limits of humanitarian philosophy
            1. Continuation of international arms sales
            2. Continued support for repressive allies
        4. Iran crisis
          1. Background
            1. Iran's strategic importance to United States
            2. American support for repressive Shah
          2. Iranian revolution
            1. Islamic fundamentalism; Ayatollah Khomeini
            2. Anti-American spirit
          3. Seizing of American hostages
          4. Plunging popularity of Carter
        5. Afghanistan crisis
          1. Soviet invasion
          2. Carter response
            1. Announcement of Carter Doctrine
            2. Grain embargo
            3. Olympic boycott
            4. Withdrawal of SALT II treaty
            5. Boost in military spending
            6. Aid to Afghan resistance
        6. Carter's conservative legacy
          1. Domestic policy
          2. Foreign policy
    3. Rising tide of conservatism
      1. Context
        1. Economic problems
        2. International crises
        3. Civil rights and sexual revolutions
        4. Rising crime rates
      2. Currents
        1. "Neo-conservatives"
          1. Aims
            1. Curtailment of domestic programs
            2. Renewal of Cold War foreign policy
          2. Think tanks
        2. Religious Right
          1. Popular base
          2. Aims
            1. Promotion of "Christian values"
            2. Opposition to "sexual revolution"
          3. Mobilization
            1. Modern means of spreading message
            2. Jerry Falwell, Moral Majority
      3. Crusades
        1. Against gay rights
          1. Anita Bryant
          2. Save Our Children
        2. Against Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
          1. Origins of ERA
          2. Approval by Congress
          3. Ratification battles
            1. Themes of opposition
            2. Phyllis Schlafly
          4. Outcome: final defeat of ERA
        3. Against abortion rights
          1. Targeting of Roe v. Wade
          2. "Right to life" vs. "right to choose"
          3. Points of conflict
            1. Roe v. Wade
            2. Judicial nominations
            3. Public funding of abortions
            4. Demonstrations, violence against abortion providers
          4. Outcomes
            1. Continuing legality of abortion
            2. Impact of intimidation
        4. Against taxes
          1. Background: mounting resentment of government intervention, tax burden
          2. Proposition 13 (California)
            1. Passage
            2. Material effects in California
            3. Political repercussions around nation
        5. Against federal regulation of western lands; Sagebrush Rebellion
      4. Election of 1980
        1. Backdrop: conservative tide across Western world
        2. Campaign of Ronald Reagan
          1. Breadth of conservative themes
          2. Ability to galvanize and broaden conservative base
        3. Reagan landslide victory
        4. Carter's historical reputation
          1. As president
          2. As former president
    4. Reagan revolution
      1. Background on Reagan
        1. Political evolution
        2. Political skills
      2. Impact on national agenda, discourse on "freedom"
      3. Economic program ("Reaganomics")
        1. Philosophy
          1. Theory of "supply side" ("trickle-down") economics
          2. Retreat from principle of progressive taxation
          3. Hostility to government regulation, union power
        2. Key initiatives
          1. Drastic reductions in federal taxes and top tax rates
          2. Dismantling of regulation
            1. Cutbacks on regulatory agencies
            2. Appointment of pro-business regulators
          3. Dismissal of striking air traffic controllers (PATCO)
      4. Economic trends under Reagan
        1. Harsh recession, then prolonged expansion
        2. Strengths
          1. Robust stock market
          2. Low inflation
          3. High profits
          4. Technological advances
        3. Down-sides
          1. Weakening of labor movement
          2. Ongoing decline in manufacturing
          3. "Downsizing"
          4. Rising economic inequality
          5. Middle-class stagnation, hardships for working-class minorities and poor
          6. Emphasis on corporate deal making over production
          7. Reckless financial speculation; Savings and Loan scandal
          8. Ballooning of budget deficits, national debt
      5. Revival of "Gilded Age" values
        1. Affirmation of "greed"
        2. "Yuppies"
      6. Reagan reelection victory over Walter Mondale
      7. Conservatives' ambivalence over Reagan's domestic program
        1. Areas of approval
          1. Cuts in federal antipoverty efforts
          2. Curtailment of civil rights enforcement, affirmative action
          3. Verbal support for conservative social agenda
            1. Curtailment of abortion, gender equality
            2. Prayer in schools
            3. War on drugs
        2. Areas of disappointment
          1. Unwillingness to undo core elements of welfare state
          2. Limited inclination or ability to advance conservative social agenda
      8. Reinvigoration of Cold War
        1. Philosophy
          1. "Free World" vs. "evil empire"
          2. Commitment to military strength
          3. Impatience with "Vietnam syndrome"
          4. Distinction between "totalitarian" and "authoritarian" regimes
        2. Key initiatives
          1. Arms build-up
          2. Strategic Defense Initiative
          3. Nuclear deployment in Europe
          4. Interventions abroad
            1. Grenada
            2. Libya
            3. Lebanon
          5. Military aid
            1. To pro-U.S. dictators
            2. To pro-U.S. insurgencies
      9. Iran-Contra affair
        1. Features of scandal
          1. Secret sale of arms to Iran
          2. Illegal diversion of proceeds to Nicaraguan Contras
        2. Unraveling of scandal
          1. Press leaks
          2. Congressional hearings
        3. Political fallout
      10. Reagan, Gorbachev, and easing of Cold War
        1. Mikhail Gorbachev
          1. Emergence as Soviet leader
          2. Glasnost, perestroika
        2. United States-Soviet negotiations
          1. Arms control talks, agreements
          2. Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan
      11. Reagan's mixed legacy
        1. Rhetoric of conservative values
        2. Undermining of conservative values
        3. Triumph of conservative assumptions; discrediting of liberalism
      12. Election of 1988
        1. Mudslinging
        2. George H. W. Bush victory over Michael Dukakis

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - Globalization and Its Discontents, 1989–2000

    1. "Globalization" in the late twentieth century
      1. Conceptions of
      2. Emerging controversy over
    2. Post–Cold War world
      1. Crisis of communism and end of Cold War
        1. China
          1. Popular democracy movement
          2. Suppression of protest
        2. Eastern Europe
          1. Popular protest
          2. Soviet nonintervention
          3. Collapse of Communist regimes ("Velvet Revolution")
            1. Germany: removal of Berlin Wall; reunification
            2. Elsewhere
        3. Soviet Union
          1. Economic chaos
          2. National and ethnic tensions
          3. Attempted coup
          4. Dissolution
        4. Implications of Cold War's end
          1. Global prevalence of capitalism, "free market" model
          2. Prospects for spread of democracy
          3. Emergence of United States as uncontested superpower
      2. President George Bush and the New World Order
        1. Uncertain meaning of New World Order
        2. Invasion of Panama
          1. Purposes
          2. Outcome
          3. Controversy over
        3. Gulf War
          1. Background: invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein
          2. Buildup to war
            1. Dispatch of U.S. troops to Gulf region
            2. Debate over prospective war with Iraq
            3. Forging by Bush of multinational coalition
            4. Securing of United Nations authorization
          3. The war: Operation Desert Storm
            1. Prompt U.S. victory; ouster of Iraq from Kuwait
            2. Minimum of American casualties
            3. High death toll for Iraqis
          4. Aftermath
            1. UN sanctions on Iraq
            2. Survival of Hussein regime
            3. Resentment in region over U.S. presence
            4. Surge in Bush's popularity
        4. Competing post–Cold War doctrines
          1. General Colin Powell's vision
          2. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney's vision
      3. Election of 1992
        1. Growing disenchantment with Bush, Republicans
          1. Economic recession
          2. Remoteness of Bush on domestic issues
          3. Pat Buchanan's "cultural war"
        2. Democratic challenger: Bill Clinton
          1. Popular appeal; empathy for economic anxieties
          2. Blend of liberal and conservative approaches
        3. Independent challenger: H. Ross Perot
        4. Clinton victory
      4. Clinton domestic policy, first two years
        1. Departures from Reagan-Bush approach
          1. Cabinet and judicial appointments
          2. Tax policies
          3. Spending plan for infrastructure and job training
        2. Continuities from Reagan-Bush approach
          1. Free trade doctrine
          2. North American Free Trade Agreement
        3. Health care reform initiative
          1. Background
            1. Rising cost of health care
            2. Growing number of uninsured
            3. Limited coverage by Health Maintenance Organizations
          2. Clinton plan
            1. Role of Hillary Rodham Clinton
            2. Provisions
          3. Resistance to plan
            1. Sources
            2. Themes
          4. Outcome
            1. Defeat of plan
            2. Subsequent growth in ranks of uninsured
      5. Republican sweep of 1994
        1. Background: public disenchantment with Clinton
        2. Republican challenge
          1. Leadership of Newt Gingrich
          2. Proposed "Contract With America"
            1. Shrinking of government
            2. Reduction in taxes
            3. Deregulation
            4. Overhaul of welfare
            5. Elimination of affirmative action
        3. Scope of electoral triumph
        4. Gingrich Republicans in power
          1. Implementation of "Contract With America"
          2. Standoff with Clinton; government shutdown
          3. Recoiling of public from Gingrich, "Contract With America"
      6. Clinton's move toward center: "triangulation"
        1. Strategy
          1. Repudiation of "big government"
          2. Co-optation of moderate Republican themes
          3. Rejection of extreme Republican themes
        2. Initiatives
          1. Telecommunications Act
          2. Abolition of federal welfare system
        3. Outcome
          1. Neutralization of Republican challenge
          2. Reelection victory over Bob Dole
          3. Affirmation of mainstream Republican premises
      7. Clinton and world affairs
        1. Agenda
          1. Resolve ongoing global conflicts
          2. Restore emphasis on human rights
        2. Mixed record
          1. Fruitful efforts in Northern Ireland, Haiti
          2. Fruitless efforts in Middle East
          3. Lack of effort in China, Rwanda
        3. Balkan crisis
          1. Background
            1. Disintegration of Yugoslavia
            2. Outbreaks of ethnic conflict, "ethnic cleansing"
          2. U.S./NATO/UN response
            1. Air strikes
            2. Peacekeeping
            3. Kosovo war
        4. Role of human rights in global affairs
          1. Growth of
            1. Principle of intervention in internal affairs
            2. International institutions
            3. Expanding scope of human rights issues
          2. Uncertainty of
      8. Clinton-era boom
        1. Indicators
          1. Low rates of unemployment, inflation
          2. Federal budget: from deficits to surplus
        2. Computer revolution
          1. Key features
            1. Microchip
            2. Variety of computer products
            3. Internet
          2. Areas of impact
            1. Private use
            2. Workplace
            3. Global reach of American culture
          3. Varied perspectives on Internet
            1. Celebration of democratic promise
            2. Concern over inequalities of access
      9. Undersides of the booming Nineties
        1. Economic difficulties in other lands
          1. Advanced countries
            1. Western Europe
            2. Japan
            3. Russia
          2. Third World countries
            1. Trade deficits, foreign debts
            2. Imposition of stringent spending cuts
        2. Stock market bubble
          1. Frenzied, Twenties-style boom
            1. "Dot.coms"
            2. Nasdaq
          2. Bust
            1. Timing and scale
            2. Impact
        3. Corporate greed and fraud ("Enron syndrome")
          1. After the turn of the century, surfacing of
            1. Torrent of revelations
            2. Scope of misdeeds
            3. Corporate crime and punishment
          2. Deregulation as contributing factor
        4. Rising inequality
          1. General economic improvement for Americans
          2. Widening gap between richest and poorest Americans
          3. Sources of working-class hardship
            1. Export of manufacturing jobs abroad
            2. Shift from high-paying to low-paying jobs
          4. Urban and rural dimensions of poverty
          5. The new American suburbs
            1. As self-contained economies
            2. Increasing heterogeneity of
            3. Persisting class divisions within
    3. Culture Wars
      1. Post–Cold War renewal of ethnic and religious divisions
        1. Around world
        2. In America
      2. New patterns of immigration
        1. Shift in geographic origins
        2. Record numbers
        3. Emergence of new ethnic communities
        4. Diversification of American heartland
        5. Range of occupations, social backgrounds
        6. Predominance of women
      3. New diversity
        1. Latinos
          1. Emergence as largest immigrant group
          2. Variety of national origins
          3. Growing impact on American life
          4. Compression in low-wage sector
        2. Asian-Americans
          1. Growing presence
          2. Variety of national origins
          3. Socioeconomic status
            1. Overall progress
            2. Polarization between prosperous and poor
        3. Outdatedness of two-race ("black-white") dichotomy
        4. Rise of multiracial culture
        5. Prospect of growing diversity in new century
      4. African-Americans in the 1990s
        1. Progress
          1. Unprecedented strides
            1. Occupational
            2. Educational
          2. Sources of
            1. Decline in overt discrimination
            2. Affirmative action
            3. Economic boom
        2. Growing presence of African immigrants in black America
        3. Problems
          1. Continuing socioeconomic lag
            1. Employment
            2. Income
            3. Incidence of poverty
            4. Quality of schooling
            5. Other measures
          2. Persistence of segregation
            1. Housing
            2. School
          3. Trend of judicial rulings
            1. On relief from racial discrimination
            2. On affirmative action
            3. On school desegregation
          4. Prominence in expanding prison population
            1. Rise of "prison-industrial complex"
            2. Consequences for black America
          5. Blacks and death penalty
      5. Los Angeles uprising
        1. Causes
          1. Rodney King episode
          2. Accumulating grievances of urban minorities
        2. Magnitude
      6. Continuing rights revolution
        1. Emerging movement for rights of disabled; Americans With Disabilities Act
        2. Gay movement
          1. Rising focus on Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
          2. Increasing presence in politics
          3. Growing public acceptance
        3. American Indian movement
          1. Growth in Indian population, cultural pride
          2. Pursuit of restitution for past injustices
          3. Quasi-sovereign legal status of some tribes
          4. Prosperous Indian casinos
      7. Cultural conservatism
        1. Key grievances
          1. "Identity politics," multiculturalism
          2. Influx of nonwhite immigrants
          3. Decline of "family values"
        2. Key manifestations
          1. Passage of California propositions
            1. Denial of public services to illegal immigrants
            2. Bars on bilingual education, affirmative action
          2. Denial of food stamps to noncitizens
          3. Publication of nativist works
          4. Creationist campaigns
          5. Assault on National Endowment for the Arts
          6. Defense of Marriage Act
          7. Other crusades
        3. Key voices
          1. Pat Robertson, Christian Coalition
          2. Pat Buchanan
      8. "Family values" in retreat
        1. Decline of "traditional" family
        2. Supreme Court affirmation of abortion rights: Casey v. Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania
        3. Persistence of sexual revolution, feminism
      9. Right-wing extremism
        1. Armed groups: Aryan Nation, Posse Comitatus, others
        2. Racist, anti-Semitic, antigovernment outlook
        3. Oklahoma City bombing
          1. Bloodshed
          2. Conviction, execution of Timothy McVeigh
          3. Impact on national consciousness
    4. Impeachment and election of 2000
      1. Impeachment of Clinton
        1. Background
          1. Republican animosity toward Clinton
          2. Clinton's reckless behavior
        2. Allegations and investigations
          1. Whitewater
          2. Paula Jones
          3. Monica Lewinsky
        3. Kenneth Starr report
        4. House of Representatives impeachment vote
        5. Trial and acquittal in Senate
        6. Public aversion to Starr investigation, impeachment
      2. Election of 2000
        1. Competing tickets
          1. Al Gore and Joseph Lieberman (Democrat)
          2. George W. Bush and Dick Cheney (Republican)
        2. Contested vote
          1. Popular majority for Gore
          2. Florida controversy
            1. Pivotal role in electoral outcome
            2. Disputed results
            3. State Supreme Court recount order
          3. U.S. Supreme Court's Bush v. Gore ruling
            1. Consequence: Bush victory
            2. Court's reasoning
        3. Noteworthy aspects
          1. Evenness of partisan division
          2. Lines of partisan division
            1. Geographical
            2. Urban/ rural
            3. Racial
            4. Gender
          3. Troubling features
            1. Clash between popular and electoral outcomes
            2. Failings of voting technology
            3. Dominant role of big money contributors
            4. Low turnout
            5. Neglect of major issues
    5. Freedom and the new century
      1. Balance sheet of human progress and tragedy in twentieth century
        1. Around world
        2. In America
      2. "Freedom" at close of century
        1. Importance to Americans
        2. Distinctive meanings for Americans
        3. Ambiguous meanings for Americans

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - September 11 and the Next American Century

    1. September 11, 2001
      1. The attacks
        1. Death tolls
        2. Trauma
          1. To New York City
          2. To the country
      2. The perpetrators: Osama bin Laden, Al Qaeda
        1. Bin Laden background
        2. Outlook and agenda
        3. Mode of operation
      3. Terrorism
        1. Instances in American past
        2. Late-twentieth-century episodes
          1. Hijacking of Achille Lauro
          2. Downing of Pan American flight 103
          3. 1993 bombing at World Trade Center
        3. Explosions at U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania
      4. Post–September 11 atmosphere in nation
        1. Wave of fear
        2. Renewed passion for freedom
        3. Fresh attention to old questions
          1. America's global role
          2. Balance between liberty and security
          3. Breadth of American freedom
    2. President George W. Bush before September 11
      1. Domestic policy
        1. Campaign rhetoric of "compassionate conservatism"
        2. Staunch conservative agenda from outset of presidency
          1. Fiscal
            1. Record-size tax cut, geared toward the wealthy
            2. Revival of "supply-side" theory
          2. Environmental
        3. Jim Jeffords defection from Republican party; restoration of Democratic Senate majority
      2. Foreign policy
        1. Insistence on American freedom from international treaties, institutions
          1. Pursuit of national missile defense system; withdrawal from Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty
          2. Repudiation of International Criminal Court treaty
          3. Rejection of Kyoto treaty on global warming
            1. Global warming problem
            2. Growing scientific confirmation of problem
            3. Contribution of United States to global warming
            4. Worldwide support for treaty
        2. Furious response around world
    3. "War on terrorism"
      1. Public mood following September 11
        1. Outpouring of patriotism, collective sympathy and resolve
        2. Renewal of trust in government
        3. Surge in popularity of Bush
      2. Unveiling of Bush Doctrine: September 20 address to Congress
        1. Freedom as rallying cry
        2. "War on terrorism"
          1. Vagueness of enemy or scenario for victory
          2. Absence of line between terrorists and governments harboring them
          3. Absence of middle ground
      3. War in Afghanistan
        1. Lead-up: refusal of Taliban government to surrender bin Laden to United States
        2. American airstrikes, Northern Alliance ground combat
        3. Fall of Taliban government
        4. Fragility of new government
        5. Escape of bin Laden and supporters
        6. Characterization by Bush as only start of war on terrorism
        7. Longer-term outcomes
          1. Gradual reemergence of Taliban presence
          2. Ongoing U.S. troop presence
      4. Expansion of U.S. military presence around world
      5. Dramatic departures in American foreign policy
        1. Bush's identification of "axis of evil" (Iraq, Iran, North Korea)
        2. National Security Strategy document
          1. Definition of freedom
          2. Pledge to fight terrorists and tyrants around world
          3. Insistence on global military dominance
        3. Adoption of "preemptive" war doctrine
      6. World reaction: from post–September 11 sympathy to mounting alarm
        1. Breadth of criticism
        2. Themes of criticism
      7. Indicators of American imperial aspirations
        1. Colossal military expenditures
        2. Rehabilitation of "empire" in public discourse
    4. Iraq War
      1. Lead-up to war
        1. Pre-Bush administration
          1. Survival of Saddam Hussein regime following Gulf War of 1991
          2. Ongoing tensions with United Nations and United States in 1990s
        2. Bush administration's push toward war
          1. Pre–September 11
            1. Early advocates of "regime change"
            2. Military strategizing for ouster of Hussein
            3. Visions of warm reception from "liberated" Iraqis
          2. Post–September 11
            1. Adoption and announcement of "regime change" policy
            2. Arguments made in defense of "regime change" policy
            3. Credulity of American media
            4. Promotion, then dismissal, of intensified UN inspections for weapons of mass destruction in Iraq
            5. Secretary of State Colin Powell's presentation of "evidence" at UN
            6. Announcement of intention to go to war, regardless of UN position
        3. Mounting opposition to a "preemptive" war
          1. Sources
            1. Antiwar movements in United States and beyond
            2. Foreign policy "realists"
            3. Nations around world
          2. Themes
          3. UN refusal to approve
      2. The war
        1. Initial sense of triumph
          1. Rapid fall of Hussein regime
          2. American occupation
          3. Capture of Hussein
          4. Bush: "Mission Accomplished"
        2. Growing signs of crisis
          1. Looting and chaos
          2. Gathering insurgency against occupation
          3. Wave of sectarian violence
          4. Elusiveness of viable government
          5. Emergence of Iraq as haven for terrorists
        3. Longer-term crisis
          1. Descent into civil war
          2. Death tolls
            1. American
            2. Iraqi
          3. Financial cost to United States
        4. Comparisons with Vietnam
      3. Significance of war for American foreign policy
        1. Extraordinary use of unilateral force outside Western Hemisphere
        2. Unprecedented occupation of Middle East nation
      4. Reaction to the war
        1. In America
          1. Initial popularity
          2. Growing skepticism
          3. Expanding opposition
        2. Around world
          1. Broad outrage
          2. Straining of UN, Western alliance
    5. Constraining liberty in the name of security
      1. At home
        1. Government measures
          1. USA PATRIOT Act
            1. Conferring of vast new powers on law enforcement agencies
            2. New crime category of "domestic terrorism"
          2. Mass roundups, indefinite detention of Middle Eastern foreigners
          3. Detention of suspected terrorists abroad; Guantanamo
          4. Establishment of Department of Homeland Security
          5. Authorization of secret military tribunals for noncitizens
          6. Authorization of indefinite detention of U.S. citizens deemed "enemy combatants"
          7. Warnings not to criticize administration policies
          8. Rescinding of 1970s-era restraints on police and surveillance activities
        2. Presidential disregard for legal and constitutional constraints
        3. Public reaction
          1. Acceptance of some contraction of liberties
          2. Concern over historical fragility of American rights
            1. Civil liberties
            2. Equality before the law
      2. Abroad
        1. Bush administration impatience with Geneva Convention, International Convention Against Torture
        2. The torture controversy
          1. Over legitimacy of torture
          2. Over definition of torture
        3. Government measures
          1. Denial to "unlawful combatants" of Geneva protections
          2. Establishment of CIA jails in foreign countries
          3. "Rendition"
        4. Revelations of prisoner abuse in Afghanistan, Abu Ghraib, and Guantanamo
        5. Congressional ban on torture
          1. Enactment of
          2. Bush's grudging acceptance of
    6. Republican gains in 2002 elections
    7. The economy under Bush
      1. Economic trends
        1. Resumption of growth
        2. Continued declines in jobs, wages, benefits
          1. Magnitude and location of
          2. Social distribution of
        3. Widening of economic inequality
          1. Degree
          2. Causes
        4. Explosion of budget deficits
          1. Magnitude
            1. Federal level
            2. State level
          2. Causes
            1. Faltering economy
            2. Increased military spending
            3. 2001 tax cuts
          3. Impact: drastic cuts in social programs
          4. Bush response
            1. Support for low interest rates
            2. Further tax cuts
    8. Election of 2004
      1. Candidacy of John Kerry
        1. Expectations for
        2. Limitations of
      2. Reelection campaign of George W. Bush
      3. Bush's narrow victory
      4. Causes and significance of outcome
    9. Bush's second term
      1. Inaugural vow to "end tyranny in the world"
      2. Steady erosion of Bush's standing
        1. Falling support for Iraq war
        2. Republican corruption scandals
          1. In White House
          2. In Congress
      3. Failure of Social Security "reform" initiative
    10. Hurricane Katrina
      1. Arrival
        1. Destruction of levees
        2. Flooding of New Orleans
      2. Inept response by government
        1. Local level
        2. Federal level
          1. Federal Emergency Management Agency
          2. President Bush
      3. New Orleans disaster
        1. Mass abandonment of blacks, poor
        2. Death toll
        3. Physical damage
        4. Displacement
      4. Public response to disaster
        1. Relief efforts
          1. Private
          2. Other states
        2. Shame over marginalization of blacks, poor
      5. Impact on oil prices
    11. Immigration debate
      1. Background
        1. Recent swelling of Hispanic immigration
        2. Spread of new immigrants throughout American heartland
        3. Blend of legal and undocumented immigrants
      2. Response to immigration
        1. History of public debate and government policy
        2. 2006 House of Representatives bill to suppress illegal immigration
      3. 2006 immigrant rights movement
        1. Mass demonstrations across country
        2. Grievances and demands
        3. Popular reaction
      4. Policy stalemate
    12. Supreme Court brakes on conservative agenda
      1. Upholding of affirmative action
      2. Overturning of decision making homosexual acts a crime
      3. Reassertion of legal rights for prisoners in American custody
        1. Key cases
          1. Rasul v. Bush
          2. Hamdi v. Rumsfeld
          3. Hamdan v. Rumsfeld
        2. Significance
          1. Rebuff of presidential defiance of legal and constitutional constraints
          2. Reaffirmation of rule of law, separation of powers
    13. America in the early twenty-first century
      1. Instabilities around the world
      2. Ongoing debate over meanings of American freedom

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Out of Many, 3rd Edition Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the Out of Many, 3rd edition textbook. These Out of Many notes and outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1038 pages
    • Publisher: Prentice Hall College Div; 3 Sub edition (June 15, 1999)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0139497609
    • ISBN-13: 978-0139497605

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - A Continent of Villages

    Who Are the Indian People?
    • More than 2000 distinct cultures
    • At one point there was thought to have been decedents of Greeks, Chinese
    • Enrico Martin thought there was a land bridge of Pacific side of the continent
    Migration From Asia
    • Natives from Americas some 25,000-30,000 years ago
    • Common dental pattern in Asia and America from that period
    • O Blood type-Asians have all three
    • Need at least 25,000 years to develop a distinct language
    • Used the Beringia Land Bridge
    Clovis: The First American Technology
    • Earliest North American tools were similar to Old World tools
    • 2000 years ago there was a new tech in North America (Clovis)
    • Developed Clovis to feed growing population
    • Clovis users were mobile communities of around 30 people
    • Hunters drove animals into bogs, then killed with Clovis spear points
    Regional Cultures
    • Change in climate (glaciers)
    • No giant continental climate
    • Learned to adapt to their own regions
    Hunting Traditions
    • Big game died after climate change
    • Combined with Pleistocene overkill
    • FNP then concentrated on buffalo
    To Hunt Buffalo they invented Folsom pointes
    • Can throw quickly
    • Range of 100 yards
    • Lighter but deadlier than Clovis
    • Wooden throwers
    • FNP were on the way to developing a diverse diet
    • Head smashed in was very complicated in planning
    • Pemmican was used to preserved buffalo meat
    Second Invasion from Asia
    • NaDene, ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches
    • Glaciers once blocked path but now melted
    Third Invasion from Asia
    • Inuit crossed in boats
    Desert Culture in North America
    • Archaic Period
    • 10,000 years ago
    • Desert foraging
    • Hunting and gathering
    • Desert culture was based on the pursuit of small game and foraging
    • Social equality as they had to move = few possessions
    • Forest Culture
    • Forest efficiency = use all the tree
    • Burned forests to stimulate berry plants
    • Became permanent = Different roles in society
    • The Development of Farming
    Different crops, different areas
    • Potatoes fueled expansion fueled European expansion
    • Rubber and cotton fueled European industry
    • Productive plants = less land
    • Led to specialists
    • Wealth was concentrated in a few hands
    • Warfare and religion developed
    Technochitalan (not the Aztec City)
    • 200,000 people
    • Center of a trade empire
    • Mayans advanced writing and calendar
    • Aztecs became an Imperial power
    The Resisted Revolution
    • No farming revolution, it was a long evolution
    • Nomadic peoples had vast knowledge of plants
    • They ignored farming not cause they were dumb
    • Foragers consider their lifestyles to be superior
    • They were not devastated by famine
    • Can adapt better to changes in environment
    • With widespread food like salmon farming, agriculture would be as waste of time
     
    Social Complexity
    • More people = tribes
    • Chief was the leader of the biggest clan, and the leaders of the smaller clans were his advisers
    • Rulers were to supervise the economy
    • No one owned land the concept was not present
    • Land was a common resource-goes back to the foraging days
    • Strict division of labor in foraging
    • Men were hunters, women were homemakers
    • In farms both female and males farmed the land
    • Marriage was weak
    Religion
    • Hunting Tradition
    • Relationship between hunters and prey
    • Used simple shamans
    • Agrarian Tradition
    • Fertility and seasons
    • Groups of priests
    • Pantheism-a kinship with all animals
     
    Early Farmers in the South West
    • Farmed maize and corn
    The Anasazis (Pueblo people)
    • Best known farmers
    • Were found in Utah, New Mexico, Colarada, and Arizona
    • Population pressures forced them to build apartments
    • Bow and arrow was used to supplement farming
    • Pueblo Bonito, was the center of the nation
    • Road and town communications-mountain signaling
    • Had irrigation systems to combat drought
    • Driven out by Athapascans
    Farming in Easter Woodlands (Hopewell community)
    • Left permanent home seasonally to take advantage of certain seasons
    • Grew tobacco?
    • Grew maize
    • Large burial mounds
    • Trade network
    • Artistically sophisticated
     
    Mississippian Society
    • Hopewell culture failed (drought?)
    • Bow appeared from the Great Plains
    • Permanent villages
    • Master maize farmers
    • Sophisticated division of labor, like Cahokia
    • Artisans
    • Priests
    • Rulers
    • Great Serpent Mound
    • City states like North of Mexico
    • Powerful chiefs = power to build public works
    • Took advantage of Mexican technology
    Warfare
    • Late 13th century climate change
    • Lowered potential yields form farms
    • Less food = more violence
    • Nomads probably didn't fight vs. war in farming societies
    • Cahokia had a log stockade
    Eve of Colonization
    • When Euros came there were at least 350 native societies
    Population of America
    • North America had a population of 7-10 million
    • Mexico had 25 million
    • 60-70 million in the Western hemisphere = same population as Europe
    • The nomads were not dense
    • California was populated by fishers and had medium density
    • In the South where there were farming communities population was dense
     
    The Southwest
    • Dry!
    • Rancherias-far apart to avoid each other
    The South
    • Rich climate for farming
    • Lived in towns and cities
    • Confederation of farming towns
    • More powerful clans lived on the flood plains
    • Natchez was in the lower Mississippi Delta and were class bred
    • Floridians also lived in a complicated class structure
    • Their city was built around ceremonial mounds
    • Plazas
    • Ordinary people were on the fringes
     
    Other confederacies
    • Cherokee was made up of more than 60 towns
    • Iroquois had women in power
     
    The Northeast
    • Iroquois
    • Population was large and dense
    • Iroquois lived here for 4500 years
    • Moved from fishing to farming
    • Had big houses
    • Had wooden stockades
    • Iroquois Nations
    • Mohawk
    • Oneidas
    • Onandagas
    • Cayugas
    • Senecas
    • Oral history indicates there was lots of violence
    • Confederacy was formed to control violence
    • It was acceptable to war against outsiders
    Algonquians
    • Lived in less elaborate homes
    • Lose bands together
    • Big, population
    • No fortifications
    • Farmed, fished and hunted
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter1.doc5.82 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - When Worlds Collide

    Early Settlements
    • L'ans aux Meadeaux
    • Columbus in 1492
    European Communities
    • Agricultural society
    • Late technology boom = more food = more people
    • Iron plows
    • Crop rotation
    • Feudalism
    • Catholic Church was powerful
    • Jew became successful merchants
    The Merchant Class
    • Genoa, Pisa and Venice became powerful
    • Rich
    • Fleets
    • Financed crusades
     
    Renaissance
     
    The New Monarchies
    • Replace lords as center of power
    • Built royal bureaucracies
    • Had state navies and armies
    • Support from merchants
    Portuguese Explorations
    • Henry the Navigator = Sagres Point (Naval College)= developed the Caravel
    • Knew the world was round
    • Easter influences at Sagres Point
    • Vasco da Gama-rounded Cape of Good Hope = India and China
    • Established slave trade
    Columbus
    • Catherine and Ferdinand
    • Discovers America
    • Left colony on Haiti and left instructions to dig for gold
    • 2nd and 3rd voyages were a failure and the first colony was destroyed
    • Vespuci described the "New World"
     
    The Spanish in the Americas
    • Mixed racially
    • Powerful
     
    Invasion of America
    • Brutality in Caribbean
    • Needs lots of man power = slaves from Africa
    • Cortez conquers the Aztecs
     
    The Destruction of the Indians
    • Resistance was futile
    • De las Casas,-Catholic priest denounced the conquest
    • Claimed that it was no use
    • Other European powers used his denouncement to help support their denouncement of Spain
    • Population went from 25 million to one million
    • Starved
    • Conception avoided
    • Disease
    • Small pox
    • Measles
    • Pneumonia
    • Malaria
    • Americas was a disease free environment
    Intercontinental Exchange
    • Between 1500-1550 amount of silver in Europe triples
    • Inflation
    • Crops such as maize, corn and potatoes were introduced to Europe
    • Vanilla and tobacco were profitable
    The First Americans in North America
    • Two failed attempts to invade Florida
    • DeSoto, with 700 men were driven away in the Southern USA
    • However spread disease = easy conquest the second time
    • De Coronada met the Pueblo people
    • Pueblos had no gold = no Spanish interest
    The Spanish New World Empire
    • Mestizos were common as there were no women
    • Authority from Spain was weak
    French and English Empires
    • French tried to colonize Brazil and Florida = failed because Spanish drove them out
    • French in the North, English in the Middle and Spain in the South
    Luther and the Reformation
    • Spread Protestantism
    • England splits with Rome
    The French Colony in Florida
    • Huguenot established a haven in Florida and South Carolina = failed
    • Another attempt on St. Johns River = Fort Caroline
    • Friendly natives
    Fish and Furs
    • Grand Banks = fishing = friendly relation with FNP as they had no interest in settlement
    • Cabot reached Cape Breton Island
    • Verazan reached Maine
    • Cartier reached the St. Lawrence
    • Trade boomed
    • Furs for junk
    • FNP caught diseases
    Social Change in the 16th Century England
    • Elizabeth banned Catholicism
    • Tolerated different views in the English Church
    • Enclosure
    • Fenced off common land for their sheep
    • Thousands were homeless = need homes in the colonies
    • Good markets
    • Bases to raid Spanish
    England Turns towards Colonization
    • English invade Ireland
    • Drake pirated Spanish gold for England
    • Spain sends the Armada
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter2.doc3.13 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Planting Colonies in North America

    The Spanish and French in North America
    • In the 16th century Spain and France were the only European powers in North America
    New Mexico
    • Spain went up North to New Mexico
    • Found the Pueblo people but they had no gold = lost interest
    • The Church however got the Spanish to sponsor a missionary conquest = some settlement
    • However since there was no treasure there were no immigrants
    The 1st Communities of New France
    • Quebec was claimed for France by Samuel de Champlain
    • Sent agents 'into the woods to live with the FNP"
    • Seigneurs and Habitant system
    • Adopted FRNP farming techniques
    • Mississippi Empire
    • By 1700 population was only 15000
    The English in the Chesapeake
    • 1st attempt to colonize was in 1580's
    • Newfoundland and Roanoke
    • Paused during war against Spain
    Jamestown & the Powhatan Confederacy
    • Virginia Company (Joint Stock Company)
    • Powhatan and the Algonquians numbered 20,000
    • Smith plundered Algonquians = Powhatan starves the English out
    • White's don't want to trade but they do conquer
    • This strategy was used by Spain and not by France
    • Colonists starved
    • Of the 900 men only 60 survived
    • More men came and they soon controlled the area
    Tobacco, Expansion and Warfare
    • Tobacco caused colonists to settle in Virginia
    • John Rolfe developed hybrids to start industry
    • England and France only sent men, while Spain send both
    • Society of Exclusion
    • One last attack by Algonquians (led by Powhatan's brother) failed
    • Just before the war ended the Virginia Company went broke
    • Virginia became a royal colony with a legislature (House of Burgesses)
    • Economy took off
    Maryland
    • King Charles, gave 10 million acres to Lord Baltimore (Calverts)
    • Propriety colony = Calverts were the only owners
    • Catholic Colony
    • House of Representatives
    Indentured Servants
    • 75% of new manpower came in the form of indentured servants
    • fixed term, then freedom
    • If servant escaped and captured the term of service was lengthened
    • When term ended the servant would get supplies
    • Unique to the English colonies
    • Spain used FNP labor
    • France didn't need labor
    Community Life on the Chesapeake
    • Women were scarce = valuable = powerful
    • Bonds were weak because of high death rates
    • Close ties with England
    • Crude housing
    Values of Puritanism
    • John Calvin wanted to make Christianity "pure"
    • Valued enterprise and hard work
    • Were very powerful in England
    • King James was not as tolerant as Elizabeth = kicked out
    Early Contacts in New England
    • North was controlled by the French and the Dutch
    • Disease wiped out Indian though = no furs for French and the Dutch
    • Could not fight England
    Plymouth Colony and Mayflower Compact
    • Pilgrims, religious dissenters
    • Established Plymouth, sailed from Mayflower
    • 1st document of government power in North America
    • Many died in the winter, rescued by the FNP = thanksgiving
    • Alliance for food
    The Massachusetts Bay Company
    • Puritans needed to move or be persecuted
    • Salem was the first settlement
    • "city on a hill" mentality
    • 20,000 people
    • Boston was the biggest settlement
    • Company transferred control to the government
    • All church men were freemen
    • Could elect delegates
    • Bicameral division of authority (delegates, and magistrates)
    Indians and Puritans
    • English were not interested in trade
    • "Unused" lands taken
    • Tricked FNP into giving land
    • Indians were fined land for breaking English law
    • Algonquians eventually surrendered
    • Disease killed inland FNP = Europeans moved in
    New England Communities
    • Puritans and Charles I (James' son)
    • Puritans win as Charles was tolerant
    • Oliver Cromwell (puritan)
    • Ruled England
    • New England economy was based on newcomers
    • No single crop = had to diversify
    • Ships, lumber, fish
    • Shipping industry was the biggest in the colonies
    • Public Education in New England
    • Girls could not attend
    Politics of Gender in Massachusetts
    • Puritans stressed Family
    • Town center
    • Mom and Dad farms
    • Women relied on men
    • Witchcraft scare in Salem
    Dissent in North West Communities
    • Puritans had little tolerance for other views
    • Tom Hooker argued with the Puritans
    • Established new colony of Connecticut at Hartford
    • Roger Williams wanted separation of Church and state and religious tolerance
    • Settled in Providence, Rhode Island
    The Restoration Colonies
    • Cromwell dies-Stuart monarchy restored by Charles II
    • Southern colonies were to be propriety colonies (like Maryland)
    • First southern settlement was Charleston
    • People came from the overpopulated Barbados
    New Netherlands and New York
    • Dutch were powerful
    • English fleet take over Manhattan
    • War with Dutch = decline in Dutch power
    • Named New York to honor king's brother the Duke of York
    • Many cultures came from the Dutch legacy
    • Multicultural center of America
    Pennsylvania
    • Property rights of Pennsylvania went to Will Penn
    • Quakers were tolerant and pacifists
    • Philadelphia was the capital of Pennsylvania
    • Pennsylvania was the city of brotherly love and the center of liberalism
    • Fair with Algonquians
    • Lands must be purchased from FNP
    • Philadelphia became most important port
    Conflict and War
    • King Philip's War, FNP and New England fight to get land back
    • Bacon's Rebellion, backcountry settlers attack FNP
    • In the South Brits incite Cherokees to attack Spain in Florida
    • The Glorious Revolution of America, Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland rebel against colonial government of James II
    • King William's War, England and France fight in the outskirts of New England
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter3.doc5.33 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Slavery and Empire

    The Beginnings of African Slavery
    Sugar and Slavery
    Portuguese used slaves in Madera
    Columbus had slaves in his colonies
    Slave in Brazil
    Model for efficiency
    Dutch expanded sugar market = more slaves
    British in Jamaica
    French in Martinique
     
    West Africans
    Local community was important to blacks
    Women had economic independence
    Burned wild land to farm
    Big population-Timbuktu
     
    Slavery in Africa
    More benevolent form of slavery
    Incorporated into the family
    Slave children were born free
     
    The Demography of the Slave Trade
    10 million slaves
    Males were favored
    Wanted young slaves
    Slavers came from all countries in Europe
    Actual raiders were black
     
    The Middle Passage
    Forts in Africa
    Horrible ships
     
    Arrival in the New World
    Doctored up to look good so they would be sold
     
    Political Effects in Africa
    Losses of people = no more money in Africa
     
    Slavery comes to North America
    Indentured Servants were cheaper
    However Europeans began to find out that they could become free in other colonies (Pennsylvania)
    Virginia Slave Code
    Can kill slaves
    No freedom for slave children
    Baptism doesn't matter
     
    The Tobacco Colonies
    The South soon became the tobacco colonies
    Better conditions that the rest of North America
    Lost of food
    Slaves weren't killed because they were more useful alive and making more slaves
     
    The Lower South
     
    South Carolina
    Started the FNP slave trade
    Shipped FNP to other colonies to prevent rebellion
    Rice and Indigo were grown
    Both needed slaves and were very profitable
     
    Georgia
    Slavery was illegal but that was abandoned
    Extension of the South Carolina system
     
    Slavery in the Spanish colonies
    Florida offered freedom to any escaped British slave
    Escaped slaves had to help defend Florida and convert to Christianity
    New Mexico used FNP slaves
     
    French Louisiana
    New Orleans
    Defended the Mississippi
    Not many slaves
     
    Slavery in the North
    Few but not concentrated
    Quakers were the first to oppose slavery
    Slaves gangs herded cattle
     
    The Daily Life of Slaves
    Creole-American born slaves
    Slaves became specialized as plantations grew
    Diet was sufficient
     
    Families and Communities
    Whites banned legal marriage of slaves
    Family was important
    Marriage was common but not legal
    Community family
     
    Afro-American Culture
    Ethnic groups became one
    Masters didn't want slaves to convert or they'd be equals
    Own burial ceremonies (secret)
    Music
     
    The Africanization of the South
    Black "doctors'
    Whites became black
    Black cooking
    Black nurses taught children how to talk
    Banjos
    Violence
    Slavery was based on fear
    Escape among young males
    Fugitive communities in swamps
    Well fed and low survival rates in swamps = no revolts
     
    Slavery and Empire
    South had plantations and little industrialization
    Slavery was big in the Empire
    South took 95% of the exports
    Slavery made British Empire a success
    South crops were valuable
    Empire was built on slaver
    Merchant navy depended on slavery
     
    The Politics of Mercantilism
    All trade for Britain was made by Britain
    Based on slavery
     
    Wars for the Empire
    King William's War, France vs. Britain
    Queen Anne's War
    Georgia invades Florida and destroys St. Augustine
    Spanish bombard Charleston
    Brits win = exclusive slavery rights to Spanish America
    France lost Acadia and Newfoundland
    War of Jenkin's Ear
    British try to eradicate the Spanish colonies
    Georgia invades Florida and Spain invades Georgia = both lose
    King George's War
    England battled France
    France attacked border New York and New England
    War ends in stalemate, and pre war borders are recognized
     
    British Colonial Regulation
    Casa de Contraction, HBC, Royal African Company
    Navigation Acts
    However any acts that hurt business were ignored by authorities
     
    The Colonial Economy
    Protected economy due to mercantilism
    American were rich and had a huge merchant navy
    Intercolonial trade boomed
    South made the exports while the North shipped it
     
    Social Structures of the Slave Colonies
    Few wealthy planters = aristocracy
    Large middle class
    White Skin privilege
    Virginia sponsored racism
    Penalty for sexual relationships (does not apply to white man and women though)
    Slaves inherited mother's status
    Mulattos were no better than slaves
     
    AttachmentSize
    Binary Data Chapter4.doc0 bytes
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The Cultures of Colonial North America

    North American Regions
    Impressive similarities between the Indian cultures: general adaptation to European culture
     
    Indian America
    Became more independent on European goods
    During American Revolution they asserted independence
    Played off each the powers, tried to be neutral
    French had better relations as they had no expansion plans, however French could be just as ruthless
    Most Indian alliances with French were result of British fear of expansion
    Indians lost most of their people, Europeans didn't
    Indians benefited from the horse
     
    The Spanish Borderlands
    New Spain was the must prosperous colony, however Spain in North America was poor
    In Florida, competition for St. Augustine between Brits and Spanish=good relations with Indians in Florida
    St. Augustine also had large black population as it was the destination for many slaves
    In New Mexico, the population was poor but expanding, as was Louisiana
    California was deadly
    Religion played a big role in all the colonies
     
    The French Crescent
    In New France religion and state were the same
    Thinly populated
    New Orleans was the most profitable colony
    French colony of inclusion=women get property rights, metis, and Indian clothes
     
    New England
    Puritan Government
    All male churchgoers were voters=all laws were mad by religion
    Not tolerable to other religions
    Roger Williams (Rhode Island) argued for toleration
    John Locke argued for toleration=Toleration Act=other religions in New England
    French and Hurons in the north=no settlement up there
     
    The Middle Colonies
    New York was the most ethnically diverse
    Rich landowners choose to rent versus sell=Pennsylvania more attractive
    Quakers who ran Pennsylvania were tolerant vs. Puritans in New England
    In Pennsylvania land was sold in individual lots vs. communal plots
    In Pennsylvania people moved around more than in New England=settlement of the individual=basis for future expansion
     
    The Backcountry
    Modest lifestyle
    Disdain for rank
     
    The South
    White, black, and Indians
    Most of the population was black slaves
    Plantation was the institution for social life in Charleston
    Charleston grew rice
    In the Chesapeake tobacco was grown=smaller plots=more diverse mosaic of farmers
    Growing racial solidarity between whites
     
    Traditional Culture in the New World
    Due submission for the general good
    Traditional farming vs. plantation farming
    Traditional farms diversified (self sufficient) plantation or commercial farming wasn't
    Guilds in cities
    Few opportunities for women, however some did take on husbands work after their death
     
    The Frontier Heritage
    Labor was in short supply as people could own their own farms easily
    In Spanish colonies people had Apache slaves
    Quebec slaves worked with workers
    Wages for free workers were very high=most unskilled work done by slaves
    Half of the migrants to 13 colonies were slaves
    Indentured servants common to
    Convicts were also sent from Britain
    Bad conditions
     
    Diverging Social and Political Patterns
    In the 18th century the three empires grew sharply away from each other
     
    Population Growth
    Big population boom
    High fertility rate
    Infant mortality down
    Different immigration policies led to English boom
    Everyone allowed into the colonies
     
    Social Class
    Attempts to establish the class structure failed in the New World
    Land monopolies (New York) where large landowners owned the land were established, however people had access to cheap land for themselves (Pennsylvania) that few people settled on them
    North America had an economic not aristocratic hierarchy
    New France has the Seigneurs
    New Spain rank is based on race
    In Catholic cultures people of title were from European nobility, while Brits celebrated social mobility=people worked towards new class
     
    Economic Growth and Increasing Inequality
    In Catholic colonies bureaucracy stifled economic growth while in 13 colonies business boomed
    British Colonies increasing economic inequality as all money in rich hands
    Land became more expensive in British colonies
    Less land, hemmed in by French and Indians
    Land was divided up into parts for heirs=smaller plots=farm the land harder for $$=soil exhaustion=need more land
    As a result more poor people
     
    Contrasts in Colonial Politics
    Catholic colonies were very centralized vs. British system
    Local assemblies in British colonies (voted from freemen)
    Assemblies controlled $$ therefore controlled colony
     
    The Cultural Transformation of British North America
    Marked with increasing ethnic diversity, economic growth and social tensions
    Ideas of the Enlightenment reach BNA vs. Catholic suppression of new ideas in their colonies
     
    The Enlightenment Challenge
    People weren't born into position
    Locke wanted rights for people vs. government
    Enlightenment appealed to those who had bettered themselves in society
    Enlightenment spread in BNA cause most people were literate vs. Catholic colonies had low literacy rates=Enlightenment didn't spread
    Wealth led to the creation of a "cultured" class=thought about the enlightenment
     
    A Decline in Religious Devotion
    New ideas=decline in old ideas (religion)
    Opposed Calvinism (church idea) that people were predestined liked Arminianism instead ( you worked your way to heaven)
     
    The Great Awakening
    Church began to favor rich merchants (they were the ones who were into enlightenment)
    Edwards, preacher led emotional sermons to get poor people back to church
    Preached purity, no decadence
    One of the first national events in history
    Children begin to attend church
     
    Great Awakening Politics
    Great Awakening applied more to those who weren't rich (therefore didn't believe in enlightenment as they had not bettered themselves"
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter5.doc5.61 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - From Empire to Independence

    The Seven Years War in America
    Colonial leaders met to unite against France and Indians
     
    The Albany Conference of 1754
    Plan of Union
    Indian affairs, western settlement be under authority of a grand council
     
    The Colonial and Indian Interests
    Ohio valley in French hands, British want valley for settlement=conflict
    Indians tried to play French and Brits off
     
    Frontier Warfare
    George Washington forced to surrender his force to the French while trying to kick them out of the Ohio Valley=retaliation
    Hard to unite the colonies to fight together=ineffective resistance
     
    The Conquest of Canada
    Pitt reversed the war by promising Indians to negotiate=co-operation and sending in British troops
    England would pay for the war
    Plains of Abraham, Montcalm vs. Wolfe=Quebec falls, Montreal follows
    Treaty of Paris=Brits win
    Brits get Florida and New France, French get Martinique and Guadeloupe and Spain get New Orleans from France
     
    Indians and Europeans Struggle over the West
    Europeans bought favor from Indian chiefs, but Brits stopped that in Ohio valley=anger
    Neolim and Pontiac attack Brits to regain land
    Conflict ends in stalemate=Appalachians become border for Indians
    However without French to balance of the status quo Indians grow weaker and lose more land
     
    The Imperial Crisis of North America
    After Seven Years war Britain begins to reorganization
     
    The Emergence of American Nationalism
    Culture differences, British officers beat their soldiers=discipline
    Colonial soldiers were lax
    Mutual distrust led to American unity
    Fighting in the Seven Years war allowed colonials to associate with each other=unity
    Improved infrastructure=better communications
    Newspapers began circulating
    Peter Zenger tried for libel against the state=freedom of speech
     
    Politics, Republicanism, and the Press
    Influenced by Locke and others
    Get rid of aristocracy
    Wanted more power for assembly vs. strong state with king to keep masses in line
     
    The Sugar Act
    Only affected merchants
    Seven Years war left Britain in debt, attempts to tax people at home were met with protests=tax the colonists!
    Sugar Acts=tax on sugar
    Bostonians boycotted British products
    Offenders were tried at the Vice Admiralty Court in Halifax which was hated because mad no presumption of innocence and had no jury trial
     
    The Stamp Act
    Affected everyone unlike the sugar act
    Mad no only cause of tax but because they had no say in the decision
    Rich got richer and poor got poorer= tax hit the poor harder=mob unrest
    Stamp Act Congress, passed a set of resolutions denying Parliaments right to tax colonists without representation
     
    Repeal of the Stamp Act
    Hurt by the colonial boycott, British merchants persuade Parliament to repeal the act
    Parliament reserves the right to make all decisions in colonies=Declaratory Act
     
    Save Your Money and Save Your Country
    Stamp Act mostly affected people in the countryside but acts to come resulted everyone
     
    The Townshend Revenue Acts
    Import duties on lead, glass, paint, paper, and tea
    Again argued that Parliament had no right to tax
    Didn't want salaries of royal colonial officials to be paid by Britain otherwise they would be dependent on Britain, not the colonial government
    New York resisted and had its assembly suspended=anger as that was unconstitutional
     
    Nonimportation" An Early Political Boycott
    Boycott in many American cities
    Split opinion, boycott hurt merchants but helped craftsmen=use of force to subdue merchants
    Argued that no importation stopped material decadence (like Protestantism)=appealed to the countryside
     
    The Massachusetts Circular Letter
    Written to try to get the colonies to come up with a united response to the Townshend Act=Britain dissolves all colonial assemblies
    The dissolution of the assemblies sparked new protests
    British troops go into Boston
     
    The Politics of Revolt and the Boston Massacre
    Small riots leading to the Boston Massacre
    However Townshend Act also repealed due to boycott
     
    The Resistance to Rebellion
    Years before the Tea Act were laid out the groundwork for rebellion
     
    Intercolonial Cooperation
    All royal salaries were dependent of the state legislature
    Intercolonial committee to gather intelligence on Brits
    Conspiracy to undermine freedom in the colonies
     
    The Boston Tea Party
    East India Company had to much tea=low prices
    Brits tax cheap tea, price is still cheaper that normal
    Americans still revolt
    When the first tea ship arrives in Boston, the people vow to not allow it to be unloaded in contradiction to Hutchison=Boston Tea Party
     
    The Intolerable Acts
    Meetings were allowed only once a year and the agenda was set by Brits
    Boston Port Bill=no commerce in harbor until Boston Tea Party was paid for
    Quartering Act=Quartering for British troops
    Quebec Act=Ohio valley was given to Quebec which had no elected assembly=American suspicion that they were going to have their assemblies taken away
    Also favored Catholics
     
    The First Continental Congress
    Wished to avoid war
    Imposed sanctions on Brits until Intolerable acts were repealed
    Unity
     
    Lexington and Concord
    Brits go after an ammo depot and but start fighting
    Hopes start to dim for negotiations
     
    The Second Continental Congress
    Georgia, dependent on Britain did not attend first congress but eventually attended second one
    Canadians refuse to join so Americans take Montreal but fail to take Quebec
    George Washington attends in uniform-get command of the army
    Try one last time to get King George to negotiate
     
    Fighting in the North and the South
    Battle of Bunker Hill lead King George to refuse to negotiate (large casualties at Bunker Hill)
    Cannon bombard Boston from forcing Brits to evacuate
    Brits are driven from the south
     
    No Turning Back
    Second Continental Congress was now government
    Negotiated aid from Spain and France
    Thomas Paine-Common Sense-attacked aristocracy and British traditions
     
    The Declaration of Independence
    Jefferson write it
    Slavery allowed
    New York boycotts
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter6.doc5.91 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Creation of the United States

    The War for Independence
    Brits had the best army and navy but underestimated Americans
    No center for Brits to capture
     
    The Patriot Forces
    Mostly militia defended
    Short terms of enlistment, undisciplined officers
    However Continental army fought the big battles
    War had to be won with the Continental Army
    Continental army was a rallying symbol
    Women played a big role (would help them get rights later)
     
    The Loyalists
    1/5th of the people were loyalists
    Went to Canada, Britain and the Caribbean
    Many slaves and Indians were loyalists
    Brits freed slaves-Americans would push aggressively into Indian territory
    Or conservatives who don't like upheaval
    Loyalists were not united-couldn't help Brit war effort
    Did fight irregular warfare in the south
     
    The Campaign for New York and New Jersey
    Brits tried to cut off New England but failed=boast to shattered American morale
     
    The Politics of Alliances
    Wanted a weak American dependent on them
    Gave money but reluctant to directly support a republican revolution
    Saratoga convinced France to actively support America
    Would be the first to recognize America
    No peace with Britain without notification of the other
    Spain also enters war-gives supplies from New Orleans
    Spain wanted to take British possessions in Ohio valley-French were to make sure that Spanish got there before the Americans
    Spanish and French navies meant that Britain had to pull troops out from New York to protect Caribbean colonies
     
    Indians and the Revolution
    Iroquois joined the Brits as the Americans would more aggressively take their land
    Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws also joined Britain
    However one Iroquois tribe supported America=Iroquois vs. Iroquois
     
    The War in the South
    Most important fighting
    War here begun with slave uprising
    Many blacks fought for Britain
    New strategy-lobsters would take control step by step and then give the land to the loyalists who would run it
    Cornwallis decides to abandon the Carolinas for Yorktown, Virginia=Carolinas fall back into American control
     
    Yorktown
    French land 5000 troops the north
    French and Americans with French fleet surround Yorktown
    In England, Lord North resigns, King George wants to carryon= end of the war
     
    The United States Congress Assembled
    Weak central government
    Americans were trying to get rid of a central government in the first place
     
    The Articles of Confederation
    Wanted a loose union of the states
    Majority of the states was needed for a decision-but nine states were needed for a major decision
    Federal Government had no power to tax
     
    Financing the War
    States had their own currency
    Continental currency was useless
    Bank of North America-run by Robert Morris-stockpiled gold backed up new currency=stability
     
    Negotiating the End to the War
    French were able to blunt American demands (they had a lot of influence as they financed the American war)
    Americans were aware of this and signed a secret treaty with Britain without the French
    Therefore Americans only got East of the Mississippi, Canadian fishing rights, instead of all of Canada
    But in truth the Mississippi was in Spanish hands
    Spain also got Florida back
     
    The Crisis of Demobilization
    The Brits were leaving (slowly)
    American officers were promised life pensions at the expense of half pay if they fought for the entire war, but with the war almost over and Congress still haven't decided on the amount the officers were worried that the issue would go unresolved.  They were able to convert the amount into a bonus and five years of full pay
     
    The Problem of the West
    Indians were betrayed by both sides
    Brits abandoned their allies and Americans still took their allies land
    Once population reached 20,000 the territory would get self-government and once it reached the population of the smallest state they would be given statehood.
    The Land Ordinance would provide a survey dividing up the land into squares (independent settling)
    However Congress was desperate for money and sold most of the land to the Ohio Company (company settling)
    The Northwest Territory would be eventually carved up into five states until then it would be ruled by a court of judges and a governor
     
    Revolutionary Politics in the States
    Most People were loyal to their states
     
    The Broadened Base of Politics
    During the pre-revolution era more people were involved in politics
    South Carolina had relaxed $$ requirements and universal male suffrage
    Tory party was destroyed, Whig party was balanced=new left wingers
     
    The First State Constitutions
    Pennsylvania was radical, Maryland was conservative, New York in the middle
    In Pennsylvania once a conservative states, the Tories were all loyalists=they left
    Maryland had high $$ requirements for office
     
    Declarations of Rights
    All states had rights based on the Virginia Declarations of Rights
    16 resolutions that said people are free
    People had the right to abolish an oppressive government
     
    The Spirit of Reform
    Revolutionary atmosphere breed reform
    Female suffrages in New Jersey
    Women played a big role in revolution therefore could demand more a after
    Jefferson repealed the Law of Entails (land couldn't be split up after death by heirs) this was a symbol that aristocratic England was gone
    Jefferson: Establishing Religious Freedom
    Anglicans were loyalists so they couldn't oppose
    Enlightenment=people could chose religion
    Jefferson wanted to also get public education, reduce crimes for capital punishment, and free slaves
     
    African Americans and the Revolution
    Most slaves fought for Brits
    In the north slavery was abolished
    Slaves freed did increase=black schools, churches community
     
    Economic Problems
    Big inflation from Congress printing paper money
    Food riots due to high prices
    Few exports vs. lots of imports
     
    State Remedies
    Manufacturing states introduced tariffs, however to be effective it had to be a national effort
    Farmers wanted legal tender laws=allow debts to be paid in goods, or in the state currency regardless of its worth
    In Rhode Island, people could pay their debts in the state currency
     
    Shay's Rebellion
    When merchants forced farmers to pay off debts in hard currency which the farmers didn't have, many were sent to jail=rebellion
    Gave firepower to conservatives, clip the wings of mad democracy
     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter7.doc6.22 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - The United States of North America

    Forming a New Government
    Whiskey Rebellion and Shay's Rebellion were the first signs that the federal government needed more powers for the USA to survive
     
    Nationalist Sentiment
    Alexander Hamilton, strong coercive union having control over economic, civil and military issues
    Nationalists were from the elite
    Merchants wanted to establish the credit for the United States in Europe=can get loans
    Continental Army officers who saw with the Continental Congress the need for a strong central government.
    Conservatives who wanted to restrain the radical democracy in the states
    The economic crises after the Revolutionary war gave the Nationalists an opportunity to organize
    Commercial conference in Annapolis to discuss strong federal government
    Only five states sent nationalist delegations
    All states agreed that they needed more federal control over commerce
     
    The Constitutional Convention
    In Philadelphia
    Everyone but Rhode Island attended
    Agreed to vote by states
    Madison wanted:
    Wanted to scrap the articles of Confederation in favor of a "consolidated government" having the power to tax and enforce its laws directly rather than through the states
    Representation in the bicameral national legislature would be based on population
    House of Representatives would be elected by popular vote but senators would be chosen by state legislators to insulate them from democratic pressure.
    A national judiciary would have the power to veto both national and state legislation
    William Peterson of New Jersey opposed= the New Jersey plan
    Thought that Madison's plan would allow small states to be swallowed up by big ones
    Wanted only a single house congress that equally represented the states
    The Great Compromise was the result of the two sides
    Proportional representation by population in the house vs. representation by states in the Senate
    Small states would have never joined without the senate
    3/5th's rule- 5 slaves= 3 whites
    Reason why South joined
    Slaves only counted in representation not taxes!
    Georgia and Louisiana demanded and got protection for the international slave trade
    South also legitimized capturing escaped slaves in the north.
    Madison wanted a strong judiciary that could declare acts of Congress unconstitutional
    Edmund Randolph opposed a strong executive- thought that it was the beginning of a monarchy
    Wanted executive to be elected so that it was independent of congress, but thought the people weren't educated enough to choose-electoral college
    Ratifying the New Constitution
    Needed nine states approval
    Supporters of the constitution adopted the name Federalists
    Opposition wasn't unified
    Opposition were localists=many different interests
    Opposition thought the constitution gave the "national government" to much power
    Thought that the state government would represent the people better
    Political thinkers thought that a republican government could only exist in small countries as a big country had to many factions
    Madison thought that a big country had more factions= no one group could have all the power
    Federalists were urban vs. farming opposition
     
    Shaping of the Bill of Rights
    The first ten amendments to the constitution
    The First Amendment prohibits Congress from establishing an official religion
    Other Amendments give the people the right to bear arms, limit the government's power to quarter troops in private homes, and restrain the government from unreasonable searches or seizures
    The Bill of Rights is the most important legacy of the Anti-Federalists
     
    The New Nation
    Federal government was a first far away from the people but would soon change
     
    The Washington Presidency
    Washington's name calling represented another struggle- some wanted a strong executive while other wanted a strong congress
    Set the norm-established a cabinet and didn't use veto unless congress had acted unconstitutionally
     
    An Active Federal Judiciary
    Congress provided that the Supreme Court would have six justices (later increased to nine) and established three circuit and thirteen district courts.
    Federalists wanted an all powerful federal legal system vs. state systems
    The Eleventh Amendment- declared that citizens from another state not sue another state.  (due to anti federalists)
     
    Hamilton's Controversial Fiscal Program
    Tariff of 1789- a compromise between people who wanted very high tariffs to make European goods to expensive= booming American industry or people who wanted tariffs to be a source of income
    Hamilton proposed to tax whiskey to eliminate the federal debt
    Brought confidence to investors by paying of the foreign debt
    However this was brought to halt by the question of a capital
    Southerners wanted the capital on the Potomac while northerners wanted Philadelphia
    The capital would be on the Potomac in exchange for enough southern votes to pass Hamilton's fiscal plan
    Hamilton also proposed the establishment of a Bank of the United States
    Serve as a depository of government funds
    Also wanted to use government money to invest in infant industries
    Also circulated national money
     
    The Beginnings of Foreign Policy
    French Revolution divided the Americans
    USA was a French ally but declared neutrality=trade $$$$$$$ from both sides
    Jefferson supported France while Hamilton wanted to trade with Britain
    Washington supported Hamilton= Jefferson leaves cabinet
     
    The United States and the Indian Peoples
    American attempts to treat FNP as defeated peoples resulted in violence
    Washington declared they would be treated in good faith but this didn't work no one policed the west
    The Indian Intercourse Act= treaties were the only way to get land from the FNP
    However white's usually ignored this=small private armies invading FNP land
    Little Turtle massacred General Arthur St. Clair's army
     
    Spanish and British Hostility
    King Carlos reformed the economy=boom in Mexico
    Spain got French Louisiana and expanded into California
    Spain controlled both sides of the Mississippi and blocked American trade
    Supported immigration to Louisiana
    In Canada Britain kept troops on both sides of the border
     
    Domestic and International Crises
    Washington faced unrest and threats to secede from in the West due his failure to get rid of Brits and Spanish, the Whiskey tax and failure to defeat the FNP
    Whiskey Rebellion was met with federal militia= supremacy of national over local community
    Also beat the FNP which in resulted in USA gaining Ohio, Indiana, Detroit and Chicago
     
    Jay's and Pinckney's Treaties
    Jay's Treaty- Brits wary of now strong American position agreed to remove troops from America, granted limited trade with British Indies and granted most favored nation status=victory for Hamilton
    Pinckney's Treaty- Spain now was at war with Revolutionary France= wanted to mollify the Americans= Mississippi and New Orleans open to American trade
     
    Washington's Farewell Address
    Washington set basis in disinterest in European affairs
    Urged unity
     
    Federalists and Republicans
    Framers of the constitution imagined a one party state in which factions would be muted by patriotism
    Madison declared in the Federalist that parties would harm the republic yet he created an opposition to Washington-the Democratic Republican Party
     
    The Rise of Political Parties
    First arose over debate over Jay's treaty
    Federalists supported the treaty while Democratic Republicans opposed it
    Second election Adams vs. Jefferson (north vs. south)
    Adams won, but back then runner up became vice-president= administration born divided
     
    The Adams Presidency
    Adam's sends over diplomats to try to calm the French who were angered over Jay's Treaty.  However they would only talk if given a bribe
    Democratic Socialists demand to know whats happening and thus Adams publishes the dispatches replacing French names with XYZ= strong anti-French sentiment
     
    The Alien and Sedition Acts
    Congress with support from Adams pass four acts limiting freedom of speech and freedom of the press
    The Alien Act allowed the president to imprison or deport suspected aliens during wartime
    Sedition Act provided heavy fines or imprisonment for people convicted of writing or speaking against the government
    Democratic Republicans considered the constitution nothing more than a pact between sovereign states therefore the states could go there own way Virginia and Kentucky Resolves.
     
    The Revolution of 1800
    Federalists were divided
    France was beginning to cool off=offers peace which Adams was beginning to negotioate
    Hamilton and other merchants still wanted war= Adams threatens to resign leaving Jefferson in power
    Adams negotiate peace but gets scorned by Hamilton
    Alien and Sedition Acts were overthrown by Democratic Republicans after the third election
    Jefferson and Burr (Democratic Republicans) both were tied= who was the president?
    12th Amendment would create separate ballots for president and VP
    Competition between the parties resulted in the expansion of the franchise to all whie males
     
    The Rising Glory of America
    Beginnings of American art and culture
     
    Art and Architecture
    Artists were emerging
    Washington DC was an epic architecturally project
     
    The Liberty of the Press
    More newspaper to the population than anywhere else= high literacy rate
    Democratic Republicans were key to asserting the Freedom of the Press by repealing the Sedition Act
     
    The Birth of American Literature
    Most popular were political books such as Common Sense by Thomas Paine
    Paine also wrote the Rights of Man defending the French Revolution
    Webster's American Spelling Book which gave birth to American English
     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter8.doc9.46 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - An Agrarian Republic

    The Growth of American Communities From Coast to Coast
    In 1800 most people lived on the East Coast, however in 50 years Americans would reach the Pacific
    Roads were bad= slow travel
     
    Russian American: Sitka
    Russians destroy Aleutian society
    Intermarriage-like HBC and FNP
    Established Sitka as center of operations
    Went as far south as California
     
    Northern New Spain
    Spain wanted the Pacific North but failed, Russians, Americans and British were in the area
    Spain constructed missions in California to establish its presence
    Claimed the Columbia River
     
    The French Legacy, New Orleans and St. Louis
    New Orleans was the key to Louisiana
    Under French civil law blacks got equal legal status as whites
    Most of the trade was American
    American's were allowed into New Orleans as a result of Pinckney's Treaty but Americans were uncomfortable that a foreign power could control the trade
    St. Louis was a small trading post 600 miles north
     
    Trans-Appalachia: Cincinnati
    West of the Appalachian Mountains experienced the greatest growth
    Kentucky and Tennessee were the first Trans-Appalachian states
    Many families migrated every year, moving farther west
    Once FNP were defeated Cincinnati boomed
     
    Atlantic Ports: From Charleston to Boston
    Atlantic Ports dominated the country economically
    Charleston was the center for cotton, rice indigo
    Baltimore was the major port for tobacco
    Philadelphia was the cultural, intellectual capital
    New York was the only city to accept the British auction system
    Offered goods in large lots at wholesale prices=no middleman
    Most British trade passed through New York
    Boston was the shipbuilding center
     
    A National Economy
    USA was a producer of raw materials
    At the mercy for of world prices
     
    The Economy of the Young Republic
    94% of Americans lived in rural communities=agricultural economy
    Mostly self-sufficient farmers in the West
    North some commercial farming
    South was wholly commercial
    However prices for slaves went up while demand for tobacco, rice and indigo were steady
    Cotton was in demand but it was inefficient needing lots of labor
    This changed with the cotton gin
    Britain was the USA largest trading partner but as an independent nation did not benefit from British mercantilist policy.
    Both Britain and France taxed American vessels discriminatorily
     
    Shipping and Economic Boom
    French Revolution-European ships are converted into fighting ships=American boom
    Neutrality led to re-exporting goods
    Rapid growth in port cities=rapid growth in farms
    Europeans were to busy to trade= Americans move into China and create a Pacific Trade Triangle
    Rich trade led to creation of banks, insurance and other industries
     
    The Jefferson Presidency
    Jefferson renounced the "rags of royalty"- no speech to congress, walked to his inauguration
    Led to the change of power from one party to the another peacefully
     
    Republican Agrarianism
    Factory system horrified Jefferson= opposed industrialization vs. Hamilton who encouraged it
    Thought that the factory system would create the same extremes in wealth in American that was seen in Europe
    Jefferson wanted small family farms- an agrarian public
    Malthusian growth theory according to Jefferson was only applicable in Europe as the USA had plenty of room to grow
    Jefferson's vision depended on constant expansion
     
    Jefferson's Government
    Proposed simplicity over Federalist complexity
    Cut navy and army and government staff
    Proposed that the federal government only stop men from injuring one another and stay out of their lives
    Washington DC was uncompleted during Jefferson's years
     
    An Independent Judiciary
    Jefferson did not purge Federalist officials= led moderates to switch over
    Did however purge the "midnight judges" as the new congress was Democratic Republican= got rid of the job
    Adams before leaving appointed 16 new judgeships and six new circuit courts.
    Democratic Republicans thought this was a ploy to extend Federal control over the people
    One justice Marbury sued Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison over his lost position
    The question was: Could the Judiciary be independent?
    The ruling stated that the judiciary had the right to stay independent but the executive could not appoint someone to a position that did not exist
     
    The Louisiana Purchase
    Napoleon regained Louisiana from Spain and had the option of fighting the British in North America
    Upon hearing the news the Spanish commander closed New Orleans to  Americans= trade disrupted
    Federalists demanded military action
    Jefferson bought Louisiana Territory for $15 Million
    The constitution did not site that the president could buy territory and Jefferson was a strong supporter in that the president could only act to powers specifically given to him.  However Louisiana was to rich to give up and thus he argued that the new land was needed for his agrarian republic
     
    Incorporating Louisiana
    Louisiana got French civil law instead of English common law
     
    Texas and the Struggle for Mexican Independence
    Spain objected in vain to the sale of Louisiana as it left the northern border of Mexico buffered with only Texas, which was already settled by some Americans
    When Napoleon invaded Spain and installed his brother on the thrown, fighting erupted= Spain's new world empire began to slip away
    Republicans in Mexico battled with royalists
    American and Mexican's invade Texas and declare it independent
     
    Renewed Imperial Rivalry In North America
    French and British Rivalry would cause problems for America both on the high seas and on the nations western borders
     
    Problems with Neutral Rights
    Britain frowned upon American merchants trying to trade with the French
    British also practiced impressment and even conversion to an American citizen (naturalization papers) could not stop the impressment.
    Leopard vs. Chesapeake= killing, 3 wounding 18 to get four deserters
     
    The Embargo Act
    The American navy could not challenge the Royal navy= Jefferson enacted a boycott of British goods in hopes that British manufacturers would pressure parliament to stop impressing Americans
    In desperation Jefferson banns all foreign trade to deny France and Britain raw materials= American disastor= Federalist uprising as America couldn't challenge Britain due to Jefferson's cuts to the navy
    No effect on Britain or France
    France seized American ships
    Britain developed new markets in South America
    Jefferson ends his second term- followed by Madison
    Congress repeals the Embargo Act
     
    A Contradictory Indian Policy
    Jefferson believed that the Indians would cede their lands and learn how to farm
    Jefferson sent out missionaries= divided FNP between Christian and pagans
    However most white settlers just barged in and when attacked called in for military help= a cycle
     
    Indian Resistance
    Black Hoof accepted missionaries
    Tecumseh with his prophet brother, gave rebirth to the resistance
    Tecumseh believed in common land, therefore no one group could sign a treaty to give it away as it believed to all FNP
    Tippecanoe, non-conclusive fighting which led to FNP attacks in Michigan
    Tecumseh signs formal alliance with British
     
    The War of 1812
    Settlers blamed British for Tecumseh's attacks
    Upset of British aggression on the seas
     
    The War Hawks
    Democratic Republicans, hated all British intervention
    Supported expansion
    Federalists opposed war with Britain
     
    The Campaign against Canada
    Hull was repulsed by Canadian and FNP
    British capture Detroit and Chicago
    American's burn York
    British lose Lake Erie= lose Detroit
    British retreat from Detroit and our pursued by the Americans= Battle of Thames, Tecumseh dies, Americans win
    New England refuse to help
     
    War in the South
    Red Sticks allied with Britain and Spain fought Americans and other FNP
    Andrew Jackson, beat the Red Sticks but failed to take Florida
    Andrew Jackson beat the British at New Orleans
     
    The Naval War
    British burn Washington
    British supremacy
     
    The Hartford Convention
    Federalists from New England talk about seceding from the union (Hartford Convention)
    The Hartford Convention in the end only listed grievances and stated that the state had the right to oppose unconstitutional federal authority (like the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves, opposing the Alien and Sedition Acts)
    Ignored as war was about to end
     
    The Treaty of Ghent
    Impressment and neutral rights were not addressed
    British agree to evacuate their western posts and abandon there insistence on a neutral Indian state
    When British abandon the FNP they wither and die
     
    Defining New Boundaries
    After the war of 1812 Americans turn there attention to boundaries
    This time period illustrates the sectional split
     
    Another Westward Surges
    In 1790 95% of the population lived on the seaboard in 1820 only 75% did
    Population in 1800 was 5.3 million, in 1820 pop was 9.6 million
    Tecumseh's alliance broken= westward expansion possible
    The land ordinance priced western lands too high except for speculators
    Reality forced Congress to enact land laws favorable to the small farmer
    Squatters- people who settled unsold land, and then claimed pre-emption, the right to purchase the land at a lower price as they made improvements to the land
    Due to the migration routes Northerners moved to the Old Northwest, and vice-versa
    More than half the migrants in the south were slaves
     
    The Second Great Awakening of the Frontier
    Began in New England but spread
    Most powerful in the west as the church there was weak
    Camp meetings
    Provided people to get to know each other
    Women were majority as they found new moral and social consequence
     
    The Election of 1816
    James Monroe (Democratic Republican) won easily
    Last time the Federalist's ran a candidate, but Democratic Republican values were know Federalist values.
    Monroe's presidency was known as the "Era of Good Feelings"
    Monroe took in both DM and FED into his cabinet
    Monroe broke with traditional DM (Jefferson) values and started to promote industry, chartering a national bank and national network of roads and canals (Hamilton's vision)= Federalists were willing to join Monroe
    In 1816 Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States for twenty years.  (the DM"s had allowed the first bank's charter to expire in 1811)
    To provide large scale financing that state banks couldn't
    The fact that the DM allowed this was a sign that commercial interests now rivaled farming interests
    TheTariff was to protect American industries as after the end of the Embargo Act British industries flooded the market with below priced products to stifle American industry
    Madison and Monroe both supported interstate roads
    Congressmen wanted federal funding for independent state roads- Monroe considered this unconstitutional
     
    The Diplomacy of John Quincy Adams
    JQA was Monroe's vice president
    Signed treaties with Britain establishing the 49th parallel border
    Agreed to jointly occupy Oregon
    The Transcontinental Treaty was JQA's legacy
    In 1818 General Andrew Jackson led a raid to crush the Seminole Indians who were raiding American settlements, however Jackson also invaded Florida
    Showed that Spain was weak= able to negotiate Florida and remove Spanish claims to Louisiana, in return America renounces claims to texas and pays $5 million in claims US citizens had against Spain.
    US was the first country outside Latin American to recognize the newly independent countries
    When Spain, France, Austria, Russia and Prussia began to plot to re-conquer Spain's empire only Britain kept them from executing there plan, not the Monroe Doctrine
    Also coninced Russia to accept 54,40 as a Pacific border
     
    The Panic of 1819
    When Napoleonic Wars ended Britain resumed trade= Americans shipping boom ended
    European farms recovered= Less demand for American food
    Speculators buying on credit borrowed excessively from state banks= Bank of United States forced state banks to foreclose on many bad loans
    Many state banks ruined along with their creditors most blamed the Bank of the United States- Andrew Jackson would turn this sentiment into a political movement
    Urban workers were hit by the decline in shipping and manufacturing and blamed their woes on merchants- Andrew Jackson would turn this to into a political movement
     
    The Missouri Compromise
    Land Ordinance banned slavery in the Old Northwest
    As migration was lateral northerners didn't run into southerners= no conflict, until they ran into each other in Missouri
    South wanted Missouri's vote in the senate as the North was more populated= control of congress
    The balance of south and north was maintained with Maine coming into the union= Missouri stayed slave
    Slavery was not allowed above 36,30 the southern border of Missouri
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chapter9.doc12.54 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - The Growth of Democracy

    The New Democratic Politics
    Had the USA still consisted only of the thirteen original states, the North-South compromises might well have broken down by the 1820's and split the nation into two parts.
    Westward expansion was the unifying force
    Westward expansion encouraged the democratic process
     
    The Expansion and Limits of Suffrage
    Before 1800 the original 13 states limited the vote to property owners= wealth held power
    Mobility undermined the social structure
    Western states extended the right to vote to all white males, forcing older states to follow
    More factions = more concessions to get votes
    Women didn't get the vote, neither did blacks
    Could mob rule succeed?
     
    The Election of 1824
    The "Era of Good Feelings" ended with the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri Crises
    Democratic Republican was fractured and as a result 4 candidates ran
    Andrew Jackson
    John Quincy Adams
    William H. Crawford
    Henry Clay
    Adams and Clay were tied so Clay supported Adams= Clay became secretary of state= Jackson was pissed and had public support so he was poised to win next election
    Election of 1824 spelled the end of elitist politics
     
    Organizing Popular Politics
    Van Buren had a vision of tightly organized, broad-0based political groups
    Politics now appealed to popular enthusiasms
    Beginnings of mass rallies
    New politics were heavily based on party loyalty, politicians were loyal to the people and vice versa
    The task of politicians was to emphasize those differences in ways that forged support not just for one election but for permanent national communities of political interest
     
    The Election of 1828
    The first election to demonstrate the power and effectiveness of the new party system
    Andrew Jackson, with Van Buren as campaign manager rode the wave of the new democratic politics to the presidency beating JQA who formed the new National Republican party
    Changed Democratic Republicans to Democrats
    Jackson's running mate was Calhoun, JQA's vice president
    That Calhoun could change factions so easily would end with the new party politics
    Democrats were the first to create a coalition between North, South and West= Jackson victory
     
    The Jackson Presidency
    "The Age of the Common Man"
    The first politician to respond to the ways in which westward expansion and the extension of the suffrage were changing politics
     
    A Popular Figure
    Represented the common man
    A military hero
    Antagonistic to British and FNP
    Jackson's inauguration was packed with common people
     
    The Spoils System and the New Politics
    Rewarded party loyalists by giving them positions in the government
    Strong difference between old and new politics
    Old people switched side regularly, (Calhoun)
     
    The Nation's Leader vs. Sectional Spokesmen
    Jackson believed that he was a national figure
    Jackson believed that the president represented everyone= strong executive
    Believed that the majority should govern instead of the sectional past
    Opponents were Calhoun (south), Clay (West) and Webster (north)
    Calhoun was a defender of the slave system
    Webster was advocate of tariffs. A national bank, and a strong judiciary
    Clay was only one willing to forge political alliances
     
    A Strong Executive
    Jackson with Van Buren dominated government
    Used veto more frequently
    Gave power to the states (roads)
     
    Internal Improvements: Building an Infrastructure
    Despite arguments over who should fund infrastructure everyone agreed that it needed to be done
     
    The Transportation Revolution
    National Road- largest federal expense tying East and West= fostering a national community
     
    Canals and Steamboats
    Roads were unpractical for commercial purposes
    Erie Canal
    Yankee ingenuity
    Imported Irish workers
    Turned New York away from Europe to America
    Success convinced other states to build their own canals= canal boom
    Steam boat were more efficient and able to navigate inland rivers
    Boom to river cities
     
    Railroads
    Forced America's iron industry to modernize
    Labor intensive
    At first steamboats and canals would be more efficient
    No standard rail width= slow start
     
    The Legal Infrastructure
    Federal courts asserted broad federal powers over interstate commerce
    Encouraged enterprise
    Court prevented states from interfering with contracts
    Court denied monopoly= competition
    Fulton's steamboat invention was patented but the actual application wasn't
    All this was to encourage the commercialization of rural areas by encouraging large-scale economic activity
     
    Commercial Agriculture in the Old Northwest
    Improvements in infrastructure made it easier for farmers to send their produce to market
    Government policy strongly encouraged western settlement
    Subsistence farming was being replaced with commercial farming as produce could get to market faster
    Commercial farming lead to regional farming
    Wheat center moved west of Appalachians= Eastern farmers had to find new crops
    Farmers regarded their farms to be temporary waiting for the price to be right before moving
    Economy became at the mercy of international prices, railroad and canal companies and the national economy= everyone's intertwined
     John Deere's steel plow an Cyrus McCormick's reaper made farms more efficient= more produce= more $$ and more risk
     
    Effects of the Transportation Revolution
    Canals and Railroads led to huge investment into America
    Catalyst for invention, innovation and change
    North made more infrastructure improvements to west= more influential than the south
     
    Jackson and His Opponents: The Rise of the Whigs
    New infrastructure improvements drove people closer together= national questions and national problems
    Jackson's dealings with these new problems of nationalism vs. sectionalism gave rise to the Whig party
     
    The Nullification Crisis
    The protective tariff was the main sectional issue between North and South
    Tariff were wanted in the North where they protected American industry
    Tariffs mad luxury goods more expensive in the South and the South faced retaliatory tariff on cotton
    With the emergence of new industries more tariffs were needed
    Tariffs were also hated in the South as Jackson, in an attempt to win Northern votes supported them.  They claimed that the tariffs were represented sectional interests, helping the North but harming the South= unconstitutional
    Slavery was also an issue especially in South Carolina where the state was in recession
    Britain had planned to emancipate all slaves
    South was alarmed; if Washington didn't mind bowing to sectional Northern interests (tariffs) then they wouldn't' hesitate to emancipate American slaves again bowing to sectional Northern interests
    These fears led to talk of nullification, the ability of a state to declare a federal law null, in South Carolina, (Virginia & Kentucky Resolves), (Hartford Convention)
    These fears were summed up in Exposition and Protest by Calhoun who wrote it anonymously so as to not offend Jackson
    Calhoun of South Carolina used his influence as Jackson's vice-president to get support for nullification
    Calhoun saw nullification as a safeguard to the right of the minority vs. Jackson who saw it as a threat to national unity= Calhoun resigns and Van Buren take over
    Nullification was practiced in South Carolina in 1832 when Congress (in spite of Jackson's urging) retained high taxes on some manufactured items.  South Carolina called an Ordinance of Nullification and declared the tariff and refused to collect the taxes required.
    South Carolina threatened to secede if Jackson used force against the state
    Congress passed the Force Bill, the federal government would collect the taxes at gunpoint if necessary
    Henry Clay saves the day
    Tariffs would be lowered for 9 years gradually (although the tariffs would rise again)
    The other Southern states intimidated by the Force Bill refuse to join South Carolina= South Carolina steps down
     
    Indian Removal
    Since Jefferson the government was to assimilate the FNP
    Also given the choice of re-location
    In the North the FNP signed all their land away
    In the South the FNP still had pockets of self governance
    The Cherokee's successfully assimilated and created a constitutional republic
    Bowing down to land-hungry whites the legislatures of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi voted to ignore the federal treaties recognizing these pockets
    Jackson agreed and thus a policy of wholesale removal of FNP was born
    The Cherokee's used the law and won a supreme court case, but the verdict was ignored
    Military used to move the FNP some forcibly to leave westwards
     
    The Bank War
    Jackson refused to renew the charter for the Second Bank of the United States= political consequences
    Opposition was known as the Whigs
    The Bank held the government money, sold government bonds, made commercial loans, and exercised control over state banks.
    The Bank demanded that all repayments to it be made in coin, therefore it stopped state banks from printing to much paper money (no single currency then).  It also restricted speculative activist such as risky loans.
    In recession the bank only demanded repayment partially in coin
    Acted as a currency stabilizer
    Westerners claimed that the bank was harmful to the expansion (speculators)
    Many feared that the rich would use it to control the economy
    The Bank decided to apply for a second charter early before election as they thought Jackson would not risk a veto on an election year they were wrong, congress approved but Jackson vetoed saying that it was unconstitutional and helped the rich
    The Bank war aroused sectional feelings (West vs. North), (poor vs. rich)
     
    Jackson's Reelection in 1832
    Jackson's veto was a great success with the poor defeating Henry Clay with his popularity
    A third party was present, the anti-Masonic Party that stood for the common people and against the Masonic cult (rich club)
    First to hold a nominating convention
    The Bank had not died yet, as the application of renewal was early, so Jackson killed it by moving all government accounts to (pet) state banks
     
    Whigs, Van Buren, and the Election of 1836
    Biddle (bank manager) in retaliation against Jackson withdrawing the governments deposits called in all l0oans= recession= everyone mad at Jackson
    The Whigs until now loosely united became a strong opposition
    The Whigs ran four sectional candidates in hopes that they would force the result into the House of Representatives= a Whig victory, they failed
    Whig failure symbolized the weakness of sectional politics
     
    The Panic of 1837
    The recession of 1833-34 was followed a speculative boom= new state banks were chartered to give out loans
    A government surplus of $37 million was distributed to the states causing inflation
    More state banks= more paper money= more inflation= Jackson's Specie Circular (government would only accept payment for public lands in hard currency)
    British banks hurt by world recession, called in their loans
    This led to the collapse of 800 banks in 1837 with $150 million in deposits
    Widespread depression= Van Buren gave opportunities to the Whigs
     
    The Second American Party System
    The First American Party System (DM vs. FEDS) was viewed as an unforunate factional squabble
    The Second American Party System, rose out of dramatic social changes caused by expansion and economic growth
    Two parties, each with at least some appeal among voters of all social classes in all sections of the country
     
    Whigs and Democrats
    Democrats represented Jefferson's yeoman farmers= widespread support in all areas
    Hatred of bank intervention, monopolies (Bank of the United States) and independence
    Disliked the change that came with the infrastrucuture revolution
    Whigs were the beneficiaries of the economic change
    Strong federal role
    Supported the Bank system
    Affiliated with the church
    Democrats appealed to workers in the cities
    Landowners liked the whig platform of a strong government in the control of the economy
     
    The Campaign of 1840
    The Whigs choose William Henry Harrison (West) of Henry Clay to be the Whig candidate
    To balance Harrison they chose John Tyler (South) his running mate
    Harrison won easily portraying Van Buren as an aristocrat
     
    The Whig Victory Turns to Loss:
    Harrison dies= Tyler becomes president
    Tyler was a former Democrat who left as he disagreed with the Jackson
    Tyler was as much anti-Jackson as he was anti-Whig, he was only chosen to run as he appealed to the sectional tastes of Southerners
     
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter10.doc12.22 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - The South and Slavery

    King Cotton and Southern Expansion
    -Slavery had long dominated southern life
    -First slave boom was when indigo, tobacco or rice was grown
    - Demand for these crops declined = slavery declined
    - However with cotton gin = slavery boom
    - Cotton was needed to clothe the newly industrial world
    - Developed a distinctive regional culture different than in the North
     
    The Cotton Gin and Expansion into the Old Southwest
    - Short-staple cotton had long been recognized as a crop ideally suited to southern soils and growing conditions but it was hard to remove the seeds from the lint
    - Cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney (interchangeable parts) = cotton boom
    - Cotton exhausted the soil quickly = new land needed
    - Cotton growing exploded on the "black belt" (western Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi) that had excellent soil
    - The "Five Civilized Tribes", the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctawas, Creeks, and Seminoles were forced to give up land
    - FNP were to be removed as they interfered with the social order
    - Weren't black slaves, but weren't white masters = kicked out
     
    The Question of Slavery
    - Southern labor system shifted from white indentured servitude to African slavery during the colonial period because servants would not perform plantation work for others when they could farm their own land
    - Britain outlaws slavery in 1807
    - All southern states banned the importation of foreign slaves after the successful slave revolt in Haiti (1791)
    - After the invention of the cotton gin slavery was needed again = smuggling in
    - Smuggling was so bad that South Carolina made it legal again
    - In 1808 USA bans American participation in the international slave trade - leads to internal slave trade
     
    The Internal Slave Trade
    - The cotton boom caused a huge increase in the domestic slave trade, plantation owners in the Upper South sold their slaves to meet the demand for labor in the new and expanding cotton-growing regions
     
    The Economics of Slavery
    - A series of inventions resulted in the mechanized spinning and weaving of cloth, combined with the invention of the cotton gin = British want cotton
    - Cotton was profitable, accounting for almost 60% of American exports
    - Southern slavery financed northern industrial development
    Cotton Culture
    - Northerners failed to recognize their economic connection to the South and increasingly regarded it as a backward region
    - Concentration on Plantation agriculture diverted energy and resources from the South's cities
    - Most of the South remained rural
    - The South also lagged behind the North in industry, and in canals and railroads
    - Exception would be the iron industry near Richmond
    - Southerners didn't industrialize because they were ignorant but because they had enough money from plantations and railroads were risky
     
    To Be a Slave
    - Grew from 700,000 in 1790 to 4 million in 1808
     
    The Maturing of the American Slave System
    - Dependence on King Cotton meant dependence on slave labor
    - All northern states had abolished slaveholding
    - Most slaves were in the Lower South where cotton was grown
    - Upper South owners sold their slaves to Lower South which needed them desperately
     
    The Challenge to Survive
    - Mortality rates for children under 5 were twice that of white children
    - Horrific treatment of too frequently pregnant women
    - Malaria, yellow fever, and cholera were endemic in the South
    - Blacks died easily due to overwork, poor diet, poor housing, and poor sanitation
     
    From Cradle to Grave
    - Slavery was a lifelong labor system
    - Southerners claimed that by clothing and housing slaves for life they were more benevolent than industrialists who fired and hired according to the market
    - Masters clothed, housed and fed slaves
    - Children learned life from parents
    - Slaves sabotaged to slow work and flattered masters 
    - masters thought slaves were dumb
    - Frederick Douglass - educated slave who led abolitionist movement
     
    House Servants
    - House slaves were better clothed
    - Masters thought that house slaves would be loyal but were wrong
     
    Artisans and Skilled Workers
    - A small number of slaves were skilled workers: weavers, seamstresses, carpenters, blacksmiths, mechanics
     
    Field Work
    - Most slaves were field workers
    - Slaves took pride in their strength - indicated their worth
    - Elderly slaves were given other tasks (caring for children)
     
    The African American Community
    - African Americans created an enduring culture of their own, that would influence white society
    - Slaves had contacts with other slaves in different plantations - able to plot
    - Whites knew that unhappy slaves were unproductive 
    - menality was to let them have two things, family and church
     
    Slave Families
    - No southern state recognized slave marriages in law
    - Masters liked marriage among slaves, believed it made men less rebellious
    - Wanted children = more slaves
    - Slave marriages were equal
    - Parents made great efforts to teach children their roots
    - Fear of separation was constant
    - Led to the beginnings of a larger community family
     
    African American Religion
    - Slaves brought religions from Africa but were not allowed to practice them
    - Whites feared religion might lead to bonds between slaves = rebellion
    - Some aspects survived in the form of roots for medicinal use by conjurers
    - 1700's - little effort to Christianize their slaves
    - might take universal brotherhood and equality too literally
    - The Great Awakening which swept the South after 1760's introduced many slaves to Christianity
    - Free Blacks founded their own independent churches and the AME 
    - African Methodist Episcopal denomination
    - Blacks found in Christianity a powerful vehicle to express their longings for freedom and justice
    - Evangelical religion of the early nineteenth century was also a powerful form of social control 
    - Masters expected Christianity to make slaves peaceful
    - Secret churches were outlawed, insisted blacks go to white churches
    - Many blacks continued to go to secret churches 
    - White churches only preached for the justification of slavery
     
    Freedom and Resistance
    - It was impossible for most slaves to escape
    - Harriet Tubman helped free 300 slaves
    - Most escapees were men
    - Most slaves ran towards the forests, and swamps and were fed by other slaves for a few weeks before returning home (protest)
     
    Slave Revolts
    - Gabriel Prosser, a literate blacksmith gathered more than a thousand slaves for an assault on Richmond - later caught and hanged
    - Denmark Vesey's (free black) conspiracy raised fears among whites concerning Black religion and the free black people
    - Wanted to raise a rebellion in Charleston and sail to Haiti
    - When some co-conspirators of the plot squealed, the slaves were able to convince their masters that they were dumb.  However the second time someone squealed they were hanged
    - Charlestonians were panicking, blamed the free blacks and destroyed the AME, where radical ideas were hatched
    - Nat Turner's revolt, his master treated him well but he still killed him
    - Turner was literate and intelligent
     
    Free African Americans
    - Most free blacks in the South were freed in the early 1800's when anti-slavery was breeding in the South and before the cotton boom
    - Most free blacks lived in the countryside of the Upper South, where they worked as tenant farmers of farm laborers
    - Urban black women did menial jobs - laundry, peddling 
    - Urban black men did blacksmithing and carpentering
    - Formed their own churches
    - Some were wealthy and even owned slaves (a small elite)
    - Free blacks could not carry firearms, could not purchase slaves (unless they were members of their own family)
    - Could not vote, serve in the militia, and be liable to whipping and summary judgments (court without jury)
     
    Yeoman and Poor White People
    - Most whites didn't own slaves
    - Usually settled the depleted areas
    - White men were always better than blacks no matter how poor
     
    Yeomen
    - A farmer who works his own land, although some had a few slaves
    - Self sufficient, usually grew small amounts of cotton to supplement their living
    - Economically independent yet tied to a larger but still very local group
    - The local community was important
    - Farmers depended on neighbors for assistance in large farm tasks
    - Used the barter system
    - Slaves were loaned to each other
    - Other than slavery these farms were like the farms in the North
    - Where slave plantations and yeomen co-existed (black belt) the plantations would buy their food form the yeomen
    - Yeomen would also grind their corn, gin the cotton and have it transported to market by the plantation
    - Only in the upcountry communities did yeomen feel truly independent
     
    Poor White People
    - 30 to 40% of white people were landless
    - Many were tenant farmers, some sons of farmers working till the father dies
    - Tenant farmers worked a landowners land, but still aspired to independence
    - Relationships between poor whites and black slaves were complex
    - Poor whites and blacks (both free and slave) worked side by side, were intimate
    - Poor whites engaged in supplying liquor to slaves which the masters prohibited
    - Poor whites sometimes insisted on their racial superiority
    - Conditions posed a threat to the racial distinction between whites and blacks
     
    Yeoman Values
    - Overwhelmingly voted for Andrew Jackson
    - Liked his outspoken policy of expansion, his appeals to the common man, and his rag-to-riches ascent from poor to rich
    - Most yeomen wanted independence and self-sufficiency rather than wealth
    - The freedom so prized by yeomen rested on slavery
    - White people made slaves perform the hardest and worst labor
     
    Planters
    - While 36% owned slaves, only 2.5% owned more than 50
     
    Small Slave Owners
    - The largest group of slave owners were small yeomen taking the step from subsistence agriculture to commercial production - needed slaves
    - Some had the slaves work the farm while they took on other jobs, or worked side by side or rented them to larger slave owners
    - Downturns or poor crops could wipe out gains and force owners to sell slaves
    - Middleclass doctors, lawyers, and merchants could easily pay for slaves 
    - start up plantations
    - By steady accumulation these were the new comers to the aristocracy
    - This was the course Andrew Jackson took (he was a prosecutor)
     
    The Old Planter Elite
    - Enjoyed the prestige, the political leadership, and the lifestyle to which many white Southerners aspired
    - Usually inherited the wealth
    - Lost political influence as the middleclass gained power and the introduction of universal male suffrage
     
    The Natchez "Nabobs"
    - As Southerners and slave owning spread westward, the elite broadened to include the new wealth of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas
     
    Plantation Life
    - Worked to create a lifestyle that was modeled on that of the English aristocracy
    - Plantations like yeomen farms aimed to be self sufficient, producing not only the cash crop but also food and clothing for both slaves and family
    - Carpentering, blacksmithing, weaving, and sewing all done on the plantation
    - Most plantation owners had overseers and black drivers to supervise but had direct financial control
    - Although some absentee landlords were existent they usually played a big role 
    - A paternalistic notion justified the plantation as the plantation was one big family, with the master as the father
    - The master was to be good to the plantation and in turn the slaves were to be good to the master
     
    The Plantation Mistress
    - In the North, women came clearly to control the domestic "sphere" and to carry domestic concerns outside the family and into a wide range of activities that addressed various social reforms
     
    Coercion and Violence
    - Most slave masters believed in coercion to make slaves work harder
    - Masters who killed slaves were sometimes brought to trial but usually acquitted
    - Many masters had intimate relationships and children with slaves
    - Very rare for owners to admit to having or free slave children
    - The master's wife was equally silent (subordinate)
     
    The Defense of Slavery
    - Blacks outnumbered whites
    - Justice vs. self-preservation
     
    Developing Proslavery Arguments
    - In the flush of freedom following the American Revolution, a number of slave owners in the Upper South freed their slaves
    - Stopped by the cotton boom
    - Southerners found justification for slavery in the Bible and in the histories of Rome and Greece
    - The Constitution allowed slavery, with the recognization of it with the 3/5th rule
    - Also stated an escaped slave in the North would be forced to be returned home
     
    After Nat Turner
    - Nat Turner's revolt caused many Southerners blame antislavery Northerners
    - Garrison published the Liberator, a leading antislavery organ in 1831
    - British free slaves in the West Indies
    - Southerners began to defend the South from antislavery literature
    - Every Southern state except for Kentucky, Tennessee, and Maryland made it illegal for slaves to read
    - Slaves were forbidden to gather
    - Most antislavery people in the South stayed silent
    - James Henry Hammond claimed that slavery was the best organization of society that had existed
    - Most Southerners were convinced that slaves were happy and free as their responsibility was borne by the masters
     
    Changes in the South
    - Most dissent came from up-country nonslaveholders
    - In Virginia nonslaveholding delegates forced a two week debate on the merits of gradual abolition
    - It became harder to become a slave holder as all slaves were "home grown" - Therefore they were becoming more expensive
    - Extensive railway building in the up-country threatened the yeomen
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter11.doc23 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Industry and the North

    Rural Life: The Springer Family
    - Example of American lifestyle, lived in Delaware
    - Delaware remained a slave state until the Civil War
    - Slaves could buy their freedom
    - Delaware was more liberal because climate could not grow cotton 
    - Springer's sold wool, milk, and butter in local markets
    - Planted and produced a diverse range of crops for their own use
    - Neighboring farmers shared their labor
    - Springer's produced goods for their own use
    - Local barter system
     
    The Family Labor System
    - Most work was done at home
    - Women did housework
    - In New England where farm surpluses were rare, home produced items were cheaper to obtain than ones from Britain or even Boston
    - Families developed skills such as shoemaking that they could do over the winter
    - No fixed prices and money rarely changed hands - this would soon change
    - Used barter system
    - The "just price" was an agreement between neighbors, not by a market
    - No fixed production schedule
    - "Home" and "work" were the same
     
    Urban Artisans and Workers
    - In urban areas skilled craftsmen had controlled preindustrial production since colonial times
    - The apprentice system
    - A boy would go work for a master
    - Journeymen were former apprentices and worked for wages saving up till they could buy their own shops
    - Worked long hours
    - No separation between work and leisure
    - Some women worked, as seamstress, cooks, and housemaids, some women even took over dead husbands shop
     
    Patriarchy in Family, Work and Society
    - An entire urban household was commonly organized around one kind of work
    - Family lived in the shop
    - Men were the boss, had all legal and voting rights
     
    The Social Order
    - Everyone had a fixed place in the social order
    - Importance was placed on rank and status
    - While many artisans were property owners, voted and participated in politics they usually didn't challenge the domination of the rich
     
    The Market Revolution
    - The most fundamental change in American communities
    - Rapid improvements in transportation, commercialization, and industrialization
    - Allowed people and goods to move fast
    - Commercialization involved the replacement of household self-sufficiency and barter with the production of goods for cash market
    - Developments turned ordinary Americans into a commercial market with abundant supplies of cheap manufactured goods
     
    The Accumulation of Capital
    - In the northern states, the business community was composed largely of merchant in the seaboard cities
    - Many had made their fortunes in the Great Shipping Boom of 1790-1897
    - The Embargo Act made all foreign trade illegal - traders turn inward
    - Most of the capital came from banks, some came from families, religious groups, etc.
    Most capital came from shipping, cotton - Northern capital came from slaves
     
    The Putting-Out System
    - Before the development of factories there was the "putting-out" system
    - People still worked at home, but a merchant would supply (put out) the materials and sold them at a distant market
    - Before this system the entire family made an entire item - no unskilled workers - Now workers made only a part of the finished product in large quantities for low per-piece wagon
    - In new factory system, family ties were severed
    - Factory system let boss employ more labor but spend the same amount of money
    - Moved production control from the hands of the poor to the rich entrepreneur
    - Shoe styles could be made to serve different markets as a result of better infrastructure
    - A national market could be formed as there were enough shoes being produced
    - The labor force could be cut back or enlarged due to flexible market conditions
    - Many workers liked this as they were paid in cash (new thing) and therefore could buy other goods instead of making themselves
     
    British and Technology and American Industrialization
    - Even more important than the "putting-out" system was industrialization
    - New England had lots of swift rivers - very condusive for mills
    -Rich merchants looking to spend capital
     
    Slater's Mill
    - British enacted laws banning machinery and skilled labor into the United States
    - Some passed through - eg. Samuel Slater, former apprentice in Britain
    - Slater built machines in USA with help of local merchants - Slater's mill
    - Slater drew workforce among children and women who were cheaper than men
    - The yarn spun at Slater's mill was then put out to local home weavers, who turned it into cloth on handlooms - weaving flourished in areas near the mill
    - After War of 1812, the British flooded the American market with cheap goods
    - Led to Tariffs which led to the Nullification crises
     
    The Lowell Mills
    - Lowell went to England and spied on machinery
    - Improved English machine design and invented the power loom 
    - Entire process from cleaning to making cloth could be done by machines in the same factory
    - This needed more capital investment than a small factory such as Slater's Mill
    - Size mattered in order to survive competition = Second Lowell Mill built the town of Lowell as a showcase (company town)
     
    Family Mills
    - Lowell was unique, no other textile Mill was such a showcase
    - Small rural spinning mills, on the model of Slater's Mill were built near swiftly running streams near existing farm communities
    - Smaller mills often hired entire families - became known as family mills
    - Children were given unskilled work, while women did medial work and men did skilled work
    - Needed an entire family's income to survive
    - Relations between the town and mill were strained
    - Argued over the placement of company schools, dams in the river and amount of company taxes
     
    "The American System of Manufactures"
    - American's pioneered the concept of the development of standard parts
    - Seen in gun making, British called it "the American System of Manufactures"
    - Standardized production soon became the norm
    - Spread slowly
    - That goods were uniform and available to everyone demonstrated that America was committed to democracy
     
    Other Factories
    - Other factories produced metal and iron
    - Depended on natural water sources - rural areas
    - Like mill factories, originally co-existed with the existing artisan system
    - The rapid development of steamship industry in Cincinnati illustrates both the role of merchant capital and the coexistence of old and new production methods
    - The foundries, engine factories and shipyards built the ships, while traditional artisans furnished the ship
    - The new concepts of specialization and standardization and the increased production they brought about were basic to the system of industrials capitalism
     
    Personal Relationships
    - The putting-out system, with its division of each craft into separate tasks, effectively destroyed artisan production and the apprenticeship system
    - Late apprenticeships no longer treated the apprentice as family and the apprentices family got money for the apprentice's work 
    - Apprenticeships were being replaced by child labor
    - Artisans who helped destroy the older system did so unwillingly, in response to harsh new competition made by new transportation
    - Artisans specialized in luxury goods while factories served the masses, though they still had to accept the putting-out system
    - Since women began working they could begin to challenge men for control of the household
    - Early factories provided room and board as well as food vs. late factories
    While conditions were harsh it was freer than the slave system, although it was often the freedom to starve
     
    Mechanization and Women's Work
    - Industrialization was a major threat to the status and independence of skilled male workers
    - Most tasks could be performed without skilled labor
    - Males began to oppose women in the workplace - threatened their jobs
    - The industrialization of textiles, first in spinning, then in weaving relieved women of time-consuming home occupations
    - Respectable women did not do factory work
    - Stayed home working in the clothing industry, relied on the "putting-out" system
     
    Time, Work, and Leisure
    - Preindustrial work had a flexibility that factory work did not, and it took factory workers a while to get accustomed to the constant pace of work
    - In preindustrial times work and leisure were mixed
    - Factory system left less time for work and made a clear distinction
     
    The Cash Economy
    - The transformation of a largely barter system into a cash economy was another marked effect of the Market Revolution
    - New cash economy changed the relationships among workers and management
    - Workers were no longer part of a settle stable community - they could be fired
    - Now free to labor wherever they could, at whatever wages avaliable
    - Many artisans moved west and tried to re-create the atmosphere
     
    Free Labor
    -The heart of the industrializing economy was the notion of free labor = strikes
     
    Early Strikes
    - Rural women workers led some of the first strikes in American labor history
    - Most strikes were unsuccessful as there was an inexhaustible pool of labor
    - The preindustrial notion of a “community of interest” between owner and workers no longer existed
    - Eventually were successful in getting a 10-hour-work-day
     
    A New Social Order
    - The market revolution reached into every aspect of life, down to the most personal family decisions.  It also fundamentally changed the social order, creating a new middle class with distinctive habits and beliefs
     
    Wealth and Class
    - Since the early colonial period, planters in the South and merchants in the North have comprised a wealthy elite
    - Small middleclass made up of teachers, doctors etc
    - Laboring poor were the majority
    - Mostly fixed society
    - The marker revolution ended the old social order, creating the dynamic and unstable one we recognize today: upper, middle, and working classes, whose members tried to go as high up as they could
    - White collar jobs made by the new society filled by the old professional class
     
    Religion and Personal Life
    - Played a key role in the emergence of the new attitudes
    - The Second Great Awakening had supplanted the orderly and intellectual Puritan religion of early New England 
    - more democratic, preached salvation through personal faith
    - New religion believed that a willingness to be saved was enough to ensure salvation
    - Charles Finney, led sermons in Rochester for the new Evangelical religion
    - Evangelicalism rapidly became the religion of the new middle class
    - Men found that evangelism's stress on self-discipline and individual achievement helped them adjust to new business conditions
    - Evangelism went with the new theory that a worker was responsible for making his own way
     
    The New Middle-Class Family
    - The market revolution and the new evangelism also affected women's roles.
    - The softer more emotional aspects of the new religion appealed to women
    - Men were more concentrated on making money while women were responsible for raising children
    - Men were expected to be steady, industrious, responsible, and attentive to business
    - Women were to be kind, moral and devoted to their families
    - Now clearly defined gender roles became a matter of social importance
    - Men were now at work more - losing control 
    - Women were at home doing domestic chores, no longer directly contributed to income
     
    Family Limitation
    - Middle-class couples chose to have fewer children than their predecessors
    - Children needed more care and would need schooling than working kids
    - Abortion was new and widely used among the middle-class
    - States soon made it illegal
     
    Motherhood
    - Child rearing had been shared in the preindustrial household
    - Boys learning farming or craft skills from dad
    - Girls learned domestic skills form mom
    - New middle-class children needed an upbringing, one that involved a long period of nurturing in the beliefs and personal habits necessary for success
    - Mothers were given the responsibility as fathers were to busy
    - Women were considered more moral
    - Children usually worked at age 15, but some were allowed to continue schooling
    - Girls were trained to be the nurturing silent "support system"
    - Women forged the distinctive social behavior of the new middle class
     
    Sentimentalism
    - Sentimentalism became a mark of middle - class status 
    - Widows were to wear mourning clothes
     
    Transcendentalism and Self Reliance
    - Middle-class men needed to feel comfortable about their public assertions of individualism and self interest
    - One source of reassurance was the philosophy of transcendentalism and its well- known spokesman, Ralph Waldo Emerson
    - A famous writer, he popularized transcendentalism
    - A romantic philosophical theory claiming that there was an ideal, intuitive reality transcending ordinary life
    - Helped the middle class forge values that were appropriate to their social roles
     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter12.doc42 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - Coming to Terms with the New Age

    The Preindustrial City
    - Wealthy enjoyed unquestioned authority
    - Merchants regulated public markets, set prices for foodstuffs
    - Same wealthy men who established watch societies to prevent disorder
     
    The Growth of Cities
    - 1820-1860 - Population living in cities increased from 7% to 20%,
    - NY grew from 60,000 in 1800 to 202,600 in 1830 and to more than 1 mil in 1860; emerged as nation’s largest port, financial center
    - Erie Canal added commerce with interior to NY’s trade
    - Philadelphia, countering the Erie Canal, financed the B&O railroad
    - Boston, emerged as center of triangular trade:
    - Boston ships carried cloth, shoes, to South, sent southern cotton to Europe, then returned to Boston with European manufactured goods
    - 1850s - New Orleans handled about half the nation’s cotton exports
    - Exports rose from 5 mil in 1815, to 107 mil
    - Railroad transformed Chicago into a major junction of water and rail transport
     
    Patterns of Immigration
    - Surge in immigration to US began in 1820s accelerated dramatically after 1830
    - By 1860 nearly half of New York’s population was foreign born
    - Most immigrants from Ireland and Germany
    - Political unrest, poor economic conditions in Germany
    - Potato Famine in Ireland
    - Clash btwn Catholic immigrants and Protestant Americans
     
    Class Structure in Cities
    - Benefits of market revolution were unequally distributed: by 1840s top 1% of pop owned about 40% of nation’s wealth; 1/3 of pop owned virtually nothing
     
    Sanitation and Living Patterns
    - Every American city suffered epidemics of sanitation-related diseases
    - cholera, yellow fever, typhus
    - Provision of municipal services forced residential segregation
    - By 1850s middles class escaped cities, moving to ‘streetcar suburbs’
    - Due to influx of European immigrants after 1830s, middle-class saw slums as homes of strange foreign people who deserved less than American born citizens
     
    Ethnic Neighborhoods
    - Slums represented family ties, familiar ways and community support to Irish
    - Irish immigrants created their own communities in Boston and NY
    - eg. parochial schools with Irish nuns
    - Mutual aid societies based on kinship or town of origin in Ireland
    - Boston American remarked “foreign population associating too exclusively with each other, living in groups together”
     
    Urban Popular Culture
    - 1820-1860, urban workers experienced:
    - replacement of artisanal labor by wage work
    - two serious depressions (1837-43, 1857)
    - vastly increased competition from immigrant labor
    - Taverns became frequent venues of riots, brawls; theaters provided another setting for violence
    - “Bowery b’hoys”; deliberately provocative way they dressed was a way of thumbing their noses at more respectable classes
    - “penny paper”, NY Post, NY Sun, (1833), fed popular appetite for scandal
    - Concerns began to arise about civic order
     
    Civic Order
    - “frolics”, members of lower classes parade through streets playing drums, trumpets, whistles, etc
    - NYC’s first response to increasing civic disorder was to hire more, watchmen, augmented by constables and marshals
    - Opposition to idea of professional police force in US; infringed personal liberty
     
    Urban Life of Free African Americans
    - More than half of free African Americans in North compete with poor immigrants and poor native-born whites
    - Residential segregation, job discrimination, civil rights limitations
    - African Methodist Episcopal (AME), one of few places where blacks could express true feelings
     
    The Labour Movement and Urban Politics
    - Universal while manhood suffrage and mass politics changed urban politics
    - Professional politicians and other changes spurred by working-class activism
     
    The Tradition of Artisanal Politics
    - Demonstration of strength and solidarity of workers’ organizations
    - Artisanal system crumbling, undercut by competition btwn cities
    - No unemployment or welfare
    - Urban workers’ associations became active defenders of working class interests
     
     
    The Union Movement
    - Workingmen’s Party, Philadelphia, 1827
    - Campaigned for the end of gov’t chartered monopolies, public school system, and cheap labor in West
    - Many principles adopted by the Jacksonian Democrats
    - Jackson against “monster” Bank of US
    - Whigs - wooed workers by saying Clay’s American System & tariff protection would be good for economy and workers’ jobs
    - Neither spoke for need of workers or for well paid, stable jobs
    - General Trades Union, several GTUS, form National Trades Union
    - Beginning of American labor movement
    - Majority of workers (women, free blacks) excluded
     
    Big-City Machines
    - As American cities grew the electorate mushroomed
    - Irish districts became Democrat strongholds
    - Germans voted Republican in 1850s
    - New York’s Tammany Society - key organisation of mass politics
    - Became a political “machine” controlled by a politician who represented interest of group, delivered votes in exchange for patronage and favors
     
    Social Reform Movements
    - Middle class passion for reform was now focused on the problems of big cities
    - Reformers joined organizations devoted to various causes
    - Reform movements depended communities of like-minded people
     
    Evangelism, Reform and Social Control
    - Evangelical religion fundamental to social reform
    - Middle class set agenda for reform
    - Large cities needed to make large-scale provisions for social misfits - institutional rather than private efforts needed
    - Belief in goodness of human nature 
    - Moralistic dogmatism
    - Temperance, uniformity in behavior rather than tolerance
    - Beecher and the General Union wanted to prevent business on Sundays
    - Workingmen angered with closure of taverns, quick to vote against Whigs
     
    Education and Women Teachers
    - Horace Mann was the Secretary of Mass. State Board of Education
    - 1827 - Mass. pioneered compulsory education by legislating that public schools be supported by taxes
    - Mann wanted friendly learning atmosphere - who better than women?
    - Low pay, community supervision, made any marriage proposal appealing
     
     
    Temperance
    - 1826 - American Society for Promotion of Temperance - largest reform org.
    - Panic of 1837, affected temperance movement
    - Men’s groups involved in working-class, women’s stressed harm to homes
     
    Moral Reform, Asylums, and Prisons
    - Reformers would “rescue” prostitutes
    - Offer salvation of religion, prayer, and temporary shelter
    - 1843 - Dorothea Dix - described how poorly insane women were treated
     
    Utopianism and Mormonism
    - Prolonged depression with Panic of 1837, belief in imminent catastrophe
    - Shakers - offshoot of Quakers
    - called for the abolishment of family,
    - union of brothers and sisters joined in equal fellowship
    - Oneida - notorious for sexual freedom, rather than celibacy, “complex marriage”
    - New Harmony, founded by Robert Owen
    - Was a manufacturing community without unemployment or poverty
    - 1830, Joseph Smith founded Church of Jesus Christ for Latter-day Saints
    - Close cooperation, hard work made Mormons successful
    - Outsiders intervened after dissention arose regarding Smith’s issue of polygamy
     
    Antislavery and Abolitionism
    - African Americans, Quakers, and militant white reformers wanted to end slavery
    - African Americans needed white allies to succeed
    - 1820 Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in Louisiana Purchase lands
     
    The American Colonization Society
    - First attempt to “solve” the problem of slavery by gradual emancipation
    - Designed by American Colonization Society (ACS), 1817
    - North religious reformers, south slave owners, Clay supporters
    - Was ineffective, by 1830, only sent 1,400 black people to colony in Liberia
     
    African Americans’ Fight Against Slavery
    - Most free blacks rejected colonization, wanted commitment to end of slavery
    - Black abolitionists Douglass, Tubman, Truth spoke at annual conventions
     
    Abolitionists
    - Led by William Lloyd Garrison, broke with gradualist persuaders of the ACS
    - 1833 - Weld, formed American Anti-Slavery Society with Garrison
    - Anti-Slavery reformers moved to Oberlin College in N. Ohio
    - North abolitionists believed a full description of the evils of slavery would lead to south slave owners freeing their slaves
     
     
    Abolitionism and Politics
    - 1830s - Various petitions for abolition of slavery rebuffed by Congress
    - 1836 - Jackson and Congress passed “gag” rule, prohibited antislavery petitions
    - John Quincy Adams denounced gag rule, it was repealed in 1844
    - Adams key in freeing of 53 slaves on Spanish ship Amistad
    - Won case against American government
    - Douglass and Garrison eventually parted ways
    - Some Quaker meetings devoted to antislavery maintained segregated seating
    - Many wanted civil equality, but not social equality
    - Majority moved towards party politics and founded the Liberal Party
    - Later becameRepublican in 1850s
     
    The Women’s Rights Movement
    - Middle-class women became involved in social reform movements
     
    The Grimké Sisters
    - Rejected slavery out of religious conviction
    - Angelina Grimké - first woman to address meeting of Mass. State Legislature
    - Sisters were criticized for speaking, because they were women
    - Sarah Grimké wrote that men and women were created equal
     
    Women’s Rights
    - Seneca Falls Convention - 1848 - first women’s rights convention
    - Women gained vote in Wyoming in 1869
    - Women challenged notion of separate spheres, public for men, home and family for women
    - Empowered by religious beliefs and activism, Seneca Falls reformers demanded end to unfair restrictions they suffered as women
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter13.doc18 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Territorial Expansion of the United States

    Exploring the West
    - By 1840 Americans had occupied all of the land East of the Mississippi River
    - All were states except for Wisconsin and Florida
    - < 60 yrs after independence, most of the population lived west of the Appalachians
     
    The Fur Trade
    - The Fur Trade spurred exploration on the continent
    - Depended on goodwill of the FNP
    - Traded in the jointly occupied Oregon Country with the Americans
    - 1820’s - American companies first able to challenge British dominance of the trans-Mississippi fur trade
    The rendezvous system:
    - Instituted by William Henry Ashley of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company
    - Trappers brought their catch of furs to trade fairs and traded them for goods transported by the fur companies from St. Louis, (guns, beads, etc) for which they traded with the FNP
    - Traders lived deep in the mountains in some sort of relationship with the local FNP
    - Many took FNP wives
     
    Government-Sponsored Exploration
    - Federal government played a major role in the exploration and development of the West
    - Jefferson influenced American westward expansion with Louisiana Purchase (1803)
    - Jefferson instructed Lewis and Clark to draw Western FNP away from British
    - Lewis and Clark expedition set a precedent for many government-financed expeditions
    - Many expeditions were quasi military aimed a scaring off British traders
    - Government published the results of these expeditions - later publications had photos
    - Fed public appetite for exploration
    - Land Ordinance of 1785 - dictated how the Fed. Govt sold lands 
    - extended all the way to the pacific = lots of government surveyors
    - The Fed. Govt sold lands cheaply and gave away land to veterans of 1812
    - Also paid for Indian removal and established forts which protected white settlers
     
    Expansion and Indian Policy
    - FNP were moved to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska)
    - Regarded as unfarmable
    - Jefferson’s said this would allow the FNP to live quietly and learn “civilized” ways
    - He failed to predict the speed of settlement = encroachment of Indian Territory - Began with the establishment of the Santa Fe trail (1821)
    - 1854 - Govt abolished the northern section on the Indian territory which became the Kansas and Nebraska Territories
    - Northern FNP were given smaller reservations or allotments of land - pressured to sell
    - FNP had no land
    - Southern FNP fared better
    - Established self-governing nations with schools and churches
    - Brought slavery with them = plantations
    - Settlers ignored the “Indian Problem” which dealt with Western tribes as the Western tribes had nowhere to go = Indian war = small reservations for Indians
     
    The Politics of Expansion
    - America’s rapid expansion had many consequences, but perhaps the most significant was that it reinforced Americans’ sense of themselves as pioneering people
    - Instilled a pioneering, adventurous and optimistic attitude into the people
    ~ Frederick Jackson Turner”
     
    Manifest Destiny, an Expansionist Ideology
    - Newspaperman Sullivan argued it was America’s destiny to spread democracy
    - After the panic of 1837 many politicians believed that the nation’s prosperity depended on expanded trade with Asia
    - Manifest destiny was evangelical religion on a larger scale
    - Democrats (Sullivan included) supported expansion
    - Whigs opposed it as they feared it would lead to the extension of slavery
    - Whigs supported Govt guidance in settling within the country’s existing limits
    - Democrats despised the factory system and large cities - many moved west
     
    The Overland Trails
    - Land trip was cheaper than sea
    - Settlers were drawn by success stories, and to escape the malaria prone mid-west
    - “It was pioneer’s search for an ideal home”
    - Wagon trains - groups of settlers forming a community for the trip
    - Complete with informal elected leaders
    - FNP attack was slim
    - Most deaths were from whites attacking FNP
    - Death toll was higher on the FNP side
    - Chlorea killed thousands
    - Wagon train members lent support to each other
    - The transcontinental railroad ended the wagon train tradition
     
    Oregon
    - First contact with FNP was commercial (fur traders) 
    - Relationships were generally good, often sexual
    - Convention of 1818 - British and Americans agreed to jointly occupy the region
    - HBC clearly dominated the region
    - First settlement was the HBC fort, Fort Vancouver
    - Fort Vancouver exemplified a “frontier of inclusion”
    - First permanent settlers were retired fur trappers with their FNP wives
    - Missionaries followed (but they generally failed)
    - Second wave consisted of patriotic Americans which eventually numbered 5000
    - Oregoners had their own constitution, banned blacks
    - Blacks settled north of the Columbia as a result
    - Polk campaigned on 54.40, but eventually compromised over 49th lat.
    - British wound up their ailing fur trade and moved to Victoria
    - Donation Land Claim Act - 320 acres of land to white males age 18+, 640 for couples
    - The 2nd community was that of exclusion
     
    The Santa Fe Trade
    - Under Spanish control, Americans were not welcome - their explorers were captured
    - After Mexican independence (1821) Americans were welcomed
    - Trail from Santa Fe to Independence was dangerous
    - Unlike Oregon trail FNP attack was frequent
    - Early American traders of Santa Fe married local women = society of inclusion
    - Communities were a hodgepodge or races
     
    Mexican Texas
    - Class structure = Spanish decent versus poor
    - Comanches used the horse effectively to hunt buffalo and raid Mexico
     
    Americans in Texas
    - Mexican government created a buffer zone against the FNP by granting Texas to Austin
    - In Santa Fe, whites settled on FNP land and in Oregon they settled on British land
    - The settlement of Texas was actually legal
    - Austin agreed that all settlers of Mexico would become Catholic and Mexican citizens
    - Went against the American values of citizenship and Protestantism
    - Instead of the usual free-for-all of Austin handpicked his settlers
    - Soon Americans with black slaves outnumbered the Tejanos
    - Economy was based on highly organized communities growing cotton
     - Most Americans ignored converting to Catholicism or becoming Mexican citizens
    - Since they were on Mexican land they couldn’t set up American style governments like the settlers had done in Oregon
     
    The Texas Revolt
    - Centrists gained control of the govt in Mexico City 
    - Dramatic change of policy - decided to take firm control over the N. province
    - New govt restricted U.S. immigration, banned slavery, & levied customs duties & taxes
    - Americans angry because: They couldn’t get land grants
    - Were prone to restrictions on trade because of Mexican customs regulations
    - Difficulties in understanding Hispanic law, as well as race
    - War breaks out
    - Santa Anna crushes Americans at the Alamo
    - He is in turn defeated Houston 
    = Treaty - stakes the border at the Rio Grande
    - Mexican Congress refuses to acknowledge treaty 
    - Turns down Andrew Jackson’s offer of purchase
     
    The Republic of Texas
    - Americans proclaimed the “Republic of Texas”
    - Land between the Rio Grande and the Nueces River remained disputed territory
    - Mexicans saw American attempts to annex this territory as the first step in the conquest of New Mexico
    - Northerners refused to accept the Republic of Texas as the 14th State
    - Jackson supported Texas but didn’t have the power to quell the controversy 
    - He could only extend diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas
    - Rich Tejanos and Americans co-existed uneasily
    - Comanche and Apache tribes raided with impunity
     
    Texas Annexation and the Election of 1844
    - Martin Van Buren succeeded Andrew Jackson as president
    - Too cautious to raise the Texas issue
    - Texans sought Britain’s support and continued to press for annexation to the States
    - Tyler (Whig) raised the issue of annexation in hopes to ensure his reelection
    - Strategy backfired when Sec. of State John Calhoun woke up sectional fears by stating that the South needed to extend slavery into Texas for survival 
    - Northerners refuse to support Tyler 
    - Tyler ousted from Whig party
    - Henry Clay becomes the presidential candidate
    - Clay favored annexation but only if Mexico approved
    - This would be ridiculous - Clay was seen as not alienating anyone
    - In the Democrat party, Van Buren was replaced by James Polk for the candidate
    - Polk won by a slim margin due to opposition vote splitting btwn Whig & Liberty parties
    - One of Tyler’s last acts as president was to push through Congress a joint resolution (didn’t need Senate’s approval necessary for treaties) for the annexation of Texas
    - 3 months later the Texas congress approved annexation 
    - Texas becomes the 15th slave state (Florida had just joined the USA)
     
    The Mexican-American War
    - 1846 - Polk successfully added Oregon (South of the 49th) to the USA
    - After the Mex-Amn War he gained Mexico’s provinces of California and New Mexico
     
    Origins of the War
    - After controversy in Oregon began dying down, things in Texas were heating up again
    - USA supported the Texan claim that Texas extended all the way to the Rio Grande 
    - Border dispute
    - Polk sends Taylor with troops to “defend” Texas
    - Also instructs Pacific Squadron to seize Californian ports if war breaks out
    - John C Fremont  - federally commissioned explorer - arrived with a band of armed men
    - Kicked out - went to Oregon
    - Came back to Oregon in time for the Bear Flag Revolt 
    - Fremont and American settlers in California declare independence from Mexico
    - Polk also sends secret envoy to Mexico offering to buy disputed land in Texas, California and New Mexico for 30 million
    - Envoyed is dismissed, Taylor is ordered South of the Rio Grande 
    - Skirmish
    - Polk tells Congress that Taylor was attacked = war
     
    Mr. Polk’s War
    - America was divisive
    - Whigs (including Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk’s account of the border incident
    - Saw the border incident as a Southern plot to extend slavery
    - Asked why Polk would settle for part of Oregon, but fight for a slave state
    - Massachusetts legislature passed a resolution condemning the war as unconstitutional
    - Polk took on the overall military strategy - later taken on by Lincoln
    - Sent Taylor south into N.E. Mexico
    - Colonel Kearny went to New Mexico and California
    - Kearny had Santa Fe surrender
    - At California he took California with the help of Fremont and the Navy
    - Polk thought that his success up north would force Mexico to negotiate - WRONG
    - Santa Anna is repulsed by Scott at Buena Vista
    - Scott takes Veracruz easily, but then takes another 6 months to get to Mexico City
    - Treaty of Guadalupe - Hidalgo ceded California and New Mexico, 
    - Border of Texas = Rio Grande
    - Mexico paid 15 million in retribution along with 2 million in personal claims
    - Polk was furious with the terms, after Scott’s victory he wanted all of Mexico
    - Whigs were already against the war
    - Southerners opposed letting a large Mexican population join
    - Gasden Purchase (1853) - added 30,000 more sq miles
     
    The Press and Popular War Enthusiasm
    - First war in which regular, on-the-scene reporting by representatives of the press caught the mass of ordinary citizens, thanks to the telegraph
    - Reporters shaped the peoples attitudes, not politicians - beginnings of media influence
     
    California and the Gold Rush
    - Up until 1840 California was mostly made up of FNP and Spanish decedent settlers
    - A few American traders and settlers even after the war
    - Gold rush changed this
     
    Russian-Californian Trade
    - Russians were the first outsiders in Mexico
    - Spanish officials insisted on isolation
    - Evaded as trade flourished with New England traders, and the Russian American Fur Company
    - Fort Ross was established by the Russians to better access this trade
    - After Mexican Independence (1821) California was open to trade to everyone
    Early American Settlement
    - Johann Sutter - settled in California in 1839 - became Mexican citizen
    - Held a land grant which centered at Sutter’s Fort
    - Early pioneers who choose California over Oregon (the usual destination) settled near Sutter’s Fort, aware that they were interlopers in Mexican territory
    - These Americans banded together at Sonoma in the Bear Flag Revolt with Fremont declaring independence in 1848
    - California was seen as a backwoods, but Polk saw the potential of the great harbors to facilitate trade with Asia
     
    Gold!
    - First spotted by Sutter’s mill employees - GOLD RUSH!!!
    - Word spread quickly - 1849 - Gold rush started in earnest
    - 80% were Americans, the rest were Mexicans (13%), Europeans and Asians
    - Chinese competition aroused hostility = taxes on Chinese
    - San Francisco grew from 1,000 people in 1848 to 35,000 people in 1950
    - Tons of money to be had in feeding, clothing and houses in the miners
    - California was admitted as a state in 1850
     
    Mining Camps
    - Most mining camps were deserted when the gold was gone, not San Francisco
    - Conditions were dreary
    - Most men never made it rich 
    - Became wage earners for large mining companies (could afford to go deeper)
    - Women became prostitutes or domestic servants
     
    The Politics of Manifest Destiny
    - Between 1845 - 1848 the USA grew 70% territorially
    - Manifest Destiny soon became the dominant issue in national politics
     
    The “Young America” Movement
    - Americans thought that their democracy would sweep the world
    - 1848 - Italy, Germany, Hungary, France, Austria all had democratic revolutions
    - President Franklin Pierce dispatched Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan to trade
    - “Young American Movt” (Democrats) - wanted to expand south into Mexico
    - Polk wanted to intervene in the 1848 Mexican Civil War - Rebuffed by Congress
    - Rumoured to have offered Spain $100 million for Cuba
     
    The Wilmot Proviso
    - North wanted no more expansion as this would upset the norm of the slavery question - Although this was before the Mexican war, this attitude stayed the same after
    - Wilmot, a Northern Democrat, proposed all new territories from Mexico would be free - Led to S. Democrats & Whigs voting against N. Democrats & Whigs in debate - Beakdown of the party system
    - No party could stand up, as they were both fractured by sectional interests
    The Free-Soil Movement
    - Why did Wilmot propose his measure?
    - Was a northern Democrat, not propelled by ideology but by the pressure of practical politics
    - Liberty Party - 1846 - denied Henry Clay the from the White House by vote splitting 
    - Many northerners were anti-slavery
    - Liberty Party was not radical for most Northerners = Wilmot was trying to compromise
    - The Liberty party proposed that only non-slave holders could hold office and that slaves would not be used in federal construction projects
    - Liberty party was anti-black, not anti-slavery
    - This sentiment was turned into the Free Soil Party
     
    The Election of 1848
    - California, New Mexico and Texas were all now part to the USA
    - Would slavery be allowed in these new territories?
    - Lewis Cass of Michigan became the Democratic nominee (Polk was sick)
    - Cass proposed that the citizens of the new territories would decide 
    - Echoed Jeffersonian faith that the common man could vote in his self interests
    - This would be no different as the territorial legislatures were just as divisive
    - Whigs turned to Zachary Taylor the war hero to be their candidate
    - Taylor was from Louisiana and a slaveholder
    - Refused to support the Wilmot Proviso
    - Privately he opposed the expansion of slavery, publicly evaded the issue
    - Vagueness of the two candidates led some Northerners to support the Free Soil Party
    - Led by former president Martin Van Buren
    - Van Buren was angry at the Democratic party for passing him over in 1844 
    - Also displeased of the growing Southern dominance of the Democrat Party
    - Ran as a spoiler, eventually causing Cass to lose
    - Zachary Taylor won, but died shortly after
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter14.doc25.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - The Coming Crisis

    - Lincoln/Douglas debates showed the sectional divides that appeared in the mid 1800’s
    - Lincoln - Abolition
    - Douglas - Pro-Slavery
     
    America in 1850
    - Economically, culturally, and politically, Americans had a strong sense of identity
     
    Expansion and Growth
    - America is hugely expanding
    - Through war / diplomacy, country triples in size from 890,000 to 3,000,000 mi2
    - Population grows from 5.3 mil to 23 mil (4 mil Blacks, 2 mil Immigrants)
    - Cotton still #1 export, but manufacturing has grown in the Northeast
    - Railway systems opened the door for rich farmland
    - As South’s share in the economy waned, so did it’s political importance
    - Undermined the role of the slave South in national politics
     
    Cultural and Social Issues
    - Many forms of media availiable to the masses
    - Increasingly becoming less Jacksonian
    - This time period became known as the “American Revolution”
    - Series of famous books and plays written 
    - Includes Moby Dick (Melville) and Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Beecher Stowe)
    - Cabin became an instant bestseller
    - Called to action after Fugitive Slave Law (1850)
     
    Political Parties and Slavery
    - No solution to south because things were becoming increasingly sectional
    - No more appealing to a nation with big sectional differences
    - Sectional differences began to split apart Whigs and Democrats
    - Slavery disagreements also began to split religious groups 
    - Presbyterians (1837), Baptists (1845), Methodists (1844)
     
    States’ Rights and Slavery
    - John C. Calhoun argued that slaveowners, as a minority, should have full access to territories because territories are property of both the North and the South
     
    Northern Fears of “The Slave Power”
    - “The Slave Power” - a small oligarchy of slave owners who run the southern economy, politics, and society
    - James Birney felt this was a conspiracy against the federal government
     
     
    Two Communities, Two Perspectives
    - Southerners wanted expansion into Cuba and supported the Mexican-American War because they were running out of land in which to expand the slave system
    - Free Soilers - Believe in the liberty of all
    - South - Believed in the freedom to own slaves as property and as a way of life
    - Both groups wanted to expand
    - South did not want exposure to abolitionist literature
    - Accused the North of helping slaves escape and revolt
    - Northern View - South: Blocked work for other whites because of plantations
    - North: Freedom for all
    - Southern View - South: Owning slaves was a right and a way of life
    - North: Practiced “wage slavery” and were hypocrites
    - These conflicted views brought questions of unity to the divided country
     
    Compromise of 1850
    - Question arose if new states admitted to the Union should be slave or free
     
    Debate and Compromise
    - Henry Clay (West), John C. Calhoun (South) and Daniel Webster (North) met in Congress to discuss a Compromise
    - Stephen Douglas brought it all together and ended up pushing it through Congress
    - The Compromise - California admitted as a Free State
    - Former Mex. territories use pop. sovereignty (vote by inhabitants)
    - Texas cedes land to New Mexico, govt assumes $10 mil debt
    - Slave trade but not slavery ended in the District of Columbia
    - Stronger Fugitive Slave Laws
    - Union is saved for a while
    - Sectional animosity grew and Southern Whigs and Northern Democrats lost popularity
     
    The Fugitive Slave Act
    - Northerners helped slaves escape from the South to freedom
    - Free blacks were captured by Slave Catchers and taken into captivity
    - Even free blacks had no rights
    - Northerners upset
    - Southerners upset because the Northerners were stealing their slaves
    - New laws said slaves had the right to trial and it was illegal to help fugitives
    - However, it was illegal for slaves to speak in their own defense
    - Northerners still helped blacks escape when captured until Thomas Sims was escorted South in a federal ship
    - 1850’s - 322 blacks send South to slavery, only 11 declared free
    - Frederick Douglas - famous black anti-slavery writer and orator
    - In effect, the Fugitive Slave Law made slavery a nationally accepted institution
     
     
     
    Election of 1822
    - Whigs elect a pro-North leader (William Seward) and lose their Southern friends
    - Democrats choose Pierce, who appeals to Free-Soilers and Immigrants
    - Used the platform “Faithful Execution” of all parts of the Fugitive Slave Law
    - He ends up winning the election
     
    “Young America”: The Politics of Expansion
    - Many young politicians used “Manifest Destiny” as an excuse to try to conquer Central America and Cuba
    - Filibusters - from the Spanish word for “adventurer” or “pirate”
    - Invaded countries with the declared intention of extending slave territory
    - Quickly lost favour
    - It was Stephen Douglas, not the Young America expansionists, who eventually reignited the slavery expansion debate
     
    The Crisis of the National Party System
    - 1854 - Douglas introduces the Kansas-Nebraska Act
    - Kansas was at the time just a large reservation
    - Douglas advocated taking Indian land to construct a railway
    - Ended up killing the Whigs and eventually the Democrats as well
     
    The Kansas-Nebraska Act
    - Douglas wanted to use the railway to expand American democracy and commerce
    - Wanted the rail line to end in Chicago in his home state of Illinois instead of St. Louis
    - Though he would appeal to the South by letting slavery be decided by pop. Sovereignty
    - In effect, this bill repealed the Missouri Compromise (no slavery N of 36o30’)
    - Bill passed but badly strained the political parties
     
    Bleeding Kansas
    - Kansas soon became a battleground where pro- and anti-slavery settlers were poured in so that they could affect the votes illegally
    - Contrast of settlers, “Border Ruffians” and pure northerners
    - John Brown - high-profile anti-slavery fighter
    - Led a marauding band of fighters trying to free slaves and kill owners
     
    The Politics of Nativism
    - North = anti-immigration after Democrats received many of the Irish and Catholic votes
    - New “American” Party represented these views
    - Whigs felt that immigration brought poor people who drained the economy
    - Party was made up of mostly white, blue-collar workers
    - Soon became known as the “Know-Nothings”
    - Republican party formed in 1854 from ex-Whigs, Free-Soilers and Know-Nothings
    - Gained support from merchants and industrialists
     
     
    The Republican Party and the Election of 1856
    - James Buchanan was selected to run for the Democrats because he appealed to both the North and the South Democrats
    - Republicans beat the American Party, but as they were a sectional party they still lost
    - Voter turnout was 79%, one of the highest ever
    - Buchanan failed as President and this led to the Civil War
    - Election showed Americans’ interest for Nation over Section
    - North opted for anti-Slavery over Nativism
     
    The Differences Deepen
    - Sectional arguments continued to rise more and more
    - One Congressman even went so far as to beat another with his cane in Congress
    - Each thought the other was ridiculous
     
    The Dred Scott Decision
    - Dred Scott - Slave to a field surgeon in the South
    - While on an assignment in Illinois (free), he married and had a child
    - Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that no black was a citizen and threw out the case
    - Shows how the South controlled the courts
    - Made the North question the laws
    - An attempt was made to grant blacks suffrage, but this was shot down
    - Lincoln and Seward accused Buchanan of conspiring with the southern Supreme Court
     
    The Lecompton Constitution
    - 1855 - Illegal voting gives a hugely lopsided pro-Slavery outcome
    - Free-soilers protest and form their own government at Topeka
    - Proslavery govt makes their own constitution, and Kansas seemes destined to join the Union as the 16th Slave State
    - Stephen Douglas defies Buchanan and votes against the constitution
    - Insisted that the vote must be determined by fair elections
    - Kansas refused admission under the Lecompton constitution
     
    The Panic of 1857
    - Short but sharp economic depression in 1857 and 1858
    - Britain temporarily turns down agricultural exports
     
    John Brown’s Raid
    - Though he would make a giant slave uprising at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia
    - Didn’t tell any slaves so it failed miserable
    - Ended up dying as a martyr for the cause
    - Widely supported by the North, which led to the South to finally begin talk of leaving
     
    The South Secedes
    - By 1860 the Whigs had collapsed due to sectional differences
    - William Seward called it an “irrepressible conflict”
     
    The Election of 1860
    - Republicans planned to carry all the states won by Frémont in 1856, plus PA, IL, and IN
    - Leading candidates were Seward and Lincoln - Lincoln won
    - 4 Candidates - clearly a sectional battle
    - Lincoln = North / Breckenridge = South / Douglas = Middle / Bell = Vague
    - Republicans claimed to represent freedom while not being radical
    - Republicans won the German immigrants votes
    - South was fell of rumours of Slave Revolts and passionate for secession
     
    The South Leaves the Union
    - After Lincoln won, the South seceded from the Union
    - SC, Miss, Fla, Ala, Geo, Lou, and TX were the first to go
     
    The North’s Political Opinions
    - Lincoln agreed to be firm but not give in to slavery
    - Should go free in peace
    - Too many people valued the Union
    - Lincoln waited for the South to strike the first blow
     
    Establishment of the Confederacy
    - South’s capital became Montgomery, Alabama
    - Constitution was the same as the United States, but with some crucial exceptions
    - Made the abolishment of slavery essentially impossible
    - Montgomery Convention made Jefferson Davis as President, Alexander Stephens VP
     
    Lincoln’s Inauguration
    - Showed signs of moderation while remaining firm
    - Resigned to the fact that while he did not want to fight, he would have to
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter15.doc33.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Civil War

    - North and South blamed each other for the breakup of the Union
    - Davis and Lincoln prayed for peace in their inaugural addresses but positioned for war
    - Ft. Sumter was claimed by both North and South; was low on supplies
    - Lincoln sent a food-only relief force but no military aid to the fort
    - Davis sent Gen. Beauregard to demand a surrender or otherwise attack
    - Confederates won
    - South had no problem getting recruits, spoke passionately about resisting tyranny, etc
    - North originally turned away many would-be recruits, including blacks
    - 1st secession took 7 Deep South states out of the Union (Dec. 20, 1860)
    - 1861 - VA, MD, TN, NC join the South
    - Richmond and Washington (capitals) less than 100 mi apart
    - Maryland was divided as to which side to support
    - Riots, etc between the factions
    - Lincoln declared martial law in Baltimore and stationed Union troops
    - Lincoln justified unconstitutional acts as necessary for National security
    - Battle of Bull Run @ Manassas Creek, VA
    - 35,000 Union soldiers - confident of victory
    - 25,000 Confederate soldiers led by Gen. Beauregard (from Ft. Sumter)
    - 2,300 reinforcements arrived for confederates - won battle
    - Civil War claimed more lives than WWI + WWII - 620,000 - 1/4 soldiers died
    - North - 2.5 x South’s population (22 mil : 9 mil - includes 3.5 mil slaves)
    - 9x industrial capacity
    - 97% of America’s firearms, 71% of railways, 94% of cloth and 90% of footwear
    - This proved decisive - final numbers = 2 mil soldiers (N) : 800,000 (S)
    - South - was a defensive war, Southeners were fighting for their homes
    - North had to invade South and then defeat guerilla opposition
    - Better military leadership - eg. Robert E. Lee 
    - Lincoln offered Lee command of the Union army but was declined
    - COTTON!
     
    Lincoln’s Presidency
    - Lincoln appointed other Republicans to his cabinet due to lack of national contacts
    - Not easy because the Republicans were still made up of various factions
    - Broke precedent when he called up militias, ordered naval blockades and expanded the military budget without Congressional support
    - Took a moderate approach because he eventually wanted reconciliation with the South
    - War Dept needed to feed, clothe, and arm 700,000 Union soldiers
    - Complexity of this task linked battlefront with home front on a huge scale
    - Lincoln believed Congress, not the President, should direct economic policy
    - Turned to bankers, merchants etc for aid in financing the war
    - In the end the US had borrowed $2.6 billion for the war effort
    - 1st example of mass financing of a war
    - Legal Tender Act - Feb 1862 - created paper money, or the “greenback”
    - Morrill Tariff Act (1861) - along with other acts, raised tariffs by more than 2x previous
    - Civil War resulted in the accumulation of strength by the Fed. Govt
    - Britain and France would not recognise the South as a legitimate nation
    - Britain disapproved of slavery, found other sources of cotton (Egypt, India, etc)
    - Sec. of State William Steward had to make sure no one recognised the South
    - Jefferson Davis needed to create a unified nation from the 11 loosely grouped states
    - Appeal to each state’s equality - appointed reps from each state to cabinet, etc
    - South withheld cotton from the market, British and French responded indignantly
    - Once the Union naval blockade took effect, cotton was not so powerful after all
    - South could not finance the war - printed too much money and had runaway inflation
    - Many people purchased substitutes to serve in the war for them
    - Many southerners were against tyranny, but more loyal to state than the confederation
     
    - Anaconda Plan - Hoped to squeeze the South by blockading the Mississippi and the sea
    - Hoped South would accept defeat and surrender
    - Lincoln liked the basics of the plan 
    - Public wanting a fight led to disaster at Bull Run
    - Peninsular Campaign - 120,000 troops hoped to intimidate Richmond into surrender
    - Seven Days Battles - Gen. Lee’s counterattack to the Peninsular campaign
    - 2nd Bull Run @ Manassas (Aug 1862) - Lee routed Union army led by Gen. John Pope
    - Maryland was stalemated - Union victory at Antietam (Sept 1862)
           - Confederate victory at Fredericksburg (Dec 1862)
    - Each side too strong to lose, not strong enough to win
    - Ulysses S. Grant established Union control of much of the west
    - Shiloh (April 1862) - Although outnumbered, Grant forced a Confederate surrender
    - Huge losses on both sides
    - Davis was more concerned about Richmond’s defense; did not reinforce against Grant
    - Led to Confederate losses at Memphis and eventually Vicksburg
    - Far West was secured by the Union despite Confederate resistance
    - Hostilities in the west between natives and paranoid whites showed that everyone was affected by the Civil War
     
    -Naval blockade was intended to cut off trade between the South and the rest of the world
    - Initially unsuccessful, Southern blockade runners evaded Union ships with ease
    - As the war went on more and more ships were stopped
    - Merrimac (renamed Virginia) vs Monitor - duel between ironclads - no clear winner
     
    - Slaves began to seek refuge behind Union lines
    - Effectively robbed the South of its workforce 
    - By the end of the war, more than 1 million blacks had deserted to the Union
    - Lincoln originally did not want to address the issue of slavery
    - Eventually decided to issue an Emancipation Proclamation
    - After Antietam he declared that unless the rebel states returned, their slaves were free
    - Jan 1, 1863 - Lincoln freed all the rebel slaves, but kept it in the North
    - These changes were already in action in the south
    - 13th Amendment - Outlawed slavery throughout the United States
     
    - As part of the Proclamation, Lincoln gave his support to black recruitment for the war
    - All-black regiments were often led by whites
    - Black performance in battle helped change the general perceptions about them
    - Led to the abolishment of much of the segregation existing
    - Southerners hated and feared black soldiers and treated them very poorly
     
    - New equipment (Springfield & Enfield rifles) was more accurate and had longer range
    - Generals were slow to adjust, rather, they relied on huge masses of soldiers
    - Disease killed many of the soldiers 
    - Both North and South were unprepared to handle the enormous need
    - Many women became nurses in the Union army
    - Although the South never had an organisation like the Sanitary Commission, women still helped with the war effort
    - Most volunteer nurses were still men
    - Unauthorized absense was a problem - cut Confederate army by 1/3 or 1/2 at Antietam
    - During the war some factions wanted peace - eg. Copperheads, Peace Democrats
    - Lincoln subjected the leaders to martial law and exiled one leader
     
    - While some Northern industries suffered (textiles, shoes) others boomed during the war (ship building, bootmaking, woolen goods)
    - During the war the North suffered an inflation rate of almost 80% - 3x normal
    - Much social tension caused by conscription
    - Very common to purchase substitutes
    - “A rich man’s war but a poor man’s fight”
    - Civil War made urban problems worse and increased the contrast between rich and poor
    - Due to blockades and a poor transportation system, food prices in the South rose 9000%
    - Riots broke out and much conflict ensued between the rich and the poor
    - Even Davis’ vice-president Alexander Stephens wanted and suggested peace
     
    - Chancellorsville ( May 1863) - Lee daringly divides his forces and catchs Union by suprise, a victory that moves him to begin an offensive at Gettysburg
    - Gettysburg (July 1863) - Confederates are slaughtered but not pursued, Lincoln angry
    - Vicksburg (Independance Day 1863) - Tightens North’s grip on the South, dissuaded Britain and France from getting involved, and checked the Northern peace movement
    - Grant appointed general in chief of all Union forces
    - He and Sherman wanted to inflict as much damage as possible on Southern life
    - Sherman wanted to make the Southerners sick of war and demoralized
     
    - In the Election of 1864, Northern candidates included Lincoln, Salmon P. Chase and George McClellan
    - After Sherman captured Atlanta Lincoln’s popularity soared
    - Grant’s strategy was to pound the South into submission
    - By Spring 1865, public support for the war in the South was non-existent
    - Lee surrendered to Grant at Appotamattox Court House
    - April 14, 1865 - Lincoln shot by John Wilkes Booth at the Ford Theater in Washington
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter16.doc30.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Reconstruction

    The Politics of Reconstruction
    - Civil War killed 600,000 + soldiers, wounded 470,000 +
    - War destroyed slavery, but not racism
    - New “United States” was now a singular, not plural, entity
    - Federal govt took precedence over individual states
    - Key issue of Reconstruction: how fed govt would relate with Confed and freed states
     
    The Defeated South
    - By 1865, the South’s most precious commodities, cotton & slaves, no longer valuable
    - Took a generation for South’s economy to recover from the civil war
    - 1860 - South = 25% of US’s wealth; 1870 - South = 12%
    - White southerners hated the idea of emancipation - led to tons of racism in the South
     
    Abraham Lincoln’s Plan
    - Lincoln based his plan for Reconstruction on bringing seceded states back quickly
    - Promised that when a Confed state’s voters reached 10% of those who had voted in 1860, they would be allowed to form a legitimate govt.
    - 10% plan
    - New govt had to negotiate the abolishment of slavery
    - Not a plan for Reconstruction - a bid to gain white support for emancipation
    - Wade-Davis bill - required 50% of white males in a state to take a loyalty oath before state’s constitution could be re-written
        - guaranteed equality before the law for former slaves
        - threatened Lincoln’s attempts to win Southern support - he vetoed it
    - No one was quite sure how to redistribute Southern land among former slaves
    - Gen. Benjamin F. Butler transformed slaves into paid labourers
    - Gen. William T. Sherman set aside some land exclusively for freed peoples
    - 40 acres of land + loaned army mules
    - March 1885 - Freedmen’s Bureau made to look after matters pertaining to freed slaves
    - Jan 1885 - 13th Amendment - promised no slavery would exist within the United States
    - Lincoln’s assassination left the issue of reconstruction to a racist, Andrew Johnson
     
    Andrew Johnson and Presidential Reconstruction
    - Appointed by Lincoln because he was the only Southern senator to remain loyal
    - nominated for VP in ‘64 to appear to Northern and border “War Democrats”
    - Johnson believed Reconstruction was the responsibility of the executive, not legis.
    - Granted ~ 100 pardons per day in Sept. 1865 - gratified him and reinforced class bias
    - Used the term “Restoration” rather than “Reconstruction”
    - Wanted to build coalition of N. Democrats, conservative Republicans, & S. Unionists
    - Opposed political rights for freedmen
     
    The Radical Republican Vision
    - Radicals firmly believed in equality in rights/opportunities for everyone
    - Felt reconstruction needed a strong federal govt
    - Disliked discriminating laws like the “black codes” in SC, MS, and Louis.
    - Black codes reflected the Southerners’ unwillingness to adapt
    - Radicals gained support from other Republicans suspicious of the whites in the South
    - 1865 - 39th Congress discovered old Confederates were back in power and that blacks needed new protections - Two Bills Passed as a result:
    - Civil Rights Bill - granted blacks full citizenship
        - overturned Dred Scott decision
        - made everyone born in the US an American citizen
        - did not include Indians
        - gave equal legal rights
    - Congress also promised to give the Freedmen’s Bureau more authority
    - Johnson vetoed both bills because he was a racist bastard
    - Denounced the use of national power to protect black civil rights
    - Johnson denounced Radicals as “anti-Unionists”
    - Moderate and Radical Republicans united to override the vetoes
    - June 1866 - 14th Amendment - included former slaves as national citizens
    - Republicans used this as their platform in the 1866 Congressional elections
    - Huge Republican majorities led for an inevitable conflict - President vs. Congress
     
    Congressional Reconstruction and the Impeachment Crisis
    - Mar 1867 - 1st Reconstruct. Act - divided South into 5 military areas with martial law
    - Several laws passed to limit Johnson’s power
    - Tenure of Office Act - President could not remove officeholder w/o Senate approval
    - Johnson tried to replace Edwin M. Stanton with Ulysses S. Grant
    - Congress overruled this and Grant openly broke with Johnson
    - Using the violation of the Tenure of Office Act, Congress voted to impeach Johnson
    - 126-47; 11 counts of high crimes and misdemeanors
    - Johnson was eventually aquitted by a vote of 35-19, one shy of the 2/3 majority needed
     
    The Election of 1868
    - Summer 1868 - Seven former Confed States had been readmitted
    - Republicans nominated Ulysses S. Grant; Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour
    - War Hero vs. Racist sectionalist
    - KKK terrorized Southern voters
    - 500,000 + blacks voted Republican
    - Feb 1869 - 15th Amendment - Universal Male Suffrage granted
    - Ratifed Feb 1870 - On the surface, Reconstruction was complete
     
    Woman Suffrage and Reconstruction
    - American Equal Rights Association (1866) - lobbied for no racial/sexual restrictions
    - Radical groups led by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cody Stanton pushed for a 16th Amendment guaranteeing woman’s suffrage
    - Woman suffragists eventually split into two factions
    - AWSA = more moderate; NWSA - more radical
    - Defeated due to the failure of Radical Reconstruc. and the ideal of expanded citizenship
     
    The Meaning of Freedom
    - Slavery ended sooner in some areas than others
    - Former slaves wanted to establish distinct African American culture
     
    Moving About
    - In attempts to test their freedom, many blacks began moving
    - Many moved to predominately black communities
    - Black went out of their way to reject the old subservience - wouldn’t tip hat, etc
     
    The African American Family
    - Freed People often reunited with long-lost family members
    - Thousands of common-law black couples went to be legally married
    - Black men played a more direct role than women due to their enhanced rights 
    - Black families, not slave masters, decided where and when women and children worked
     
    African American Churches and Schools
    - Separate African American churches built to enhance the sense of community
    - Many schools were built in black communities
    - Reflected the strong passion for self improvement
    - Rural communities organised makeshift classrooms
    - Freedmen’s Bureau and the American Missionary Association helped in founding black colleges to train black teachers - Tougaloo, Hampton & Fisk
     
    Land Labour after Slavery
    - Black codes restricted what jobs blacks could pursue
    - Made it so that many blacks had to remain on the plantation
    - Majority of blacks hoped to become self-sufficient farmers
    - Above all, blacks sought economic autonomy, gained through land ownership
    - President Johnson ordered the eviction of thousands of freed people on confiscated land
    - Alienated many blacks, who felt betrayed
    - 3 distinct “systems of hire” - money wages, share wages, and share cropping
    - money & share wage: planters worked in gangs, and were paid either in cash or with a share of the crop
    - Both systems were reminiscent of the slavery system
    - This led to share cropping, which became the main form of working the land
    - Sharecropping - individual families became responsible for a specific plot
    - Large plantations became divided into family-sized farms
    - Sharecropper families got 1/3 of the crop if plantation gave them tools, or 1/2 if they provided their own
    - Better than gang labour, but still not great
    - By 1880, nearly 3/4 of black Southerners were sharecroppers
     
    The Origins of African American Politics
    - Although in many ways autonomyous, blacks still desired inclusion
    - Many parades, petitions, etc in cities to demand equality
    - 1st Reconstruction Act led to more African American political activity
    - Union League - formerly a while patriotic club, was new political voice of former slaves
     
    Southern Politics and Society
    - For the readmission of the South to work, it needed to adopt the two-party system
    - 1877 - Democrats controlled all former Confed states
     
    Southern Republicans
    - Made up of 3 major groups - Blacks
    - White Northerners (carpet baggers) 
    - usually well-educated and middle class
    - Scalawags - whites with diverse motives & backgrounds
    - Various divisions emerged between these groups
     
    Reconstructing the States: A Mixed Record
    - Former Confed leaders could not participate in politics; Republicans dominated
    - Conventions produced more democratic constitutions and established new resources
    - state funded education systems
    - orphanages, jails, looney bins, etc
    - Segregation became the norm in public school systems
    - Blacks resisted segregation in other public spaces, but equality regulations were hard to enforce
    - Republican leaders envisioned a more capitalist society in the South
    - Also encouraged railroad production
    - Btwn 1868 - 1872, 3000 + miles were added to the Southern rail system
    - Advocated a “gospel of prosperity”
    - Eventually unsuccessful
     
    White Resistance and “Redemption”
    - Democrats refused to acknowledge the Republican govts
    - 1870-1872 - KKK fought against Reconstruction govts & local leaders
    - Colfax, Louisiana - Nearly 100 Blacks killed on Easter Sunday 1873 by the Klan
    - showed that the govts had no real power
    - 1870/71 - 3 Enforcement Acts passed to reduce racial terrorism
    - KKK Act of April 1871 - made infringement of civil rights a federal crime
    - Civil Rights Act of 1875 - banned racial discrimination in theatres, hotels, railroads, etc
    - Democrats eventually “redeemed” Southern states
    - led to: obstacles to voting
    - stringent controls on plantation labour
    - deep cuts to social services
    - US vs Reese / US vs Cruikshank - restricted Congressional power to enforce KKK Act
    - 1883 Civil Rights Cases - declared Civil Rights Acts unconstitutional
    - Ended attempts to protect Black rights until well into the next century
     
    “King Cotton” and the Crop Lien System
    - Republicans’ vision of revamped South never materialized
    - South became one of the country’s poorest regions
    - Depended solely on cotton
    - Crop Lien system became the South’s main form of agricultural credit
    - Local merchants/planters advanced loans in exchange for a lien (claim) on the year’s cotton crop
    - Shady dealings resulted in huge debts for illiterate farmers
    - Reinforced white-ruled class system
     
    Reconstructing the North
    - Lincoln used his own rags-to-riches story as proof of the superiority of “free labour”
     
    The Age of Capital
    - 1873 - US produced 75% more than it had in 1865
    - 1869 - 1st transcontinental railway line completed at Promontory Point, Utah
    - Railroads paved the way for rapid Western settlement
    - Railroad companies became the nation’s first big businesses
    - Some became very corrupt
    - Industry as a whole flourished during this time
     
    Liberal Republicans and the Election of 1872
    - Lineral Republicans - emphasized the doctrines of classical economics
    - stressed supply and demand, free trade, defense of property rights
    - suspicious of expanding democracy
    - 1872 - Democrats nominated Greely to run for President
    - Easily defeated by Grant
     
    The Depression of 1873
    - Commercial overexpansion led to a deep economic depression in 1873
    - Various banks and brokerage houses collapsed and the NYSE suspended operations
    - 100 + banks and 18,000 + businessed closed
    - Depression lasted 63 months
    - Caused farmers to sink deeper and deeper into debt
     
    The Electoral Crisis of 1876
    - With the country in Depression, Democrats looked to capture the White House
    - Scandals plagued the Grant administration - “Whiskey Ring” cheated govt, etc
    - Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden - impeccable record, very honest, etc
    - Tilden had exposed various scandals as governor of NY
    - Rutherford B. Hayes, Republican candidate, also claimed to be a good man
    - Tilden recieved 250,000 more votes than Hayes, and 184 uncontested electoral votes
    - SC, Oregon, Fla, and Louis - each returned two sets of electoral votes
    - These 20 votes would determine the outcome
    - Committee voted 8-7 to award the votes to Hayes - resulted in his presidency
    - In exchange for the presidency, Hayes promised to give the South more money and not to interfere in their affairs - “home rule”
    - When Hayes withdrew from the South, it essentially nullified the 14th and 15th Amendments, and abandoned the free people there
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter17.doc21.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Conquest and Survival: The Trans-Mississippi West

    Indian Peoples Under Siege
    -Incorporation of the West into the US was keenly felt by natives living there
    - Federal officials fought to bring them into the American mainstream
     
    On the Eve of Conquest
    - The surviving tribes adapted to changing conditions
    - Plains Indians learned to ride horses and use guns
    - Treaties with the federal government were often ignored by states
     
    Reservations and the Slaughter of Buffalo
    - Reservations intended that Indians learn English, convert to Christianity, start farming
    - Tribes that moved to reservations often found federal policies inadequate to their needs
    - Slaughter of buffalo encouraged in order to hopefully assimilate Indians
    - Railway also killed buffalo
     
    The Indian Wars
    - Usually settlers (fresh from the Civil War) that started fights
    - Colorado - governor terminated all treaties and ordered raids into Indian territory 
    - This led to Indian retaliation
    - The Sioux fought the US Army to a stalemate and had the Great Sioux Reservation created for them (although this did not mean peace)
    - The discovery of gold forced the government to try to reclaim the land 
    - Sioux and other tribes prepared for battle 
    - Custer’s last stand at Little Bighorn
    - The Apaches with Geronimo fought the US in the Red River War
    - Were cut off from the buffalo and therefore lost
     
    The Nez Percé
    - In crushing the Plains tribes, the US government had conquered those peoples who had most actively resisted the advance of whites into the West. Even those who co-operated such as the Nez Percé, were ordered to sign a treaty giving away their gold rich land
    - Tried to run for the border but failed 
    - Eventually sent to other disease-ridden reservations
     
    The Internal Empire
    - Many Americans romantically imagined the West to be the last center of freedom
    - West was in fact controlled by centers of power in the East
    - Many peoples struggled to find places for themselves (Mormons, Indians, etc)
     
    Mining Communities
    - The gold rush (1848) fostered western expansion
    - Big businesses - bought out smaller claims and started vertical integration
    - Western labor movements began in these mining camps as a response to dangerous working conditions and soon became powerful forces
    - Strictly white members 
    - Eventually admitted Europeans, but never Chinese, Mexicans or Indians
    - Caminetti Act - gave state the power to regulate mines
    - Underground mining companies polluted a lot
     
    Mormon Settlements
    - Western expansion fostered the growth of new unstable commercial cities 
    - Simultaneously placed new restriction on established communities
    - The Mormons had fled New York and eventually formed an independent state in Utah
    - The federal government declared the Mormons rebels and sent in the army
    - Supreme Court v. Reynolds - granted freedom of belief but not freedom of practice
    - Edmunds Act - disfranchised people who believed in polygamy 
    - Edmunds-Tucker Act - confiscated Mormon property over the value of $50,000
     
    The Southwest
    - The majority of Mexicans in American kept Mexican identity
    - Although promised all the liberties that go along with citizenship, these were abused
    - Whites often used federal laws to their advantage
    - In Arizona and New Mexico, elite Mexicans were able to prosper
    - Most Mexicans did work outside the commercial economy working for subsistence 
    - With the railroad and the arrival of big business they became the first migrant workers
    - Mexicans were able to preserve their culture and religion
     
    The Cattle Industry
    - Buffalo slaughter eventually made way for the cattle industry
    - Became one of the most profitable businesses in the West.
    - Kansas Pacific Railroad - linked the slaughtering houses and the markets
    - 1880 - Nearly 2 million cattle slaughtered in Chicago alone
     
    Cowboys
    - Rounded up herds of Texas cattle - very unhealthy and dangerous job
    - Cowboys were ethnically diverse
    - Many came to the south
    - Paid in a lump sum which encouraged cowboys to go spend all the money gambling etc.
     
    Cowgirls and Prostitutes
    - Some women helped the men rounding up cattle
    - Most women worked in kitchen or laundry industries
    - Many were prostitutes against the law - eventually shut down at the end of the century
     
    Community and Conflict on the Range
    - Prostitution + gambling + drinking discouraged the formation of stable communities
    - Personal violence and horse theft were notoriously high
    - Son farmers and sheep herders were encroaching the cattle fields 
    - This led to violence 
    - President Hayes decided to send in troops
     
    Farming Communities on the Plains
    - Opening the Great Plains to agriculture took massive improvements 
    - Transportation and farm technology, as well as unrelenting advertising
     
    The Homestead Act
    - Homestead Act - offered the first incentive to prospective white farmers
    - Granted a quarter section (160 acres) of public land free to any settler who lived on the land and improved it for at least five years
    - Greatest success achieved in the central and upper Midwest 
    - rich soil vs. harsh Great Plains
    - Instead of homesteading, many settlers paid state or land companies 
    - Owned the most valuable land near railways
    - Only 10% new farms were created by the Homestead Act
     
    Populating the Plains
    - The rapid settlement would not have taken place without the railroad
    - Although the Homestead Act offered prospective farmers free land, it was the railroad that promoted settlement, brought people to their new homes, and carried crops and cattle to eastern markets
    - Railway companies were in the business of bringing people West
    - The National Land Company enticed Easterners and Europeans to immigrate
    - People from the Old World tended to build cultural communities
     
    Work, Dawn to Dusk
    - Men farmed seasonally, women kept the house and children helped out
    - Neighbors helped out one another through bartering due to lack of cash
     
    The World’s Breadbasket
    - New technologies allowed farmers to achieve unprecedented levels of efficiency
    - Western Agriculture became increasingly tied to international trade
     
    New Production Techniques
    - Drilled seeds down as tough soil broke iron plows
    - McCormick’s reaper and later inventions drastically reduced the manpower needed
    - Weather was harsh
     
    Producing for the Market
    - Farmers became more aimed at producing for the market
    - New technology and scientific expertise favored the large farmer over the small one
    - Most large farmers specialized in one or two crops, eg corn, rye, or barley
    - Average farm sizes increased from around 64 acres to more than 100 acres
     
    California
    - End of the Mexican-American War in 1848 coincided with start of the gold rush
    - The whites flooding the new territory wanted the land that had been occupied 
    - Challenged Californians in the Supreme court
    - Californians won but court cases bankrupted many 
    - Whites took over and soon prosperous 500 acre farms showed up 
    - Large scale production made California the leader in wheat production
    - Fruit farmers used refrigeration cars on railways
    - Californians were kicked off the land by big business
     
    The Toll of the Land
    - New plants were introduced - this led to an ecological disaster
    - Grizzlies and wolves had their populations reduced
    - Buffalo were replaced by cattle and sheep - this was disasterous for the land
    - Buffalo tend to roam from place to place
    - Less wear on the land vs. domestic animals who stayed in one place 
    - Huge dust storms
    - Timber Culture Act - gave homesteaders another 160 acres of land if they planted 40 acres of trees to reduce the ecological toll
    - Commercial agriculture also took a toll on inland waters
    - Rainfall used to drain naturally into lakes but now was diverted - lakes disappear etc.
    - Newlands or National Reclamation Act - Irrigated even more of California 
    - Helped big business
    - The forest service was established to protect water sources and set the path for the government to play a bigger role in regulation
     
    The Western Landscape
    - The East was hungry for stories of the “Wild West”
     
    Nature’s Majesty
    - Beautiful scenery inspired many of the American writers and painters
    - The Yosemite Act placed land under the management of the state of California 
    - The federal government funded geological surveys which brought back surveys and visual proof of the lands beauty 
    - Yellowstone, Yosemite etc. become national parks
     
    The Legendary Wild West
    - Roosevelt among others promoted the idea of the “wild west”
    - Railways promoted these images
    - Buffalo Bill brought the West to the East
    - Books and comics immortalized cowboy figures
     
    The “American Primitive”
    - Painters like Remington illustrated the West
    - Pictures of Indians were faked to make them look primitive
    - These painters and photographers led the way for scholarly research on Indian societies
    - Organisations like the Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts used tribal lore to instill character
     
    The Transformation of Indian Societies
    - 1871 - federal government formally ended the treaty system, eclipsing without completely abolishing the sovereignty of Indian nations
    - Indians both adapted and maintained
     
    Reform Policy and Politics
    - While many Indians had been resettled, few had adapted to White ways
    - Helen Hunt Jackson formed WNIA to rally support for a program of assimilation
    - Wanted to phase out the reservation system and send Indian kids to boarding school
    - The Dawes Severalty Act passed by Congress incorporate these measure and allowed the President to distribute land not to tribes but to assimilated individuals
    - Children fled the schools and the land available was poor
     
    The Ghost Dance
    - Ghost Dancers preached the day where Whites would be wiped off the Earth
    - The army pursues the fleeing Ghost Dancers
    - Could have ended peacefully, accidental shot from a deaf Indian starts battle
     
    Endurance and Rejuvenation
    - The most tenacious tribes were those occupying land rejected by white settlers of distant from their new communities
    - Most tribes found it difficult to survive in proximity of white settlers
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter18.doc40.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - The Incorporation of America

    The Rise of Industry, The Triumph of Business
    - Civil War - typical American business firm was a small enterprise, owned and managed by a single family and produced goods for a single market
    - Mammoth firms could afford to mass produce goods for national and intl markets
     
    A revolution in Technology
    - Edison’s laboratory in Menlo Park was the first devoted to industrial research
    - Completion of the transcontinental railroad in 1869 was a catalyst for growth
    - The nation’s first big business
    - This led to industries moving west
     
    Mechanization Takes Command
    - Machines depended in turn on a coal which was more efficient
    - New systems of mass production replaced wasteful and often chaotic practices and sped up the delivery of finished goods
     
    The Expanding Market for Goods
    - To distribute the growing volume of goods, businesses demanded new techniques of marketing and merchandising
    - Mail-order houses replaced legions of sellers - Sears Roebuck and Montgomery Ward
    - Chain stores produced similar economies of scale - largest was A&P
    - Department stores could offer goods cheaper than small stores 
    - Led to anti dept. store lobbying
    - First advertising firms were founded
     
    Integration, Combination, and Merger
    - High tariffs of the Civil War + alternating business cycle = growth in US big business
    - Economic setbacks in wiped out weaker competitors
    - Two main methods of growth:
    - Vertical integration - allowed a firm to control production at every step
    - Horizontal combination, entailed gaining control of the market of a single product - Case in Point: Standard Oil
    - Horizontal combinations secured unprecedented control over output and prices, led to a highly concentrated business economy over which a few very large firms prevailed.
    - Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act - designed to promote trade
     
    The Gospel of Wealth
    - Most rich men were protestant; believed they had got rich through their own hard work
    - Justified their shady business tactics
     
    Labor in the Age of Big Business
    - Workers believed that the laborer makes civilization possible
    - The “gospel of work” affirmed the dignity of hard work, the virtue of thrift, etc
     
    The Changing Status of Labor
    - US became a nation of wage workers due to big business
    - 1860 –1890 - 10 million people immigrated to the United States
    - Teams of iron-workers had previously set the rules of production as well as their wages while the company supplied equipment and raw materials. Once steel replaced iron, most companies gradually introduced a new managerial structure. Workers now faced constant supervision, higher production quotas, and new, faster machinery.  
    - Skilled carpenters replaced by immigrants with little training who could run machines
    - Garment industry kept older systems of labor with the new systems of employment
    - Young immigrant women manned the machines vs. the outwork system
    - Large numbers of families working at home on sewing machines or by hand
    - The business cycle affected the labor pool significantly
     
    Mobilization Against the Wage System
    - The National Labor Union was created to halt the spread of the wage system
    - The Noble and Holy Order of Knights of Labor - a group of garment cutters which grew
    - Endorsed more land set aside for homesteading, the abolition of contract and child labor, and a graduated income tax
    - Worker-run factories, (co-ops) created much enthusiasm but were against big business - Failed
    - Most unions were anti-immigration
     
    The American Federation of Labor
    - Unlike the NLU or the Knights, the AFL accepted the wage system
    - Sought to gain recognition of its union status to bargain with employers
    - Only would strike if employers did not bargain in good faith
    - AFL declared war on the Knights by successfully limiting the job market 
    - Excluded minorities and unskilled workers
    - Unlike the Knights got political recognition
     
    The Industrial City
    - Manufacturing formerly centered in the countryside in factory towns (Lowell Mass.)
    - The expanding railway system promoted growth in the cities 
    - Industry moves to the cities
    - The city soon dominated the nation’s social, economic, and cultural life
     
    Populating the City
    - Most blacks which moved north were young women 
    - Men could hope to inherit the family farm
    - Immigrants before the Civil War moved to the countryside, this changed afterwards
    - Men usually outnumbered women
     
    The Urban Landscape
    - Cities encouraged the creating of many buildings
    - Included commercial offices and efficient public services
    - “Dumbbell” buildings in New York were cramped quarters
    - Fires allowed city planners to start from fresh - this led to the skyscraper
    - Mass transportation allowed cities to grow bigger in acreage
     
    The City and the Environment
    - Electric trolley eliminated the tons of waste from horse cars
    - Modern water and sewer systems were introduced
    - 1880s - many middle-class homes had bathrooms with showers and flush toilets
     
    The New South
    - Devastated by the war, South had little investment capital and few banks to manage it
    - Held back by dependence on northern finance capital, continued reliance on cotton production, and the legacy of slavery
     
    Industrialization
    - The “New South” would invite modern textile mills using the cotton fields to its advantage and welcomed Northern investors
    - Soon the North owned most of the railroads, forests and coal deposits
    - Vertical integration helped South’s economy - managers wanted to control everything
    - For the most part, southern enterprises mainly produced raw materials for consumption or use in the North
     
    Southern Labor
    - “Red Shirts” tried to curtail the political influence of Blacks and established a whites-only policy for employment
    - Blacks did not benefit from the industrialization of the South
    - While some Blacks found work in railways etc. most were unskilled workers
    - Factories were usually segregated
    - Once the Knights were able to unite both races 
    - Led to big concessions from managers
    - Workers in the South were paid less than Northern workers
    - Industrial Age saw a huge increase in child labour
     
    The Transformation of Piedmont Communities
    - Plantations gave way to railroads, textile factories and cities
    - As the cotton agricultural crises deepened more families moved into the factories
    - Mill villages were controlled by the company
    - Workers had no private life
     
    Culture and Society in the Gilded Age
    - Real wages rose as did the standard of living - improved nutrition, clothing, and housing
     
    Conspicuous Consumption
    - Labeled the “Gilded Age” by Mark Twain
    - A new class united in its pursuit of money and leisure
    - New class was defined by country clubs and extravagant sports
     
    Gentility and the Middle Class
    - Older middle class - owners / superintendents of small businesses, doctors, lawyers etc.  - New middle class included these professionals; also salaried employees, managers etc
    - Mostly white, anglo-saxon, and Protestant 
    - Not aimed at conspicuous consumption but self improvement
    - Status symbols: bikes, pianos
     
    Life in the Streets
    - Immigrants weighed US’s material abundance against memories of the Old Country
    - Immigrants established close-knit ethnic communities
    - YMCA / YWCA - established to house young people who left their families behind
    - The home was a second workplace for women who brought work home
    - In such close quarters Old World culture survived
    - Coney Island was the first large scale entertainment complex catering to everyone
     
    Cultures in Conflict, Cultures in Common
    - Cultures blended while at the same time clashed
     
    Education
    - Business and civic leaders realized that the welfare of society now depended on an educated population 
    - The concept of universal schooling took hold
    - Schools geared towards college – not practical skills = only middle class children went
    - Agricultural colleges developed into institutes of technology
    - Morrill Federal Land Grant Act 
    - Funded a system of state colleges for teaching agriculture and mechanics
    - Female colleges and co-ed colleges were also beginning to take hold
    - Specialized schools also took root
    - Business leaders also promoted manual training for working class boys
    - Opposed by craft unionist which preferred the apprenticeships to outside training
    - Blacks founded their own colleges and went for industrial training
     
    Leisure and Public Space
    - Cities originally banned sports, picnics (working class stuff) in favor of band shells etc.
    - Rules eventually relaxed
     
    National Pastimes
    - Vaudeville bridged middle and working classes and was the movie theaters of the day
    - Sports created a sense of national identity
    - Rowdy behavior gave the game a working-class ambience 
    - Many team owners also owned breweries
    - National League - raised admission prices and banned beer to appeal to the middle class - American League - continued as before
    - Sports soon became big business
    - 1920s - Negro Leagues formed
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter19.doc18 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Commonwealth and Empire

    Toward A National Governing Class
    - As the economy grew, so did government = new responsibilities for regulating society
    - New governments campaigned extensively and began desperately trying to secure votes
     
    The Growth of Government
    - Many new services became publically-owned - eg: police, water supply, school systems
    - In large cities such as Boston and New York, taxes soared
    - New departments, bureaus, and cabinets were formed to help organise the country
    - Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) - 1st independant regulatory agency
    - Created in 1887 to organise state laws concerning railroads
    - Marked a shift in the balance of power from the states to the federal government
     
    The Machinery of Politics
    - Republicans - still ran on Civil War record and promised new reforms
    - Democrats - desired to give the states more powers and repeal legislation
    - Nearly all the elections in the last quarter-century were decided by around 1%
    - Democrats usually had a majority in the House; Republicans usually held the Senate - Neither party could govern effectively - little legislation passed before 1890
    - Tariff - Major Political Issue - imposed a fee on imported goods, esp manufactured ones
    - North - liked it as it protected and encouraged domestic industrial growth
    - South - disliked it as it forced poor farmers to pay high prices on necessities
    - Politicians urged voters to support their party and appealed to party loyalty
    - Republicans - elephants          - Democrats = donkeys
    - In attempts to gain funds for campaigning, winners took “spoils” of office
    - Politicians would organize sporting events or give loyal voters municipal jobs
     
    One Politician’s Story
    - James Garfield - began as a humble Ohio resident, briefly worked as a canal boat driver
    - Civil War hero
    - denounced his own party for corruption under Ulysses S. Grant
    - traded favours and manuvered shrewedly to win 1880 nomination
    - won Presidency by less than 40,000 votes out of more than 9,000,000
    - was shot by a frustrated patronage seeker 200 days after inauguration
    - like others, assumed the President served as his party’s titular leader and played a mainly ceremonial role in office
     
    The Spoils System and Civil Service Reform
    - For decades, reformers desired to introduce legislation to improve the quality of govt
    - Jan 1883 - Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act - allowed the president to make a three-person commission to draw up a set of guidelines for exec and legislative appointments
    - Made a fair system to select federal workers
    - Although many reforms were made, many observers felt govt was still controlled by “insiders” not interested in the needs of ordinary people
     
    Farmers and Workers Organise Their Communities
    - Late 1860’s - farmers and workers began organising what became the populist movt.
     
    The Grange
    - 1867 - farmers on the Great Plains formed the Patrons of Husbandry
    - Much like the secretive Masonic order
    - Grange - HQ of the local chapter - center of social activity
    - Main crop on Great Plains was grains (wheat and corn)
    - Competition from other countries as well as environmental disasters hurt farmers
    - Farmers hoped to improve their condition through collective action - joined P of H
    - Grangers protested against railroads for charging high shipping prices
    - “Granger laws” established maximum shipping rates
    - Grangers began to set up co-operatives in the interests of “buying less, producing more”
     
    The Farmers’ Alliance
    - Newspapers advised to move out of cotton and into other crops and to cut expenses
    - With budgets as low as $10 per year, farmers had no room to cut expenses
    - Shipping costs for perishable crops made diversification nearly impossible
    - Both African American and white farmers formed unions in attempts to create reforms
    - Hard conditions led many farmers to join the Alliances
    - 1890 - Alliances controlled Nebraska legislature and had power in Minn and SD
     
    Workers Search for Power
    - Tompkins Square Riot - Police hit protesters demanding living wages and steady jobs
    - Great Uprising of 1877 - 1st nationwide strike - all rail workers rioted against pay cuts
    - Began in Martinsburg, West Virginia
    - Ended when President Hayes called in the Army to suppress the workers
    - Led to the creation of the National Guard
    - Labour parties began fielding candidates in elections
     
    Women Help Build Alliances
    - Many women felt that “government based on caste and class privilidge cannot stand.”
    - Women were represented in the Knights of Labor and the Patrons of Husbandry
    - Frances E. Willard - presided over the WCTU from 1878 - 1897
    - Most famous woman of the 19th Century
    - Most political parties refused to endorse woman suffrage
     
    Farmer-Labor Unity
    - Dec 1890 - Farmers’ Alliance met at Ocala, Florida to press for a third-party movt
    - Joined with workers and other reformers to form the People’s Party
    - Called themselves “Populists”
    - Nominated James Baird Weaver for President and James Field for VP
    - 1892 - Grover Cleveland (Democrat) regained the Presidency, but Populists elected three governors, ten Congressmen, and five Senators, and won 22 electoral college votes
     
    The Crisis of the 1890s
    - Populist Ignatius Donnely felt that the poor and the rich would eventually come to war
    - During the depression many hoped or feared that the political system would topple
     
    Financial Collapse and Depression
    - Railroads represented the center of the economic growth of the late 19th Century
    - When railroads went bankrupt, the entire country’s economy halted
    - 1893 - Philadelphia and Reading Railroad collapsed, sent country into panic
    - Unemployment reached as high as 25%
    - Populist Jacob Sechler Coxey attempted to lead the masses to Washington to demand a public works program from Congress
     
    Strikes and Labour Solidarity
    - Wage cuts and poor working conditions led to numerous strikes and protests
    - 1892 - leaders of the Carnegie steel company decided to break the union
    - Hired a personal army to fight off the strikers
    - After four months the union admitted defeat and accepted reduced wages
    - George Pullman - leader of the Pullman Palace Car Company - made rail cars
    - Supported the industrial community of Pullman, Mass
    - During hard times, workers’ wages were cut by as much as one-half, but prices remained the same
    - May 1894 - workers voted to strike after Pullman disregarded a list of grivances
    - Eugene V. Debs - recently formed the American Railway Union (ARU)
    - Delegates to an ARU convention voted to boycott all Pullman cars
    - Debs advised peaceful protest and banned any non-railway interference
    - President Cleveland ordered the Army to break up the strike - 13 dead, 50+ wounded
    - July 17 - strike ended when Debs was arrested and sentenced to six months in jail
    - Debs believed that the labour movt could not regain dignity under the present system
    - Came out of jail a committed socialist, tried to form a utopian colony
    - Ran for president as a socialist in five elections
     
    The Social Gospel
    - Many people saw a discrepancy btwn Christian ideals and attitudes towards the poor
    - Clergy began to envision a cooperative order based on the principles of Christ’s gospels
    - People across the country began trying to apply religious ideas to their everyday life
    - New literature questioned social inequalities
    - If Christ Came to Chicago (1894 - W.T. Stead)
    - If Jesus Came to Boston (1894 - Edward Everett Hale)
    - In His Steps (1896 - Charles M. Sheldon)
    - Asked the question, “What Would Jesus Do?”
    - Many women’s groups joined to form the YWCA, offered cheap hotels, etc
     
    Politics of Reform, Politics of Order
    - Election of 1896 was a turning point in American politics
    - Hardships of the 1890s had led to a crisis in the two-party system
    - Populists managed to break down some of the long-standing party lines
     
    The Free Silver Issue
    - When the economy collapsed, Cleveland was sure that the economic crisis was the result of financial policy, and called a special session of Congress to reform the currency
    - “soft currency” - an increase in the money supply that would:
    - loosen credit
    - accelerate economic development
    - allow farmers to repay loans with “cheaper” money than they had borrowed
    - Civil War - govt replaced old notes with a common national currency - “greenbacks”
    - 1873 - President Grant signed a Coinage Act that added silver to gold as the precious metal base of the currency
    - 1876 - Peter Cooper ran for President as an independant on a soft money campaign
    - Sherman Silver Purchase Act - 1873 
    - Directed the Treasury to print currency backed by silver
    - Cleveland felt that only the gold standard could pull the country out of depression
    - 1894 - Midterm elections brought a huge shift 
    - Republicans gained 117 seats, Democrats lost 113
     
    Populism’s Last Campaigns
    - Although Populists made significant gains, they were still a very small party
    - Democrat William Jennings Bryan became increasingly popular
    - Jumped on the increasing popularity of Free Silver
    - Bryan’s popularity pushed the Silver Democrats to the forefront
    - Bryan said mankind would not be “crucified upon a cross of gold”
    - Democrats nominated Bryan for the Presidency
    - Populists decided to support Bryan, with one of their own as Vice President
    - Democrats ignored the Populists, Bryan’s running mate being Arthur Sewall
     
    The Republican Triumph
    - Republicans nominated William McKinley, another Civil War veteran
    - Mark Hanna ran a well-financed, efficient campaign 
    - After the 1896 election, Democrats only dominated the South
    - Republican victories seemed inevitable, and voter participation spiraled downward
    - McKinley brought new tariffs and favored the passage of the Gold Standard Act (1900)
     
    The Limits of Democracy
    - Both Brian and McKinley were very similar in many aspects
    - Neither addressed the escalating racism and nativism in the US
    - More and more, “foreigners” were blamed for hard times
    - Jim Crow Laws - discriminatory and segregationist legislation
    - Plessy v. Ferguson - US Supreme Court upheld a Louisiana state law formally segregating street cars - “separate but equal”
    - New restrictions essentially disenfranchised blacks
    - Ida B. Wells - denounced the lynching that occurred throughout the South
    - Argued that lynching was essentially a way of eliminating successful blacks
     
    Tom Watson
    - Campaigned to restore the civil rights of Southern African Americans
    - Wanted to overturn Democratic rule by building up black support for the People’s Party
    - Watson stirred the only truly interracial movement the South had yet seen
    - After McKinley’s victory, Watson retired to Georgia
    - Later returned to public life, but now blamed blacks for attacks on poor whites
     
    Imperialism of Righteousness
    - Some saw an overbuilt economy and an insufficient market for goods as causes for the crisis of 1893-97
    - Americans needed a “new frontier” to settle
     
    The White Man’s Burden
    - Chicago’s World Fair - showcased American business ingenuity
    - Foreign displays tried to lure Americans to their countries as “tourists”
    - The fair was organised in a way to promote white American superiority
    - Various clergy members argued that God had chosen America to lead in the regeneration of the world
     
    Foreign Missions
    - As early as the 1820s, missionaries had travelled to Hawaii
    - 1915 - More than 3 million women were members of missionary societies
    - “Rice Christians” - feigned conversion to get food from missionaries
    - Missions prepared the way for American economic expansion
     
    An Overseas Empire
    - Political leaders began to look overseas for trade sources
    - Many Americans considered neighbouring countries to be destined to become American
    - 1867 - Seward purchases Alaska for 7.2 million dollars - known as “Seward’s Icebox”
    - “Good Neighbour Policy” - would secure Americans all the trade from Latin America
    - Wanted to annex various islands and colonies
    - July 7, 1898 - Hawaii annexed to the States
    - After the Hawaiian queen tried to limit American power, she was deposed by troops
    - Open Door Policy - said that the US had the right to advance its commercial interests anywhere in the world
    - President McKinley contributed 5000 American troops to the international army that put down the boxer rebellion
     
    The Spanish-American War
    - McKinley was firmly committed to economic expansion
     
    A “Splendid Little War” in Cuba
    - José Marti declared that Cuba must be free from Spain and the US
    - Marti was ambushed and killed by Spanish troops
    - Cleveland did not want war with Spain, therefore he refused to back the revolutionaries
    - McKinley asked Congress for a declaration of war against Spain
    - Fewer than 400 Americans died in battle, and Spain quickly surrendered
    - Americans established their economy in Cuba and involved themselves in its industry
     
    War in the Philippines
    - After war was declared with Spain, McKinley sent troops to occupy the Philippines
    - McKinley refused to sign the armistice unless Spain revoked all claims to its islands
    - After Spain was beaten, the Filipinos attacked the Americans in attempts to evict them
    - Filipinos refused to give in, and fighting continued on some islands until 1935
    - Americans refused to leave, and controlled the government
    - The Philippines remained a US territory until 1946
     
    Critics of Empire
    - Many public figures voiced their disapproval of expansion loudly
    - Anti-Imperialist League - organised to protest military action
    - 1899 - The League had more than 500,000 members
    - Emphasized Republic over Empire
    - Supporters were either democratic or racist
    - Foreigners should either govern themselves or were not fit to be American
     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter20.doc45.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - Urban America and the Progressive Era

    The Currents of Progressivism
    - Progressives could be found in all classes, regions, and races
    - Felt that America needed a new social consciousness to cope with problems
    - Several key issues behind progressivism:
    - Ending political corruption
    - More businesslike governing methods
    - More compassionate leglislative response to the excesses of industrialism
    - Many feel this term is exceedingly vague
     
    Unifying Themes
    - Three basic attitudes behind progressive movements:
    - Anger over the excesses of industrial capitalism and urban growth
    - Emphasized social cohesion and common bonds to understand modern society
    - Against social Darwinism
    - Felt citizens needed to intervene to improve social conditions
    - Progressives offered a combination of social justice and social control
     
    Women Spearhead Reform
    - Many middle class women supported the settlement house movement
    - Reformers such as Jane Addams and Florence Kelley promoted female education
     
    The Urban Machine
    - Women had to work outside existing political institutions
    - City politics had become a closed and corrupt system
    - Machine politics - well organised, dominant political parties catering to specific voters
    - Viewed their work as a business, served people who needed assistance
    - “Honest Graft” - Making money from inside information on public improvements
    - Timothy “Big Tim” Sullivan - embodied the machine politics style
    - Gained votes by helping pass reforming legislature, eg. child labour laws, etc
     
    Political Progressives and Urban Reform
    - Political progressivism originated in the cities to challenge machine politics
    - Governments hardly seemed capable of providing basic essential services
    - “Good Government Movement” - led by the National Municipal League
    - Fought to make city management a non-partisan process, like a large corporation
    - Progressive politicans focused on changing policies, not the political structure
     
    Progressive in the Statehouse
    - “Wisconsin Idea” - The application of academic scholarship and theory to public needs
    - Adopted by many states
    - Western progressives displayed the greatest enthusiasm for institutional political reform
    - The Initiative - allowed direct vote on an issue raised by petition
    - The Referendum - allowed voters to decide on bills referred to them by the legislature
    - These and other measures intentionally weakened political parties
    - Southern populism = biracial policies         - Southern progressivism = whites only
    - Southern progressives supported black disfranchisement as a reform
    - “Grandfather clauses” - uneducated whites could vote if their grandfather was able to
    - Southern progressives pushed for fully segregated public areas
     
    New Journalism: Muckraking
    - Jacob Riis - How the Other Half Lives - first real exposé detailing poor living conditions
    - Journals such as McClure’s began uncovering the bad side of American life
    - Journalists included Lincoln Steffen (The Shame of the Cities) and Ida Tarbell (History of the Standard Oil Company)
    - Exposure Journalism, as it was called, paid handsomely
    - President Theodore Roosevelt coined the term “muckrakers” for these journalists
     
    Intellectual Trends Promoting Reform
    - Intellectual thinkers began challenging several core American ideas - this led to reforms
    - L. F. Ward - Dynamic Sociology - said applying Soc. Darwinism to society was wrong
    - Legal, educational and industrial reformers began speaking out against their fields
    - Lochner v. New York - Judge Holmes ruled that a 10-hour day for bankers was wrong
    - Holmes affected a new group of lawyers known as the “social jurisprudence”
    - Edward A. Ross - Social Control - became a key phrase in progressive thought
    - Argued that society needed an elite with the best interests of society at heart
     
    Social Control and Its Limits
    - Some progressives felt they were acting for the common good, but were actually racists
    - Extreme side of these views supported eugenics (making a supreme race)
     
    The Prohibition Movement
    - WCTU provided women with their first political forum to voice their protests
    - Core supporteres were generally small-town, Protestant, native-born Americans
    - Some “ritualists” protested against prohibition - usually working-class immigrants
     
    The Social Evil
    - New movements arose to reform society in general - prostitution, gambling, etc
    - Portrayed religious minorities as the cause of these vices
    - Huge crackdowns in prostitution districts only led to the transformation of the sex trade
     
    The Redemption of Leisure
    - Progressives felt that “commercialised leisure” must be closely watched
    - 1909 - NYC movie producers joined to make the National Board of Censorship (NBC)
    - 1914 - The NBC reviewed 95% of the nation’s film output
     
    Standardizing Education
    - Public schools were seen primarily as agents of “Americanization” - huge melting pot
    - 1930 - 47% of kids aged 14-17 were in school
    - Progressives led the way in developing specialized fields of study
     
    Working-Class Communities and Protest
    - Industrial Rev reached its peak in the early 19th century
    - Differences between workers in skill, ethnicity and race proved to be powerful barriers
    - Industrial workers began calling for increased social justice
     
    The New Immigrants
    - Untrained foreign immigrants became the bottom rank of the American workforce
    - Certain industries became dominated by particular ethnicities
    - Most immigrants came from Europe, although some came from Asia
    - Barrios - Southern communities dominated by Mexican immigrants
     
    Urban Ghettos
    - Immigrants moved to ghettos filled with their countrymen, densely packed poor areas
    - NYC became the center of the garment trade, which employed many Jews
    - Huge work force united as one to strike against the garment manufacturers
    - Known as the Uprising of the 20,000
    - March 25th, 1911 - huge fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company
    - Workers couldn’t escape due to the locked doors, many jumped to their deaths
     
    Company Towns
    - Many workers lived in company towns (Hershey, PA, etc) but had no influence there
    - Immigrants had higher death rates because they did not understand safety instructions
    - Women added to the family income by taking boarders, sewing, doing laundry, etc
    - Women struggled with longer hours than the men and the latters’ excessive drinking
    - Companies hired “efficency experts” to make sure the workers did as much as possible
    - Strikers were met with opposition from the companies as well as the “neutral” army
    - In 1913-14, the Colorado coal workers went on a major strike
    - State sent in National Guard, who proceeded to side with the company
     
    The AFL: “Unions, Pure and Simple”
    - After the 1890’s, the American Federation of Labor emerged as the strongest union
    - Unions’ strength gave rise to descrimination from whites against other workers
    - Although members of one union, the various industries disliked each other
    - National Association of Manufacturers launched a campaign to eradicate unions 
    - Only in the 1930’s could unions count on legal support
     
    The IWW: “One Big Union”
    - Tensions grew between unions and the employers; many strikes turned violent
    - Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) formed in Chicago to facilitate the “workers struggle to unite as a class, take possession of the earth, and abolish the wage system”
    - Briefly became a force against the AFL
    - Some violent union demonstrations ended up hindering the IWW’s progress
    - McNamara brothers bombing the Los Angeles Times’ offices
     
    Rebels in Bohemia
    - Reformers gathered in NYC’s Greenwich Village
    - Sympathized with labour struggles, liked modern art, were open to socialism
    - “Village bohemians”, especially women, challenged social double standards
    - Pre-hippie Hippies
    - “Bohemian” - anyone who had artistic / intellectual dreams and disregarded social rules
    - Bohemian views displayed in the monthly socialist magazine The Masses
    - Bohemians organised a reproduction of a NJ silk workers strike displayed at MSG 
    - Viewed as an artistic triumph
    - Village bohemia lasted a few years, but Greenwich Village is still a gathering place for artsy types looking for experimentation
     
    Women’s Movements and Black Awakening
    - New women’s associations gave women a place in public life and more civil influence
    - Black progressives fought to preserve rights they had gained during Reconstruction
     
    The New Woman
    - 1900 - 7% of Americans went to high schoool - 60% of these were women
    - 1890 - General Fed. of Women’s Clubs brought together 200 local clubs of women
    - Club activity led members to participate in other reform ventures
    - Included “child-saving” reforms, eg. child labour laws, mother’s pensions, etc
    - Women’s reform movements introduced quality control
     
    Birth Control
    - Margaret Sanger
    - Coined the phrase “birth control” in 1913
    - Threw herself into the bohemian society and became an organizer for the IWW
    - Began her own magazine, the Woman Rebel
    - After persecution for her views, she fled to Europe in Oct. 1914
    - After Sanger was jailed, she gained lots of publicity for her crusade
     
    Racism and Accomodation
    - 1900 - 4/5ths of the US’s 10 million blacks still lived in the South
    - Most worked in agriculture
    - Some whites believed that blacks were genetically predisposed to the evils of society
    - Used evolutionary theory to argue blacks could not improve = racial Darwinism
    - Thomas Dixon - The Clansman - described the typical black as half man, half animal
     
    Booker T. Washington
    - The most influential black leader of his time
    - Born a slave in 1856, educated at Hampton Institute
    - 1881 - Founded Tuskegee Institute, a black school in Alabama
    - Accomodationist philosophy - blacks and whites can work together for mutual benefit while remaining distinct from each other
    - Up from Slavery - Washington’s widely-read biography
    - Founded the National Negro Business League with Andrew Carnegie to help develop black business in black communities
    - Consulted by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft on some issues
     
    Racial Justice and the NAACP
    - W.E.B. Du Bois offered an alternative to Washington’s leadership
    - Did not fully accept the values of the dominant white society
    - Du Bois criticized Washington for accepting the “alleged inferiority of the Negro”
    - Niagara movement - protested the denial of black rights and other descrimination
    - Held at Niagara Falls, Canada
    - Failed to generate much change
    - National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People - NAACP
    - Led struggles to overturn legal and economic barriers to equal opportunity
     
    National Progressivism
    - Both Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson called themselves “progressives”
    - National level progressivism animated many perspectives
     
    Theodore Roosevelt and Presidential Activism
    - 1901 - Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest president in US History
    - Roosevelt won national fame during the Spanish-American war
    - Follows the pattern of war heros being elected to office
    - Roosevelt felt that administrative agencies run by experts could satisfy everyone
     
    Trustbusting and Regulation
    - Roosevelt began breaking up monopolies under the Sherman Antitrust Act
    - Included the Northern Securities Co, a railroad merger under J.P. Morgan
    - Also included Standard Oil, owned by John D. Rockefeller 
    - During Roosevelt’s two terms, the government filed 43 cases under the Sherman Act
    - After Roosevelt was re-elected, he felt more comfortable pushing for regulations
    - Pure Food and Drug Act - established the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
    - Tested drugs before they went on the market
    - Journalism exposés warned consumers about false meat products, etc
    - Some big businesses supported reforms because they drove small companies bankrupt
     
    Conservation, Preservation, and the Environment
    - Roosevelt worried about the environment, and created the U.S. Forest Service in 1905
    - Headed by Gifford Pinchot, a conservationist
    - Pinchot believed in the “wise use” of America’s resources by the govt
    - Some radicals such as John Muir wanted much more land preserved
    - Many disagreements between conservationists and preservationists
    - 1916 - National Park Service created - gave preservationists a voice in Washington
    - Newlands Act - established a new federal presence in managing water resources
     
    Republican Split
    - 1908 - Roosevelt kept his promise to retire after a second term
    - Named Taft as his successor, who easily defeated William Jennings Bryan
    - During Taft’s presidency, the gap between Republicans widened
    - Taft’s indecisive nature alienated Roosevelt and many other progressives
    - When the old guard Republicans would not nominate Roosevelt in 1912, he and his supporters formed the Progressive Party, where he ran along with Hiram Johnson
     
     
     
    The Election of 1912: A Four-Way Race
    - The Democrats took advantage of the divisions among Republicans 
    - Nominated Woodrow Wilson, who had the support of many of the party’s progressives
    - Wilson contrasted his New Freedom campaign with Roosevelt’s New Nationalism
    - 4th candidate was Eugene V. Debs, a Socialist
    - Due to the Republican split, Wilson easily won, with an incredible 435 electoral votes
    - Considered the first “modern election”
    - Direct Primaries (switching parties)
    - Challenging traditional party loyalties
    - Issue-oriented campaigns
    - A high degree of interest group activity
     
    Woodrow Wilson’s First Term
    - Wilson pushed for a greater federal role in regulating business and the economy
    - By 1916, Wilson’s reform program looked more like New Nationalism
    - 1913 - Underwood-Simmons Act reduced certain tariffs
    - Took advantage of new 16th Amendment by imposing the first graduated federal income tax - up to 6%
    - By creating federal reserve banks, the power of private banks was weakened
    - Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) - replaced the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890
    - Exempted unions as illegal combinations
    - Federal Trade Commission (FTC) - Gave govt regulation control over corporations
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter21.doc41 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - World War I

    Becoming a World Power
    - Early 1900s - US had a more vigorous and agressive foreign policy
    - “Progressive Diplomacy” - led to the US becoming a large world power
     
    Roosevelt: The Big Stick
    - Roosevelt believed in superiority of Protestant Anglo-Americans
    - Felt that US must be militarily strong
    - “Speak softly and carry a big stick”
    - “Planned” revolt against Columbia after turned down on Panama Canal building
    - US gets control of Canal Zone & gains immense strategic & commercial advantage
    - Sends in an “international police” force to keep Europeans out
    - 1899 - John Hay gets open door trading in China
    - Roosevelt gets Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating Russo-Japanese war in 1905
     
    Taft: Dollar Diplomacy
    - “Substitute dollars for bullets” - Taft wanted to limit the military’s involvement
    - Ended up needing military support in Honduras & Nicaragua
    - Taft gained more investment opportunities for the US in China
    - Tried to “neutralize” Chinese industry, but this backfired = closed door in China
     
    Wilson: Moralism & Realism
    - Wilson felt foreign investments & industrial exports =  keys to national prosperity
    - Remove trade barriers
    - Mexican Revolution (1911) brings fear to US investors of democratic leader F. Madero
    - Madero murdered & militarist govt. takes over
    - US supports nationalists & invade 
    - Carranza (nationalist) takes over govt.
    -“Pancho” Villa attempts to overthrow govt but fails; wants to get US into Mexican war
    - US attempts to capture him after raids into the US
    - Attempts fail
     
    The Great War
    - Both sides predicted a quick victory
    - Americans entered the war reluctantly, and played a supportive role
     
    The Guns of August
    - Two teams:
    - Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary & Italy) 
    - Triple Entente (Britain, France & Russia)
    - Archduke Ferdinand of Austria killed & war breaks out 
    - Germany invades Belgium & prepares to invade France
    - 5,000,000 ppl + killed over 2 and a half years in N. France
     
    American Neutrality
    - Impossible to stay neutral, due to too many interest groups - immigrants, etc
    - Began trade ‘solely’ with the allies
    - British blockade Germany & US doesn’t complain
    - US economic boom from all the trade with the Allies
     
    Preparedness and Peace
    - Feb 1915 - Germans begin sinking all boats around Britain with submarines
    - May 1915 - German U-Boat sinks British Liner Lusitania & kills 128 Americans
    - Germans temporarily cease their attacks after Wilson threatens to break off relations
    - US passes National Defence Act to increase army size
    - Met with much opposition (Women’s World Peace Movt.)
    - Wilson wins next election (1916) on Anti-War Premise
    - Democrats win using the slogan “He kept us out of War”
     
    Safe for Democracy
    - More sinking of US ships by U-Boats leads to US entrance into war & proposed 
    - US intercepts a German note suggesting an alliance with Mexico against the US
    - Leads to hugely increased war support
    - Apr 2, 1917: Congress approves declaration of war
     
    American Mobilization
    - Although newspapers, religious leaders, and state legislatures were enthusiastic, Wilson was still unsure how ordinary Americans would react
     
    Selling the War
    - Committee of Public Information (CPI) formed to promote the war
    - Employed more than 150,000 people
    - Created more than 100 million pieces of Pro-war literature
    - CPI recruited popular movie stars to make the war attractive
    - CPI used three main themes in their pro-war pitches:
    - America as a unified moral community
    - War was an idealistic crusade for peace and freedom
    - Displayed the image of a despicable enemy
    - CPI urged ethnic Americans to lose their ties to the Old World - be “unhyphenated”
     
    Fading Opposition to the War
    - The War effort gained support among progressives and reformers
    - Saw the potential for positive social change
    - Selective Service Act: the ‘draft’ is introduced without much resistance
    - War was popular among most middle-class women - gave them a chance to work
    - Many hoped that through the war they would gain suffrage
     
    “You’re in the Army Now”
    - June 5, 1917 - almost 10 million men registered for the draft
    - Age restrictions were loosened, and by the end of the war, 24 million had signed up
    - 2 million volunteers took part in various armed services
    - Standardized tests were given to recruits
    - Illiteracy was as high as 25%
     
    Racism in the Military
    - Segregated units for blacks (ie: 369th US Infantry in French Army)
    - Thousands of black soldiers endured humiliating treatment from white officers
    - Barred from marines & coast guard
    - August 1917 - Houston - black infantrymen kill 17 civilians due to racism
    - Blacks were amazed to find that their treatment overseas was better than at home
     
    Americans in Battle
    - American support began by escorting convoys to safety and attacking U-Boats
    - Gen. John Pershing appointed commander of the AEF (American Expeditionary Force)
    - Wanted to be separate from British and French army
    - Much like Ulysses S. Grant, he believed in total destruction of the enemy
    - Spring 1918 - AEF soldiers help stop Germans at Chateau-Thierry & Belleau Wood
    - Germans made it to within 50 miles of Paris
    - Sept. 1918 - AEF takes 200 mile front in Meuse-Argonne offensive
    - War ends November 11, 1918, after Germans begins to fall back
     
    Over Here
    - WWI saw the federal government play a huge role in regulating the economy
    - Although much was temporary, the war started many trends in American life
     
    Organizing the Economy
    - War Industries Board (WIB) created by Wilson in 1917
    - Clearinghouse for industrial mobilization to support the war effort
    - Handed out $14.5 billion in payment contracts
    - Food & Fuel act: President can regulate the production & distribution of food
    - Food administration led by Herbert Hoover, a millionaire engineer
    - Hoover put price controls on pork, sugar, wheat, and other agricultural commodities
    - Bought by govt. & sold through dealers
    - Hoover refused to impose mandatory rationings
    - Many Americans cut back on wheat and meat, began growing own veggies, etc
    - Graduated Income Tax was lowered to pay off the $30 billion + war cost
    - Federal Debt jumped from $1 billion in 1915 to $20 billion in 1920
     
    The Business of War
    - War increases industrial production & job availability
    - Most important long-lasting economic legacy: shift towards corporationism
    - Radios used in battle immensely - this small industry soon gained ground
    - Radio Corporation of America (RCA) formed (1919)
     
    Labor and the War
    - Increase in industrial labour due to the war - more jobs, and higher wages
    - American Fed. Of Labour increases its membership
    - Most members were skilled white males
    - During the war, strict immigration guidelines were eased 
    - Immigration Act of 1917 - reduces illiterate Mexican immigration 
    - Must be literate & pay $8 head tax
    - Suspended for the war’s duration because of labour shortage
    - The war ended many more radical factions of the US labor movt
    - Industrial Workers of the World got shut down under the Espionage Act
    - Marked the beginning of a wave of political repression
     
    Women at Work
    - During the war, women filled jobs traditionally held by men who were off fighting
    - Women in Industrial Service (WIS) - created by the Labor Dept
    - Showed a practical stand by the govt to improve womens’ working conditions
    - Womens’ wages were approximately half of what mens’ were in the same job
     
    Woman Suffrage
    - Women play a key role in war effort & want a reward
    - Some Western areas adopted forms of woman suffrage earlier
    - Lacked the harsh Catholic / Protestant divisions present in the east
    - Nat. American Woman Suffrage Assoc. supports war effort & increasingly is supported
    - Pursued their goals through moderate action - lobbying for constitutional reform
    - National Woman’s Party - led by Alice Paul - radical group of reformers
    - Picketed the White House and publicly burned some of Wilson’s speeches
    - Aug 1920 - Women are granted the vote nation-wide
     
    Prohibition
    - Drinking was seen as the source of many working-class problems
    - Women’s Christian Temperance Union - major supporter of prohibition
    - Prohibition granted in 1919 - becomes source for increased organized crime
     
    Public Health
    - Govt educated soldiers in personal health & distributed condoms
    - Established 5-mile “pure zones” around military bases (no hookers)
    - 1918 - Division of Venereal Diseases created to educate the public, give free treatment
    - Children’s Bureau created to report on special problems due to the war
    - Institutionalized federal aid to protect mothers & children
    - Led to the Maternity & Infancy Act (1921)
    - 1918-1919 - Huge epidemic of Spanish Influenza (combination of flu and pneumonia)
    - Killed 550,000 Americans in 10 months
    - $1 million to the Public Health Service to combat the epidemic, but no $ to cure it
     
    Repression & Reaction
    - WWI exposed and intensified many of the deepest social tensions in American life
    - Bolsheviks accomplished the first successful revolution against a capitalist state
     
    Muzzling Dissent: The Espionage and Sedition Acts
    - The Espionage Act: June 1917
    - Suppression of antiwar sentiment
    - Up to 20 years & $10,000 fine for aiding the enemy or causing insubordination in the armed forces
    - Postmaster General could exclude any publication he considered treasonous
    - After the war, the Bureau of Investigation was created to handle civilian intelligence
    - The Sedition Act - Amendment to the Espionage act
    - Outlawed any “disloyal, profane, scurrilous or abusive language…” to the govt constitution or the flag
    - Eugene Debs arrested for publicly declaring his hatred of war
    - Scheneck vs. United States - decided that Supreme Court can restrict freedom of speech
    - Abrams vs. United States - Supreme Court upheld sedition act convictions of 4 Russians
     
    The Great Migration & Racial Tensions
    - Post-war economic opportunities create widespread black migration to northern cities
    - News of jobs & urban residential districts spread throughout community groups 
    - Racism in the South also contributed to the migration, but was not limited to the South
    - July 2, 1917: mob of Whites in St. Louis, Illinois kill 200 blacks
    - July 27, 1919: Antiblack rioting on Lake Michigan beach in Chicago
    - African Americans held responsible for the violence
    - Crisis - Journal for the NAACP - concluded that an increase in racial hatred was an integral part of wartime intolerance
    - Sought to end the widespread lynchings
     
    Labour Strife
    - After the War, “strike wave” hits - 3600 strikes in 1919, involving 4 million + people
    - Return of servicemen creates job security issues
    - 1919 - Seattle - a shipyard strike turns into a citywide, 60,000 ppl + strike
    - Ended when the mayor asked troops to occupy the city
     
    An Uneasy Peace
    - Treaty of Versailles - formally ended World War I
    - Dominated by Britain, France, Italy and the United States
     
    The Fourteen Points
    - Wilson’s blueprint for peace - Contained three main aspects:
    1) Detailed post-war boundaries in Europe, addressed splitting up Austro-Hungary
    2) General principles for international conduct 
    - Includes free seas, free trade, and open covenants
    - Also addresses mediating conflicting colonial claims
    3) Wilson called for the creation of a League of Nations to enforce the 14 points
    - The 14 Points reflected Wilson’s long-held liberal progressive feelings
    - The most controversial issue was the League of Nations
    - Article X in the charter of the League called for collective security to keep peace
    - This violated the American system of declaring war through Congress
     
    Wilson in Paris
    - Conference initally accepts the 14 points
    - Austria, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia & Czechoslovakia made out of the beaten powers
    - Compromise mandate gave British & French control of German / Turkish colonies
    - Japan controls German China
    - Wilson opposes war guilt, but it is still imposed on Germany
    - $33 billion in reparations
    - Final treaty signed on June 28, 1919 - Germans had no choice but to accept the terms
     
    The Treaty Fight
    - Wilson had neglected domestic issues & concentrated on foreign policies
    - Republicans capture majority in House & Senate (1918)
    - Wilson’s opponents in Senate included: “Irreconcilables” opposed to any form of treaty
          Senators who had opposed entry into the war
          Racist xenophobes against him as well
    - Many senators dislike the League of Nations idea
    - Sept 1919 - Wilson goes on a US speaking tour, but it didn’t help him politically
    - Republican Henry Lodge reccommended fourteen changes to Wilson’s treaty
    - Wilson instructs Democrats to vote against the Lodge version of the treaty
    - Lodge version wins but not ratified
    - United States never signed the Versailles Treaty or joined the League of Nations
     
    Russian Revolution
    - Bolsheviks take control of Russian govt & negotiate separate peace with Germany
    - Wilson doesn’t acknowledge the Bolshevik govt
    - They are a threat to liberal-capitalism, the foundation of America’s moral basis
    - Aug 1918 - US troops sent to Northern Russia to keep the Russian Revolution in control
     
    The Red Scare
    - Strikes, racism, and other disturbances were increasingly blamed on Bolshevism
    - 1918 - Alien Act - Enabled the government to deport anyone found to be a revolutionary
    - Attorney General A. Mitchell Parker was like the first Sen. McCarthy
    - Marked a huge hostility towards radicalism
     
    Election of 1920
    - Americans wanted to retreat from the social tensions and reforms having to do with war
    - Wilson doesn’t run for re-election
    - Warren G. Harding wins landslide
    - Not a suitable president, but he called for a retreat from “Wilson Idealism”
    - Voters wanted a return to normalcy from the war era; restoration, not revolution
    - Eugene Debs gets 900,000 votes from jail.
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter22.doc54.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - The Twenties

    Postwar Prosperity & Its Price
    The Second Industrial Revolution
    Prosperity in the 1920s with increased technology creation & greater output without expanding the work force
    Most machinery could be operated by unskilled workers
    Lower pay ( more profit
    Manufacturing of electrical machines becomes the nations fastest growing industry
    Increased production leads to a housing boom
    Mortgage debt rises from $8 billion to $27 billion in 10 yrs
    The Modern Corporation
    John D. Rockefeller (oil) & Andrew Carnegie (steel) provides a model for success in business
    Both had ownership & control (management) of their companies
    The new wave in business saw the owners separate from the managers
    General Motors & Radio Corporation of America
    New elite class of businessmen
    Most successful businesses in the 1920s controlled:
    Integration of production & distribution of their product
    Product diversification
    Expansion of industrial research
    By 1929: the 200 largest companies owned ½ of the nations corporate wealth
    Created an economic oligopoly
    A few large producers controlled the economy
    Welfare Capitalism
    Corporate leaders troubled by the increase in power to the trade unions
    National War Labour Board gains support during WWI
    The management of large companies created company employee benefits to outweigh the benefits of belonging to a union
    Insurance policies & stock benefits
    Personnel depts to oversee employee health & satisfaction
    “The America Plan” by corporations to eradicate trade unions
    Company Unions to have symbolic representation of the employees in management meetings
    American Federation of Labour unwilling to go out of their way to organize the manufacturing workers
    Supreme Court also unsympathetic towards unions
    The Auto Age
    By 1929 the auto industry was the largest in the USA
    4.8 million new cars per yr
    Henry Ford pioneered the assembly line which increased production
    1914: Ford starts a new wage scale: $5 for an 8 hr day
    Double the going rate in industrial labour
    Realized that workers were consumers as well
    More car sales
    General Motors begins to challenge Ford
    Cadillac for high end, Chevrolet for low end
    Auto industry provides a large market for steel, rubber, glass & petroleum products
    Cities & Suburbs
    1920 census: first where more than ½ of the population lived in urban areas
    Job opportunity, cultural richness & personal freedom
    1.5 million African Americans move to Northern cities
    Most cities begin to have large downtown cores (skyscrapers)
    Exceptions: Agriculture, Ailing Industries
    1920s: ¼ of Americans employed in the agriculture industry
    No huge prosperity as 1914-1919
    Land values drop & prices drop
    Stiff competition from Europe, Canada & Australia
    Wheat farmers on the Great Plains thrive due to methods of industrial capitalism
    Fruits benefit from improved transportation & chain supermarkets
    McNary-Haugen bills: complicated measures to prop-up & stabilize farm prices
    Govt purchases farm surpluses & stores them until they are needed
    Coal mines also drop in prosperity
    New techniques, strikes & lower demand shrinks the coal labour force by ¼
    Railroads & textiles also experience a significant drop
    The New Mass Culture
    Movie-Made America
    Early movie industry brings flocks of people (mainly NYC) to the Nickleodeons
    Most of the production companies started by immigrants who owned movie theatres first
    Each now controlled production, distribution & owned many theatres
    WB produces “The Jazz Singer”
    The first feature film with sound
    Star system & cult of celebrity at the heart of the movie industry
    Sexual themes & youthful athleticism in most movies
    Many elegant “movie palaces” to attract higher class viewers
    Radio Broadcasting
    Westinghouse takes an amateur garage-made radio broadcast & makes it into a nightly event called KDKA radio
    Dominant radio corporation agree that the advertising pays for the programming
    AT&T provides its telephone wires to link radio stations
    “The Amos ‘n’ Andy Show” was the first radio national hit
    “Blackface” minstrel entertainment
    Radio overcomes sectional boundaries between prople
    New Forms of Journalism
    Tabloids become increasingly popular
    The New York Daily News emphasizes sex, scandal & sports
    Half-fold page makes it easy to read on buses & subways
    Gossip column becomes a reader favourite
    Advertising Modernity
    Large advertising agencies use psychology in their ads
    Focus on the needs & desires of the consumer instead of the quality of the product
    Listerine turned from a general antiseptic to a cure for halitosis (bad breath) through advertising
    The Phonograph & the Recording Industry
    Success of records changes the popular music & dance
    Fox trot, tango & grizzly bear done to ragtime & latin songs
    Radio begins to take away sales from the record industry at the end of the 1920s
    Sports & Celebrity
    Sports begin to take on a commercial aspect
    Athletes: rich famous & rebellious attract many fans
    Major League Baseball was the nations biggest sport
    “Babe” Ruth was the ultimate celebrity athlete
    Actively sought after for endorsements
    “Black sox” gambling scandal hurts the MLB’s credibility
    Negro Leagues started along with many other semi-pro leagues
    All-black teams usually win games against all-white pros
    College football also gains popularity as radio broadcasts their games frequently
    A New Morality?
    Celebrities become the new societal elite
    Models for achievement in the new age
    Media turns them into world giants
    The “Flapper” women becomes a popular ideal of the 20s
    A fun, sexually charged women that rarely existed
    Increased sexual openness in the 1920s
    US troops take part in sex education classes
    New psychologists (Freud etc.) stress the importance of sex in the human experience
    Advertisers use sexual appeal to sell products
    The State, the Economy, and Business
    Harding & Coolidge
    Warren Harding could talk the talk of a president but not walk the walk
    “The Ohio Gang” were his chief advisors & administrators
    Lots of corruption in his presidency
    His Attorney General had taken bribes from Prohibition violators
    Teapot Dome scandal
    Interior Secretary Allan Fall taken money to lease away navy oil reserves to private oil developers
    Became the first cabinet minister to go to jail
    Andrew Mellon (Oil tycoon) was his chief economic advisor
    Stressed conservative views on the economy
    Run it like a corporation
    Cut taxes & trim the budget
    Dies in office in August 1923
    Calvin Coolidge takes over & puts complete trust (& awe) into the hands of wealthy businessmen like Andrew Mellon
    Gets re-elected in 1924 due to the prosperity he brought in contrast to Harding
    Showed most interest in cutting federal spending & lowering taxes
    Herbert Hoover & the “Associative State”
    Secretary of Commerce for Harding & Coolidge
    Became president in 1929
    Believed that enlightened business would act in the public interest
    Govt encourages voluntary co-operation among corporations, consumers & workers
    Central occupation of the Dept. of Commerce
    Encouraged the creation of national trade associations
    All of his ideals provided a perfect climate for the increase of corporate wealth
    War Debts, Reparations, Keeping the Peace
    WWI turns the US from the worlds greatest debtor to the greatest creditor
    NYC replaces London as the centre of the economic world
    War Debts & Reparations became the most divisive international issue in the 1920s
    France & Britain think the US is just a loan shark in disguise
    US Foreign Dept Commission agrees to a settlement of $11.5 billion over 62 yrs
    Germans feel the $33 billion reparations is too high
    Dawes Plan to reduce Germany’s debt & reconstruct the country
    Calls for military downscaling & 5 Power Treaty is signed
    Scaling down of navies & respect for China’s territory
    Italians & Japanese complain & treaty is scrapped
    US joined the League of Nations sponsored World Court 
    Pact of Paris to renounce WWI
    Commerce & Foreign Policy
    Secretary of State Charles Hughes pushed for increased American economic activity abroad
    Focused on friendly nations & expanding their markets
    Used their post-war power to do what they wanted
    American products flood the world markets & take them over
    Maximum freedom for private enterprise boosts the profits of US overseas investors
    Especially in Latin America (staple foods grown)
    Resistance to Modernity
    Prohibition
    January 1920: 18th Amendment prohibits alcohol
    Volstead Act (1919) creates the Federal Prohibition Bureau
    Public demand for alcohol leads to widespread lawbreaking
    Bootlegging becomes a large business
    Many “speakeasies” for drinking & music
    Increase in organized crime due to prohibition
    Mobsters like Al Capone become celebrities
    Make successful inroads to big businesses, govts & unions
    Immigration Restriction
    Anti-immigration sentiment grows after WWI
    “New Immigrants” were mostly Catholic & Jewish
    More exotic & foreign to Americans thus less accepted
    Darwinian ideals turned around to state that genetic inferiority was the reason for crime etc.
    Theory of Evolution shot down repeatedly by fundamentalists
    Darwin writes “The Origin of Species”
    John T. Scopes teaches evolution in Tennessee to deliberately challenge the courts
    Fundamentalism vs. Modernity 
    Promises Postponed
    Feminism in Transition
    Womens activists split into two categories
    Emphasize female-male differences
    Emphasize female-male similarities
    1920: League of Women Voters established
    Represented the historical mainstream of the suffrage movt
    Smaller & more militant group: National Women’s Party
    Downplayed suffrage & argued that women were subordinate to men
    Opposed protective legislation saying that it was degrading 
    Wanted the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) & got it in 1923
    Still not happy with the bill because they didn’t think it did enough
    A few women made great leaps in real estate, banking & journalism
    1921: Sheppard-Towner Act
    Established the first federally funded health-care program
    Helps rural communities immensely
    Mexican Immigration
    Economic boom brings many Mexican Immigrants
    Huge agricultural expansion in the Southwest brings job opportunities
    Wave of immigration appeared more permanent than previous waves
    Kids go to US schools & wives work alongside their husbands in the fields
    Racism confines most Mexicans to barrios
    Poor housing, few luxuries & inadequate health-care
    “Cheap Mexican labour” blamed for local unemployment
    “Mutualistas” (mutual aid societies) became the centre of Mexican-American society
    The “New Negro”
    Harlem is the centre black society after WWI
    Real estate speculators want to make it an all-black neighbourhood
    Most Harlemites hold low-wage jobs
    Overcrowded apartments & unsanitary conditions
    Harlem Renaissance
    New spirit of black intellectuals embody an optimistic faith
    Enocourage African Americans to embrace & celebrate their culture
    Political side to the New Negro was beginning to grow
    New movts alongside established ones like the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People
    Universal Negro Improvement Assoc.
    Black Star Line
    Black owned & operated fleet of ships to link people of African decent from around the world
    Failed due to lack of capital
    Harlem becomes a popular site for “slumming” whites
    Nightclubs with bootleg liquor, floor shows & live jazz
    Intellectuals & Alienation
    Many Intellectuals of the “Lost” WWI generation write about their experiences
    Wrote about what they wanted to happen with American society
    Hemmingway & F. Scott Fitzgerald
    Many sharp attacks on American small-town values
    Sinclair Lewis: Babbitt & Main Street
    Some critical of the industrial progress & new mass culture
    “The Fugitives” write “I’ll Take My Stand”
    The Election of 1928
    National Referendum on the Republican new era
    Revealed how important the ethnic & cultural differences in American politics were
    Al Smith (East New Yorker) vs. Herbert Hoover
    Smith was of immigrant background & had the support of many easterners
    Promised the repeal of prohibition
    Tried to outdo Hoover in his praise for business
    Hoover was a successful and forward looking westerner
    All Hoover had to do to win was take credit for the current prosperity
    Hoover even takes 5 states from the Democratic South
    Shows the changes waiting to happen
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter23.doc21.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

    Hard Times
    - No even of the 20th Century had a greater effect on Americans than the Depression
    - “The invisible scar” - the emotional and psychological toll of the Depression years
     
    The Bull Market
    - Following stock trading in the late 20s became as popular as following sports stars
    - Prices in the late 20s far outran the real rate of industrial production
    - On paper, people were very successful, but in reality, there was no real value
    - Many people bought on margin (only pay for a small % of the cost now, rest later)
     
    The Crash
    - Bull market peaked in September of 1929
    - Oct 23 - Dow Jones lost 21 points in one hour - many investors felt the boom was over
    - Oct 29 - “Black Tuesday” - more than 16 million shares were traded as panic took over
    - Hardly anyone predicted a Depression would follow - many saw potential benefits
     
    Underlying Weaknesses
    - Production had been accelerated to the extent that it was hard to adjust to the drop off
    - Most of the wealth in the US was clustered at the top
    - This spiral could have been stopped by mass consumer spending, but everyone saved $
    - Many banks failed because of mass withdrawls - thousands lost their savings
     
    Mass Unemployment
    - 1930 - Roughly 9% of the labor work force was out of work
    - 1933 - More than 25% of the labor work force was unemployed
    - Unemployment left many with feelings of guilt and emotional stress
    - Many contemplated suicide
    - Even if people hated their jobs, they hung onto them for fear of losing them
     
    Hoover’s Failure
    - In large urban centers, unemployment neared 50%
    - Although Hoover aided large-scale humanitarian projects in WWI, he did little now
    - 1931 - Hoover claimed Americans were responding well to the Depression
    - Declined to help out the unemployed - “It would be doing them a disservice”
    - Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) - 1932
    - Managed to save many banks by extending credit
     
    Protest and the Election of 1932
    - Many Americans turned to violent protests - eg: Commie-led march at Ford factory
    - Detroit police used tear gas and bullets - 4 killed, 50 wounded
    - “Bonus Army” of WWI vets gathered at Washington, DC
    - Wanted immediate payments of $1,000 bonus bonds due for payment in 1945
    - Eventually evicted y Douglas MacArthur, who claimed they were revolutionaries
    - Democrats nominated New York senator FDR
    - Pledged to give Americans a “new deal”
    - Democrats won huge majorities in the House and the Senate as well
     
    FDR and the First New Deal
    - Of all the century’s presidents, FDR had the greatest impact
    - FDR controlled American policy through the Depression and the Second World War
     
    FDR the Man
    - FDR’s family had long-standing aristocratic values - educated at Harvard and Columbia
    - Born 1882 in Dutchess County, New York
    - 1905 - Married Eleanor Roosevelt, his distant cousin - EEEEWWWW!
    - Nominated for VP in the losing 1920 campaign
    - Stricken with polio in 1921 - Strengthened his resolve to continue in politics
    - Won a national reputation as a reformer as governor of New York in the late 20s
    - Built a “brain trust” around him who believed in using experts to sort out the economy
     
    Restoring Confidence
    - FDR’s inaugural address: “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself”
    - Called a four-day “bank holiday” to clear up the nation’s failing bank system
    - FDR began a series of “fireside chats” to let the nation know what he was doing
    - Became enormously successful
    - Emergency Banking Act - allowed successful banks to reopen only with permission
    - By mid-March, 1933, 50% of banks held about 90% of the nation’s deposits
     
    The Hundred Days
    - From March to June 1933 FDR pushed through various acts to combat the Depression
    - The “New Deal”, as it was called, was not one unified program but many acts
    - Focused on reviving industrial and agricultural sectors - Five main aspects:
    - Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) - gave young men work conserving the nation’s natural resources, building roads, reforesting, etc
    - Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) - gave federal grants directly to the states and local governments for relief
    - Led by Harry Hopkins, who became the most important New Deal figure
    - Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) - gave relief to farmers by establishing parity prices for products, and also gave grants for reducing production surpluses
    - Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) - economic development and cheap electricity for Tennessee Valley, also gave cheap fertilizer to farmers
    - National Industrial Recovery Act - made up of two main parts:
    - National Recovery Administration (NRA) - regulated businesses through codes regulating prices, output, and trade practices
    - Public Works Administration (PWA) - Gave more than $3 billion for public works; wanted to increase the number of jobs and also raise consumer spending
     
    Left Turn and the Second New Deal
    - FDR’s active spirit in Washington brought reassurance that the nation was on track
    - Some felt Roosevelt had done too much, others felt not enough
     
    Roosevelt’s Critics
    - American Liberty League held FDR responsible for the decline of personal liberty
    - Democrats managed to increase their majorities in the mid-term elections - unusual
    - Father Charles E. Coughlin - originally supported FDR, but then turned against him
    - Coughlin felt he did not have enough influence on national policies
    - Eventually founded the National Union for Social Justice - Anti-FDR
    - Nominated a candidate for the Union Party in 1936
    - Many left-wing Democrats felt the New Deal did not go far enough
    - Huey Long originally supported FDR but aspired to the presidency
    - Assassinated in 1935 by a disgruntled political enemy
    - Although workers tried to strike to gain reforms, they were usually met by police
     
    The Second Hundred Days
    - 1935 - Roosevelt focused on new programs of social reform
    - Strengthen national committment to creating jobs
    - Provide security against old age, unemployment and illness
    - Improve housing conditions and cleaning slums
    - Emergency Relief Appropriation Act
    - Allocated $5 billion for large-scale public works programs for the jobless
    - Social Security Act (1935) - Provided old-age pensions and unemployment insurance
    - Resettlement Administration (RA) - designed to move families to better areas
    - Due to lack of funds, only about 1% of the intended group was actually moved
     
    Labor’s Upsurge: Rise of the CIO
    - Between 1932 and 1942 union membership rose by more than 4 times
    - Committee for Industrial Organization - wanted to group workers by industry, not craft
    - Wanted to include blacks and women
    - Sit-down strikes: Workers refused to work, but stayed in the factory
    - CIO membership grew to nearly 4 million people
    - Became the Congress of Industrial Organizations
     
    The New Deal Coalition at High Tide
    - Very few political observers predicted the 1936 election’s lopsided outcome
    - FDR’s opponents called the New Deal “socialistic” and criticized his central power
    - On election day, FDR carried every state except Maine and Vermont
    - Very popular among blue-collar workers and farmers
    - FDR had managed to turn the Depression around
     
    The New Deal and the West
    - Westerners recieved more from the New Deal than any other area, per capita
    - The New Deal helped to propel the west into the modern era
     
    The Dust Bowl
    - Overcropping stripped the soil in the plains of its nutrients, and it dried up and died
    - As wheat prices fell, farmers needed to harvest more and more land
    - Unable to rotate crops effectively
    - Winds blew up the dried soil and left many areas unsuitable for farming
    - Resettlement Administration gave many families relief aid
    - When rains came, farmers began to pursue commercial agriculture with wild abandon
    - Many victims of the Dust Bowl migrated to California
    - Sand and dust vs. Sun and hot chicks? Which would you choose?
    - Many poor whites competed with Mexican immigrants for jobs - led to much racism
     
    Water Policy
    - The New Deal provided many projects aimed at increasing irrigation in the west
    - Boulder Dam - Later renamed the Hoover Dam - built to harness the Colorado River
    - Roosevelt’s support of power projects in the west led to his large support in elections
    - 1935 - Central Valley Project - designed to bring water to arid lands in the south
    - Grand Coulee Dam - 1941 - designed to help irrigate the Pacific Northwest
     
    A New Deal for Indians
    - Bureau of Indian Affairs had a long history of corruption and mismanagement
    - John Collier appointed by FDR to bring reform to Indian Affairs
    - Led the Indian Reorganization Act (1934) - gave surplus land to tribal ownership
    - Very difficult to get the Indians to agree to the IRA - language barriers made it tough
    - Rejected by the Navajos and other groups
     
    Depression-Era Culture
    - During the Depression, sentiments of protest and celebration both existed
    - Movies, radio broadcasting and big-band jazz achieved a central place in US life
     
    A New Deal for the Arts
    - Federal Project No. 1 - Offered work to artisans and intellectuals
    - Federal Writers Project - Employed 5,000 writers on various projects
    - Federal Theatre Project - Sought to expand the traditional audience of theatre
    - Tickets were cheap and put on a variety of plays
    - Federal Music Project and Federal Art Project did the same thing
     
    The Documentary Impulse
    - Many documentaries were produced with a view to creating social change
    - Some aimed at overthrowing capitalism in a revolutionary way
    - Photographers helped document working conditions, etc
    - Poor people were portrayed as resilient and determined to overcome adversity
    Waiting for Lefty
    - Although few Americans actually became Communist, Marxist writings affected the era
    - Some Americans saw the Russian system as an alternative to the failing American one
    - Many intellectuals briefly flirted with the idea of becoming Communist
    - Communists tended to be strong supporters of the New Deal
     
    Hollywood in the 1930s
    - The advent of “talkies” towards the end of the 20s made movies popular
    - Gangster films did very well in the early depression years
    - Little Caesar and Public Enemy showed criminals being brought to justice, but also gave audiences exposure to lawbreaking, wealth, and power
    - By and large, Hollywood avoided confronting dangerous social issues
     
    The Golden Age of Radio
    - By the end of the 30s, radios could be found in 90% of American homes
    - NBC and CBS dominated radio broadcasting - controlled nearly 90%
    - Dramas such as Fall of the City and War of the Worlds showed radios persuasive power
    - 1939 - 70% of Americans relied on the radio as their prime source of news
     
    The Swing Era
    - The radio led to the widespread acceptance of jazz music
    - Benny Goodman became the key figure in the “swing era”
    - Inspired by black musicians, and created big band arrangements
    - Swing music was perfect for young fans to dance to
    - The mass culture industry was formed during the Depression
     
    The Limits of Freedom
    - FDR emphasized that much still had to be done to fix the Depression
    - By 1937 the New Deal was in retreat and social reforms were suffering setbacks
     
    Court Packing
    - Several Supreme Court decisions found the New Deal to be unconstitutional
    - FDR introduced a bill to allow him to appoint new judges when older ones reached 70
    - Many newspapers denounced FDR’s “court-packing bill”
    - Roosevelt compromised and made his bill reform lower courts only
    - This battle lost him valuable support in Congress
     
    The Women’s Network
    - 1940 - More than a quarter of the workforce was female
    - Eleanor Roosevelt actively used her influence as First Lady to fight for reforms
    - Saw herself as a guardian of “human values” within the administration
    - Eleanor Roosevelt’s chief political ally was Molly Dewson
    - Head of the Women’s Division of the National Democratic Party
    - FDR appointed the first cabinet woman in history - Frances Perkins
     
    A New Deal for Minorities?
    - During the depression, black workers were often the “last hired, first fired”
    - FDR made little effort to combat this racism - worried about losing valuable votes
    - Refused to introduce legislation making lynching a federal crime
    - FDR appointed many blacks to second-level cabinet positions
    - By 1936, many blacks had shifted to the Democrats - supported the New Deal
     
    The Roosevelt Recession
    - By 1937, the economy had improved significantly
    - When Roosevelt called for cutbacks in government spending, it caused a steep recession
    - Republican gains in the mid-term elections made it harder to push bills through
    - By 1938 the reform whirlwind that was the New Deal was all but over
     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter24.doc44.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - World War II

    The Coming of World War II
    - During the Depression, production dropped by as much as 40%
    - FDR and most Americans did not want to concern themselves with foreign conflicts
    - More concerned about fixing their own country
     
    The Shadows of War
    - War began with Japan seizing Manchuria, then withdrawing from the League of Nations
    - By 1937 Japan owned much of China and threatened the rest of Asia
    - Economic hardships, Authoritarian leadership, and German resentment over the Versailles Treaty led to the rise of angry nationalistic movements in Italy and Germans
    - Hitler began to rebuild Germany’s armies with no protest from Britain or France
    - 1936 - Italy and Germany become allies - Rome-Berlin Axis
    - 1937 - Hitler announced plans to obtain Lebensraum - living / farming for Germans
    - In return for allowing Hitler to annex part of Czechoslovakia, he agreed to stop advancing - Less than six months later he took the rest of Czechoslovakia
    - Nov 6, 1938 - German stormtroopers kill thousands of Jews - Night of the Broken Glass
     
    Isolationism
    - 1937 - Almost 70% of American polled said they felt involvement in WWI was wrong
    - 1935/36/37 - Neutrality Acts - Allowed President to deny US companies the right to sell arms to hostile nations
    - Many politicians argued that war would hurt the economy, harm democracy, etc
    - America First - A group founded to keep the US out of wars, included some famous ppl
     
    Roosevelt Readies for War
    - Although most people were against it, FDR enlarged the Navy and prepared for war
    - Sept 1, 1939 - Germany invades Poland, then agrees to split it with the Soviet Union
    - Germany swept through most of Europe, then pounded the UK in the Battle of Britain
    - Britain held out against all odds
    - FDR began to permit the sale of weapons to Britain, France and China
    - May 1940 - 1st Peacetime Military draft - 1.4 million men sent to training camps
    - FDR still did not want to get involved, only defend his own nation
    - July 1940 - As part of his campaign, Roosevelt promised not to send troops to the war
    - March 1941 - Lend-Lease Act - Allowed Roosevelt to sell or exchange arms with ppl
    - Hitler set aside his alliance with the Soviets and in June 1941 invaded Russia
    - This pushed the US closer to intervention
     
    Pearl Harbor
    - Sept 27, 1940 - Japan formally joins Italy and Germany as a partner in the Axis
    - The US thought Japan planned to attack in the Phillipines
    - Dec 7, 1941 - Japanese dive bombers attack Pearl Harbor (Oahu, Hawaii) killing 2400+
    - Dec 8, 1941 - US declares war on Japan, Germany and Italy declare war on the US
    - Start of WWII for Americans
     
    Arsenal of Democracy
    - Between 1940-1943, the govt poured resources into the war effort, which pulled the country out of the Great Depression
     
    Mobilizing for War
    - War Powers Act - allowed the president to essentially do what he wanted
    - Reorganize government, create new agencies
    - Abridge civil liberties, seize property owned by foreigners
    - Award government contracts without competitive bidding
    - Roosevelt created many new agencies to deal with problems arising from the war
    - OWI - Office of War Information - essentially propaganda created by Roosevelt  to make the war popular; also tried to subvert the enemy
    - FBI used wiretapping extensively and illegally to spy domestically
    - These activities saw the govt grow massively in size, far more than the New Deal level
    - It cost roughly $250 million a day to fight the war
    - At the end of the war, there were nearly 4 million government employees
    - Now, Roosevelt shifted his focus from getting out of the Depression to winning the war
    - Most New Deal agencies eventually vanished as the US supported the war effort
     
    Economic Conversion
    - Many felt the US’s ability to win the war would be based on capability of production
    - The war created the largest economic boom in the history of any country
    - Defense production made a huge impact in the West
    - Textiles became a large industry 
    - Army required 520 million pairs of socks, 230 million pairs of pants
    - Rural areas decreased in population, many small farmers would never return
     
    New Workers
    - Bracero program - allowed Mexicans to work in jobs previously forbidden
    - Female labour force grew by over 50%, reaching 19.5 million in 1945
    - Even advertisments that promoted female labour stressed it was temporary
    - WWII still managed to break down many of the stereotypes held about women
     
    Wartime Strikes
    - Economic gains during the war were uneven, which led to many labour disputes
    - Many high-ranking authorities including the President tried to break strikes
    - Many white workers resisted the many African Americans being hired during the war
    - Blacks usually refused to back down
    - Antistrike Bill - gave President power to penalize strikers, even to draft them
    - Strikes still grew in size and number
     
     
    The Home Front
    - Although the war brought prosperity, it also brought food rationing, long workdays, and other hard conditions
    - Most Americans were happy and proud to do what they could to help the Allies
     
    Families in Wartime
    - War rushed many people into marriage
    - As the number of marriages grew, so to did the number of divorces
    - Federal govt began creating programs in response to the lack of public housing
    - Often, both parents worked, leaving a growing number of “latchkey” children
    - During the war the number of juvenile delinquents rose dramatically
    - 1944 - Office of Education began a “back-to-school” campaign to reduce dropouts
    - Schools became the center of the community war effort
    - New economic prosperity led to a huge increase in public health, rise in life expectancy
     
    The Internment of Japanese Americans
    - After Pearl Harbor, many Americans feared that the Japanese would remain loyal to their homeland
    - Media and cartoons began to make racist statements, calling them “Japs” etc
    - 1942 - Roosevelt authorised the removal of approx. 110,000 Japanese people to camps
    - Japanese Americans were given one week to close up their homes and businesses before being transported to one of the ten internment camps
    - Korematsu v. US - Supreme Court upheld the legality of the internments - Nat. Security
    - 1988 - US Congress gave $20,000 and a public apology to the surviving victims
     
    Civil Rights and Race Riots
    - African Americans fought not only for victory, but also for their civil rights
    - Roosevelt supported advances that would not disrupt the war effort
    - Black movements planned a huge rally to take place in Washington
    - Roosevelt met with black leaders, which led to an order banning discrimination
    - Many other racial equality movements gained ground during the war
    - Some whites wanted to keep blacks out of the best jobs and neighbourhoods
    - Riots and other race-based uprisings were widespread
     
    Zoot-suit Riots
    June 4, 1943 - Sailors chased Mexican Americans wearing zoot suits through Los Angeles, stripping them and beating them 
    - Sailors saw these suits as wasteful and unpatriotic
    - Zoot-suiters only made up about 10% of Mexican American youth
    - Eventually Los Angeles made wearing a zoot-suit in public a criminal offence
     
    Popular Culture and “The Good War”
    - Even with the war on, Americans were prosperous and enjoyed themselves
    - Popular culture developed and was able to bridge racial divisions
    - Pop culture began to depict a “good war,” complete with personal sacrifice, etc
    - Movie stars called on people to buy war bonds and made combat films
    - Comics and other popular forms of media began promoting the war
    - Americans associated with the war with phrases such as “Loose Lips Sink Ships”
     
    Men and Women in Uniform
    - Only 34% of the army saw combat
    - Severe military regime uprooted men from their lives and reshaped them
     
    Creating the Armed Forces
    - With the exception of the Marine Corps, the military was not prepared for a large war
    - Oct 16, 1940 - All men ages 21-36 eligible for military service
    - Once the US joined the war, this was lowered to 18
    - US army was the best-educated in the world
    - Eisenhower was more of a “fair” general than the old-school officers, eg. MacArthur
    - GI = Government Issue - vast majority of draftees
    - Wanted to fight for democracy and hoped to return soon to families, etc
     
    Women Enter the Military
    - Women originally served as nurses and clerical workers
    - WAC = Women’s Army Corps     - Waves = Womens divison of the navy
    - As a group, these women were better educated and more skilled than soldiers
    - Women were banned from combat, but still assisted at home and abroad
    - Many women were discriminated against - no lesbians, no “homosexual tendencies” etc
    - Racial segregation was also widespread among women
     
    Old Practices and New Horizons
    - 1944 - ~10% of the army’s troops were black
    - Many black divisions earned distinction in battle
    - Many minorities consider their time in the army to be an “Americanizing” experience
    - WWII brought together people from across the country and formed bonds btwn them
     
    Overseas Occupation
    - American GIs overseas were at times rowdy and somewhat oppressive
    - American soldiers had an unusually high standard of living - made other troops jealous
    - “Liberating” US soldiers in France were often drunk and raped and pillaged
     
    Prisoners of War
    - In German POW camps, Americans were treated well; Russians were starved and killed
    - In the Pacific, conditions for POWs were terrible
    - Starved, beaten, killed, diseased, etc
    - As retaliation, GIs treated Japanese prisoners very badly
     
    The World at War
    - For 1st year of the war, the Allies were on the defensive (read: getting slapped around)
    - Just 2 hrs after Pearl Harbour, the Japanese hit the main US base in the Philippines
    - Allies still had several important advantages:
    - Skilled workforce with the ability to accelerate production
    - Soviets could endure huge losses without surrendering
     
    Soviets Halt Nazi Drive
    - WWII was more mobile than WWI, and instead of soldiers, it featured tanks and planes
    - WWII had huge improvements in communications, eg 2-way radio transmission, etc
    - Hitler used these methods to create terror among the defeated Europeans
    - RAF fought the Luftwaffe to a stalemate; Hitler could not invade Britain
    - Invasion of Russia did not happen until June 22, six weeks later than planned
    - Hitler had to help Mussolini, who got his ass kicked in N. Africa and Greece
    - Although the Nazis beat the Soviet army, the civilians rallied and cut of supply lines
    - When the winter set in, the Soviets launched a counterattack
    - 1st time the German war machine had been stopped
    - Hitler turned south, and decided to attack Stalingrad
    - Soviets lost more people in these battles than the US did in the entire war
    - Intense fighting decimated the Soviets, but eventually stopped the Germans
    - Feb. 1943 - German Sixth Army surrendered
    - Final German offensive against the Soviets came at Kursk, Ukraine - July 1943
    - Largest land battle in history - 2 million troops + and 6000 tanks
    - After another German defeat, the only option was to defend Germany
    - Soviets began to recover from their losses with the help of the US’s lend-lease program
    - Their victories turned the tide of the war - Hitler was suddenly vulnerable
     
    The Allied Offensive
    - 1942 - Although the Nazis controlled most of the world, the Americans were far more productive and the momentum had shifted
    - German troops were still on foot, while Allied troops had jeeps
    - Oct 23-24, 1942 - British stop a major offensive under Gen. Rommel (The Desert Fox) at El Alamein
    - Destroyed the Italian N. African Army and most of the German Afrika Corps
    - Operation Torch - British and US troops secured a position in the Mediterranean 
    - May 1943
    - Churchill and Roosevelt would only accept an unconditional surrender
    - Critics argued that this would only prolong the war
    - B-17 Flying Fortress - believed to be the mightiest bomber ever built
    - Described as a “humane” weapon, capable of hitting specific targets
    - Americans bombed during the day, British preferred at night
    - In an attempt to break German resistance, the RAF launched raids on cities
    - Hamburg and Dresden were each practically levelled
    - These attacks lowered German morale and gave the Allies an upper hand
     
    The Allied Invasion of Europe
    - After the Allies stormed southern Italy in 1943, the King dismissed Mussolini
    - Civilians rose up against their Nazi captors, such as in the Warsaw Jewish ghetto
    - Partisan resistance helped weaken Nazis and pave the way for Allied attacks
    - As Stalin kept pushing for a second front, the Allies prepared for Operation Overlord
    - Wanted to retake the continent by pushing through France
    - Began on June 6, 1944 with the Normandy invasion (D-Day)
    - At Omaha Beach, the Nazis prepared the defense perfectly, killing thousands of troops
    - As the Allies pushed towards Paris, the Germans retreated quickly
    - August 25 - Charles de Gaulle proclaimed president of the French Republic
     
    The High Cost of European Victory
    - Allies chose not to move into Berlin, but instead pushed North
    - Germans at Arnhem cut the Allied armies to pieces - 6000 Americans captured
    - Battle of the Bulge - Germans suprised Allies, driving them back 50 miles
    - Bloodiest campaign involving Americans since the battle of Gettysburg
    - By the time the Allies took the Ruhr valley, the German defense seemed hopeless
    - May 8th, 1945 - Germans surrendered
    - By this time Hitler had already committed suicide
     
    The War in Asia and the Pacific
    - After Pearl Harbour, the Japanese continued their early victories
    - Japanese empire proved to be cruel and the conquered people did not like them
    - Midway Island - Americans defeated Japanese and ended the threat to the US coast
    - Japanese felt that high casualties on both sides would eventually wear down the US
    - Americans devised plans to recapture many of the small islands in the Pacific
    - Battle of Leyte Gulf - largest naval battle in history - US tried to recapture Philippines
    - Under MacArthur, the US regained control of the Pacific
    - After Guam was captured, the Americans could reach Tokyo and other cities
    - Japan had no significant air force or navy, and could not transport necessary supplies
    - US did not the Soviets to take any territory after the war was over
    - This led to the use of their secret weapon: the atomic bomb
     
    The Last Stages of the War
    - During the war, Roosevelt focused on military strategy, but when the German defeat seemed imminent, he began planning for peace
    - Wanted to make sure another world war never happened
     
    The Holocaust
    - During the war, Hitler systematically murdered Jews, Gypsies, and homosexuals
    - US government did not release this information until after the war
    - US army would not waste resources rescuing civilians unless it was part of an objective
    - The Holocaust claimed more than 6,000,000 Jews, 250,000 Gypsies, and 60,000 gays
     
    The Yalta Conference
    - Feb. 1945 - Roosevelt met for the last time with Churchill and Stalin
    - Russia wanted: the Baltic states and part of Poland as a buffer zone
    - Britain wanted: to reclaim its empire in Asia
    - The US wanted: to hold several Pacific islands to keep an eye on Japan
    - Although Roosevelt claimed the meeting was a success, he realised that at the end of the war nothing would keep the Allies together
    - 1944 - Roosevelt won an unprecedented fourth term in office
    - April 12, 1945 - Roosevelt died of a stroke
    - His death cast a large shadow over the peace process
     
    The Atomic Bomb
    - After Roosevelt’s death, cooperation among the Allies was difficult
    - Truman had no intentions of making concessoins to the Soviets
    - Once Truman found out about the atomic bomb, he knew he did not need the Soviets
    - Truman warned the Japanese to surrender immediately, or face “complete destruction”
    - Aug 3, 1945 - Japan refused to surrender
    - Aug 6, 1945 - The first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima
    - Aug 9, 1945 - A second atomic bomb destroys Nagasaki
    - The decision to drop the bomb remains one of the most controversial aspects of the war
    - Atomic power strengthened the US’s diplomatic power
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter25.doc47.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Cold War

    Global Insecurities at War’s End
    - WWII created an international interdependance - one country’s actions affected others
    - Opposing national interests made a continuing Soviet-US alliance impossible
     
    “The American Century”
    - Many economists feared an economic downturn similar to the one following WWI
    - 1944 - Reps from 44 Allied countries met to create the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to help rebuild Europe
    - As US was main contributor to both agencies, they could control the world economy
    - When the Soviet Union refused to join the World Bank or the IMF, it isolated itself
     
    The United Nations and Hopes for Collective Security
    - US wanted to join the UN, because they did not join the League of Nations (mistake)
    - Designed to promote collective security
    - Eleanor Roosevelt - one of the first US delegates to the UN
    - Nuremburg Trials - Nazi leaders tried for their war crimes and atrocities
    - Nuremburg Principle - no human should follow orders that conflict with human rights
    - Could not be enforced
     
    The Division of Europe
    - Atlantic Charter (1941) - made Allies renounce new territories claimed by war
    - Violated by Allied leaders before the war had even ended (spheres of influence)
    - Western powers wanted to rebuild Germany as a trade partner, Soviets didn’t
    - West Germany became capitalist; much like the US - E. Germany was like Sov. Union
    - Fulton, Missouri - 1946 - Churchill states that “an iron curtain has fallen across Europe”
     
    The Policy of Containment
    - Many feel that FDR would have been able to help in US-Soviet relations
    - Truman lacked FDR’s diplomacy and desire for peace
    - Under Truman, Containment became the key facet of US foreign policy
    - Remained this way for several decades
     
    The Truman Doctrine
    - 1947 - Mediterranean crisis - Truman decides to take over area before Soviets can
    - Convinces US that personal freedoms rely on the containment of communism
    - Became known as the Truman doctrine
     
    The Marshall Plan
    - Common name for the European Recovery Program
    - Began a series of US attempts to use economic policy to contain communism
    - Began in 1947 by chief of staff George C. Marshall
    - Under this plan, most of the nations of Western Europe became capitalist and open to trading with US markets
    - Stalin denounced the plan as an attempt to make West Germany into an anti-Soviet bloc
    - Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan worked hand-in-hand
     
    The Berlin Crisis and the Formation of NATO
    - When Stalin saw the allies uniting their sectors of West Germany, he blockaded West Berlin, which although controlled by the allies, was located deep in East Germany
    - Allies began Operation Vittles, airlifted 2,000,000 tonnes of supplies to the West Berliners
    - May 1949 - Soviets lifted blockade
    - NATO was formed to strengthen economic ties between allies and to keep Soviets out
    - Huge step away from isolationism
    - Soviets and homies form the Warsaw Pact in May 1955 - essentially an anti-NATO
    - Completed the division of the East and the West
     
    The Cold War in Asia
    - In exchange for economic help, US was allowed to keep military supplies in Japan
    - Let the US keep a close eye on the Soviets
    - US gave lots of money to leaders they supported, allowing them to crush rebellions, etc
    - MacArthur saw the US as “a bulwark of Christianity in the Far East”
    - US supported Chiang Kai-Shek, who ignored advice to step aside and fought commies
    - Mao destroyed the nationalists, and China “fell” to Communists
    - Republicans were enraged at Truman for “losing” China
     
    Atomic Diplomacy
    - After the bombs had been used, they could no longer remain a secret from the world
    - 1946 - Atomic Energy Act - Gave Atomic Evergy Commission control over production
    - 1950 - The US’s atomic arsenal could reproduce far more than WWII in a single day
    - 1949 - Soviets tested their first atomic bomb
    - New hydrogen bombs were more than 1000x more powerful than the ones in WWII
     
    The Truman Presidency
    - Truman saw the conflict with the Soviets as a need for a strong president
    - Truman tried to make himself as a strong president while remaining loyal to Roosevelt
     
    “To Err is Truman”
    - Within a year of assuming office, Truman’s popularity was lower than any presidents except Hoover, who was blamed for the Depression
    - Truman refused to let many military people return home after WWII
    - He relented after there was a huge public outcry
    - Post-war demand for supplies created rampant inflation - prices rose
    - This let to boycotts of stores and strikes
    - Truman wanted to induct striking workers into the army - Congress defeated this plan
    - 1946 - Truman’s popularity drops to 32%
    - In the wake of anti-Democrat sentiment, Republicans pushed to turn back the New Deal
    - Republicans also set a limit of two terms in office for a president
    - Even Democrats began to suggest that Truman resign
     
    The 1948 Election
    - Americans for Democratic Action - Liberal group formed by Eleanor Roosevelt and others; became an important liberal lobbying group supporting the Democrats
    - Truman fired most of the popular people who worked under FDR
    - The deepening Cold War made people more supportive of Truman, due to his sternness
    - Americans wanted someone who would stand up to the Russians
    - Truman’s actions in desegregating the military lost him many Southern votes
    - In the end, Truman won because of people who supported FDR’s ideas
     
    The Fair Deal
    - Truman said that everyone had the right to a “fair deal” from the government
    - As the Cold War took increasing priority, Truman lost interest in liberal policies
    - By the end of Truman’s second term, defense costs made up 10% of the GNP
    - This was made possible by intense anti-commie campaigning at home
     
    The Cold War at Home
    - 1946 - Attn. Gen. Tom C. Clark announced that the US was part of a commie plot
    - 1950 - Sen. McCarthy claimed to have a list of communists serving in government
    - These fears led the nation’s leaders to become obsessed with national security
     
    The National Security State
    - More and more resources were poured into national defense
    - Central Intelligence Agency - formerly the Office of Strategic Services - spy network
    - Estimates are that budget and employees were more than State Dept
    - 1947 - Federal Employees Loyalty and Security Program 
    - Banned communists, fascists, and gays from federal employment
    - Employees could be fired for belief that they were disloyal
    - Clark published a list of potentially subversive organisations
    - Effectively outlawed these groups, even if they had done nothing wrong
    - Many catered to the interests of minorities
    - Internal Security Act - severely limited freedoms of speech and press
    - Made Comm. organisations register with Subversive Activities Control Board
    - Banned people deemed “subversive” or “homosexual” from visiting the US
     
    The Red Scare in Hollywood
    - Fears arose that there was a communist plot centered around Hollywood
    - House Un-American Activities Committee - investigated the entertainment industry
    - Many people were interrogated and asked to give info regarding potential threats
    - “Unfriendly Witnesses” - people who would not cooperate with investigators
    - Many anti-communist films were released, however, few became popular
     
    Spy Cases
    - Whittaker Chamers - editor of Time magazine, former columnist
    - Confessed to spying for the Soviet Union in the 1930s
    - Named Alger Hiss (former Roosevelt aide) as an accomplice
    - Many Democrats dismissed the allegations as a Republican ploy to make them look bad
    - Julius and Ethel Rosenberg - accused of stealing and trying to convey atomic secrets
    - 1951 - found guilty of espionage; 1953 - died in the electric chair
    - Many world figures pleaded for their release (Einstein, pope, etc)
     
    McCarthyism
    - 1950 - Joseph R. McCarthy declared that there was a conspiracy against the US
    - Accused more than 200 State Dept employees of being communists
    - McCarthy had no names of communists and no one in the State Dept was convicted
    - McCarthy was against New Deal Democrats and silenced all critics of the Cold War
    - Encouraged “patriots” to prepare themselves for atomic war
    - McCarthyism targeted minority groups such as blacks, Jews, and gays, not the elite
    - Huge anxieties arose about “abnormalities” such as homosexuality, and “perversions”
    - McCarthy used smear tactics to win support in his elections
    - When McCarthy failed to produce any substantial evidence, he appeared deranged
    - Even in the wake of McCarthyism, any dissent was now dangerous
     
    Age of Anxiety
    - After WWII, Americans had a lot of the world’s wealth; many were middle-class
    - WWIII seemed imminent, fears fueled by politicians such as Truman & McCarthy
    - Fallout shelters - Many families built bunkers attached to their homes in case of war
     
    The Two-Income Family
    - Because of all the anxieties of the times, Americans focused on their own lives more
    - People began to be more thankful of what they had and not to take it for granted
    - Baby boom
    - Many couples got married
    - New appliances became very popular - T.V.s, automatic washers, cameras, etc
    - Baby boom + high rate of consumer spending = many families with a working mother
    - Some people tried to stop women working because Soviet women were known workers
    - Dr. Spock - Published a parenting book which told parents to essentially spoil their kids
    - After the war, women lost their high wages and prominence in colleges
     
    Religion and Education
    - Billy Graham - first “televangelist” - led revivals of Christianity
    - Elementary school teachers re-worked the curriculum to promote US, boo Soviets
    - Kids were taught to value the virtues of capitalism - private property, etc
     
    The Cultural Noir
    - New movies dealt with the current worries felt, and the emotions of returning from war
    - Called “noir” films because of their sombre mood
    - Many were banned from Hollywood
    - Many UFO sightings and new movies about commie subversion emphasized fears
     
    End of the Democratic Era
    - Truman’s career was killed by the Korean War
    - He took a tough line with the Cold War, but the Korean War was not easily winnable
     
    The Korean War
    - June 1950 - N. Korea attacked S. Korea
    - Truman had to live up to his talk about being “tough on communists”
    - Truman got approval from the Security Council to send in troops under MacArthur
    - Although the UN quickly regained South Korea, Truman wanted to take all of it
    - MacArthur miscalculated the Chinese potential to aid the N. Koreans
    - White House debated using the atomic bomb
    - MacArthur pressed for a war against China
    - 1951 - Truman dumped him for insubordination
     
    The Legacy of “The Sour Little War”
    - Truman’s actions in the Korean War bypassed Congress and were widely criticized
    - Truman justified this using NSC-68, a bill devoted to repelling communists
    - The Korean War set up the US and China as enemies for the next twenty years
    - Many Americans became disillusioned after the stalemate in Korea
     
    Truman’s Downfall
    - Polls indicated Americans were frustrated with Truman’s handling of the war
    - After Truman dismissed MacArthur, many people sought his impeachment
    - A short-lived “MacArthur for President” campaign followed his dismissal
    - Truman announced in 1952 that he would not run for reelection
    - When Eisenhower refused the Democratic nomination, they asked Adlai E. Stevenson
    - “Ike” Eisenhower decided to run for the Republicans
    - Eisenhower told voters that he wanted peace, and wouldn’t get into another war
    - Richard Nixon used television to his and Eisenhower’s advantage during the campaign
    - Appealed to voter’s emotions and spread their message widely
    - The Republican victory was more a sign of Eisenhower’s popularity than anything else
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter26.doc40 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - America at Midcentury

    American Society at Mid-century
    - Americans needed to spend more time & money on the community, not personal stuff
    - Medical care, schools, etc
    - Many tensions felt due to the Cold War - these shaped American life
     
    The Eisenhower Presidency
    - First 2 term Republican president since Grant
    - Eisenhower had a very conservative vision of community
    - Saw the US as corporate commonwealth, similar to Hoover’s “associative state”
    - Wanted to run the govt. in a businesslike manner
    - Appointed 9 businessmen to his first cabinet
    - 3 of these had contacts with GM
    - Submerged Land Act: gave $40 billion in Oil back to the Gulf States
    - Lax government regulations lead to harming the environment in Florida & Louisiana
    - Accepted the New Deal legacy of greater federal responsibility for social welfare
    - Refused to stop the Social Security system
    - Created Dept of Health, Education & Welfare
    - Eisenhower continued agricultural payments to sustain farming prices
     
    Subsidizing Prosperity
    - Many people gain middle class status after WWII thanks to financial aid
    - 1934 - Federal Housing Administration (FHA) subsidized the housing industry
    - Mainly concentrated on the suburbs - as a result, inner city suffers
    - Discourages multi-unit housing
    - Discriminated against racially mixed communities
    - Stability could only be achieved through same race and same lifestyles
    - Suburbs: planned communities
    - One of the first: Levittown, Long Island
    - 1947 - built on what was formerly 1500 acres of potato fields
    - Called the “perfect planned community”
    - Prefabricated housing
    - 1960 - Still no black residents
    - 1944 - GI Bill of Rights: gave returning vets low interest mortgage & business loans
    - Paid for some higher education
    - 1956 - Federal Highway Act: $32 billion in National Interstate Highway System
    - After Sputnik, US government worries the country’s education system is lagging behind
    - Strengthens support for teaching math, science & technology
    - National Defence Education Act: $280 million in grants for state universities to upgrade science facilities & $300 million for college student loans
    - NDEA represented a new agreement that high-quality education was important
     
    Suburban Life
    - The “perfect housewife” was efficient, patient & charming
    - Dominant image in the media
    - Becoming a housewife was seen as a woman’s only path to happiness & fulfillment
    - The Feminine Mystique (Betty Friedan) tries to change these stereotypes
    - Strong religious resurgence in 1940s & 1950s
    - Cars became the centre of the suburban lifestyle
    - Necessary for commuting & recreation
    - California has most drive-in facilities in nation
    - “Centreless city” - lives became very spread out and cars became a necessity
     
    Lonely Crowds & Organisation Men
    - 1950 - The Lonely Crowd (David Riesman): introduced the “other-directed man”
    - Peer oriented instead of self-oriented
    - 1956 - Organisation Men (W.H. Whyte): 
    - Study of Chicago suburb: people obsess with fitting into community and at work
    - Middle-class suburbanites want a comfortable secure niche
    - 1951- White Collar: C. Wright Mills analyzes white collar workers
    - Analyzed middle-class salaried & office workers
    - Get jobs through skills & personalities - need to change to fit expectations
     
    Expansion of Higher Education
    - 800,000 more college students between 1950-60
    - This number more than doubled to 7.2 million in 1970
    - GI Bill & National Defence Education Act helped to make school accessible
    - Many major in business & commerce
    - Gateway to the middle-class
    - College life became like a business style work
    - Administrators adopted business language, quality control, etc
     
    Health & Medicine
    - Improvements allowed Americans to enjoy a longer and healthier life
    - Lots of money pumped into the health system
    - Armed forces immunized against diseases from syphilis to tuberculosis
    - Penicillin manufactured & mass distributed
    - 1949 - National Institute of Mental Health created
    - Epidemic diseases eradicated (tuberculosis, diphtheria & measles)
    - Poliomyelitis eradicated through immunization after discovery in 1955 of vaccine
    - Many expensive treatments not available to the poor
    - Many small towns didn’t have a hospital
    - Decline of General Practitioner stops most house calls
    - American Medical Assoc. does nothing to increase the flow of doctors
    - Truman and Eisenhower made plans to offer assistance to private health care
    - AMA denounced proposals as “socialized medicine”
     
    Youth Culture
    - “Teenager” began being used to describe someone between the ages of 13 and 19
    - Lots of media and social pressure to grow up quickly
     
    The Youth Market
    - High birth rates in the 1930s + post war baby boom = lots of teenagers during the 1950s
    - Kids obsessed with popular clothes & fads - eg getting a Cadillac
    - More teens in school
    - Books: How to Live with Your Teenager & Understanding Teenagers
    - Educate adults on how to handle teens
    - Traditional sources of adult authority - marketplace, schools, child-rearing manuals, the mass media -- all reinforced the notion of teenagers as a special community
     
    Hail! Hail! Rock ‘n’ Roll 
    - Transistor & car radios become common & youths want their own defining music
    - Small independent record labels begin producing black rhythm & blues artists
    - Black music such as “Doowop” & Little Richard crossover & attract white teens
    - Large record labels produce covers of “nigger music” by whites
    - Alan Freed, white DJ in Cleveland refuses to play white covers. 
    - Coins phrase: “Rock ‘n’ Roll” - came from black slang for having sex
    - Billboard magazine is started & pushes more teens to Rock ‘n’ Roll
    - Elvis Presley crosses the colour border & creates his own ‘black music’
    - Eases tensions of adults over their teens listening to black music
    - Presley was a symbol of rebellious youth & sexuality, but he wasn’t black
     
    Almost Grown
    - Record sales triple from 1954 to 1959 - everyone becomes attracted to music
    - Teenagers begin to want to grown up faster
    - More 16 yr olds driving & dating
    - Puberty age goes down & girls discover their sexuality at an earlier age
    - Junior high schools become popular after 1945
    - Late 1950’s - most Americans marry at age 18
     
    Deviance & Delinquency
    - Adults hold Rock ‘n’ Roll responsible for the increasing teenage rebelliousness
    - Juvenile delinquency becoming a problem but an exaggerated one
    - Adults tend to blow things out of proportion
    - Teenagers seem to be more loyal to their friends than to their parents
    - The Wild One & Rebel Without a Cause - depict rebellious and emotional youths
    - Movies enforce the teenage delinquency stereotype
     
    Mass Culture & its Discontents
    - TV achieved more than any form of mass media ever had before it
    - Basic technology developed in the 1930s
    - 1960 - Nearly 90% of American families owned a TV
    - The ideas of the media would strongly affect American views and cause upheaval
     
    Television: Tube of Plenty
    - NBC, CBS & ABC grow directly from radio organisations
    - Advertising becomes an integral part of TV
    - TV transforms the advertising industry into a cutthroat business
    - Various programs show the lives of the different classes:
    - I Remember Mama & The Life of Riley show working class family struggles
    - Leave it to Beaver & Ozzie and Harriet show middle-class suburban family life
    - Happy & prosperous
    - TV creates overnight fads
    - The images shown on TV were rarely the case of what real families were like
    - Elvis Presley appears on several shows & becomes a national symbol
     
    Television & Politics
    - Prime-time shows carefully avoided references to the political climate of the day
    - Communism alleged to “run rampant” in the film industry
    - Red Channels - 151 well known TV & movie writers branded as communists
    - Cold War fears prevent much political discussion on TV shows
    - Edward R. Murrow’s See It Now - a short lived political discussion show
    - TV begins to have effects politically
    - Promoted Estes Kefauver of Tennessee to a national figure
    - Contributed to Senator McCarthy’s downfall when it showed his bullying tactics
    - Nixon uses TV to promote himself to voters through the “Checkers” speech
     
    Culture Crisis
    - Mass culture - described as  “a parasite... on high culture” ~ Dwight MacDonald
    - Media becomes capable of manipulating audiences through advertising
    - Mad magazine etc. met with much criticism
     
    The Beats
    - Led by Jack Kerouac & Allen Ginsberg
    - Shared a distrust of the American virtues of progress, power & material gain
    - Kerouac coined the term “beat” - meant weary and tired of the modern industrial state
    - Identified with black music & culture
    - Kerouac believed in “spontaneous writing” - one’s first thought was the best
    - Similar in music, language & dress to black jazz musicians
    - Beatnik - a derrogatory term for hippie-like, rebellious, alienated people
     
    The Cold War Continued
    - Eisenhower had lots of experience in foreign affairs - WWII commander, etc
    - Introduced a greater reliance on nuclear weapons and more agressive use of the CIA
    - Didn’t want an all-out nuclear war
    - Eisenhower’s promotion of weaponry led to a military-industrial complex
     
    The “New Look” in Foreign Affairs
    - Promised to reduce the military budget by exploiting the US’s air & atomic superiority
    - “More bang for the buck”
    - Between 1954-1961: govt spending only raises $800 million
    - Military spending as a % of total dropped from 66% to 49%
    - John Foster Dulles - 
    - Believes in US responsibility to preserve the “free world” from communism
    - wanted a “rollback” of communist powers & reliance on US nuclear superiority 
    - This “new look” conflicted with Eisenhower’s personal sense of caution
    - Hard to rely on nuclear arms and not want to start a nuclear conflict
    - 1953: East Berlin residents revolt against Soviets
    - Eisenhower doesn’t respond 
    - Couldn’t start the “rollback” without starting an all out war
    - Stalin dies in 1953 
    - Kruschev & Eisenhower agree to suspend nuclear testing
    - Kruschev visits US & talks with Eisenhower
    - Paris summit planned to discuss reunification of Germany
    - Soviets shoot down Francis Gary Powers in his U2 spy plane
    - Eisenhower refuses to apologize to the Soviets & summit collapses
    - Sputnik launched - Arms race begins 
    - Military spending raised $10.5 billion by 1958
     
    Covert Action
    - CIA relied on to produce info on the Soviets
    - These paramilitary operations becomes a key facet of US foreign policy
    - Used to destabilize emerging 3rd world governments deemed to radical or too friendly with the Soviets, or anti-capitalist
    - Head of CIA = Alan Dulles (JFD’s brother)
    - Former head of Office of Strategic Services (CIA precursor)
     
    Intervening Around the World
    - CIA produces swift victory in Iran in 1953 after the Iranian president nationalized a UK oil company (Anglo-Iranian Oil)
    - CIA created opposition from inside the military & wins the civil war
    - Replaced Mossadegh with the Shah
    - Arab-Israeli rivalry -
    - Arabs attack Israel in 1948 
    - US & USSR already recognized the independence of Israel
    - Israel wins & forces hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes
    - US supports Israel because most Americans feel sorry for the Jews
    - Egypt wants a dam of the Nile to create good farming land & cheap electricity
    - Nasser is turned down for foreign aid, decides to nationalize the Suez Canal
    - Turns to Soviet Union for help
    - UK, France & Israel invades - US gets a ceasefire & troop withdrawal
    - Guatemala - 
    - Jacobo Arbenz threatens to expropriate land from the United Fruit Co. 
    - US Navy decides to blockade Guatemala 
    - CIA director Dulles sat on the board of directors for United Fruit Co.
    - US bombing stops Guatemalan invasions into United Fruit buildings
    - CIA overthrows Arbenz & Carlos Castillo Armas becomes a dictatorial ruler
    - Armas later assassinated & civil war ensues
    - Eisenhower denies all knowledge of CIA action in Guatemala
    - Indochina - 
    - US provides France with military aid & CIA cooperation 
    - Trying to suppress the communist Vietminh forces 
    - Led by Ho Chi Minh at Dien Ben Phu
    - France defeated; Eisenhower declines all out US intervention
    - Geneva Accord separates Vietnam into North & South sectors
    - Ngo Dinh Diem takes control as a Catholic in a 90% Buddhist state
    - CIA keeps him in power in South Vietnam & represses elections agreed to in Geneva
    - Both Diem and the US know that Ho Chi Minh would have won
    - US fears loss of one country to communism will force it to spread
    - Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation:
    - Includes US, UK, France, Australia, NZ, Thailand, Philippines & Pakistan
    - “Anti-communist league” 
     
    Ike’s Warning: The Military-Industrial Complex
    - 1950s - Peace advocates want full nuclear disarmament 
    - Eisenhower begins to see their point 
    - Uurges the country to avoid the military-industrial complex
    - The conjunction of a large military & large arms industry
    - Devoted his farewell address to warning against the military-industrial complex
     
    John F. Kennedy and the New Frontier
    - JFK embodied youth, sophistication, and excitement
    - Early in his presidency, he followed the already-set Cold War precepts
    - At the time of his assassination, he was beginning to veer away from them
     
    The Election of 1960
    - Nixon (faithfully served Eisenhower as VP) vs. Kennedy (youthful war hero)
    - Featured the first televised presidential debates
    - Supporters promoted Kennedy’s intellect - won Pulitzer Prize for Profiles in Courage
    - Kennedy looks more confident in front of the cameras & stresses the elimination of the arms gap between the US & USSR
    - Kennedy wins by 100,000 votes out of 69 million
    - Becomes the first celebrity president
    - Kennedy’s administration promised to be a modern-day Camelot
    - Inaugural Address: “Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country”
    - Inspired a whole generation of young Americans
     
    New Frontier Libralism
    - Kennedy promises to revive the liberal domestic agenda
    - New Frontier advocated higher minimum wage, greater federal education aid, increased Social Security & medical care for the elderly
    - Most blocked by Southern Democrats in Congress
    - Congress did pass a slight improvement in minimum wage - up to $1.25
    - Area Redevelopment Act - redeveloped urban slums
    - Manpower Retraining Act to train the unemployed
    - Higher Education Act offers aid to universities to upgrade their facilities
    - Peace Corps created to give aid in 3rd world countries
    - Creates Commission on the Status of Women led by E. Roosevelt
    - Leads to Equal Pay Act (1963) & calls for full equality
    - Kennedy focused on stimulating economic growth & creating new jobs 
    - Depended on the Council of Economic Advisors  (CEA)
    - Targets tax cuts & defecit spending
    - 1962 - Revenue Act lowers business taxes
    - The Space Program - 
    - Creates NASA & pumps $33 billion into it by 1969
    - JFK’s greatest achievement was the strengthening of the executive branch
    - Direct presidential control over details usually left to advisors 
    - White House staff take over many responsibilities of Cabinet Ministers
     
    Kennedy and the Cold War
    - Kennedy attempts to ease US-Soviet tensions
    - JFK builds up military spending & increases covert operations
    - Supplements CIA with Army Special Forces
    - The Kennedy-supported militant regime in Laos is defeated by the Soviet-backed group
    - Kennedy supports Diem’s militant govt in Vietnam
    - Diem defeated & the Vietcong take over govt with Ho Chi Minh
    - Latin America -
    - 1961 - Alliance of Progress: $100 billion plan to aid Latin nations in rebuilding their economy & spur economic growth
    - Introduced as a kind of Marshall Plan to benefit the poor and middle classes
     
    The Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs
    - Corrupt US puppet dictator Fulgencio Batista faces heated rebellion from Fidel Castro & his peasant-based revolutionary movement
    - Castro defeats Batista & begins land reform programs 
    - Frightened Eisenhower; the US withdraws aid
    - Castro turns to the Soviets for aid
    - Sells sugar to the USSR & seizes US oil interests
    - CIA leads invasion of counterrevolutionaries at the Bay of Pigs 
    - Is defeated when Kennedy pulls the Air Force support
    - Turns into a highly embarrassing situation
    - Kennedy still remains committed to getting rid of Castro
    The Missile Crisis
    - Castro is frightened by US & asks Kruschev for military aid
    - USSR ships sophisticated weapons to Cuba 
    - US discovers the hidden missile silos through reconnaissance missions
    - US cities now increasingly vulnerable to Soviet based ICBMs
    - Many call for an invasion of Cuba
    - Kennedy demands the removal of the missiles 
    - Puts a blockade on Cuba of all military equipment
    - Threatens full retaliation on USSR if any Cuban missiles are fired
    - Khrushchev offers to remove all missiles if US promises not to invade Cuba, and to dismantle the US missiles in Turkey
    - Kennedy agrees but USSR start a weapons buildup
     
    The Assassination of President Kennedy
    - Killed Nov. 22, 1963 in Dallas by Lee Harvey Oswald
    - Becomes a martyr for the US cause for world peace
    - He is the perfect American, and the US public sees their frailty
    - At the time of Kennedy’s death, Soviet-US relations were better than they had ever been
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter27.doc68.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - The Civil Rights Movement

    Origins of the Movement
    - Nearly 1 million black men and women served in the armed forces in WWII
    - After the war ended, these people began to push for political and social equality
     
    Civil Rights after World War II
    - WWII boom brings many blacks north
    - 1940s - 43 northern and western cities double their black population
    - Less discrimination in the northern cities
    - Gained significant political influence
    - Biracial unity helped press for better wages and working conditions
    - Black voters continue the switch to Democrats that started during the New Deal
    - Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights:
    - Wanted to end racial inequality
    - Created a permanent civil rights division in the Justice dept
    - Voting rights protection
    - Anti lynching & anti-housing segregation
    - Although he publicly endorsed these suggestions, he never made them into law
    - Truman ends segregation in the armed forces before 1948 election - wins on black votes
    - National Assoc. for the Advancement of Coloured People gains 450,000 members
    - Morgan v Virginia (1946) - bus segregation = undue burden on interstate commerce
    - “Freedom Ride” through the Upper South to celebrate
    - Some riders arrested in North Carolina for refusing to leave
    - Two major black accomplishments:
    - Jackie Robinson wins the MLB rookie of the year (1947)
    - Black UN diplomat wins Nobel Peace Prize
    - Black musicians move away from traditional big-band jazz into new “bebop”
    - Hard for whites to copy
    - “Boppers” not the typical black entertainers (rebels) - did not fit white stereotypes
     
    The Segregated South
    - Segregation in the South still was very bad
    - Schools, restaurants, libraries, hotels, hospitals, cemeteries etc still apart
    - Black facilities not as good as white ones
    - 1940s - Only about 10% of blacks voted
    - Various legal & extra-legal ways to keep most disenfranchised
    - Poll taxes & discriminatory registration, etc
     
    Brown v. Board of Education
    - NAACP did not try to outlaw segregation, but rather, to make it so expensive that the government could not afford continue it
    - Began pushing for everything to be separate and fully equal
    - The war on schools:
    - Missouri v. ex.rel. Gaines (1939):
    - U. of Missouri must admit black law students or build another school for them
    - McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950):
    - Black students cannot be forced to study & eat in different places than whites
    - Brown v. Board of Education (1952)
    - Separate facilities deny blacks of basic American rights
    - Segregation reduces children’s self-esteem
    - Chief Justice Earl Warren convinces Court to approve of desegregation
    - Plessy v. Ferguson ruling overturned
     
    Crisis in Little Rock
    - 1956 - 101 congressmen sign Southern Manifesto 
    - Wanted to refuse to comply with desegregation laws
    - Eisenhower wouldn’t publicly endorse the Brown decision
    - Was actually against it
    - Little Rock, Arkansas - Fed. court orders school board to begin desegregation
    - Gov. Orval Faubus decided to make his reelection campaign based on defying the order
    - Faubus sends National Guard to prevent blacks into Central High School
    - Eventually pulls out NG & leaves the 9 black students at the mob’s mercy
    - Eisenhower puts the NG under fed. control & send troops in to escort the students 
    - Proves that the federal government can enforce civil rights
     
    No Easy Road to Freedom, 1957-1962
    - Brown demonstrated the ability to use courts as a weapon against descrimination
    - Black communities would still have to help themselves before anyone else would
     
    Martin Luther King and the SCLC
    - Montgomery bus boycott makes MLK a national figure
    - Admired Mohandas Ghandi - wanted a peaceful fight
    - King called this passive resistance “A new & powerful weapon”
    - The Southern Christian Leadership Conference
    - 100 black ministers gathered to preach non-violent protesting
    - Next wave of protest came from an unlikely source: college students
     
    Sit Ins: Greensboro, Nashville, Atlanta
    - Feb 1, 1960: 4 black freshmen sat down at a whites-only table in Woolworths
    - Stayed all day & returned in the following days with more people
    - Apr. 21 - 45 students arrested for trespassing
    - Blacks boycott store; Greensboro finally gives in
    - Spring 1960: 150 black students arrested during a sit in
    - Morehouse, Spelman & other all-black colleges in Atlanta University organize 200 people to sit in at city hall
    - 76 arrested
    - Sit ins continue & Atlanta desegregates in Sept. 1961
     
    SNCC & the “Beloved Community”
    - Well-established blacks frown on sit ins
    - Ruins their status quo
    - Southern University forces all 5,000 black students to reapply to screen out agitators
    - SNCC - Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee
    - 120 black students in N.C.
    - Established to fight through mass confrontation & civil disobedience
     
    Election of 1960 & Civil Rights
    - Nixon v. Kennedy
    - Nixon - originally pro-Civil Rights, but stopped promoting it to gain Southern votes
    - Kennedy praises sit ins as “American tradition of standing up for one’s rights”
    - After MLK was jailed, the Kennedys told the judge not to violate MLK’s civil rights
    - Kennedy wins on strength of black votes
    - Kennedy promoted “minimum legislation, maximum executive action”
    - 40 African Americans appointed to high federal positions
    - Created the Committee of Equal Employment Opportunity to fight discrimination
    - Invigorated the Civil Rights Division of Justice Dept
     
    Freedom Rides
    - 1961 - James Farmer starts plans for an interracial Freedom Ride through the South
    - 7 blacks & 6 whites split up & go from Washington
    - Freedom riders were harrassed and nearly beated to death
    - Police & FBI do nothing
    - Freedom Rides continue until Fed. Govt petitions the Interstate Commerce Commission to issue clear rules prohibiting segregation on interstate carriers
     
    The Albany Movement: The Limits of Protest
    - Coalition of SNCC & NAACP activists
    - Oct. 1961 - Albany Movt - Starts sit ins, boycotts & protests 
    - MLK joins the movt & turns it into a national problem
    - Police meet non-violence with non-violence
    - No national pity for demonstrators
    - Fails in summer of 1962 - Albany remains as segregated as ever - couldn’t fill up jails
    - U. of Mississippi integrated when James Meredith registered as a full time student
    - Gov. Ross Barnett blocks his entrance; Kennedy sends 500 fed. marshals to protect him
    - Mob injures 160 marshals & kills 2 rioters
    - 5,000 army troops sent in until JM graduates
     
    The Movement at High Tide, 1963-65
    - 1960-62 told people that civil rights could not be established because of court rules
     
    Birmingham
    - 1962 - MLK targets Birmingham for next protest (US’s largest segregated city)
    - Wanted to fill jails, boycott downtown stores & anger Public Safety Commissioner Eugene “Bull” Connor
    - MLK writes “Letter From Birmingham Jail”
    - “freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor”
    - “justice too long delayed is justice denied”
    - Children’s Crusade organized to fill jails with students
    - Police use water cannons, billy clubs & attack dogs to break up protests
    - SCLC negotiates treaty & Birmingham is desegregated
    - Racial harmony was still a long way off
     
    JFK & the March on Washington
    - June 1963 - Alabama Governor George Wallace threatens to block 2 black students from entering the state university
    - National Guard Troops escort them into & around the University
    - June 11, 1963: JFK endorses civil rights activism
    - JFK proposes in Congress a law to ensure voting rights and outlaw segregation
    - Uses federal funds to support the CR cause
    - Civil Rights activists plan a non-violent march on Washington
    - August 28, 1963 - 250,000+ people gather at the Lincoln Memorial
    - “Jobs & Freedom” rally
     
    LBJ & the Civil Rights Act of 1964
    - Nov. 22, 1963 - JFK assassinated in Dallas - many Southerners are glad of his death
    - Succeeded by Lyndon Baines Johnson
    - Never a strong Civil Rights supporter
    - Promised to continue JFK’s work; threw his support behind the Civil Rights Bill
    - Passed in the House by 290-130 vote
    - Passed in the Senate after a Southern filibuster collapses
    - July 2, 1964: Civil Rights bill passed
    - Prohibited discrimination in work & in public
    - Equal Employment Opportunity Commission established
     
    Mississippi Freedom Summer
    - SNCC campaign to register black voters & directly challenge segregation
    - Recruited white volunteers because  “the death of a white student would have more effect than the death of a black student”
    - 6 die violently, 1000 arrests, 35 shootings, and 30 bombings
    - Freedom Schools & Freedom party to be established
    - 60,000 black voters sign up as the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP)
    - Sent reps to Democratic national convention 
    - LBJ was against MFDP because he didn’t want a divisive floor fight
     
    Malcolm X & Black Consciousness
    - Many young activists drawn to the militant vision of Malcolm X
    - “X” to symbolize the loss of his original African name
    - Converted to Islam while in prison
    - Main speaker for the Nation of Islam (Black Muslims) & black freedom “fighter”
    - Followed Elijah Muhammad
    - Created all black communities to show black self reliance
    - Was very Anti-White - the “blue-eyed devils” are the cause of this world’s evil
    - Encouraged ending white domination by “any means necessary”
    - “Black Muslims don’t want to integrate the society, we want to be separate from it.”
    - Separates from Elijah Muhammad & the NOI after scandals involving Muhammad
    - Makes his pilgrimage to Mecca & returns as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz
    - Abandons his seperationist views & creates the Organisation of Afro-American Unity
    - Feb 21, 1965 - assassinated in Harlem’s Audubon Ballroom
     
    Selma & the Voting Rights Act of 1965
    - LBJ gets re-elected in 1964, capturing 94% of the 6 million black votes
    - Wants to pass a strong voting rights act: MLK & SCLC support him
    - MLK wants to create another national crisis, and chooses Selma, Alabama
    - Prevents blacks from voting (only a couple hundred out of 15,000 voted)
    - Despite attacks, not nearly enough attention given to the demonstrations
    - Selma march organised
    - 600 marchers beaten after crossing the Pettus Bridge to Montgomery
    - “Bloody Sunday” gets attention of the media & fed. Intevention demanded
    - MLK agrees for a shortened march 
    - White racist violence calls LBJ to propose a voters rights bill 
    - Lets MLK lead a full march to Montgomery
    - Mar 21: MLK leads 3000 black & white marchers from Selma to Montgomery
    - 30,000 join in the next 4 days 
    - Aug 1965 - LBJ signs Voting Rights Act
    - Federal supervision in states & counties where fewer than ½ of the voting-aged residents were registered
    - 1964-1968: southern black voters triple
     
    Forgotten Minorities
    - Although the Civil Rights movement revolved around blacks, other minorities had been denied their rights for some time
    - Black successes inspired these groups to push for their rights
     
    Mexican Americans
    - 1928 - League of United Latin American Citizens founded in Texas
    - Pushed two cases through to set a precedent for Brown v. Board of Education
    - Mendez v. Westminster & Delgado case: (1947/48)
    - Supreme Court upheld rulings making Mex. Amer. segregation unconstitutional
    - Hernandez case: ends exclusion of Mexican Americans from Texas jury lists
    - Bracero program brings 300,000 Mexicans to the US during WWII
    - Cheap farm labour to stimulate the agriculture industries
    - “Operation Wetback” started to stop the flow of illegal immigrants to the US
    - 3.7 illegal immigrants sent back to Mexico, but many legal citizens as well
     
    Puerto Ricans
    - Jones Act of 1917 makes Puerto Rico part of the US
    - US citizenship to all Puerto Ricans
    - US takes control of most arable land in PR & its sugar industry
    - Many Puerto Rican communities in NYC by 1920s
    - El barrio in East Harlem was the largest
    - “Great Migration” - 1945-1964 - due to direct air travel
    - 1970 - about 800,000 Puerto Ricans in NYC
    - 1970s - urban PR families poorer on average than other Latino groups
    - Steep decline in garment industry in NYC
     
    Indian Peoples
    - “Termination” to cancel all Native treaties
    - 1953 - Govt can terminate a tribe as a political entity
    - Bureau of Indian Affairs encouraged relocation from reservations to urban areas
    - Many return to reservations or go to the margins of city life - poverty & alcoholism
    - National Congress of American Indians calls for a review of federal policies
    - Termination ends in 1960
    - US v. Wheeler reasserts the principle of “unique & limited” sovereignty
     
    Asian Americans
    - Japanese American Citizens League pushes contributions of the Nisei (2nd generation)
    - Supreme Court declares segregation of Japnse Amrcans “outright racial discrimination”
    - 1954 - Immigration and Nationality Act
    - Removes ban against Japanese immigration
    - Allows immigration from the “Asian Pacific Triangle”
    - 1965 - New Immigration & Nationality act
    - Abolishes national quotas & allows for the immigration of 170,000 from the Eastern Hemisphere & 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere
    - In the next 20 years, the Asian American population goes from 1 to 5 million
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter28.doc46 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - War Abroad, War at Home

     

    Vietnam: America’s Longest War
    Johnson’s War
    Kennedy had sent in many military advisors
    Lyndon B. Johnson makes the decision to engage in a major war
    Hoped to stay the course in Vietnam
    Realised that a loss or stalemate would cripple his re-election chances
    The Tonkin Gulf resolution passed to give Pres the authority to take “all necessary measure” to defend US armed forces
    A “functional equivalent” to a declaration of war
    Johnson campaigns under a non-interference policy
    “Don’t send in US boys to do what Asian boys should be”
    govt in Saigon near collapse & Vietcong still pushing hard despite bombing
    Deeper into the Quagmire
    Feb 1965: Vietcong fire at a US base
    Johnson uses this to rationalize the war on North Vietnam
    Air strikes & Operation Rolling Thunder
    Up to 431,000 US troops in Vietnam at one time
    War of attrition
    Bombing would destroy the Vietcong
    US troops destroy South Vietnam’s society
    Trying to root out Vietcong support
    Operation Ranch Hand
    1965-1971
    3.6 million acres of land sprayed with Agent Orange
    The Credibility Gap
    Johnson’s popularity rises rapidly during Tonkin Gulf resolution
    Wanes as war drags on & body count told on every news show every day
    Badgered at press conference in 1967 for creating the credibility gap
    News networks begin to show human suffering in Vietnam
    J. William Fullbright of Arkansas= most vocal congressional critic of the war
    Arrogance of Power: proposes a negotiated withdrawal from a neutralized Southeast Asia
    Persuaded many congressman & 1967: Congress appeals to UN to try to negotiate a war end
    War cost $21 billion per year
    10% surcharge on taxes to cover this debt
    tapped the Social Security Fund
    Generation in Conflict
    “The Times They Are A-Changin”
    First protest at U Cal Berkley for free speech in 1964
    Civil rights activists return from Mississippi Freedom Summer
    Picketed San Francisco stores that practiced discrimination in hiring
    Tried to recruit students & administration said no
    “Students from Goldwater” say that this restricts their free speech
    University breaks up protests and presses charges
    Sit in against charges and more arrests
    Free Speech movt spreads across college students
    Demand a curriculum restructuring & treat students as “adults not children”
    “In loco parentis” rules allow for more student freedom
    1967 “Summer of Love” brings 75,000 “hippies” form a ‘counterculture’ in San Francisco
    “Just be” there (ie: drugs, music & sex)
    Sexual revolution causes adult-hippie friction
    1970: 75% of college seniors weren’t virgins
    The “pill” becomes widely available
    Sex more widely discussed
    “Sexual communities” created
    Share child care & sex partners
    Drugs play a large role in this counterculture
    Marijuana & rock become intertwined
    Bob Dylan: “Everybody must get Stoned”
    Folk to rock
    Woodstock (August 1969)
    400,000 people gather for 3 day rock concert
    sex & drugs run rampant while police stand by
    counterculture= “Woodstock Nation” (WN)
    From Campus Protests to Mass Mobilization
    After Operation Rolling Thunder starts, students have a day long class boycott
    War related research boycotted on campus
    Dow Chemical Company (manufacturers of napalm) tried to recruit at the University of Wisconsin
    Sit in starts to prevent them & police violently break it up
    Students chant “Sieg Heil”
    Protests spread from colleges
    Sheep Meadow Protest in Central Park draws 300,000 people
    Protests draw pro-war response from democrats & conservatives
    Veterans of Foreign Wars have a “Loyalty Parade” in NYC to support Vietnam
    “One Country, One Flag, Love it or Leave it”
    Draft Dodging becomes a federal offence with 5 yr jail term & $10,000 fine
    Sheep Meadow Protest has 200 men tear up draft cards
    Jesuit Priests raid the draft office in Catonsville Maryland & burn the draft records
    Teenage Soldiers
    Average age of Vietnam Soldiers is 19
    Many young Latino & Black men sign up for vocal training and a chance to move up the social ladder
    They bore the brunt of the combat
    Only 12 percent of soldiers were college students
    GIs not isolated from the “WN”
    Smoked marijuana & listened to music
    But most condemned antiwar protests
    As the war wore on, GIs got frustrated & became peace advocates 
    RITA (resistance in the army)
    Many began to condemn combat operations
    Some even “fragged” their commanders
    Black Power resents the war as a “White mans war”
    US soldiers hated by Vietnamese citizens as intruders
    Wars on Poverty
    The Great Society
    Johnson’s ambitious reform program
    1964: Economic Opportunity Act to abolish poverty
    Establishes the Office of Economic Opportunity
    Network of programs to increase education & employment opportunities
    Job corps trains in vocation mostly urban black youths 
    Community Action Program
    Empower the poor by giving them a direct say in the war on poverty
    National emphasis programs
    Legal Services Program
    Gives poor people pro-bono legal rep.
    Early education to poor kids through Head Start
    Drop in Community Health Centers
    Root cause of poverty was the unequal distribution of wealth
    16% of the GNP in 1974 was for social welfare spending
    Most to Medicare etc., not to the poor
    More money gradually given to the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
    Crisis in the Cities
    The nations poorest communities were in the deep south & Appalachian mountains
    Since WWII, urban areas increasingly get worse
    “White Flight” to the suburbs
    Federal Housing Administration urges people to take out loans & buy houses in the suburbs
    Also “redlining” to prevent the poor from maintaining loans
    Military Spending for the Vietnam War creates an unemployment rate drop to 4%
    Most of these jobs to whites
    Pollution becomes a major problem in urban areas
    Despite all these negatives, millions of people came to the cities
    Mostly blacks from the deep south & whites from the appalacians & latinos from Puerto Rico
    Urban Uprisings
    “Long hot summers” of 1964-68 brought over 100 uprisings
    1964: Harlem, Rochester & Philadelphia blacks became increasingly angry
    Watts section of LA
    1965: one minor arrest startrs a riot for 50 miles
    50,000 troops & 20,000 national guardsmen sent to stop the uprising
    1966:L major uprisings in San Francisco, Milwaukee, Dayton & Cleveland
    July 13, 1967: Newark NT, huge house shortages have blacks angry
    Beating of a black taxi driver by a white policeman provokes widespread protest
    5 day riot & 25 killed by national guard
    July 20, 1967: Detroit’s “Great Rebellion”
    Police raid a bar & arrest 4 people
    Week long riot breaks out & paratroopers & national guard called in
    34 dead & 7,000 under arrest
    Urban uprisings force Johnson to create a task force to allocate funds for urban antipoverty programs
    Found that the rioters weren’t the poorest or the dumbest in the urban communities
    Said that “white racism” was the main cause & suggested public housing programs, intergrated schools, 2 million new jobs & a national income supplementation program
    Ignored & forgotten by congress
    1968
    The Tet Offensive 
    January 30: Vietnamese launch the Tet Offensive
    Pushed far into South Vietnam & into the US embassy in Saigon
    US troops push them back
    1600 dead US troops
    40,000 dead Vietcong troops
    US brutality & casualties show discredit the American leadership to the public
    News shots of American troops showed their malicious behaviour
    Polls show that 49% of Americans think the war is wrong
    Johnson announces that he won’t run for re-election on March 31 after seeing the hopelessness of the next election
    Declared a bombing halt & called Hanoi for peace talks
    King, the War, and the Assassination
    By 1968, civil rights leaders were against the war
    MLK calls the govt “the greatest purveyer of violence in the world today”
    Memphis: MLK gives his “I have a dream” speech to the Poor People’s Campaign for peace and justice
    April 4, 1968: MLK shot by James Earl Ray
    Riots broke out in 100 + cities
    27,000 blacks jailed in 1 week
    The Democratic Campaign
    Robert Kennedy= Candidate of popular choice
    Liberals dissatisfied with Johnson’s handling of Vietnam & blacks who have just lost their leader
    Insisted that the citizens be told the truth about the war
    Eugene McCarthy (opponent) agrees with him
    Bobby Kennedy wins all but the Oregon primary & is shot right after the California primary
    Shot by Jordinian Sirhan Sirhan
    Hubert Humphrey (Vice Pres.) now the only suitable candidate
    Supports the war fully
    Lined up his loyal followers & gained the Democratic nomination before the convention started
    “The Whole World is Watching!”
    Anti-war activists organize a huge demonstration outside the convention
    Youth International Party calls for big counter-culture celebration
    Parade permit turned down & police riot starts
    Police savagely beat demonstrators
    Humphrey gains momentum from this as he praises the war & gains support from most of the pro-war democrats
    The Politics of Identity
    Black Power
    Failure of the Poverty War & disproportionate amount of black deaths in Vietnam starts collapse of faith in the govt.
    Black Power adopted by Stokely Carmichael as a way for blacks to take control of their future
    Self-determination & self-sufficiency
    Adopted separatist ideas (separate the US into black & white nations)
    Black Panther Party for Self Defense
    Black extremist group headed byHuey B. Newton & Bobby Seale
    Armed heavily & dressed in black leather & berets
    Ruined by long jail terms of their members
    Jesse Jackson turns black power into a peaceful protest
    “Operation Breadbasket”
    Black students strike on San Francisco State University campus for black studies dept.
    Win with the help of the Panthers
    Sisterhood is Powerful
    Middle class white women unhappy with their role in society
    National Organization for Women established
    Spearheaded campaigns to end sex discrimination
    Women’s liberation movts talk of separatist ideals
    Many radical women’s activists split off with male civil rights & anti-war activists
    Most in the women’s rights movt were not radical, just trying to get equality
    Women’s rights begin to show up in literature
    “Sexual Politics” by Kate Milett
    By 1975: 150 women’s studies programs created
    Gay Liberation
    Mattachine Society & the Daughters of Bilitis campaign to reduce homophobic discrimination in employment & the armed forces
    Many gay activists live in Greenwich Village & the San Francisco Bay Area
    “Stonewall Riot” when police raid a Greenwich Village Gay Bar & Gay Power starts
    Gay Liberation Front formed
    Against the war & supported the Black Panthers
    1973: American Psychiatric Assoc. takes homosexuality of the list of treatable mental illnesses
    The Chicano Rebellion
    Young Mexican Americans form a collectivist group to resist white domination
    La raza= Aztecs (root of their language & heritage)
    1969: Chicano high school students in the Southwest skipped school to celebrate the Mexican Independence Day
    Brown Berets formed to encourage teenagers to express Chinanismo (Mexican pride)
    Texas-based La Raza Unida party increased Mexican-American Representation in local governments
    Red Power
    Seek to restore the legitimacy of tribal laws
    Achieved in the Civil Rights Act of 1968
    American Indian Movt (AIM) founded by the Chippewas
    Organized for Self Defence & challenge the Bureau of Indian affairs
    Occupied the deserted Alcatraz Island penitentiary to get govt funds for a cultural centre & University
    Govt doesn’t respond
    Nov 1972: AIM occupies the Bureau of Indian Affairs for 1 week
    The Asian American Movt (yellow power)
    1968: Asian students at U Cal Berkley formed the Asian American Political Alliance
    Against the war in Vietnam
    1968: Asian Americans give the San Francisco city council a list of grievances over the condition of Chinatown & attempted to save a low-income housing area mainly for Chinese & Filipino men
    Both failed
    The Nixon Presidency
    The Southern Strategy
    Builds support from the “silent majority”
    Tax paying normal citizens
    Republicans organize around the importance of the Sunbelt
    Conservative region of high tech industry & retirement communities
    Nixon appeals to them by promising to appoint federal judges who would undercut liberal interpretations of civil rights & be tough on crime
    Running mate of Nixon= Spiro T. Agnew
    Good orator
    3rd Party nominee George Wallace from Alabama
    Wins Alabama governorship on a segregation platform
    Nixon wins with 43.4% of the popular vote to 42.7% by Hubert Humphries
    Nixon’s War
    Henry Kissinger on the National Security Council wouldn’t let the US pull out
    Don’t appear weak to our enemies
    Nixon followed a “Vietnamization” policy in public
    Give their fighting to the South Vietnamese
    In private, Nixon & Kissinger debated giving the “final blow” to the North Vietnamese
    April 30, 1970: Nixon adds Cambodia to th ewar zone without congressional approval
    Much unexpected protest
    Kent State University: National Guardsmen panicked & shot into an unarmed crowd of 200 students
    Killed 4 & wounded 9
    The Senate adopts a resolution to disallow the use of US funds for the war in Cambodia
    Rejected by the House of Representatives but showed Nixon that nobody wanted the war
    Feb 1971: Nixon orders the South Vietnamese to cut the Vietcong’s supply lines in Laos
    April 1972: Nixon orders the bombing & mining of North Vietnamese & Cambodian targets
    Kissinger negotiates the cease-fire with North Vietnam 
    Nixon bombs one last time for a better negotiating position
    Paris Peace Agreement signed in 1973 differed little from the one Nixon could have signed in 1969
    April 1975: N. Vietnamese troops take Saigon & communist led Democratic Republic of Vietnam unifies the country
    The war costs the US 58,000 troops & $150 billion
    “The China Card”
    Nixon could have formed an alliance with the People’s Republic of China against the USSR
    “Ping Pong” diplomacy starts in 1971 when a US ping pong team visits China
    Feb 1972: Richard & Pat Nixon fly to China & the US-Chinese diplomacy begins
    Nixon uses this alliance against the USSR & they agree to the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
    First success of strategic arms control in the cold war
    Domestic Policy
    Nixon wanted to restore order in the American society
    Stop drugs, crime, racial discord & draft resistance
    Supported the new social security benefits in 1972 to allow for re-election
    Creation of the Environmental Protection Agency & the Occupational Safety & Health Administration
    Family Assitance Plan to provide minimal income to the poor instead of welfare benefits
    Turned down by Congress
    Embraced fiscal liberatism
    Accepted deficit spending& took the nation off the Gold Standard
    Watergate
    Foreign Policy as Conspiracy
    Issued a tough mandate against info leaks by govt personnel, media & politicians
    Accelerated the delivery of arms to foreign dictators 
    Shah of Iran & Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines
    Provided monetary aid to Latin-American dictators
    Somoza of Nicaragua
    Tried to overthrow the illegally elected socialist govt in Chile
    Used the Chilean military to overthrow the govt
    The Age of Dirty Tricks
    Nixon tightens his inner circle as he neared the 1972 election
    “The plumbers” to halt info leaks
    First hit against Daniel Ellsberg
    Turned over military documents outlining the military history in Vietnam
    Nixon attempts to stop the NY Times from printing these “Pentagon Papers”
    Supreme Court rules in favour of the Times
    Nixon attempts to prosecute Ellsberg on espionage charges
    Again failed after Nixon charged with misconduct
    Ran a successful negative campaign against George McGovern
    He supported “Abortion, acid, and amnesty”
    The Committee to Re-Elect the President
    Wiretaps the Democratic National Committee headquarters
    June 17, 1972: security team finds the intruders & arrests them
    Attempting to wiretap the conference room in the Watergate hotel
    Nixon said he had nothing to do with it
    Nixon aid forced to tell of the secret Oval Office tapes of Nixon
    The tapes were partially erased when they were handed over
    Fall of the Executive
    Watergate tapes full of Nixon swearing & racial slurs
    Proved that he knew about the wiretaps
    July 1974: House Judiciary Committee adopts 3 articles of impeachment
    Obstructing justice
    Nixon’s govt had been clouded with disgrace when his VP, Spiro Agnew, admitted to taking kickbacks when he was the govnr of Maryland
    Resigned in disgrace & Gerald Ford takes over
    Nixon sees his impending impeachment & resigns on August 9, 1974
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter29.doc26 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Overextended Society

    Stagflation
    - Rising prices, more unemployment and low economic growth = stagflation
    - 1975 - Unemployment reached nearly 9 percent - highest since Depression
    - US fell behind W. Europe and Japan, Americans felt that these trends would continue
     
    The Oil Crisis
    - Oct 1973 - Gas prices nearly doubled
    - US used about 70% of all the oil in the world, by 1973 1/3 of total oil was imported
    - Arab nations became increasingly hostile towards the US after the Six-Day war
    - Oct 17 - OPEC launches an embargo on oil shipments to Israel’s allies - US, Japan, etc
    - Many Americans blamed Arabs and accused the government of lying to raise prices
    - Worst downturn since the Depression
     
    The Bill Comes Due
    - Nixon responded to the embargo by appointing an “energy czar” 
    - 1977 - Dept of Energy created
    - Many conservation measures imposed to reduce the use of energy
    - Conservation measures resulted in a 23% reduction of highway deaths
    - As a result of the embargo, prices in general rose dramatically
     
    Falling Productivity
    - Oil embargo hit home so hard because US economy was not as efficient as overseas
    - Unable to produce many goods at low cost
    - Foreign markets offered better alternatives to US production
    - American companies turned to foreign countries for cheap labour
    - Many factories became highly automated
    - American employers did not buy into the Japanese idea of providing rewards for quality
    - Farmers could not capitalize on overseas shortages in grain - needed oil for their tools
     
    Blue-Collar Blues
    - 1970s - National Labor Relations Board began ruling in favour of managements
    - Congress routinely denied labor-backed movements in Congress
    - Public employees such as teachers made some gains during this period
    - Although many women joined the workforce, many were in low paying clerical jobs
    - Many organizations pushed for antidiscrimination and more opportunities for women
     
    Sunbelt/Snowbelt
    - 1970s - Snowbelt slumped, Sunbelt prospered and grew
    - Due to a huge influx of immigrants, the Sunbelt grew in population
    - Many blacks began migrating back to southern cities that used to be segregated
    - Certain areas became extremely focused on producing single products
    - Certain valleys produced strawberries, lima beans, or artichokes
    - Silicon Valley became known for computer producing
    - The Sunbelt’s ecomonic assets were very unevenly distributed
    - Philadelphia lost many jobs and crime rates soared
     
    “Lean Years” Presidents
    - Gerald R. Ford and Jimmy Carter oversaw the time when the economy was in distress
    - Voters became disillusioned with the government - thought they didn’t care about them
     
    “I’m a Ford, not a Lincoln”
    - Although Ford promised that the “national nightmare” (Nixon) was over, he soon after pardoned Nixon for all the crimes he may have committed - many suspected a deal
    - Ford wanted to cut govt spending, maintain interest rates, and slowly build up economy
    - Ford vetoed more major bills than any modern president, but Congress overrode most
    - Many times, Ford would mix up words or muddle his thoughts - seen as rather simple
    - Betty Ford became admired by many Americans - very open and had modern ideas
     
    The 1976 Election
    - Ford’s only competition for the Republican ticket was Ronald Reagan
    - Ford was nominated because Reagan was seen as too conservative
    - Chose Bob Dole (Kansas) as his running mate
    - Jimmy Carter depicted himself as an unfamiliar outsider - acted like a country bumpkin
    - Told Americans “I will never lie to you”
    - Americans remembered Watergate all too well, and chose to go with a Democrat
    - Senator Walter Mondale became Vice President
    - 46.7 percent of eligible voters did not vote
     
    The Carter Presidency
    - Carter was very hesitant and undecisive, and shifted more and more towards the right
    - Took very little initiative to boost the economy and make radical changes
    - Media exposés helped reveal rampant govt spending and to portray Carter as uncaring
    - Like Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter tried to get involved, but many felt she did too much
     
    The New Poverty
    - Although many of the income separations between blacks and whites declined in the 60s, these positive trends reversed during the 70s
     
    A Two-tired Society
    - In the 70s, Americans as a whole were healthier than ever before
    - The rich were becoming richer, and the poor were becoming poorer
    - More than 10% of the population lived in poverty
    - Far more minority groups were impoverished than whites
    - Although the govt introduced affirmative action, there was a growing split in incomes
    - School Busing - Govt forced kids to bus to school to achieve racial equality
    - Racism dwindled because of a white push to the suburbs
    - Inner cities were left to minorities - 1980 - 50% of black teenagers drop out
    - 1978 - US Court ruling stated that affirmative action could only be used when it could be proved that a “legacy of unequal treatment” had occurred
     
    The Feminization of Poverty
    - Although more and more women entered the work force, their wages declined
    - Divorce settlements highly favoured men - womens’ living standard declined by 73%
    - Single mothers had an extremely hard time not being impoverished
    - National Welfare Rights Organization aided many single, poor women
     
    “The Underclass”
    - “The Underclass” became a metaphor for the deteriorating conditions in urban America
    - “Blacks were no closer to catching up with whites than they were before”
    - Black families tended to be matriarchial
    - Indian people remained the poorest of anyone
    - Federal govt did little to help the Indians integrate
     
    Communities and Grass-Roots Policies
    - As people had children, they became more involved in their communities
    - Mass demonstrations in the 60s led to localized protests in the 70s
     
    The New Urban Politics
    - Many college towns became politically active
    - African American candidates began to reach political positions
    - Black-led communities focused more on education and social services
    - Other minorities did not advance as quickly
    - Angry whites cried out against affirmative action, or “reverse discrimination”
     
    The City and the Neighbourhood
    - City dwellers supported public institutions such as art galleries, hospitals, etc
    - Community Development Act (1974) - mayors could control of cities’ spending
    - Many other organizations formed to work for other beneficial programs in cities
    - CDC’s - Community Development Corporations
    - 1979 - Carter’s National Commission on Neighbourhoods 
    - Made 200 recommendations on how to better develop communities
    - Even when old neighbourhoods were restored, they were quickly bought up by middle-class people trying to look rustic
     
    The Endangered Environment
    - After birth defects and miscarriages started happening, people began to see how terrible the environment was becoming
    - Love Canal, NY - Town was built on toxic waste ground
    - Much of the environmental awareness came from Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (‘62)
    - 1970 - April 22nd chosen as Earth Day
    - Recycling became popular, and cities began to reduce their excesses
    - Groups such as Greenpeace sponsored direct action to preserve the environment
    - 1970 - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) formed as a regulatory agency
    - Although Congress passed various clean air acts, cities found loopholes to avoid them
     
    Small-town America
    - Various problems with city life led to a mass exodus to the suburbs
    - Americans wanted to live in a small town that was still within easy reach of cities
    - Called “exurbia” - isolated but still within range of civilization
    - Many small-town areas did not prosper during the 70s
    - “Snowball effect” led to rundown schools and inadequate medical care
     
    The New Conservatism
    - Many taxpayers resented having to pay for programs that did not aid them 
    - Angry whites grouped together, especially in poor urban areas, to protest minorities
     
    The New Right
    - Lower-class white voters felt alienated by the defeat in Vietnam and the increasing regulations by the federal government
    - The “New Right” identified themselves by defending “family values” 
    - Wanted to influence legislation and thereby gain power
    - Most shocking element was the paramilitary wing:
    - Radicals armed themselves and trained for combat
    - Many Americans became evangelical Christians 
    - 40% of all Americans reported that they were “born again”
    - Protested against abortion, the ERA, gay rights, and the busing of schoolchildren
    - Televangelism became hugely popular, and reached large audiences
    - Jesse Helms - First politician to appeal directly to the New Right as voters
    - Previously had defended the Klan
     
    Anti-ERA, Antiabortion
    - The New Right was intent on defeating the Equal Rights Amendment
    - Wanted to restore traditional family values “destroyed” by the women’s lib movt
    - Phyllis Schlafly led the STOP ERA campaign
    - The New Right had many wealthy supporters, and their campaigns were overwhelming
    - Although 35 states ratified the amendment, it remained 3 votes short of passage
    - Finally died in 1982
    - 1973 - Roe v. Wade - Essentially legalized abortion on demand
    - Many groups organized protests and pushed for the “right to life”
     
    “The Me Decade”
    - 1976 - “The Me Decade” phrase coined by novelist Tom Wolfe
    - After the political turmoil of the 60s, Americans returned to personal focuses
    - Erhard Seminars Training (EST) - blended psychology and mysticism
    - Taught Americans to imagine themselves successful and satisfied 
    - For many Americans, therapy gave the security that religion used to provide
    - “Transcendal Meditation” found many advocates among successful professionals
    - Many religious cults gained ground during this time as well
    - In music, heavy metal and punk became popular among young white men
     
    Adjusting to a New World
    - April 1975 - N. Vietnamese capture Saigon, renaming it Ho Chi Minh City
    - Vietnamese defeat French and Americans, and Vietnam becomes communist
    - Government agrees that there will be “no more Vietnams”
     
    A Thaw in the Cold War
    - Defeat in Vietnam forced a retooling of foreign policy
    - Maintaining a war was becoming more and more costly each year
    - American productivity levels dropped and more kids left high school early
    - After a meeting in Helsinki in 1975, Western leaders saw that the Soviets were no threat
    - SALT I - Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty - negotiated by Nixon
    - SALT II - negotiated in Vladivostok in 1974 by Ford and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev
    - 1979 - Final Agreement secured by Carter in 1979
    - Treaty never confirmed by Senate due to the Soviets’ invasion of Afghanistan
     
    Foreign Policy and “Moral Principles”
    - Each of Carter’s decisions confronted long-held diplomatic policies
    - Carter originally wanted to stand for morality, decency, generosity, and human rights
    - For the first time, activists spoke out against Apartheid in S. Africa
    - Although Carter originally wanted to limit the power of the CIA, this soon failed
    - Carter helped to switch the control of the Panama Canal to the Panamanians
     
    The Camp David Accords
    - American interests in the Middle East had traditionally balanced their support of Israel with their desire to obtain Arab oil
    - Early in his presidency, Carter met privately with Israel PM Menachem Begin
    - Wanted to negotiate peace with Egypt
    - 1978 - Carter brought Begin and Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat to Camp David for a three-day retreat to plan negotiations between the two countries
    - Ended up lasting 13 days, brought about unprecedented agreements
    - Sept 1978 - Egypt acknowledged Israel’s right to exist and regained Sinai Peninsula
    - In 1979 both Begin and Sadat won the Nobel Prize for Peace
    - Begin refused to negotiate a settlement with Palestine
    - Carter’s immense support for the Palestinians lost him support among Jews
     
    Carter’s “Crisis of Confidence”
    - 1979 - Carter gathered his staff at Camp David to reassess the problems facing the US
    - After the retreat, Carter urged Americans to show more faith in their leaders
    - Became known as Carter’s “malaise speech”
    - Ended up backfiring, with his popularity dropping to 26%
    - If Carter moved towards peace in the Middle East or made a lasting arms bargain with the Soviets, he might have been able to win a second term in office
     
    (Mis)Handling the Unexpected
    - As Carter’s term came to a close, several crises erupted in foreign affairs
    - Carter’s aides gave him conflicting advice on how to handle the situations
    - After Congress denied $75 million for the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, they allied with Cuba and the Soviets
    - Carter continued to support an oppressive regime in El Salvador
    - Andrew Young - First Black diplomat to Africa - helped resume relations with Nigeria
    - Young was fired for meeting with the PLO in secret - Carter had even less success
    - Soviet attack of Afghanistan called the “Soviet Vietnam” by the American press
    - The Carter Doctrine: (add-on to the Monroe Doctrine)
    - Stated that the US would protect its interests in the Persian Gulf
    - Carter asked athletes to boycott the Olympics in Moscow, and prepared for another war
    - Any prospect of a detenté or peace which would end the war was over
     
    The Iran Hostage Crisis
    - Nov 4, 1979 - Iranian fuldamentalists seize a US embassy in Tehran
    - Hold 52 employees hostage for the next 444 days
    - US foreign policy in the Middle East had depended on a friendly govt in Iran for years
    - US attempted a rescue mission, but this failed when the helicopter crashed
    - US had no other options but to negotiate
    - Sec. of State Cyrus Vance resigned, and Carter violated his own human rights policy
    - Supported the Shah, who’s human rights record was terrible
     
    The 1980 Election
    - Even at the start of the campaign, Carter was seen in the worst possible light
    - Democrats unenthusiastically supported Carter and his running mate, Walter Mondale
    - Republicans nominated Ronald Reagan and George Bush
    - Republicans asked voters “are you better off now than you were four years ago?”
    - Eventually cruised to victory
     
    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Chpter30.doc51 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Out of Many, 5th Edition Notes

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the Out of Many, 5th edition textbook. These Out of Many notes and outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1120 pages
    • Publisher: Prentice Hall; 5 edition (July 30, 2005)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0131944622
    • ISBN-13: 978-0131944626

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - A Continent of Villages

     

    Settling the Continent

    o   Christopher Columbus called the Native Americans “Indios” because he thought that he had landed in India

    ·         Who Are the Indian People?

    o   The term “Indian” refers to a variety of different cultures (over 2000), with hundreds of different languages and different ways of living.

    o   Indians had long, dark hair, almond shaped eyes and tan skin.

    o   After the realization that America was not a part of Asia a debate began over how people got there.

    o   Joseph de Acosta said that since there were old world animals in the new world, humans must have crossed a land bridge with them.

    ·         Migration from Asia

    o   Scientific evidence shows that there are close genetic similarities between Asians and Native Americans.

    o   The migrants started leaving Asia about 30000 years ago.

    o   Sea level were around 300 feet lower at the time and so the land. These lower seas led to the creation of a land bridge, Beringia.

    o   Because they migrated across ocean’s it is called a transoceanic migration.

    o   Scientist hypothesized that Native Americans moved to the south after the climate warmed and the glaciers melted.

    o   New findings dispute this theory (Kennewick man).

    ·         Clovis: The First American Technology

    o   About 11000 years ago native Americas developed a more sophisticated style of tool making (fluted blades and lance points) called the Clovis tradition.

    New Ways of Living on the Land

    ·         Hunting Traditions

    o   After the end of the Ice Age large mammals, like mastodons, died off, because of the climate change and the “Pleistocene Overkill”

    o   The Pleistocene Overkill was brought about because the Indians had intensified efforts because there were less of the large mammals.

    o   They began hunting bison with weapons that could be thrown quickly with great accuracy and speed.

    o   The technology was called Folsom and was a refinement of the Clovis tradition.

    ·         Desert Culture

    o   The retreat of the glaciers led to new ways of getting food: hunting-arctic, foraging-desert, fishing-coasts, and hunter-gatherer-forests.

    o   Took place around 10000 to 2500 years ago; called the Archaic period.

    o   In the desert food was obtained through small game hunting and intensified foraging.

    o   Lived in caves and rock shelters.

    o   Shoshones scorned greed and promoted gift giving to prevent any one family from gaining to mush wealth.

    o   The desert culture spread west and developed densely populated settled communities.

    ·         Forest Efficiency

    o   Forest culture called “Forest Efficiency” because they had a rich and sophisticated knowledge of the land and how to use it.

    The Development of Farming

    ·         Mexico

    o   Farmed Corn (Maize)

    o   Corn and Potatoes were miracle crops, fueled Europe for three centuries

    o   Maize adapted to a wide range of American climates and provided the foundation for the farming system.

    ·         Increasing Social Complexity

    o   Farming reshaped society.

    o   Foraging took 100 mi­­2 for 100 people farming required only 1 mi­­2

    o   Because people needed to stay in one place to tend the crops, people moved into permanent villages with permanent architecture.

    o   Families began to group into clans.

    o   Division of labor by gender.

    o   Mesoamerica was the region stretching from Mexico to Central America.

    o   Mesoamerica was the birthplace of agriculture in North America.

    o   Farming societies were very vulnerable to climatic changes.

    o   The Olmecs were the first literate urban culture in this region.

    o   Mayan civilization flourished between 300 B.C.E. and 900 C.E.

    ·         The Resisted Revolution

    o   The adoption of farming was a gradual process.

    o   Today’s Hunter-gatherers regard their method of obtaining food as superior, because farming requires tedious labor; Skeletal evidence shows that farming peoples suffered from degenerate joint diseases.

    ·         Farmers of the Southwest

    o   One of the first groups to farm in the southwest was the Mogollon; they lived in pit structures that may have been precursors of the Kivas.

    o   The Hohokam built the first irrigation system in America north of Mexico; water was channeled through 500 miles of canals to fields of crops.

    ·         The Anasazis

    o   They were the best known Farming culture in the southwest.

    o   Because of dense populations the Anasazis switched from pit houses to multistoried apartment complexes that the Spaniards called “pueblos.”

    o   Used Bow and Arrow to hunt.

    o   Due to an increasingly arid climate, the Anasazis had to build increasingly more complicated irrigation system.

    o   They also faced attacks from other tribes.

    ·         Farmers of the Eastern Woodlands

    o   Combined hunting and gathering with farming.

    o   Lived in permanent homes most of the year, but moved seasonally to take advantage of fishing resources.

    o   Known for mound building; largest mound is the Great Serpent Mound: 1300 ft long, built by the Mississippian.

    ·         Mississippian Society

    o   Innovations: Bow and Arrow, Northern Flint (Maize that grew fast and was bigger), flint hoes.

    o   These innovations led to the development of the Mississippian culture.

    o   Mississippians were master maize farmers and lived in permanent settlements along the Mississippi flood plains. 

    o   Hierarchical chiefdoms had political control.

    o   The Mississippian society had all of the traits of European civilization (urbanization, social stratification, craft specialization, and regional trade) except a writing system.

    ·         The Politics of Warfare and Violence

    o   Scientist hypothesis that a long drought may have led to violence and social unrest amongst the Native Americans.

    o   Warfare was common among farming cultures that wanted more land.

    o   Some people moved into communities enclosed by heavy log stockades.

    Cultural Regions of North America on the Eve of Colonization

    ·         The Population of Indian America

    o   The population of North America (excluding Mexico) was between 5 and 10 million.

    o   The population of the western hemisphere was around 50 million at the time, which was in the same range as Europe.

    o   Population varied by cultural region.

    o   The arctic, subarctic, Great Plains, and Great Basin had very low populations at this time.

    o   The largest populations were found in the southwest, south, northeast.

    ·         The Southwest

    o   Aridity made life difficult; they made use of the nearby rivers for irrigation.

    o   Indians in the southwest lived in Rancherias, which were dispersed settlements of Indian farmers in the southwest.

    o   Southwestern peoples took part kachinas, which were impersonations of ancestral spirits.

    ·         The South

    o   Mild moist climate.

    o   Indian peoples of the south farmed, fished, and hunted.

    o   Peoples of the south shared agricultural festivals.

    ·         The Northeast

    o   Varied geography of plains, mountains, rivers, lakes, and valleys.

    o   The Iroquois have lived in the region for 4500 years.

    o   Population growth and intensification of farming led to the development of chiefdoms.
     
     
    AP Questions
     

    1.      B.

    Native populations were not racially homogenous. Native people did not consider themselves a homogenous culture with common origins. Native populations were found in the colder Northeastern region of North America, not only in warm regions of Mesoamerica. More than a few thousand natives were found in America and the native spoke hundreds of various languages.

     

    2.      E.

    When scientists have compared DNA between American Indians and other cultures, the closest genetic relationship was to Asians.

     

    3.      B.

    The archeological findings along the Pacific coast of North and South America have led some scholars to conclude that the migration to North America occurred by water as people used boats to travel along the western coastline of the continent.

     

    4.      D.

    Clovis technology quickly spread throughout the Americas. The Clovis technology was a more sophisticated style of tool making (fluted blades and lance points) which allowed the people to hunt more efficiently. This influenced the people by allowing them the travel in small hunting bands.

     

    5.      E.

    The Archaic period refers to a period roughly 10,000 to 2,500 years ago when glaciers were retreating and the environment was changing after the Ice Age.

     

    6.      B

    The “miracle crops” found in North America are potatoes and maize (corn).

     

    7.      A

    The “resisted revolution” is the refusal of some Native American tribes to give up a hunter-and-gatherer society and switch to an agricultural society.

     

    8.      B

    Not 100% on this one, but I’m almost positive that this is the answer Mr. Vincent gave.

     

    9.      E.

    The key to understanding not only US history but history in general is to have an appreciation for the ways that human beings adapted to geography and climate. An understanding of this allows you to understand the reasons why certain social orders and political ideas spring up in certain regions.

     

    10.  C.

    The larger native populations in North America were all located in the Southeast, South, or Northeast parts.

     

    11.  C

    I found this answer on page 22, second chapter, first sentence.

     

    12.  E

    The Indian tribes in the South did not have superior technology. The tribes did not adopt Spanish farming techniques. Many native crops would grow in cooler climates. Northern tribes did not all remain hunters rather than becoming farmers. The South’s mild, moist climate, and rich, fertile soil did allow agriculture to flourish in the region.

     

    13.  A

    The five Iroquois chiefdoms (nations) were recorded to have engaged in a period of persistent violence, most likely over territory conflicts. To control this violence, the Iroquois Confederacy was founded, and war among members was outlawed. Gift exchange and payment replaced revenge.

     

    14.  C

    The “New World” was a not truly a new world since it had already been settled by another group of people. Christopher Columbus had a large influence on history. Since both worlds were technically old worlds, settled by varying populations, Columbus simply established contact between the two old worlds. He was not likely to have been the first European in America due to Leif Ericson. Columbus did very little to help other Europeans understand the history of North America.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - When Worlds Collide

     

    • The English and the Algonquians at Roanoke
      • In 1590, Governor John White returned to Roanoke Island, where he had left the first English colonists three years ago, in search of the 115 colonists; mostly single men, but also twenty families, including White’s daughter, son-in-law, and Virginia Dare, the first English baby born in North America. He found the colonists’ houses taken down and their possessions scattered, but saw “CROATOAN” on a trunk, the name of a friendly village, and set sail for the village. 
      • Walter Raleigh financed a settlement at Roanoke Island, surrounded by Algonquian villages led by a chief named Wingina. Wingina supported the new settlement as potential new allies and sent two of his men, Wanchese and Manteo, back with the explorers who came in 1584 to help assist in the preparations.
      • Wanchese and Manteo worked with Thomas Harriot, an Oxford scholar, and John White, an artist; they learned each other’s language and developed a mutual respect among them.
      • The English returned in 1585 to establish the colony of Virginia, with the two emissaries with them. Manteo, from Croatoan, argued that English technology made them potentially powerful allies. Wanchese, seeing the inequality of European society, warned of English brutality, and rightly so; Raleigh planned to use, by force if necessary, the Algonquians as serfs to provide labor in the fur trade, plantation agriculture, or gold and silver  mines.
      • The English cannot support themselves and ask Wingina for support. Wingina supplies them, but constant demands begin to drain Algonquian resources while they are decimated by the new diseases brought by the colonists. Fearing hostilities, the English launch a preemptive strike in May 1586,  killing many leaders, including Wingina, beheading him. The colonists return to England afterwards.
      • Harriot and White argue for using settlers that will live in harmony with the native peoples through “discreet dealing” so that they will “honor, obey, fear, and love us.” Raleigh arranges for White to lead a new colony in 1587.
      • White is supposed to land on Chesapeake Bay, but the captain dumps White at Roanoke so that the captain can get on with plundering Spanish ships, putting them amid alienated and hostile natives. A party of Algonquians led by Wanchese attack a colonist. White retaliates with a counterattack that increases hostility. White returns to get help from Raleigh, but arrives in the middle of a war between England and Spain, and is unable to return until 1590. When White sails for Croatoan, a storm forces him to deeper waters and White never returns to the colony.
      • Evidence suggests the lost colonists lived with the Algonquians.
      • The English had “naked imperial objectives” that wasted the opportunity provided by the natives' original welcome.

    The Expansion of Europe 

    • European Communities
      • Western Europe is an agricultural society. New technologies improve the productivity of farming while the size of the land under cultivation doubles; the population triples in this time.
      • Most people are village peasants. Society is patriarchal; men perform the field work while women perform livestock care and housework, daughters leave their families to join their husbands when they marry, receive dowries but are excluded from inheritance, and divorce is nearly unheard of.
      • Europe is a feudal society; lords control territory and exploit the serfs, amassing excessive wealth through tributes.
      • Religion, through the Roman Catholic Church, unifies Europe, which legitimizes feudal power and counsels the poor to look for heavenly instead of material reward. The Church actively persecutes…everyone.
      • Jews, migrants from a failed Palestinian revolution in 1st century BCE, experience discrimination. Many become merchants, but this only stimulates more hate.
      • Living conditions are harsh. Diet is limited, illness is common, most people die before adulthood (a third die before their fifth birthday), and the Black Death (1347-1353) wiped out a third of the Western European population.
    • The Merchant Class and the New Monarchies
      • The European economy recovers in the 14th and 15th centuries through technology. The population recovers from the Black Death, reaching 65 million.
      • New monarchies begin in Western Europe, legitimizing themselves by promoting political order (read: war), and are supported by the rising merchant class. This alliance helps fund explorations into the Americas.
    • The Renaissance
      • Begins in the city-states of Italy. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa use armed commercial fleets to control Mediterranean trade. Merchants here fund the Crusades, which furnishes these merchants with the silk and spice trades. This also provides Asian technology to Europe, such as the movable type.
      • Contact with Islamic society gives access to classical texts lost in the Dark and Middle Ages, launching the Renaissance in the 14th-16th centuries.
      • The Renaissance celebrates the human through architecture, art, and literature, promoting secularism over religion.
    • Portuguese Exploration
      • Portugal is the first European nation to explore distant lands. Merchant-installed king Joao I plans to create a merchant trading empire.
      • Prince Henry the Navigator establishes an academy at Sagres Point, which dispels the flat-earth theory and creates the caravel by mixing Islamic and Asian technology to make a better seafaring ship.
      • Portugal explores the northwestern African coast for gold and slaves and establishes a sea route to India by sailing around Africa, establishing a trade empire based on spices and slaves.
    • Columbus Reaches the Americas
      • Columbus tries to propose sailing west from Europe to reach the Indies. Portugal laughs at him, saying his calculations were too short; so do the French and English.
      • Spain accepts his proposal; after conquering Grenada and ending the Catholic reconquista, Isabel and Ferdinand are hungry for more land.
      • Columbus seeks to both establish trade and claim land for Spain.
      • He leaves in August 1492, hitting land in October and thinking he hit the Indies (he reached the Bahamas). Columbus returns, also bringing knowledge of the Atlantic currents.
      • Columbus comes back with captive native Tainos and stories of gold and spices.
      • Columbus returns with another force and begins to war with the Tainos; there were 300,000 Tainos in 1492, less than 30,000 within fifteen years, and practically eliminated by 1520. The colony Columbus establishes is unable to support itself and the Spanish have him jailed in 1500.
      • Amerigo Vespucci figures out that Columbus was a bit touched in the head and describes Columbus’ “Indies” as a Mundus Novus, a “New World.”

    The  Spanish in the Americas

    • The Invasion of America
      • Spanish explorers plunder the Caribbean Islands, enslaving the native people in a system calledencomienda. Though supposedly a reciprocal agreement, where the new Spanish lords protected the natives for their labor, it was systematic exploitation. The Spanish invade Jamaica and Puerto Rico in 1508, Cuba in 1511, Central America at the same time, and met the Aztecs in 1517.
      • The Aztecs were an advanced warrior society with a capital at Tenochtitlan, where Mexico city is today, with a population of about 200,000 people.
      • In 1519, Hernan Cortes lands on the Mexican coast and conquers the Aztec Empire in two years by allying with rival tribes while the Aztecs were facing a smallpox epidemic.
    • The Destruction of the Indies
      • Antonia de Montesinos condemns the violence in a sermon to colonists on Hispaniola. Bartolome de Las Casas, a priest who previously participated in the plunder, echoes him, saying that the human race is one. No one listens.
      • The Destruction of the Indies (1552) by Las Casas details the Spanish abuses, which is used by other nations to hide their own exploitations, creating the “Black Legend” of Spanish conquest.
      • Las Casas attributed the losses to warfare; in truth, starvation, a dropping birthrate, and diseases (influenza, plague, smallpox, measles, typhus) did most of  the damage.
    • Intercontinental Exchange
      • This was the exchange of valuable metals (short-term) to Europe, cross-exchange of crops (potatoes, corn, tobacco, vanilla, chocolate, cotton to Europe; sugar, rice, and coffee to the Americas), and the introduction of domestic animals such as horses to the Americas.
    • The First Europeans in North America
      • Ponce de Leon, governor of Puerto Rico, lands in North America in 1513, naming the spot he lands Florida. He is killed in 1521. A second invasion by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528 is ruined by a shipwreck, with the survivors wandering around until they are found by Spanish slave hunters in 1536. A survivor named Nunez Cabeza de Vaca writes an account that tells of golden cities in an empire known as Cibola.
      • De Soto lands in 1539 in search of Cibola, but he is turned back after a number of defeats (but not before leaving behind disease). De Soto dies on the way.
      • Francisco Vasquez de Coronado leads another expedition, but finds nothing. The Spanish lose interest in the Southwest.
    • The Spanish New World Empire
      • A century after Columbus, 250,000 Europeans (mostly Spaniards) and 125,000 African slaves settle in Brazil, with the slaves working on Spanish plantations in the Caribbean and Portuguese plantations in Brazil. Brazil is colonized under the Treaty of Tordesillas, an agreement written by the Pope of the time that splits the New World between Brazil and Portugal.
      • Spanish women only make up 10% of the immigrant population; most male immigrants marry or cohabit with native or slave women, creating mixed-ancestry groups that would make up a new racial caste system (a mestizo being a person with a Spanish father and native mother, mulattoes being the other, etc).
      • Though theoretically run from Spain, the Spanish colonies are largely self governing.

    Northern Explorations and Encounters

    ·         Fish and Furs

    o   Fisherman had been exploring coastal North American waters long before colonies were founded.

    o   The Grand Banks of the coast of Newfoundland had abundant cod; by 1500 hundreds of ships sailed annually to the Grand Banks.

    o   Genovese explorer Giovanni Caboto (sailing for England) (John Cabot) reached Labrador in 1497.

    o   In 1524, Tuscan captain Giovanni da Verrazano (sailing for France), explored from Cape Fear (NC) to the Penobscot (ME).

    o   Captain Cartier established France’s claims to the land of Canada.

    o   Fur Traders were crucial to New France’s success.

    o   Indians were active participants in the trade.

    o   In the early seventeenth century, the French made an effort to monopolize the trade.

    ·         The Protestant Reformation and the First French Colonies

    o   The Protestant reformation refers to the challenge by Martin Luther to the Catholic Church, initiated in 1517, calling for a return to what he understood to the purer practices and beliefs of the early church.

    o   John Calvin developed the theological doctrine of predestination, the belief that god decided at the moment of creation which humans would achieve salvation.

    o   Protestants were the European supporters of the religious reform under Charles V’s Holy Roman Empire.

    o   French colony made by Jean Ribault failed because he left to get supplies, but got caught up into religious wars; the colonists starved, resorted to cannibalism, and were eventually rescued by a passing British Ship.

    ·         Sixteenth-Century England

    o   Lords in England needed to make more money due to “New World” inflation, so they started to take land from farming tenants to graze sheep for the woolen trade.

    o   King Henry VIII converted to the Church of England in 1534 with himself at its head.

    o   After Henry 8 died his son, Edward VI, who died pretty soon, he was then succeeded by his half-sister Mary; Mary tried to undo the reform by killing lots of protestants, she was nicknamed “Bloody Mary.”

    o   After Mary died her half-sister Elizabeth I took over, she tried to end religious turmoil by tolerating a variety of views.

    o   She tried to take the Catholic Ireland, but the Irish fought back; their fighting back led the English to view them as a lesser people.

    ·         Early English Efforts in the Americas

    o   England’s first voyages in the New World were made with the backdrop of a Spanish conflict.

    o   John Hawkins violated Spanish trade laws and then got attacked on a later voyage.

    o   England decided to join the hunt for American colonies.

    o   Gilbert died on his return to England after sailing to Newfoundland in 1583.

    o   His brother Raleigh made a colony at Roanoke which failed and became known as the lost colony.

    o   Unlike the French (who focused on commerce) the English decided to take a violent approach to colonization.

    o   Spain got mad at England because England took land that was “given” to Spain by the pope.

     

    AP Questions

     

    1.      B

    The Roanoke colony is known as the lost colony.\

     

    2.      B

    Europe, as far as the economy goes, was stagnant for centuries, and things did change rather quickly once America was discovered.

     

    3.      D

    During the Age of Exploration the emerging European monarchs were developing close relationships with the merchant class so that both parties could further their wealth and prosperity.

     

    4.      B

    They wanted to get there faster.

     

    5.      C

    Reconquista was a century-long struggle, which caused the Spanish to develop a military tradition that thrived of conquest and plunder.

     

    6.      A

    While Spain and Columbus did have other goals, their objects were simply imperial.

     

    7.      D

    Columbus’s journal says, “…I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion.”

     

    8.      A

    Due to disease and warfare the native populations in North America were decimated to the point of extinction.

     

    9.      A

    Due to the Aztec military strength the only reason Cortes was able to be successful was that the Aztec population was dying off because of disease and then the native allies of the Spanish also helped Cortes.

     

    10.  C

    The Europeans brought over coffee, rice, and sugar because they realized that they could make a profit.

     

    11.  B

    Honestly, this is the answer I recall Mr. Vincent saying.

     

    12.  E

    Spain and France didn’t like each other. Avoiding war, France decided to concentrate their efforts in the north.

     

    13.  C

    The French like their furs.

     

    14.  E

    Throughout England the church and wealthy merchants were fencing off common land that farms used. This caused farms to want to move to America.

     

    15.  D

    Spain, France, and Britain all had different ways that they established colonies in America.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Planting Colonies in North America

     

     

     
    ·         Communities Struggle with Diversity in Seventeenth-Century Santa Fe

    o   The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico rose in revolt in August 1680, taking Santa Fe and trapping 3,000 survivors in the Palace of Governors of Santa Fe, sending two crosses—white for surrender and survival, red for defiance and death.

    o   In 1609, colonists founded La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco, the “royal town of the holy faith of St. Francis,” and began to convert the Pueblo people into Christians, Spanish subjects, and a labor force for the colonial elite.

    o   The Pueblo, faced with Spanish military might, adopted Spanish customs, but merely incorporated them into their own traditions. The missionaries attempted to stamp out Pueblo traditions such as underground kivas (sites for sacred rituals), destroyed religious relics, humiliated holy men, and forced entire villages to perform “penance” by working in the fields and irrigation ditches. The governor hanged four religious leaders and whipped dozens more in 1675. These, combined with widespread famine caused by a severe drought and an epidemic, led to the Pueblo revolt of 1680. Pope, of San Juan Pueblo, organized a conspiracy among more than twenty towns.

    o   The Santa Fe colonists returned the red cross, but the Pueblos let them retreat to El Paso in the south after five days. The Pueblos ransacked missionary buildings and converted the palace into a communal dwelling, with the chapel as a new kiva.

    o   Without the Spanish, the Pueblo were unable to fend off attacks by the Apaches and Navajos, who used stolen horses and guns to raid the Pueblo villages. Pope was deposed in 1690 in the chaos.

      • The Spanish returned in 1692 under Governor Diego de Vargas, reestablishing colonial rule and crushing another Pueblo rebellion. However, this time, the Spanish were more restrained, tolerating Pueblo religious practices and the inviolability of native land. In return, the Pueblos observed Catholicism in the Spanish chapels and pledged loyalty to the Spanish monarch. The forced labor ended and the Pueblos turned up to service. Remaining autonomous, the Spanish and Pueblo were able to fend off their enemies. 

    Spain and its Competitors in North America

    • At the start of the 17th century, Spain controls the only mainland colonial outposts; a series of forts along the Florida coast to protect ships coming from the New World to Spain.
    • Both Spain and France relied on converting the natives to subjects, which caused much cultural mixing and a “frontier of inclusion,” where the Dutch and English made the natives live in separate societies in “frontiers of exclusion.”
    • New Mexico
      • The farming communities of the Southwest provided converts; by 1580, Franciscan missionaries were sent to the Southwest. In 1598, Juan de Onate financed an expedition into the Southwest for gold.
      • Onate met resistance on his expedition. He besieged Acoma, a pueblo above the mountain, overcoming the defenders and taking the survivors as slaves.
      • Unable to find gold, Onate returned to Mexico, but the monarchy established Sante Fe as a missionary colony where Franciscan missionaries penetrated the surrounding area.
    • New France
      • In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established a French settlement called Quebec on the St. Lawrence River to intercept the fur trade and allied with the Huron, helping them wage war against the Iroquois, and sent traders to live with them to learn their customs.
      • The St. Lawrence site allowed the French to control the fur trade, but it isolated the colonists in the winter when it froze over and had a short growing season. Hired men called engages were sent to New France, but 9 out of 10 returned, so the population grew slowly.
      • Young men often became coureur de bois, “wood runners” and independent fur traders. Most returned to French settlements, but some married into the surrounding tribes. In 1681-1682, Robert Sieur de La Salle navigated the Mississippi and claimed the watershed for France.
      • Unlike the Spanish, France did not have the manpower to conquer and exploit the natives, so instead they created alliances with the tribes to control commerce. Also, unlike the Spanish Jesuits who insisted on the natives learning Spanish customs, the French Franciscans adopted local customs and melded Christianity to it.
    • New Netherlands
      • Holland, a small nation, was at the center of the 16th century economic transformation in Europe. New farming technologies increased yields that supported a growing population and made Holland the world’s most urban and commercial nation. In 1581, after a century of rule by the Hapsburgs, the Dutch overthrew the Spanish control and won political independence.
      • The Dutch created the first stock exchange and investment banks, had the largest commercial and fishing fleet in Europe, and captured the Baltic and North Sea trade in fish, lumber, iron, and grain. Holland was Europe’s “America.”
      • The Dutch created two trading monopolies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India company, that combined military might and commerce to create a series of trading posts in China, Indonesia, India, Africa, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America. Holland became the greatest commercial power in the world.
      • The Dutch founded settlements at Fort Orange (now Albany) and along the Hudson River, and allied with the Iroquois, who fought a number of wars with Dutch help called the Beaver Wars (various conflicts from 1640-1680). They dispersed the Hurons, the French allies, in the late 1640s. The Dutch also overwhelmed a small Swedish colony.

    England in the Chesapeake

    • Jamestown and the Powhatan Confederacy
      • King James I (reigned 1603-25) issued royal charters to colonize the mid-Atlantic region of Virginia tojoint-stock companies. In 1607, the Virginia Company sent ships and a hundred men to the Chesapeake, creating the first permanent English settlement of Jamestown.
      • The English, saying that the Indians were savages with no rights to respect, pushed out the Algonquian natives there. The Powhatan Confederacy, led by Wahumsonacook (“King Powhatan”), was wary of the English settlers but was eager to ally with them.
      • Jamestown’s residents (adventurers, gentlemen, and “ne’er do wells”came looking for gold and a passage to the Indies. Finding neither, they drank and gambled, surviving only on Powhatan generosity.
      • Powhatan realized that the English had not come to trade, but instead came to conquer.
      • During the 1609-1610 winter, four hundred colonists starved and many turned to cannibalism. Only 40 remained by spring.  
      • To make a profit, the Virginia Company attacked the Powhatans, creating a war that lasted until 1613 when they captured about-15-year old Pocahontas, one of Wahumsonacook’s daughters. To secure peace, Pocahontas was married to John Rolfe, who showed her off in visits to England. Pocahontas fell ill and died; Wahumsonacook, in despair, abdicated in favor of his brother Opechancanough before dying.
    • Tobacco, Expansion, and Warfare
      • John Rolfe developed a mild hybrid of tobacco, which became Virginia’s “merchantable commodity.” Tobacco required large amounts of hand labor and exhausted the soil.
      • The Virginia Company handed out “headright grants”—large  plantations on the condition that the investors would transport the workers from England there themselves. As a result of enclosures pushing out rural farmers, many accepted the offer to work, but high mortality kept the population of Jamestown low.  With English focus on sending immigrants and agriculture instead of trade, Virginia had no need for natives, and thus turned into a “frontier of exclusion.”
      • Opechancanough, pressured by English demands for more land to grow tobacco on, attacked the colonists after native shaman Nemanttanew was murdered, leading to a ten-year war. The Powhatans sued for peace, but the Virginia Company was bankrupted and Virginia was turned into a royal colony. The settlers kept the House of Burgesses, a local governing body that regulated taxes and finances.
      • In 1644, Opechancanough revolted one last time before he was captured and killed by the colonists. The Algonquians were pushed to reservations, shrinking from 14,000 strong to 2,000 by 1670, compared to 40,000 colonists.
    • Maryland
      • In 1632, King Charles I (1625-49) granted 10 million acres at the northern end of the Chesapeake bay to the Calvert family, the Lords Baltimore, important Catholic supporters of the monarchy. Their colony became Maryland, in honor of the Queen, and founded St. Mary’s in 1634. Maryland became a haven for Catholics.
      • Maryland adopted the Virginia system, creating large tobacco plantations.
    • Indentured Servants
      • In exchange for transportation to the New World, men and women contracted labor to a master for a fixed term (2-7 years) or, in the case of children, until they were 21. A minority are convicts or vagabonds bound into service for as long as 14 years.
      • Though they were supposed to be cared for during their service, work in the tobacco fields is rough and many are mistreated. Many try to escape, but to be capture meant an extension on their contract.
      • African slaves are introduced in 1619, but they are rarer because of their greater expense; servants are treated as slaves anyway, and, due to disease, two out of five servants die during their indenture. Upon finishing their contract, indentured servants receive “freedom dues”—clothing, tools, a gun, or a spinning wheel, getting help to start on their own—and many head west to get land of their own. Most return to England.
    • Community Lives in the Chesapeake
      • Because most immigrants were men, unmarried women often married quickly. Men had a higher mortality rate than women in the disease-ridden Chesapeake and widows remarried quickly, negotiating for better marriage agreements; this may have created a “matriarchy.” Because of the small family size, kinship, important in England, is weaker.
      • Communities in the Chesapeake are disparate. Many live in rough dwellings like huts or caves; even prosperous planters, investing everything into their fields, live in rough wood dwellings.
      • Ties remained close to England due to the colonies’ dependence on the motherland.

    The New England Colonies

    • The Social and Political Values of Puritanism
      • Puritans, so called because they wish to purify and reform the English church, grew increasingly influential during the last years of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. Puritanism was popular among the merchant class, due to its focus on enterprise, who were responsible for England’s economic transformation. The Puritans protested against the end of rural life due to enclosures and the “idle and masterless men,” proposing communities built around a core congregation of reformed Christians. Their views became part of the Protestant Reformation of England.
      • King James I ended Elizabeth’s religious tolerance policy and persecuted the Puritans. The Puritans openly criticized James’s successor, Charles I, for marrying a Catholic princess and supporting “High Church” policies. The English Civil War that followed provided a pretext for Protestant immigration to New England.
    • Early Contacts in New England
      • Though the north Atlantic coast was initially controlled by French and Dutch traders, an epidemic in 1618 ravages the native population and disrupts the French and Dutch trade there. The surviving coastal societies could not effectively resist colonization.
    • Plymouth Colony and the Mayflower Compact
      • Pilgrims (or Separatists, so called because they separated from the English church, which they believed to be corrupt) backed by the Virginia Company and led by tradesman William Bradford left for North America from Plymouth, England on the Mayflower in September 1620.
      • They land in Massachusetts Bay at the former native village of Pauxtet and rename it Plymouth. The hired men grumble about Pilgrim authority; Bradford drafts the Mayflower Compact to appease them and create a governing body.
      • Half the Pilgrims perish over the winter, but are saved by the Wampanoags led by Massaoit, their sachem (leader), in exchange for help against the Narragansett.   
      • The Plymouth colony is never a commercial success, but does become an independent Puritan community. Eventually, however, they disperse into eleven separate communities and local interests disrupt the Separatist haven.
    • The Massachusetts Bay Colony
      • Wealthy Puritans receive a royal charter and form the Massachusetts Bay Company, which sends 200 settlers to Naumkeag on the Massachusetts Bay, which they rename Salem. They hope to create a “city on a hill” as a model of reform. The Puritan Great Migration relocates 20,000 people to Massachusetts .
      • Settlers take advantage of a loophole in their charter and form a civil government in 1629, which becomes the model for the bicameral Congress in the future US.
    • Indians and Puritans
      • The English take “unused” native land on the basis that the natives have no property rights to the land, using force and underhanded tactics that force the natives to give up land and make deals with corrupt sachems, selling tribal property for personal profit.
      • Native tribes in the west resist Puritan expansion, but are hit by a smallpox epidemic just as a new wave of migrants arrived. The Puritans ally with the Narragansett and attack the Pequot, allied with the Dutch, but the indiscriminate slaughter of the Pequot in their sleep horrifies the Narragansett.
    • The New England Merchants
      • The English Civil War of 1642 deposes King Charles I in 1649 and the English Commonwealth, headed by Oliver Cromwell, replaces the monarchy. Puritan incentive to go North America, and migration, ends. The economy becomes a commerce-based one, selling commodities to the West Indies. The diverse economy lends long-term strength to the New England region, as opposed to the fur economy of New France.
    • Community and Family in Massachusetts
      • Puritans stressed orderly communities and families. Land was given out according to social status; social hierarchy was ordained by God, and thus the more prosperous were obviously the more goodly. Marriages are arranged and only male children receive compulsory education.
      • Women are subordinate to men in Puritan society. Women could not own property, vote, or hold office, and were expected to bear children. Independent women aroused suspicion, leading to various witchcraft accusations, most notably in Salem.
      • The Salem trials exposed negative ideas of women in Puritanism and the social inequality of Puritan society.
    • Dissent and New Communities
      • Puritans had little tolerance for religions not their own. Thomas Hooker, who disagreed with the limits of suffrage to male church members, led his followers to the Connecticut River and founded Hartford.
      • Roger Williams, who advocated religious tolerance and the separation of church and state along with dealing fairly with the natives instead of taking their land, bought land from the Narragansett and founded Providence.
      • Anne Hutchinson, an outspoken and brilliant woman, is excommunicated from the Puritans and moves to William’s settlement and establishes another dissenting community. Williams receives a charter in 1644, establishing the colony of Rhode Island.

    The Proprietary Colonies

    • Early Carolina
      • Royal charters issued by Charles II created the new colony of Carolina, stretching from Virginia to Florida. North Carolina was settled by small farmers and large tobacco planters. South Carolina was populated by settlers from Barbados, made wealthy off of the sugar plantations there, and their slaves.
    • From New Netherland to New York
      • New Netherland, supplied by the Dutch West India Company, came under the control of the English after a series of conflicts with the Dutch, also resulting in the bankruptcy of the West India Company, ending Dutch dominance in the Atlantic and passing it to the English.
      • Renamed to New York after the charter was given to the Duke of York, the brother of Charles II. New York was the most heterogeneous society in North America. In 1665, the communities in the Delaware Valley were split off into the proprietary colony of New Jersey, which remained under the control of New York until the 1680s.
    • The Founding of Pennsylvania
      • The rights to western New Jersey were sold to a group of investors including William Penn, part of the Society of Friends (known as Quakers to their opponents). In 1681, Penn received a land grant from the king to a large territory west of New Jersey to settle a debt, founding Philadelphia.
      • Penn drafted a Frame of Government that guaranteed religious freedom, civil liberties, and elected representation.
      • Penn organized the most efficient colonization of the 17th century; ten thousand colonists arrived from England and agricultural communities spread into interior valleys, eventually separating into the colony of Delaware. Pennsylvania became America’s breadbasket and became the most important colonial port in North America.

    Conflict and War

    • King Philip’s War
      • Following the Pequot War of 1637 (English settlers versus the Pequot over land and trade in eastern Connecticut), the natives and colonists lived closely, but tensely, together. English missionaries converted some Algonquians, who moved to “praying towns.”
      • Metacom, known as King Philip to the English, led the Pokanokets, one of the few remaining independent tribes. Metacom, educated in and absorbed into the English world, came to realize that the colonists had no room for his people. In 1671, Metacom was pressured into giving up his home territory. In the spring of 1672, three Pokanoket men were executed for the murder of a Christian Indian; Metacom went to the Narragansett, hoping for a defensive alliance against the nearby war.
      • The English used this as a pretext for their attack on the Narragansett, starting King Philip’s War. The natives, though they initially had the upper hand, eventually began to falter; Metacom went to the Iroquois for help, but they reversed and attacked his forces. Metacom retreated and was defeated by the English.
      • The Iroquois and the English joined in the Covenant Chain, which declared the Iroquois dominant over all other tribes, fighting wars as far west as Illinois in a series of conflicts known as the Beaver Wars. The English, fearing another attack, burned the praying towns.
    • Bacon’s Rebellion
      • In the 1670s, the Susquehannock people came into conflict with tobacco planters expanding out of Virginia. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, the frontier planters attacked the natives in 1675, murdering many. William Berkeley moved to suppress these unauthorized attacks and, in doing so, attracted their fury.
      • In the spring of 1676, Bacon and his followers attacked Jamestown, forcing Berkeley to flee across the Chesapeake while the rebels pillaged and burned Jamestown. Bacon fell ill died soon after and the revolt crumbled. Virginia authorities signed a treaty with the Susquehannock, but most had already migrated to New York and integrated with the Iroquois.
      • Bacon’s rebellion was against both the native people and the aristocratic rule of the colonies, exposing the differences between the frontier and the settled coastal regions. Culpeper’s Rebellion in the Albermarle region of North Carolina echoed the first. Colonial authorities began to favor greater military expansion to appease the frontier planters and, to prevent another servant uprising, began to transition from indentured servants to slaves.
    • Wars in the South
      • Charleston merchants encouraged numerous tribes—the Yamasees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Chickasaws—to wage war on tribes allied with the French and Spanish, including the mission Indians of Spanish Florida, the Choctaw allies of France, and the Tuscarora trading partners of Virginia. They used this war to capture natives and fuel a slave trade, selling the men to the Caribbean or northern colonies while the women remained in South Carolina, eventually intermingling with African slaves and having children known as “mustees.”
    • The Glorious Revolution in America
      • James II, the brother and successor of Charles II, began a Catholic monarchy characterized by greater control of the colonies, the rising Puritan minority, and Parliament. The New York assembly was dismantled and placed under the control of the royal governor.  New York, New England, and New Jersey were combined into a single Dominion of New England and had Anglican religious practices placed into Puritan areas and ended local autonomy.
      • After James II had a son from his Catholic wife in 1688, Parliament deposed him and supported his Protestant daughter and son-in-law, Mary and William of Orange. James II fled to France while the new monarchs agreed to the English Bill of Rights, limiting monarchial power and promising to respect traditional civil liberties, making England a constitutional monarchy.
      • When news reached North America, the colonists revolted against the royal authorities placed by James II, eventually reestablishing local colonial rule and self-government, which would continue until Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland became royal colonies in 1692.
    • King William’s War
      • The Iroquois-English Covenant Chain challenged New France’s fur trade and New France pressed further west in response. The English created the Hudson’s Bay Company to compete with the French. Attacks began with English-Iroquois attacks on Montreal and violence between rival English and French traders.
      • This conflict was part of a larger conflict between England and France called  the War of the League of Augsburg, though it was known as King William’s War in the colonies.
      • In 1690, the French and their Algonquian allies counterattacked, burning settlements in New York, New Hampshire, and Main and attacking Iroquois towns. The English captured Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy, but failed to capture Quebec. Fighting ended by the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, but war would break out in five years.
      • England began to reign in its colonies after this war, converting them all to royal colonies. Penn regained control of his colony, but only Rhode Island and Connecticut retained their government out of the royal colonies.
    AP Questions
     

    1. B.

    Like the Roanoke Algonquians, the Pueblo tribe in New Mexico attempted to use the colonists to support them in their struggle against their traditional allies, but Mexican repression of Pueblo traditions and religion led to a mass revolt in 1680. After driving out the Spanish and making Santa Fe their new capital, the Pueblos were attacked by the Apaches and Navajos, who used stolen horses and weapons in their raids. The Spanish returned under Governor Diego de Vargas and reestablished control in 1692. The Pueblos revolted again, but were crushed by military might. However, under new policy, Spanish authorities practiced greater restraint, with the Puebols adopting some Catholic practices while continuing their own and the Spanish ending the practice of forced labor.

     

    2. E.

    The French and Spanish practiced “frontiers of inclusion” in their colonies, mixing colonial and native cultures. This was largely because the Spanish required native labor on their sugar plantations and mines, and the French did not have the manpower to conquer native peoples and instead forged trading and military alliances with them to dominate the fur trade in the North Atlantic. Neither nation was willing to send many settlers to their colonies, and therefore relied on the native populations. The English, and later the Dutch, practiced “frontiers of exclusion” because their colonies were receiving many immigrants, based on the economic transformation in England, caused by enclosures (which turned out the rural farmer population and sent them into the cities, looking for work), that established a rising merchant and commercial class. With a much larger labor force, the English had no need for native populations and therefore excluded them from society. This need was filled by indentured servants and later slaves.

     

    3. C.

    Champlain settled Quebec in 1608 along the St. Lawrence River in a spot that allowed them to intercept the fur trade. They allied with the Huron and, in 1609 and 1610, helped them war against their traditional enemies, the Five Nations Iroquois Confederacy. Various factors contributed to the stagnated growth of New France: the St. Lawrence River froze in winter, isolating the colonists and allowing for only a short growing period; the French could have populated New France with the Huguenots (French Calvinists, part of the Protestant Reformation), but decided to keep the colony Catholic; engages (hired men) contracted to the colony for the fishery or fur trade, but nine out of ten returned to France.

     

    4. D.

    Jamestown, populated by “adventurers, gentlemen, and ne’er do wells (as in ‘never-do-wells,’ thugs and vagabonds)” looking for gold and a passage to the Indies, and finding neither, fell into drinking and gambling, only surviving because the Powhatan Confederacy gave them corn. Wahunsonacook (“King Powhatan”) thought the English would make valuable allies in helping him war against his traditional allies. After more settlers arrived and demanded food, however, the Powhatans reconsidered their policy, realizing that the English had come to invade rather than to trade.  During the 1609-10 winter, 400 colonists starved and the survivors turned to cannibalism. Only 40 remained by the spring. Following this, the Virginia Company that sponsored the Jamestown colony attacked the Powhatans, starting a war that ended in 1613 with the capture of Matoaka, or Pocahontas, and her later marriage to a prominent colonist called John Rolfe.

     

    5. D.

    The Virginia Company, looking for a “merchantable commodity,” found it in tobacco. John Rolfe developed a mild variety of tobacco, which gave the Company their first returns. Tobacco, which required a large amount of hand labor and quickly exhausted the land, required both the labor of indentured servants and more lands from the natives. The Company handed out “headright grants,” where wealthy investors would  receive large plantations on the condition they would transport the workers to the colony on their own dime. The unemployed, newly cheated out of their traditional lands, turned up in thousands, anxious for work; 10,000 were sent to Jamestown by 1622. Most died, however, of typhoid and malaria epidemics, keeping the population just above a thousand. The focus on immigrant labor turned Virginia into a “frontier of exclusion” that did not require native labor. For land, the colonists pressed the Powhatans; Opechancanough, the brother of Wahunsonacook, led his tribe in a war against the settlers. A shaman priest named Nemattanew supported his actions, and for that was murdered by the English in March 1622. The Powhatans attacked two weeks later. Eventually, the Powhatans sued for peace in 1632, but the Virginia Company was bankrupted; by 1624 Virginia colony had already been turned into a royal colony, though the colonists kept the House of Burgesses, the first representative government in the English colonies.

     

    6. B.

    Most indentured servants were unskilled young men, though some were unmarried women, skilled craftsmen, or parentless children. A minority were vagabonds and other convicts. They served for a fixed term (2-7 years was the norm, but convicts were held for as much as 14 years, and children were expected to serve until they were 21) and, at the end of their term, received “freedom dues”—land, clothes, a gun or a spinning wheel, and help to get started on their own—but most returned to England. They were badly treated on the tobacco plantations—2 out of every 5 died.

     

    7. A

    Unlike the independent French and Spanish colonies, the Chesapeake colonies relied on immigrants from the Old World for their labor. Thus, Virginia remained closely tied to England.

     

    8. B.

    Puritans and Pilgrims, operating under royal charters, arrived in New England with a system of government based off the joint-stock companies that sponsored their trips and English local government. Their civil government formed the basis of the bicameral legislative system in use today.

     

    9.  Swine.

    We asked Mr. Vincent in class and he said it was swine, though the answer was not in the book... Or we couldn't find it at least.

     

    10. E.

    Their frontier of exclusion did not require native labor, just native land.

     

    11. B.

    The Puritans created a system of public schools and colleges, including Harvard College. However, women were excluded from this system, and thus most were illiterate.

     

    12. C.

    The Stuart Restoration followed the English Civil War of 1642-1649 that deposed Charles I. The Restoration placed his son, Charles II, on the throne, and he gave out many royal charters to establish colonies in New England, including the Carolinas, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania.

     

    13. D.

    Frontier planters, led by Nathaniel Bacon, broke out in revolt in 1675 against the colonial governor William Berkeley. This revolt was caused in part by Berkeley’s reluctance to help the frontiersmen wage war against the native tribes, but also by social differences among the frontier planters and the coastal communities where the “Indian problem” no longer existed. The rebellion fell apart after Bacon died in 1676.

     

    14. B.

    The Glorious Revolution deposed James II, Charles II brother and successor, who tried to tighten his control over Parliament, the rising Puritans in Parliament, and the colonies. Parliament, fearing a Catholic dynasty under James II after the birth of a son, replaced him with his Protestant daughter and son-in-law, Mary and William of Orange. They agreed to a Bill of Rights that established England as a constitutional monarchy, or a monarchy limited by laws, as opposed to the previous absolute monarchy.

     

    15. E.

    Look above. Much settlement of Mexico, Canada, and New England occurred over this time period. The English experienced several changes in power, from the Catholic monarchy under Charles I, the English Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, to the Protestant rule of Charles II, another Catholic monarchy under James II, and then the constitutional monarchy of William I.  Native tribes were decimated by warfare and disease, brought into society in the frontiers of inclusion in New France and New Mexico, and excluded from New England society. The warfare for colonial dominance in the late end of the 17th century would lead to new conflicts in the 18th century, notably the emergence of a revolution.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - Slavery and Empire

    African Slaves Build their Own Community in Coastal Georgia

    • Slavery was  originally prohibited in the original 1732 Georgia charter; the ban was lifted two decades later when Georgia became a Royal colony. By 1770, 15,000 slaves made up 80% of the population.
    • Rice was one of the most valuable commodities of mainland North America, surpassed only by tobacco and wheat. The Atlantic slave trade grew to match rice production.
    •   “Saltwater” slaves (slaves taken from Africa, rather than “country born”) were inspected and branded on coastal forts in Africa, shipped overseas (where many died), then sold and marched to plantations
    • Mortality rates were high for slaves, especially infants. Overseers could legally punish slaves and even murder them.
    • Many slaves run and some rebel. Most slaves remained enslaved, but built up families and communities, mixing African traditions with their new homeland.

    The Beginnings of African Slavery

    • Slavery has long been a part of Mediterranean Europe; Venetian and Genoese traders sold captured Slavics (the word slave derives from them), Muslims, and Africans. Enslaving Christians, but not Africans or Muslims, disturbed many Europeans.
    • Portuguese expansion in West Africa was motivated by access to gold, wrought iron, ivory, tortoiseshells, textiles, and slaves (previously dominated by the Moors, or Spanish Muslims). European slaves left the slave hunting to the African traders.
    • Sugar and Slavery
      • Slaves were imported to work sugar plantations in Hispaniola and Brazil, among other islands.
      • The Dutch expanded the European sugar market, leading France and England to start island sugar colonies as well.
    • West Africans
      • Marriage kinship ties, practicing polygamy, characterized societies on the West African coast. Women enjoyed social and economic independence.
      • Shifting cultivation, cultivating land for several years then moving on while the cleared land lay fallow, helped build up African communities and commerce, creating states and kingdoms. Kingdoms on the coast were the ones who first traded with the Portuguese.
      • Slavery in African society was much freer; slaves were treated as family members rather than possessions, were allowed to marry, and had freeborn children.

    The African Slave Trade


    • The Demography of the Slave Trade
      • 10-12 million slaves were transported to the Americas during the slave trade. 76% of slaves arrived from 1701-1810, the peak years of the slave trade. Half went to Dutch, French, or British plantations in the Caribbean, a third to Portuguese Brazil, and a tenth to Spanish America. About 5% went to the North American British colonies. With the exception of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763, a world war between the French and their allies versus the British and their allies), the slave trade continued to become more important to the colonies up to the Revolution.
      • There were twice as many male African slaves as female; most slaves were young, between 15 and 30, and represented nearly every West African ethnic group.
    • Slavers of All Nations
      • All western European nations participated in the slave trade, shipping slaves from coastal outposts and, later, through independent American and European traders.
    • The Shock of Enslavement
      • Many slave traders lived permanently in coastal outposts and married local women, reinforcing commercial ties through family relations. Many slaves resented African involvement in the slave trade.
      • Most Africans were enslaved through warfare. As the demand for slaves increased, slave raids pressed deeper into the continent.
      • Captives would wait in dungeons or pens called “barracoons”, separated from family and people of the same ethnic group to discourage rebellion, before being branded with the mark of their buyer.
    • The Middle Passage
      • The “Middle Passage” referred to the middle part of the trade triangle from England to Africa to America back to England. Historians estimate that 1 in 6 slaves died from the unsanitary conditions, extreme crowding, and diseases.
      • Many committed suicide as an act of rebellion on the slave ships. Captains resorted to putting netting over the side of their ships.
    • Arrival in the New World
      • When the slaves arrived, their captors would parade them around to impress buyers. Slaves would be sold at auctions or during a “scramble”, where prices were pre-set and the buyers would rush the slaves in a corral and take their pick.
    • Political and Economic Effects on Africa
      • The African slave trade eventually weakened Africa as a whole. The slave raiding was depopulating Africa as many died during the raids and the rest were sent off to be sold. The arrival of European goods stifled local manufacturing while agriculture lost labor.
      • The slave trade allowed for the political, economic, and military conquest of Africa.

    The Development of North American Slave Societies

    • Slavery comes to North America
      • The first slaves arrived in Virginia in 1619. Slaves cost twice as much as indentured servants, but had about the same life span in the disease-ridden Chesapeake. Consequently, most planters employed more indentured servants than slaves. This was termed society with slaves, where slavery was just one form of labor.
      • In this type of society, the status of black Virginians was ambiguous; many owned slaves and land themselves, even with the lack of religious distinction among them.
      • In slave society, slavery is the dominant form of labor. As indentured servants became scarce as less English immigrated, their labor was replaced with slavery.
      • Slavery was strengthened by making slave-status inheritable through their mother’s status (letting white male owners take slave mistresses), ending Christian baptism from changing conditions of servitude, and by making the killing of a slave a non-felony.
    • The Tobacco Colonies
      • The growth of tobacco required the growth of the slave trade.
      • The natural growth of the slaver population served to increase the profits of their owners, and so was encouraged.
    • The Lower South
      • Settlement in the south was a slave society from the outset, using native slaves. However, this soon shifted to African slaves as the South began producing more rice.
    • Slavery in the Spanish Colonies
      • Spanish settlements employed slaves, the most benign form being the kind in Florida, which resembled the system in use in Mediterranean and African society. Spain declared Florida a haven for fugitives to weaken southern English colonies.
      • In New Mexico, however, Spain used native slaves, though in a more restrained way to prevent another Pueblo Uprising. Spain captured "infidel Indians" such as the Apaches or nomads from the Great Plains and enslaved them, using them as house servants or fieldworkers. 
    • French Louisiana
      • Slaves were heavily used in Louisiana agriculture until the Natchez Rebellion, with slaves making up no more than a third of the population. Only when the 18th century ended did slavery make a return, in force.
    • Slavery in the North
      • Slavery was universally accepted in the colonies. Among the rich, ownership of slaves was almost universal as well. The Quakers were the first to oppose slavery, but they would not gain traction until the Revolution.

    African to African American

    • The Daily Life of Slaves
      • Slaves were provided with scant clothing. In the South, where large numbers of slaves were needed, the concentration of slaves allowed for the emergence of communities, despite the harsh working conditions imposed on them on the large plantations.
    • Families and Communities
      • Families were the most important unit in African American culture, but the slave codes did not allow for legal slave marriage. Families were often broken up by sale.
      • Naming practices reinforced family ties to overcome forced separations.
      • Emotional, and especially kinship ties, formed the basis of African American society.
    • African American Culture
      • Most slaves were not Christian until the Great Awakening, due to the reluctance of their masters. One significant practice occurred in their burial rituals.
      • African Americans created dialects by mixing English with native African languases.
    • The Africanization of the South
      • Southerners were influenced by African American culture, changing their diet, their art, language, music, and dance.
    • Violence and Resistance
      • Slavery rested on the threat of violence, even among “humane” slave owners like George Washington.
      • Many slaves resisted through refusing to cooperate, destroying property, and by running away. Runaways would create communities called “maroons”, from the Spanish “cimmaron” (wild, untamed). They would intermingle with the Florida Creeks, creating the Seminole tribe, derived from the corruption of cimmaron.
      • Revolts occurred in the colonies, but not on the scale of Jamaica, Guiana, or Brazil; the family and community ties slaves established made them less likely to revolt.

    Slavery and Empire

    • Slavery the Mainspring
      • The slave colonies accounted for 95% of all American exports to Great Britain from 1714-1773.
      • Slavery helped the British economy in three ways. Slavery created capital, which funded economic expansion. Second, it created the raw materials necessary for the Industrial Revolution. Third, it created large colonial markets for British-made goods.
    • The Politics of Mainspring
      • Mercantilism, an economic system where the government intervenes to increase the national wealth, was the dominant economic theory in Europe. Mercantilists viewed commerce as a zero-sum game with clear winners and losers vying for a fixed amount of trade and wealth.
    • Wars for Empire
      • European wars spilled over into conflicts for colonial supremacy. In Queen Anne’s War, Great Britain won the war against France and Spain, gaining exclusive rights to supply slaves to its American colonies.
    • British Colonial Regulation
      • Mercantilists used state-run monopolies to manage commerce. The British used colonial regulations to make their American colonies markets for British manufacturing goods and exporters of commodities that the British would resell at profit.
      • Most did not complain about the British economic policies until the 1760s.
    • The Colonial Economy
      • Mercantilism served to enrich the white colonists by giving them a protected market to sell and market their goods (sometimes by violating their own regulations). Slavery provided the capital to expand Northern port cities.

    Slavery and Freedom

    • The Social Structure of the Slave Colonies
      • Slavery provided the conditions necessary t o improve the life of the white settlers.
      • Colonies were ruled by the self-perpetuating planter elite, which owned 60% of the wealth and half the land. The Southern landowners supported them. Under them were the landless colonists.
    • White Skin Privilege
      • White colonists gained a special status through the exploitation of race. Blacks were subject to a number of harsh penalties that did not apply to whites, including a ban on interracial marriage and sexual relations (refer to Thomas Jefferson).
      • Even freedmen did not share equal rights. This set up barriers among the working class, including slaves and the landless colonists, who otherwise may have united against the moneyed classes if not for racial prejudice.
    AP Questions

    1. D

    Venetian and Genoese traders dominated the early European slave trade of the 15th century, concentrating on the Slavic region (Eurasia-ish; the word slave comes from Slav). The enslavement of Christians disturbed many Europeans; Muslim and African slaves, however, were fair game.

    2. A

    African immigrants outnumbered European immigrants six to one; the Atlantic slave trade that began with the Portuguese did not end in the US until 1807 (though slavery itself continued on) and continued in other parts of the Americas until the 1870s.

    3. D

    European traders preferred to let West African slave raiders do their dirty work for them. Slavery existed in African society, but it was “house” slavery, where the slaves were treated as family members rather than property and were accorded a certain amount of rights. Slaves were allowed to marry and their children were born free.

    4. D

    The “Middle Passage” of the Atlantic slave trade was built for profit; as such, slave comfort was at a very, very bare minimum. Slaves were crowded into ship holds and chained together, and the rocking of the ship as it sailed would skin the slaves. Ships built to hold 450 slaves regularly held over 600. Many attempted to throw themselves overboard as an act of protest, so much so that ship captains began to install nets over the side of their ships.

    5. E

    The African slave trade essentially depopulated Africa as thousands were shipped off to slavery in the Americas and many others died during the warfare and raiding that provided the slaves in the first place, with at least one dying on the raids for every one taken captive. West African societies became increasingly dependent on European goods and weapons, creating a vicious “guns-slaves” cycle. The depopulated farming communities could no longer support themselves, and foreign goods stifled local manufacturing. This would lead to the European domination of Africa in the centuries after.

    6. B

    Indian slaves were used initially, but West African slaves, having come from an agricultural society, were preferred in the booming rice and indigo plantations that sprung up in South Carolina. In contrast to the small tobacco farms of the Chesapeake that did not require large amounts of slaves, rice plantations required a minimum of thirty slaves and regularly staffed fifty to seventy-five. The large amount of slaves led to large black majorities in the Lower South.

    7. E

    Though some areas had less than others (French Louisiana being a prominent example), slavery existed all parts of North American society, working the fields and as house servants. It was a thoroughly accepted practice.

    8. E

    Answer under construction

    9. B

    The appearance of distinctly African customs and culture revealed the strength with which the Africans resisted slavery and contributed to the Africanization of the South.

    10. A

    Though slavery and slave labor was initially a very profitable enterprise, the availability of “free” labor slowed innovation and, therefore, the development of a diverse economy, leading to economic stagnation. The New England colonies that did not as heavily rely on agriculture and slave labor would become the centers of industrial development in the century ahead.

    11. C

    Under mercantilism, there was a certain amount of wealth in the world. Trade was viewed as a zero-sum game, with clear winners or losers, and value could only be gained by somehow cheating the opposing party of value. In slavery, this came through by stealing the labor and productive values of the slaves.

    12. E

    Ironically, slavery created the sort of economic security and prosperity that would allow rich white landowners freedom, creating a Southern aristocracy not unlike the European nobility. The landed gentry rose in power in prominence in this time; slaves, of course, remained in a stagnant position, while landless white settlers dropped into poverty.

    13. A

    See above.

     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - The Cultures of Colonial North America

    Middle Colonies

     

    I.                    The Middle Colonies

    a.       Location

                                                                   i.      Along the lower Hudson River

                                                                 ii.      Included New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania

    b.      Religion

                                                                   i.      Puritan, Baptist, Quaker, Catholic, and Jewish congregations

                                                                 ii.      Lutherans or Calvinists, Presbyterians, Anglicans, Baptists

                                                                iii.      Tolerance of religious practices and distinctions

    c.       Politics and government

                                                                   i.      Justices appointed by colonial officials

                                                                 ii.      Landowning farmers chose local officials

    d.      Economy

                                                                   i.      Some of the best farmland in North America

                                                                 ii.      Exported abundant produce

                                                                iii.      Booming port in Philadelphia

    e.      Social and cultural aspects

                                                                   i.      Ethnically diverse, including Dutch, Huguenots, Flemish,  German

                                                                 ii.      Communities connected by kinship and neighborly bonds

                                                                iii.      Social stability and prosperity

                                                               iv.      Lots sold individually rather than in communal packages

    f.        Physical characteristics

                                                                   i.      Rich farmland

                                                                 ii.      Ports

                                                                iii.      Human environment interaction

    1.       Agriculture

    g.       Historical context

                                                                   i.      Quakers rented land to various ethnic and religious groups, creating “salad bowl”

     

     

    Indian America

    I.                    Relative location of regions

    a.       Hundreds of Indian cultures ranged from foothills of Appalachians to western flank of Sierra Nevada in California

    b.      Colonists forced Indians to relocate

                                                                   i.      Moved from Atlantic coastal plain

                                                                 ii.      Moved into or beyond Appalachian mountains

    c.       Became active in the fur trade

    II.                  Relations with colonists

    a.       Dependency on colonists

                                                                   i.      Began using firearms and metal tools

                                                                 ii.      Built homes out of logs

                                                                iii.      Participated in commercial economy

                                                               iv.      Received clothing

    b.      Colonial power conflicts

                                                                   i.      Iroquois Five Nations vs. French and Indian allies (King William’s War)

                                                                 ii.      1701: Treaty of neutrality with France

    c.       Had better relations with French than English

                                                                   i.      Sided with French in wars and occasionally traded

                                                                 ii.      Traded with English

    III.                Population decrease

    a.       European disease

                                                                   i.      7 to 10 million in 1500 dropped to 1 million in 1800

                                                                 ii.      Natives with contact with colonists lost 50% or greater

                                                                iii.      Indian societies on the interior did not endure the epidemics

    IV.                Indians of the Great Plains

    a.       Migrated during the early eighteenth century

    b.      Indians on the Southern fringe of the Plains stole horses from the Spanish colonists in New Mexico

                                                                   i.      Enabled Indians to hunt buffalo herds more efficiently

                                                                 ii.      More productive economy based on nomadic culture

     

    New England

    I)        Location of Region

    A)     All of the New England Colonies except Rhode Island

    II)      Human Characteristics

    A)     Religion

    1)      Every local community was free to run its own affairs under the guidance of the General Court

    2)      Religious persecution

    3)      After Toleration Act, religious persecution was stopped and many Anglican, Baptist,  and Presbyterian lived in New England

    B)      Politics

    1)      Mix of freedom and repression

    C)      Government

    1)      Governor and representatives elected by the towns

    2)      Free men chose their minister, voted on his salary and support, and elected local men to offices ranging from town clerk to fence viewer

    3)      Autonomy

    D)     Economy

    1)      Towns grew too large, reached limit of land and supply

    E)      Social

    1)      Each village was based around a Church, land was split on a basis of status and seniority

    2)      Banded and pursued people of other faiths or people who questioned their faith

    F)      Cultural

    1)      Adult male members constituted freedom of the town

    2)      Little distinction between secular and religious authority

    III)    Physical Characteristics

    A)     Communal land centered around a Church

    Backcountry

    Geography

    A.      Region extend from Maryland to Virginia

    B.      Included Appalachian Highlands

    C.      Land West of established colonies

    I.                    People

    A.      Indians

    1.       Cherokee

    2.       Delaware

    3.       Shawnees

    B.      White Pioneers

    1.       Claimed land that they had no legal title to

    II.                  Lifestyle

    A.      Strived to become commercial farmers

    B.      Planted corn

    C.      Hunted in the woods

    D.      Built log cabins

    E.       Great violence resulted from the westward expansion. Indians worried about the threat of new people taking their land

    F.       Men

    1.       Hunted

    2.       Warriors

    G.     Women

    1.       Domestic workers

    Southern North America (Chesapeake and Lower South)

    I.                    Population

    a.       Triracial society

                                                                   i.      Made up of white colonists, black slaves, and substantial Indian communities

                                                                 ii.      40% were African slaves

    b.      Colonies of Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, and Virginia

    II.                  Agriculture

    a.       Southern colonies were overwhelmingly rural

    b.      Specialized in commercial crops

                                                                   i.      Rice

                                                                 ii.      Tobacco

    c.       Tobacco was more profitable than rice

                                                                   i.      Farmers planted more tobacco in the Chesapeake region

                                                                 ii.      Tobacco, however, drained the nutrients from the soil

    III.                Religion

    a.       Church of England the state religion

                                                                   i.      Citizens required to attend services and pay taxes supporting the Church

    b.      No other Church was supported

    c.       Dissenters of the Church of England were shunned from the colony

    d.      Anglican establishment was weak

    IV.                Society

    a.       Farms and plantations were spread across this region

    b.      Few town or villages

    c.       Dominant social institution was the large plantation

    d.      Poor families lived in wooden cabins with poor conditions

    e.      Richer families lived in better conditions and had slaves

                                                                   i.      Not as substantial as other houses of New England

    f.        Lower South had little community

    g.       Chesapeake had well developed neighborhoods

    h.      Growing sense of racial solidarity as African population increased

    V.                  Government

    a.       Lower South had little to no established government

    b.      Chesapeake had developed a form of government

                                                                   i.      Developed kinship networks and economic connections

                                                                 ii.      Country court had executive and judicial power

                                                                iii.      The governor appoints gentlemen justices, who appoint the grand jury

    VI.                Physical Characteristics

    a.       Fertile land

    b.      Wooden homes

    c.       Swamps and marshes

    d.      Bordered by water

     

    The French Crescent

    • Relative location
      • The “French Crescent” referred to a crescent of colonies, military posts, and settlements that extended from the mouth of the St. Lawrence River southwest through the Great Lakes, then down the Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico.
      • France established a thin colonial presence along the Mississippi River between Louisbourg on Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island, east end of Canada), which guarded the northern approach into New France, and New Orleans, which guarded the southern approach.
    • Religion
      • In France, church and state were closely interwoven. Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin, prime ministers of France, established a Catholic imperial policy that led to the bishopric of Quebec, Catholic culture in New France, and Jesuit missionaries pushing Catholicism deep into the continent.
      • Quebec founded local seminaries, oversaw the appointment and review of priests, and laid the foundation for the Catholic culture of New France.
    • Economics
      • The French planned to use the communities between Louisbourg and New Orleans to establish a commercial empire.
      • During the years of 1500 – 1650 the French Crescent had little effect on the Americas because it was not fully developed until the 1720s.
      • Communities of farmers or habitants along the St. Lawrence formed the core of the French empire, becoming the most profitable French enterprise in North America.
      • Farming communities in Illinois provided wheat to the booming sugar plantations of New Orleans.
    • Culture
      • Communities were inclusive, combining both European and Native American elements. An ethnic group called metis (French for mestizo) grew out of this intermixing.
      • Towns looked French, but were built Indian-style with bark covering their walls. Frenchmen would dress in Native American attire.
      • The fur trade linked native peoples to Europeans and by the nature of beaver furs which built the French crescent.
    • People and the physical characteristics of New France
      • “Long lots” that stretched back from the rivers provided families with a share of good bottomland for farming and frontage on the waterways to the Mississippi River.
      • The Mississippi and other rivers formed the “interstate highway system” of the French Crescent, which served as a basic transportation network between the dispersed French settlements. 

     The Spanish Borderlands 

    1.       Relative location of region

    a.       What is now known as the sunbelt of the United States

    b.      Also, northern, present day, Florida

                                                                   i.      Conflict with Indians and British reduced the Spanish Presence in Florida

    2.        Human Characteristics

    a.       Religion

                                                                   i.      Franciscan missions constructed among the Indian peoples of Texas

                                                                 ii.      Jesuit missions built among the desert Indians of the Indians of the lower Colorado River and Gala River Valleys

                                                                iii.      Established missions in Baja (lower) California

    1.       Indians were not forced to join missions, but once they did they could not leave them.

    a.       Franciscan missionaries resulted to cruel and violent means of controlling Indians

                                                                                                                                           i.      Shackles, solitary confinement, whipping posts

                                                                                                                                         ii.      Indians resisted and ran away

    1.       Native population of coastal California dropped by 74%

                                                               iv.      Catholic Church played a dominant role in the community life of the borderlands

    b.      Politics and Government

                                                                   i.      Ruled by riceroyalty of New Spain

    c.       Economy

                                                                   i.      Colonial outposts founded west of New Mexico (today’s southern Arizona)

                                                                 ii.      Cattle herding became the dominant economic activity for the next 200 years

                                                                iii.      Limited by a restrictive colonial economic policy

    1.       Required colonists to exchange wool, pottery, and buffalo hides for imported goods at unfavorable rates

    d.      Social and Cultural Aspects

    1.       Approximately 1 million Spanish colonists and mezitos

    2.       At least 2 million Indians

    e.      Military

                                                                   i.      Military posts, presidios, established on the fringes of Louisiana because Spanish were worried about the French activity in the Mississippi

    3.       Physical Characteristics of Region

    a.       The northern borders of Florida, Texas, New Mexico, and California were considered as buffer zones (to protect New Spain from rivaling New World colonies)

    b.      How it affected the people living there

                                                                   i.      Cattle ranching was the dominant way of life

                                                                 ii.      Human Environment Interaction

    4.       Significant historical context important to region

    a.       Was the largest and most prosperous European colony on the North American Continent

    b.      In Florida, the oldest colonies in North America, war reduced colonial presence to mere forts surrounded by colonized territories for families

                                                                   i.      Because  of size and weakness, Spain’s forts had no choice but to establish relations with Creek and Seminole Indians and hundreds of runaway African Americans

                                                                 ii.      Florida consisted of a growing mezito population and a considerable number of free African American and Hispanicized Indians

    c.       New Mexico borders expanded as people headed North along valleys and streams

    5.       Mexico City

    a.       Administrative capital of New Spain

    b.      Most sophisticated city in the Western Hemisphere

    c.       Site of one of the world’s greatest universities

    d.      Great architecture

    e.      Broad avenues

     

    Traditional Culture in the New World

    ·         Oral cultures

    o   Some cultures passed on traditions orally through story and song as opposed to printing

    o   Rhythms of life were regulated by sunlight and seasons of the year

    o   Farmed with simple tools and were subject to drought, flood, or pestilence

    o   Demands of the season determined working routines

    ·         Communal cultures

    o   Quebec- villagers worked side by side to repair the roads

    o   New Mexico- collectively maintained the irrigation canals

    o   New England- gathered in town meetings to decide the dates when common fields were to be tended to

    o   Very little privacy within homes

    o   Majority of 18th century North American farmers grew crops and raised livestock for their own needs or local barter

    o   The primary goal of farmers was ownership of land and the assurance that children and descendants would have nearby lands to settle upon

    ·         Colonial cities

    o   Places of commerce

    o   Artisans and craftsmen work full time

    o   Young men pursuing a trade (job) served several years as apprentices in exchange for learning the skills and secrets of the trade

    o   Some men had to migrate and became known as “journeymen”

    o   Ultimate goal of journeymen was independence

    ·         Few opportunities for women outside of the household

    o   Men held managerial rights over family property; widows received 1/3 lifetime interest in a deceased husband’s real estate (dower)

    o   Some colonial women played active roles in 18th century journalism

    The Frontier Heritage

    ·         Distinction between North America and Europe: land was cheap and abundant in North America

    ·         Labor was the key to prosperity; labor was in short supply in the colonies

    ·         Because free men and women could work for themselves on their own land; there was little incentive to work

    ·         Landowners could secure an agricultural workforce through forced labor

    ·         More than half the immigrants to 18th century British America were indentured servants

    ·         Agents paid their way to America through several years of service in America

    ·         Property ownership led to rising demands in colonial regions that land be taken from the Indians and opened to colonial settlement

    ·         Tried to justify their war actions against Indians by saying the Indians failed to maximize the potential of the property  and saying the Indians were savages

     

    Population Growth and Immigration

    ·         High fertility and low mortality rates

    ·         Colonies in the 18th century grew about 3% per year

    ·         Women typically gave birth to seven kids  or more

    ·         Abundance in food allowed for good health and low mortality

    ·         British sent families, Spanish limited the migration of their subjects, and French sent Catholic engages as opposed to Protestant Huguenots

    ·         British were the imperial power to encourage the immigration of foreign nationals to the colonies

    ·         “Trade in strangers”- Carrying migrants provided English and Dutch merchants with a way of making a profit on the voyage of vessels sent to bring back tobacco, rice, indigo, timber, and flour

    ·         British colonies enacted liberal naturalization laws  that allowed Protestant immigrants who swore allegiance to the British crown to become free “denizens” with all the privileges of natural-born subjects

    ·         Parliament  passed the Plantation act of 1740, which allowed prohibited naturalization for Catholic and Jewish immigrants, but allowed it for others

    ·         Majority of European immigrants were bonded servants or slaves

    ·         In 1750, Pennsylvania passed a law to prevent the overcrowding of ships filled with indentured passengers

    ·         Backcountry majorly populated by Scots-Irish

    Social Class

    ·         North American society was not aristocratic like Europe, but was not without social hierarchy

    ·         In New Spain, Espanoles (Spaniards) were the highest in social class while mestizos, mulattoes, and other ethnicities were on lower levels

    ·         African slaves and Indians were at the bottom of the social classes

    ·         In British colonies, upper class was made up of large landowners, merchants, and prosperous professionals

    ·         As opposed from Spanish and French , British celebrated social mobility

    ·         Large and impoverished lower class in the British colonies- slaves, bonded servants, and poor laboring family make up 40% or more of the population

    ·         British contained a large and influential middle class; Spanish and French did not have a middle class

    ·         About 70% of Pennsylvanian colonists were middle class

    ·         Most were moderate landowning farmers

    ·         Enjoyed better living in America than “mother country”- due to many reasons such as the enclosure movement

     

    Economic Growth and Increasing Equality

    ·         Heavy regulation leads to stagnation in New Spain and New France while impressive economic growth takes place in the British colonies

    ·         Middle and upper class British people began enjoying improved living conditions

    ·         Growth resulted in increasing social inequality

    ·         Rich were getting richer and poor were getting poorer

    ·         Greatest amount of wealth occurred in commercial farming cities

    Contrasts in Colonial Politics

    ·         French Canada was ruled by a superior council, and intendant, and a bishop

    ·         New Spain was governed by the Council of the Indies- direct executive authorities

    ·         British Prime Minister Robert Walpole established a decentralized administration; felt this would best accomplish  the nation’s economic goals

    ·         With the exception of Connecticut and Rhode Island (who elected their own governors by charter), colonies were administered by royally appointed governors

    ·         Taxation and spending were controlled by elected assemblies

    ·         Only men with property could vote; adult white males who qualified was 50% or higher in the colonies

    ·         Those who could vote elected wealthy landowners, planters, or merchants to serve as their leaders

    The Enlightenment Challenge

    ·         Enlightenment thinkers in Britain and Europe argued that the universe was governed by natural laws that people  could understand and apply to their own advantage

    ·         John Locke proposed that the state existed to provide for the happiness and securities of individuals,

    ·         Locke also believed the state existed to provide for those with inalienable rights to life, liberty, and property

    ·         Enlightenment writers emphasized rationality, harmony, and order

    ·         Enlightenment thinking appealed to those whose ordered lives improved their lot

    ·         Cotton Mather wrote about the existence of witches

    ·         About ½ of adult men and ¼ of adult women could read

    ·         Boston News-Letter was the first continuously published Newspaper in North America

    ·         The almanac, a combination calendar, astrological guide, and sourcebook of medical advice and farming tips, was another popular literary work

    A Decline in Religious Devotion

    ·         Anglican and Puritan churches suffered declining memberships and falling attendance at services

    ·         Once Puritanism became an established church, attendance was expected of all townspeople

    ·         The Half-Way Covenant of 1662 allowed children who had not experienced conversion to join the church as half-way members who could do everything except participate in communion

    ·         In 1708, the churches of Connecticut agreed to the Saybrook Platform, which enacted a system of governance by councils of ministers and rather than by congregations; this weakened the passion and commitment of church members

    ·         Congregationalists began to question the Calvinist theology of predestination—the belief that God had predetermined the few men and women who would be saved in the Second Coming

    ·         Puritans believed that God had given people the freedom to choose salvation by developing their faith and by doing good works—known as Arminianism

    The Great Awakening- George Whitefield

    ·         The colonial widespread colonial revival of religion in the New England colonies became known as the Great Awakening

    ·         Religious leaders condemned the laxity, corruption, and officialism of Protestantism and reenergized it with calls for piety and purity

    ·         Religious factions known as the Old and New Lights accused each other of heresy

    ·         New Lights fought against a rationalist heresy and called for a revival of Calvinism

    ·         Old Lights condemned emotional enthusiasm as part of the heresy of believing in a personal and direct relationship with God outside the order of the church

    ·         Many “unchurched” colonists were brought back to Protestantism by 18th century revivalism

     

     
    AP Question
     

    1. Eighteenth-century America was: E. made up of a wide variety of Indian groups and settlers from a wide number of European nations.

    All of Western Europe, and parts of the rest of Europe, was in on colonization. Individual communities, however, had their own little quirks. Indian America, though battered by epidemics brought on by European diseases, continued to assert their independence, though many tribes in close contact with the Europeans adopted European goods and became reliant on them. The Spanish Borderlands, which served as a buffer zone for sophisticated New Spain (Mexico), isolated from the prosperous inland colonies, grew slowly, and often became centers to convert natives to Catholicism for a monarchy that was reluctant to deplete its fields in Spain proper. The French Crescent established a French trading empire in North America, stretching from Quebec at the mouth of the St. Lawrence to New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi, with a strong Catholic character mixed with heavy native intermingling. New England colonies exhibited a highly repressive and ethnically homogenous Puritan ideology based on a close integration of church and state, though this was slowly chipped away at after the English Civil War and the Toleration Act. The ethnically diverse Middle colonies had many cultures, but they remained distinct from one another, forming a salad bowl rather than a melting pot, with a large amount of free settlement and social mobility for the landowning white settlers. The Backcountry represented the frontier and the settlers hostile to natives in it. The South was a triracial society of whites, African slaves, and Indians with an economy based on plantation labor.

     

    2.  One of the first Americans to advocate religious toleration was: C. Roger Williams

    For his trouble, Roger Williams was excommunicated by the Puritan congregations and went on to form the colony of Rhode Island.

     

    3. The development of Pennsylvania was strongly influenced by the: A. Society of Friends

    Though the Quakers quickly became a minority in Pennsylvania, due to its large immigrant populations attracted by the low prices for land, they continued to exert a strong influence, establishing a loose government and preventing religious persecution.

     

    4. The Chesapeake settlements and the colonies of the Lower South were: C. Ethnically diverse because of the presence of Africans, Europeans, and Indians.

    See 1. While Africans made up a substantial part of the population (40%), they were not the majority.

     

    5. In colonial America: E. Women were generally denied careers or opportunities outside of the household.

    Women had some social rights, though not many. In employment, women were limited, though some inherited printing presses from their husbands and became prominent journalists.

     

    6. The presence of the frontier and the availability of land in the colonies: D. helped create social assumptions and practices that were not especially democratic

    The frontier economy was based on the idea of forced labor, strongly stratified class structures and subordination, and a “might makes right” mentality towards natives and each other.

     

    7. During the eighteenth century: C. for a variety of reasons  the British colonies began to differ socially and politically from New France and New Spain.

    These reasons are: influxes of immigrants (contrasted to French and Spanish reluctance to send settlers) from English immigration and liberal naturalization laws, high growth rates, African slavery, and a locally based government in contrast to the centrally managed governments of New Spain and New France that encouraged upwards mobility for the upwardly mobile.

     

    8. One striking thing about British North America in the 1700s was: B. the presence of a dynamic middle class.

    The middle-class often came to join the colonial elite as rising profits increased their social status—often at the expense of the poor becoming poorer.

     

    9. In North America during the eighteenth century: E. the English colonies began to develop the institutions of representative government.

    British Prime Minister Robert Wadpole encouraged decentralized government and salutary neglect in the economy. Though royal governors controlled the colonies, elected assemblies were the ones who decided on taxation and spending, with the white landowners as the voters. This created a self-perpetuating elite of white landowners who would vote in other white landowners. This elite viewed democracy negatively, inferring mob rule. These “representative” governments slowly began to take more and more power away from the royal governors, who often could do nothing to the money-controlling assemblies.

     

    10. The intellectual movement that led to a significant transformation in British North America was: b. the Enlightenment.

    The Enlightenment, which started in Europe, was a time of scientific discovery and rationalism. John Locke, a political theorist, would propose that people had unalienable rights to life, liberty, and property and that the state existed to protect such rights. The Enlightenment led to a burst of literature, both the practical (Poor Richard’s Almanack) and the satirical.

     

    11. By early in the 1700s: D. America was experience an apparent decline in religious devotion.

    At about the same time as the Enlightenment, religious devotion began to drop off, with about maybe only one in fifteen adults a member of a congregation. The Puritan Church, which had become an official religion, established the Half-Way Covenant to receive members who had not formally converted, and struggled with lessening piety when councils of ministers became the main governing body instead of congregations. Many Congregationalists (Calvinists) began to question the theology of predestination (that God had predetermined who exactly would be saved in the Second Coming) and began to turn to Arminianism, which taught that people could be saved by having faith and doing good works, in line with humanist Enlightenment ideas.

     

    12. The Anglican minister who helped spread the Great Awakening throughout the English colonies was: D. George Whitefield

    Whitefield toured the colonies giving sermons and oratories, ignoring sectarian differences and proselytizing all denominations equally.

     

    13. The Great Awakening: B. provided many Americans with their first opportunity to engage in public debate and action.

    The Great Awakening inspired two groups—the Old Lights, who represented the old guard and the wealthy elite, and the New Lights, who represented revivalism and the poorer classes. The Old Lights supported the religious rationalism of the Enlightenment while the New Lights condemned it a heresy and lobbied for a return to Calvinism. The new supporters of the New Lights would engage in heavy debate against the entrenched Old Lights. Some credence should be given to answer D, however; religion provided an out for the poor, who saw religion as a way to sidestep pressing social problems and giving the rich a reprieve.

     

    14. The expansionism of colonies in British North America during the eighteenth century: A. created the potential for competition with the French and with the Indians.

    Frontier planters in the Middle Colonies and the Backcountry pushed to grab more land from the Indians, provoking them and attracting the ire of the expansionist French. This would set the stage for the French and Indian War, a precursor to the Revolution.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - From Empire to Independence

     

     

     

    The Seven Years’ War in America

    ·         The Albany Conference of 1754       

    o   British officials wanted the colonies to consider a collective response to the continuing conflict with New France and the Indians of the interior.

    o   The conference adopted Benjamin Franklin’s Plan of the Union, which proposed that Indian affairs, western settlement, and other items of mutual interest be placed under the authority of one general government for the colonies, consisting of a president-general appointed by British rule and a Grand Council, legislative body that makes laws and raises money. This plan was rejected.

    ·         Colonial Aims and Indian Interests

    o   There were three flash points of conflict in North America

    §  Northern Atlantic Coast

    ·         Fortress of Louisburg (France) reinforced subsequently; known as the Gibraltar of the New World.

    §  Border region between New France and New York (Niagara Falls to Lake Champlain)

    ·         Canadians and New Yorkers were competing for the Indian Trade; the French could not match the superior English goods so the attacked. The Iroquois Confederacy held the advantage.

    §  Ohio Country (the trans-Appalachian region along the Ohio River)

    ·         The Ohio River was important for France’s Mississippi trade empire and the expanding English population was fast approaching.

    o   The British made the port of Halifax in Nova Scotia to counter the French Louisburg.

    o   The Iroquois were hoping to play off one European power against the other, because if either of the European powers had an overwhelming victory their position would be greatly undermined.

    ·         Frontier Warfare

    o   Colonel George Washington lost to a French Force near the Monongahela River at Fort Necessity.

    o   The British then sent two Irish regiments led by General Edward Braddock to attack that area while the colonial militia attacked New York frontier.

    §   Both offensive strikes failed completely and Gen. Braddock was killed.

    o   After Braddock’s defeat Britain and France went into full-scale warfare.

    §  The war in Europe was called the Seven Years’ War and the war in NA. was called The French and Indian War.

    o   The lack of cooperation between the colonies was catastrophic, because it hindered Britain’s ability to mount a successful counterattack. When British commanders did try to take control they only angered the local commanders.

    o   The British got made at the Acadians, because they would not fight against France, and as a result kicked them out and sold their land for cheap prices to immigrants from New England. Many of the Acadians ended up in Louisiana under Spanish rule where they became known as Cajuns.

    ·         The Conquest of Canada

    o   In 1757 William Pitt became Prime Minister of Britain.

    o   Pitt used Prussia to fight the war in Europe so that he could focus British troops in NA. He told the colonists that the King’s money would now fund the war, which won him their support.

    o   He then amassed a North American force of over 50,000 men to fight against Canada, 20,000 were British troops.

    o   To get rid of the threat that the Indians posed they promised the m some land and specific boundaries after the war.

    o   Pitt’s plan was successful. In 1759 the British attacked Quebec and were successful although both side’s commander (Brits=James Wolfe, French=Marquis de Montcalm) died.

    o   Montreal fell the very next year and so ended the NA Empire of France.

    o   Britain then destroyed the French ships in NA, invaded Havana, and took Cuba as well as several other Spanish and French colonies in the Caribbean Sea.

    o   The Treaty of Paris gave Britain all of France’s land in NA east of the Mississippi except NO, and Spain gave them Florida. NO and the rest of the stuff Britain did not take from France went to Spain.

    ·         The Struggle of the West

    o   Indians were mad that France gave away their land and Britain was harsh and uncaring for the Indians whose lands they were taking.

    o   The Indian Chief Pontiac and his followers attacked the British. The British decided that biological warfare would be the best way to go and “graciously” gave small pox infected blankets to the Indians.

    o   Pontiac’s Rebellion as it came to be known ended in a stalemate.

    o   The Royal Proclamation of 1763 set aside an “Indian Country” where the Native Americans would live.

    o   The colonists were outraged by the fact that Britain would set aside land for the Indians and some like the Paxton Boys turned to violence against the Indians.

    o   Britain gave up and let the colonists move west.

    o   Britain asked the Indians for land in Indian Country and the Indians gave them lands that were either already being settled or lands that were away from their own settlements to avoid another conflict that in their weakened state they could handle.

    o   Despite the Indians best efforts the colonists grew impatient, greedy, and aggressive and started conflicts with the Indians for more land.

    The Imperial Crisis in British North America

    ·         The Emergence of American Nationalism

    o   The end of the Seven Years’ War left the colonists proud of their place I the British Empire.

    o   From 1735 to 1775 trade with Britain double and commerce in the colonies improved by a factor of 4.

    ·         The Press, Politics, and Republicanism

    o   A case against a New York printer in 1735, John peter Zenger, led to freedom of speech.

    o   Intercolonial coverage increased six-fold in the four decades before the revolution; Newspapers brought together the colonies.

    o   Newspapers printed papers of the radical Whigs of 18th century England. They warned of the threat to liberty posed by the unchecked exercise of power.

    §  These ideas came to define the view point called republicanism, a view point that had increasing popularity in the colonies.

    ·         The Sugar and Stamp Acts

    o   The cost of troops in NA led Britain to seek new revenue in the form of more and higher taxes.

    o   The sugar act was passed in 1764 and it lowered the duty from 6pence to 3 pence per gallon on foreign molasses and increased the restrictions on colonial commerce.

    o   Opponents of the taxes linked it them to larger issues of political rights.

    o   Some argued against them on the basis that the taxes were much lower in the motherland.

    ·         The Stamp Act Crisis

    o   The Stamp Act was passed in 1765 and it put a tax on stamped paper, publications, playing cards, etc.

    o   Colonist argued against taxation without representation, but the British argued that colonists had virtual representation (meaning that the members of parliament represented the colonies as well as their own districts). The colonists responded saying they wanted actual representation (meaning they would actually elect people for their representation).

    o   The Stamp Act led to numerous protests in the form of pamphlets, boycotts, etc.

    ·         Repeal of the Stamp Act

    o   To put pressure on Britain the colonist began a Nonimportation movement where they would stop buying goods from Britain.

    o   This pressure led to Britain’s repealing of the Stamp Act.

    o   The Declaratory Act was coupled with the repealing of the Stamp Act and it gave Parliament the authority to legislate for the colonies.

    o   This act made it clear to the colonists that the conflict had not been resolved, but only postponed.

    “Save Your Money and Save Your Country”

    ·         The Townsend Revenue Acts

    o   Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer, took Pitt’s place as Prime Minister when Pitt became sick and retired.

    o   England faced problems such as unemployment, price riots, and tax protests. Townshend passed the Revenue Acts, putting taxes on tea, lead, paint, paper, and gas in the colonies to bring in revenue without further angering citizens in the motherland.

    o   A lawyer in Pennsylvania, John Dickenson, posed as a farmer in his articles about the taxes, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania.

    o   The colonists’ fears of oppression were strengthened when Townshend began to enforce the new Revenue Acts strictly.

    o   Despite colonial outrage at this time to sentiment for independence existed.

    ·         Nonimportation: An Early Political Boycott

    o   New York and Boston merchants launch nonimportation and nonconsumption movements in response to the Revenue Acts.

    o   In 1768 and 1769 newspapers put a great deal of focus on women’s support of the boycott.

    o   The nonimportation movement was strengthened when the Virginia House of burgesses enacted the first provincial legislation banning the importation of goods enumerated in the Townshend Acts

    o   Response to the revenue Acts was intense and overwhelming.

    ·         The Massachusetts Circular Letter

    o   Massachusetts was at the center of the agitation over the Townshend Revenue Acts; The MA House of Representatives approved a letter drawn up By Samuel Adams, second cousin of John Adams. The letter served as a call to action for the colonies to Harmonize with each other.

    o   Some of the other colonies (NJ, NH, and CT) commended Massachusetts and Virginia even issued their own Circular Letter.

    o   John Hancock, who was the wealthiest merchant in the colonies and spoke against the British measures, was targeted by customs officials for not paying duties. The customs officials that seized Hancock were attacked by colonists.

    o   As a response to assaults such as this the British occupied Boston with infantry and artillery regiments on Oct. 1, 1768. 

    ·         The Politics of the Revolt and the Boston Massacre

    o   The Sons of Liberty were a group of radicals that would erect “liberty poles” and had many conflicts with soldiers.

    o   After the NY assembly bowed to Townshend and voted to support the soldiers the Sons of Liberty erected a large Liberty Pole. The soldiers chopped the pole down, cut it into pieces and left in front of a tavern frequented by members of the Sons. This led to a large riot in which several men were wounded.

    o   Confrontations also happened in Boston; an 11 year old boy was killed by a customs officer that fired on a group of rock-throwers. That heightened tensions.

    o   The Boston Massacre: On March 5, 1770 a crowd of people started calling a soldier names in front of the Customs House and so a captain and seven soldiers came to his rescue, but were pelted with snow balls and rocks. In response the soldiers began to fire without orders. Five of the crowd fell dead, and six were injured, two of which died later.

    o   On the same day as the Boston Massacre many of the Townshend Revenue Acts were repealed. As a show of Parliament’s supremacy the tax on tea was not removed.

    From Resistance to Rebellion

    ·         Intercolonial Cooperation

    o   The colonies began forming committee’s to share information and work together with the other colonies.

    o   In 1773, a set of letters sent by Hutchinson set off a conspiracy theory that created a torrent of anger from the colonies.

    ·         The Boston Tea Party

    o   The colonists were a major consumer of tea, but when Britain passed the Tea Act, the colonists stopped buying the tea and the East India Company fell to the brink of bankruptcy.

    o   Tea importers were thought of as enemies of the country in the colonies.

    o   When a tea ship arrived in late November Governor Hutchinson refused to let it leave the harbor. On December 16, 1773 thousands crowded in a church to see the captain report to Sam Adams. Adams signaled a group of 50-60 men, dressed as Indians, to board the ship and dump 45 tons, worth £10000, into the harbor.

    o   As word spread of what had happened in Boston other colonies followed their example and had their own “Tea party.”

    ·         The Intolerable Acts

    o   In response to the BTP parliament passed the Coercive Acts, known to Americans as the Intolerable Acts.

    o   The Coercive Acts consisted of:

    §  Boston Port Act- stopped ships from unloading in Boston Harbor until the town compensated the East India Company.

    §  Massachusetts Government Act- delegates of the upper house would be chosen by the King.

    §  Administration of Justice Act- protected British officials from colonial courts.

    §  Quartering Act of 1774- people had to house British shoulders.

    o   The Quebec Act was passed in 1774 and it appointed a government for Canada, enlarged the boundaries of Quebec, and confirmed the privileges of the Catholic Church.

    o   In response to the Intolerable Acts, the colonists created the Committees of Correspondence to keep Americans informed about British measures that affected the colonists.

    o   The replacement of Boston officials with men chosen by the king was a “Hostile Invasion” in the eyes of the colonists.

    ·         The First Continental Congress         

    o   Delegates from most of the colonies met in 1774 to respond to the Coercive Acts

    o   The Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, and agreed to establish the Continental Association.

    o   All of the delegates agreed that the Intolerable Acts were unconstitutional.

    o   They sought to impose a set of sanctions against the British.

    o   They urged the creation of Committees of Observation and Safety.

    ·         Lexington and Concord

    o   On September 1, 1774, General Gage sent soldiers to seize stores of the Massachusetts Militia’s ammunition.

    o   The Massachusetts committee of safety created special units called minutemen that were ready at a moment’s notice.

    o   Pitt tried to convince parliament not to attack again, but he was overruled.

    o   On April 18, 1775 General Gage attacked the ammunition stores in Concord.

    o   The colonists brought reinforcements to Lexington and vastly outnumbered the British.

    Deciding For Independence

    ·         The Second Continental Congress

    o   Opened on May 10, 1775

    o   May15: Congress put the colonies into a state of defense.

    o   June 15: George Washington was nominated to be commander-in-chief.

    ·         Canada, the Spanish Borderlands, and the Revolution

    o   The colonies sent soldiers to Canada to eliminate the possibility of an invasion from that quarter, but this also killed the chance of the Canadians joining them in an anti-British effort.

    o   The British Navy prevented the colonists from talking with assemblies in the Caribean.

    o   Many Spanish Floridans in Cuba supported American independence.

    o   In 1775, Spain adopted Havana’s recommendations and declared a policy of neutrality in the coming war.

    o   However the Spanish secretly sought to support the Americans.

    o   The ability to do this came when Americans went to Spanish New Orleans and requested that they sell weapons to the patriots.

    o   Havana and NO became important American supply centers.

    ·         Fighting in the North and South

    o   The Americans were forced back from Canada.

    o   The British were forced out of Boston and were pushed to Halifax.

    o   The Americans turned back the British assault in Charleston.

    ·         No Turning Back

    o   2nd Cont. Congress formed the American Navy and declared British ships oped to capture.

    o   The French joined Spain in supporting America.

    o   Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, reshaped American thinking and was one of the most important pieces of writings from this era.

    o   The Declaration of Independence announced and justified the breaking of the colonies’ allegiance to Britain.

    ·         The Declaration of Independence

    o   Written by TJ with some changes by other members of the 2nd Cont. Congress

    o   Approved on July 4, 1776 with to dissent.

     
    AP Questions
     

    1. B

    A was the 2nd cont. congress. C was the 2nd cont. congress to. D: That came later. E never happened.

    2. E

    The war in Europe led to conflicts between colonies in NA held by the countries involved in the war.

    3. D

    Basically, because of European competition, both France and England wanted to extend their "world empires" into the Ohio River Valley. And each recruited Indian tribes (the original inhabitants) to fight on their side.  Although struggles for supremacy had been going on for many decades between France and England in the New World, hostilities intensified in the early 1750's as both English and French settlers had attempted to colonize land in the Ohio River Valley, near present day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The English settlers, who had moved northwest from Virginia, and French settlers, who had moved east from the Great Lakes, or south from Canada, each thought they owned the rights to the land.

    4. C

    The Treaty of Paris gave Britain all of France’s land in NA east of the Mississippi except N.O., and Spain gave them Florida. N.O. and the rest of the stuff Britain did not take from France went to Spain.

    5. E

    The Royal Proclamation of 1763 set aside an “Indian Country” where the Native Americans would live.

    6. C (I Think)

    Not A, because we still treated the natives terribly and had slaves. Not D, that’s a command economy. Not E, because that’s what Britain had, a monarchy. Maybe B.

    7. C

    Colonist argued against taxation without representation, but the British argued that colonists had virtual representation (meaning that the members of parliament represented the colonies as well as their own districts). The colonists responded saying they wanted actual representation (meaning they would actually elect people for their representation).

    8. A

    B and E came later. D was rare and when it happened it was not really planned. C: yes, but the boycotts were more effective.

    9. E.

    It was fear and tension combined with terrible misfortune. It really wasn’t anybody’s fault so that eliminates most of the wrong answers. This wasn’t the thing the colonists most upset.

    10. C

    Textbook

    11. A

    B did not happen. C is wrong. D: Britain had many casualties. E: the militia responded quickly to the attacks.

    12. E

    A+D: 1776 B+C: Wrong

    13. E

    Several of them were influential, but none as much as Common Sense.

    14. A

    B: they had plenty in common with the British. C: Extreme exaggeration. D+E: The White Man was still considered above women and blacks.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The American Revolution

     

    ·         The War For Independence

    o   Introduction

    §  At the start of the war Britain had the best-equipped and most disciplined army, along with a navy that was unopposed in American waters

    §  Due to the native officer corps and considerable experience in colonial wars, the Patriot forces proved formidable

    §  Initially the British thought they could regain political control by having one military victory

    §  This strategy did not work due to the geography on eastern North America

    §  Patriots had the advantage of fighting on their own land and the popular support for the American cause

    o   The Patriot Forces

    §  Forces include:

    ·         350,000 eligible men

    ·         Over 200,000 saw action

    ·         No more than 25,000 were engaged at one time

    ·         Over 100,000 served in the Continental Army under George Washington and the Continental Congress

    ·         The rest served in Patriot militia groups

    §  Militias played a vital role in defending their own areas, but they alone did not win the Revolutionary War

    ·         This was due to lack of discipline, short terms of enlistment, and appalling rates of desertion

    ·         The victory of the war resulted from the constant struggle of the Continental Army

    §   Washington and his officers wanted a force that could directly engage the British, but Congress initially refused to invoke a draft or mandate army enlistments lasting over one year

    ·         This was due to the fear of a standing army

    §  After the militias failed in early battles of the war congress enlarged state quotas for the Continental Army and extended the enlistment term to three years

    §  To spur enlistments Congress offered bounties, regular wages, and promises of free land after victory

    §  Discipline was important in the Continental Army because men fired at close range, charged with bayonets ready, and engaged in hand-to-hand combat

    §  At the end of the war 25,324 American men died

    ·         About 6,800 from wounds suffered in battle

    ·         About 8,000 from disease

    ·         The rest as POWs and MIA

    §  The Continental Army and militias played a major political role by creating a powerful nationalist sentiment

    §  Food and pay shortages resulted in multiple mutinies

    §  Patriot gained control of most local governments during the period of committee organization in 1774 and 1775

    §  As men left for war, women took up the management of family farms and businesses

    §  Women also followed both armies; some were prostitutes, wives, cooks, launderers, and nurses

    §  Women also dressed up as men and enlisted in militias or the Continental Army

    o   The Loyalists

    §  Some half a million to a million Americans, called Loyalist or Tories, remained loyal to the British crown

    §  Loyalists were often newcomers to America, royal officeholders, people dependant on the British for a salary, or members of a minority

    §  Patriots passed state treason acts that prohibited speaking out against the Revolution

    §  Patriots punished Tories by using the “grand Tory ride” or by tarring and feathering

    §  Benedict Arnold was a hero of early American battles, but in 1779 he became a paid informer to British General Henry Clinton

    ·         In 1780 the Patriots found him out and he fled to the British and helped them

    §  The British strategy was to mobilize Loyalists and many Loyalists did

    ·         About 50,000 Loyalist fought for Britain during the war

    §  During and after the war many Loyalist fled to England, the British West Indies, or Canada

    o   The Campaign for New York and New Jersey

    §  In the winter of 1775-76 the British developed the strategy of having Sir William Howe work his way up from New York and have another army head south from Canada

    §  Washington anticipated this strategy and set up fortifications in Brooklyn

    §  In July of 1776 The Battle of Long Island ended in disaster for the Patriots giving the British New York City

    §  On September 6, 1776 Ben Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge engaged in peace talks with General Howe and Admiral Richard Howe

    ·         These talks ended when Admiral Howe asked for the repeal of the Declaration of Independence

    §  The British invaded Manhattan and only an American stand at Harlem Heights prevented the destruction of a large part of the Patriot forces

    §  The British then had some victories that pushed Washington back at White Plains and overran the American posts at Fort Washington and Fort Lee

    §  By November the Americans were fleeing south across New Jersey

    §  With morale low and many people deserting or announcing the end of their terms Washington and his officers feared the dissolution of the Continental Army and the war effort

    §  On Christmas night 1776, Washington lead 2,400 troops back across the Delaware in a surprise counterattack defeating the Hessian forces at Trenton, New Jersey

    §  The Americans also pushed the British back and inflicted heavy loses at Princeton

    §  The victories had little strategic importance, but they allowed Washington to realize he needed to stick with a defensive strategy and avoid direct confrontation with the British

    o   The Northern Campaigns of 1777

    §  Fighting with American forces had stopped Howe from heading north and the British forces from Canada were stopped by American resistance at Lake Champlain

    §  In 1777 the British retried the strategy sending 8,000 British and German troops under General John Burgoyne from Canada and Howe was to move his troops north

    §  Fort Ticonderoga fell to Burgoyne on July 6, but he was bogged down by Patriot militia in the rough country south of Lake George

    §  After several defeats by Patriot forces under General Horatio Gates, Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga

    §  At Saratoga Burgoyne and his forces were surrounded by Patriot forces and on October 19, he surrendered his nearly 6,000 men

    §  The British General Howe had many victories like:

    ·         September 11 at Brandywine Creek

    ·         September 21 at Paoli

    ·         September 26 at Philadelphia

    ·         October 4 at Germantown

    §  The Continental Congress fled to the town of York while the British occupied Philadelphia

    §  Washington and his forces settled in at Valley Forge for the winter after the various victories

    §  Though the British won many victories during the two years of war their strategy for suppressing the Revolution was judged a failure

    o   The French Alliance and the Spanish Borderlands

    §  During the first two years of fighting Americans were sustained by loans from France and Spain

    §  Ben Franklin was sent by Congress to Paris as a delegate for America and he was successful in negotiating recognition of American independence,  a Franco-American alliance, and multiple loans

    §  In England Whig opposition argued against the war

    §  France signed a the Treaty of Alliance with the US

    §  The treaty states:

    · France is to aid America in war

    · Neither party shall enter into a treaty with Britain without consent of the other

    · France guarantees the US all of the northern parts of America and other “conquests” gained by the war

    · The US promised to recognize French acquisition of British islands in the West Indies

    §  In March 1777 the French ambassador formally notifies Britain of the treaty

    §  Fighting between France and Britain broke out in June

    §  A year later Spain entered the war

    §  The Spanish had their own independent fight against the British fearing the threat Americans posed to New Spain

    §  The French like the Spanish feared an independent American nation and the French ambassador arrived with orders to prevent American expansion

    §  Worried of the consequences of French involvement Lord North sent a peace commissioner wish promises to repeal the legislation that caused the war, but the attempt was 3 years too late

    §  Britain rethought its strategy, sent 5,000 troops to the Caribbean, and evacuated Philadelphia in June 1778

    §  The American-French forces pushed the British all the way back to New York, but after a defeat at Newport, Rhode Island, Washington decided on a defensive strategy and the war in the northeast went into a stall

    o   Indian People and the Revolution in the West

    §  At the start of the war both sides had managed to solicit Indian support, but many tribes did not want to become involved in the conflict

    §   The British managed to persuade the Indians the best and most Indians that did fight in the war fought on the side of Great Britain

    §  The Indians along with the British attacked in the southern and northern fronts, and then the Americans counterattacked the Iroquois homelands

    §  Many frontier towns were destroyed by constant attacks by Indians

    o   The War in the South

    §  The most intense fighting of the war occurred in the South

    §  This was due to a massive number of loyalists and the number of slaves who left to join the British side to gain freedom

    §  The British strategy was to take town by town and then turn it over to Loyalist control

    §  The British endured a lose at Charleston, but then quickly regained victory against General Horatio’s force and eventually the resistance in the south faded

    §  When Cornwallis decided to move his base to Yorktown instead of the Carolinas the Patriots were able to regain control of the Lower South

    o   Yorktown

    §  The American forces under Washington and the French forces under General Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau defeat the British

    §  On October 19, 1781, between lines of victorious American and Frnech troops Cornwallis’s second-in-command (because he was “ill”) surrendered to George Washington

    ·         The United States in Congress Assembled

    o   Introduction

    §  The Articles of Confederation was the first written government of the US

    §  It created a weak government with almost no power

    o   The Articles of Confederation

    §  In the November of 1777, the Continental Congress formally adopted the Articles of Confederation

    §  The Articles set up a national assembly called Congress in which each state had one vote and one representative who was chosen in a manner determined by the state legislatures and that representative could serve no more than three years out of six

    §  A presiding president was picked by Congress every year and could only serve one year out of three

    §  All issues would be decided by a simple majority, except for major issues which required 9 votes

    §  Congress had authority in:

    ·         The conduct of foreign affairs

    ·         Matters of war and peace

    ·         Maintenance of the armed forces

    §  Congress could:

    ·         Raise loans

    ·         Issue bills of credit

    ·         Establish coinage

    ·         Regulate trade with Indian nations

    ·         Be the final authority in jurisdictional debates between states

    ·         Establish a national postal system

    ·         Establish a weights and measures system

    §  12 state legislatures voted for the Articles, but ratification was held up for 3 years by Maryland

    ·         Maryland demanded that 8 states with western claims cede the land to Congress “for the good of the whole”

    ·         The States refused to do that

    ·         In 1781 when Virginia, who had the most westward claims, promised to cede its land Maryland ratified the Articles

    §  The Articles took effect in March of 1781

    o   Financing the War

    §  Congress borrows $9 million from allies

    §  Prints $200 million in paper money

    §  Asks the states to raise taxes to cover the debt

    §  The states refuse to raise taxes and print altogether $200 million of state currency

    §  Robert Morris becomes secretary of finance in May 1781 and persuades Congress to create a “Bank of North America” funded $30 million by Holland and France to deal with the crisis

    o   Negotiating Independence

    §  Peace talks between Britain and the US open in July 1782 when Ben Franklin sat down with the British emissary in Paris

    §  Congress issued its first war aims in 1779 asking for:

    ·         The largest territorial limits, including Canada

    ·         Withdrawal of British troops

    ·         Recognition of American independence

    ·         American rights to fish in North Atlantic waters

    §  In June 1781 due to French pressure Congress issued a new set of instructions: to settle for only the removal of British troops and the recognition of independence and for the peace commissioners to be subject to the guidance and control of the French during negotiations

    §  Britain and the US negotiate a preliminary treaty in Paris behind France’s back to ensure that the US gets better negotiation terms

    §  France signed a treaty with Britain when it hear of the agreement fearing an American-British alliance

    §  Spain claimed sovereignty over much of the trans-Appalachian territory granted to the US and made a separate treaty with Britain to regain Florida

    §  The actual Treaty of Paris—many separate treaties between the US, France, Spain, and Britain—was signed at Versailles on September 3, 1783

    o   The Crisis of Demobilization

    §  During the two years between surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris there was still wartime tensions and many soldiers had long awaited pay and were worried about postwar bounties and land warrents promised to them by Congress

    §  In January 1783 some prominent senior officers, associated with General Horatio Gates, petition Congress to get a bonus equal to 5 years pay and plan a military coup

    §  Washington calls a meeting of his officers, gives an emotional speech talking them out of a military coup, and urges Congress to pay the bonuses

    §  In May 1783, Congress pays the bonuses equal to 3 months pay, the Continental Army disbands, and by the start of 1784 the Army was no more than a few hundred men

    o   The Problem of the West

    §  After Yorktown, the British left the West for the new United States, abandoning their Indian alllies. The Iroquois and the Ohio tribes, who had fought with the British, did not consider themselves defeated, but the US thought that their victory extended over the natives as well. The US began to press these tribes for land, including tribes that had fought with the Patriots, such as the allied Oneida.

     § Thousands of settlers migrated even during the war, and afterwards thousands more poured over the Appalachian mountains and down the Ohio River. They clashed with Indan tribes in the country north of the Ohio River, and British troops still stationed in the Northwest encouraged Indian attacks on the settlements. Spain, who refused to accept the territory settlements of the Treaty of Paris, closed the Mississippi to Americans, enraging traders.

     § John Jay, appointed secretary for foreign affairs by the Confederation Congress of 1784, tried to negotiate with the British to withdraw from the Northwest and with the Spanish for guarantees of territorial sovereignty and commercial relations. The British said they could not until outstanding debt from before the war was settled and the Spanish insisted the US give up free navigation of the Mississippi. Congress would agree to neither. Many Westerners considered leaving the Confederation, some advocating joining the British, and others such as George Rogers Clark and General James Williamson worked for the Spanish as spies and informants. In the west, local interests took precendence over national community sentiment.

    § In 1784, Congress drafted legislation (primarily written by Jefferson) to provide for the "Government of the Western Territory" that would allow the territories to draft their own constitution and government once its population reached 20,000 and become a state once its population reached the smallest of the original thirteen, provided it forever remain a part of the Confederation. Congress accepted these proposals, but rejected by a vote of seven to six a clause prohibiting slavery in the West.

    § The Land Ordinance of 1785 provided for the survey and sale of western lands, dividing the land into townships of 36 sq. miles (640 acres) each. Jefferson argued that the land should be given to settlers, but the land was instead to be auctioned for no less than one dollar per acre. The treaties of Fort Stanwix in 1784 and Fort McIntosh in 1785 forced the Iroquois and Ohio Indians to cede some of their land by seizing hostages and forcing the tribes to comply. Congress, desperate for cash, sold 1.5 million acres for 1 million dollars to the Ohio Company before the lands went up for sale tp the public.

    § Thousands of Westerners did not wait for the official opening of the land north of the Ohio River and instead illegally settled. Congress forced them off the land in 1785 after raising troops and evicting them, but the squatters returned after the troops left, leading Congress to revise Jefferson's territorial plan.

    § In the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Congress created a governemnt for the Northwest Territory. Three to five states were to be carved from the territory. Slavery was prohibited. However, self-governance was replaced by the rule of congressionally appointed court of judges and a governor until the population had grown to 5,000 free white males, who could then petition for an assembly, though the governor would retain absolute veto power. This territory included the future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Congress chose Arthur St. Clair, president of the Ohio Company, to be the Territory's first governor.

    ·         Revolutionary Politics in the States

    o   The Broadened Base of Politics

    §  The political mobilization of 1774 and 1775 greatly broadened public participation. A greater proportion of the population began to participate in elections, and the new state legislatures contained more men from rural and western districts compared to colonial assemblies. In Massachusetts, for example, many delegates were men from farming communities who lacked formal education and owned little property.

    §  The political debate, which once revolved around the Tories (pro-monarchy) and the Whigs (pro-republic), changed to radical democrats challenging Whig positions, the Tories having lost legitimacy following the Revolution.

    §  The 1776 pamphlet The People are the Best Governors argued that power should be vested in a single elected assembly with no property qualifications for voting or holding office, with the governor serving only to carry out the wishes of the people and the judges popularly elected and reviewed by the assembly. The ideal government was one where people set their own taxes, mustered the local militia, operated their own schools and churches, and regulated the local economy in community or town meetings. National government was necessary only for coordination.

    §  Conservatives took on the Whig argument to separate government from popular control by a strong executive and upper house. Political positions would be insulated by instituting property qualifications for office to prevent majority tyranny.

    o   The First State Constitutions

    §  Fourteen states—the original thirteen and Vermont—adopted constitutions between 1776 and 1780, each shaped by the debate between radicals and conservatives. Pennsylvania, Maryland, and New York represented the political range.

    §  In Pennsylvania, the majority of conservatives had been Loyalists, so the resulting government was very democratic. There was a unicameral assembly elected annually by all free male taxpayers, open to the public with roll-call votes, and with an elected executive committee instead of a governor. Judges served at the pleasure of the assembly.

    §  Maryland’s constitution was written by conservatives, who placed property requirements on office that left only 10 percent of the men eligible to serve in the assembly and 7 percent in the senate. Governors controlled a strongly centralized government. They and judges served for life. Georgia, Vermont, and North Carolina followed Pennsylvania’s example, while South Carolina was much like Maryland.

    §  New York’s constitutional convention included many democrats, but conservatives such as John jay, Gouverneur Morris, and Robert R. Livingston produced a document that reflected Whig principles while appealing to the people, creating a bicameral legislature with stiff property requirements for the upper house, which was apportioned by wealth instead of population. This reflected a document that had as much conservative ideals in it as possible. New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also mixed democratic and conservative elements.

    o   Declarations of Rights

    §  The Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason, ensured certain “inherent rights, …namely the enjoyment of life and liberty” and that sovereignty resided with the people, that government was the servant of the people, and that the people had the right to reform, alter, or abolish their government. It also ensured civil liberties such as trial by jury, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion.

     §  Other state constitutions included similar declarations, some incorporating specific  guarantees. These declarations would form the precedent for the Bill of Rights in the Constitution.

    o   A Spirit of Reform

    §  The 1776 Constitution of New Jersey inadvertently granted women the right to vote, leading to male protests that limited the vote to “free while male citizens.”

    §  The Revolution did not change women’s role in society from a legal and political perspective, but it did change expectations.

    §  Thomas Jefferson, who joined the Virginia House of Delegates after drafting the Declaration of Independence, introduced a bill abolishing the law of entails (inheritance law) and introducing theBill for Establishing Religious Freedom.

    §  Many states maintained a close tie between church and state, supporting certain congregations and retaining religious tests in their legal codes.

    §  Thomas Jefferson introduced further reforms, none of which passed. Jefferson and the Revolutionary generation raised questions rather than accomplished reform, leaving penal reform, education, and slavery as problems for later generations to solve.

    o   A Spirit of Reform

    §  African Americans had little to celebrate in an American victory which perpetuated slavery. Many fled to the West Indies, Canada, and Africa with the Loyalists and British following the end of the war. In Virginia alone, 30,000 slaves fled.

    §  The Revolution raised a contradiction of waging a war for liberty while slavery continued. Revolutionary ideals and the shift away from tobacco led to a weakening of slavery, with many freeing their slaves or providing for gradual emancipation. All states except for Georgia and South Carolina prohibited or heavily taxed international slave trading between 1776 and 1786.

    §  The free black population grew following the Revolution. Though excluded from white society, the African American community now had enough strength to establish its own schools, churches, and other institutions, though this was opposed by white Americans.

    §  By 1804, every Northern state provided for the abolition or gradual emancipation of slaves, though 30,000 African Americans remained enslaved by 1810.

    §  A small group of African American writers rose to prominence during the Revolution, such as Benjamin Banneker (astronomer and mathematician), Jupiter Hammon (poet and essayist), and most famously Phyllis Wheatley, celebrated poet.

    AP Questions

     

    1. E

    2. B

    3. E

    4. E

    5. A

    6. C

    7. D

    8. B

    9. A

    10. C

    11. E

    12. B

    13. A

    14. D

    15. C
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - The New Nation

     

    The Crisis of the 1780s
    Economic Crisis
    Origins in the Revolution:
    •   shortage of goods resulting from the British Blockade
    •   demand for supplies by the army and the militias
    •   flood of paper currency resulting in inflation
    U.S. dollar compared to the Spanish dollar
    Most of the money ended up in the hands of merchants
    U.S. continued to be a supplier of raw materials and an importer of manufactured products especially from Great Britain
    British merchants began a major trade with Americans
    •     Resulting in
    •     exportable goods reduced by fighting
    •     trade deficit rose
           Left the country with little sliver coin (currency) in circulation
    •              Banks insisted on repayment of old loans
    1784- country in deep economic depression
    Country was already in debt before depression
    •      Creditors owed more than 50 million
    •      Congress was not allowed to raise taxes
    •      State taxed residents
    State Remedies
    radicals called for regulation of the economy
    farmers and debtors pressed for legal tender laws  
    •    would impose a paper currency at face value
    •    seven states enacted such laws
    •    the programs worked pretty well without problems originally feared by creditors
    Rhode Island
     "To relieve the distressed"
    1786 enacted redical currency law
       the law declared the paper currency legal tender to all debts
     If creditors refused to accept a debt then the currency that would be used to pay the debt can be given to a judg who can then declare the debt paid
    State elected high tariff barriers to curb imports and protect domestic industries
     
    Movement toward a New National Governement
    Annapolis Convention
     1786 Virginian legislature invited all states to appoint delegates to a convention
    •    Twelve delegates from five states attended
    Passed a resolution requesting Confederation Congress call on all states to send delegates to a national convention that they might "render the constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigencies of the union"
    Congress endorsed a Philadelphia convention to be held in May 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation
    Conservatives wanted to strengthen national government
     
    THE NEW CONSTITUTION
    May 1787
    55 men from 12 states (Rhode Island didn't attend) met at Pennsylvania state house in Philadelphia
    Several prominent men were missing (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams)
    There were land speculators and merchants also present
    No minorities or women were present
    The Constitution was basically framed by white men who represented America's social and economic elite (Patriots and Republicans)
    The Constitutional Convention
    Washington chaired the meeting
    Meeting were kept secret to ensure debate
    James Madison  took notes which served as the transcript of the meeting
    •    Virginia Plan proposal called for national legislature in which the states would be represented according to population
    •     Was presented at the convention and set the agenda
    •     proposed scrapping of the Confederation in favor of a "Consolidated government" with the power of tax and enforcing of laws
    •     Would reduce states to nothing more than counties
    •     Representation in the bicameral national legislature would be based on population
    •     House of Representatives would be elected by popular vote and senators would be chosen by state legislators
    •     The Senate would lead, control foreign affairs and appoint officials
    •     With that, an executive (president) and national judiciary would form a Council Revision with the power to veto state and federally
    •     Main opposition to the Virginia Plan came from delegates of small states
           lead to New Jersey Plan
               proposed increase in the powers of the central government, but  retained a single-house Congress in which the states were equally represented
     The New Jersey Plan caused a split in delegate votes which lead to the Great Compromise which proposed representation proportional to population in the House and equal representation in the Senate
    Allowed the creation of a strong government
    Part of this agreement  was a second fundamental compromise that brought together the North and South
    North (commerce clause) if the South agreed with the clause they agreed to count  five slaves as the equivalent of three freemen (three-fifths rule)
    Early September the rough draft of the constitution was turned over to a committee of style
    September 17, 1787 the document was approved
     
     
    Ratifying the New Constitution
    Supporters of the new constitution were known as Federalists (nationalists)
    Anti-Federalists argued against their opponets that the Articles of Confederation already provided for a federal government of balanced power between the states and the Union and that the Constitution would replace it with a national government
      Believed that the constitution granted too much power to the central government which weakened the autonomy of communities and states
     Many argued a republican  government could only work for small countries
    Rhode Island argued that the basic rights of property would not be protected
    Pennsylvania
    First state to convene a ratification convention on November 1787
    Convention in favor of the Constitution
    •   supported by artisans and commercial farmers
    •        linked the constitution to growth of a commerical society
    Massachusetts 1788 (most important of the conventions)
    Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, George and Connecticut voted to ratify the constitution
    Oppenents of the ratification included supporters of Shays' Rebellion (small majority)
    Anti-Federalists (John Hancock and Samuel Adams)
    On February 16 the convention voted in favor of the ratification
    Rhode Island rejected the constitution in March but several other states joined the Union with the promise of a Bill of Rights included in the ratification
     
    The Bill of Rights 
     Considered by the Constitutional Convention then rejected originally
    Anti-Federalists proposed over 200 potential amendments with the sole purpose of protectingg the rights of the people against the power of the central government
    1789 James Madison transformed these proposed amendments into a series of proposals
    Congress passed twelve of the amendments and sent them to the states
    Only ten of them became the Bill of Rights in 1791
     
     
    THE FIRST ADMINISTRATION
    First federal elections for Congress and presidency
    George Washington became the first president of the U.S on April 30,1789  He was then re-elected without opposition in 1792 and served until 1797
    His nature was reserved and solemn yet he chose to ride around in a lavish carriage
    He wanted to adhere to the constitution
    Appointed Thomas Jefferson (secretary of state) Alexander Hamilton(Treasury), Henery Knox (War Department) and Edmund Randolph(Attorney General)
    He consulted with his cabinet regularly
     
    An Active federal Judiciary
    Most important piece of legislation- Judiciary Act of 1789 which established the Supreme Court and other federal courts
    Congress established a high court of six justices and established three circuit and thirteen district courts
    Localists successfully fought to retain the varies bodies of law in the states
    The act gave federal courts limited jurisdiction
    Judicial Review actually gave federal courts the right to review and determine whether or not acts passed by Congress or state legislature was contitutional
     
    Hamilton's Controversial Fiscal Program
    Fiscal and economic affairs pressed upon the new government
    The government took power in a virtually bankrupted period
    Tarriff of 1789 was suppose to increase revenue and not protect American manufacturers from foreign competition
    Hamilton planned to address Revoluntionary war debt
    Proposed to charter a national bank (Bank of the United States)
      bank would be a public corporation funded by the Treasury
    Congress approve and the bank was established in 1791
    Proposed increased tarriff protection
    His plan would restore the financial health of the U.S
     
    The Beginnings of Foreign Policy
    Federalist political coalition strained by indifference over fiscal policy (Southern agrarians and Northern capitalists)
    French Revolution of 1789
      Reign of Terror 1793 (hundreds of aristocrats were executed)
    The execution of King Louis XVI  and war between Britain and France divided American opinion
    The issue of whether or not America would have to aid France in war with Britain due to the Franco-American alliance of 1778
     Caused Washington and cabinet members to agree upon neutrality (neutrality =windfall profit)
     Highly unlikely France would need aid from America during the war
       Nationalists believed in a necessity of accommodation with Great Britain
       Democrats wanted more international independence
     
    The United States and the Indian People
    Americans tried to treat West Indian tribes as conquered people after the Revolutionary war
    The Constitution did not include an Indian policy
    1790 Congress passed the Intercourse Act
        through this act trade and intercourse could be regulated with the Indians
        declared public treaties between Indians and the U.S the only legal means at which their land could be obtained
    The government wanted Indian land in the West
    They were unsuccessful in controlling settlers around the Ohio river
    Americans usually ended up fighting Indians for their land (Shawnees and Delawares)
      Little turtle (Indian War chief of the Miamis)
       badly mauled federal forces killing and wounding several
     
    Spanish Florida and British Canada
    The position of the United States in the West was complicated even more by the hostility of Spain and Britain who controlled adjoining territories
    Spain introduced liberal reforms to revitalize the rule-bound economy of its American empire (causing the economy of New Spain to grow)
    Spain acquired the French claim to Louisiana by the end of the Seven Years' War (territory also included California, the Gulf Coast and Florida)
    Spain held an anti-American policy making it impossible for trade to take place through the port of New Orleans
     
    Domestic and International Crisis
    The situations with Spain, the Indians and the British involvment in the fur trade caused protest
    Spain gave bribes to settlers who quit the Union and moved to Canada or Florida
    The British confiscated American cargo from ships (causing ruin for merchants)
    Rebellion in the summer of 1794
      Farmers protested taxes put on whiskey (Whiskey Rebellion)
      Washington established a federal army of 13000 men and ordered the occupation of Pennsylvania
      The Treaty of Greenville was a result of the American defeat of the Indian Confederacy
          Twelve Indian nations ceded a large portion of territory to the United States
     
    Jay's and Pinckney's Treaties
    American occupation of the West encouraged Britain to compromise with the United States so that they could concentrate on defeating the French
    Chief Justice John Jay met in London to arrange a settlement
    Jay signed an agreement that forced the British to withdraw from American  territory
    the treaty also limited American trade with the British
    The treaty eventually made it to the public which stirred heated debate
    The treaty was a symbol of American neutrality during war
    The Jeffersonians were enraged over the treaty
    Hamilton eventually ratified the agreement
     
    Washington's Farwell Address
     Last months of Washington's term
    Washington gave a farewell address to the nation
     
    FEDERALISTS AND JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS
    The Rise of Political Parties
     The election of 1796 established two primary political factions
     Federalists (Federalism belief is a shared government)
     Republicans (belief in limited government)
    The two political factions had an important role in the presidental elections of 1796
    Partisan organization was strongest in the Middle states while political forces were weak in New England and the South
    There was no party discipline (the new administration was divided)
     
    The Adams Presidency
    Adams attempted to follow the examples of Washington
    Retained most of Washington's appointees
    benefited from the tensions between France and the United States
       French suspended relations with the U.S. after the Jay treaty
       Adams sent an American delegation to France
       The french demanded bribery before any negotiations could take place
        The XYZ Affair confirmed the incident and outraged Americans
     Adam's and the Federalists prepared the country for War
    Fear of a French invasion soon declined after the British naval victory in 1798
    Quasi-War(undeclared naval war) between United States and France continued
     
    The Alien and Sedition Acts
    Congress passed acts that severely limited freedom of speech and press and threatened foreign liberty in the U.S.
    Naturalization Act extended period of residence required for U.S. citizenship
    Alien Act and Alien Enemies Act authorized the imprisonment or deportation of suspected aliens during wartime
     
    Sedition Act  provided heavy fines and imprisonment for anyone speaking or writing against the government
    Federalists used these acts to defeat the Republicans
    Republicans opposed acts
     
    The Revolution of 1800
    Alien and Sedition Acts overthrown by Jeffersonian Republicans
    Adam's presidental term coming to end
    Federalists were divided
    French wanted to settle dispute with United States
    Adam's accepted the settlement but angered Federalists
    With the Federalists divided the Jeff Republicans took over the state governments of Pennsylvania and New York
    The presidental campaign of 1800 was the first with two parties
    Jeff Republicans favored state rights and liberty
    Federalists were divided between a strong central government and public order
    Jefferson and Burr candidacy was an attempt at sectional balance
     
    Democratic Political Culture
    Custom of celebrating Independence Day first took place in Philadelphia
    1800 Fourth of July was the nation's most important holiday
    Increase in suffrage
    Women, minorities and a portion of free men were excluded from voting
    Increased competition between the Federalists and Republicans
      promoted a universal white manhood suffrage
      caused an increase in turn out at polls in all states
     
     
    THE RISE AND GLORY OF AMERICA
    American Artists
    First American artist Benjamin West achieved prominence in Europe with his paintings of his native Pennsylvania
    John Singleton Copley (Loyalist) famous for his portrait of Samuel Adams
    Charles Willson Peale famous for his wartime propaganda and a portrait of Washington
     
    Liberty of the Press
    1775 beginning of revolution there were 37 weekly or semi-weekly newpapers in 13 colonies
    1789 the numbers grew to 92 including 8 dalies
    There were more newspapers in the U.S. then anywhere else in the World
    90 percent of the population in New England could read
    Federalist Gazette of the U.S.
    National Gazette
    Essay on Liberty of Press (freedom of press)
     
    The Birth of American Literature
    During the era majority of the best sellers were of political nature and content
    Book stores grew throughout the country after the Revolution
    Life of Washington introduced anedotes (Washington and the Cherry tree)
     
    Women on the Intellectual Scene
    Growing demand of books that appealed to women
    Women literacy rates were lower than men
    Girls began school
    First feminist in American History- Judith Sargent Murray (go her!)
     ))))
     
    AP Questions
    1.B The rebellion was originally started as a result of class conflict. It had a huge effect on conservative nationalists who were unhappy with the distribution of power between the states and national government.
    2.E The Confederation Congress began taxing state residents in an attempt to increase revenue and get the nation out of debt, ordinary Americans feared being crushed by the burden of private debt and public taxes. (pg.240)
    3.A The Constitution was framed by white men who represented America's social and economic elite (pg.242)
    4.C The delegates included a provision that restricted the federal government from interferring with the importation of slaves for 20years. (pg.243)
    5.D You kinda have to read the chapter alittle its in there
    6.A Hamilton recommended the government assume  obligations accumulated by the states and redeem national debt (pg.248)
    7.E The government had originally established an ordinance that said land could not be taken from the Indians without their consent, but this did not include land north of the Ohio river (contradicting dont you think!) (pg.250)
    8.C Spain grew anti-american so they closed the river to american shipping making it impossible for western American farmers to market crops through the port of New Orleans. (pg.252)
    9. B Section on Washington's presidency
    10.C The Rise of political partiers (either look at the outline or book pg.255)
    11.E Diplomatic incident between the United States and France (definition, book pg.256 or outline)
    12.A The growth of popular interest in politics was a transformation as important as the peaceful transition from Federalists to Jeff Republican in national gov (pg.259)
    13.B Second paragraph (pg.260) Jeff Rebuplicans played an important role in establishing the principle of free press with their opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts
    14.C Conclusion (Read the chapter lol)
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - An Agrarian Republic

     

    North American Communities from Coast to Coast

    ·         The Former American Colonies

    o   Great population growth in U.S.A.: 1790-1800 pop grew 3.9 mil. to 5.3 mil.

    o   From 1800-1850, huge territorial expansion, from sea to sea in fifty years.

    ·         Spanish Colonies

    o   Tensions mounted between peninsulares and criollos.

    o   Spanish established a chain of 21 missions in a last effort to protect Mexico.

    o   American traders were making inroads on Spanish-held territory along the Mississippi River.

    ·         Haiti and the Caribbean         

    o   Provided 80-90% of European sugar.

    o   French colony, Saint-Domingue, black slave revolt in 1791.

    o   Led by L’Ouverture, the colony was renamed Haiti and became NA’s first independent black nation.

    o   This revolt scared white slave owners and sent hope to enslaved peoples.

    ·         British North America

    o   British NA is mostly just Canada

    §  Population was mostly French with some loyalists that were kicked out of U.S.

    o   The govt. in Canada reflected lessons learned in the colonies.

    ·         Russian America

    o   Rapidly expanding presence in Alaska and the Northwest.

    o   Fur Trade on Aleutian Islands fueled expansion.

    o   Americans did not really care since they were distracted by the Brits in Canada.

    ·         Trans-Appalachia: Cincinnati

    o   People moved to the Ohio River system for fertile land.

    o   Due to an increasing population the area earned state hood

    §  Kentucky- 1792

    §  Tennessee- 1796

    o   Migration was a principal feature of American life,

    §  From 1790 to 1800 1/3 of the homes on the Atlantic coast had moved.

    o   Cincinnati was a good representation of then rapid growth seen during this time period; it’s pop. tripled from 1800-10.

    o   This was also a key location, because goods could be sent downstream to N.O.

    ·         Atlantic Ports: From Charleston to Boston

    o   Despite the migrations seen at this time, Atlantic Ports were still the centers of trade, since most merchants found it easier to cross the Atlantic than to travel inward the country.

    o   Important Ports:

    §  Charleston

    §  Baltimore

    §  Philadelphia

    §  New York

    §  Boston

    o   The cities led the nation politically, socially, and economically.

    A National Economy

    ·         Cotton and the Economy of the Young Republic (1800)

    o   Predominantly rural

    o   94% of Americans lived in communities of less than 2500 people

    o   Crops were grown for home use rather than sale

    ·         Shipping and the Economic Boom (1793-1807)

    o   French Revolution started war between France and Britain.

    o   American merchants wanted to sell to both sides.

    o   Expansion of trade led to the development of the shipbuilding industry and the growth of coastal cities.

    The Jefferson Presidency

    ·         Republican Agrarianism

    o   Jefferson:

    §  “life, liberty and . . . the pursuit of happiness”

    §  American could achieve a republican form of govt. because it had room to grow.

    o   Thomas Malthus:

    §  Warned of population explosion

    §  TJ said we have enough room

    o   Agrarian Republic- a nation of small family farms clustered together in rural communities.

    o   Jefferson’s agrarianism led to unstable and constantly mobile groups rather than stable communities. Also fostered ruthlessness towards Indians who were pushed out of the way to make room for white settlers.

    ·         Jefferson’s Government

    o   Promised to:

    §  cut all internal taxes

    §  reduce the size of the army (4000 to 2500 men) and the Navy (25 to 7 ships)

    §  eliminate the national debt

    o   Wanted to cut Govt.

    o   Federal Govt. covered very little (mostly just mail); states did most of the work

    o   Washington was small because the govt. couldn’t get the money they thought they would get from land sales.

    ·         An Independent Judiciary

    o   Marbury v. Madison

    o   Case sparked by Jefferson’s refusal to recognize Adam’s ‘midnight judges”

    o   Justice Marshall ruled that the duty of the courts was “to say what the law is.”

    o   Ruling made the Supreme Court a powerful nationalizing force.

    ·         Opportunity: The Louisiana Purchase

    o   Napoleon v. Britain started in 1799 with Napoleon’s rise ended with his defeat at waterloo 1815.

    o   Napoleon secretly got back Louisiana from Spain and wanted to conquer Haiti.

    o   1802: Jeff. sent Robert Livingston to buy NO from France for $2-10 mil.

    o   Bargaining did not go well, but then Napoleon’s army in Haiti was destroyed by yellow fever and an army of former slaves led by Toussaint L’Ouverture.

    o   Napoleon then offered the entire LA territory rather than just NO. Monroe and Livingston accepted the offer for $15 mil.

    ·         Incorporating Louisiana

    o   Louisiana (especially NO) was very diverse and so the Americans did not know what to do with them all.

    o   The people of LA insisted that they be recognized a having all of the same rights as an American citizen and that their property and beliefs be respected.

    o   Originally the Americans wanted to eliminate the culture of LA and plug in their own, but instead it became a fusion of 2 cultures, American and French.

    o   The governor of lower LA, William Claiborne, adopted a legal code in 1808 that was based on French civil law rather than English common law. LA became the first slave state attained from the LA purchase in 1812.  

    ·         Texas and the Struggle for Mexican Independence

    o   When France took over Spain Mexico divided into royalists and populists.

    o   Revolts

    §  1810- Led by Father Miguel Hidalgo- Defeated by royalists

    §  1813- Led by Father Jose Maria Morelos- Defeated by royalists

    §  1812- Led by Bernardo Gutierrez- Invaded Texas, captured San Antonio, and killed gov. Salcedo, and declared Texas independent; One year later they were defeated by royalists

    Renewed Imperial Rivalry in North America

    ·         Problems of Neutral Rights

    o   The Brits were mad at Americans because Americans wanted to stay Neutral and trade with everyone so they to U.S. Ships that were trading with France.

    o   About ¼ of British sailors started to sail on American ships.

    o   American citizens were forced into impressments in the British Navy.

    o   A British ship, the Leopard, stopped a U.S. ship, the Chesapeake, and demanded to search for deserters, but when the captain of the U.S. ship refused they opened fire. 

    ·         The Embargo Act

    o   Imposed by Jefferson in 1807

    o   Forbade American ships from sailing to foreign ports

    o   Intended to force Britain and France to recognize Neutral rights

    o   Act was Economic disaster for the U.S.

    ·         Madison and Failure of “Peaceable Coercion”

    o   Jefferson hands presidency to Madison after failing to achieve “peaceable coercion”

    o   Embargo Act= total failure

    §  French used it as an excuse to capture U.S. ships (claiming they were British ships in disguise)

    §  British open new markets in South America because of U.S. absence

    §  U.S. economy was devastated

    §  Repealed in 1809

    o   More Acts, like Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 and Macon’s Bill #2 in 1810, were passed, but also failed to solve the issue of neutrality.

    ·         A Contradictory Indian Policy

    o   Indians were resisting westward American expansion

    o   Americans weren’t supposed to take Indian land unless it was acquired in a treaty (Indian Intercourse Act of 1790), but settlers pushed anyway.

    o   Cycle of invasion, resistance, and defeat for Indians

    o   Jeff. wanted to “civilize” them (teach them to read and make them Christians)

    §  Jeff’s plan found little support from settlers and territorial govs.

    o   Jeff set aside land further back for Indians after the LA purchase, but less than 20 yrs later white settlers were at their doorsteps again

    o   The Indians, once again backed into a corner, split between Accommodationists (wanted to adapt their life style to live with the White man) and traditionalists (wanted nothing to do with the White man)

    ·         Indian Resistance

    o   William Henry Harrison tricked the Indians into 15 treaties through coercion and bribery.

    o   In 1805 Tenskwatawa, AKA The Prophet, preached a message of Indian revitalization; a rejection of all contact with the White man

    o   Tecumseh molds his brother’s religious massage into the Pan-Indian military resistance movement, which called the Indian tribes to join together in cultural and political unity to resist the White man. Also got British support from Canada (Ironic since his brother said no contact with the White man)

    o   Tecumseh argued for Indian land back, and said that settlers that stepped on their land would risk their lives.

    o   Tecumseh’s people and Harrison’s people fought and while Harrison won the casualties each side faced were about the same.  

    The War of 1812

    ·         The War Hawks

    o   Members of congress from the south and west, who pushed for war against the Brits after their election in 1810; also wanted to steal Florida so slave could not run there

    o   The Brits were about to adopt a more conciliatory policy towards the U.S. ships, but then Madison declared war in June 1812

    o   The War of 1812

    §  Went from June 1812 to Jan. 1815 and split the Govt. by party.

    §  U.S. army and navy was small and weak compared to the British

    §  Brits burned Washington in summer 1814

    §  Key wrote “Star Spangled Banner” while watching the U.S. beat back a British attack on Baltimore and Fort McHenry

    §  U.S. navy saw few successes among them, Constitution defeated the Guerriere and theJava, 2 British men-of-war.

    ·         The Campaigns Against the Northern and Southern Indians

    o   While the Americans envisaged a quick victory over the British-Indian alliance, but instead they were defeated.

    o   Brit-Indians took Detroit and Fort Dearborn in August, 1812 after repulsing an American foray in July.

    o   In Sept. 1813 U.S. Captain Oliver Perry took Lake Erie at the Battle of Put-in-Bay, which led to the recapture of Detroit by Harrison.

    o   Perry and Harrison defeated British and Indian defenders in the Battle of Thames in Oct. 1813.

    o   The Brits and the Americans fought to invade each other in the Niagara area.

    o   3 reasons for Failure

    §  Brit-Indian force was stronger than we thought

    §  New England states didn’t approve of the war

    §  Canada really did not want to become part of the U.S.

    o   Southern Indians started to fight like in the Northwest

    §  they were divided on what to do accommodation v. tradition

    §  Some like Red Sticks joined the Brits

    o   1813 and 1814: Andrew Jackson v. The Red Sticks. Red Sticks were attacking Creeks that sided with the U.S.

    o   At the end of the War in 1814 Jackson demanded land concessions from the Creeks; he wanted more than half their land (about 23 million acres).

    o    Battle of NO 1815; Jacksons most famous victory’ he won improbably over veteran British soldiers, after the Treaty was signed

    ·         The Hartford Convention

    o   Federalists did not like War of 1812.

    o   At 1st there were threats of Secession, but cooler heads took charge and insisted that states had the power of Nullification, The doctrine that states had the right to ignore federal laws within their borders.

    o   These nullification threats were ignored, because of the announcement of peace with Britain

    ·         The Treaty of Ghent

    o   Treaty signed in December 1814 in Ghent, Belgium.

    o   Brits agreed to evacuate western posts and abandoned the insistence on a buffer state for neutral Indian peoples.

    o   Although there was no real winner the Battle of NO made America think they had won and the war stopped the British from thinking of the U.S. as a colony.

    o   War of 1812 was the most divisive war; more opposition than even Vietnam.

    o   The Indians were the only real losers in the War

    §  Tecumseh died in the Battle of Thames-1813

    §  Southern Creeks were defeated-1814

    §  The Brits abandoned them in the Treaty of Ghent-1814

    §  The U.S. was once again pushing into them-1815 

    Defining the Boundaries

    ·         Another Westward Surge

    o   Population Redistribution

    §  1790: 95% in ocean bordering states

    §  1820: 25% west of Appalachians

    o   Reasons for Westward Surge

    §  Population nearly doubled; needed “elbow room” so they moved west (5.3 mil to 9.6 mil)

    §  Indians weren’t a problem because of war of 1812

    §  Land Ordinance of 1785 made western land really expensive—nobody moved there so Congress was forced to make it cheaper. Squatters took land before it was open for sale then asked for “preemption” rights to buy the land at a lower price. Land Act of 1820, Congress gave in and sold it cheap(1.25 $/acre)

    o   4 Migration Routes

    §  New York: Mohawk  and Genesee Turnpike leads to Lake Erie

    §  Turnpike from Philidelphia to Pittsburgh + National Road led to Ohio River

    §  South: Wilderness Road leads to Kentucky +Tenessee

    §  South Carolina + Georgia: Federal Road leads to Alabama + Mississippi 

    §  Geography decided where you went.

    o   Moses Cleaveland settles Cleveland in 1795.

    o   Northerners bring their religion, education, and opposition to slavery.

    o   South made their slaves clear the land so it could be farmed. After 1812 half of the Migrants to the Southwest were slaves.

    o   New states in the west did not create new political regions, because people that moved brought their politics with them.

    ·         The Election of 1816 and the Era of Good Feeling

    o   James Monroe elected in 1816; Last of Virginia Dynasty; beat Federalist Rufus King (183 to 34); 1820 won again against nobody (231 to 1).

    o   Convinced Colombian Centinel to proclaim an “Era of Good Feeling.” The phrase is applied to Monroe’s presidency(1817-25)

    ·         The American System

    o   Monroe wanted a balanced cabinet, so he took people from different political views from different parts of the country.

    o   Supported the American System, a program of govt. subsidies used to promote American economic growth and protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition.

    o   The federal govt. played a role in assuring people an economy in which they can succeed.

    o   In 1816, Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States, they had extensive regulatory powers over currency and credit, for 20 years.

    o   Commercial Interests began to rival farmers

    o   The Tariff of 1816 was the 1st substantial protective tariff in U.S. history. Put in tariff because they thought the British that had come there to open markets were selling products cheap, because they wanted to hinder U.S. industry.

    o   Internal improvements (roads, and canals) were controversial. Madison and Monroe only wanted to fund interstate roads. Things like the Erie Canal were funded by state and private money.

    o    Three parts of the American system—bank, tariff, and roads.

    ·         The Diplomacy of John Quincy Adams

    o   The diplomatic achievements of the Era of Good Feelings were due almost entirely to the efforts of john Quincy Adams.

    o   Fixed issues with the Brits

    §   Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817 and Convention of 1818

    §  U.S.-Canada border became 49th parallel

    §  settled dispute over Oregon

    o   Adams-Onis/Transcontinental Treaty of 1819 We gave $5 mil and Texas; Spain gave Florida, claims to Louisiana, and Oregon.

    o   Adams drew up the Monroe Doctrine. The President presented it in 1823 to congress. The Monroe Doctrine said that the U.S. would not intervene in the affairs of other countries and that the U.S. would consider it a threat to their safety if any European nation colonized the “New World.”

    o   The U.S. did not have the power to back up its threat, but the Brits did, and that’s what kept the Europeans out of the “New World.” Despite this, the Monroe Doctrine did help Adams talk with the Russians to give us the Oregon territory up to the54”40’ line.

    o   Achievements of the Era

    §  Russian Expansion Contained

    §  Peace with Britain

    §  U.S. much larger

    o   All thanks to Adams

    ·         The Panic of 1819

    o   First major financial crisis in the United States

    o   Marked the end of the economic expansion that had followed the War of 1812 and ushered in new financial policies that would shape economic development

    o   Caused by bad loans for land purchases during a land buying explosion (1 mil acres in 1815 to 3.5 mil acres in 1818)

    o   Workers were further harmed by British competition.

    o   Southern planters protested over harm by the protective tariff (cotton prices were low even though imports were high). They also questioned the fairness of the political system.

    o   The Panic of 1819 showed how far the country had come since the Jeff. Presidency.

    ·         The Missouri Compromise

    o   1820: Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state.

    o   Dealt with the issue of slavery in newly acquired territory.

    o   Henry Clay played a key role in reaching compromise.

    o   Maine entered the Union as a slave state.

    o   Slavery was prohibited north of 36º 30’ north latitude.
    AP Questions

    1.      B

    2.      E

    3.      D

    4.      B

    5.      E

    6.      A

    7.      D

    8.      B

    9.      D

    10.  E

    11.  C

    12.  B

    13.  A

    14. B 

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - The South and Slavery

    Natchez-Under-The-Hill

    o   A tax of $10 per flatboat, designed to rid the wharf district of Natchez-Under-the-Hill in Mississippi of poor flatboatmen, causes protests from those whose cargoes were confiscated for being unable to pay the tax. The militia is called up and disperses the protest.

    o   Europeans did not settle Natchez land until 1720, when the French established the port Fort Rosalie and destroyed the Natchez, the fort becoming a major trading site on the Mississippi.

    o   The Spanish took control of Fort Rosalie in 1763, moved the town up a bluff away from floodwaters, and renamed the port Natchez-Under-the-Hill. It was taken by the Americans in 1798.

    o   The port became known as the last stop before New Orleans and was a site of racial intermingling, ‘

    o   The town of Natchez became home to planter aristocrats, whose livelihoods were sustained by slavery. They were wary of the multiracial Under-the-Hill, and in November 1837 issued a threat to the “gamblers, pimps, and whores” twenty-four hours to evacuate.

    o   Under-the-Hill, with its racial and social mixing, threatened the slave-owner’s system of control that relied on control and clear distinctions between free whites and enslaved blacks.

    King Cotton and Southern Expansion

      • Slavery waned in the early days of independence, but returned with the rise of cotton and expanded from the original states of Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia to include Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas.
    • Cotton and Expansion into the Old Southwest
      • The cotton gin, invented by Eli Whitney and Catherine Greene, automated the task of removing the seeds from cotton, allowing for more cotton growing.
      • Cotton expansion led planters to migrate to the black belt, a fertile area stretching from western Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. This was called Alabama Fever.
      • Southwest expansion displaced Indian populations, beginning with the defeat of the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in 1814 and ending with the Cherokee Trail of Tears in 1838, forcing the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creeks, and Seminoles to move to the Indian Territory.
      • The cotton expansion reached into Louisiana and Texas.
    • Slavery the Mainspring—Again
      • The export of cotton and the southern slave trade provided the capital for northern industrial development.
      • The Industrial Revolution, a period of social and technological advance that began in Britain, created the demand for cotton in their new factories. Cotton represented 60% of American exports.
    • A Slave Society in a Changing World
      • Though attitudes were forming against slavery, the cotton expansion led to a greater demand for slaves, leading to the view that slavery was an economic necessity.
      • Though cotton was not the only crop, cotton’s profitability led it to inform every aspect of life in the South.
      • The South became a slave society, extending the master servant model into all relationships.
      • Though the North was becoming increasingly urban, the South remained largely rural, due to the diversion of resources and energy to the plantations.
      • Southern capital was tied up in land and slaves, investors unwilling to look at risky railroads, canals, and factories and wary of introducing wage labor to a slave society.
      • Slave states were losing political influence due to lower population growth rates than the North, leading to the Nullification Crisis.

    To Be a Slave

    • Cotton and the American Slave System
      • 55% of slaves worked on cotton; 20% to produce tobacco (10%), rice, sugar, hemp; 15 were domestic servants; 10% in mining, lumber, and construction.
      • Cotton growing concentrated slaves on plantations rather than on small farms. 75% of slaves lived in groups of ten or more. Southern plantations fueled the development of African slave communities, but Westward expansion destabilized them by fueling the internal slave trade.
    • The Internal Slave Trade
      • Plantation owners in the Upper South sold their slaves to the new cotton growing regions of the Old Southwest. Between 1820 to 1960, 50 percent of Upper North slaves participated in Southern expansion and another  million were uprooted due to the internal trade.
      • Slaves were gathered in “slave pens” such as Richmond and Charleston before being moved South; in the interior, slaves were carried by boat down the Mississippi, hence the phrase “sold down the river.” Slaves moved on foot in chained “coffles” before being sold at auction.
      • Slave traders were often respected members of the community and the size of the slave trade made a mockery of claims of Southern benevolence.
    • Sold “Down the River”
      • Migration to the Southwest separated individual slaves from their families, creating a second Middle Passage.
      • Upper South planters sold their slaves to trading firms, who held them in slave pens until the weather cooled and marched them South before being sold at auction. Slaves were frequently stripped to be inspected by potential buyers, and families were often torn apart at auctions.
      • Slaves who found themselves in frontier conditions or on mixed farms  were often highly self-reliant, but plantations enforced uniformity. Slaves fought for the few comforts they had, such as being able to supplement their owner-provided diets with gardens and hunting.
      • Opportunity for owners in the Southwest translated to servitude for slaves, which bred a constant fear of slave revolt in their white owners.
    • Field Work and the Gang System of Labor
      • 75% of all slaves were field workers, who were most affected by the gang system of labor on cotton plantations. Slaves were organized into groups of 20-25 in a communal work system similar to parts of Africa, but with overseers. Slaves worked from sun up to sun down.
      • A hardworking slave was worth at least $1000, due to the difficulty of the work.
      • Elderly slaves took on other tasks in the community and were tolerated by owners. However, when slavery neared an end in the 1860s, owners evicted their elderly slaves, a violation of their own code of paternalism
    • House Servants
      • Initially, almost all slaves were fieldworkers, but growing profits led owners to divert some to house servants to support their lifestyles.
      • House slaves worked less, were often better dressed and fed, and had access to information from owners who spoke freely in the presence of servants.
      • House slaves eagerly left during the Civil War, including those of Confederate President James Davis.
      • House slaves were constantly under the supervision of their owners and had to work for the whims of their masters with a constant ingratiating attitude.
    • Artisans and Skilled Workers
      • Small numbers of slaves were skilled workers (men more than women, due to traditional gender roles). They worked as lumberjacks, miners, deckhands and stokers, and workers on Southern factories. Masters gained their parole.
      • As the South failed to attract immigrants, both free and slave blacks were given the chance to hold skilled occupations denied to them in the North.

    The African American Community

      • Despite living in close contact with their oppressors, slaves created an influential and vibrant culture.
      • Half of all slaves lived on plantations with twenty or more slaves and other slaves had connections to neighboring farms. Urban slaves made many secret contacts in the cities.
    • The Price of Survival
      • The South was the only slave society to grow through natural growth rather than through importation.
      • Slavery increased through high fertility rates, though this was affected by the harshness of slave life.
      • Mortality rates for children under five were twice those of their white counterparts, due to their mothers’ living conditions or work. Owners accused their slaves of smothering their children to death.
      • Malaria, yellow fever, and cholera were endemic in the South. Health remained a concern for both white and black people.
    • From Cradle to Grave
      • Owners claimed that by housing, feeding, and clothing slaves those slaves they were more humane than their Northern counterparts.
      • Children lived with their parents, who cooperated to raise their children and teach them survival skills, and witnessed the harshness of slavery from an early age.
      • Most slaves worked as field hands, working under a white overseer, but also as skilled workers and house servants. Children were expected to take care of younger children, and schooling was nonexistent.
    • Slave Families
      • No Southern state recognized slave marriages, but they were encouraged by masters for the purpose of procreation and slave submission. Even so, they served as the basis of slave communities.
      • Parents sought to teach their children a kinship network to maintain continuity.
      • Fear of separation was constant due to the internal slave trade. One in five marriages were broken and one in three children sold away from their families.
      • Slaves acted as each other’s family, allowing for kinships networks anywhere slaves were sold.
      • Families also served as a way to reject white paternalism in favor of African American values and relationships.
    • African American Religion
      • African religious tradition mixed with Christianity into a distinctive faith that expressed resistance to slavery.
      • The Second Great Awakening caused a rapid increase of Christianity among black slaves and free African Americans started their own independent churches.
      • Owners allowed their slaves to practice Christianity in an attempt to make them docile, which slaves were quick to notice.
      • Christianity was not a religion of rebellion, but of enabling and surviving.
    • Freedom and Resistance
      • Slaves sometimes attempted to escape from plantations, such as in the case of Harriet Tubman, who later returned to the South to rescue 60-70 others.  Most escapees were young men, as all others often had responsibilities that kept them on farms.
      • More often was “running away nearby,” when a slave would escape to nearby forests and swamps before returning, signaling their discontent with slavery.
    • Slave Revolts
      • Slave preacher Nat Turner, inspired by a religious vision, led five other slaves in a revolt against their master and fifty-five other white people on 20 August 1831. The revolt grew to sixty slaves the next morning.
      • The Revolt dispersed after the group came against armed white men, leading to forty of the slaves to be executed, including Nat Turner, captured by accident two months after the revolt hiding in a forest near his old plantation.
      • Gabriel’s Rebellion, Denmark Vasey’s plot, and Nat Turner’s Revolt were prominent examples from a string of organized slave resistances, which shook Southern claims of benevolence and could only be held down through force.
    • Free African Americans
      • In 1860, 250,000 free black people lived in the South, which came from the early years after the American Revolution. After the cotton boom of the early 1800s, freedom became gradually harder, and soon became impossible by 1830.
      • Most freedmen lived in the Upper South countryside working as tenant farmers and laborers, but urban slaves were more visible. Women could only find menial work, though men were able to gain skilled labor despite discrimination.
      • The black codes, laws concerning free blacks in the South, denied free blacks most of their civil liberties. The existence of free black men and women threatened the entire Southern slave system and had to be suppressed.  \

    The White Majority

    • The Middle Class
      • In the rural south, cities provided homes for the commercial class the agricultural economy depended on to sell its products on the world market. Urban growth was limited to cities that were major shipping centers, which looked much like Northern cities with formal educational institutions, textile mills, and heavier industry.
      • William Gregg attempted to establish a cotton textile mill to diversify the southern economy and attract poor whites who could not find work in agriculture, but he faced difficulty getting a charter from the planter-dominated South Carolina legislature and his pro-tariff stance put him at odds with most South Carolinians.
      • Joseph Anderson used slave labor in the mills, proving slaves were capable of factory work.
      • Many planters scorned the commercial class because they were dependent on their suppliers and customers, in contrast to the North, who valued their business acumen.
    • Poor White People
      • Thirty to 50 percent of all southern whites were landless, similar to the proportion in the north. However, slavery limited their employment opportunities in the agricultural south, and many were harvest farmers or tenant farmers, trying to become independent.
      • Poor whites and blacks intermingled in their work, socially, and sexually. White people engaged in supplying slaves with prohibited goods such as liquor, helping escapes, planning revolt. However, poor whites insisted on their racial superiority. Many slaves, better dressed and fed, dismissed them as “poor white trash.” The lives of poor whites blurred racial distinctions with supposedly inferior black slaves and were a threat to the system of slavery.
    • Yeoman Values
      • Yeoman, a British term for a farmer who works his own land, was applied to independent Southern farmers who sometimes owned a few slaves, but generally worked their own land. This land ranged from adequate to poor, and was enough to feed themselves and their families and grow enough cotton a year to make some cash. Sixty percent owned their own farms.
      • Community was paramount in yeoman life. Men and women depended on their relatives and neighbors for assistance in large farm tasks and repaid them for their help through complex systems of barter. This was similar to northern communities, except for slave labor, which was frequently loaned out to other farmers.
      • Yeoman and slave owners lived side by side. Slavery provided a link between the rich and middle class, larger planters buying goods from smaller planters; slave owners dominated these communities.
      • In 1828 and 1832, poor white and yeomen voted overwhelmingly for Andrew Jackson, drawn to his expansionism, populism, and rags-to-riches ascent from poor boy to slave owner. The yeomen who hoped to join the slave owners supported their dominance.
      • Yeomen farmers in the upcountry valued their independence, based on their patriarchal values and southern “plain folk” lifestyle. They opposed capitalism and industrialization, seeing it as encroachments on freedom.
      • The freedom yeomen valued was based on slavery. Whites could count on slaves to do the hardest labor, making all whites equal in the sense they were all “free.” Universal white male suffrage and democratization strengthened belief in white skin privilege, even though the gap between rich and poor was increasing.

    Planters

    ·         Small Slave Owners

    o   The largest group of slave owners were yeomen farmers who tried to make the switch from subsistence farming to commercial production, which require slaves. However, gaining capital for more slaves was difficult. Yeomen often used slaves for farm work while they worked another job, worked with the slaves in the field, or hired out their slaves to other planters.

    o   The owner was economically vulnerable: a drop in cotton prices or poor crop could force an owner to sell his slaves. This began again when good times returned, but the roller-coaster economy and the Panic of 1837 sharply limited upward mobility.

    o   Middle-class professionals—lawyers, doctors, merchants—became large slave owners because they had capital (their pay) to invest in land and slaves. These men owned skilled slaves and rented them out. They slowly made their way into the slave-owning elite and confirmed their position by marrying their children into the aristocracy.

    ·         The Planter Elite

    o   The 2.5 percent who owned fifty slaves or more enjoyed prestige, political leadership, and a lifestyle many envied. Most inherited their wealth. Planters learned how to appeal to the popular vote, as smaller slave owners made up the clear majority in state legislatures.

    o   The eastern seaboard had given rise to a class of rich planters in the colonial period, ranging from land-rich to labor-poor planters like Thomas Chaplin to rich planters like Nathaniel Heyward who, through wealthy marriages and land purchases, amassed 45,000 acres and over 2,000 slaves.

    o   As slave owning spread westward, membership in the elite grew to include the new wealth of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The rich planters of the Natchez community were popularly called “nabobs” (from a Hindi word for wealthy Europeans in India).

    o   Natchez, the richest county in the nation in 1850, fostered an elite lifestyle of new money rather than tradition.

    ·         Plantation Life

    o   Wealthy planters lived in isolation with their families and slaves. Family networks, boarding schools, politics, and frequent visiting modeled the English aristocracy as understood by Southerners. Men were expected to be masculine and women feminine.

    o   Slaves had to be forced to support this system. Plantations aimed to be self-sufficient, which required many hands and extensive management, often taking direct financial control or exercising power over their subordinates.

    o   The planters developed paternalism to justify slavery by portraying the plantation as a family, with the master as the head and the mistress as the “helpmate.” Planters imagined this to be a benevolent system, and expected gratitude from their slaves.

    ·         The Plantation Mistress

    o   Paternalism force plantation mistresses into positions of responsibility but no authority.

    o   Mistresses spent their lives “tending” family members, including slaves, and supervising daily tasks such as sewing, cooking, etc. She was also expected to act as hostess.

    o   Husbands controlled the plantation—if a wife challenged the paternalistic system, why shouldn’t slaves?

    o   Plantation wives “suffered” from isolation from friends and family because of their responsibilities. Husbands traveled extensively for politics and business.

    o   Though some southern women railed against “the curse of slavery,” they referred to their own responsibilities rather than slavery itself, and few white women understood the suffering of their slaves.

    ·         Coercion and Violence

    o   Most slave owners believed that force was necessary to make slaves work.

    o   Slave owners often sexually abused their female slaves, violating both law and their own paternalism. Sometimes, relationships formed (such as in the case of TJ and Sally Hemings), but most slave women had little hope of escaping the abuse.

    o   Masters rarely acknowledged their illegitimate children and mistresses were silent based on their subordinate position in society.

    o   Plantation owners held absolute power, often abusing it. The credit for saving humanity belongs not to white paternalism but to African Americans and their communities.

    The Defense of Slavery

    ·         Developing Proslavery Arguments

    o   The South developed justifications for slavery based on the Bible and the histories of Greece and Rome. They also used a legal argument, that the Constitution recognized slavery, which it did, due to the compromises made at the Convention.

    o   Denmark Vesey’s conspiracy, occurring two years after the Missouri Crisis of 1819-20, alarmed Southerners to anti-slavery talk. Legislation jailed black seamen as they came into the Charleston, Charlestonians believing they were spreading antislavery.

    o   Nat Turner’s rebellion was blamed on “Yankee peddlers and traders” with antislavery opinions. The South’s attitude, which the North viewed as paranoid, was based on the idea that anything that challenged the master-slave relationship was a threat to the entire system.

    ·         After Nat Turner

    o   The South closed ranks on slavery, due to Nat Turner’s rebellion, the publication of William Lloyd Garrison’s Liberator newspaper in 1831, the emancipation of British West Indian slaves in 1834 (too close to home for most Southerners), and the 1831 Nullification Crisis. Southerner’s felt that the federal government had no right to interfere with their states’ rights (slavery) and militantly defended them.

    o   The South rejected antislavery propaganda and began passing legislation to ban teaching slaves how to read or write to limit the effect of propaganda, restricted gatherings or social activity without whites present, made insurrection a capital offense, and limited the rights of free blacks.

    o   The South introduced a “gag rule” in Washington to limit debate on slavery and pressured dissenters to remain silent or leave. Christian ministers received the greatest pressure to conform, who preached obedience as a way to make slavery humane.

    o   The South fueled fears of a pro-slave South surrounded by anti-slave states and riots by freed black slaves.

    o   The South moved beyond defensiveness to promote slavery as a benevolent institution and a necessity. They contrasted Southern slavery with Northern wage slavery, saying slavery was bound by “a community of interests” compared to Northern selfishness.

    ·         Changes in the South

    o   It became more difficult to become a slaveowner as the price of owning a slave rose. Slaveowning decreased from 36% to 25% from 1830 to 1860. Slaves were increasingly sold from the Upper South to the Lower South, showing regional differences as the Upper South economy began to diversify.

    o   Slavery decreased in southern cities. Urban slaves often had daily contact with poor whites and freedmen, and often were hired out or hired themselves out, making their labor indistinguishable from Northern “free labor.” Planters viewed the cities with suspicion.

    o   Increased commercialization of agriculture (causing rising land prices) made it difficult for poor whites to own land. Yeomen, exposed to the market economy by expanding railroads, worried that banks, railroads, and activist state governments would threaten their independence.

    o   Hinton  Helper published The Impending Crisis in 1857, attacking slavery, and indicated the growing tensions between the haves and the have-nots in the South.

    o   Despite the changes, the South remained fixed in its defense of slavery, ending debate on alternative labor systems and stifling national cooperation.

     
    AP Questions
     

    1. In the years following the American Revolution:

    c. large scale cotton production and the slave system on which it depended made the South quite different from the North.

     

    “a” is not correct since slavery began long before the Revolution.

    “b” is not correct as the slave system was growing stronger even before the Purchase.

    “d” is not correct  as it is a blanket statement, but it is partially correct (see Missouri Compromise).

    “e” is not correct as Southern farmers did support slavery, despite not being wealthy themselves

     

    2. A crucial element in the rapid growth of cotton production between 1790 and mid 1840:

    b. was the development of the mechanical reaper to harvest the valuable crop. (Supposedly, but the cotton gin isn’t a reaper, but the other answers just don’t fit.)

     

    “a” is not correct as textile mills were concentrated in the North and overseas in Britain

    “c” is not correct as cotton was expanding long before Texas.

    “d” could be correct, if we count the gin as a “new farming technique”

    “e” could also be correct, as the Industrial Revolution in Britain opened a market for Southern cotton

     

    3. As a result of large-scale cotton production in the South:

     a. capital in the region was concentrated in land and slaves.

     

    “b” is not correct as the Southern elite continually concentrated land and slaves into their hands.

    “c” is not correct as the use of slave labor discouraged innovation

    “d” is not correct for the same reason as b.

    “e” is not correct for the same reason as c.

     

    4. In the cotton-producing South:

    e. a viable but often vulnerable African-American community developed

     

    “a” is not correct as the rise of cotton concentrated slaves into groups of ten or more on plantations.

    “b” is not correct as Ohio was a free state

    “c” is not correct as only a small number of elite families owned many slaves.

    “d” is not correct as the slave trade officially ended in the states on January 1, 1808.

     

    5. The organization of slave labor on large plantations came to be known as:

    b. the gang system.

     

    6. Within the slaves’ world:

    d. a diversity of occupations and circumstances developed

     

    “a” is not correct as slaves were often separated into skilled, house, and field slaves.

    “b” is not correct as labor roles often mixed.

    “c” is not correct as house slaves often had contact with other whites.

    “e” is not correct as children were taken as the property of the master.

     

    7. One result of the slaves’ existence was:

    d. the development of strong familial and non-kinship relationships.

     

    “a” is not correct as it’s wrong.

    “b” is partially correct, but not the point of the question.

    “c” is not correct as slaves often took parts of white culture.

    “e” is partially correct, but d is more correct.

     

    8. Black Christianity was a religion that:

    c. provided a sense of spiritual freedom that profoundly shaped slave culture.

     

    “a” is not correct as Christianity first gained a foothold during the first Great Awakening and swept through the South in the Second Great Awakening of the 1790s.

    “b” is not correct as it incorporated elements of African culture.

    “d” is not correct as Black Christianity rejected those principles.

    “e” is not correct as it did not preach militancy, but spiritual freedom and eventual salvation.

     

    9. In the South during the years prior to 1850:

    e. free African Americans experienced tremendous social and racial discrimination.

     

    “a” is not correct as racial equality was not practiced in the Western territories.

    “b” is not correct as some free blacks were employed in a wide range of occupations.

    “c” is not correct as social equality simply didn’t happen.

    “d” is not correct for the same reason as b.

     

    10. From 1790 until the 1840s:

    b. the largest group of slave owners were small independent farmers hoping to improve their economic circumstances.

     

    “a” is not correct as 30-50 percent of white men were landless, with the rest having only small farms.

    “c” is not correct as only 36% of white men owned slaves.

    “d” is not correct as 75% of slaves lived in groups of ten or more.

    “e” is not correct in that the relationship was reversed.

     

    11. The ideology that Southerners developed to rationalize their treatment of slaves was:

    b. paternalism.

     

    12. One of the most striking things about the Southern slave system was:

    a. just how compassionate most white people really were to slaves =D =D =D

    No explanations. All objections are moot.  

     

    12. One of the most striking things about the Southern slave system was:

    d. how much humanity survived despite the awful brutality of slavery.

     

    “a” is not correct because we aren’t crazy stupid.

    “b” is subjective. The book is just a little (read: the Klan is at work!) too apologetic.

    “c” is not correct because, again, we’re not stupid.

    “e” is not correct because TJ didn’t know how to keep his frock out of other frocks.

     

    13. Beginning in the 1830s:

    a. the defense of slavery became the overwhelming current in Southern Society.

     

    14. As the United States approached the 1850s:

    e. the South began a defense system to protect itself against Northern hostility to slavery.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - The Growth of Democracy

     

    ·         Martin Van Buren Forges a New Kind of Political Community

    o   Dewitt Clinton

    o   Bucktail faction – Albany Regency

    o   New York Constitutional Convention of 1821

    §  Eliminates patronage

    §  Expanded manhood suffrage (4/5 of white men)

    ·         The New Democratic Politics in North America

    o   Introduction

    §  Early years of the 19th century were a time of extraordinary growth and change for many countries in the Americas including the US

    §  American embrace of popular democracy was unusual because elsewhere crises over popular rights dominated

    o   Continental Struggles Over Popular Rights

    §  1821 – Mexico achieves independence from Spain

    ·         Originally Mexico was a constitutional monarchy under Colonel Agustin de Iturbide

    o   The constitutional monarchy was short lived with Iturbide ruling as Emperor of Mexico for little more than a year

    ·         The Constitution of 1824 created a federal republic which gave the president extraordinary power in times of emergency and gave the Catholic Church a powerful political role

    ·         General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna – president 1833-1853

    o   National hero saving Mexico from a Spanish invasion in 1829 and overthrowing an unpopular dictatorship in 1832

    o   Loses Texas 1836

    o   More territorial loss to US in 1848 – Mexican Cession – result of Mexican-American War

    §  Haiti gained independence in 1804 setting the pattern for events in many other Caribbean islands

    §  Britain abolishes slavery in their American colonies (Jamaica, Barbados, etc.)

    §  Canada rebelled against Great Britain in 1837 because of the limited representation imposed on them in the Constitutional Act of 1791

    ·         Act of Union 1840 – eliminates lower and upper Canada – establishes the Province of Canada

    §  Spanish Cuba – sugar producing slave colony until 1880

    §  In contradiction to the events in the Americas the US had a rapid spread of suffrage, a vibrant but stable democratic political culture, and a basic sectional difference—slavery

    o   The Expansion and Limits of Suffrage

    §  Prior to 1800 limited white property owners and /or taxpayers

    ·         Traditional elite

    §  Many westward states that entered the Union during the late 1700s and early 1800s had either universal manhood suffrage (like Kentucky) or low taxpayer qualifications (like Tennessee and Ohio)

    §  1840 – more than 90% of adult males could vote

    §  Free African Americans voting

    ·         Free African Americans could vote in ME, NH, MA, VT, RI

    ·         Democrats opposed African American suffrage

    ·         Ohio constitution of 1802 denied free African Americans the right to vote, hold public office, and testify against white men in court cases

    ·         Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Oregon denied African Americans entry into the state

    ·         All blacks were prohibited to vote in the South

    ·         The reason behind this lack of suffrage was RACISM

    §  Women

    ·         Women could not vote due to the idea that men headed households and represented the interests of all household members

    ·         Even single wealthy women were considered subordinate to male relatives and couldn’t vote

    ·         Women managed to play a role in politics still

    o   The wives of presidents provided social settings in which their husbands could conduct political business

    o   Women who ran the boardinghouses where most congressmen stayed were often valuable sources of information and official contacts

    o   Locally women in various groups, usually church-related, provided charity and raised money for community institutions setting community priorities

    §  The exclusion of minorities marked the limits of liberalization

    §  Although minorities and women were excluded, nowhere else in the world was the right to vote as widespread as it was in the US.

    ·         Europe – Could “mob rule” succeed?

    o   Election of 1824

    §  Marked the end of the “Era of Good Feelings”

    §  5 Republican candidates ran for the presidency:

    ·         Secretary of State – JQA – New England support

    ·         Speaker of the House – Clay – Western support

    ·         Secretary of Treasury – William Crawford – southern support

    ·         Former US Senator & Rep, War Hero – Andrew Jackson – south and west

    ·         Secretary of War—John C. Calhoun—dropped out before election to run as VP

    §  Jackson won 43% of the popular vote and 99 electoral votes, while the runner-up JQA won only 31% of the popular vote and 84 electoral votes

    §  JQA won after Henry Clay gave his support and the House elected Adams

    ·         After this ordeal Adams elected Clay his Secretary of State and many of Jackson’s followers accused them of “corrupt bargaining” 

    §  JQA presidency

    ·         Strong opposition in Congress from Jackson’s supporters to “American System” legislation

    ·         Did fund the extension of National Road

    ·         Southerners limited his hemispheric influence in fear of legitimizing Haiti

    o   The New Popular Democratic Culture

    §  Was vastly influenced by the increase in suffrage and print revolution

    §  Van Buren style party loyalty leading into election of 1828

    ·         Richmond Junto – John C. Calhoun

    ·         Nashville Junto – supported Andrew Jackson

    ·         NH Concord Regency

    ·         Albany Regency – Martin Van Buren

    o   The Election of 1828

    §  Jackson:

    ·         Van Buren – Jackson’s campaign advisor

    ·         Appealed to “common man”

    ·         Pegged JQA as aristocratic

    ·         Dropped the “Republicans” and called party the Democrats

    ·         Calhoun – vice presidential running mate

    ·         Decisive victory over JQA – 1780 to 83

    ·         The Democrats emerge as a true national party (North, South, West all represented)

    ·         The Jackson Presidency

    o   Introduction

    §  Age of the Common man?

    ·         Rich slave owner, military hero, belligerent, prideful – killed men in duels, ruthless towards Indians

    o   Symbolized pioneer independence

    o   A Popular Figure

    §  Jackson was born in 1767, raised in North Carolina, and during the Revolution he was captured and beaten by the British

    §  As a young man he moved west to the frontier station at Nashville, Tennessee, in 1788

    §  He got the nickname Old Hickory

    §  He made his career as a lawyer and his wealth as a slave-owning planter

    §  Jackson got into many duels to defend his honor

    §  He gained fame winning the Battle of New Orleans in 1815

    §  He came to symbolize pioneer independence

    §  On March 4, 1829, Andrew Jackson was inaugurated president while still mourning the death of his wife Rachel

    ·         His inaugural address was almost drown out by the sound of cheering and afterwards he was mobbed by well-wishers

    o   A Strong Executive

    §  Jackson’s presidency signaled higher levels of controversy in national politics and quickly stripped national politics of the polite and gentlemanly aura of cooperation it had during the Era of Good Feelings

    §  Except for Martin Van Buren Jackson ignored the department heads who were official members of his cabinet

    §  Kitchen Cabinet – Van Buren and western friends

    ·         Calhoun not included

    o   Eaton episode & open disagreements over Nullification

    o   Eventually he resigns (1832)

    §  Jackson used social distancing to separate himself from other politicians

    ·         When John Henry Eaton married Peggy Eaton, who was a “fallen woman” not fit for polite society, Jackson urged his cabinet to make their wives hang out with her

    §  Jackson used the power of presidential veto more times in his presidency than did all previous presidents combined

    §  Jackson’s vehement and popular leadership made it easy for him to make Congress consider his opinion and restrict federal activities

    o   The Nation’s Leader Versus Sectional Spokesmen

    §  Jackson was more concerned with asserting strong national leadership than promoting sectional compromise

    ·         He believed that since the president symbolized the popular will of the people the president should dominate politics

    §  Jackson thought that the majority should govern and that politics shouldn’t be sectional things

    §  John C. Calhoun of South Carolina represented the South’s sectional interests

    §  Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts was the main spokesperson for the new northern commercial interests

    §  Henry Clay of Kentucky was Speaker of the House from 1811 to 1825 and later a Senator; he was the spokesman of the West

    §  The prominence and popularity of those three men show how deep sectional differences were in the era even with President Jackson who was determined to override them and disrupt “politics as usual”

    o   Nullification Crisis

    §  Exposition and Protest –Written anonymously by John C. Calhoun

    §  Tariff of 1816 – supposedly a postwar measure

    §  Tariff of 1828 – “Tariff of Abominations”

    ·         High tariffs on iron and textiles (up to 50%)

    ·         2 reasons why tariffs made southerners mad

    ·         Jackson’s congressional supporters passed it to gain more northern support for presidential election

    §  Tariff of 1832

    ·         SC Ordinance of Nullification

    o   Nullification – SC declares tariff null and void in their state

    o   Calls on local militia and threatens secession if Jackson used force

    ·         President issues Force Bill

    §  Tariff of 1833

    ·         Henry Clay – Great Pacificator

    ·         SC nullifies Force Bill – Jackson ignores them – crisis averted

    ·         Changing the Course of Government

    o   Introduction

    §  Jackson came into his presidency with a clear agenda to do three things:

    ·         Remove the Indians from the white population to beyond the Mississippi

    ·         Stop abuses of the federal government in regards to internal improvements

    ·         Oppose existing re-incorporation of the existing National Bank

    o   Indian Removal

    §  From assimilation to removal

    §  Five Civilized tribes – Cherokees, Seminoles, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaw

    §  States began invalidating federal land treaties…. Nullification?

    §  Doesn’t matter – Jackson wants Indians gone anyway – he supports “land-hungry whites”

    §  Indian Removal Act 1830

    ·         Ignored Cherokee Nation v. Georgia 1831 & Worcester v. Georgia1832

    o   Marshall -  “domestic dependent nations” – cannot be forced to relocate

    ·         Trail of Tears

    o   Cherokee marched from TN to OK

    o   Quarter of 16,000 Cherokees die

    ·         Northern (Women and Protestants) protest

    o   Women gain a voice of petition – gain momentum for abolitionist cause

    o   Internal Improvements

    §  Jackson was strict about federal govt. funding internal improvements – states funded most infrastructure

    ·         By 1842, 9 states defaulted on transportation loans

    o   Legal Support for Private Enterprise

    §  Marshall

    ·         Dartmouth College v. Woodward(1819) – states cannot interfere in contracts

    ·         Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) – inventions are protected by patents but not commercial application of the invention

    o   NY, steamboat, Robert Fulton

    o   Bank War

    §  Congress reapproves National Bank Charter in 1832

    §  Jackson (distruster of business and banks) vetos

    §  Jackson reelected in 1832 – sees it as a mandate to kill the bank

    ·         Anti-Masonic Party

    o   Innovation – first national nominating convention

    §  Transfers US deposits (10 million) to pet banks

    §  End of American System – beginning of laissez faire economic policy where commercial interests regulate the economy instead of govt.

    §  Infuriated opposition to Jackson’s bank war establish a new political party, the Whigs

    ·         Formed to resist King Andrew

    o   Whigs, Van Buren, and the Election of 1836

    §  Election of 1836

    ·         Whig strategy – run four sectional candidates and get election thrown into the house

    o   A 2,000 vote swing in PA would have done this but, Van Buren prevailed

    §  Martin “Van Ruin”

    ·         Adopts the looming financial crisis spurred by the bank wars

    ·         Panic of 1837

    o   State banks – eager to loan on speculative ventures

    §  Many end up failing

    o   Inflation – government distributes $37 million to states

    o   Increased use of paper currency

    §  Specie Circular (Jackson 1836)

    o   British Banks called in their American loans

    §  Contraction of credit

    o   Banks suspend business in 1837

    o   Unemployment reaches 10%

    o   No govt. aid –seen as cyclical

    ·         The Second American Party System

    o   Introduction

    §  The First American Party System was between Jeffersonian Republicans and the Hamilton Federalists

    §  By the 1830s expansion of suffrage, economic growth, and social changes due to expansion caused the emergence of two major political parties

    ·         This pattern, called the Second American Party System, remains today

    o   Whigs and Democrats

    §  The two parties did not have sectional differences, but they did reflect just-emerging class and cultural differences

    §  Democrats:

    ·         The Democrats inherited Thomas Jefferson’s belief in the democratic rights of the small, independent yeoman farmers

    ·         They had national appeal but more so in the South and West (the rural areas)

    ·         They favored expansion, Indian removal, and the freedom to do as they which on the frontier

    §  Whigs:

    ·         The Whigs inherited the Federalist views a strong federal role in the economy

    ·         The Whigs were initiators and beneficiaries of economic change

    ·         The Whigs supported the American System

    ·         Favored government interference in not only economic but social reforms as well

    ·         Most support in New England and the northern part of the West

    §  Neither parties were monolithic, but were important because they were a coalition of interests affected by many local and regional factors

    §  Van Buren realized the job of the party leader was to forge the divergent local party interests to win a national majority

    ·         The Democrats had to appeal to the northern workers, who could care less about the Democrats stand on rural issues, somehow

    o   Election of 1840

    §  Whigs try to duplicate Jackson’s winning appeal by not only nominating an aging Indian fighter William Henry Harrison, but also a Southerner (gasp), John Tyler

    §  Whigs win - William Henry Harrison and John Tyler

    ·         Tippecanoe and Tyler too

    o   The Whig Victory Turns to Loss: The Tyler Presidency

    §  Harrison dies 1 month into office

    ·         Whoops – Tyler is a Democrat as well as an anti-Whig and anti-Jackson

    o   Only on Harrison’s ticket for sectional support (South)

    §  Tyler’s Presidency

    ·         He vetoes a series of bills embodying all the elements of Henry Clay’s American System

    ·         Tyler gets thrown out of the Whig party and his cabinet of Whigs resign

    ·         Tyler replaces his cabinet with former Democrats like himself

    §  The Whig victory ended as a stalemate between Tyler and the Whig majority in Congress

    §  Whigs only win one more election in 1848

    ·         American Arts and Letters

    o   Print Revolution begins in 1826

    §  American Tract Society installs country’s first steam-powered press

    ·         300,000 Bibles and 6 million tracts in three years

    §  Newspaper

    ·         1810 – 376 newspapers, 1835 – 1,200

    ·         Some were scandalous and libelous in nature and reflected America’s growing interest in politics

    ·         1819 – Washington Irvin – The Sketch Book

    o   Rip Van Winkle and Headless Horsemen

    ·         1826 – James Fenimore Cooper – Leatherstocking Novels

    o   Last of the Mohicans

    o   Samuel F. B. Morse – 1844 sends first telegraph from Washington to Baltimore

    §  Communication breakthrough – Morse Code 

    AP Questions
     

    1.      C; page 349 stated in the last paragraph of the beginning excerpt.

     

    2.    D; Page 349 intro paragraph to “The New Democratic Politics in North America” & if anyone wants to say A is correct you'd be wrong because of the way it is worded.

     

    3.      E; Many states during the 1800s began to increase suffrage to the majority of WHITE MALES and by 1840, around 90% of all white males could vote.

     

    4.      A; Page 353 first two sentences under “The Election of 1824” subsection

     

    5.      D; Page 356 last paragraph of “The New Popular Democratic Culture” subsection

     

    6.      E; Page 357 intro paragraph to “The Jackson Presidency” section

     

    7.      B; Page 359 last paragraph of “A Strong Executive” subsection

     

    8.      D; Read the “Nullification Crisis” subsection

     

    9.      E; Answers A & B are laughable, C was Jefferson, and answer D is wrong because we didn’t exterminate all of them we just relocated them

     

    10.  B; Page 360 second sentence of the first paragraph on the page

     

    11.  E; Page 366 read “The Bank War” subsection and you’ll see I’m correct

     

    12.  D; Page 368 read the first sentence on the page

     

    13.  A; Page 372 intro paragraph to “American Arts and Letters” section

     

    14.  C; cuz Amy says so

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - Industry and the North

     

    Preindustrial Ways of Working

    ·         Rural and Urban Home Production

    o   People rarely used money; services and products were paid for mostly through trades and barters

    o   Home and work were the same place and nobody was on a schedule, meaning things got done as they needed to be done.

    o   Skills were learned through apprenticeship. An apprenticeship lasted form 3-7 yrs. Apprentices lived with their master during this time. Basically the trade was knowledge for work.

    o   Women could not get an apprenticeship. They were taught domestic skills by their mother; this was, because it was assumed that the woman would marry.

    o   Some women would work respectably as: servants, laundresses, seamstresses, cooks, and food vendors—or not respected as prostitutes.

    ·         Patriarchy in Family, Work, and Society

    o   Men directed lives of family and apprentices: decided on occupations for sons, marriages for daughters, etc.

    o   Wife was responsible for: food, clothing, child rearing, and taking care of apprentices; but still subject to men’s direction.

    o   Country’s power was just like in homes, Men decided everything.

    o   The man of the house represented the whole house for elections.

    ·         The Social Order

    o   Ranked kind of like this:

    1.      Large landowners (plantation owners)

    2.      Merchants

    3.      Artisans and Yeomen farmers were about the same

    4.      Tenant farmers

    5.      farm laborers

    o   Social status and rank was distinguished by dress and manner; people of one class did not intermingle with the others.

    The Transportation Revolution

    ·         Roads

    o   Travel by roads was difficult and the roads themselves were poor, because the federal government only funded interstate projects.

    o   In 1808 the federal government made the national road. It cost $7 million, but connected the east to the west.

    ·         Canals and Steamboats

    o   Waterborne travel was cheapest, but you could only move north to south (MS river + Atlantic Ocean), but east and west routes (Canals) needed to be built.

    o   Erie Canal

    §  Idea of DeWitt Clinton, he envisioned a link between NUC and the Great lakes through the Hudson River, and a 364 mile canal from Albany to Buffalo.

    §  Clinton convinced the NY legislature and some private interests to give $7 mil. 

    §  Canal stats: 40 ft wide, 4 ft deep, 364 mi long, 83 locks, 300 bridges.

    §  Labor- Built by farmers for $8/month until wiped out by malaria; replaced by Irish who were paid $.50/day, but many died.

    §  As Clinton promised the canal was done in less than 10 yrs. declared open 10-26-1825 by sending the Seneca Chief from Buffalo to NY.

    ·         A side note: the Seneca Indians, who the boat was named after, were moved and put onto small reservations, because they were on the path of the canal.

    §  Thousands moved west and shipping boomed.

    §  Towns near the canal quickly grew into important shipping cities. (Utica, Rochester, Buffalo)

    §  Other states seen the Erie canal success and between 1820-40, $200 mil was put into building canals.

    o   Steamboats

    §  Robert Fulton demonstrated the feasibility of steamboats in 1807

    §  Led to shipping boom for the MS River and its tributaries.

    §  Cities that produced steamboats saw economic booms

    ·         Railroads

    o   Started in 1830 with Baltimore and Ohio railroad and grew to 31,000 miles in 1860.

    o   To get started they faced many tech. and supply problems:

    §  To move the locomotives had to be heavy and thus the railroad had to be iron not wood so this forced the iron industry into modernization.

    §  Heavy also meant a solid gravel roadbed and strong wooden ties

    §  They had to standardize the width of the track, because without a standardized track width there would have to several train changes and when shipping things this was very difficult.

    §  Railroads started being put into real use in the 1850’s before this it was cheaper to use sea travel due to the problems with railroads.

    ·         The Effects of the Transportation Revolution

    o   The transportation revolution meant that people could access markets that were farther away.

    o   When people saw that there was money to be made off of the new methods of transport investors started supporting the transportation revolution.

    o   Down side was that diseases spread just as fast as the people who carried them, which meant that epidemics of diseases like cholera broke out.

    o   Created a larger market which commercialization and industrialization depended upon.

    The Market Revolution

    ·         The Accumulation of Capital

    o   Market Revolution= Transportation + Industrialization+ Commercialization

    o   In the northern states, the business community was composed largely of merchants in seaboard cities.

    o   When international trade faced difficulties the nation’s wealthiest men turned to local investment.

    o   Much of the capital came from banks, both those for international trade and those for local investments.

    o   Southern cotton provided the $ for continuing development.

    o   Another big part was the willingness of Americans to take monetary risks.

    ·         The Putting-Out System

    o   Production of goods at home under the supervision of a merchant.

    o   Lynn, Massachusetts, used the putting out system to become a center of the shoe making industry.

    o   System gave control of production to merchant capitalists.

    ·         The Spread of Commercial Markets

    o   Because of the putting-out system farm families moved from local barter systems to a larger market economy.

    o   Commercialization is the replacement of barter by a cash economy and it took time and certain places took longer.

    ·         Commercial Agriculture in the Old Northwest

    o   Technological developments lead to farmers permanently moving toward commercialization.

    o   Erie Canal led to accelerated migration in the Old Northwest in the 1830’s.

    o   Land was cheaper now, but most still either squatted or relied on credit to buy their land.

    o   Regions specialized in certain foods to produce. ex. Ohio was Porkopolis

    o   New farming tech:

    §  Steel plow (John Deere)

    §  Seed drills

    §  Reaper (Cyrus McCormick)

    o   Farmers faced failure if they could not produce enough to pay off the debt on their machines.

    ·         British Technology and American Industrialization

    o   Industrialization started in Britain and Americans thought that the best way to industrialize was to copy the Brits.

    o   Samuel Slater, Father of the American Factory System, brought British textile technology to America. Slater established tenant farms and towns around his textile mills. He used primarily children in his factories (b because that’s who Britain used)

    o   The Brits tried to put Americans out of business by lowering their prices and so congress defended the American businesses by passing a protective tariff in 1816.

    ·         The Lowell Mills

    o   Francis Cabot Lowell went to Britain and stayed with English hosts that owned textile mills, but based on memory of what he saw he made schematics of the machines.

    o   He then brought the schematics back to the U.S. and improved the designs and that improved efficiency allowed him to compete with the Brits.

    o   Size mattered; only the larger mills were efficient enough to compete in this industry.

    ·         Family Mills

    o   Most mills opened in existing farm communities and hired entire families of people from nearby (thus why they are called family mills)

    o   Work force:

    §  50% kids (YO)

    §  25% Adult women

    §  25% Adult men (they got paid way more than the Women and Children)

    o   Most of the workforce came in search of better lives and rarely stayed long (they lost 50% of the workforce each year)

    o   Slater controlled his mill towns completely so the workers got mad and disagreed with how he ruled (they wanted a democracy).

    ·         “The American System of Manufactures”

    o   Many Americans invented their mill technology (instead of stealing from the Brits)

    o   Standardized parts: when something was made all of its parts came from the same mold so that every part fit every product (they wasted less; less waste=more money). Also made repairs easier; they just sold replacement parts instead of each part having to be made especially for a single product.

    o   Brits called this the American System.

    o   Also greatly sped up production.

    From Artisan to Worker

    ·         Personal Relationships

    o   Apprenticeship system was effectively replaced with child labor.

    o   This was empowering for the women and children, because they earned wages and women could kind of make choices for themselves.

    o   Southern slave owners compared the treatment of their slaves with the treatment of the workers in the Northern mills.

    o   Slaves were often cared for better than the factory workers of the North. (Slaves cost money whereas there were plenty of poor whites to replace factory workers). 

    ·         Mechanization and Women’s Work

    o   Industrialization and mechanization threatened skilled male workers.

    o   Mechanization created opportunities for women to work outside the home.

    o   The growing garment industry of the 1820s depended on cheap female labor.

    ·         Time, Work, and Leisure

    o   Before factory work the work day ended at sunset, but Slater demanded that people worked at night by candle light.

    o   Workers slowly adjusted, but still considered the owners of the mill and the communities’ tyrants.

    o   Time became divided between work and leisure. (Longer work day=less leisure time)

    o   Men started going to taverns after work and cities began to replace community wide celebrations with spectator sports.

    ·         The Cash Economy

    o   Shift from barter system to cash economy.

    o   The pay envelope was the only direct contact between owner and worker.

    o   Artisans had to move if they wanted to continue their craft, their other option being factory work.

    ·         Free Labor

    o   Free labor= hard work, self-discipline, and a striving for economic independence.

    o   Many factory workers argued that they weren’t really free because their voices were not heard.

    ·         Early Strikes

    o   Rural women led the first strikes against the American labor system.

    o   The strike at Lowell was one famous example of these strikes. Workers considered themselves mistreated, but the owner thought they were ungrateful.

    o   Most of these strikes were not completely unsuccessful.

    A New Social Order

    ·         Wealth and Class

    o   Social class always existed in America

    o   Market revolution downgraded some independent artisans and elevated others.

    o   New work patterns helped form distinctive attitudes of new middle class.

    ·         Religion and Personal Life

    o   Religion played a key role in the development of new attitudes.

    o   The 2nd Great Awakening had supplanted the orderly and intellectual Puritan religion of early New England.

    o   The 2nd Great Awakening was most successful on the western frontier, but it reached a new audience by the 1820s; it gave hope to the workers whose lives were changed by the market revolution.

    o   Women were particularly religious and prayed and pleaded to the men they lived with.

    ·         The New Middle-Class Family

    o   Economic changes lead to changes in family roles:

    §  Father the breadwinner

    §  Mother the nurturer

    §  Together raising children to successfully work.

    o   Production moved away from the family home and its members

    o   Catharine Beecher’s Treatise on Domestic Economy became the standard housekeeping guide for a generation of middle-class American women.

    o   As the work roles of middle-class men and women diverged, so did social attitudes about appropriate male and female characteristics and behavior.

    o   The maintenance or achievement of a middle-class lifestyle required the joint efforts of husband and wife.

    ·         Family Limitation

    o   Middle class chose to have fewer children, because now they cost more (education, training, care, etc.)

    o   They did so through methods of birth control although condoms were not used very often since most associated them with prostitution rather than family planning.

    o   Abortion began to be used as birth control in the 1830s (1 in 4 pregnancies ended in abortion), states found out about this and for some reason decided to ban it (20 states by 1860)

    o   Women were urged in books to tell their husbands to limit their sexuality for reasons of “morality”.

    o   This reduction in the amount of children people had is an example of how economic changes affect people personal lives.

    ·         Middle-Class Children

    o   The children of this time period were thought to need more nurturing, a job the mother would do.

    o   Mothers read magazines put out by churches to learn how to be a good parent.

    o   Children now started working later in their lives (unlike before where they went to work at 15). They really weren’t self-made men since the families were a route to success for them through money and training.

    ·         Sentimentalism

    o   The individualistic competitiveness engendered by the market revolution caused members of the new middle class to place emphasis on sincerity and feeling.

    o   For guidance women turned to the sentimental novel; thus women became more literate. The novels quickly became more popular than the sermons and essays that would have been read before.

    o   “Lady novelists” were looked down on in the writing world

    §  Susan Warner’s The Wide Wide World

    o   Sentimentalism developed into an etiquette for many occasions

    ·         Transcendentalism and Self-Reliance

    o   Transcendentalism is a group of ideas in literature and philosophy that developed in the 1830s and '40s as a protest against the general state of culture and society, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard University and the doctrine of the Unitarian church taught at Harvard Divinity School.

    o    Among transcendentalists' core beliefs was the belief in an ideal spirituality that "transcends" the physical and empirical and is realized only through the individual's intuition, rather than through the doctrines of established religions.

    o   People:

    §  Ralph Waldo Emerson

    §  Henry David Thoreau 

    §  Margaret Fuller

    Answers:
    1.) E
    2.) C
    3.) A
    4.) D
    5.) A
    6.) E
    7.) C
    8.) D
    9.) B
    10.) E
    11.) C
    12.) B
    13.) D
    14.) A 

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - Coming to Terms with the New Age

     

     

     

    1.       Women Reformers of Seneca Falls Respond to the Market Revolution

    a.       1848- Charlotte Woodward persuaded six of her friends to travel to Seneca Falls to attend a “convention to discuss the social, civil, and religious condition and rights of women.”

    b.      Surprisingly, almost 300 people (men and women) attended the 2 day meeting

    c.       Declaration of Sentiments- The resolutions passed at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 calling for full female equality, including the right to vote.

                                                                   i.      Men had originally deprived women of legal rights, of the right to their own property, of custody of their children in cases of divorce, of the right to higher education, of full participation in religious worship and activity, and of the right to vote.

                                                                 ii.      Attendees approved all but one of the resolutions unanimously. The last, which was voted against, was thought too radical.

    d.      The struggle for women’s rights was only one of many reform movements that emerged in the United States in the wake of the economic and social disruptions of the market revolution that deeply affected regions like Seneca Falls.

    e.        Many of the reformers belonged to liberal religious groups with wide social perspectives.

    f.        Seneca Falls- early 1840s- “Temperance Reformation”- a more limited, but extremely popular reform cause dedicated to promoting abstinence from alcohol.

    g.       Nation’s best-known woman reformer- Lucretia Mott

                                                                   i.      Well known antislavery orator- Elizabeth Cady Stanton

    h.      The reforming women of Seneca Falls, grouped together on behalf of social improvement, had found in the first women’s rights convention a way to speak for the needs of working women.

    2.       Immigration and Ethnicity

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.      The impact of the market revolution was most noticeable in cities because of immigration.

    b.      Patterns of Immigration

                                                                   i.      Immigration increased began in the 1820s and increased dramatically after 1830

    1.       20,000 in 1831 to 430,000in 1854

    2.       Declined in the years prior to the Civil War

    3.       Proportion of immigration in the population increased from 1.6% in 1820 to 11.2% in 1860.

    4.       By 1860, almost half New York’s population was foreign born

                                                                 ii.      Most of the immigrants came from Germany and Ireland.

    1.       Political unrest and poor economy in Germany

    2.       Potato Famine (1845-1849) in Ireland

    3.       Irish arrived poor

    4.       Most of the Irish and some of the Germans were Catholic and this provoked a nativist backlash among Protestant Americans

                                                                iii.      Industries needed immigrants for workers.

    1.       Many of the changes in industry and transportation that accompanied the market revolution would have been impossible without immigrants.

    2.       Irish contract workers—Erie Canal (1825)

    3.       Irish- Lowell Mill

                                                               iv.      Few immigrants had an easy or pleasant life in America

    1.       Endured harsh living and working conditions.

    2.       The state governments dealt with immigrants; not federal governments

    a.       New York did not establish an official reception center until 1855

    c.       Irish Immigration

                                                                   i.      The Irish had been emigrating to the United States long before the Potato Famine

    1.       Young people who wished to own land, but knew they could not in Ireland came to the US

                                                                 ii.      The British, who were governing Ireland as a colony, could not handle the Potato Famine

    1.       Irish were forced to either starve or die

    a.       1mil died, 1.5mil emigrated

    b.      They were starving, diseased (typhus), and poor

                                                                iii.      The Irish immigrants lacked the money to settle inland, so they settled in cities close to the New England Coast.

    1.       They settled in New York, but did not make a big difference.

    2.       Boston had a smaller population and there was a big difference there (by 1850, ¼ of population Irish).

    a.       Puritan-rich Boston did not appreciate the influx of illiterate Irish Catholic peasants.

                                                                                                                                           i.      “No Irish Need Apply” for jobs in the area.

    d.      German Immigration

                                                                   i.      By 1790, Germans made up 1/3 of Pennsylvania’s population.

                                                                 ii.      The typical German immigrant was a small farmer of artisan dealing with the same problems of the market revolution

                                                                iii.      Germans were not nearly as poor as the Irish

    1.       Germans could afford to move away from the coastal cities

                                                               iv.      Major ports Germans left from were Bremen (N. Germany) and Le Havre (N. France)

    1.       These ports were also the main ports for the importation of American tobacco and cotton

    a.       The tobacco ships took the immigrants to Baltimore and the cotton ships took them to New Orleans

                                                                 v.      Gold Rush in California drew in a lot of Chinese people

    1.       Chinese workers made up 90% of the people building the Central Pacific Railroad

    2.       San Francisco’s Chinatown is the oldest Chinese enclave in America

    e.      Ethnic Neighborhoods

                                                                   i.      Irish raised money to erect Catholic churches and schools

                                                                 ii.      Germans build their own “Little Germanies”

    1.       Formed leisure organizations and churches

    2.       Published German-language newspapers

                                                                iii.      Americans were suspicious of the ethnic neighborhoods

    f.        Ethnicity and Whiteness in Urban Popular Culture

                                                                   i.      1820-1860—New York experienced the replacement of artisanal labor with wagework, two serious depressions (1837-43 and 1857), and a large influx of immigrants

    1.       Response: violence

    a.       Brawls, riots, gangs

                                                                 ii.      Irish immigrants were depicted as monkeys similar to blacks, but Irish insisted on their “whiteness”

                                                                iii.      Astor Place Riot of 1849 began as a theater riot by Irish immigrants and escalated into a battle between mod and militia (22 dead)

                                                               iv.      Actors (mostly Irish) would paint their faces black and perform

    3.       Urban America

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.      It was within the new urban development that new American political and social forms began to emerge.

    b.      The Growth of Cities

                                                                   i.      The market revolution dramatically increased the size of America’s cities

    1.       7% in 1820, 20% in 1860

    a.       Largest population jump in American history

                                                                 ii.      Nation’s top five largest cities: New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, and New Orleans (New Orleans replaced Charleston from 1800)

                                                                iii.      New York- most populous city, largest port, and financial center of the nation.

                                                               iv.      Result of market revolution- “instant cities” at critical points in the new transportation network

    c.       Class Structure and Living Patterns in the Cities

                                                                   i.      Preindustrial cities in America had been small and compact to where people, rich and poor, lived near their workplace in a small scale housing pattern that encouraged friendliness

    1.       Growth of immigration changed that

                                                                 ii.      Although the per capita income had almost doubled between 1800 and 1850, the gap between rich and poor also increased greatly

    1.       The top 1% of the population owned 40% of the nation’s wealth while 1/3 of the population owned virtually nothing

    a.       Poor- unskilled working jobs, lived in cheap rented housing, moved frequently, depended on more than one income

    b.      Artisans and skilled workers- liked in cramped quarters that doubled as shops

    c.       Middle class- nice houses

    d.      Rich- mansions and townhouses with servants, multiple houses

    2.       “Streetcar suburbs”

                                                                iii.      Sanitation was a big problem

    1.       Lacked municipal water supplies, sewers, and garbage collection

    a.       People drank from wells, used outhouses that often contaminated the water supply, and threw garbage out the door

                                                                                                                                           i.      Yellow fever, cholera, typhus

    2.       Some cities completed water systems, but only the wealthy could afford them

    3.       When disease epidemics hit, rich people usually left the area

                                                               iv.      Slums developed as middle class families left the area

    1.       Worst slum in New York was Five Points

    2.       Immigrants, free blacks, criminals

    3.       Starvation and murder were common

    4.       Diseases were blamed on the slums

    d.      Civic Order

                                                                   i.      The challenges of the middle class were publicized by political papers and popular “penny papers” (began 1833)

    1.       These challenges were the inspiration for authors like Democratic Party activist and poet, Walt Whitman (Leaves of Grass, 1855)

    2.       Edgar Allen Poe wrote “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” (1841) and “The Mystery of Marie Roget” (1842) about contemporary American crimes

                                                                 ii.      Working-class used the streets for parades, celebrations, and marches.

    1.       New Orleans was most notable for this

    a.       African American bands played funeral processions

    b.      Dances in Congo Square attracted hundreds of slaves

    2.       Choctaw Indians drummed

    3.       Respectable middle-class men rang cowbells as they took part in rowdy protests

                                                                iii.      New York’s New Year’s Eve “frolics”

    1.       Members of the lower class paraded through the streets playing music

    2.       By 1828, the event was taken over by gangs who walked through the city vandalizing it.

    3.       1829- parade was banned

                                                               iv.      New York’s first response to violence was to hire more city watchmen

    1.       Militia was called to restrain riots

    a.       Deaths were common

    2.       1845- NY created a permanent police force

                                                                 v.      Beginning in 1830s, series of riots broke out against Catholics (Irish) and free blacks

    e.      Urban Life of Free African Americans

                                                                   i.      ½ mil free blacks by 1860 (11% of black population)

    1.       More than half lived in North

    a.       Competed with immigrants and poor people for jobs

                                                                 ii.      Free African Americans faces discrimination and segregation

    1.       Residential segregation, pervasive job discrimination, segregated public schools, severe limitations of civil rights

    2.       Exclusion from leisure activities and places and public transportation

    a.       Frederick Douglass was denied admittance to a zoo, a public lecture, a restaurant, and a public omnibus all within a span of a few days

                                                                iii.      African Americans, like the Irish and German, created their own communities

    1.       Formed associations for helping the poor of their community, self-improvement, and socializing

    2.       Established their own newspapers

    3.       Major community organization- African Methodist Episcopal (AME) or black Baptist

                                                               iv.      Employment prospects for black men deteriorated

    1.       Forced from jobs and sons were denied apprenticeships

    2.       Blacks made up a large portion of sailors

    a.       Pay was poor, conditions were miserable

    b.      More equality on ships than land

    3.       Women worked as domestic servants, washerwomen, and seamstresses

                                                                 v.      Free African Americans worked to help slaves

    1.       There were many riots against the free blacks themselves also

    a.       Philadelphia- “City of Brotherly Love”  was the worst

    4.       The Labor Movement and Urban Policies

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.      Traditional political leadership of wealthy elite was replaced by professional politicians.

    b.      The Tradition of Artisanal Politics

                                                                   i.      Urban centers had been strongholds of craft associations for artisans and skilled workers

    1.       Workers’ organizations were strong and solid

                                                                 ii.      Riots and demonstrations over matters simple and complex were traditions by workers

    1.       Urban workers had been an integral part of the older social order controlled by the wealthy elite.

                                                                iii.      By the 1830s, the status of the artisans and independent craftsmen in the nation’s cities had changed

                                                               iv.      Open antagonism between workers and employers was new

    1.       Workers realized they had to depend on other workers, not their employers, for support.

    c.       The Union Movement

                                                                   i.      Urban worker protests took forms of party politics

    1.       The Workingmen’s Party (founded in Philadelphia 1827)

    a.       “Workies” campaigned for 10 hour day and the preservation of the small artisanal shop

    b.      Jacksonian Democrats picked up on their themes

                                                                                                                                           i.      Neither major political party really spoke for the workers

    1.       Unhappy with the political parties, workers turned to labor organizations

                                                                 ii.      Between 1833 and 1837 there was a wave of strikes in NY

    1.       Workers wanted higher wages and the strike was won because a bunch of other workers helped

    2.       Formed General Trades Union (GTU) in 9 different trades

    a.       Forty strikes  between 1833 and 1837

    b.      Formation of more than 50 unions

    3.       Formed National Trades Union (NTU)

                                                                iii.      Employers very upset with Unions

    1.       One case in NY,  employers took tailors to court over strikes

    a.       Judge Ogden Edwards declared the strikers guilty of conspiracy and declared unions un-American

    b.      GTU responded with a burned effigy of Edwards

    c.       GTU collapsed during the Panic of 1837

                                                               iv.      Early unions included only white men in skilled trades

    1.       Made up only a small portion of all workers

    2.       Majority of workers were excluded

    d.      Big-City Machines

                                                                   i.      Workers were not able to create strong unions or political parties that favored their interests, but they managed to shape urban politics

    1.       As population grew, so did the number of voters

    a.       Half of the voters were foreign born by 1855

                                                                                                                                           i.      There was a big difference between the immediate immigrant suffrage and the continuing restrictions on African Americans

    b.      At the time, America was the only nation where property less white men had the right to vote

                                                                 ii.      Old system of leadership= social unity of eighteenth century cities; new machine system= class structure of nineteenth century cities

    1.       Feelings of community were now cultivated politically

    2.       Legally, three years of residence were required before citizenship, but evidence of faster naturalization was evident

    3.       Irish typically were Democrats while Germans, who were less politically active, voted Republican

    a.       Irish and Germans destroyed the Whig party

                                                                iii.      Tammany Society- a fraternal organization of artisans begun in the 1780s that evolved into a key organization of the new mass politics in New York City

    1.       Affiliated with Democrats

    2.       Parades, rallies, current songs, party newspapers

                                                               iv.      Tight system of political control beginning at the neighborhood level with ward committees and topped by a chairman of a citywide general committee

                                                                 v.      Machine politics- bosses, at the citywide level, bartered the loyalty and votes of their followers for positions on the city payroll for party members and community services for their neighborhood

    1.       The machines offered personal ties and loyalties to recent arrivals in big cities and help during hard times to the workers who voted for them

                                                               vi.      Critics said the big-city machines were corrupt; they often were

    5.       Social Reform Movements

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.      Middle class people tried to deal with the social changes in their community by joining groups dedicated to reforms.

                                                                 ii.      Printing presses greatly intensified the messages of the reforms.

    b.      Evangelism, Reform, and Social Control

                                                                   i.      The Evangelical religion was fundamental to social reform

    1.       Evangelismàpersonal reformàsocial reform

    2.       “perfectionism”—it was possible for all Christians to personally understand and live by God’s will and thereby become “as perfect as God”

    3.       Members of evangelistic religions really expected to convert the world and create the perfect moral and religious community on earth

                                                                 ii.      The new middle class set the agenda for reform

    1.       Reformers realized that large cities had to make large-scale provisions for social misfits and that institutional (i.e. insane asylums) rather than private efforts were needed

                                                                iii.      Moralistic dogmatism

    1.       They knew they were right and intended to see improvements enacted

    2.       People did not always want to be the subject of the reformers concern

                                                               iv.      Evangelical reformers promoted dangerous hostility towards Catholics (Irish and German immigrants

    1.       Sought uniformity rather than tolerance

    a.       Strong nativism infected American politics between 1840-60

                                                                 v.      Regional and national reform organizations grew from local projects to dealing with drinking, prostitution, mental illness, and crime

    1.       Lyman Beecher- General Union for Promoting the Observance of the Christian Union

    a.       Beecher also leader of anti-Catholic and anti-immigration movement

                                                               vi.      Sabbatarianism- reform movement that aimed to prevent business on Sundays

    1.       Controversial

    a.       6-day workers upset that their taverns were forced closed on Sundays

    b.      Were unable to stop the traffic of passenger and freight boats

    c.       Education and Women Teachers

                                                                   i.      Women became involved in reform movements through their churches

    1.       Women got together to talk about how to raise their children—reflected a new and more positive definition of childhood

    2.       Puritans believed children were born with sin and punishment was harsh and physical. 

    a.       Educational reformers believed children needed gentle nurturing and encouragement

                                                                 ii.      Schooling for white children aged 5-19 was common

    1.       Term only a month or so long

    2.       Uniformity in curriculum and grading spread rapidly to other states

                                                                iii.      The spread of public education created the first real career opportunity for women

    1.       Grades separated by age were created

    2.       Wanted to create a friendly atmosphere

    a.       Who better than women?

                                                               iv.      Women usually taught in years between their own schooling and marriage

    1.       Though teaching was an adventure

    2.       Half the pay as male teachers

    3.       Teaching was appealing for marriage prospects

    d.      Temperance

                                                                   i.      American Society for the Promotion of Temperance- Largest reform organization of its time dedicated to ending the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages

                                                                 ii.      Temperance- Reform movement originating in the 1820s that sought to eliminate the consumption of alcohol

    1.       Social and political issue

                                                                iii.      Excessive drinking was a national problem

    1.       Women did not normally drink in public

    2.       Drinking was a part of a man’s typical working life

    3.       They drank FOUR TIMES as much as we do now!!!! (Holy cow..)

                                                               iv.      Reasons against it

    1.       Spending money on alcohol impeded families economically

    a.       Women could not control the money of the family legally

    b.      Divorce was difficult and socially unacceptable

    2.       Drinking led to violence and crime (within the family and in society)

    3.       New industrial machinery was dangerous and workers needed to be sober to operate them

    a.       Employers eventually banned alcohol at work

                                                                                                                                           i.      Also found workers who drank unreliable and immoral

                                                                 v.      Whigs favored it, Democrats were opposed

                                                               vi.      Germans and Irish were hostile towards the temperance movement

                                                              vii.      Panic of 1837

    1.       Most men had to cut back on drinking in order to survive economically

                                                            viii.      Women’s groups stressed that alcoholism posed harm on families

                                                               ix.      By mid 1840s, alcohol consumption had been halved (about the level of today)

    e.      Moral Reforms, Asylums, and Prisons

                                                                   i.      Female Moral Reform Society- antiprostitution group founded by evangelical women in New York in 1834

    1.       Evangelical believers believed that prostitutes needed to be saved and offered them salvation and shelter and real jobs

    2.       Surprising that so many women were willing to recognize something so distasteful

                                                                 ii.      Asylum movement- Dorothea Dix

    1.       1843- Told Mass. state legislature about the things insane women were subjected to (housing with criminals)

    2.       Her efforts established insane asylum in Massachusetts

    a.       She went on to publicize the movement

                                                                                                                                           i.      By 1860, 28 states had insane asylums

                                                                iii.      Reformers were active in prison reform, establishment of orphanages, homes of refuge, and hospitals

    f.        Utopianism and Mormonism

                                                                   i.      Seneca Falls Convention- The first convention for women’s equality in legal rights, held in upstate New York in 1848

                                                                 ii.      Shakers- The followers of Mother Ann Lee, who preached a religion of strict celibacy and communal living

    1.       Opposite them was the Oneida community (John Humphrey Noyes) who practiced “complex marriage” of very high sexual activity.

    a.       Only few “spiritually advanced” men could father children, who were raised by everyone

                                                                iii.      Millerites (William Miller) believed the Second Coming of Christ would be on October 22, 1843

    a.       Members sold their belongings and bought white robes for their ascension into heaven

    b.      Never happened- most followers drifted away

                                                                                                                                           i.      Small group of them left, those are Seventh-Day Adventists (still active today)

                                                               iv.      Transcendental Wild Oats (Louisa May Alcott)

                                                                 v.      Joseph Smith founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints based off the Book of Mormon

    1.       Mormons believed in polygamy

    a.       Outsiders did not like that

                                                                                                                                           i.      Faced discrimination and were forced out of places such as New York

    6.       Antislavery and Abolitionism

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.      Free African Americans, Quakers, and militant white reformers sought an end to slavery

                                                                 ii.      By 1800, slavery had been either abolished or gradual emancipation was enacted in most of the Northern states.

    b.      The American Colonization Society

                                                                   i.      First attempt to “solve” slavery was a plan for gradual emancipation and resettlement in Africa

    1.       American Colonization Society- an organization, founded in 1817 by anti-slavery reformers, that called the removal of freed blacks to Africa

                                                                 ii.      Most Northerners were happy to send their free blacks to Africa because they were ignorant, degraded, miserable, mentally diseased, and broken-spirited.

                                                                iii.      This society was terribly ineffective; more slaves were born in a week than they sent to Africa in a year.

    c.       African Americans’ Fight Against Slavery

                                                                   i.      Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World- written by David Walker, a published insistence that “America is more our country, than it is the whites’—we have enriched it with our blood and tears.”

                                                                 ii.      Most free blacks rejected colonization and demanded the immediate end to slavery and equality among races.

                                                                iii.      Famous African American abolitionists—Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth

                                                               iv.      First African American newspaper (Freedom’s Journal) founded in 1827 by John Russwurm and Samuel Cornish

    d.      Abolitionists

                                                                   i.      Best known group of antislavery reformers was headed by William Lloyd Garrison

    1.       Began publishing his own newspaper- Liberator

    2.       Garrison demanded the immediate abolishment of slavery        

    a.       Though he did not expect all slaves to be free at one time at that moment, but he wanted everyone to see the immorality of slavery

    3.       Theodore Weld joined Garrison in 1833 and formed the American Antislavery Society

                                                                 ii.      Slavery enraged many Northerners

    1.       Many read Theodore Weld’s American Slavery As It Is (1839)

    a.       Based in part of the recollections of Angelina Grimké whom he had married

                                                                iii.      Abolitionists produces millions of antislavery tracts and sent them to southern states

    1.       South banned antislavery literature and burned the tracts

    2.       Encouraged the harassment of people distributing it

    3.       Georgia legislature offered $5,000 to anyone to kidnap Garrison so he could stand trial for inciting rebellion

    4.       States reacted by toughening laws on and about slaves

                                                               iv.      Controversy over slavery was common even in the north

    1.       Activists faced riots and physical attacks on their lives

    e.      Abolitionism and Politics

                                                                   i.       “gag rule” (1836) prohibited discussion of antislavery petitions

                                                                 ii.      Although abolitionists groups raised the nation’s emotional temperature, they failed to achieve moral unity

    1.       White and black abolitionists split

    a.       Frederic Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison

    2.       Though Quakers were activists for antislavery, they still maintained segregated seating in churches

    3.       While they liked the idea of no slavery, they were still not comfortable with equality

                                                                iii.      1840—abolitionist movement formally split

                                                               iv.      Liberty Party- The first antislavery political party, formed in 1840

    7.       The Women’s Rights Movement

    a.       Introduction

                                                                   i.       Because women could not vote or be active in the government, they had some activity in social reforms.

    1.       Some women even formed all-female chapters of the reforms so they could implement their own policies and programs

                                                                 ii.      The majority of women did not participate in reforms because they were busy with housekeeping and taking care of their children.

                                                                iii.      Few women (who had servants) had the time and energy to participate in extra activities.

    b.      The Grimké Sisters

                                                                   i.       Sarah and Angelina Grimké were members of a wealthy South Carolina Slave-holding family

    1.       They did not accept these views and went to live in a Quaker community near Philadelphia

                                                                 ii.      The sisters had become the first female public speakers in America because they would speak about their experiences with slavery to antislavery groups

    1.       They were criticized for speaking because they were women

    2.       Women in the antislavery movement constantly struggled to be heard

                                                                iii.      A group of ministers reprimanded the sisters for stepping out of their bubble of silence.

    1.       Sarah responded that women and man are created equal and whatever is right for a man to do is right for a woman.

                                                               iv.      Women were normally granted a secondary role in these reforms, even when the majority of members were women

    c.       Women’s Rights

                                                                   i.       The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 was the first women’s rights convention in American history

                                                                 ii.      Over the years, in response to persistent petition, states passed laws more favorable to women

    1.       More jobs opened to women

    2.       Women gained the right to vote in some states (first was Wyoming territory in 1869)

                                                                iii.      1920 (22 years after universal women’s suffrage was proposed at Seneca Falls) the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote.

    8.       Conclusion

    a.        The market revolution changed the size and social order of America’s cities

    b.      Immigration, rapid population growth, and changes in working life and class structure contributed to problems

                                                                   i.      These problems came on so quickly that they were overwhelming

                                                                 ii.      Old methods of social control didn’t work

    1.       New associations were created to fill the gap

    c.       Americans came to terms with the market revolution by engaging in a passion for improvement

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - The Territorial Expansion of the United States

     

     

    INTRO: TEXANS AND TEJANOS “REMEMBER THE ALAMO!”

    ·         Thirteen days within February and March 1836:

    o   187 Texans held the fortress, the Alamo, against the siege of 5,000 Mexican troops.

    §  The President of Mexico: General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

    §  The reason he came was to subdue the “rebellious Texas”

    o   March 6th: The final assault

    §  Claimed 1,500 Mexican lives

    §  All of the Alamo’s defenders were killed. Including:

    ·         Commander William Travis

    ·         Well known frontiersmen Jim Bowie and Davy Crokett

    o   Although the defense of the fort failed, the battle rallied and spurred remaining forces to route the Mexican army and force Santa Anna to grant Texas independence.

     

    ·         Tejanos: Spanish-Speaking people born in Texas

    o   1820s: The Mexican government established and authorized several American colonies (concentrated in the central and eastern portions of Texas).

    §  These colonies were managed by empresarios (land agents)

    o   These settler communities consisted of farmers from the Mississippi Valley.

    §  They introduced slavery and cotton growing to coastal and upland Texas.

    o   Few remembered that a lot of Tejanos joined American settlers to fight for independence.

    o    

    New France:

    ·         In the 17th century, France was determined to monopolize northern fur trade

    ·         In 1605, Samuel de Champlain, acted as an agent of a royal monopoly.

    o   First set up outpost on the Bay of Fundy (province of Acadia)

    §  Proved impossible to control coastal trade

    o   In 1608, Champlain founded Quebec on the St. Laurence River

    §  This geographic area controlled the trafficking of fur trade

    ·         Champlain forged an alliance with the Huron Indians, who controlled the rich fur grounds of the Great Lakes.

    o   In 1610, he joined the Hurons to make war against their traditional enemies, the Five Nation Iroquois Confederacy. 

    ·         St. Laurence River was a great roadway leading directly to the American center and provided a great geographical and political advantage.

    EXPLORING THE WEST

    ·         By 1840, America has expanded to all of the land east of the Mississippi River and organized all of it (aside from Florida and Wisconsin) into states.

    ·         Nine of the ten states that were admitted between 1800s and 1840s were west of the Appalachian Mountains.

    ·         The market revolution, expansion of transportation, and commerce caused the rapid expansion.

    o   Because of the speed and success of the expansion spurred national pride and greed of further expansion.

    The Fur Trade

    ·         The fur trade was an important part of exploration in North America.

    ·         British/French Canada:

    o   In the 1670s, the rivaling British Hudson’s Bay Company and French Canadian’s Montreal North West Company began exploring the Great Lakes (in the Canadian West).

    o   Both companies depended on the natives’ cooperation and goodwill for the help of searching for beaver pelts.

    §  Natives such as the Blackfeet, Ventres, and the Crees moved freely across the present US-Canadian border.

    §  Metis: A mix-raced group that descended from European men with native women.

    o   The British-dominated fur trade was an important aspect in international trade.

    §  Americans wanted to part of this fur trade

    §  In 1803, Jefferson set out Lewis and Clark west to challenge the British dominance.

    ·         Challenging the British fur trade dominance:

    o   In 1824, William Henry Ashley instituted the “rendezvous system”

    §  “Rendezvous System”: A yearly trade fair held in the Rocky Mountains, where trappers can bring their furs.

    §  This system was based off of Indian trade gatherings

    §  The system was a multi-day affair and was held for many nationalities: from Mexicans from Santa Fe to Americans.

    ·         Activities would include gambling, drinking, and trading.

    o   American Mountain Men (trap and prepare for the trade): The only contact made to American Society was during the rendezvous.

    o   British and French Trappers: Sought friendship with the Natives. Nearly half married native women for the help of the trapping and preparing the pelts and diplomatic links between white and Indian societies.

    §  One trapper adapted so well to the point where he became the Crow Chief: African American Jim Beckwourth.

    o   The American fur trade was short lived by the 1840s.

    §  The beaver population was severely depleted.

    o   Jerdiah Smith: first American to enter California over the Sierra Nevada. He gave a clear picture to the mountain men of western geography.

    Government Sponsored Exploration

    ·         The federal government played a major part in exploration of the west.

    o   The Lewis and Clark expedition (1804-1806) set many government financed quasi-military expeditions.

    o   In 1806-1807, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike led an expedition to the Rocky Mountains in Colorado.

    o   In 1819-1820, Major Stephen Long explored and mapped the Great Plains.

    §  His exploration was meant to scare British traders out of the West.

    o   In 1843-1844, John C. Fremont mapped the overland trails to Oregon and California.

    o   Western exploration still continued after the Civil War.

    §  1869 Grand Canyon exploration (Major Wesley Powell)

    ·         Results of the surveys were published by the government:

    o   Included: Maps and illustrations (after the Civil War, photographs)

    o   The scenery of the West fed the appetite to see the breathtaking scenery and information of the natives.

    §  Artists traveled with government expeditions and went home to paint stunning paintings of landscapes such as Yosemite Valley and Yellowstone River.

    §  The paintings created an emergence of American self-image

    o   In the wake of the pathfinders came hundreds of government geologists and botanists, mapping the land sold in the Land Ordinance of 1785 and given away to veterans of the War of 1812, with the federal government taking charge of removing the Indians in those areas.

    ·         Expansion and Indian Policy

    o   Eastern Indian tribes were being moved to Indian Territory (Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska), popularly called the Great American Desert and thought of as unfarmable. Though made so whites could live without the natives, the government misunderestimated westward expansion.

    o   Settlers crossed Indian Territory on the Santa Fe trail; the Overland Trails to California, Oregon, and Mormon Utah. Northern Indian Territory was abolished and the tribes there were pressured to move onto smaller reservations or take private land (which they would then be pressured to sell), losing their autonomy.

    o   The southern tribes—Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole—divided the land and established their own nations, very similar to American communities, also bringing along slavery. They were able to resist pressure until after the Civil War.

    o   Removing Eastern tribes did not solve the “Indian problem”. Nomadic Great Plains tribes, the tribes of the Rockies, and farming tribes in the Southwest remained. Western settlers ignored these.

    The Politics of Expansion

    ·         Manifest Destiny: An Expansionist Ideology

    o   Manifest destiny, first termed by journalist John O’Sullivan in the Democratic Review (Democratic Party paper), argued that Americans had a god-given right to expand democracy, by force if needed.

    o   Manifest destiny was accompanied by the idea that American prosperity needed increased trade with Asia, which could occur far more easily if America owned the west coast.

    o   Democrats supported expansion, Whigs opposed, fearing slavery would extend to the new territories.

    o   Democrats opposed the industrialization Whigs supported, supporting Thomas Jefferson’s idea of expanding agriculture as a counterbalance to industry, including Southern cotton expansion

    ·         The Overland Trials

    o   2000 mile trip from the Missouri River to Oregon to California; took 7 months or more of slow, dangerous travel; pioneers often arrived with little food and belongings, forced to discard them to lighten their load; 5,000 settlers in Oregon by 1845 and 3,000 in California in 1848.

    o   Pioneers motivated by promises of health, wealth, and adventure.

    o   Pioneers traveled with family and in trains ward off Indian attack to protect against Indian attacks and to cooperate to ford rivers and cross mountains.

    o   Wagon trains moved as the pastures turned green (livestock feed). Men took care of moving equipment and animals, women cooked and kept track of children. The wagon moved at about 15 mi a day, facing many natural obstacles (wagons such as the Donner party often succumbed).

    Wagon trains were more threatened by illness and accident than by Indian attacks.

    AP Question
    C
    E
    D
    B
    C
    E
    C
    D
    A
    B
    C
    E
    A
    E
     

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - The Coming Crisis

     

     

    Lincoln-Douglas Debates

    Series of seven debates in the 1858 Illinois senatorial campaign during which Douglas and Lincoln staked out their differing opinions on the issue of slavery

    I.                    America in 1850

    a.       Expansion and Growth

                                                                i.      War and diplomacy caused America to triple in size

                                                              ii.      890,000 square miles to 3 million square miles

                                                             iii.      Population increased from 5.3 million in 1800 to 23 million (4 million African Americans, 2 million immigrants) in 1850

                                                            iv.      16 states in 1800, 31 states in 1850

    b.      Politics, Culture, and National Identity

                                                                i.      “Manifest destiny” was a model for liberal revolutions throughout Europe

    1.       Italy, France, Germany, Hungary, and parts of Austrian Empire

    2.       Lajos Kossuth – famed Hungarian revolutionary; visited the US in 1851

                                                              ii.      American Renaissance

    1.       Burst of creative activity in writing

    2.       Nathanial Hawthorne: “Young Goodman Brown”, The Scarlet Letter, and The House of the Seven Gables showed the hypocrisy of Puritan NE

    3.       Poets with unrhymed and “off-rhyme” verse: Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson

    4.       Herman Melville: Moby Dick used to critique the evil American society

    5.       Frederick Douglas’ autobiography: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglas was about his brutal life as a slave

    6.       Harriet Beecher Stowe: Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1851)

    a.       Combined the literary style of the then-popular women’s domestic novels with vivid details of slavery culled from firsthand accounts byf northern abolitionists and escaped slaves

    b.      Christ-like slave Uncle Tom patiently endured the cruel treatment of his slave-owner Simon Legree

    c.       All time American best seller in proportion to population

    II.                  Compromise of 1850

    a.       Political Parties and Slavery

                                                                i.      Politicians attempted to create an organized party structures that overrode deeply-rooted sectional differences

                                                              ii.      Failed: by 1848, sectional interests were the most important again

                                                             iii.      Religious groups were split based upon opinion of slavery

    1.       Presbyterians in 1837, Methodists in 1844, and the Baptists in 1845

                                                            iv.      Theodore Weld, abolitionist leader, said the splits were inevitable

    b.      Congressional Debate

                                                                i.      Preceded the Compromise of 1850

    1.        Henry Clay (west)

    a.       Argued for compromise

    2.       John Calhoun (south)

    a.       Believed South had the right to secede if necessary

    b.      Argued using Nullification Crisis

    c.       Congress did not have the right to prohibit slavery in territories because they were common property of all the states

    3.       Daniel Webster (north)

    a.       Rejected southern claims that secession was possible or desirable

                                                              ii.      President Zachary Taylor died of acute gastroenteritis during the middle of the debate

                                                             iii.      “Slave Power”

    1.       Used first by Liberty Party leader James Birney in 1844

    2.       Claimed a group of aristocratic slave owners conspired to control federal government and national politics

    c.       Two Communities, Two Perspectives

                                                                i.      Both regions (north and south) supported expansion

                                                              ii.      Used basic rights/liberties to defend their opinion on expansion

    1.       North spoke of personal liberties

    2.       South meant their right own a particular type of property such as slaves

                                                             iii.      Created fixed stereotypes of each other

    1.       South was labeled as an “economic backwater” that was dominated by a few slave-owning men  that lived off the profits of forced labor

    2.       North was labeled as hypocritical because their factory workers were practically slaves (“wage slavery”) and they relied on goods produced in the south (cotton)

    d.      Compromises

                                                                i.      Popular sovereignty

    1.       Solution to the slavery crisis suggested by Michigan senator Lewis Cass by which territorial residents, not Congress, would decide slavery’s fate

                                                              ii.      Compromise of 1850

    1.       5 separate bills embodying 3 separate compromises

    a.       Admitted California as a free state

    b.      Allowed the residents of New Mexico and Utah territories to decide the slavery issue for themselves

    c.       Ended the slave trade in DC

    d.       Passed a new fugitive slave law

    e.      Fugitive Slave Act

                                                                i.      North encouraged slaves to escape and promised assistance/support

                                                              ii.      Northern free African Americans were often taken from their community and shipped south back into slavery: Solomon Northup, Twelve Years a Slave

                                                             iii.      Fugitive Slave Law

    1.       Required the authorities in the North to assist southern slave catchers and return runaway slaves to their owners

    2.       Fugitives were guaranteed a hearing before a federal commissioner

    3.       Imposed federal penalties on citizens who protected or assisted fugitives

                                                            iv.      As result, 30,000 to 40,000 Blacks immigrated to upper Canada

                                                              v.      Boston was famous for abolitionists storming into courthouses, retrieving the convicted slave, and sending him or her to Canada; Webster and Filmore called it “mob rule”

    1.       Shadrach Minkind

    2.       Anthony Burns (failed attempt)

                                                            vi.      Frederick Douglas supported armed resistance

                                                           vii.      More and more northerners thought slavery was wrong and immoral

    f.        Election of 1852

                                                                i.      Whigs struggled to find a suitable party-head and finally decided on William Seward of NY

    1.       Seward preferred General Winfield Scott, a military hero like the party’s 2 previous candidates, to the pro-Southern Fillmore and managed to get him nominated

                                                              ii.      Democrats had more options

    1.       Lewiss Cass, Stephen Douglas, James Buchanan, and Franklin Pierce

    2.       Campaigns included pledging “faithful execution” to the Compromise of 1850

                                                             iii.      Democrats received support in North and South

                                                            iv.      Pierce won the election

    g.       “Young America” : The Politics of Expansion

                                                                i.      Young American movement began as a group of writers and politicians in the NY Democratic Party who believed in the democratic and nationalistic promise of “manifest destiny”

                                                              ii.      Goals were to conquer Central America and Cuba

                                                             iii.      Private “filibusters” invaded Caribbean and Central American countries, mostly to proclaim the extension of slave territory

                                                            iv.      William Walker

    1.       Led 3 invasions of Nicaragua

    2.       Regional revolt in 1857

    3.       Captured and executed by firing squad in Honduras

                                                              v.      Pierce’s attempts at expansion

    1.        authorized minister Pierre Soule to Spain to purchase Cuba for $130 million

    2.       Secret Ostend Manifesto, proclaiming the deep affinities between Cuba and America, was leaked and the Pierce administration repealed it

          3. Dispatched Commodore Matthew Perry across the Pacific to Japan, which resulted in a commercial treaty that opened Japan (which was traditionally hostile to outsiders) to American trade in 1854

    III.                The Crisis of the National Party System

    a.       The Kansas-Nebraska Act

                                                                i.      Law passed in 1854 creating the Kansas and Nebraska territories but leaving the question of slavery open to residents, thereby repealing the Missouri Compromise

                                                              ii.      Introduced by Stephen Douglas in order to further the Transcontinental Railroad to California

                                                             iii.      Strained the political parties: Southern Whigs were in favor, Northern Whigs were not

                                                            iv.      300 anti-Nebraska rallies broke out in the North

                                                              v.      Kansas 1854, Indians either: agreed to relocate to small reservations elsewhere, sold their land to the whites, or kept the western portion of the territory until Gold was discovered there in 1859

    b.      “Bleeding Kansas”

                                                                i.      Missourians (proslavery) were the first to migrate and settle in Kansas

    1.       Established Leavenworth, Kickapoo, and Atchison

    2.       They had many fraudulent elections in attempt to politically control Kansas

    3.       Majority were “border ruffians” - crazy, obnoxious frontiersman

                                                              ii.      New Englanders established free-soil towns such as Lawrence

                                                             iii.      Groups were complete opposites and clashed, creating a bloody battleground

    1.       Free-Soilers in Lawrence received weapons from eastern supporters in boxes marked “BOOKS”

    2.       Border ruffians were already armed and called for reinforcements from the South

                                                            iv.      Border ruffians burned and looted the Free-Soil town of Lawrence

                                                              v.      John Brown, a Free-Soiler, led his sons in a raid of the proslavery areas of Pottawatomie Creek, killing 5 unarmed people

                                                            vi.      Burnings and killings were common and peaceful residents were forced to take refuge at military camps

    c.       Politics of Nativism

                                                                i.      Violence throughout the Nation was common (ie. New York, New Orleans, Chicago) and was caused by the sectional breakup of the Whig Party

                                                              ii.      Whigs disapproved of the immigrants

    1.       Poor, Catholic, and disdainful of the temperance movement

    2.       Did not support revolutions, which many Americans took pride in

    3.       Felt they caused an increase in crime and rising cost of relief for the poor

                                                             iii.      Know-Nothings (American Party)

    1.       Anti-immigrant party formed from the broken Whig Party and some dissatisfied Northern Democrats in 1854

    2.       When questioned about their beliefs, party members maintained secrecy by responding “I know nothing”

    3.       Won many northern state elections (ie. Massachusetts, Pennsylvania)

    4.       By 1855, the party split based on differing sectional opinions regarding slavery

                                                            iv.      Republican Party

    1.       Party that emerged in 1854 in the aftermath of the bitter controversy over the Kansas-Nebraska Act, consisting of former Whigs, northern democrats, and many Know-Nothings

    d.      The Republican Party and the Election of 1856

                                                                i.      Adopted the economic views of the old Whig party: merchants and industrialists who wanted a strong national government to promote economic growth

                                                              ii.      The new Republican Party quickly established because of the sectional crisis

                                                             iii.      While the Democrat Party was falling apart due to ill support in the North, the Republican Party and Know-Nothings continued to grow

                                                            iv.      Candidates of 1856 election: Democratic James Buchanan vs. Republican explorer John Fremont vs. Know-Nothing’s Millard Fillmore

                                                              v.      Buchanan won because he was the only national candidate

                                                            vi.      Republicans were close, but accepted “victorious defeat” because they knew they only needed support from 2 more states and would wait it out

    IV.                The Differences Deepen

    a.       The Dred Scott Decision

                                                                i.      Dred Scott v. Sanford

    1.        Dred Scott, a lifelong slave, was taken on military assignments to free states Illinois and Wisconsin by his master John Emerson

    2.       Scott met and married another slave named Harriet during that time and they had a daughter named Eliza, who was born in a free territory

    3.       Emerson took Scott and his family back to Missouri (slave state) and Scott sued for his freedom as well as his family’s

    4.       It took 11 years to reach the Supreme Court

                                                              ii.      Chief Justice Roger B. Taney declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional and asserted that the federal government had no right to interfere with the free movement of property throughout the territories. He then dismissed the Dred Scott case altogether, stating that only citizens could bring suits before federal courts and black people were not considered citizens.

    1.       All southern Supreme Court members and one Northerner (Grier) supported Taney’s decision

    2.       Historians found that Buchanan had pressured Grier into voting with the majority

                                                             iii.      The Southerners supported this decision while the Northerners disagreed

                                                            iv.      Republicans thought the decision foreshadowed the future expansion of slavery

    1.       Both Abraham Lincoln and William Seward accused President Buchanan of conspiring with the southern Supreme Court judges

    b.      The Lecompton Constitution

                                                                i.      Proslavery draft written in 1857 by Kansas territorial delegates elected under questionable circumstances

                                                              ii.      It was rejected by two governors, supported by President Buchanan (he wanted to ensure southern Democratic support) , and decisively defeated by Congress (particularly Stephen Douglas; he believed it violated the principle of popular sovereignty and that the Kansas citizens were not represented properly due to fraudulent elections)

                                                             iii.      Kansas was admitted as a Free State in January 1861, causing more bloodshed within the region

    1.       Sporadic ambushes and killings

    2.       Mass shootings of free-soilers

    3.       Free-for-all involving thirty congressman broke out in the House

    c.       The Panic of 1857

                                                                i.      Banking crisis that caused a credit crunch in the North; less severe in the South, where high cotton prices spurred a quick recovery

    1.       Senator James Henry Hammond of South Carolina gloated about the South’s economic superiority in his “King Cotton” speech in 1858

                                                              ii.      Technology played a part: in 1857, the failure of an Ohio investment house was broadcasted to Wall Street and other financial markets, resulting in many people frantically selling, causing business failure and unemployment

                                                             iii.      Cause: a sharp, but temporary, downturn in agricultural exports to Britain, and recovery was well under way in early 1859

    d.      John Brown’s Raid

                                                                i.      John Brown: Self-proclaimed avenger who slaughtered many proslavery men in Kansas in 1856

                                                              ii.      Brown wanted to cause a slave uprising and believed he would receive support once he sparked the interests of the slaves

                                                             iii.      His attempt, the planned raid of the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, VA, in 1859 failed

    1.       Led 22 white and black men against the arsenal, but made no provision to escape

    2.       Failed to notify the VA slaves whose uprising he was supposed to initiate

    3.       Brown was captured and 8 of his men (2 were his sons) were killed

    4.       Brown was tried and convicted of treason, murder, and fomenting insurrection. He was hanged on December 2, 1859

                                                            iv.      Supported the South’s greatest fear- slave rebellion

    1.       Documents were found showing Brown received financial support from 6 members of the northern elite, called the “Secret Six”: Gerrit Smith, George Sterns, Franklin Sanborn, Thomas Higginson, Theodore Parker, and Samuel Howe

    2.       Northerners mourned for Brown’s death

    V.                  The South Secedes

    a.       The Election of 1860

                                                                i.      Democrats had trouble choosing a candidate due to sectional debates

    1.       Northern Democrats chose Douglas who supported popular sovereignty

    2.       Southern Democrats nominated Buchanan’s VP John Breckinridge of Kentucky

    3.       Was honestly worried about the secession of the south

                                                              ii.      Constitutional Union Party

    1.       National party formed in 1860, mainly by former Whigs, that emphasized allegiance to the Union and strict enforcement of all national legislation

    2.       Nominated John Bell of Tennessee who supported compromise

                                                             iii.      Republicans built upon “victorious defeat” and acquired more support  

    1.       Nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois who strongly opposed slavery

    2.       Condemned John Brown’s Raid

    3.       Did not believe south would secede if Lincoln won the presidency

                                                            iv.      Second highest voter turnout in history (81.2%)

                                                              v.      Election was 2 regional contests

    1.       Breckinridge vs. Bell in the South

    2.       Lincoln vs. Douglas in the North

                                                            vi.      Lincoln won

    b.      The South Leaves the Union

                                                                i.      Results of the election humiliated and angered southerners

                                                              ii.      Governors of South Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi (who swore to secede if Lincoln was elected President) called immediate state conventions

    1.       Conventions were accompanied by bands, firework displays, and huge rallies

    2.       Seven states ( South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) voted to secede from the Union with 80% support from their delegates

                                                             iii.      Cooperationists were those opposed to immediate secession, and they were either intimidated into silence of left out of events

                                                            iv.      Northerners hoped that non slave owning southerners (such as Yeoman farmers and city workers) would slow the secession, but most southerners were faithful to their region and believed the Northerners threatened their way of life

    c.       The North’s Political Options

                                                                i.      Buchanan did not respond to the secession so Lincoln had to step up before he was inaugurated

    1.       Lincoln denied suggested compromises and had faith (a little too much) in the pro-Union sentiment in the South

    2.       First option: Give pro-Union members time to mobilize

    3.       Second option (suggested by Horace Greeley of the New York Times): Let the seven seceding states “go in peace”. This method was widely unpopular with Lincoln and other Northerners

    4.       Third option: Force the seceding states to join the Union again through war

                                                              ii.      Lincoln decided to wait for the South to “strike the first blow”

    d.      Establishment of the Confederacy

                                                                i.      Delegates from the seven seceding states met in Alabama to create the Confederate States of America and establish a new constitution

    1.       Constitution was almost identical to the US Constitution

    2.       Differences: Strongly supported states’ rights and made the abolition of slavery practically impossible

                                                              ii.      Confederate States of America

    1.       Nation proclaimed in Montgomery, Alabama, in February 1861, after the seven stated of the Lower South seceded from the US

                                                             iii.      Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chose as President and Alexander Stephens of Georgia was chosen  as VP (both men were known as moderates)

                                                            iv.      In Davis’ Inaugural address, he stated that secession was a legal and acceptable course of action and the North should not get upset about it. It was simply progress.

    e.      Lincoln’s Inauguration

                                                                i.      Before his inaugural address, Lincoln was careful not to say anything controversial and worsen the already delicate situation

                                                              ii.      These signs of moderation and caution did not appeal to the American public who wanted leadership and action

                                                             iii.      In his inaugural address, Lincoln offered “nonbelligerent firmness” and moderation, calling the pieces of the split nation “friends” and predicting that one day the Union would be reestablished
     
    AP Questions

    1. C

    2. B

    3. E

    4. A

    5. E

    6. C

    7. A

    8. E

    9. A

    10. B

    11. C

    12. E

    13. D

    14. B

    15. A

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Civil War

     

     

     Communities Mobilize for War
     
    Fort Sumter: The War Begins
    The Call to Arms
    The Border States
    The Battle of Bull Run
    The Relative Strengths of North and South
    Government organize for War
    Lincoln Takes Charge
    Expanding the Powee of the Government
    Dipolmatic Objectives
    Jefferson Davis Tries to Unify the Confederecy
    Confederate Disappointment
    Cntradictions of Southern Nationalism
    The Fight Through 1862
    The War in Northen Virginia
    Shiloh and the War for Mississippi
    The War in the Trans-Mississippi West
    The Naval War
    The Black Response
    The Death of Slavery
    The Politics of Emacipation
    Black Fighting Men
    The Front Lines and the Homen Front
    The Toll of War
    Army Nurses
    The Life of the Common Soldier
    Wartime Politics
    Economic and Social Strains on the North
    The New York City Draft riot
    The Failure of Southern Nationalism
    The Tide Turns
    The Turning Point of 1863
    Grant and Sherman
    The 1864 Election
    Nearing the End
    Appomattox
    Death of a President
     
     I did this a little different if not ill upload the other one but this consists of the basics

    I.                    President of the Disunited States of America

    1.       On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated president, having slipped into Washington D.C. to thwart assassins, and in his inaugural address, he stated that there would be no conflict unless the South provoked it.

                                                                   i.      He stated that geographically, the United States could not be split (true).

    2.       A split U.S. brought up questions about the sharing of the national debt and the allocation of federal territories.

    3.       A split U.S. also pleased the European countries, since the U.S. was the only major display of democracy in the Western Hemisphere, and with a split U.S. the Monroe Doctrine could be broken as well.

    II.                  Fort Sumter: The War Begins

    1.       Most of the forts in the South had relinquished their power to the Confederacy, but Fort Sumterwas among the few that didn’t, and since its supplies were running out against a besieging South Carolinian army, Lincoln had a problem of how to deal with the situation.

    2.       Lincoln intelligently chose to send supplies to the fort, and he told the South Carolinian governor that the ship to the fort only held provisions, not reinforcements.

    3.       However, to the South, provisions were reinforcements, and on April 12, 1861, cannons were fired onto the fort; after 34 hours of non-lethal firing, the fort surrendered.

    4.       Northerners were inflamed by the South’s actions, and Lincoln now called on 75,000 volunteers; so many came that they had to be turned away.

    5.       On April 19 and 27, Lincoln also called a blockade that was leaky at first but soon clamped down tight.

    6.       The South, feeling that Lincoln was now waging an aggressive war, was joined by four of theBorder States: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina.

    7.       The capital of the Confederacy was moved from Montgomery to Richmond.

    III.               Border States

    1.       The remaining Border States were crucial for both sides, as they would have almost doubled the manufacturing capacity of the South and increased its supply of horses and mules by half.

    2.       Thus, to retain them, Lincoln used moral persuasion…and methods of dubious legality:

                                                                   i.      In Maryland, he declared martial law in order to retain a state that would isolate Washington D.C. within Confederacy territory if it went to the South and also sent troops to western Virginia and Missouri.

    3.       At the beginning, in order to hold the remaining Border States, Lincoln repeated said that the war was to save the Union, not free the slaves, since a war for the slaves would have lost the Border States

    4.       Most of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) sided with the South, although parts of the Cherokee and most of the Plains Indians were pro-North.

    5.       The war was one of brother vs. brother, with the mountain men of (now) West Virginia sending some 50,000 men to the Union.

    IV.              The Balance of Forces

    1.       The South, at the beginning of the war, did have many advantages:

                                                                   i.      It only had to fight to a draw to win, since all it had to do was keep the North from invading and taking over all of its territory.

                                                                 ii.      It had the most talented officers, including Robert E. Lee and Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, and most of the Southerners had been trained to fight in the harsh South since they were children, as opposed to the tame Northerners.

    2.       However, the South was handicapped by a shortage of factories and manufacturing plants, but during the war, those developed in the South.

    3.       Still, as the war dragged on, the South found itself with a shortage of shoes, uniforms, blankets, clothing, and food, which didn’t reach soldiers due to supply problems.

    4.       However, the North had a huge economy, much more men available to fight, and it controlled the sea, though its officers weren’t as well trained as some in the South.

    5.       As the war dragged on, Northern strengths beat Southern advantages.

    V.                 Dethroning King Cotton

    1.       The South was depending on foreign intervention to win the war, but didn’t get it.

    2.       While the European countries wanted the Union to be split, their people had were pro-North and anti-slavery, and sensing that this was could eliminate slavery once and for all, they would not allow any intervention by their nations on behalf of the South.

    3.       Still, the war would produce a shortage of cotton, which would draw England et al into the war, right?  Wrong.

                                                                   i.      In the pre-war years, cotton production had been immense, and thus, England and France had huge surpluses of cotton.

                                                                 ii.      As the North won Southern territory, it sent cotton and food over to Europe.

                                                                iii.      India and Egypt upped their cotton production to offset the hike in the price of cotton.

    4.       So, King Wheat and King Corn (of the North) beat King Cotton, since Europe needed the food much more than it needed the cotton.

    VI.              The Decisiveness of Diplomacy

    1.       The South still hoped for foreign intervention, and it almost got it on a few occasions.

    2.       Late in 1861, a Union warship stopped the British mail steamer the Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe.

                                                                   i.      Britain was outraged at the upstart Americans and threatened war, but luckily, Lincoln released the prisoners and tensions cool.  “One war at a time,” he said.

                                                                 ii.      British-build sea vessels that went to the Confederacy were also a problem.

    a.       In 1862, the Alabama escaped to the Portuguese Azores, took on weapons and crew from Britain, but never sailed into a Confederate base, thus using a loophole to help the South.

    3.       Charles Francis Adams persuaded Britain not to build any more ships for the Confederacy, since they might someday be used against England.

    VII.            Foreign Flare-Ups

    1.       Britain also had two Laird rams—two Confederate warships that could destroy wooden Union ships and wreck havoc on the North, but after the threat of war by the U.S., Britain backed down and used those ships for its Royal Navy.

    2.       Near Canada, Confederate agents plotted (and sometimes succeeded) to burn down American cities, and as a result, there were several mini-armies (raised mostly by British-hating Irish-Americans) sent to Canada.

    3.       Napoleon III of France also installed a puppet government in Mexico City, putting in the Austrian Archduke Maximilian as emperor of Mexico, but after the war, the U.S. threatened violence, and Napoleon left Maximilian to doom at the hands of the Mexican firing squad.

    VIII.         President Davis versus President Lincoln

    1.       The Problem with the South was that it gave states the ability to secede in the future, and getting Southern states to send troops to help other states was always difficult to do.

    2.       Jefferson Davis was never really popular and overworked himself.

    3.       Lincoln, though with his problems, had the benefit of leading an established government and grew patient and relaxed as the war dragged on.

    IX.               Limitations on Wartime Liberties

    1.       Abe Lincoln did do some tyrannical acts during his term as president, such as illegally proclaiming a blockade, proclaiming acts without Congressional consent, and sending in troops to the Border States, but he justified his actions by saying that such acts weren’t permanent, and he had to do those things in order to preserve the Union.

    2.       Such actions included the advancement of $2 million to three private citizens for war purposes, the suspension of habeas corpus so that anti-Unionists could be arrested, and the intimidation of voters in the Border States.

    3.       The Confederacy’s states’ refusal to sacrifice some states’ rights led to the handicapping of the South, and perhaps to its ultimate downfall.

    X.                 Volunteers and Draftees: North and South

    1.       At first, there were a lot of volunteers, but after enthusiasm slacked off, Congress passed its first conscription law ever (the draft), one that angered the poor because rich men could hire a substitute instead of entering the war just by paying $300 to Congress.

                                                                   i.      As a result, many riots broke out, such as one in New York City.

    2.       Volunteers manned more than 90% of the Union army, and as volunteers became scarce, money was offered to them in return for service; still, there were many deserters.

    3.       The South had to resort to a draft nearly a year before the North, and it also had its privileges for the rich, since those who owned or oversaw 20 slaves or more were exempt from the draft.

    XI.               The Economic Stresses of War

    1.       The North passed the Morril Tariff Act, increasing tariff rates by about 5 to 10%, but war soon drove those rates even higher.

    2.       The Washington Treasury also issued green-backed paper money totaling nearly $450 million, but this money was very unstable and sank to as low as 39 cents per gold dollar.

    3.       The federal Treasury also netted $2,621,916,786 in the sale of bonds.

    4.       The National Banking System was a landmark of the war, created to establish a standard bank-note currency, and banks that joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money.

                                                                   i.      The National Banking Act was the first step toward a unified national banking network since 1836, when the Bank of the United States (BUS) was killed by Andrew Jackson.

    5.       In the South, runaway inflation plagued the Confederates, and overall, in the South inflation went up to 9000%, as opposed to just 80% in the North.

    XII.            The North’s Economic Boom

    1.       The North actually emerged from the Civil War more prosperous than before, since new factories had been formed; a millionaire class was born for the first time in history.

    2.       However, many Union suppliers used shoddy equipment in their supplies, such as using cardboard as the soles of shoes, etc…

    3.       Sizes for clothing were invented, and the reaper helped feed millions.

    4.       In 1859, a discovery of petroleum oil sent people to Pennsylvania.

    5.       Women gained new advances in the war, taking the jobs left behind by men going off  to battle, and other women posed as men and became soldiers with their husbands.

    6.       Clara Burton and Dorothea Dix helped transform nursing from a lowly service to a respected profession, and in the South, Sally Tompkins ran a Richmond infirmary for wounded Confederate soldiers and was awarded the rank of Captain by Jefferson Davis.

    XIII.          A Crushed Cotton Kingdom

    1.       The South was ruined by the war, as transportation collapsed and supplies of everything became scarce, and by the end of the war, the South claimed only 12% of the national wealth as opposed to 30% before the war, and it’s per capita income was now 2/5 that of Northerners, as opposed to 2/3 of Northerners before the war.

    2.       Still, many women were resourceful and spirited, but the South just couldn’t win

     

    XIV                    Bull Run Ends the “Ninety-Day War”

    1.       When President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen on April 15, 1861, he and just about everyone else in the North expected a swift war lasting about 90 days, with a quick suppression of the South to prove the North’s superiority and end this foolishness.

    2.       On July 21, 1861, ill-trained Yankee recruits swaggered out toward Bull Run to engage a smaller Confederate unit.

                                                                   i.      The atmosphere was like that of a sporting event, as Congressmen gathered in picnics.

                                                                 ii.      However, after initial success by the Union, Confederate reinforcements arrived and, coupled with Stonewall Jackson’s line holding, sent the Union soldiers into disarray.

    3.       The Battle of Bull Run showed both sides that this would not be a short, easy war.

    XV              “Tardy George” McClellan and the Peninsula Campaign

    1.       Later in 1861, command of the Army of the Potomac (name of the Union army) was given to 34 year old General George B. McClellan, an excellent drillmaster and organizer of troops but also a perfectionist who constantly believed that he was outnumbered, never took risks, and held the army without moving for months before finally ordered by Lincoln to advance.

    2.       Finally, he decided upon a water-borne approach to Richmond, called the Peninsula Campaign, taking about a month to capture Yorktown before coming to the Richmond.

                                                                   i.      At this moment, President Lincoln took McClellan’s expected reinforcements and sent them chasing Stonewall Jackson, and after “Jeb” Stuart’s Confederate cavalry rode completely around McClellan’s army, Southern General Robert E. Lee launched a devastating counterattack—the Seven Days’ Battles—on June 26 to July 2 of 1862.

                                                                 ii.      The victory at Bull Run ensured that the South, if it lost, would lose slavery as well, and it was after this battle that Lincoln began to draft an emancipation proclamation.

    3.       The Union strategy now turned to total war:

                                                                   i.      Suffocate the South through an oceanic blockade.

                                                                 ii.      Free the slaves to undermine the South’s very economic foundations.

                                                                iii.      Cut the Confederacy in half by seizing control of the Mississippi River.

                                                               iv.      Chop the Confederacy to pieces by marching through Georgia and the Carolinas.

                                                                 v.      Capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia.

                                                               vi.      Try everywhere to engage the enemy’s main strength and grind it to submission.

    XVI          The War at Sea/Naval Blockade

    1.       The Union blockade started leakily at first, but it clamped down later.

    2.       Britain, who would ordinarily protest such interference in the seas that she “owned,” recognized the blockade as binding, since Britain herself often used blockades in her wars.

    3.       Blockade-running, or the process of smuggling materials through the blockade, was a risky but profitable business, but the Union navy also seized British freighters on the high seas, citing “ultimate destination” [to the South] as their reasons; the British relented, since they might have to do the same thing in later wars (as they did in World War I).

    4.       The biggest Confederate threat to the Union came in the form of an old U.S. warship reconditioned and plated with iron railroad rails: the Virginia (formerly called the Merrimack), which threatened to break the Union blockade, but fortunately, the Monitor arrived just in time to fight theMerrimack to a standstill, and the Confederate ship was destroyed later by the South to save it from the North.

    XVII           The Pivotal Point: Antietam/ Turning Point

    1.       In the Second Battle of Bull Run, Robert E. Lee crushed the arrogant General John Pope.

    2.       After this battle, Lee hoped to thrust into the North and win, hopefully persuading the Border States to join the South and foreign countries to intervene on behalf of the South.

                                                                   i.      At this time, Lincoln reinstated General McClellan.

    3.       McClellan’s men found a copy of Lee’s plans and were able to stop the Southerners at Antietamon September 17, 1862 in one of the bloodiest days of the Civil War.

                                                                   i.      Jefferson Davis was never so close to victory as he was that day, since European powers were very close to helping the South, but after the Union army displayed unexpected power at Antietam, that help faded.

                                                                 ii.      Antietam was also the Union display of power that Lincoln needed to announce his Emancipation Proclamation, which didn’t actually free the slaves, but gave the general idea; it was announced on January 1, 1863.

                                                                iii.      Now, the war wasn’t just to save the Union, it was to save the slaves a well.

    XVIII        A Proclamation without Emancipation

    1.       The Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in not-yet-conquered Southern territories, but slaves in the Border States and the conquered territories were not liberated; Lincoln freed the slaves where he couldn’t and wouldn’t free the slaves where he could.

    2.       The proclamation was very controversial, as many soldiers refused to fight for abolition and deserted.

    3.       However, since many slaves, upon hearing the proclamation, left their plantations, the Emancipation Proclamation did succeed in one of its purposes: the undermine the labor of the South.

    4.       Angry Southerners cried that Lincoln was stirring up trouble and trying to have a slave insurrection.

    XIV            Blacks Battle Bondage

    1.       At first, Blacks weren’t enlisted in the army, but as men ran low, these men were eventually allowed in; by war’s end, Black’s accounted for about 10% of the Union army.

    2.       Until 1864, Southerners refused to recognize Black soldiers as prisoners of war, and often executed them as runaways and rebels, and in one case at Fort Pillow, Tennessee, Blacks who had surrendered were massacred.

                                                                   i.      Afterwards, vengeful Black units swore to take no prisoners, crying, “Remember Fort Pillow!”

    3.       Many Blacks, whether through fear, loyalty, lack of leadership, or strict policing, didn’t cast off their chains when they heard the Emancipation Proclamation, but many others walked off of their jobs when Union armies conquered territory that included the plantations that they worked on.

    XX           Lee’s Last Lunge at Gettysburg

    1.       After Antietam, A. E. Burnside (known for sideburns) took over the Union army, but he lost badly after launching a rash frontal attack at Fredericksburg, Virginia, on Dec. 13, 1862.

    2.       “Fighting Joe” Hooker (known for his girls, aka prostitutes) was badly beaten atChancellorsville, Virginia, when Lee divided his outnumbered army into two and sent “Stonewall” Jackson to attack the Union flank, but later in that battle, Jackson’s own men mistakenly shot him during dusk, and he died.

    3.       Lee now prepared to invade the North for the second and final time, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but he was met by new General George G. Meade, who by accident took a stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley and the Union and Confederate armies fought a bloody and brutal battle in which the North “won.”

                                                                   i.      In the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863), General George Pickettled a hopeless, bloody, and pitiful charge up a hill that ended in the pig-slaughter of Confederates.

                                                                 ii.      A few months later, Lincoln delivered his Gettysburg Address.

    XXI      The War in the West

    1.       Lincoln finally found a good general in Ulysses S. Grant, a mediocre West Point graduate who drank a lot and also fought under the ideal of “immediate and unconditional surrender.”

    2.       Grant won at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, but then lost a hard battle at Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862), just over the Tennessee border.

    3.       In the spring of 1862, a flotilla commanded by David G. Farragut joined with a Northern army to seize New Orleans.

    4.       At Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S. Grant besieged the city and captured it on July 4, 1863, thus securing the important Mississippi River.

    5.       The Union victory at the Battle of Vicksburg came the day after the Union victory at Gettysburg, and afterwards, the Confederate hope for foreign intervention was lost.

    XXII               Sherman Scorches Georgia

    1.       After Grant cleared out Tennessee, General William Tecumseh Sherman was given command to march through Georgia, and he delivered, capturing and burning down Atlanta before completing his famous “march to the sea” at Savannah.

                                                                   i.      His men cut a trail of destruction one-mile wide, waging “total war” by cutting up railroad tracks, burning fields, and destroying everything.

    XXIII                 The Politics of War

    1.       The Congressional Committee on the Conduct of the War was created in 1861 was dominated by “radical” Republicans and gave Lincoln much trouble.

    2.       The Northern Democrats split after the death of Stephen Douglas, as “War Democrats” supported Lincoln while “Peace Democrats” did not.

                                                                   i.      Copperheads were those who totally against the war, and denounced the president (the “Illinois Ape”) and his “nigger war.”

                                                                 ii.      The most famous of the copperheads was Clement L. Valandigham, who harshly denounced the war but was imprisoned, then banished to the South, then came back to Ohio illegally but was not further punished, and also inspired the story “The Man without a Country.”

    XXVI.               The Election of 1864

    1.       In 1864, the Republicans joined the War Democrats to form the Union Party and renominated Abe Lincoln despite a bit of opposition, while the Copperheads and Peace Democrats ran George McClellan.

                                                                   i.      The Union Party chose Democrat Andrew Johnson to ensure that the War Democrats would vote for Lincoln, and the campaign was once again full of mudslinging, etc…

                                                                 ii.      Near Election Day, the victories at New Orleans and Atlanta occurred, and the Northern soldiers were pushed to vote, and Lincoln killed his opponent in the Electoral College, 212-21.

    a.       The popular vote was closer: 2,206,938-1,803,787.

    XXV.            Grant Outlasts Lee

    1.       Grant was a man who could send thousands of men out to die just so that the Confederates would lose, because he knew that he could afford to lose many men while Lee could not.

                                                                   i.      In a series of wilderness encounters, Grant fought Lee, with Grant losing about 50,000 men.

                                                                 ii.      At Cold Harbor, Union soldiers with papers pinned on their backs showing their names and addresses rushed the fort, and over 7000 died in a few minutes.

                                                                iii.      The public was outraged and shocked over this kind of gore and death, and demanded the relief of General Grant, but Ulysses stayed.

    2.       Finally, Grant and his men captured Richmond, burning it, and cornered Lee at Appomattox Courthouse at Virginia in April of 1865, where Lee formally surrendered; the war was over.

    XXVI.          The Martyrdom of Lincoln

    1.       On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot in the head by John Wilkes Booth and died shortly.

    2.       Before his death, few people had suspected his greatness, but his sudden and dramatic death erased his shortcomings and made people remember him for his good things.

    3.       The South cheered Lincoln’s death at first, but later, his death proved to be worse than if he had lived, because he would have almost certainly treated the South much better than they were actually treated during Reconstruction.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Reconstruction

     

            I.            Hale County, Alabama: From Slavery to Freedom in a Black Belt Community

    a.        

          II.            The Politics of Reconstruction

    a.       The Civil War was bloodiest war in American history (600,000 soldiers died). It began as way to preserve Union but evolved into a struggle for African American freedom, resulting in the death of slavery in the United States and the unification of the states under a stronger central government.

    b.      The Defeated South

                                                                   i.      South destroyed after defeat: towns ruined, slavery (means of labor in cotton fields) lost, destroyed cotton fields, depressed economy

                                                                 ii.      Defeat aroused hatred within Southerners, whom were "robbed of their slave property"

                                                                iii.      Racism became one of the main forces in the South during Reconstruction

    c.       Abraham Lincoln's Plan

                                                                   i.       Lincoln wanted to respect private property (excluding slaves) and did not want to impose harsh punishments on the South for rebellion

    1.       Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction of Dec. 1863: Southerners (except Confederate military leaders) had to swear an oath of allegiance to the US and its laws (including the Emancipation Proclamation) in order to be pardoned and offered restoration of property

    2.       Ten Percent Plan: When 10 percent of a state's population took this oath, Lincoln would recognize the formation of a new state government in that state

                                                                 ii.      Radical Republicans, such as Benjamin Wade and Henry Davis) favored the abolition of slavery at the beginning of the war, but later advocated harsh treatment of the defeated South

    1.       Lincoln vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill, which required 50 percent of a seceding state's white male citizens to take the loyalty oath before the state could form its constitution, and it also guaranteed equality before the law for former slaves

                                                                iii.      Sherman's Special Field Order 15 of 1865 set aside 400,000 acres of abandoned Southern land for forty-acre grants to freedmen

                                                               iv.      The Republican Party prevented the development of a land distribution system, but supported other methods to aid the freed slaves

    1.       In 1865, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to provide social, educational, and economic services to emancipated slaves or white Unionists, which lasted seven years

                                                                 v.      Lincoln's plans seemed to favor quick restoration of the South and limited federal intervention, but his policies were cut short after his assassination, when he was replaced with Andrew Johnson

    d.      Andrew Johnson and Presidential Reconstruction

                                                                   i.       Johnson was a Democrat and former slaveholder from a poor southern background who supported yeomen farmers and hated southern aristocrats

                                                                 ii.      He remained loyal to the Union throughout the war and held planter elite responsible for southern rebellion and defeat

                                                                iii.      He was appointed as military governor of Tennessee in 1862 and nominated as vice president by the Republicans in the 1864 election

                                                               iv.      Immediately after taking office, he appeared to side with the Radical Republicans by talking of indicting Confederate officials for treason and confiscating their property

                                                                 v.      Saw Reconstruction as power of the executive--not legislative--branch

                                                               vi.      However, since he blamed individual planters and elite for secession rather than entire states, he proposed mild terms for reentry to the Union

    1.       He followed Lincoln's policy for pardoning Southerners (excluding some Confederate officials and wealthy landowners)

    2.       These men could apply for presidential pardons and Johnson pardoned 90% of those who applied

    3.       December 1865: Johnson declared "restoration" of the Union complete by allowing ten of eleven Confederate states to reenter the Union

                                                              vii.      Johnson was committed to white supremacy; he opposed political rights for the freedmen and determined

    e.      The Radical Republican Vision

                                                                   i.       Radical Republicans (example: George Julian) promoted equal political rights and economic opportunity as well as a powerful national government

                                                                 ii.      Wanted federal government to control the reformation of Southern society

                                                                iii.      Radicals wanted to grant freedmen civil rights and suffrage and give them land confiscated from wealthy Southerners

                                                               iv.      Radicals opposed the "black codes" passed in South Carolina to deny many rights of citizenship to free African Americans

    1.       Southerners could not accept full freedom of African Americans

    2.       Moderate Republicans joined Radicals in the belief that old Confederates were in power in the South and the black codes and racial violence required increase protection for African Americans

                                                                 v.      Republicans established the Joint Committee on Reconstruction

                                                               vi.      1866: Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment to define African Americans as citizens and the Civil Rights Act that bestowed full citizenship on African Americans, overturning the 1857 Dred Scott decision and black codes

    1.       African Americans acquired "full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property as is enjoyed by white citizens"

                                                              vii.      Congress also expanded the Freedmen's Bureau to build schools and prosecute those depriving blacks of their civil rights

                                                            viii.      Johnson vetoed these two measures; Republicans in Congress overrode his veto

                                                               ix.      November 1866: Republicans gained control of the House, Senate, and northern states

                                                                 x.      Conflict between president and Congress: Johnson's "restoration" orCongressional Reconstruction?

    f.        Congressional Reconstruction and the Impeachment Crisis

                                                                   i.      Republicans took control of Reconstruction in 1867 by passing the FirstReconstruction Act, which divided the South into five military districts subject to martial law

                                                                 ii.      Southern states were required to hold new constitutional conventions, guarantee universal manhood suffrage, and ratify the Fourteenth Amendment before they would be readmitted to the Union

                                                                iii.      Invalidated the new governments established under Johnson and limited Johnson's executive power

    1.       The Tenure of Office Act stipulated that any officeholder appointed by the president with the Senate's advice and consent could not be removed until the Senate had approved a successor (protecting Republican congressional leaders such as Edwin Stanton who implemented Congressional Reconstruction)

                                                               iv.      However, when Congress adjourned in 1867, Johnson suspended Stanton and appointed Ulysses Grant as secretary of war; he replaced several radicals

                                                                 v.      1868: Senate overruled Stanton's suspension; Stanton resumed his position

                                                               vi.      Johnson tried to remove Stanton again, but the Rep. in the House of Reps. impeached the president on the basis of violating the Tenure of Office Act

    1.       Real reasons for wanting Johnson impeached: Johnson's political views and his opposition to the Reconstruction Acts

    2.       During his Senate trial, Johnson agreed to abide by Reconstruction Acts and the Senate voted one shy of the two-thirds necessary for removal from office

    3.       Johnson's narrow acquittal established the precedent that only criminal actions by a president--not political disagreements--warranted removal from office

    g.       The Election of 1868

                                                                   i.       AL, AR, FL, LA, NC, SC, and TN were readmitted to the Union; GA, MS, TX, VA still waiting readmission

                                                                 ii.      Republican Ulysses Grant vs. Democrat Horatio Seymour (who wanted to reverse Congressional Reconstruction; foe of emancipation and supporter of states' rights)

                                                                iii.      State referendums calling for black suffrage failed in eight northern states between 1865 and 1868, succeeding in only Iowa and Minnesota

                                                               iv.      Ku Klux Klan, founded as TN social club in 1866, terrorized black and white Republicans in LA, AR, GA, and SC to keep them from voting

    1.       This worked only in LA and GA, but lost northern votes for the Democrats

                                                                 v.      Grant won the election, receiving a remarkable 500,000 votes from African Americans

                                                               vi.      Republicans also retained control of Congress

                                                              vii.      February 1869 (ratified in 1870): Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment that guaranteed the right of American men to vote, regardless of race

                                                            viii.      MS, TX, and VA ratified the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before readmission in 1870; their readmission completed Reconstruction

    h.      Woman Suffrage and Reconstruction

                                                                   i.      Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments inspired/frustrated women's rights activists

                                                                 ii.      During the war, many women worked through the National Women's Loyal League  and the US Sanitary Commission

                                                                iii.      Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony were two leaders of the antislavery and feminist movements

                                                               iv.      Stanton, Anthony, and Lucy Stone founded the American Equal Rights Association in 1866 to remove gender and race related restrictions on voting

                                                                 v.      Radical wing (Stanton and Anthony) opposed the Fifteenth Amendment, arguing it would establish an "aristocracy of sex"

                                                               vi.      Woman suffragists split into the moderate American Woman Suffrage Association and the more radical all-female National Woman Suffrage Association

    1.       AWSA included Lucy Stone, Ward Howe, Henry Blackwell; focused on achieving women's suffrage on state level, while maintaining ties with Republican party and supported the Fifteenth Amendment; sought support of men

    2.       NWSA supported more rights than suffrage,  including those discussed in the Declaration of Sentiments of the Seneca Falls convention in 1848

        III.            The Meaning of Freedom

    a.       Former slaves struggled to establish economic, political, and cultural autonomy

    b.      They built on the family and the church to lay expand the African American community

    c.       Moving About

                                                                   i.       Many freed slaves left home to test their freedom, wanting to separate themselves from former owners, and moved to predominantly black communities in the cities

                                                                 ii.      Many who left soon returned to the general vicinity because they cherished familial ties and friendships

    d.      The African American Family

                                                                   i.      Strengthened family ties; some African Americans reunited with their families

                                                                 ii.      Some searches were unsuccessful or disappointing though

                                                                iii.      African Americans began to follow white gender roles: men asserted their male authority, voted, and received higher wages, while women devoted more time to domestic chores and child rearing

    e.      African American Churches and Schools

                                                                   i.      Blacks pooled resources (money, labor, housing, supplies, etc.) to establish their own churches and schools

                                                                 ii.      Church became social and religious institution that defined the black community

    1.       Methodist and Baptist churches were the most prominent

                                                                iii.      More than 90% of the South's adult black population was illiterate in 1860

                                                               iv.      Access to education = freedom

                                                                 v.      Freemen's Bureau gave educational aid to the South by providing resources and some teachers

                                                               vi.      FB and the American Missionary Association (AMA) assisted in the founding of black colleges and the training of teachers

    f.        Land and Labor after Slavery

                                                                   i.       Whites tried to restrict the employment of former slaves

    1.       South Carolina legislation in 1865 required costly permits for African Americans in certain trades

                                                                 ii.      Most African Americans hoped to become self-sufficient farmers and believed they were entitled to land

    1.       Sought economic opportunity and land promised independence

    2.       Colored Convention in Montgomery, AL in 1867: wanted to confiscate land from wealthy planters

                                                                iii.      Johnson directed General Howard of the FB to evict freed people who squatted on confiscated and abandoned lands in LA, GA, VA, and SC

                                                               iv.      Sharecropping - labor system that evolved during and after Reconstruction whereby landowners furnished laborers with a house, farm animals, and tools in exchange for a share of the laborers' crop - became common

    1.       Compromise between planters and former slaves that broke up plantations into family-sized plots

    2.       Beneficial for landowners and African Americans

    3.       Dominated southern agricultural economy and African American life (nearly 75% of black Southerners were sharecroppers)

    4.       By 1880, 80% of land in MS, AL, GA was divided into family-sized farms

    g.       The Origins of African American Politics

                                                                   i.       African Americans aimed for political inclusion rather than separation

                                                                 ii.      Increased political involvement in 1865-1867: blacks gathered to promote civil rights and suffrage

                                                                iii.      First Reconstruction Act in 1867 encouraged more political activity

    1.       AL, FL, LA, MS, and SC had black electoral majorities

    2.       Four-fifths of the registered black voters cast ballots in the state constitutional conventions in 1867 and 1868

                                                               iv.      Union League - Republican Party organizations in northern cities that became an important organizing device among freedmen in southern cities after 1865

    1.       Brought together African Americans, soldiers, and FB agents to demand suffrage and end discrimination

                                                                 v.      Politics was the only field where black and white Southerners might engage each other on an equal basis

        IV.            Southern Politics and Society

    a.       Political structure of the South fragile over the next decade

    b.      Federal troops required to protect Republicans from violent opposition in the South

    c.       Republicans had control of south for most of Reconstruction, but by 1877, Democrats had regained political control of all the former Confederate states

    d.      Southern Republicans

                                                                   i.      African Americans, which only outnumbered whites in three southern states

                                                                 ii.      White Northerners (“carpetbaggers”) wanted to reform the South by introducing free labor, free public schools, developing resources

    1.       Most were veterans of the Union army, agents of the Freedmen’s Bureau, and businessmen who invested in cotton and other enterprises

    2.       Tended to be well educated middle-class citizens

    3.       Small percentage of population, but large role in southern politics

                                                                iii.      Native Southern whites termed “scalawags” who were mainly small landowning farmers and well-off merchants and planters

    1.       Saw the Republican Party as the best chance to regain political influence

    2.       Wanted modernization and economic expansion

    3.       Sought relief from debt and wartime devastation

                                                               iv.      Moderate Republicans who favored white control of the party, economic investment, and economic development outnumbered the radical Republicans who focused on African American civil liberties

    e.      Reconstructing the States: A Mixed Record

                                                                   i.      With many old Confederate leaders barred from political participation, Republicans dominated the ten southern constitutional conventions of 1867-69

                                                                 ii.      Most conventions produced constitutions that expanded democracy

    1.       Guaranteed political and civil rights of African Americans

    2.       Abolished property qualifications for officeholding and jury service

    3.       Created state-funded public education

    4.       Established orphanages, penitentiaries, asylums

                                                                iii.      Republicans had to balance reform and attempts to gain Southern acceptance

    1.       Clear motion towards equal rights and against discrimination, but moderate action

    2.       African Americans demanded desegregation of railroad cars, theaters, etc. but moderate white Republicans feared that such laws would alienate potential white supporters

    3.       Even if these civil rights laws were passed, they were difficult to enforce

                                                               iv.      Segregation was the norm in public school systems, but African Americans were more interesting in having educational and employment opportunities than integrated education

                                                                 v.      Republicans failed to grant land to African Americans

                                                               vi.      Republicans raised taxes on land, attempting to weaken the plantation system and promote black ownership

    1.       Government seized land for nonpayment of taxes, but this was ineffective in promoting black land ownership

                                                              vii.      Promoted capitalist development (factories, large cities, diversified agriculture)

    1.       Encouraged railroad construction

    a.       Southern railroad system increased 40 percent (3,000 miles) between 1868 and 1972

    2.       Difficult to attract significant amounts of northern and European capital investments

    3.       Also opened doors to corruption and bribery of public officials

    4.       Failure of railroads and failure to modernize the economy in the South eroded public confidence in the Republicans

    f.        White Resistance and "Redemption"

                                                                   i.      Democrats did not acknowledge Republicans' right to participate in southern politics

                                                                 ii.      Republicans were split between those who wanted to gain white acceptance in the South and those who emphasized consolidating the party under the protection of the military

                                                                iii.      KKK was powerful in southern states, acting like a guerilla military force in the service of the Dem. Party, planter class, and white supremacists

    1.       Planters sometimes employed KKK to harass

                                                               iv.      October 1870: bands of white people drove 150 African Americans from their homes and murdered 13 white and black Republican activists

                                                                 v.      March 1871: three blacks arrested in Meridian, MS for "incendiary" speeches

    1.       At their trial, KKK killed two defendants and the Republican judge, which lead to rioting in which thirty African Americans were murdered

                                                               vi.      The bloodiest episode of Reconstruction-era violence occurred in Colfax, LA on Easter Sunday 1873 when 100 African Americans were killed after they failed to hole a besieged courthouse during a contested election

                                                              vii.      In 1870 and 1871, Congress passed Enforcement Acts designed to counterattack racial terrorism because, they claimed, interference with voting was a federal offense

    1.       Federal supervision of voting

    2.       Authorized president to send army and to suspend the writ of habeas corpus in districts declared to be in a state of insurrection

    3.       Ku Klux Klan Act of April 1871 made the violent infringement of civil and political rights a federal crime

    a.       Attorney General Akerman prosecuted several Klansmen in NC and MS

    b.      In October 1871, President grant sent federal troops to SC to break up KKK and restore law and order

    4.       Civil Rights Act of 1875 outlawed discrimination in public places such as railroads and theaters

    a.       More assertion of principle than federal intervention

                                                            viii.      Northern Republicans became less inclined to intervene in the South, eventually abandoning freedmen and their southern allies

                                                               ix.      Democrats gained majority in the House in 1874 and a few northern states fell to the Democrats

                                                                 x.      Republicans were blamed for the fiscal crisis caused by excessive government spending (mainly on schools, roads, orphanages, etc.)

                                                               xi.      Democrats "redeemed" VA and TN in 1869, NC in 1870, GA in 1871, TX in 1873, AL and AR in 1874, MS in 1876, and LA in 1877

                                                              xii.      African Americans faced obstacles to voting and social services

                                                            xiii.      Supreme Court rulings constrained federal protection of African American civil rights

                                                            xiv.      Slaughterhouse cases of 1873 - rulings in which the Supreme Court contradicted the intent of the Fourteenth Amendment by decreeing that most citizenship rights remained under state, not federal, control

                                                             xv.      Decisions that curtailed federal protection of black civil rights

    1.       United States v. Reese (1876) and United States v. Cruikshank (1876) - Court restricted congressional power to enforce the KKK Act

    2.       Court ruled that the Fifteenth Amendment didn't guarantee a citizen's right to vote, so states found loopholes to disfranchise blacks by passing laws restricting voter eligibility through poll taxes and property requirements

    3.       1883 Civil Rights Cases decision: Court declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional, stating that the Fourteenth Amendment allowed Congress to outlaw discrimination by states, but not by private individuals

                                                            xvi.      Supreme Court decisions marked the end of federal attempts to protect black rights until the next century

    g.       White Yeomen, White Merchants, and "King Cotton"

                                                                   i.      South declined into the country's poorest agricultural region after failed Republican attempts to modernize the South

                                                                 ii.      Southern economy vulnerable due to its dependence on the price of cotton

                                                                iii.      After the Civil War, "King Cotton" expanded; small white farmers switched from subsistence farming to growing cotton

                                                               iv.      Local merchants and planters were the sole sources of credit; they granted loans and supplies to sharecroppers, owners, and farmers in exchange for a lien or claim on the year's cotton crop

                                                                 v.       "Crop lien" system as main form of credit forced the expansion of cotton

                                                               vi.      Railroads, commercial fertilizers, and new land cultivation were key to this transformation

                                                              vii.      Demand for cotton brought high prices through the end of the war to the late 1860s, but soon expanded production depressed prices

    1.       Competing Indian and Egyptian cotton also led to a decline in cotton prices

    2.       Cycle of low cotton prices, debt, and dwindling food crops

    3.       Local merchants benefited from this cotton cycle by providing goods and credit to local farmers

                                                            viii.      Elite ideals rested on the belief that womanhood and manhood rested on moral character and individual choice

          V.            Reconstructing the North

    a.       Lincoln claimed that the northern system of “free labor” was superior over slavery

    b.      Argued that laborers hire and train other people in a continuous cycle

    c.       However, the spread of factory system, growth of corporation, and extension of capitalist enterprises resulted in the development of a large unskilled workforce consigned to wage labor

    d.      Grim reality of class conflicts: society was more hierarchical than equal, causing strikes

    e.      1877: end of Reconstruction Era; North had undergone reconstruction as well

    f.        The Age of Capital

                                                                   i.      After end of Civil War, the North continued its industrial boom

    1.       By 1873, industrial production grew 75 percent since 1865

                                                                 ii.      North: number of nonagricultural workers surpassed farmers

                                                                iii.      3 million immigrants arrived in America between 1860-1880

                                                               iv.      Federal government funded the transcontinental railroad

    1.       Largest subsidy in American history

    2.       Pacific Railway Act of 1862 gave Union Pacific and Central Pacific rights to land extending from Nebraska to Sacramento, CA

                                                                 v.      Union Pacific hired gangs of Irish Americans and African Americans to lay track heading west from Omaha, NB

                                                               vi.      Central Pacific hired Chinese laborers (90% of workforce) to push eastward from Sacramento

    1.       Burlingame Treaty (1863) gave Chinese the right to emigrate to the US

                                                              vii.      After completion of the trans. railroad in Utah in 1869 , anti-Chinese sentiment built up in the US

    1.       1882 Chinese Exclusion Act suspended Chinese immigration for 10 years

                                                            viii.      Southern Pacific – San Francisco to Los Angeles to AZ and NM to New Orleans

                                                               ix.      Railroad corporations became America’s first big business

    1.       Railroad executives: Vanderbilt, Gould, Huntington, Hill were wealthy

                                                                 x.      Railroad commissioners received large sums and land grants from government subsidies; they also resorted to corruption/scandals

                                                               xi.      Scandal: Credit Mobilier construction company was created to divert funds for the building of the Union Pacific Railroad; several prominent Republicans received stock in the company in exchange for political favors

    1.       Discovered in 1872, ruining VP Colfax

                                                              xii.      Boom in industries extracting minerals and processing natural resources

                                                            xiii.      National Mineral Act of 1886 - mining companies received millions of acres of free public land

                                                            xiv.      By the late 1870s, Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company controlled 90% of nation's oil-refining capacity

    g.       Liberal Republicans and the Election of 1872

                                                                   i.      Republicans increasingly favored the interests of business rather than the rights of freedom or "free labor"

                                                                 ii.      State Republicans organized more around federal patronage

                                                                iii.      Democrats corrupt as well: in 1871, Democratic Party boss William Tweed and the "Tweed Ring" stole tens of millions of dollars from the NYC treasury

                                                               iv.      Liberal Republicans emphasized the doctrines of classic economics (supply and demand, free trade, defense of property rights, and individualism)

    1.       Called for limited government and now opposed federal intervention in the South

    2.       Argued that corruption came from excessive interference in the economy

                                                                 v.      Suspicious of expanding democracy--especially universal suffrage

                                                               vi.      Wanted politics to be left for "the best men" - educated and elite

                                                              vii.      Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley for 1872 pres. election

                                                            viii.      Grant won, carrying every northern state

                                                               ix.      Election follower trend of federal abandonment of African American citizenship rights

                                                                 x.      Lib. Rep. ideals defined growing conservativeness in North, attracting middle-class people and businessmen

    1.       Retreat from racial justice, hostility toward trade unions, suspicion of immigrants and working-class power, competitive individualism, opposition to federal intervention in economy

    h.      The Depression of 1873

                                                                   i.      Post war boom ends in 1873 triggering a deep economic depression

    1.       From commercial overexpansion of railroad investment

                                                                 ii.      Banks and brokerage houses caved, New York stock exchange suspended operations

                                                                iii.      Half railroads deflated bonds, 100 banks folded, 18,000 businesses shut their doors from 1876 to 1878

                                                               iv.      Factories close, unemployment rate reaches 15%

    1.       One fourth of New York City workers were unemployed

                                                                 v.      Calls to government to create more jobs through public works were rejected

                                                               vi.      People were angry at large corporations that showed great economic power

                                                              vii.      Political organizations like Chicago’s Citizens Associations united businesses for fiscal conservation and defense of property rights

    i.         The Electoral Crisis of 1876

                                                                   i.      Democrats believe that they would win the next election because of the depression

                                                                 ii.      Republican party was weakened by scandals

                                                                iii.      1875 conspiracy

    1.       Distillers and U.S. revenue agents to cheat government out of millions in tax revenues

    2.       Indictment against 200 members of “Whiskey Ring” were acquitted because of Grants intervention

                                                               iv.      Democrats exposed Republicans low standard of honesty

                                                                 v.      1871 “Tweed Ring” “Canal Right”

                                                               vi.      Issue of corruption was linked to Republican party

                                                              vii.      Republican Nominee: Rutherford B. Hayes- governor of Ohio; lawyer in Cincinnati; defended runaway slaves; General in Union army; supported an efficient civil service system, to vigorously prosecute officials who betrayed the public trust, and to introduce a system of free universal education

                                                            viii.      Democrat Nominee: Samuel Tilden- charged with disloyalty during the war, income tax evasion, and close relations with powerful railroad interests

                                                               ix.      Tilden received 250,000 more popular votes than Hayes but Republicans refused to concede victory

                                                                 x.      Uncontested electoral votes, Tilden: 184 (one short of majority to win); Hayes: 164

    1.       20 disputed voted from Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon

    2.       Southern states returned two sets of electoral votes

    3.       Oregon: Hayes carried but Democratic governor replaced a disputed Republican elector with a democrat

                                                               xi.      January 1877, Congress moved to settle the deadlock

                                                              xii.      Electoral Commission established

    1.       Five senators, five representatives, and five Supreme Court justices

    a.       Eight Republican and seven democrats

    2.       Voted along party lines

                                                            xiii.      Democrats angry and threatened a filibuster to block Hayes’ inauguration

                                                            xiv.      Compromise in February, more money for southern internal improvements, to appoint a southerner to cabinets, and pursue a policy of noninterference in southern affairs 

                                                             xv.      Hayes removed the federal troops in LA and SC

    1.       Democrats took power of these states

                                                            xvi.      ‘Home Rule’ (noninterference) meant abandonment of freed people, radicals, carpetbaggers, and scalawags and nullified the 14th and 15th Amendments and the Civil rights act of 1866

                                                          xvii.      Compromise of 1877- the congressional settling of the 1876 election that installed Republican Hayes in the White House and gave Democrats control of all state governments in the South

     

    AP Questions:

    1. B

    2. E

    3. A

    4. B

    5. D

    6. C

    7. E

    8. B

    9. E

    10. D

    11. C

    12. A

    13. B

    14. B

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Conquest and Survival: The Trans-Mississippi West

     

     

    ·         Oklahoma Land Rush

    o   Oklahoma Indian Territory

    §  5 civilized tribes –Cherokees, Chickasaw, Choctaws, Creek, Seminole

    o   Land Rush on “No Man’s Land” – April 22, 1889 – white settlers given opportunity to settle far western portion of OK

    o   Curtis Act 1889 – formally ended Indian communal land ownership thereby legally dissolving Indian Territory

    o   Oklahoma – “land of the Red Man”

    ·         At the close of the Civil War 360,000 Indians still lived in Trans-Miss. West.  Most in Great Plains.

    o   Plain Indians used guns, horses, relied on Buffalo

    §  Sioux & Buffalo – gunpowder, improved guns, hunting by non-Indian traders led to rapid decline in Buffalo population. Exterminating of Buffalo sometimes encouraged by US Army Commanders to bring the Sioux to a point of desperation and cooperation.

    ·         Sioux – “fight or die”

    o   Many tribes took dramatic steps towards assimilation.

    §  Cherokee – learned English, converted to Christianity, established a Constitutional Republic, and adopted yeoman-like lifestyle

    o   Bureau of Indian Affairs – in exchange for agreeing to live in defined zones (reservations) – Bureau would take care of basic needs and provide guidance.

    §  Sometimes corrupt govt. officials withheld relief/supplies for personal gain.

    o   Medicine Lodge Treaty 1867 – Comanche, Kiowa, Apaches, Cheyenne, Arapahoe moved into reservations in existing Indian Territory (Sioux, Shoshone, Bannocks) .  Conditions and cooperation between tribes caused hardships.

    ·         Indian Wars

    o   Cheyenne – Chief Black Kettle v. Colorado Volunteers

    §  Colorado territorial governor John Evans terminates all treaties with tribes in CO.

    §  Black Kettle went to US fort for protection – they were given orders to set up at Sand Creek

    §  There they were attacked by Colorado Volunteers – 133 dead – Sand Creek Massacre

    ·         Retaliatory raids followed

    o   Great Sioux War – 1865-67

    §  Sioux Warrior, Red Cloud fought US forces to a stalemate in Wyoming.

    §  Treaty of Fort Laramie – 1868 – temporary peace

    ·         Sioux were allowed to inhabit their sacred land the Black Hills “Paha Sapa”

    §  Treaty undermined when General George Custer reports that large easily extracted veins of ore were in region.

    §  Speculators move into Indian lands, General Custer rushes ahead to a site in Montana called Little Bighorn.  Met by one of the largest Indian contingents ever assembled. Custer and his men were wiped out – “Custer’s last stand” – 6/25/1876

    §  Feb 1877 – Sioux leaders were forced to surrender by pursuing US forces.

    o   Apaches

    §  Generally followed Medicine Lodge Treaty, but in 1874 some bands began to steal cattle seize territory.

    §  Led by brilliant strategist, Geronimo, they conducted lightning-swift raids against white outposts earning a reputation as intrepid warriors.

    §  Red River War

    ·         Apaches joined by Kiowa and Comanche

    ·         US Army prevails by preventing food supplies to reach Indians.  Geronimo surrenders in September of 1886.

    o     Nez Perce – “pierced nose”

    §  Formerly helped white settlers including Lewis and Clark expedition.

    §  Gold discovered in their territory (parts of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon).

    ·         Nez Perce ordered to cede 6 million acres (nine-tenths of their land)

    §  Chief Joseph reluctant but willing to cooperate arranged for movement onto reservations. However, younger members of his tribe killed white settlers avenging a death of a peer. This turned into skirmishes with US military.

    §  Eventually completely removed from all parts of their sacred land and moved onto reservations.

    ·         Internal Empire

    o   Mining Towns – gold, silver, and copper found in CO, AZ, CA, OR, WA, AK, & SD

    §  Boomtown phenomenon

    ·         CA pop 1848 – 14,000, CA pop 1852 – 223,856

    §  Sometimes ore veins were large enough to sustain communities for a long time and created permanent cities – Butte, Montana

    o   Most consistently successful were the entrepreneurs who invested in mining equipment (drills etc.) and employers of engineers and other people with technical knowledge related to mining.

    o   Anaconda Copper Mining Co. – example of monopolizing both vertically and horizontally

    o   1892 – Coeur d’Alene, Idaho – Western Federation of Miners

    o   Unions began to secure 8 hour workdays and worker’s compensation (by 1910s) – long before many eastern states.

    o   Early unions refused African Americans, Chinese, Mexicans, and Indians

    o   Caminetti Act 1893 – US Govt. gives state power to regulate mines (flooding)

    §  Sacramento River Commission

    ·         Mormon Sanctuary gone

    o   US v. Reynolds – US Supreme Court rules against polygamy

    o   Edmunds Act 1882 – disfranchised polygamists and threatened fines and imprisonment

    o   Edmunds-Tucker Act 1887 – confiscated all Mormon assets creating a federal commission to oversee elections in territory

    o   Mormons eventually renounce plural marriage and communal life altogether.

    ·         Mexican Borderland Community

    o   Mexicans allowed to stay in land gained by US via Mexican Cession and Gadsden Purchase. Mexican culture remained in southwest.

    §  Also Roman Catholic Church retains influence in southwest

     

     

    ·         Farming Communities on the Plains

    o   Homestead Act 1862 – 160 acres for free, but must improve land and live on it for five years.  Or, settler could buy it for $1.25 an acre for only six months.

    §  Success in upper Midwest

    §  Not so much in Great Plains interior – Great Desert

    ·         Half of all homesteaders failed to improve land and lost their settlements.

    o   WINNING

    §  Land speculators -  bought choice land at bargain prices sold at big profit

    §  Railroads – received land grants from government and sold of their holdings near their railroad for top dollar

    o   Population greatly influenced by railroad – in designing routes and local depots railroad communities put whole communities on the map or left them behind.

    §  Western railroads encouraged settlement

    ·         Aggressive promotional campaigns – also targeted foreigners

    o   Santa Fe Railroad agent CB Schmidt enticed 60,000 Germans to settle along their rail line.

    §  benefits - Long term loans, free passage to west

    o   2 million Europeans settled the Great Plains between 1870-1900

    §  25% of Nebraska foreign born in 1870

    ·         Heavy German influx

    ·         Communities eventually flourished and served the larger agricultural region

    o   Grand Island, NE; Fargo, ND;

    o   Social hierarchy based on education (doctors, lawyers, etc.)  and investment property

    ·         World’s Breadbasket

    o   Commercial farms employed the most extensive and intensive agricultural methods in the world.

    §  John Deere – “singing plow” 1837

    §  Cyrus McCormick’s reaper – mass produced in 1850s

    §  Harvester – 1870s

    ·         Automatic binder – 1880s

    §  1875 farmer could only plant about 8 acres – 1890, 135 acres

    o   Wheat became chief grain and not only fed domestic households but became a chief export

    §  International demand high, profits were great

    o   California Agribusiness

    §  Investors spent a lot of money on latest technologies, building dams and canals.  Farming became chief business of CA

    ·         2/3 of arable land in CA was in 1000 acre farms

    ·         CA national leader in wheat production 1880

    ·         Took advantage of new refrigerated cars – cherries, apricots, oranges

    o   Sunkist, Sun Maid

    o   Toll on Land

    §  Timber Culture Act – 1873 – allotted homesteaders an additional 160 acres of land in return for planting and cultivating 40 acres of trees.

    §  National Reclamation Act – 1902 – added 1 million acres of irrigated land to the US

    ·         States added 10 million more

    ·         Irrigation also had a huge environmental impact – Lake Tulare CA – 760 square mile lake completely drained.

    §  General Land Revision Act – 1891 – Gave the president authority to establish forest reserves to protect watersheds from lumbering, overgrazing, forest fires etc.

    §  Forest Management Act – set the government up for large scale regulatory activities

    ·         Forest Service 1905

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - The Incorporations of America

     

    The Rise of Industry, The Triumph of Business

    Labor in the Age of Big Business

    The New South

    The Industrial City

    The Rise of Consumer Society

    Cultures in Conflict, Culture in Common



      • Packingtown, Chicago, Illinois (I aimed for their hearts and hit their stomachs.)
        • Packingtown: adjoining the Union Stockyards, center of Chicago meatpacking, and full of the odor of the industry.
        • The various ethnic groups here—Irish, Germans, Bohemians, Poles, Lithuanians, and Slovaks—rarely intermixed (despite being nearly all Roman Catholic), except in the saloon; saloons hosted weddings and dances, providing meeting places for trade unions and fraternities, and cashed paychecks. In unemployment, workers spent plenty of time here, making friends across ethnic barriers.
        • Most “knife men” in the “killing gangs” who did the actual butchering were from Germany and Ireland, who learned their skills in the old country—skilled workers. Recent immigrants from Eastern Europe were the unskilled laborers who had no experience in meatpacking and many had not previously earned wages. The wages ($2 or less a day) were often not enough to pay for basic needs, and many died of tuberculosis.
        • Packingtown, though insular to its residents, was part of a network of industries that was transforming American industry and life, making Chicago a gateway city.
        • Meatpacking—led by the “big five” of Armour, Cudahy, Morris, Schwarzchild, and Sulzberger—expanded by 900 percent between 1870-90 and established a standard for monopoly capitalism. They built specialized factories  that could operate year round with ice and reliable refrigeration, with local packinghouses losing out to competition from Chicago.
        • Midwestern farmers no longer raised calves on pastures, but bought steers from the West and fed them on feedlots. Industry and agriculture merged in the meatpacking industry for nationwide distribution.
        • Chicago became home to several of the most technologically advanced industries in the world which had created a population of wealthy individuals. This also gave rise to a militant labor movement, which led to a major campaign in 1886 to shorten the working day, leading to the Haymarket Massacre in early May.
        • The typical American business was a small enterprise that was owned and managed by a single family producing goods for a local or regional market. By the turn of the century, large-scale investment created corporations that grew to mammoth sizes that produced for national and international market. This created wealthy men such as Andrew Carnegie, Philip Danforth Armour, Jay Gould, and John. D. Rockefeller.
      • Revolutions in Technology And  Transportation
        • The Centennial Exposition of 1876 held in Philadelphia celebrated the promise of the century to come, such as the new telephone invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
        • 1876 marked the opening of Thomas Alva Edison’s new Menlo Park, New Jersey laboratory devoted to industrial research, which created the incandescent light bulb three years later. Electricity soon replaced steam as the main source of power.
        • Henry Ford experimented with a gasoline-burning internal combustion engine for c automobile, American makers producing more than 4,000 by 1900. Orville and Wilbur Wright staged the first airplane flight in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1903.
        • The transcontinental railroad, finished in 1869, and three more railroads (Southern Pacific; Northern Pacific; and the Atchinson, Topeka, and Santa Fe) in the 1880s created an extensive transportation network.
        • The advances in communication and transportation helped the westward movement of industry. The center of industry (determined by gross value of products) was in the middle of Pennsylvania in 1850, Western Pennsylvania by 1880, and near Mansfield, Ohio in 1900.
        • In 1865, annual production was valued at $2 billion; in 1900, at $13 billion, changing the US from fourth to first in terms of production. The US produced one third of goods by the early 20thcentury.
      • Mechanization Takes Command
        • Mechanization greatly increased productivity, alongside the reorganization of labor and large scale economies that catered to a growing market.
        • These changes depended on anthracite coal, widely used after 1850. Cheap and reliable energy made dramatic changes in industrial use of light, heat, and motion. Coal also fueled the open-heart furnaces and mills of the iron and steel industries, making the US the largest steel producer by the end of the century, creating train rails and parts to make machines to make more goods.
        • Mass production replaced wasteful and chaotic practices in many industries, including meatpacking.
        • The cigarette making machine was one of many inventions that could mechanize every stage of production from the raw material to packaging. Within a generation, continuous production became the standard in most manufacturing areas.
      • Expanding the Market for Goods
        • To sell all they were making, business demanded new techniques of mass marketing on a national and sometimes international scale, replacing the “drummers” who worked individual routes to individual buyers and retail stores. Mass marketing convinced consumers to buy company goods over local and homemade items.
        • Francis Wayland Ayer founded an agency in 1869 to handle advertising campaigns such as those for Montgomery Ward and national Biscuit Company, selling biscuits under the name “Uneeda,” helping retailers’ revenue go from $8 million in 1860 to $102 million in 1900.
        • Mail-order helped get products to consumers, reaching free rural delivery in distant communities by 1896.
        • The Chicago-based mail-order houses drew urban and rural consumers into a common marketplace. Sears, Roebuck and Company, and Montgomery Ward offered a variety of goods, even giving rural consumers the fruits of their labor (post-production).
        • The chain store grew similarly, with a half-dozen springing up by 1900, the largest of which was A&P. Department stores similarly took over specialty shops with variety.
      • Integration, Combination, Merger
        • The business community gained greater control over the economy, trying to control it against alternating economic cycles. They grew more powerful as economic setbacks wiped out weaker competitors, leaving only stronger firms that quickly expanded.
        • Businesses grew through vertical integration—controlling the steps of production under one firm—such the United Fruit Company (today known as Chiquita, famous for screwing over all of agricultural Latin America), which controlled various Central American plantations and distribution centers in the US.
        • They also grew through horizontal integration—buying out competitors over a single product—made famous by John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil, securing preferential rates with railroad operators, convincing (coercing) oil operators to sell their stock to him, and finally controlling 90% of the oil industry in 1882.
        • In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act was created to restore competition, but was actually used to restrict trade unions (who apparently stopped the free flow of labor) and helped consolidate business. 2,600 firms disappeared between 1898 and 1902, and by 1910 the companies that would dominate the first half of the 20th century—U.S. Rubber, Goodyear, American Smelting and Refining, Anaconda Copper, General Electric, Westinghouse, Nabisco, Swift and Company, Armour, International Harvester, Eastman Koad, and American Can—has already incorporated.
      • The Gospel of Wealth
        • Ninety percent of the nation’s business leaders were Protestant (White Anglo-Saxon and very poisonous, too) and mixed religion with their wealth.
        • The gospel of wealth made wealth a function of personal integrity, meaning poverty was a character flaw. This justified the behavior of characters such as Jay Gould, who made their fortunes off the backs of laborers.
        • Gould took over the Erie Railroad, paying off New York legislators to expand it, and acquired the US Express Company buy pressuring its stockholders before moving onto the Union Pacific, where he cut wages, caused strikes, and manipulated elections. He bought major newspapers to stifle their caricatures of them.
        • Carnegie, the Richest Man in the World, represented the “captain of industry” that apparently rose through diligence. His Gospel of Wealth (1889) outlined his philosophy of fair dealings and honesty.
        • Carnegie rose from an immigrant to a steel magnate, using vertical integration and new technology to increase his market share before selling to J.P. Morgan’s new United States Steel Corporation in 1901. Despite viciously underpaying his employees and controlling their labor, many saw him as a philanthropist for his patronage of the arts and learning.
        • The business community used Social Darwinism to justify why some succeeded while others didn’t, perverting Darwin’s theory of evolution as told in the Origin of Species (1859) by imposing a the idea of natural competition over society under the principle of “survival of the fittest.”
        • Yale Professor William Graham published What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (1883) to argue that only a few had the necessary moral character to produce the capital that drove the industrial economy and deserved their great riches, while the rest were lazy and profligate individuals who deserved their poverty. Tampering with the “natural” order through welfare or wealth redistribution would be hazardous to society.
        • Popular writer Horatio Alger published rags-to-riches novels that created heroes that rose to middle-class comfort, if not great wealth, through hard work and luck.
        • The “gospel of work” affirmed the dignity of work, thrift, and initiative, but did not see wealth as proof of good work. They instead wished for honesty and competence to become the cornerstones of society, inspiring 3 percent of the workforce to form unions, creating a movement that represented the most significant and lasting response to business by the working class.
      • The Wage System
        • The mechanization of labor changed employer-employee relations that created new categories of workers.
        • Craft workers had their long-standing practices destroyed, chipped away at autonomy, and were placed in completion against other workers. Frederick Winslow Taylor, who pioneered scientific management, explained that managers should make all decisions for workers.
        • The garment industry kept old labor as well as the new, but fostered intense competition between the contracted home workers and factory workers in a system called “sweating” and paying by the piece.
        • Industry required labor. Many people from rural areas traveled to the cities, most from Europe and Asia.
        • Industrialization led to opportunities for women. African American and immigrant women worked in domestic jobs least affected by technological advance while English-speaking white women moved into clerical and sales positions, particularly with the rise of the typewriter and telephone in the 1890s. 8.6 million women worked outside the home by 1900, tripe the number in 1870.
        • African American men found themselves excluded from work in the new fields.
        • Discrimination and exclusion fell hardest on Chinese immigrants earlier recruited to work in the mines, railroads, and market gardening. The Chinese Exclusion Act, which ended immigration from China for ten years, limited the rights of resident Cihnese and forbade naturalization.
        • The new workplace was extremely dangerous, due to hazardous working conditions caused by employers. Fast-moving machines meant that workers who could not keep up or were injured found themselves without a job.
        • Workers complained of the repetitive work and the long workday of ten to twelve hours, though federal employees had been granted the eight-hour day. This was the same for saleswomen in department stores, though they preferred this to domestic work as in-house servants.
        • Steady employment was rare. From 1866-1897, fourteen years were prosperous while seventeen were hard times, with major depressions in 1873-1879 and 1893-1897, with recessions at 1866-67, 1883-1885, and 1890-91.
      • The Knights of Labor
        • The Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor was a labor organization founded by Philadelphia garment cutters in 1869 and grew to be the largest in the country. Led by Grand Master Workman Terence V. Powderly, they brought together wage earners regardless of skill to organize widely against wage slavery.
        • The Knights endorsed the restriction of child labor, graduated income tax, land set aside for homesteads, the abolition of contract labor, and monetary reform to offset the power of industrialists. They believed the producing class would make the United States a truly democratic society once removed from corporate monopoly.
        • The Knights promoted cooperatives, where workers collectively made decisions for prices and wages, sharing all the profits. The Knights launched many cooperatives, but were unable to compete with the large capitalized enterprises.
        • The Knights led the campaign for a shorter workday, advocating a natural rhythm of eight hours sleep, eight hours leisure, eight hours work.  The movement collapsed in 1870 during the economic recession, but revived it in the next decade with the help of sympathetic consumers and boycotts.
        • The Knights grew from a few thousand to three-quarters of a million by 1880, 10% of them women after the Knights appointed Leonora Barry to organize. The Knights included 20 to 30 thousand African American workers in separate assemblies, but excluded Chinese workers.
        • In May 1886, a third of a million workers walked off their jobs in support of the eight hour day, with 200,000 of them wining shorter hours, including the Packingtown workers.
        • On 4 May 1886, after confrontations between strikers and authorities, a protest against police violence became a massacre after a bomb was thrown, killing one policeman and fatally wounding seven others. Police fired into the crowd. A sham trial convicted a group of anarchists who were never linked to the bombing, with four executed, another committing suicide, and three eventually being pardoned in 1893.
        • The Knights of Labor were eventually crushed as employers’ associations and the Big Five firms no longer negotiated with unions and blacklisted labor organizers, quickly reinstituting the ten hour day.
      • The American Federation of Labor
        • The AFL, founded in 1886, accepted the wage system and sought to bargain with companies, giving them the benefit of highly skilled workers in exchange for fair negotiations, only using strikes when the companies refused to bargain in good faith.
        • The federation—12 national unions and 140,000 members—went ahead of the Knights by disregarding unskilled workers, racial minorities, and immigrants. AFL president Samuel Gompers believed them impossible to organize and unworthy of membership; this extended to women, who he believed should stay at home (to not lower wages due to competition, apparently) while the husband earned the “family wage.” The AFL and Gompers advanced the “aristocrat of labor.”
        • Local AFL members kept some of the Knights policies, providing support for strikers, gathering votes for pro-labor candidates, sponsoring social activities, and publishing their own weekly papers.
        • Chicago’s Central Labor Federation embodied the AFL’s new spirit. They worked closely with civic minded members of the community in women’s clubs, church groups, within the state legislature, and some in the business community, creating an atmosphere of civic responsibility. The Illinois Factory Investigation Act of 1893 secured funds to monitor working conditions, and to improve the conditions of women and child laborers, as the result of the CLF’s work.
        • The AFL only gained about 10% of the working American population, but still became an importance force in their communities. Politicians courted the AFL’s votes and Labor Day, first celebrated in the 1880s, became a national holiday in 1894.
        • The South, after the Civil War, had little investment capital and few banks to manage it. The South, with only 27% of the per capita wealth of the Northeast, remained stagnant due to its continued reliance on northern finance, cotton, and the legacy of slavery.
      • An Internal Colony
        • Woodfin Grady (editor of the Atlanta Constitution)and his followers insisted that the south had great potential in its natural resources of coal, iron, turpentine, tobacco, and lumber. Grady saw a New South with modern mills located close to growing cotton plantations, plentiful and cheap labor unrestricted by labor unions or legal restrictions on child labor.
        •  Northern investors gained many concessions from Southern legislators, including land, forest, and mineral rights and large tax exemptions. They used these concessions to lay new railroad tracks, making new cities and opening the region to national markets.
        • Northerners used various means to protect themselves from southern competition, such as Andrew Carnegie ordering railroads to charge higher rates to Birmingham iron factories, investors buying stock to take Birmingham profits, and finally US Steel simply buying them out.
        • Merchants and landowners used vertical integration to control cotton textile production, which supplied the capital for industrial expansion and technological improvements. The new mills in the four cotton-manufacturing states—North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama—had production far surpassing New England mills.
        • Northern investors shifted investments South, owning much of the region’s wealth, but returning only a small portion through employment and services.
        • Beyond steel and textile, Southern industry remained extractive and rural. Turpentine and lumber, and sawmills and distilleries with them, moved into the dwindling pine forests. Fruit canning and sugar refining boom. Southern industry remained a raw materials industry, perpetuating the North-South economic imbalance.
        • The rise of the New South reinforced the South’s status as the nation’s internal colony.
      • Southern Labor
        • Southern industry did little to improve the lives of African Americans, even though they made up more than one-third of the population. Most continued to work in agriculture, but some moved into industries such as railroad, others gaining jobs such as bricklayers, carpenters, and painters. Most were limited to unskilled, low-paying jobs, and were rigidly segregated; in the textile and cigarette industries, African Americans were stuck to janitorial jobs. Women who earned wages did so as household workers.
        • Most trade unions refused membership to black workers, a white carpenters’ union employing out-of-town white workers rather than employ the local black union.In an Atlanta mill in 1897, 1400 white women went on strike when the company proposed to hire two black spinners.
        • The Knights of Labor briefly organized both races in the 1880s, enrolling two-thirds of Richmond’s 5000 tobacco operatives and many quarry workers, coopers, typographers, iron molders, and builders; when white politicians and newspapers raised the specter of black domination, the Knights were forced to retreat.
        • Wages remained low for workers of both races. Southern textile workers made half the wages of their New England counterparts, earning 12 cents an hour when investors made profits of 30 to 75 percent. Black men earned at or below the poverty line of $300 per year, black women earning less than $120, and white women $220. The poorest paid were children, the mainstay of Southern labor.
        • Child labor expanded with industry, especially in the South. One on four North Carolina mill operatives was younger than sixteen, compared to one in twenty in Massachusetts. Seasonal labor, causing families to move, made formal education difficult. Only twentieth century compulsory schooling laws limited child labor.
        • Convict labor thrived in the bituminous coal mines and public work projects, especially in remote areas, which created conditions similar to slavery. African Americans made up 90 of the convict workforce, suffering high mortality in the work conditions. White politicians took pride in the “good roads movement” as proof of progress.
      • Transformation of Piedmont Communities
        • Piedmont, the region from Southern Virginia and Central Carolinas to northern Alabama and Georgia, was most affected by the New South. Long-established farms and plantations gave way to railroads, textile factories, mill villages, and cities. By 1900, five Piedmont towns had populations > 10,000 and 52 with populations of 1,000-5,000. Piedmont went from rural backcountry to surpassing New England in yarn and cloth production.
        • Rural poverty and new lifestyles encouraged families to move to mill towns, with those with the least access to credit going first (mostly widows with children and single mothers). Families sent their children. Some worked seasonally, but many abandoned the countryside as the agricultural crisis deepened.
        • A mill community owned “lock, stock, and barrel” by the manufacturers was composed of family houses, a small school, churches, a company store, and the superintendent’s home. Superintendent’s prowled the neighborhood to see who was awake past nine, telling violators to go to bed. The company controlled many aspects of workers’ lives and workers had no privacy.
        • Superintendents relied on the clergy and teachers. The Baptist and Methodist preachers were paid to encourage workers to be thrifty, orderly, temperate, and hard working. Teachers taught children social order and to follow their parents into the mill, but only taught the younger children, and even those were pulled out when the mills needed more workers.
        • Mill villages retained many aspects of isolated rural communities and their agricultural past, with factory owners rarely paving roads or sidewalks or providing adequate sanitation. Diseases thrived in these conditions, and workers formed community ties through intermarriage to endure. Most workers had some connection to each other by a few generations, and those that didn’t still lived collectively, creating a family-like atmosphere.
      • Populating the City
        • Cities grew at double the population of the nation. By 1890, one-third of Americans lived in cities. Eleven cities had more than 250,000 people.
        • The largest cities of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, and Baltimore received international fame for their diverse populations, with most new residents emigrating from rural communities. Seven thousand African Americans moved into cities each year from 1870-1910 to escape the poverty and oppression of the South. Nearly 80% of African Americans in the North lived in urban areas. Young women moved north in search of manufacturing or domestic work, outnumbering young men in the east coast.
        • Immigrants and their children majorly contributed to population growth in urban areas, coming primarily from eastern and southern Europe. Chicago claimed a population that was 45% foreign born, Chicago had more Germans than most German cities and more Poles than most Polish cities, New York had more Italians than most Italian cities, and Boston had almost as many Irish as Dublin. Men dominated every group but the Irish.
        • Many intended to work before returning home, while others intended to stay. Half of the Italian, Greek, and Serbian immigrants left in the 1880s. The Jews emigrated to escape persecution in Russia and Russia-dominated Polish and Romanian lands.
        • Jews had the most experience with urban life, having formed thriving urban communities in Europe after being forbidden to own land. Most worked in garment manufacturing and followed needlework.
        • Other groups sought their kin, more easily finding housing and employment. Bohemians settled in Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland. French Canadians from Quebec settled in New England and upper New York, finding work in textile mills. Cubans, often immigrants from Spain themselves, moved into Tampa to Ybor city to work in cigar factories. Others went to fishing, shoemaking, and glassblowing, crafts from the Old Country. Italians went northeast and laid track, excavated subways, and erected buildings.
        • Immigrants continued to move frequently after settling as manufacturing moved outward, America experiencing a population turnover three or four times each decade in the lasts half of the 19th century.
      • The Urban Landscape
        • Cities experienced a building boom, creating many beautiful and useful structures. Cities worked to improve the conditions of housing, who worked in dingy factories and lived in cramped tenements.
        • American streets followed a grid pattern, with builders getting rid of anything in the way, though city officials lacked a master plan. Factories occupied the best sites near waterways, where goods could be transported and chemicals dumped.
        • Tenements were built to maximize space, producing high population densities.
        • However, engineers also planned richer communities with mansions and townhouses, with public architecture such as a public library, fine arts and science museums, and an orchestra.
        • Civic architecture used fireproof materials, expanded foundations, and internal metal construction to build offices and factories many stories high.
        • Architects build in a monumental or imperial style, promoting urban excitement and cultural uplift, but made the city more congested and noisy, making it better to visit than to live.
        • The Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John Roebling (died in early construction from an accident) and son William (became an invalid), was hailed as a practical and aesthetic wonder, uniting technology with art.
        • Streetcars and elevated railroads changed business by moving information, people, and goods faster and farther than before.
      • The City and the Environment
        • Mass transportation made it possible for workers to live farther from their place of employment, allowing the metropolitan region to grow dramatically.
        • Trolleys eliminated the waste from horsecars that fouled city streets, but increased congestion and new safety hazards, killing 600 a year. Elevated trains placed entire communities under rickety wooden platforms.
        • Modern water and sewer systems grew with the city, but did not eradicate serious environmental or health problems because cities continued to dumb sewage into nearby water bodies and cities used separate reservoirs rather than outlaw upriver dumping. Downriver communities complained about the stench.
        • Coal burning for fuel and to heat buildings contributed to air pollution. Noise continued to rise. Overcrowded conditions and inadequate sanitation bred tuberculosis, smallpox, scarlet fever, etc. After 1900, after a campaign against corruption, laws started to address public health.
        • The distance between the countryside and city narrowed, against the wishes of naturalists who wanted a buffer zone to protect natural resources.
      • Conspicuous Consumption
        • After the Civil War, the Gilded Age (Mark Twain) favored the growth of a class united by the pursuit of leisure and money, forming national networks, the Social Register indentifying the 500 families that controlled the nation’s wealth.
        • The rich had created a style of conspicuous consumption (Thorstein Veblen), designing ostentatious households and displaying their wealth.
        • In New York, families hosted dinner parties for their dogs or pet monkey, “Diamond Jim” Brady enjoying after-theatre “snacks” at lobster palaces.
        • The “cottages” of Newport were more magnificent than the English houses they mimicked, where the rich played new amateur sports or went yachting.
        • The Waldorf-Astoria hotel incorporated the grandeur of European royalty, but had corridors and restaurants open for public viewing, because the rich wanted to be watched. The rich started a custom of opening their Fifth Avenue mansion curtains so the public could marvel at the décor.
        • The wealthy became patron of the arts, procuring art treasures from Europe and Asia while funding many art projects.
      • Self Improvement and the Middle Class
        • A new middle class formed included both professionals and a number of salaried employees, mostly specialized workers.
        • Middle class families lived in suburban retreats, away from the city, allowing workers to separate work and home.
        • Middle class women devoted their time to taking care of the home, employing one or two servants as well as the new appliances such as the gas cooking stove. Magazines and cookbooks made food more complex. Though the sweeper was more efficient than the broom, new carpets demanded more care. Instead of reducing time, housework expanded to fill the leisure time.
        • Middle-class women spent most of their time consuming, buying machine-made goods, packaged foods, manufactured clothing, and personal luxuries. Department stores and shopping became a pastime for women.
        • The new white, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant middle class embraced a culture of self-improvement, becoming consumers of learning.
        • They engaged in the gospel of EXERCISE (emphasis not mine) for physical and mental discipline, biking, hiking, camping, roller skating, and ice skating.
        • Middle class children, not having to work, enjoyed creative play and physical activity such as summer camps and sports.
      • Life in the Streets
        • Immigrants found the US had a better material life, but only by working much harder than they did in the Old Country. Suicide rates and alcoholism soared and immigrants variously called the country a pretty horrible place.
        • Newcomers concentrated in districts marked by racial or ethnic lines. San Francisco excluded Chinese from opening laundries and their children from schools. They crowded into a dozen blocks of restaurants, shops, and small factories called Chinatown.  Mexicans in Los Angeles and San Antonia moved into barrios. African Americans were made to live in the worst parts of the city.
        • Young people lived in the hotels or boardinghouses. The Young Men’s Christian Association and Young Women’s Christian Association provided temporary residence to native-born, white, self supporting young people. The most successful “women adrift” lived in furnished-room districts bordering the business districts. The least prosperous lived on “skid row.”
        • In tenements, families shared rooms with other families or boarders, with everyone competing for sleeping place on the fire escape on the roof during the summers. Various income and social customs prevented a pattern from emerging, with some living relatively well and others living paycheck-to-paycheck.
        • Household labor was performed without the new appliances and the crowded homes were used for domestic work to provide a little more income, such as sewing garments, wrapping cigars, stringing beads, or painting vases before cooking and cleaning for boarders who paid rent.
        • The working class often bought shoddy replicas of middle-class goods, such as inferior food, inexpensive clothes patterned off of wealthier clothes, and patent medicines for a variety of ailments.
        • The close quarters allowed immigrants to preserve Old World customs, speaking their native language, playing cards, forming fraternities, and performing other social functions.
        • Immigrants helped shape the emerging popular culture, creating the Tin Pan Alley (popular music) and promoting ragtime.
        • Developers realized “wholesome fun” could be profitable, so developed Coney Island into a seaside park.
      • Education
        • Public education grew with business, providing industry with the educated populace it needed to keep it and government going.
        • Public high schools saw increasing attendance, but still only served only 4% of children between fourteen and seventeen were enrolled in school, most schoolgirls planning to become teachers or office workers. They mostly served middle-class families, the immediate demands of working class families forcing children into the workforce.
        • Agricultural colleges and developed alongside liberal arts colleges, but only served 3% of the college-age population.
        • Professional training grew, offering advanced degrees in the arts and sciences.
        • After the Civil War, women’s colleges opened and coeducation grew at an expanding rate, 47% of colleges admitting women by 1890. The Women’s Educational and Industrial Union offered classes to Boston’s wage-earning women.
        • Business leaders promoted manual training for working-class and immigrant boys, which craft unions opposed in favor of apprenticeship, but merchants and manufacturers managed to gain funds for their schools, having courses in all elementary and high schools in Chicago.
        • African Americans were often excluded from collages attended b white students, so they founded their own. Booker T. Washington promoted practical education and founded the Tuskegee Institute.
      • Leisure and Public Space
        • Cities set aside land for leisure use, such as parks, but placed many restrictions to appease a middle class looking for escape from work.
        • Workers wanted the space for sports, picnics, and lovers’ trysts instead of the many restrictions on parks. Many openly defied or voted against these ordinances.
        • Park administrators set aside sections for playgrounds and athletic fields, but conflicts erupted. When parents protested, city officials instated supervised play, dismaying children.
        • Alcohol laws provoked disputes as well, with “blue laws” rigidly enforced against immigrants, but not against firms such as railroads. Immigrants, particularly Germans, defied such laws.
        • African Americans, of course, were excluded. FROM EVERYTHING (except for small parts of the park and other concessions).
      • National Pastimes
        • Younger members of the middle-class began to find common ground with working class pastimes, including ragtime.
        • Vaudeville bridged middle and working class tastes, drawing on variety show tradition that made racial and ethnic stereotypes and city life into amusement.
        • Sports outdistanced all other amusements in appealing to fans, especially baseball. Baseball, a sport of gentlemen and Union soldiers, became a national pastime first played by English children in a game known as “rounders.”
        • Rowdy behavior gave it a working-class feel, with players known for their saloon brawls disappearing for days on “benders.” Team owners often owned breweries and depended on beer sales; keeping order was difficult. Outfielders sometimes leaped into the stands to punch hecklers. The National League raised prices, prohibited alcohol, and observed Sunday blue laws. The American Association refused to do such frivolous things.
        • Baseball soon became incorporated, with merchants and then companies sponsoring teams. The White Stockings, organized as a joint-stock company, recruited star pitcher Alber Spalding from the Red Stockings, who eventually became a manager and president of the team. He procured various rights and marketed the game, making huge profits.
        • Spalding restricted the rules of participation, such as “reserve clauses” that limited player negotiation and from leaving their teams, forbid the White Stockings from playing against teams with African American players, and effectively excluded African Americans (AGAIN). They formed the Negro League instead.
        • Players complained about wages and rules, forming the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball players, with profits divided between participants and investors. It failed, mostly because baseball franchises required large amounts of capital. Enthusiasm for baseball created an urban identity and temporarily united a nation.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Commonwealth and Empire

     

     

    Governmental Problems:

    ·         1877 Great Uprising (first nationwide strike)

    o   Wage cuts and railroad workers

    ·         Tariffs

    o   Democrats wanted reduction

    o   Republicans wanted increase

    ·         Executive branch yielded power to Congress and the state legislature in the late 1800’s

    ·         Spoils System (bosses, patronage)- Political parties would give bribes (jobs and food) to persuade people to vote for them

    ·         Revenue Increased

    Politics and Legislation:

    ·         Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act  1883

    ·         Circuit Court of Appeals Act 1891

    ·         Granger Laws-- Midwest 1870s

    o   Supreme Court overturned

    Special Interests

    ·         Angry farmers—Grangers Prices

    ·         Sothern Farmers’ Alliance

    o   Colored and Northern Farmers Alliance

    ·         Populists Party—People’s Party

    o   Hated rich people

    o   Headed by James Weaver

    ·         WCTU (Women’s Christian Temperance Union)

    o   Frances E. Willard

    o   Reform Prison system, eradicate prostitution, eliminate wage system

    o   Temperance

    ·         AWSA (American Woman Suffrage Association) and NWSA (National Woman Suffrage Association)

    o   Combined to form NAWSA

    ·         Depression of 1893

    o   Rail, big industry, stock market, banks

    o   150 banks in receivership, 100s more closed, 200 railroads & 15,000 businesses slip into bankruptcy – unemployment 25%

    o   Vagrancy laws made matters worse

    o   Coxey’s Army

    ·         Strikes

    o   “protective association” & Coeur D’Alene Idaho 1892-

    §  Owners join ideas and collaborate so that there is no competition between them

    §  Wages are cut

    o   Amalgamated Iron, Steel and Tin Workers Union – member of AFL- works for Andrew Carnegie (steel monopoly)- they strike because of cut wages by Carnegie

    §  Work days were lengthened

    §  Wages were cut by 25% for those who chose to work on the job

    o   Homestead, PA – Carnegie owned factory – 1892

    §  Army and strikers began a shootout

    §  Strike works in Carnegie’s favor and PA national guard comes in to control strikers (national guards were established specifically for this purpose)

    o   Pullman, IL – 1894

    §  Provided wages, but deducted rent, library fees, and grocery bills

    §  Eugene V. Debs – American Railway Union (ARU)

    ·         Works with unionized members against Pullman rail company

    ·         Army puts down the strike and arrested Eugene V. Debs

    ·         Social Gospel- Protestant churches no longer sanction the situation of the lower class such as long hours, unhealthy conditions, and subsistence wages (just enough to live on)

    o   Washington Gladden – Applied Christianity 1886- Pleads for owners to treat their workers (pay, conditions, etc.)

    o   W.T. Stead – If Christ came to Chicago 1894- Question equality in Chicago

    o   Edward Everett Hale – If Jesus Came to Boston 1894

    o   Charles Sheldon – In His Steps 1896- Urges middle class people to rethink their actions by saying WWJD

    §  WWJD?

    o   YWCA- Young Women’s Christian Association- Provided job training, homes for elderly, and provided unmarried mothers with vocational instruction and help with physical fitness.

    o   African American Women and the Baptist Church

    §  Phyllis Wheatley Home, Chicago – 1908

    ·         Election of 1896

    o   Sherman Silver Purchase Act 1890- Changes how currency is backed, allows silver and gold to back currency

    §  Repealed by influence from Cleveland 1893

    §  “free silver”- silver mines were prevalent, Populists wanted U.S. to sanction the use of silver

    o   William Jennings Bryan – D- Populists back him up

    o   William McKinley – R

    §  Dingley Tariff 1897- Raised import duties to an all-time high

    §  Erdman Act 1898- Act that established a system of arbitration to avoid rail strikes

    §  Gold Standard Act 1900- Act that stated all currency must be backed up with gold

    ·         Nativism and Jim Crow

    o   AFL- Samuel Gompers (Jewish Immigrant) lobbied Congress to restrict immigration from eastern and southern Europe

    o   NAWSA-

    o   Civil Rights Cases 1883- Overturned the Civil Rights Act of 1875

    o   Plessy v. Ferguson 1896- Court upheld a Louisiana state law formally segregating railroad passenger cars on the basis of “separate but equal” doctrine, which established a precedent for segregation

    §  John Marshall Harlan- Only Supreme Court justice who disagreed with Plessy v. Ferguson, he lamented that the Court’s majority rulings gave power to the states ”to place in  a condition of legal inferiority a large body of American citizens.”

    o   Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Ed 1899-  Court allowed separate schools for blacks and whites, even where facilities for African American children did not exist

    o   Grandfather clauses & poll taxes

    §  Grandfather clauses- A measure that enfranchised whites and barred African Americans, it allowed poor whites to vote even though they were illiterate and didn’t own much property as long as they were entitled to vote on January 1, 1867.

    §  Poll taxes- Another measure enacted by the Supreme Court to keep African Americans (and some poor whites) from voting.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - Urban America and the Progressive Era

     

     

    The Henry Street Settlement House: Women Settlement House Workers Create a Community of Reform

    • The Henry Street Settlement House became a model for a new kind of reform community composed essentially of college-education women who encouraged and supported one another in a wide variety of humanitarian, civic, political, and cultural activities.

    Currents of Progressivism

      • Progressivism was a movement to end political corruption, bring more business like methods to governing, and offer a more compassionate legislative response to the excesses of industrialization.
      • Progressivism was limited to whites in the South.
    • Unifying Themes
      • Anger over excesses of industrial capitalism and urban growth
      • Emphasis on social cohesion and common bonds as a way of understanding how modern societies and economies worked
        • Rejected individualism, believing that success relied on more than individual character, and opposed social Darwinism
      • Believed in a need for citizens to intervene actively
      • Two inspirations: evangelical Protestantism and a strain of progressive thought that looked to natural and social sciences to improve the human condition
    • The Female Dominion
      • College-educated, middle-class women made up the vanguard for progressivism.
      • Jane Addams founded the Hull House in Chicago in 1889.
      • Conventionally, women married early or entered the traditional female professions of teaching, nursing, and library work.
      • Florence Kelley helped direct the support of the settlement house movement behind groundbreaking state and federal labor legislation.
        • Wrote a report detailing the conditions of sweatshops and the effects of long hours on women and children
        • Published the Hull House Maps and Papers, the scientific study of poverty in America, in 1895
      • New female-dominated allowed women to combine professional aspirations with the older traditions of female moral reform, especially those centered on child welfare.
      • Female activist like Addams and Kelley reshaped the policies of the progressive era when politics was a historically male field.
    • The Urban Machine
      • Democratic Party machines, usually dominated by first- and second-generation Irish, controlled the political life of most large American cities.
        • The keys to machine strength were disciplined organization, the delivery of essential services to the immigrant community, and business elites.
        • The machine politician viewed his work as a business.
        • They exchanged votes for services.
      • Businesses that contracted with the city had to stay on the machine’s good side as just another business expense.
        • Businesspersons often bribed politicians and contributed to their campaigns, called “graft”.
      • Machines had close ties to organized prostitution and gambling, as well as legitimate businesses.
      • Machines focused on passing welfare legislation in the early twentieth century to expand their base of support. Machine politicians thus allied with progressive reformers.
        • As Catholic and Jewish immigrants became more prominent in the city, machines championed cultural pluralism, opposing prohibition and immigration restrictions and defending the contributions made by ethnic groups to the cities.
    • Political Progressives and Urban Reform
      • Political progressivism was a challenge to the power of machine politics and a response to deteriorating urban conditions.
      • Reformers placed much of the blame for urban ills on machines and looked for ways to restructure city government.
        • “Good government” movement, led by the National Municipal League, fought to make city management a non-partisan, even non-political, process by bringing the administrative techniques of large corporations to cities.
        • Reformers revised city charters for stronger mayors and the expanded use of appointed administrators and career civil servants.
      • Progressive politicians who focused on the human problems of the industrial city wanted to change policies rather than the political structure.
    • Progressivism in the Statehouse: West and South
      • Progressive politicians became a powerful force in state capitals, such as Republican dissident Robert “Fighting Bob” M. La Follette.
      • Western progressives favored institutional reform.
        • Oregon voters strengthened direct democracy through the initiative, a direct vote on specific measures put on the state ballot by petition, and the referendum, which allowed voters to decide on bills referred to them by the legislature.
        • Another reform was the primary, allowing voters to cross party lines, and the recall, giving voters the right to renounce voters by popular vote. All these reforms were widely copied in the West to reduce political power.
      • Western progressives targeted railroads, mining and timber companies, and public utilities for reform.
      • The populist tradition of the 1880s and 1890s was biracial protest, but progressivism was for whites only.
        • Progressives believed that disenfranchisement and segregation of blacks was a precondition to political and social reform. With African Americans removed, white voters could gain influence.
        • They passed statutes specifying poll taxes, literacy tests, and property qualifications with the goal of preventing voting by blacks, stripping black communities of political power.
        • To prevent the disenfranchisement of poor white voters, they established understanding and grandfather clauses to give election officials discretionary power to decide whether an illiterate person could understand the Constitution and white voters could vote if they could show their grandfathers could vote.
      • Southern progressives supported the push towards a fully segregated public sphere. They strengthened Jim Crow laws requiring separation of races in restaurants, streetcars, beaches, and theatres.
        • Schools were separate and unequal, with black taxpayers supporting improved white schools while their own children attended underfunded schools.
      • Based in the New South cities and growing among educated professionals, small businessmen, and women benevolent societies.

    Social control and its limits

    ·         Intro

    o   Edward Ross: Social Control: said society needs ethical elite.

    o   Progressives thought they should frame laws regulations for social control

    ·         The Prohibition movement

    o   WCTU:

    §  women don’t like men drinking alcohol and abusing them

    §  1911 ¼ million members

    o   Anti-saloon League

    §  local option campaigns making small towns and counties ban liquor

    o   Opponents of alcohol were protestants

    ·         The Social Evil

    o   Anti-prostitution from the same guys reached all new highs

    o   Reformers made media for anti-prost.

    o   Made foreigners scapegoats for sexual anxieties of native whites.

    o   1910: congress passed legislation that permitted deportation of foreign prostitutes and foreigners who helped them and employed them.

    o   They didn’t get rid of it they just put it underground. 

    ·         The Redemption of Leisure

    o   Progressives did not want the commercialization of leisure.

    o   Frederic C. Howe: “Commercialized leisure, must be controlled by the community, if it is to become an agency of civilization rather than the reverse”

    o   Movies most popular leisure activity in 1908

    o   National Board of Censorship (NBC)

    §  reformers regulated movies to improve the commercial; recreation of the urban poor

    §  1914 NBC review 95% of films

    ·         Standardizing Education

    o   Went from reading, writing, and math to also include respect and patriotism

    o   Elwood Cubberley argued in Changing Conceptions of Education that education would allow immigrant children to break free from parochial ethnic neighborhoods.

    o   Important trends for public schools:

    §  Expansion

    §  Bureaucratization

    o    Children began school earlier and stayed there longer.

    o   1918: every state had some form of compulsory school attendance.

    o   1930: 47% of kids (14-17) were enrolled in school

    o   1918 National Education Association defined Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. 

    o   Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided federal grants to support vocational programs and set up the Federal Board for Vocational Education.

    Working-Class Communities and Protest

    • In 1900, out of a labor force of 28.5 million, 16 million worked in industries, 11 million on farms. In 1920, out of labor force of 42 million, 29 million worked in industry, but only 10.4 million on farms.
    • Workers needed to sell their labor to earn wages to survive.
    • Race, ethnicity, and differences in skill were barriers to organizing in trade unions.
    • New Immigrants from Two Hemispheres
      • 60% of the industrial labor force was foreign-born by WWI.
        • Nine million came from southern and eastern Europe and arrived between 1900 and 1914.
        • In the 19th century, most came from industrial northern and western Europe (English, Welsh, Germans), bringing skills necessary for emerging industries.
        • The new Italian, Polish, Hungarian, Jewish, and Greek immigrants were unskilled.
      • Immigrants were driven away by commercial agriculture undermining subsistence farming, a shortage of land due to a falling death rate, and religions and political persecution.
      • Except for Jewish immigrants, most came to earn a stake and then return home.
      • Migration usually occurred due to social networks that helped migrants cope with immigration.
      • Immigrant communities used ethnicity as a resource to gain employment, specializing work by ethnic origin.
      • French Canadians also emigrated to the US in large numbers, looking for employment.
      • Mexican immigration increased, providing the labor for the West’s farms, railroads, and mines, spurred by economic and political crises, forming barrios.
      • Eighty-thousand Japanese entered the US, but were unable to become citizens. The Issei (first-generation) formed niches. The Issei and Nisei  (second-generation)  settled near Los Angeles.
    • Urban Ghettos
      • Immigrant communities took the form of densely packed ghettoes, constituting over 60% of the population of cities over 100,000.
      • New York City became the center of Jewish immigration and the ready-to-wear clothing industry, where workers (mostly Jewish, some Italian) worked on a task system.
      • The garment industry was seasonal, with long stretches of unemployment and 60 to 70 hour days in busy seasons.
      • Garment manufacturers paid thugs and prostitutes to beat strikers. The strikers won the support of the Women’s Trade Union League, creating the Uprising of 20,000. The workers failed to have their union recognized, but the International Ladies Garment Workers Union gained strength.
      • After the strikes, the Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire killed 146 women, prompting New York to create a Factory Investigative Commission, leading to new state laws for improved safety conditions and limiting the work-hours of women and children.
    • Company Ghettos
      • Immigrant workers and their families established communities in company towns. Their lives were completely controlled by the corporations, but maintained some community control in social networks.
      • Dangerous conditions led workers to create mutual aid associations that offered cheap insurance and death benefits.
      • Women boosted family incomes by taking in boarders and tending small gardens and livestock.
      • Immigrants, rather than assimilated, adapted and resisted by maintaining cultural values, joining local politics, and organizing unions.
      • Mining towns saw violent labor conflicts.
        • The United Mine Workers led a strike in September 1913 for improved safety, higher wages, and recognition of the union.
        • Governor Elias Ammons sent in the National Guard, but the strike had bankrupted the state in spring.
        • The coal companies sent in private guards, who attacked the mining camps on April 20, 1914. They killed 14, 11 of them children. This led to a violent struggle that ended when President Wilson sent in the Army.
    • The AFL: “Unions, Pure and Simple”
      • The AFL became the strongest organization of workers following the 1890s depression, organizing by craft.
      • Gompers refused to let the AFL accept non-whites and unskilled workers, pitting trades against each other and creating weaknesses in the union.
      • The National Association of Manufacturers launched an “open shop” (non-union) campaign to eliminate unions.
      • Courts ruled that the Sherman Anti-trust Act made secondary strikes illegal.
    • The IWW: “One Big Union”
      • The Western Federation of Miners led strikes marred by violence against the unsafe working conditions in mines, the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mining Company hiring armed detectives and firing all union members during a strike. Idaho’s governor sent in troops to enforce martial law, breaking the strike and imprisoning strikers in bullpens.
      • In 1905, the WFM, the Socialist Party, and radical groups gathered in Chicago to found the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), proclaiming “The working class and the employing class have nothing in common.” They worked to abolish the wage system and implement worker’s self-management.
      • William D. “Big Bill” Haywood became spokesman for the Wobblies (IWW members) and regularly denounced the conservative AFL, saying the IWW accepted all workers.
      • The IWW enjoyed strength among eastern industrial workers with multilingual appeals to form a united labor force among the ethnically diverse Lawrence, Massachusetts textile workforce.
      • The IWW remained a force in the lumber camps, mines, and wheat fields of the west; they focused on practical gains with revolution as a final end.
      • The Justice Department used the IWW’s anticapitalist and antiwar stance to crush it during WWI.
    • Rebels in Bohemia
      • In Greenwich Village, New York City, cultural radicals of a middle-class background emerged. They had a passion for modern art, sympathy for labor, and openness to socialism and anarchism.
      • They rejected Victorian sexual morality and traditional marriage and sex roles, advocated birth control, and experimented in homosexual relationships.
      • “Bohemians” referred to those who had artistic or intellectual aspirations who lived with disregard for conventional rules of behavior.
      • Greenwich Village offered a radical scene, publishing a paper called The Masses and worked as a haven for like-minded radicals.

    Women’s Movement and Black Awakening

    ·         Introduction

    o   Women took part in the settlement house movement, prohibition, suffrage, and birth control.

    o   Fought so that their rights would not be undermined as racism grew.

    ·         The New Woman

    o   40% of the people that graduated from college were women.

    o   General Federation of Women’s Clubs

    §  Clubs brought women together based on their values; cooperation, uplift, service.

    §  Women participated in the stopping of child labor

    o   NCL tried to bring women together despite class differences

    ·         Birth Control

    o   Margaret Sanger

    §  Coined the term “birth control”

    §  mom had eleven kids

    §  Organizer of IWW

    §  Fled to Europe after being sentenced to 45 yrs in jail, because she gave out birth control pamphlet.

    o   New generation of women used contraception to advance sexual freedom

    ·         Racism and Accommodation

    o   Blacks were gaining wealth and influence, but were held back by racism.

    o   Racist like Benjamin Tillman (SC senator) and Thomas Dixon (The Clansmen) referred to them as beasts.

    o   Southern Progressives agreed that blacks were inferior, but wanted them to progress for economic gain.

    o   B. T. Washington

    §  Born slave in 1856

    §  Formed Tuskegee Institute

    §  Most influential black leader of the day

    §  Autobiography: Up from Slavery (1901)

    ·         Racial Justice, The NAACP, Black Women’s Activism

    o   W.E.B. Du Bois

    §  Alternative to BTW’s leadership

    §  First black to get a Ph.D.

    §  DU Bois did not like BTW, because he “accepted the inferiority of blacks”

    o   Niagara Movement

    §  Organized in 1905

    §  Wanted to promote racial integration, civil and political right, and equal access to economic opportunity.

    o   NAACP

    §  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, led by W.E.B. Du Bois.

    §  1909: NAACP formed at National Negro Conference in NY.

    §  Fought for political and civil equality.

    o   The disfranchisement of black voters in the south severely curtailed African American political influence.

    National Progressivism

    ·         Intro

    o   Both major political parties took a more aggressive stance on reform issues of the day

    o   Both President Theodore Roosevelt and President Woodrow Wilson reshaped the office of president in the pursuit of their reform agendas

    ·         Theodore Roosevelt and Presidential Activism

    o   William McKinley assassinated in 1901 and Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest president to ever hold the office

    o   Roosevelt’s History:

    §  Born 1858 and was a sick child

    §  Graduated from Harvard

    §  Won an election for the state assembly of NY

    §  Ran unsuccessful campaign for mayor of NY

    §  Served as president of the NY City Board of Police Commissioners

    §  Became assistant secretary of the navy in Washington

    §  Lead the Rough Riders in Cuba during the Spanish-American War

    §  Elected governor of NY

    §  1900 became vice president

    o   “Bully pulpit”-a platform from which he could exhort Americans to reform their society

    o   Roosevelt preached the virtues of the “strenuous life” and believed the educated, wealthy Americans had a responsibility to serve, guide, and inspire the poor

    o   1902 Roosevelt intervened in a strike by coal miners

    §  Won better pay and working conditions without recognition of the miners’ union

    §  Pushed efficient government as the solution to social problems

    ·         Trust-busting and Regulation

    o   Sherman Antitrust Act—first federal antitrust measure passed in 1890

    o   1902 Roosevelt directed the Justice Department to begin a series of prosecutions under the Sherman Antitrust Act

    o   Northern Securities v. United States ruled that the stock transactions of the company constituted illegal combination in restraint of interstate commerce

    o   In Roosevelt’s two terms the Justice Department filed 43 cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act

    o   Roosevelt did not believe in breaking up large corporations, however

    o   He considered government regulation the best way to deal with big business

    o   The Pure Food and Drug Act established the Food and Drug Administration which tested and approved drugs before they went on the market

    o   Meat Inspection Act allowed the Department of Agriculture to inspect and label meat products

    o   Big businesses like these regulations and viewed them as a way to eliminate smaller competitors who could not meet the regulations

    ·         Conservation, Preservation, and the Environment

    o   1905 Theodore Roosevelt created the US Forest Service and named Gifford Pinchot to head it

    o   By 1909 the total timber and forest reserves had increased from 45 to 195 million acres, and more than 80 million acres of mineral lands had been withdrawn from public sale

    o   The Roosevelt administration took a middle ground between preservation and unrestricted commercial development

    o   John Muir was an essayist and founder of the modern environmentalist movement

    §  Served as the first president of the Sierra Club, founded in 1892 to preserve and protect the mountain regions of the west coast as well as the Yellow Stone National Park

    o   After an earthquake in 1906 San Francisco wanted to dam the Hetch Hetchy Valley, but met much conservationist opposition

    §  The project was approved by Congress in 1913

    o   In 1916, preservationists obtained their own bureaucracy in Washington with the creation of the National Park System

    o   The Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 established the Reclamation Bureau within the Department of Interior and provided federal funding for dam canal projects

    ·         Republican Spilt

    o   Roosevelt promised to retire after his second term and named Secretary of War William Howard Taft his successor

    o   The gap between the “insurgent” progressives and “stand pat” wing split the Republican party

    o   Taft was much different from Roosevelt

    §  He brought a much more restrained concept of the presidency to the White House

    §  He supported constitutional amendments legalizing a graduated income tax, he supported safety regulations for mines and railroads, and the creation of the federal Children’s Bureau

    §  He differed from progressive and Roosevelt on political fights involving tariff, antitrust, and conservation policies

    o   In 1910, when Roosevelt came back from a safari to Africa and a European tour he directly challenged Taft

    o   In June 1912, Taft was nominated again for president

    o   Mad, Roosevelt left and was nominated by the Progressive Party as presidential nominee in August 1912

    o   Roosevelt ran on a platform called “New Nationalism” which focused on a vision of a strong federal government, ran by an active president, regulating and protecting various interests in American society

    ·         The Election of 1912: A Four-Way Race

    o   Republicans were badly split

    o   Democrats had Governor Woodrow Wilson as their candidate

    §  Got the nomination with the help of William Jennings Bryan

    o   Wilson declared that his party was full of true progressives and found Roosevelt, not Taft, to be his true rival

    o   Wilson’s New Freedom campaign ran in contrast to Roosevelt’s and emphasized restoring conditions of free competition and equality in economic opportunity

    o   Wilson argued that the federal government had become too large and focused on states’ rights and small government

    o   Eugene V. Debs was the fourth, and most radical, choice for votes and ran for the Socialist party

    o   Debs:

    §  He drew large and sympathetic crowds when he spoke

    §  His speeches were filled with radical socialist ideals

    §  His speeches caused Roosevelt and Wilson to have very left wing platforms which included many things that were considered radical only 10 years before

    o   In the end, the Republican split gave Wilson the election and in many aspects this election was the first “modern” presidential race

    ·         Woodrow Wilson’s First Term

    o   Underwood-Simmons Act of 1913—substantially reduced tariff duties on a variety of raw materials and manufactured goods

    o   Sixteenth Amendment—gave Congress the power to levy taxes on income, and imposed an gradual tax on personal income

    o   Federal Reserve Act—restructured the nation’s banking and currency system

    §  Created 12 Federal Reserve Banks, regulated by a central board in Washington

    o   Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914—replaced the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 as the nation’s basic antitrust law

    o   Federal Trade Commission (FTC)—established in 1914, sought to give federal government the same sort of regulatory control over corporations that the ICC has over railroads

    o   On social issues Wilson was more cautious his first two years

    o   After fear of losing support from his party he changed

    §  He supported a rural credits act which gave government capital to federal farm banks and federal aid to agricultural extension programs in schools

    §  He favored a workers’ compensation bill for federal works

    §  He signed the Keating-Owen Act, banning child labor under the age of 14 from companies involved in interstate commerce

    ·         Conclusion    

    o   The political and social landscape reflected the tensions and ambiguities of progressivism itself

    o   Blacks couldn’t vote

    o   Laws made it harder for big-city machines to control voting

    o   In one party cities the majority’s primary usually decided the general election

    o   Stricter election laws made it harder for third parties to get on the ballot give voters less choices

    o    What became important in this time period was political participation, Interest-group activity, congressional and statehouse lobbying, and direct appeals to public opinion

    o   Social progressives and their allies made many advances through a range of social legislation

    o   Emphasis on efficiency, uplift, and rational administration collided with humane impulses

    o   Progressives confronted new realities and changed many things through reform

     
    AP Questions 

    1.       B (Unifying Themes Pg 724)

    2.       C (The Female Dominion Pg 725)

    3.       A (Political Progressives and Urban Reform Pg 728)

    4.       D (Progressivism in the statehouse: West and South Pg 729)

    5.       B (Intellectual Trends Promoting Reform Pg 731-732)

    6.       E (Bottom of Intellectual Trends Promoting Reform Pg 732)

    7.       E

    8.       B (Standardizing Education pg 735)

    9.       C (The AFL: “Unions, Pure and Simple pg 742)

    10.   B

    11.   A

    12.   E

    13.   A

    14.  C

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - World War I

     

     

    Becoming a World Power

    ·         In the beginning of the new century, the US began a more vigorous foreign policy

    o   Presidents Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson all contributed to progressive diplomacy, in which commercial expansion was backed by a military presence in the Caribbean, Asia, and Mexico

    ·         This type of policy reflected a view that stressed moralism, order, and a special, God-given, role for the US

    Roosevelt: The Big Stick

    ·         Roosevelt left a strong imprint on the nation’s foreign policy and like many, took for granted the superiority of Protestant white culture and believed that to maintain and increase in economic and political stature, the US had to be militarily strong

    o   “I have always been fond of the West African proverb, ‘Speak softly and carry a big stick, you will go far’”

    ·         Panama Canal

    o   Creating the Panama Canal, where others had failed, was a top priority for Roosevelt, and he worked hard to negotiate with Colombia

    o   When the Colombian Senate rejected all US offers in 1903, Roosevelt got mad

    §  With a combination of native forces and foreign promoters, a revolt was planned against Colombia

    o   On November 3, 1903,  the USS Nashville arrived in Colon harbor and the province of Panama declared independence

    §  The US immediately rocognixed the new Republic of Panama and two weeks later, Bunau-Varilla, a minister from Panama, gave the US a 10-mile-wide canal zone under US sovereignty

    §  The US gave Panama its independence, 10 million, and 250,000 every year

    §  They also gave Colombia 25 million as compensation

    o   The canal used $720 million but gave the US a great economic advantage

    o   The US was worried that foreign countries would try to take control so Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which justified “the exercise of an international police power” anywhere in the hemisphere

    §  This was first used with the Dominican Republic in 1905, but because of anger from other nations, the US assumed management of their debt and customs services

    §  This was also used in Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Mexico

    ·         With the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, Roosevelt became worried that America’s trading with China might be damaged if either got an overwhelming victory

    o   To solve this problem, Roosevelt mediated a settlement of the War at Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1905 and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for doing so

    o   Japan won Korea but Russia won Manchuria

    o   Relations were strained with Japan because of discrimination in California

    §  Yellow peril forced the school board to segregate Asians

    o   In 1908, Roosevelt sent battleships in visit Japan in a display of sea power and then the Root-Takahira Agreement affirmed the existing status quo in Asia

    Taft: Dollar Diplomacy

    ·         Believed in being subtle and using effective weapon of business investment rather than a big stick

    o   Taft and Secretary of State, Philander C. Knox, followed a strategy in which they assumed that political influence would follow increased US trade and investment (dollar diplomacy)

    o   Taft advocated “active intervention to secure for our merchandise and our capitalists opportunity for profitable investment”

    o   American investment in Central America grew from $41 million in 1908 to $93 million in 1914

    §  Most of this went to railroad construction, mining, and plantations

    ·         Dollar Diplomacy would require military support

    o   The Taft administration sent the navy and marines to intervene in lots of Central American nations

    o   Taft’s greed for a greater share of the pie in China went downhill when he supported the Chinese government in buying all foreign railroads and creating new ones

    §  Russia and Japan resisted and formed a new friendship treaty, causing the Open Door to Chine to be Closed

    Wilson: Moralism and Realism in Mexico

    ·         Even without any experience in diplomacy, Wilson brought to foreign affairs a set of fundamental principles that combined a moralist’s faith in American democracy with the understanding of the power of international commerce

    o   He emphasized foreign investments and industrial exports and believed that there should be free trade

    o   He also saw this as a moral crusade, and saw all this trade as showing people the American life

    ·         Wilson’s problems in Mexico foreshadowed the problems he would have in WWI

    o   The 1911 Mexican Rebellion brought up popular leader Francisco Madero

    §  This made US investors scared because they owed ¼ of all the land in Mexico and 4/5 of all gold, silver, and copper

    o   At first, Wilson gave his blessing to the new regime but was shocked when Madero’s chief lieutenant, General Victoriano Huerta, killed Madero and took over

    o   Huerta was supported by Britain, Japan and other nations but Wilson refused and also persuaded Britain to not support them either but rather supported an armed faction that opposed Huerta, led by Venustiano Carranza

    o   In April 1914, Wilson used a minor insult to US sailors as an excuse to occupy Veracruz, but Huerto wouldn’t submit and was later taken out by Carranza, who played the national sentiment and denounced Wilson’s intervention

    o   Wilson later supported Francisco Villa who had a rebel army in northern Mexico but when war loomed in Europe, Wilson recognized Carranza as the de facto president

    §  Feeling betrayed, Villa went around attacking US towns and was chased by General Pershings, which became a fruitless mission

    §  Just when Wilson was going to ask Congress for permission to occupy northern Mexico, he decided not to because of the looming trouble in Europe

    o   The principle that the US was an international police that protected capitalist development, democracy, and free trade, would soon engage American into WWI

    The Great War

    ·         With both sides hoping for a swift victory, both were surprised when it lasted 4 years and the death toll was incredible

    ·         The war shifted country borders and changed the US’s economy, politics, and cultural life

    The Guns of August

    ·         Only a complex system of alliance had kept powers at peace with each other

    ·         The two great camps were the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Allies (Great Britain, France, and Russia)

    o   The heart of the division was Germany and Great Britain who were competing to be the largest commercial power

    ·         The alliance system threatened to entangle many nations in any war that did erupt

    o   On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro-Hungarian Empire, was assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia

    o   The assassin was a Serbian nationalist who wanted Bosnia to become part of Serbia

    o   Germany pushed Hungary to attack and the Serbians in turn called for the Russians and by early August, both sides had exchanged declarations of war and began mobilizing

    o   Germany invaded Belgium and was trying to invade France but was stopped at a stalemate

    §  New guns and tanks and trench warfare made the death toll 5 million people

    American Neutrality

    ·         At the outset of the war, Wilson issued a formal proclamation of neutrality and urged citizens to do so

    o   This was hard because of the different ethnic groups who were tied to their Old World countries

    o   8 million German Americans and 4 million Irish Americans supported the Central Powers extremely

    o   Many Americans were mildly pro-Allies due to cultural and language bonds with Great Britain and the tradition of Franco-American friendship

    o   Both sides used propaganda campaigns to sway Americans

    §  The British effectively exploited their bonds of language and heritage with Americans by reporting looting, raping, and the killing of innocent civilians by German troops

    §  Germans blamed the war on Russian expansionism and France’s anger at losing a previous war but the terrible cost of war made Americans want to stay out

    ·         Economic ties with the Allies was the greatest barrier of neutrality

    o   Early in the war, Britain put a blockade on Germany and even though the US protested the blockage, Wilson wanted to avoid antagonizing Britain

    o   Trade with Germany all but ended, while trade with the Allies increased dramatically

          Preparedness and Peace

    ·         Angry, Germany declared that waters around Britain to be a war zone and enforced this using unrestricted submarine warfare

    o   Neutral powers were warned that their ships could be at risk

    o   The US became angry and issued a protest and threatened to hold Germany accountable

    o   On May 7, 1915, the Lusitania was destroyed killing 1198 people, 128 of them America

    o   Tensions heated up again in March 1916 when a U-boat took out the Sussex injuring four Americans

    o   In June 1916, the National Defense Act doubled the size of the army and added the state National Guards

    o   In August, Congress passed a bill that increased spending for new battleships, cruisers, and destroyers

    ·         Not all Americans supported this

    o   On August 29, 1914, 1500 women marched down the New York’s Fifth Avenue in the Woman’s Peace Parade

    o   Out of this the American Union against Militarism came into being

    o   A group of 30-50 House Democrats opposed Wilson’s military buildup

    o   Majority leader Claude Kitchin of NC, Jane Addams, Lillian D. Wald, and others spoke for freedom

    ·         Wilson wins the reelection

    o   He used the slogan “He Kept Us Out of War” in  1916 and won the campaign

    o   He beat Charles Evans Hughes in a close election

          Safe for Democracy

    ·         Germany had decided against a negotiated peace settlement

    o   On February 1, 1917, Germany declares unlimited submarine warfare against all shipping

    o   This was done in hope to take out the Allies before the US could join in

    ·         Wilson was outraged and disappointed

    o   Wilson had hoped for peace but reluctantly broke off relations with Germany and armed all US merchant ships

    o   On March 1, the White House was shocked with the arrival of an intercepted message known as the Zimmerman notes that said that Germany would team up with Mexico and take back their lost territory if they attacked the US

    o   In the March of 1917, U-boats sank seven US merchant ships, leaving a heavy death toll, and Wilson with nothing else to do

    o   On April 2, 1917, Wilson gave his case, stressing that as mankind’s most enlightened and advanced nation, the US had a duty to protect the rights of small nations, and bring peace and safety to all nations

    §  America joins the war

    American Mobilization

    ·         The overall public response to the call to war was enthusiastic but the administration was less certain about ordinary Americans and their willingness to fight in Europe

    o   The government took immediate steps to win over public support, place a muzzle on antiwar dissenters, and establish a draft

          Selling the War

    ·         Wilson creates the Committee on Public Information to organize public opinion

    o   It was headed by George Creel who was a friend of Wilson and who quickly transformed it into a sophisticated and aggressive agency to promote the war

    o   He enlisted more than 150,000 people to work with the CPI, who in turn produced more than 100 million pieces of literature explaining the war

    o   The CPI used lots of propaganda including using movies stars such as Charlie Chaplin and getting famous journalists such as muckraker Ida Tarbell

    §  Across the Nation 75,000 “Four Minute Men” gave brief and patriotic speeches before stage and movies shows

    o   The CPI also attack all things Germany and depicted them as Huns (bestial monsters outside the civilized world)

    §  Everything German was banished from concert halls, schools, and libraries

    §  The CPI urged many to become “unhyphenated Americans” but all of this led to thousands of local and sometimes violent campaigns against German-Americans, radicals, and peace activists

          Fading Opposition to War

    ·         Because Wilson defined the call to war as a great moral crusade, many Americans were won over to his side

    o   Liberals and progressives were attracted to the possibilities of war as a force for social change

    o   Many agreed with Wilson that this was an idealistic crusade to defend democracy, spread liberal principles, and redeem European decadence and militarism

    o   John Dewey (philosopher) believed that the war offered great social possibilities

    o   One of few voices of dissent among intellectuals was Randolph Bourne who, through his antiwar essays, predicted sharp infringements on political and intellectual freedoms

    ·         The Woman’s Peace Party (est. 1915), opposed the preparedness campaign dissolved

    o   Most of its leaders, Florence Kelley, Lillian D. Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt, joined volunteer work

    o   Catt, leader of NAWSA, joined the Women’s Committee of the Council of National Defense and encouraged women to help in war services

    §  Although some women were still against the war, many enjoyed leading roles in their communities by selling bonds, coordination food conservation drives, and working for hospitals and the Red Cross

           “You’re in the Army Now”

    ·         The central military issue was how to get more armed forces

    o   When the war was declared there were only 200,000 men in the army and very low volunteer rates after April 6

    o   The administration introduced the Selective Service Act when drafted men from 21-35 with no exception for paying for a substitute

    o   On June 5, 1917, 10 million men registered for the draft and by the end of the war 24 million had done so

    o   Of the 2.8 million called for service only 12% didn’t show and another 2 million Americans volunteered

    ·         Progressives saw this as an opportunity for pressing reform measures involving education, alcohol, and sex

    o   Army psychologists gave an intelligence test to everyone and were shocked to find that illiteracy rates were as high as 25%

    o   After the war, these intelligence tests became a standard feature of America’s educational system

          Racism in the Military

    ·         African Americans found severe limitations in the US military

    o   They were organized in segregated units and barred from the marines and the Coast Guard as well as put as cooks laundrymen, and stevedores

    o   Thousands of black soldiers endured humiliating and sometimes violent treatment, especially from Southern white officers as well as civilians when trying to go to certain restaurants and theaters

    o   The ugliest incident was in Houston August 1917 when black infantrymen took arms and killing 17 civilians

    §  30 blacks were executed and 41 imprisoned for life

    o   More than 200,000 blacks served in France but only 1 in 5 saw combat as opposed to 2 in 3 whites

    o   Blacks were actually loved by the French and the 369th US Infantry regiment was awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French government

    §  171 officers and enlisted men were cited for exceptional bravery

          Americans in Battle

    ·         Wilson appointed General John J. Pershing as commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF)

    o   Pershing wanted the AEF to be separate from the other countries’ armies and was reluctant to send soldiers who didn’t have at least 16 months of training

    o   The AEF had a short but intense combat role, only being in the front lines for the last 8 months of the war

    o   Pershing believed the object of war to be total destruction of the enemy’s military power and didn’t like the defensive tactics of trench warfare

    §  Sadly there was nothing to be done because of the new weapons and technology in use

    o   In the spring if 1918, Germanys launched an offensive that brought them within 50 miles of Paris

    §  In June, 70,000 AEF soldiers helped the French stop the Germans and in July, Allied forces led by Marshal Ferdinand Foch of France, began a counteroffensive to end it all

    §  Reinforcements came to help the allied forces and by September, Pershing had over 1 million Americans at his back

    o   In late September 1918, the AEF took over a 200 mile front offensive and quickly took out the Germans in seven weeks

    §  On November 11, 1918, the war ended with an armistice

    ·         The massive influx of Americans and their supplies gave a quick end to the war

    o   52,000 Americans died in battle, 60,000 from influenza and pneumonia, 200,000 injured

    o   9 million dead in Russia, 6 million in Germany, 5 million in France, 2 million for both Great Britain and Italy

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - The Twenties

     

     

    ·         Roxy’s theatre opens in March 1927

    o   60 million Americans “worshiped” at movie theatres each week

    o   Movies emerged as the most popular form of entertainment

    ·         Hollywood

    o   Sunny and dry climate was ideal for year-round filming

    o   Scenic locations

    §  Mountains

    §  Deserts

    §  Ocean

    o   Land and labor were  cheap and plentiful

    o   Most top studio executives were Jewish immigrants from eastern and central Europe

    o   Resentment towards new popular culture was widespread

    ·         Postwar prosperity and its price

    o   Warren G. Harding won presidency in 1920

    §  “return to normalcy”

    o   After World War I…

    §  American economy underwent profound structural changes that guaranteed life would never be the same as before the war

    §  Increase in the efficiency of production

    §  Steady climb in real wages

    §  Decline in work hours

    §  Boom in consumer-goods industries

    ·         The second industrial revolution

    o   Technological innovations made it possible to increase industrial output WITHOUT more labor force

    o   Electricity replaced steam in most industries

    §  Older machinery replaced with more efficient electric machinery

    §  Could be operated by unskilled and semiskilled workers

    o   By 1929, 70% of factories relied on electric power

    o   Machine industry supplied 35% of the world market

    o   Mass-production techniques used to make large profits while keeping prices affordable

    o   Double industrial production in the 1920s by…

    §  Efficient management

    §  Greater mechanization

    §  Intensive product research

    §  Ingenious sales and advertising methods

    ·         The modern corporation

    o   John D. Rockefeller (oil) & Andrew Carnegie (steel)

    §  Maintained both corporate control (ownership) and business leadership (management) in their enterprises

    ·         Found in men such as Alfred P. Sloan of GM and Owen D. Young of the Radio Corporation of America

    §  Stressed scientific management and the latest theories of behavioral psychology to make workplaces more productive, stable, and profitable

    o   Most successful in this era led in…

    §  The integration of production and distribution

    §  Product diversification

    §  Explanation of industrial research

    o   In 1929, 200 largest corporations owned almost half the nation’s corporate wealth

    §  Physical plant

    §  Sock

    §  Property

    o   Oligopoly

    §  Control of a market by a few large producers

    §  Was normal during this time

    o   Americans were increasingly members of national consumer communities

    §  Buying the same brands all over the country, as opposed to locally produced goods

    ·         Welfare capitalism

    o   Wartime gains made by organized labor troubled corporate leaders

    §  Large employers promoted a variety of new programs to improve worker well-being and morale

    ·         Encourage workers to acquire property through stock purchase plans

    o   Beneficial to workers of that company

    ·         Offered workers insurance policies covering accidents, illness, old age, and death

    o   Similar to life insurance

    ·         Plant managers worked to improve safety conditions, provide medical services, and establish sports and recreation programs for workers

    o   Encourage workers to identify personally with the company; stop complaining on the job

    §  Welfare capitalism could not solve problems of:

    ·         Seasonal unemployment

    ·         Low wages

    ·         Long hours

    ·         Unhealthy factory conditions

    §  The American Plan

    ·         Meant to associate unionism with foreign and un-American ideas

    ·         Backed by the National Association of Manufacturers and the Chamber of Commerce

    ·         Open shop

    o   No employee would be compelled to join a union

    o   Put organizers at a disadvantage

    §  Large employers set up company unions (part of welfare capitalism)

    ·         Substitute largely symbolic employee representations in management conferences for the more confrontational process of collective bargaining

    o   US Steel

    o   International Harvester

    ·         Decline in the ranks of organized labor

    ·         Endears companies to employees

    ·         Gives workers a stake in the vision of the company

    §  William Green

    ·         President of the American Federation of Labor after the death of Samuel Gompers

    ·         No interest in getting unorganized workers into unions

    ·         Decrease in AFL influence

    §  Federal government reverted to a  more pro-business posture

    ·         Supreme Court was unsympathetic toward unions; upholding the use of injunctions to prevent strikes

    ·         The auto age

    o   Auto industry offered the clearest example of the rise to prominence of consumer durables

    o   1929; 4.8 million new cars added to the roads

    o   Henry Ford

    §  Continuous assembly line drastically reduced the number of worker hours required to produce a vehicle

    §  More efficient factory shop and layout

    ·         Maximize output

    §  “Every piece of work in the shop moves”

    §  Integrated new wage:

    ·          $5 per 8 hour day

    ·         Reduced high turnover rate in his labor force

    o   If you pay the best, workers are less likely to leave

    o   By 1927, Ford faced stiff competition from General Motors

    o   Alfred P. Sloan

    §  GM organized into separate divisions which appealed to a different market segment

    §  Example: Cadillac for wealthy buyers; Chevrolet for working-class buyers

    ·         Widely copied model for other large American corporations

    o   Auto industry provided a large market for makers of:

    §  Steel

    §  Rubber

    §  Glass

    §  Petroleum

    §  Diners, motels, billboard advertising

    o   Auto industry:

    §  Extended the housing boom to new suburbs

    §  Showrooms, repair shops, and gas stations were abundant

    §  New small enterprises sprang up as motorist took the highway

    §  Made the exploration of the world outside the local community easier to reach

    §  Allowed young people to gain privacy from their parents

    ·         Cities and suburbs

    o   Cars promoted urban and suburban growth

    o   Steady increase in the number of big cities

    o   Cities promised…

    §  Business opportunity

    §  Good jobs

    §  Cultural richness

    §  Personal freedom

    o   Immigrants were drawn to cities because of already established ethnic communities

    o   Suburban communities grew at twice the rate of core cities

    §  Automobile boom

    ·         Exceptions: Agriculture, ailing industries

    o   Increased wartime demand had led to record-high prices for many crops

    o   With war’s end, American farmers began to suffer from a chronic worldwide surplus

    §  Land values dropped, wiping out billions in capital investment

    o   The South:

    §  Lagged farther behind the rest of the nation in both agricultural diversity and standard of living

    §  Farmers found it extremely difficult to find reliable markets for:               

    ·         Vegetables

    ·         Fruit

    ·         Poultry

    ·         Dairy

    §  Black tenantry declined slightly as a result of the Great Migration

    o   McNary-Haugen bills

    §  Complicated measure designed to prop up and stabilize farm prices

    §  Basic idea was for the government to purchase farm surpluses and either:

    ·         Store them until prices rose

    ·         Sell them on the world market

    §  Result…

    ·         Higher domestic prices for farm products

    §  However, Calvin Coolidge viewed these measures as unwarranted federal interference in the economy

    ·         Vetoed the bill

    o   Some farmers thrived

    §  Improved transportation and chain supermarkets allowed for a wider distribution of some foods

    §  Wheat, citrus, dairy prospered

    o   Disastrous dust storms in the 1930s rolled across the grassless plains

    o   American coal mines became less important source for energy

    §  Shrinking demand

    §  New mining technology

    §  Series of losing strikes

    o   United Mine Workers shrank drastically

    o   Number of miles of railroad track decreased after 1920

    §  Automobiles and trucks began to displace trains

    o   Overcapacity was a chronic problem (too many factories)

    o   Women’s fashions of the 1920’s required less material than earlier fashions

    §  Synthetic fibers such as rayon depressed demand for cotton textiles

    o   Textile manufacturers in New England and other parts of the Northeast began a long-range shift of operations to the South

    §  Nonunion shops and sub standard wages became the rule

    o   Center of textile industry shifted permanently to the Piedmont region of North and South Carolina

    §  Southern mills generally operated night and day

    ·         Used the newest labor-saving machinery

    ·         Cut back on the wage gains of the WWI years

    ·         The new mass culture

    o   “Roaring Twenties”

    §  Explosion of image and sound making machinery that dominated American life

    o   Culture changed

    §  Habit, dress, language, sounds, & social behavior

    §  New media altered the rhythms of everyday life

    §  Redefined “the good life”

    o   Movie-made America

    §  Movie industry centered in New York

    §  Migration to Hollywood – cheaper, lots of land, scenery, great weather, etc.

    §  Movie-going was a regular habit especially for immigrants & working class citizens

    ·         Cheap theaters called “nickelodeons”

    §  Paramount, Fox, MGM, Universal, and Warner Brothers dominated the business

    ·         Feature films

    ·         Founded and controlled by European immigrants

    ·         Adoph Zukor – Paramount

    ·         Samuel Goldwyn – MGM

    ·         William Fox – Fox

    §  Each studio combined:

    ·         Production, distribution, & exhibition

    §  “talkies”

    ·         Movies with sound

    §  Stars became vital to fans – Charlie Chaplain, etc.

    ·         studio publicity

    ·         fan magazines

    ·         gossip columns

    §  Movies generally emphasized sexual themes and celebrated youth, athleticism, & the liberating power of consumer goods

    §  Americans (mostly rural areas) worried about Hollywood’s impact on traditional sexual morality

    ·         States created censorship boards to screen movies before allowing them to be shown to the public

    §  Movies promote consumerism

    §  Will Hays

    ·         Head the Motion Picture Producers and Distrubutors of America

    ·         Former postmaster general under President Harding

    ·         Lobbied against censorship laws

    ·         Wrote pamphlets defending the movie business

    ·         Began setting guidelines for what could and could not be shown on the screen

    o   Radio Broadcasting

    §  Harry P. Davis

    ·         Noticed that amateur broadcasts attracted attention in the local Pittsburgh press

    ·         Converted the amateur broadcast to a stronger one

    §  KDKA offered regular nightly broadcasts that were heard by only a few hundred people

    ·         Before KDKA, wireless technology was only interesting to the military, and the telephone industry

    §  Radio broadcasting begun as a service for selling cheap radio sets left over from World War I

    §  By 1923, 600 stations had been licensed by the Department of commerce

    ·         600,000 Americans had bought radios

    ·         Programs included…

    o   Live popular music

    o   Playing of the phonograph records

    o   Talks by college professors

    o   Church services

    o   News and weather reports

    o   Amos and Andy

    §  Radios provided a new link to the larger national community

    §  Toll broadcasting emerged in the late 1920s

    ·         Sponsors were the customers

    o   Sponsors advertised to the audience through shows

    ·         CONSUMERISM IN ADVERTISING

    §  Dominant radio corporations…

    ·         General Electric

    ·         Westinghouse

    ·         Radio Corporation of America (RCA)

    ·         American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T)

    §  AT&T leased a nationwide system of telephone wires to allow linking of many stations

    ·         National Broadcasting Company (1926)

    ·         Columbia Broadcasting System (1928)

    §  NBC and CBS led in creating popular radio programs

    ·         Relied on older cultural forms

    §  Sports games were especially popular

    §  Radio broadcasting created a national community of listeners

    §  Had a powerful hemispheric impact

    ·         Canada and Mexico, national broadcasting systems helped bolster cultural and political nationalism

    §  American shows dominated Canada’s airwaves

    §  Mexican radio stations partnered with American corporations

    ·         Language barriers limited direct impact of US broadcasting

    o   New forms of journalism

    §  Tabloid became popular in post-war years

    ·         New York Daily News achieved this style first

    o   Founded by Joseph M. Patterson

    ·         Folded-in-halfpage size made it convenient to read on buses and subways

    ·         Devoted much space to photos and other illustrations

    ·         Terse, lively reporting style

    o   Emphasized sex, scandal, and sports

    §  Most new readers were poorly educated city-dwellers

    ·         Immigrants or children of immigrants

    §  Gossip column was popular

    ·         Invented by Walter Winchell

    ·         Described the secret lives of public figures

    §  Journalism followed the larger economic trend towards consolidation and merger

    o   Advertising modernity

    §  Thriving advertising industry encouraged importance of consumer goods

    §  CPI suggested that new techniques could convince people to buy a wide range of goods & services

    §  Advertising reached a higher level of respectability and economic power

    §  Larger agencies:

    ·         Moved toward a more scientific approach

    o   Sponsored market research

    o   Welcomed the language of psychology

    ·         Focused on needs of the consumer, rather than the quality of the product

    §  High-powered ad campaigns made new products that became known throughout the country

    ·         Fleischmann’s Yeast

    ·         Kleenex

    ·         Listerine

    §  New advertising ethic promised that products would contribute to the buyer’s physical or emotional well being

    §  Strategies that were a success…

    ·         Appeals to nature

    ·         Medical authority

    ·         Personal freedom

    o   The phonograph and the recording industry

    §  Phonograph was a popular entertainment medium

    ·         Success transformed the popular music business

    ·         Displaced both cylinders and sheet music as the major source of music

    §  Dance crazes boosted the record business tremendously

    ·         Fox trot

    ·         Tango

    ·         Grizzly bear

    §  Records provided the music for new popular dances

    ·         The Charleston

    ·         The black bottom

    §  Record sales declined towards the end of the decade

    ·         Competition from the radio

    §  Many Americans began to hear musical styles and performers who had previously been isolated from the general population

    o   Sports and celebrity

    §  In the 1920’s, sports grew in popularity and profitability

    §  Athletes took their place alongside movie stars

    ·         Defined a new culture of celebrity

    §  Athletes themselves who attracted millions of new fans

    §  Image of the modern athlete:

    ·         Rich

    ·         Famous

    ·         Glamorous

    ·         A rebel against social convention

    §  Major league baseball was most popular

    ·         Babe Ruth was its greatest star

    o   Hobnobbed with politicians, movie stars, and gangsters

    o   Regularly visited sick children in hospitals

    o   First athlete sought after for celebrity endorsement

    §  Baseball suffered a PR disaster with the “Black Sox” scandal

    ·         Players agreed to “throw” the World Series for money from gamblers

    ·         Banned the players for life

    §  Newspapers began including larger sports sections

    §  William K. Wrigley

    ·         Owner of the Chicago Cubs

    o   Discovered that by letting local radio stations broadcast games, new fans would emerge

    §  African Americans were banned from baseball

    ·         Developed a world of their own

    o   Professional and semiprofessional leagues

    §  Negro National League, organized by Andrew Foster

    o   Josh Gibson & Satchel Paige – stars in the African American league

    §  College football was also a big time sport

    ·         Teams gained national following

    o   A new morality?

    §  Elite figures in the new culture defined by the mass media

    ·         Movie starts

    ·         Radio personalities

    ·         Sports heroes

    ·         Popular musicians

    §  The flapper

    ·         “women who danced the Charleston”

    ·         Portrayed as…

    o    a young, sexually aggressive woman with bobbed hair, rouged cheeks, and a short skirt

    o   Loved to dance to jazz music

    o   Enjoyed               smoking cigarettes

    o   Drank bootleg liquor

    o   Competitive, assertive

    ·         Not as new or widespread as the image would suggest

    ·         Social role between women and men becomes less significant

    ·         WTC

    o   Women’s Temperance Committee

    §  Emergence of homosexual subcultures

    ·         Previously been largely confined to working-class saloons associated with the urban underworld

    ·         Middle-class enclaves of homosexuals began to take root in New York, Chicago, and San Fransisco

    o   Met in “speak-easies”; generally in Harlem

    o   Speak-easy: place that served liquor illegally

    §  On fringe of “illegal, and who cares?”

    ·         1927; Mae West presented an original play on Broadway that featured male drag queens playing themselves

    o   Protest forced authorities to padlock the theater

    ·         Can be associated with:

    o   Troops in the armed forces during World War I were exposed to sex education

    o   New psychological and social theories stressed the central role of sexuality in human experience

    §  Sex is a positive, healthy impulse

    ·         Margaret Sanger

    o   Author of “Birth Control Review”

    §  After 1910, likelihood of women being virgins when they got married dropped drastically

    o   Educated women in birth control

    o   Made contraception freely available to all women

    ·         Resistance to Modernity

    o   Prohibition

    §  Actually does reduce alcohol consumption

    §  18th Amendment: banning the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages (January 1920)

    §  Culmination of campaign that associated drinking with the degradation of working-class family life and the worst evils of urban politics

    §  Supporters of Prohibition believed it “a noble experiment”

    ·         Group of women’s temperance group

    ·         Middle-class progressives

    ·         Rural Protestants

    §  Enforcing the law was extremely difficult

    ·         Volstead Act of 1919

    o   Established federal Prohibition Bureau to enforce the 18th Amendment

    o   Bureau was understaffed

    o   Only about 1500 agents in the entire country

    §  Public demand for alcohol led to lawbreaking

    ·         Especially in large cities

    ·         Drinking was a routine for many Americans

    ·         Led to bootlegging

    ·         Illegal stills and breweries and liquor smuggled from Canada were bought by many Americans

    ·         Almost every town and city had at least one “speakeasy” where people drank and enjoyed music or other entertainment

    o   Local law enforcement were easily bribed to overlook it

    ·         Organized crime

    o   Al Capone

    §  By the early 1920’s, many Eastern states gave up on enforcing the law

    ·         Capone: “Everybody calls me racketeer. I call myself a businessman. When I sell liquor it’s bootlegging. When my patrons serve it on a silver tray on Lake Shore Drive, it’s hospitality”

    o   Immigration Restriction

    §  Sentiment to restrict immigration began in the late 19th century

    ·         Reached a peak immediately after WWI

    §  Antiimmigrant feeling reflected growing prevalence after 1890 of “new immigrants”

    ·         Those from southern and western Europe

    o   From 1891-1920 about 10.5 million immigrants had arrived from these areas

    ·         Mostly Catholic and Jewish

    ·         Darker-skinned than the “old immigrants”

    o   Immigrants seemed more exotic and foreign, and less willing to assimilate the nation’s political and cultural values

    ·         Relatively poorer

    ·         Lived in more physically isolated cities and less politically strong than earlier immigrants

    §  1890’s, anti-Catholic American Protective Association called for a curb on immigration

    ·         Exploited the economic depression of that decade

    o   Reached membership of 2.5 million

    §  Immigration Restriction League (1894)

    ·         Formed by a group of Harvard graduates

    o   Henry Cabot Lodge and John Fiske

    ·         Provided an influential forum for the fears of the nation’s elite

    ·         League used newer scientific arguments based on flawed application of Darwinian evolutionary theory and genetics to support immigration restrictions

    ·         Theories of scientific racism

    o   Madison Grant’s The Passing of the Great Race (1916)

    §  Distorted generic theory to argue that America was committing “race suicide”

    §  Inferior Alpine, Mediterranean, and Jewish stock threatened to extinguish superior Nordic race

    §  Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

    ·         Asians banned

    o   Labor shortage

    ·         1924 Immigration Act    

    o   Aliens ineligible to citizenship

    ·         Ozawa vs. US & US vs. Thind

    o   Asian Indians are racially ineligible to become US citizens

    §  Wanted to maximize immigrants from Britain, etc. and minimize immigrants coming from Asia and smaller countries

    §  Eugenicists

    ·         Enjoyed vogue in those years

    ·         Believed  heredity determined almost all of a person’s capacities

    o   Genetic inferiority predisposed people to crime and poverty

    o   Thinking sought to explain historical and social development solely as a function of racial differences

    §  War and its aftermath

    ·         Provided final push for immigration restriction

    ·         “100% American” fervor of war years fueled nativist passions

    ·         Red Scare off 1919-1920 linked foreigners with Bolshevism and radicalism

    ·         Postwar depression coincided with resumption of massive immigration

    o   Brought hostile comments on the relationship between rising unemployment and influx of immigrants

    §  American Federation of Labor

    ·         Proposed stopping all immigration for 2 years

    ·         Press coverage of organized crime figures played a part

    §  1921, Immigration Act

    ·         Set a maximum of 357,000 new immigrants a year

    ·         Quotas limited annual immigration from any European country to 3% of the number of its natives counted in the census

    ·         Restrictionists complained the law still allowed too many southern and eastern Europeans in

    §  Johnson-Reed Immigration Act of 1924

    ·         Revised the quotas to 2% of the number of foreign-born counted for each nationality

    ·         Maximum total allowed was cut to 164,000

    ·         Quota laws did not apply to any country on the western hemisphere

    ·         Included a clause prohibiting the entry of “aliens ineligible to citizenship”

    o   Excluding immigrants from the nations of East and South Asia

    §  Most Asians had already been barred from legal immigration by Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 or the “barred Asiatic zone”

    §  Outraged Japanese government imposed a 100% tariff on goods imported from America

    ·         This led the Supreme Court to hold that Japanese and Asian Indians were ineligible for US citizenship

    o   Ku Klux Klan

    §  Most effective mass movement

    §  Original Ku Klux Klan had been formed in the Reconstruction South as instrument of white racial terror against newly freed slaves

    ·         Died out in the 1870’s

    §  New Klan started in Stone Mountain, GA in 1915

    ·         Inspired by DW Griffith’s racist The Birth of a Nation

    o   Film released that depicted the original KKK as heroic

    ·         Patterned itself on secret rituals and antiblack hostility of predecessors

    o   Until 1920, limited to GA and AL

    ·         Hiram Evans (Dallas dentist) became imperial wizard of the Klan in 1922, he transformed the organization

    o   Hired professional fundraisers and publicists that paid a commission to sponsor new members

    o   Advocated “100% Americanism” and “the faithful maintenance of White Supremacy”

    o   Supported prohibition

    o   Attacked birth control and Darwinism

    o   Made special target of the Roman Catholics

    §  Labeled hostile and dangerous alien power

    ·         Presented itself as righteous defender of embattled traditional values of small-town Protestant America

    ·         To build its membership, relied heavily on publicity, public relations, and business techniques associated with modern urban culture

    ·         By 1924, they had over 3 million members across the country

    ·         Klansmen boycotted businesses, threatened families, and sometimes resorted to violence

    ·         Targets sometimes white Protestants accused of sexual promiscuity, blasphemy, or drunkenness

    ·         Most victims African Americans, Jews, and Catholics

    ·         Prohibition united the Klan more than anything

    ·         Popular social movement

    o   More attracted to spectacular social events and effort to reinvigorate community life than its attacks on “outsiders”

    ·         Half a million women joined the Women of the KKK

    o   Women constituted half of the Klan membership in some states

    §  The Klan’s power was strong in many communities because it fit into everyday life of white Protestants

    §  Became a powerful force in Democratic Party politics

    ·         Had strong presence among delegates in 1924 Democratic National Convention

    §  Began to fade in 1925

    ·         When its Indiana leader, Grand Dragon David Stephenson, was involved in a personal affair

    o   He got a young secretary drunk and assaulted her on a train

    o   The woman took poison and died

    o   Convicted of manslaughter

    o   Klan began to lose members

    o   Religious Fundamentalism

    §  Congregations focused less on religious practice and worship than on social and reform activities in larger communities

    §  By early 1920’s, fundamentalist revival had developed a reaction to these tendencies

    §  Emphasized literal reading of the Bible, rejected tenets of modern science as inconsistent with work of God

    ·         Believed origin of species by Darwin was an attack on Christian values and revealed word of God

    §  Fundamentalist publications and Bible colleges grew

    ·         Particularly among Southern Baptists

    §  Special target of fundamentalists was theory of evolution

    ·         Using fossil evidence, evolutionary theory suggested that over time many species had become extinct, and new ones had emerged through natural selection

    ·         Ideas contradicted fixed creation of the Book of Genesis

    ·         Clergymen have long since found ways to blend scientific theory with theology

    o   Fundamentalists launched attack on teaching of Darwinism in schools and universities

    §  Young biology teacher, John T. Scopes, broke Tennessee law that prohibited the teaching of Darwinism in 1925

    ·         Trial drew international attention

    ·         Called the “monkey trial” because fundamentalists trivialized Darwin’s theory that claimed humans descended from monkeys

    ·         Most publicized moment of the decade

    ·         Jury convicted Scopes, verdict later thrown out

    ·         Prosecutions for teaching evolution ceased

    ·         John Scopes is represented by ACLU

    o   Tennessee is wrong in disallowing the teaching of evolution

    §  Fundamentalism continued to have a strong appeal for millions of Americans

    ·         Cultural defense against uncertainties of modern life

    §  William Jennings Bryan

    ·         Don’t allow science communities to testify

    ·         Bryan is allowed to testify as an “expert on the Bible”

    ·         Wins case and Scopes loses

    ·         Dies a week after the trial

    ·         The State, the Economy, and Business

    o   1920’s, Republican Party dominated national politics and believed they had ushered a “new era” in American life

    o   New, closer relationship between the federal government and American business became the hallmark of the Republican policy

    §  Both in domestic and foreign affairs during the administrations of 3 successive Republican presidents

    ·         Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover

    o   Republicans claimed their business-government partnership was responsible for the nation’s economic prosperity

    o   Warren Harding

    §  Handsome, genial, well-spoken, however, he was shallow and weak

    ·         Unfit to be a president

    ·         During the campaign, publicists kept Harding out of the public eye because they did not want to expose his inability to be president

    §  Harding chose his close friends, called the “Ohio gang,” for places of administrative power

    §  President conducted business as if he were in the environment of a small-town saloon

    §  Summer of 1923, scandals his administration were best known for began

    §  After Harding’s death from a heart attack in 1923, congressional investigations revealed a deep pattern of corruption in Harding’s administration

    ·         Attorney General Harry Daugherty received bribes from violators of the Prohibition statutes

    o   Also failed to investigate graft in the Veterans Bureau when Charles Forbes had stolen $250 million spent on hospitals and supplies

    ·         Teapot Dome Scandal

    o   Involved Interior Secretary Albert Fall

    §  Fall received hundreds of thousands of dollars in a payoff where he secretly leased navy oil reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming and Elk Hills, California to two private oil developers

    §  Became the first cabinet officer to go to jail

    §  Positive points of Harding’s administration

    ·         Andrew Mellon, influential Pittsburgh banker, served as secretary of the treasury under all 3 Republican presidents of the 1920s

    o   Leading investor in the Aluminum Corporation of America and Gulf Oil

    o   Believed government should be run based on conservative principles in corporations

    o   Trimmed the federal budget, cut taxes on incomes, corporate profits, and inheritances

    §  Cuts would free up capital for new investments and promote general economic growth

    §  Sharply cut taxes for higher income brackets and for businesses

    §  By 1926, a person with an income of $1 million a year paid 1/3 less income tax than in 1921

    o   Policies succeeded to reduce much of the progressive taxation associated with Woodrow Wilson

    o   Calvin Coolidge

    §  Temperamental opposite of Harding

    §  “Silent Cal” was the quintessential New England Yankee

    §  Cold, refined, and honest, Coolidge believed in the littlest amount of government possible

    §  “The business of American is business”

    ·         Captured core of philosophy of Republican era

    §  In awe of wealthy men like Andrew Mellon

    ·         Thought these men best suited to make society’s key decisions

    §  Easily won election of 1924

    ·         Benefited from prosperity and the contrast he provided against Harding

    ·         Defeated Democrat John Davis

    o   Compromise of his party

    o   Democrats badly divided between its rural and urban wings

    §  Coolidge showed most interest in reducing federal spending, lowering taxes and blocking congressional initiatives

    §  Saw his primary function as clearing the way for American businessmen

    ·         Agents of the era’s unprecedented prosperity

    o   Herbert Hoover and the “Associative State”

    §  Secretary of commerce, dominating the cabinets of Harding Coolidge

    §  Became president in 1929

    §  Successful engineer, administrator, and politician

    §  Effectively embodied the belief that enlightened businesses that were enlightened and informed by the government would act in the public’s interests

    §  Believed the government only needed to advise private citizens groups about what national or international policies to pursue

    §  Fused a faith in old-fashioned individualism with a strong commitment to the progressive possibilities offered by efficiency and rationality

    ·         Wanted to assist the business community

    o   Spoke of creating an “associative state”

    §  Government would encourage voluntary cooperation among corporations, consumers, workers, farmers, and small businessmen

    o   Became central occupation of the Department of Commerce

    o   Bureau of Standards

    §  Became the nation’s leading research center, setting engineering standards for key American industries such as machine, tools, and automobiles

    §  Helped standardize the styles, sizes, and designs of consumer products such as canned goods and refrigerators

    §  Actively encouraged the creation and expansion of national trade associations

    ·         By 1929, about 2000 of them

    §  Industrial conferences called by the Commerce Department

    ·         Government officials explained advantages of mutual cooperation in figuring prices and costs and then publishing the information

    o   Idea was to improve efficiency by reducing competition

    o   To some, the process violated the spirit of antitrust laws

    o   In 1920s, the Justice Department’s Antitrust Division took a relaxed view of responsibility

    o   Supreme Court consistently upheld the legality of trade associations

    o   Government provided climate for the concentration of corporate wealth and power

    §  By 1929, the 200 largest American corporations owned almost half the total corporate wealth and about a fifth of the total national wealth

    §  Concentration strong in manufacturing, retailing, mining, banking, and utilities

    §  Number of vertical combinations increased

    ·         Large integrated firms that controlled the raw materials, manufacturing processes, and distribution networks for their produces

    ·         Common in automobile, electrical, radio, motion picture, and other industries

    ·         War debts, reparations, keeping the peace

    o   US emerged from WWI as the strongest economic power in the world

    §  War transformed US from the world’s leading debtor to its most important creditor

    §  European governments owed the US government about $10 million in 1919

    §  In private sector, the war ushered an era of expanding American investment abroad

    ·         In late 1914, foreign investments in the US were about $3 billion more than the total of American capital invested abroad

    ·         By 1929, surplus was $8 billion

    §  New York replaced London as the center of international finance and capital markets

    o   1920s, war debts and reparations were single most divisive issue in international economics

    o   France and Great Britain both owed US large amounts in war loans

    §  Many concluded that while US had loaned large sums during the war, they were really loan sharks in disguise

    §  Many Americans viewed Europeans as ungrateful debtors

    o   In 1922, US Foreign Debt Commission negotiated an agreement with debtor nations that called for them to repay $11.5 billion over a 62 year period

    §  By late 1920s, European financial situations became so bad that America cancelled a large amount of their debt

    §  Insistence of Americans for Europeans to repay some of their debt increased anti-American feelings in Europe and isolationism in America

    o   Germans believed the war reparations unfairly punished them and prevented them of any means to repay

    §  Dawes Plan

    ·         Herbert Hoover and Chicago banker Charles Dawes worked a plan to aid the recovery of the German economy

    ·         Reduced Germany’s debt, stretched out the repayment period, and arranged for American bankers to lend funds to Germany

    ·         Measures helped stabilize Germany’s currency and allowed it to make reparations payments to France and Great Britain

    ·         Allies, in turn, were better able to pay back the US

    o   US never joined the League of Nations

    §  It still maintained an active, but selective, involvement in world affairs

    §  US joined the league-sponsored World Count in 1926

    ·         Represented at numerous league conferences

    §  Pact of Paris (aka Kellogg-Briand Pact)

    ·         US and 62 other nations signed it in 1928

    ·         Grandly and naively renounced war in principle

    ·         Peace groups hailed the pact for formally outlawing war

    ·         Critics said the pact was essentially meaningless since it lacked powers of enforcement and relied on the moral force of world opinion

    ·         Within weeks of ratification, US Congress had appropriated $250 million for new battleships

    o   Commerce and Foreign Policy

    §  In 1920s, Secretary of State Charles Hughes and other Republican leaders pursued policies designed to expand American economic activity abroad

    §  Understood capitalist economies must be dynamic

    ·         Markets were to be expanded if they were to thrive

    ·         focus on friendly nations and investments that would help foreign citizens to buy American goods

    §  Republican leaders urged close cooperation between bankers and the government as a strategy for expanding American investment and economic influence abroad

    ·         Insisted that investment capital not be spent on US enemies (like the Soviet Union) or nonproductive enterprises (like weapons)

    §  Investment bankers routinely submitted loan projects to Hughes and Secretary of Commerce Hoover for informal approval

    ·         Reinforcing close ties between investments and foreign policy

    §  American oil, auto, farm machinery, and electrical equipment supplied a growing world market

    ·         Much expansion took place through establishment of branch plants overseas by American companies

    ·         America’s overall direct investment abroad increased from $3.8 billion in 1919 to $7.5 billion in 1929

    ·         Leading the US to domination of the world market were General Electric, Ford, and Monsanto Chemical

    §  American oil companies, with the support of the State Department, challenged Britain’s dominance in oil fields in the Middle East and Latin America, forming powerful cartels with English firms

    §  Maximum freedom for private enterprises with limited government advice and assistance boosted the power and profits of American overseas investors

    ·         Central and Latin America, aggressive US investment fostered chronically underdeveloped economies, dependent on a few staple crops for export

    ·         American investments in Latin America doubled

    o   Large part of the money went to taking over vital mineral resources

    §  Growing wealth and power of US companies made it more difficult for 3rd world countries to grow their own food or diversify their economies

    §  US economic dominance in the hemisphere hampered the growth of democratic politics by favoring autocratic, military regimes that would protect US investments

    ·         Promises Postponed

    o   Prosperity of the 1920s unevenly distributed

    §  Older, progressive reform movements had pointed inequities, faltered in the conservative political climate

    o   Republican new era inspired a range of critics troubled by unfulfilled promises in American life

    o   Feminism in Transition

    §  Achievement of the suffrage removed central issue that had given unity to the forces of female reform activism

    §  Female activists had political idealism

    §  1920s, women movement split into two main wings over disagreement about female identity

    ·         Split between if women should stress women’s differences or equalities to men

    §  1920, NAWSA reorganized into the League of Women Voters

    ·         Represented the historical mainstream of the suffrage movement

    ·         Believed that the vote for women would bring nurturing sensibility and reform vision to American politics

    o   View rooted in politicized domesticity, the nation that women had a role to play in bettering society

    o   Improving conditions for working women, abolishing child labor, humanizing prisons and mental hospitals, and serving urban poor

    o   Encouraged women to run for office and supported laws for the protection of women and children

    §  National Woman’s Party (NWP) 1916

    ·         Founded by Alice Paul

    ·         Downplayed significance of woman’s suffrage and argued women were still being treated as insubordinate to men

    ·         Opposed protective legislation for women

    o   Claimed legislation reinforced sex stereotypes

    ·         Focused on passage of a brief Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution (ERA 1923)

    §  Older generation of women disagreed with ERA, arguing more women benefited from its passage than hurt by it

    ·         Mary Anderson, director of the Women’s Bureau in the Department of Labor

    §  Small number of women made gains in the fields of real estate, banking, and journalism

    §  Less than 18% of employed women worked in clerical, managerial, sales, and professional areas

    ·         By 1930, the number was 44%

    ·         Studies show most women were clustered in the low-paying areas of typing, stenography, bookkeeping, cashiering, and sales clerking

    §  Men still dominated high-paid and managerial white-collar occupations

    §  1921 Sheppard Towner Act

    ·         Established the first federally funded health care program

    ·         Provided matching funds for states to set up prenatal and child health care centers

    o   Centers provided public health nurses for house calls

    ·         Act aroused opposition

    o   NWP disliked the assumption that all women were mothers

    o   Birth control advocates (Margaret Sanger) complained contraception was not part of the program

    o   American Medical Association objected to government-sponsored health care and to nurses who functioned outside the supervision of physicians

    ·         By 1929, mostly due to the AMA, government cut off funds for the program

    o   Mexican Immigration

    §  1920s brought influx of Mexican immigrants to US

    §  Mexicans not included in the immigration law of 1921 and 1924

    §  Immigration picked up substantially after the Mexican Revolution in 1911

    §  US Immigration Service estimated 459,000 Mexicans entered the US between 1921 and 1930

    ·         More than double the number for the previous decade

    ·         Underrepresented true number of Mexican immigrants

    §  Many Mexicans shunned main borders to avoid the $8 a head tax and $10 visa fee

    §  Primary pull was agricultural expansion occurring in American Southwest

    ·         Irrigation and large-scale agribusiness begun transforming California’s Imperial and San Joaquin Valleys from arid desert to lucrative fruit and vegetable fields

    §  More immigrants were staying in the country than before, and moving into cities

    ·         Party due to unintended consequence of new policies designed to make immigration more difficult

    o   Border Patrol (est. 1924) made border crossing more difficult

    §  Many immigrants alternated between agricultural and factory jobs

    §  Women often worked in the fields with their husbands

    §  Racism and local patterns of residential segregation confined most Mexicans to barrios

    §  Housing conditions poor

    §  Disease and infant mortality rates much higher than average

    §  Most Mexicans worked low-paying, unskilled jobs with inadequate health care

    §  Many felt ambivalence about applying for American citizenship

    ·         Loyalty to their old country was strong, and many dreamed of returning to Mexico

    §  Mutualistas

    ·         Key social and political institution in Mexican communities of the Southwest and Midwest

    ·         Provided death benefits and widow’s pensions for members and served as centers of resistance to civil rights violations

    ·         Federation of Mexican Workers Unions formed in response to farm strike in California

    o   The “New Negro”

    §  Harlem was the largest and most influential black community

    ·         Attracted middle-class African Americans in prewar years

    ·         Emerged as demographic and cultural capital of black America

    ·         ¼ of population came from Barbados, Trinidad, and the Bahamas

    ·         A large number carried entrepreneurial experience

    ·         Intraracial tensions between American born blacks and islanders reflected on Harlem

    §  Demand for housing led to skyrocketing rents, but most Harlems had low-wage jobs

    ·         Led to overcrowded housing, unsanitary conditions, disease and death

    ·         Harlem was on its way to becoming a slum

    ·         Still boasted a large middle-class population and supported a array of churches, theaters, newspapers, etc.

    ·         Became political and intellectual center

    §  Harlem Renaissance

    ·         Assertion of cultural independence

    o   Langston Hughes, Zora Hurston, Jessie Fauset, etc.

    o   Political side

    §  Newly militant spirit that black veterans brought home from WWI matured and found a variety of expression in Harlem

    o   New leaders and movements began to appear

    o   Intellectuals and Alienation

    §  Hemingway and Fitzgerald most influential novelists of the era

    §  Fitzgerald joined the army during WWI, but did not serve overseas

    ·         Works celebrated the “Jazz Age”

    §  Writers engaged in attacks on small-town America and what they viewed as its provincial values

    §  Aftermath of the postwar Red Scare

    ·         Radicalism found itself on the defensive throughout the 1920s

    o   Election of 1928

    §  Served as similar to a national referendum on the Republican new era

    §  Revealed how important ethnic and cultural differences are to defining American politics

    §  Al Smith (Democrat) and Herbert Hoover (Republican)

    §  Hoover easily won the nomination

    ·         Epitomized the successful and forward0looking American

    ·         Stood for a commitment to voluntarism and individualism to advance public welfare

     
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

     

     

    ·         Hard times

    o   The bull market

    §  Stock market resembled a sporting arena

    ·         Millions following stock prices

    §  Business leaders and economists told Americans it was their duty to buy stocks

    §  John J. Raskob

    ·         Chairman of the board of GM

    ·         Wrote an article stating that a person who invested $15 in a good common stock per month would have $80,000 within 20 years

    §  Bull market of the 1920s

    ·         Stock prices increased at twice the rate of industrial production

    ·         Paper value outran real value

    §  4 million Americans owned stocks

    ·         Had been lured into the market through margin accounts

    o   Allowed investors to purchase stocks by making a small down payment and borrowing the rest from a broker

    o   The Crash

    §  The Wall Street crash if 1929 was not a one or two day catastrophe

    ·         It was a steep slide

    §  Bull market peaked in early September

    ·         Prices lowered

    §  October 23

    ·         Dow Jones industrials lost 21 points in one hour

    ·         Large investors concluded that the boom was over

    §  October 28

    ·         Dow lost 28 points (13% of its value)

    §  October 29, “Black Tuesday”

    ·         More than 16 million shares were traded as panic selling took hold

    §  The market’s foundation of credit crumbled

    ·         Based on margin debt

    §  Many investors with margin accounts had no choice but to sell when the stock values fell

    §  Shares themselves represented the security for their loans

    ·         More money had to be put up to cover the loans when prices declined

    §  Mid-November

    ·         $30 billion in the market price of stocks had been wiped out

    §  Half of the value of stocks listed in The New York Times was lost within 10 weeks

    §  Political and economic leaders downplayed the impact of the crash

    §  Andrew Mellon

    ·         “It will purge the rottenness out of the system High costs of living and high living will come down. People will work harder, live a more moral life. Values will be adjusted, and enterprising people will pick up the wrecks from less competent people”

    o   Underlying Weaknesses              

    §  The economy after the crash became less resistant to existing problems

    ·         Workers and consumers received too small a share of the enormous increases in labor productivity

    o   1923-1929: manufacturing output per worker-hour increased by 32%

    o   Wages only rose 8% during the same time

    o   Rise in productivity encouraged overproduction

    §  Farmers hadn’t regained their prosperity from the World War I years

    ·         Suffered from declining prices, drop in exports, and large debts incurred by wartime expansion

    §  Unequal distribution of income and wealth

    ·         1929: top .1% of Americans had and aggregate income equal to the bottom 42%

    ·         Top 5% of Americans received 30% of the nation’s income

    ·         Bottom 60% got only 26% of nation’s income

    ·         80% of the nation had no savings

    ·         .5% of Americans owned 32.4% of net wealth of the entire population

    §  Manufacturers decreased their production and laid off workers

    ·         Layoffs brought further declines in consumer spending

    o   Prompted another round of production cutbacks

    ·         Consumers had less to spend

    ·         Businesses were hesitant to expand

    §  Banks began to fail as depositors withdrew their uninsured funds

    ·         Thousands of families lost their savings

    o   Mass Unemployment

    §  Unemployment insurance did not exist; public relief was inadequate

    ·         Loss of a job meant economic catastrophe for workers

    §  Unemployment across America became a sign of a deepening depression

    §  1930; Department of Labor

    ·         9% of the labor force was out of work

    ·         Doubled by 1931

    ·         By 1933, more than ¼ of workers didn’t have jobs

    §  ***no statistics tell how long these people were without work or if they had part-time jobs***

    §  Many Americans blamed themselves for their failure in finding work

    ·         Feelings of shame, guilt, inadequacy, uselessness, and despair

    §  Joblessness was most difficult for men between 35-55

    ·         Family responsibilities were heaviest on these men

    §  Unemployment upset the psychological balance in many families by undermining the traditional authority of the male

    §  Women found it easier to hold onto jobs

    ·         Wages were lower

    §  Summed up strains found in families

    ·         “Fathers feel they have lost their prestige in the home; there is much nagging, mothers nag at the fathers, parents nag at the children. Children of working age who earn meager salaries find it hard to turn over all their earning and deny themselves even the greatest necessities as a result leave home”

    o   Hoover’s Failure

    §  Companies lacked the money and resources to deal with the worsening situation

    §  Detroit and Chicago

    ·         50% unemployment by 1932

    §  Los Angeles

    ·         70,000 nonresident jobless and homeless men

    §  Hoover failed to respond to human suffering

    ·         Administered large-scale humanitarian efforts during WWI with efficiency, but failed to face the facts of the Depression

    §  1931 State of the Union Address

    ·         “Our people are providing against distress from unemployment in true American fashion by magnificent response to public appeal and by action of the local governments”

    §  Resisted calls from Congress

    ·         Wanted a greater federal role in relief efforts or public works projects

    ·         Worried about “injuring the initiative and enterprise of the American people”

    §  The President’s Emergency Committee for Unemployment (1930) and the President’s Organization for Unemployment Relief (POUR)

    ·         Encouraged local groups to raise money to help the unemployed

    ·         Plan for recovery centered on restoring business confidence

    §  Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

    ·         Based on the War Finance Corporation of the WWI years

    ·         Made government credit available to banks, railroads, insurance companies

    ·         Stimulated economic activity

    ·         Assumed the credit problem was one of supply rather than demand

    §  1932; Democrats pushed through the Emergency Relief Act

    ·         Authorized the RFC to lend $300 million to states that had exhausted their own relief funds

    ·         Hoover reluctantly signed the bill

    o   Protest and the Election of 1932

    §  March 7

    ·         Communist organizers led a march of auto workers and unemployed for the Ford River Rouge factory

    o   Ford-controlled police fired tear gas and bullets

    o   Killed four and wounded 50 others

    ·         Farmers’ Holiday Associations

    o   Desperate farmers in Iowa

    o   Aimed to raise prices by refusing to sell product

    o   1,500 farmers turned back cargo trucks outside Sious City

    §  Dumped milk and other perishables into ditches

    ·         Bonus Army

    o   Protest descending on Washington D.C. in 1932

    o   Veterans who were given bonds after WWI demanded immediate payment of the bonus in cash

    o   By the summer, they camped out all over the capital city

    o   House passed a bill for immediate payment

    §  Senate rejected the bill, most of the veterans left

    o   July

    §  General Douglas MacArthur forcibly evicted the remaining veterans from their encampment

    o   Provided the most disturbing evidence of the failure of Hoover’s administration

    ·         1932; Democrats nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt as their candidate

    o   “I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people”

    o   Roosevelt’s plans for recovery were vague

    o   Roosevelt won the election by a landslide

    o   Democrats won big majorities in both the House and the Senate

    ·         FDR and the First New Deal

    o   FDR the man

    §  Born in 1882 in Dutchess Country, New York

    §  Was an only child

    §  His mother, Sara Delano, was the dominant figure in his childhood

    §  Roosevelt’s education reinforced the aristocratic values of his family

    ·         Groton

    ·         Harvard

    ·         Columbia Law School

    §  He believed in:

    ·         A strong sense of civic duty

    ·         The importance of competitive athletics

    ·         Commitment to public service

    §  In 1905, FDR married Eleanor Roosevelt  (distant cousin)

    ·         Niece of Theodore Roosevelt

    §  Elected as a Democrat to the NY State Senate in 1910

    §  Was assistant navy secretary from 1913-1920

    §  Summer of 1921:

    ·         FDR gets polio

    o   Was told he would never walk again without support

    ·         Eleanor encouraged him to fight his handicap and continue his political career

    ·         “Once I spent two years lying in bed trying to move my big toe, anything else seems easy”

    §  Governor of New York in 1928:

    ·         Instituting unemployment insurance

    ·         Strengthened child labor laws

    ·         Provided tax relief for farmers

    ·         Provided pensions for the old

    ·         Set up a Temporary Emergency Relief Administration

    ·         Set up a group of key advisers; the “brains trust”: rejected the old progressive dream of re-creating an ideal society

    o   Raymond Moley

    o   Rexford G. Tugwell

    o   Adolf A. Berle

    o   Samuel Rosenman

    o   Basil O’Connor

    o   Felix Frankfurter

    o   Restoring Confidence

    §  Roosevelt conveyed a sense of optimism

    ·         Helped restore the shaken confidence of the nation

    §  Called for a four day “bank holiday”

    ·         Help the country’s ailing financial system

    ·         More than 1,300 banks failed in 1930

    ·         Contemporary investigations revealed…

    o   Illegal loans to bank officials

    o   Tax evasion that helped erode public confidence in the banking system

    ·         Between election day and the inauguration the bank system had come close to shutting down altogether

    o   Due to widespread bank failures and hoarding of currency

    §  Fireside chat

    ·         Radio broadcasts that became a standard part of Roosevelt’s political technique

    ·         Were enormously successful

    ·         Gave courage to Americans

    ·         Communicated a sense of compassion from the White House

    §  Emergency Banking Act

    ·         Gave the president broad powers over all banking transactions and foreign exchange

    ·         Authorized healthy banks to reopen under licenses from the Treasury Department

    ·         Provided greater federal authority to be present in managing the affairs of failed banks

    o   The hundred days

    §  March to June 1933

    ·         “The Hundred Days”

    ·         FDR pushed a number of acts through Congress

    o   Designed to combat various aspects of the Depression

    ·         New Deal was no unified program to end the Depression

    o   Improvised series of reform and relief measures

    §  Some contradicted each other

    ·         Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

    o   Unemployment relief effort

    o   Provided work for jobless young men in protecting and conserving the nation’s natural resources

    §  Road construction

    §  Reforestation

    §  Flood control

    §  National park improvements

    o   Workers received room and board and $30 a month

    ·         Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)

    o   $500 million given from Congress

    o   ½ the money went as direct relief to the states

    o   The rest was distributed on the basis of:

    §  A dollar of federal aid for ever three dollars of state and local funds spent for relief

    o   Establishment of work relief projects was left to state and local governments

    o   Harry Hopkins

    §  Former NYC social worker

    §  Driven by deep moral passion to help the less fortunate

    §  Emerged as a key figure for New Deal relief programs

    ·         Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)

    o   Provided immediate relief to the nation’s farmers

    o   Established a new federal role in agricultural planning and price setting

    o   Established parity prices for basic farm commodities

    §  Corn, wheat, hogs, etc

    §  Parity pricing

    ·         Based on the purchasing power that farmers had enjoyed during the prosperous years of 1909-1914

    o   Incorporated the principle of subsidy

    §  Farmers received benefit payments in return for reducing acreage or cutting production where surpluses existed

    o   Landlords often failed to share their AAA payments with tenant farmers

    §  Frequently used benefits to buy tractors and other equipment that displaced sharecroppers

    ·         Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

    o   One of the most unique projects of the New Deal era

    o   Built dams and power plants

    o   Produced cheap fertilizer for farmers

    o   Brought cheap electricity for the first time to thousands of people

    o   Stood as a model of how careful government planning could dramatically improve the social and economic welfare of an underdeveloped region

    ·         National Industrial Recovery Act

    o   Each industry would be self-governed by a code hammered out by representatives of business and labor

    o   Led by General Hugh Johnson

    o   Symbolized by the Blue Eagle stamp

    o   Almost all the NRA codes were written by the largest firms in any industry

    ·         Public Works Administration (PWA)

    o   Led by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes

    §  Authorized $3.3 billion for the construction of roads, public building, and other projects

    o   Idea was to provide jobs

    §  Stimulate the economy through increased consumer spending

    o   “priming the pump”

    §  The government had to prime the economy with jobs for the unemployed

    o   PWA spent more than $4.2 billion building roads, schools, post offices, bridges, courthouses

    ·         Left Turn and the Second New Deal

    o   Hundred Days Legislature package tried to offer something for everybody.

    o   Washington brought reassurance that the nation was back on track, although the Depression made millions of people think otherwise

    o   The New Deal had critics that complained that FDR ruined the traditional boundaries of government action while others argued that Roosevelt hadn’t done enough

    ·         Roosevelt’s critics

    o   Republican newspapers and the American Liberty League denounced Roosevelt and his advisors.

    -          They held the administration responsible for what they considered an attack on property rights, the growing welfare state, and the decline of personal liberty.

    o   American Liberty League

    o    dominated by executives of DuPont and General Motors

    -          League attracted support from a group of conservative Democrats, including Al Smith

    -          Al Smith was the former presidential candidate who declared the New Deal’s laws “socialistic.”

    o   League supported anti-New Dealers for Congress

    o   In the 1934 election, Democrats built up their majorities from 310 to 319 in the House and 60-69 in the Senate

    ·         Roosevelt’s loyal supporters turned critical

    o   Father Charles E. Coughlin

    -          attracted a national radio audience of 40 million listeners with sermons attacking wall streets, international bankers, and “plutocratic capitalism”

    -          supported Roosevelt and the New Deal at first and tried to build a relationship with the president

    -          In 1934, he was frustrated with his limited influence on the administration and began attacking FDR.

    o   New Deal policies were part of a Communists Conspiracy

    -          Threatened community autonomy with centralized federal power.

    o   Couglin broke from the FDR and founded the National Union for Social Justice

    o   The movements on the left were very troublesome for Roosevelt for they thought the New Deal was too timid in its measures

    ·         End Poverty in California

    o   Upton Sinclar

    -          Well known novelist and socialist

    -          Entered the 1934 Democratic primary party for governor by running EPIC

    -          Proposed a $50 a month pension for all poor people over 60

    -          Campaign emphasized the government system of “production for use” workshops for the unemployed

    -          Lost a close general election only because the republican candidate received heavy financial and tactical support from Hollywood studio executives and frightened regular Democrats.

    ·         Old Age Revolving Pension plan

    o   Created by Francis E. Townsend

    -          Retired doctor

    -          Created a large following among citizens with this plan

    -          He called for payments of 200 dollars per month to all people over 60, but had to be spent within 30 days

    o   Attracted a nationwide following of more than 3 million by 1936

    ·         Huey Long

    o   posed as the greatest potential threat to Roosevelt’s leadership

    o   Long captured LA’s governor ship in 1928 by attacking  the state’s oil industry

    o   He significantly improves public education, roads, medical care, and other public services

    o   Long first supported Roosevelt but in 1934, his own presidential ambitions and his impatience with the pace of the New Deal measures led it a break with Roosevelt

    ·         Share Our Wealth Society

    o   Organized by Huey Long

    o   Its purpose was to “break up the swollen fortunes of America and to spread the wealth among all our people.”

    o   homestead worth $5000 and a $2500 annual income for everyone was promised by Long

    o   Long’s economics were not clear

    o   A secret poll of the summer of 1935 stunned the Democratic National Committee by showing that Long might attract three or four million votes

    o   Long’s third-party candidacy was prevented due to his assignation in that September

    ·         New Deal in the South and West

    ·         Southern Farming and Landholding

    o   Impact on South and West

    §  Farm programs moved agriculture away from sharecropping and tenant farming

    §  Wage labor and agribusiness

    §  Dam building projects created electricity for Southerners

    §  West got the most payments for welfare, work relief, and loans

    §  New Deal – rational resource use

    o   Farming in the South

    §  1930 – less than half of farmers owned land

    o   Sharecroppers

    §  ¾ African American farmers were sharecroppers

    §  Half of white farmers

    §  About $100 annually if any

    §  Cotton and tobacco

    o   AAA

    §  Agricultural Adjustment Administration

    §  Boosted prices by paying farmers to “plow under”

    ·         Take land out of production

    §  Went to mostly large landowners

    §  Planters did not usually share payments with sharecroppers and tenants

    o   STFU

    §  Southern Tenant Farmers Union

    §  Founded in 1934

    §  Protested AAA policies

    ·         Protested evictions

    ·         Called for strikes for higher wages

    ·         Challenged landlords for fair share of payments

    §  Six southern states

    §  About 30,000 farmers

    ·         Half black

    §  Drew attention but did not change national farm policy

    o   Labor-saving machinery

    §  Tractors

    §  Mechanical harvesters

    o   Impacts of Cash Infusion

    §  Lower demand for labor and higher eviction rate

    §  Many migrated to cities in search of work

    o   Help of New Deal

    §  Destroyed old sharecropping and tenant system

    §  Helped landowners prosper

    §  Access to government funds

    ·         Diversify crops

    ·         Consolidate holdings

    ·         Work land more efficiently

    §  1 to 2 million sharecroppers would move to bigger cities

    ·         Memphis, Birmingham, Chicago, Detroit, etc.

    ·         Rural Electrification and Public Works

    o   Early 1930s – 3% of southerners had electricity

    o   Farmhouses

    §  No electric lighting

    §  No indoor plumbing

    §  No refrigerators of washing machines

    o   Tennessee Valley Authority

    §  Made electricity available for the first time

    §  Public investment and government planning

    §  Built 16 dams across 800 miles of Tennessee River

    ·         Brought flood control and electric power to hundreds of thousands of families

    ·         7 southern states

    §  Reduced consumer electric rates

    §  Created landscaped parks

    §  Built public libraries and better school systems

    §  1944 – largest power producer in US

    §  Provided luxuries for farmers and families

    ·         Radio

    ·         Electric lights

    ·         The Dust Bowl

    o   Disaster in the Great Plains in the mid-1930s

    o   Droughts through early 1930s

    o   Violent dust storms during droughts

    §  Result of stripping the landscape of vegetation

    o   Great Plains became “vast wheat factory”

    o   Great Plains suited for:

    §  Mechanized farming

    §  Gasoline-powered tractors

    §  Harvester-thresher

    §  Disc plows

    ·         All increased productivity

    o   In 1830, it took 58 hours to ship an acre of wheat to granary

    §  In 1930s, it took less than three hours

    o   Farmers broke more land to compensate for low wheat prices in 1920s

    o   Nothing to prevent soil erosion

    §  Dust storms blew away tens of millions of acres of topsoil

    o   Economic and psychological losses for those who stayed

    §  Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico

    §  Denver journalist called calamity the “Dust Bowl”

    o   Difficult for humans and livestock to breathe

    §  “Dust pneumonia” and other respiratory infections

    o   Destroyed crops and trees

    o   Travelers stuck in automobiles and trains

    o   Worst storms – Spring 1935

    o   Intervention from federal agencies

    §  Resettlement Administration

    ·         Direct emergency relief to families

    §  Crop and seed loans

    §  Moratoriums (freezes) on loan payments

    §  Works Progress Administration

    ·         Provided temporary jobs

    §  1/5 to 1/3 applied for relief

    ·         90% in hardest-hit cities

    §  Agricultural Adjustment Administration

    ·         Paid wheat farmers millions of dollars

    o   Farmers could not grow what they could not sell

    o   Diversion of soil for different crops

    o   Governmental policies

    §  Designed to

    ·         Alter land use patterns

    ·         Reverse soil erosion

    ·         Nourish the return of grasslands

    §  Department of Agriculture

    ·         Led by Henry A. Wallace

    o   Secretary of State

    ·         Designed to change farming practices

    §  Soil Conservation Service (SCS)

    ·         Researched controlling wind and water erosion

    ·         Set up demonstration projects

    ·         Offered equipment, supplies, and assistance to farmers in conservation work

    ·         Pumped funds into Great Plains

    o   Created soil conservation district

    §  Administered conservation regulations locally

    o   Dust Bowl reduced by 1940

    §  From 5 million acres to 4 million acres

    §  New Deal restricted market forces in agriculture

    §  SCS techniques abandoned due to heavy rainfall and WWII

    ·         Long-term farming reduced concern for land

    o   Policies and organizations had little effect on sharecroppers and tenants

    §  Thousands of sharecropper and tenant families forced off land

    §  Became “Okies”

    ·         About 300,000 people that migrated to California in the 1930s

    ·         Included victims of the Dust Bowl but most came from blue-collar and businessmen workers looking to improve economic lot

    ·         California had better opportunities

    o   More jobs

    o   Higher wages

    o   Higher relief payments

    ·         Most only found low-paying agriculture jobs in fertile areas

    o   San Joaquin and Imperial Valley districts

    ·         Discriminated as “poor white trash”

    o   Struggles to create communities within migrant labor camps

    ·         Improved situation through WWII and demand for labor

    o   Competition for Mexican laborers

    §  By 1936, 85-90% of migratory workers were white Americans

    ·         Less than 20% before Great Depression

    §  Mexicans who were still employed had decreases in their wages

    §  Southwestern communities sought to deport Mexicans and Mexican Americans

    ·         Supported by:

    o   Employers

    o   Private charities

    o   Immigration and Naturalization Service

    ·         Little effort to distinguish citizens from aliens

    o   Most deported children were actually citizens

    ·         Most aggressive campaign in Los Angeles County

    o   Shipped out over 13,000 Mexicans by boxcar from 1931-1934

    o   About 1/3 of LA’s 150,000 Mexicans left the city in the early 1930s

    §  Nearly half a million (500,000) total left the United States in the 1930s

    ·         Water Policy

    o   Large-scale water irrigation projects due to New Deal

    §  Designed for cheaper power and flood prevention

    o   Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior

    §  Established under the national Reclamation Act of 1902

    §  Originally purposed to create dams and irrigation works

    ·         Encourage growth of small farms in arid regions in West

    ·         Unsuccessful until 1920s

    §  Focus changed to multipurpose dams to control entire river systems

    ·         Boulder (Hoover) Dam

    o   Designed to harness Colorado River

    §  Wildest and most isolated Western river

    o   Had many anticipated effects:

    §  Flood prevention

    §  Irrigation of Imperial Valley in California

    §  Domestic water for southern California

    §  Cheap electricity for Los Angeles and southern Arizona

    o   Hoover opposed public power aspect

    §  Government should not compete with private companies

    ·         Contrary to most Westerners

    o   Believed cheap public power was critical for development

    ·         Roosevelt’s support for public power gained political backing of West in 1932

    o   Completed in 1935

    o   Funds from Public Works Administration

    §  Total cost was $114 million

    ·         Offset by cost of hydroelectric power

    ·         Los Angeles aqueduct

    o   259 miles

    o   $220 million

    o   Channel water to growing population

    o   Lake Mead

    §  Created by construction of dam

    §  World’s largest artificial lake

    ·         115 miles up canyon

    §  Helped make Imperial Valley one of the most productive agricultural districts in the world

    ·         Boulder Dam transformed Bureau of Reclamation into major federal agency

    o   Huge resources

    o   Completed All-American Canal in 1938

    §  80 mile channel

    §  Connects Colorado River to Imperial Valley

    §  130 mile branch to Coachella Valley

    §  $24 million

    §  Carried flow of water equal to Potomac River

    §  More than 1 million acres of desert land open for cultivation

    ·         Fruits

    ·         Melons

    ·         Vegetables

    ·         Cotton

    §  Irrigation projects promised to repay cost of canal in 40 years

    ·         Interest-free loan was government subsidy to private growers

    o   Central Valley Project (CVP)

    §  Watershed that stretched through California interior

    §  500 miles long and about 125 miles wide

    §  Brought water from Sacramento River in North to arid lands of San Joaquin Valley in South

    §  Completed in 1947

    §  Cost $2.3 billion

    §  Stored and transferred water

    §  Provided

    ·         Electricity

    ·         flood control

    ·         municipal water

    §  cost paid by

    ·         federal government

    ·         local municipalities

    ·         buyers of electric power

    §  proved a boon to large-scale farmers in Sacramento and San Joaquin River Valleys

    o   Grand Coulee Dam

    §  Northwest of Spokane Washington

    §  Completed in 1941

    §  Designed to

    ·         Convert power of Columbia River to cheap electricity

    ·         Irrigate uncultivated land

    ·         Stimulate economic development of Pacific Northwest

    §  Employed tens of thousands of workers

    §  Pumped millions of dollars into depressed economy

    ·         Washington ranked first in per capita federal expenditures from 1933 to 1940

    §  Provided cheapest electricity in US in the long run

    §  Attract new manufacturing to area of previously just lumber and metals

    o   Environmental and human cost

    §  Grand Coulee and other dams reduced Columbia River

    §  Tens of thousands of workers, mostly Mexican, now worked in fertile fields for very low wages

    ·         Health suffered from contact with pesticides

    §  Colorado River no longer empties into Pacific Ocean

    ·         Built up salt deposits

    o   Water unfit for drinking or irrigation

    ·         Water pollution still plagues river today

    ·         A New Deal for Indians

    o   Important changes for Indians

    §  1933 – Indians lived on reservations

    ·         About 320,000 people in about 200 tribes

    ·         Mostly in Oklahoma, Arizona, New Mexico, and South Dakota

    §  Indians suffered from poverty worse than any other group

    ·         Infant mortality rate was twice that of white people

    ·         Diseases were more prevalent on the reservation

    o   Alcoholism, measles, tuberculosis, etc.

    ·         Half of Indians on reservations were landless

    o   Lived with relatives instead

    o   BIA

    §  Bureau of Indian Affairs

    §  Oldest federal bureaucracy in West

    ·         Corruption and mismanagement

    ·         Tried to assimilate Indians through education

    o   Interfered with religious affairs and tribal customs

    o   Merriam Report

    §  1928

    §  Prepared by Institute for Government Research

    §  Critiqued BIA management

    ·         Scathing and widely public

    §  No effort from Hoover to reform BIA

    o   John Collier

    §  Appointed by Roosevelt in 1933

    §  Roots in service and community organizations in eastern slums

    §  Interested in Indians

    ·         Spent time with Indians in Taos, New Mexico

    ·         Involved with struggle to help Pueblo Indians hold onto tribal lands

    §  Executive secretary of American Indian Defense Association

    §  Driving force behind IRA

    o   IRA

    §  Indian Recognition Act of 1934

    §  Reversed allotment provisions of Dawes Severalty Act of 1887

    ·         Weakened tribal sovereignty

    ·         Shifted land from tribes to individuals

    §  Permitted restoration of surplus lands

    §  Allocated funds for purchase of additional land

    §  Sought to restore tribal structure

    ·         Wanted to make tribes part of federal government

    o   Tribes that ratified IRA could elect tribal council as legal tribal government

    §  Congress wanted to change Collier’s original plan

    o   IRA approval from Indians

    §  Mixed feelings on reservations

    §  Linguistic barriers made support and communication difficult

    ·         Ex. Papagos from Arizona had no word for “budget” or “representative”

    o   “law,” “constitution,” “charter,” and “rule” were all the same word

    o   “reservation agent,” “king,” “president,” and “Indian commissioner” were all the same word

    §  Approved by 181 tribes

    §  Rejected by 77 tribes

    o   Navajos

    §  Nation’s largest tribe

    ·         More than 40,000 members

    §  Rejected IRA

    §  Protest against BIA forced reduction of livestock

    ·         Part of soil conservation program

    o   Blamed Navajo sheep for erosion

    §  Threatened to make Lake Mead and the Boulder Dam inoperable

    o   Navajos believed erosion was due to lack of water and acreage

    ·         Navajos took anger out on Collier

    o   Sensitive BIA

    §  BIA more sensitive to Indian culture

    §  Increase in Indians employed in BIA

    ·         1933 – a few hundred

    ·         1940 – over 4,600

    §  Indian political autonomy

    ·         BIA and Congress interfered with reservation governments

    o   Especially in money matters

    o   Dictated and underfunded tribes

    o   Margold Opinion

    §  Nathan Margold

    ·         Lawyer for Department of the Interior

    ·         Wrote legal opinion of tribal governments in 1934

    o   Sovereignty except for when limited in Congress Act

    §  “Margold Opinion” upheld in United States

    ·         Led to restoration of tribal rights and land for Indian people in the West

    ·         Depression-Era Culture

    o   American culture in the 1930s, like all other aspects of national life, was profoundly shaped by the Great Depression.

    o   A New Deal for the Arts

    §  The Depression hit America’s writers, artists, and teachers just as hard as blue-collar workers

    ·         In 1935, the WPA allocated $300 million for the unemployed in these fields

    ·         Federal Project No. 1

    o   “Federal One”

    o   An umbrella agency covering writing, theater, music, and the visual arts which proved to be one of the most innovative and successful New Deal programs

    o   Offered work to desperate artist and intellectuals, enriched the cultural lives of millions, and left a substantial legacy of artistic and cultural production

    ·         Federal Writers Project

    o   At its height, employed 5,000 writers on a variety of programs

    o   A popular series of state and city guidebooks, each combining history, folklore, and tourism

    o   “Life in America”

    §  Included valuable oral histories of former slaves, studies of ethnic and Indian cultures, and pioneering collections of American songs and folk tales

    §  American writers helped by the Writers Project:

    ·         Ralph Ellison

    ·         Richard Wright

    ·         Margaret Walker

    ·         John Cheever

    ·         Saul Bellow

    ·         Zora Neale Hurston

    ·         Federal Theater Project (FTP)

    o   Reached as many as 30 million Americans with its productions under the direction of the dynamic Hallie Flanagan of Vassar College

    o   Sought to expand the audience for theater beyond the regular patrons of the commercial stage

    o   Successful productions:

    §  “Living Newspaper”

    §  T.S. Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral

    §  Maxwell Anderson’s Valley Force

    §  Orson Welle’s Macbeth

    o   Brought vital and exciting theater to millions who had never attended before

    ·         Federal Music Project

    o   Under Nikolai Sokoloff of the Cleveland Symphony Orchestra

    o   Employed 15,000 musicians and financed hundreds of thousands of low priced public concerts by touring orchestras.

    o   The Composers’ Forum Laboratory supported new works by American composers such as Aaron Copland and William Schuman

    ·         Other painters who received government assistance through the FAP:

    o   Willem de Kooning

    o   Jackson Pollock

    o   Louise Nevelson

    ·         Holger Cahill

    o   Director of the FAP

    o   Documentary impulse

    §  Documentary Impulse

    ·         A deep desire to record and communicate the experiences of ordinary Americans

    ·         During the 1930s, an enormous number of artists, novelists, journalists, photographers, and filmmakers tried to document the devastation wrought by the Depression in American communities; they also depicted people’s struggles to cope with, and reverse, hard times.

    ·         Mainstream media also adapted this stance

    §  The “documentary impulse” became a prominent style in 1930s cultural expression

    §  Photograph

    ·         In 1935, Roy Stryker, chief of the Historical Section of the Resettlement Administration gathered a remarkable group of photographers to help document the work of the agency

    ·         Stryker encouraged them to photograph whatever caught their interest, even if the pictures had no direct connection with RA projects

    ·         Photographers:

    o   Dorothea Lange

    o   Walker Evans

    o   Arthur Rothstein

    o   Russell Lee

    o   Ben Shahn

    o   Marion Post Wolcott

    ·         THE SINGLE MOST SIGNIFICANT VISUAL RECORD OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION

    o   Photographers traveled through rural areas, small towns, and migrant labor camps and produced powerful images of despair and resignation as well as hope and resilience

    ·         The double vision ^, combining pain with faith, could be found in many other cultural works of the period

    o   John Steinbeck’s Grapes of Wrath (1939)

    §  Sympathetically portrayed the hardships of Oklahoma Dust Bowl migrants on their way to California

    o   Margaret Mitchell’s 1936 bestseller Gone with the Wind

    o   Elizabeth Noble

    §  “With real events looming larger than any imagined happenings, documentary films and still photographs, reportage and the like have taken the place once held by grand invention

    o   James Rorty, in Where Life Is Better (1936)

    §  Was encouraged by his cross-country trip

    o   Waiting for Lefty

    §  Capitalism

    ·         For some, the capitalist system  was the culprit responsible for the Great Depression

    §  Communism

    ·         Relatively few Americans became Communists or Socialists in the 1930s – at its height, the Communist Party of the United States had perhaps 100,000 members—and many of these remained active for only a brief time

    ·         Marxist analysis, with its emphasis on class conflict and the failures of capitalism, had a wide influence on the era’s thought and writing

    ·         Some writers joined the Communist Party believing it to be the best hope for political revolution

    ·         Soviet Union

    o   An alternative to an American system that appeared mired in exploitation, racial inequality, and human misery.

    ·         Communist writers

    o   Writers:

    §  Michael Gold (novelist)

    §  Meridel LeSueur (poet)

    §  Granville Hicks (editor)

    o   Sought to radicalize art and literature and celebrated collective struggle over individual achievement

    ·         Intellectuals

    o   A more common pattern for intellectuals, especially when they were young, was brief flirtation with communism

    o   African American writers, attracted by the Communist Party’s militant opposition to lynching, job discrimination, and segregation, briefly joined the party or found their first supportive audiences there

    §  Richard Wright

    §  Ralph Ellison

    §  Langston Hughes

    o   Many playwrights and actors associated with New York’s influential Group Theater were part of the Communist Party orbit in those years

    §  Clifford Odets’s Waiting for Lefty

    ·         Depicted a union organizing drive among taxi drivers

    ·         Left-wing influence

    o   Reached its height after 1935 during the “Popular Front” period

    §  Alarmed by the rise of fascism in Europe, Communists around the word followed the Soviet line of uniting with liberals and all other antifascists

    §  The American Communist Party

    ·         “Communism is Twentieth-Century Americanism”

    ·         Communists became strong supporters of Roosevelt’s New Deal, and their influence was especially strong within various WPA arts projects

    ·         Abraham Lincoln Brigade

    o   American volunteers against fascists

    o   Sense of commitment and sacrifice appealed to millions of Americans sympathetic to the republican cause

    §  Communists and other radicals, known for their dedication and effectiveness, also played a leading role in the difficult CIO unionizing drives in the auto, steel, and electrical industries

    o   Film and Radio in the 1930s

    §  Despite the Depression, the mass-culture industry expanded enormously during the 1930s

    ·         Played an more integral role than ever in shaping the rhythms and desires of the nation’s everyday life

    ·         Moviegoing itself, usually enjoyed with friends, family, or a date, was perhaps the most significant development of all

    §  Film Genres

    ·         Gangster films did very well in the early Depression years

    o   Little Caesar (1930), starring Edward G. Robinson

    o   Public Enemy (1931) with James Cagney

    o   They depicted violent criminals brought to justice by society, but along the way they gave audiences a vicarious exposure to the pleasures of wealth, power, and lawbreaking

    ·         Social disorder

    o   Marx Brothers films

    §  Duck Soup (1933)

    §  A Night at the Opera (1935)

    o   Mae West’s popular comedies

    §  She Done Him Wrong (1933)

    §  I’m No Angel (1933)

    ·         Movie musicals

    o   Busby Berkeley’s Gold Diggers of 1933, and 42nd Street (1933)

    ·         Screwball comedies

    o   Clark Gable and Claudette Colbert in It Happened One Night (1934)

    o   Katherine Hepburn and Cary Grant in Bringing Up Baby (1938)

    ·         Socially conscious view of the Depression era

    o   Warner Brothers studio

    §  I am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang (1932)

    §  Wild Boys of the Road (1933)

    §  Black Legion (1936)

    ·         Walt Disney

    o   Moral tales that stressed keeping order and following the rules

    o   Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1935)

    ·         Frank Capra

    o   Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936)

    o   You Can’t Take It with You (1938)

    §  Radio broadcasting emerged as the most powerful medium of communication in the home, profoundly changing the rhythms and routines of everyday life.

    ·         National Broadcasting Company (NBC)

    ·         Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)

    §  The Depression actually helped radio expand

    ·         The well-financed networks offered an attractive outlet to advertisers seeking a national audience

    ·         Radio programming achieved a regularity and professionalism absent in the 1920s, making it much easier for a listener to identify a show with its sponsor

    ·         Older cultural forms

    o   Eddie Cantor

    o   Ed Wynn

    o   Kate Smith

    o   Al Jolson

    ·         Amos ‘n’ Andy

    o   Adapted the minstrel “blackface” tradition to the new medium

    ·         White comedians

    o   Freeman Gosden

    o   Charles Correll

    o   Used only their two voices to invent a world of stereotyped African Americans for their millions of listeners

    §  Soap Operas             

    ·         Aimed mainly at women working in the home, these serials alone constituted 60% of all daytime shows by 1940.

    ·         Soaps

    o   Ma Perkins

    o   Helen Trent

    o   Clara Lou and Em

    ·         Revolved around strong, warm female characters who provided advice and strength to weak, indecisive friends and relaives

    ·         Thrillers:

    o   Inner Sanctum

    o   The Shadow

    o   Emphasized crime and suspense, made great use of music and sound effects to sharpen their impact

    §  Radio News

    ·         Arrived in the 1930s

    ·         Showed the medium’s potential for direct and immediate coverage of events

    ·         Network news and commentary shows multiplied rapidly over the decade

    ·         Complex political and economic issues and the impending European crisis fueled a news hunger among Americans

     

    o   The Swing Era

    §  One measure of radio’s cultural impact was its role in popularizing jazz

    ·         Pre-1930s, jazz was heard largely among African Americans and a small coterie of white fans and musicians

    ·         Broadcasts of live performances began to expose a broader public to the music

    o   As well as radio disc jockeys who played jazz records on their shows

    ·         Black Musicians began to enjoy reputations outside of traditional jazz centers like Chicago, Kansas City, and New York

    o   Duke Ellington

    o   Count Basie

    o   Benny Moten

    ·         Benny Goodman

    o   The key figure in the “swing era” largely through radio exposure

    o   A white, classically trained clarinetist had been inspired by African American bandleaders Fletcher Henderson and Don Redman

    §  Purchased arrangements from them and attracted attention on late-Saturday-night broadcasts

    o   In 1935, at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles, Goodman made the breakthrough that established  his enormous popularity

    §  The young crowd roared its approval and began to dance wildly to Henderson’s arrangements

    §  Goodman’s music was perfect for doing the jitterbug or lindy hop (dances borrowed from African American culture)

    o   “The King of Swing”

    §  Goodman helped make big-band jazz a hit with millions of teenagers and young adults from all backgrounds

    ·         Big band music accounted for the majority of million-selling records

    o   Goodman

    o   Basie

    o   Jimmie Lunceford

    o   Artie Shaw

    ·         The Limits of Reform

    o   In his second inaugural address, Roosevelt emphasized what still need to be done to remedy effects of the Great Depression

    §  Stunning electoral victory made social reform seem bright

    §  By 1937, the New Deal was in retreat

    o   Court Packing

    §  May 1935, Schecter v. United States

    ·         The Supreme Court found the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional in its entirety

    §  Early 1936, Butler v. United States

    ·         Court invalidated the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, declaring it an unconstitutional attempt at regulating agriculture

    ·         Court mostly composed of Republicans over 70 years old

    o   Roosevelt began looking for ways to get more reform friendly judges on the court

    §  February 1937, FDR asked Congress for legislation that would expand the Supreme Court from 9 justices to a maximum of 15

    ·         President empowered to make new appointments whenever an incumbent judge failed to retire upon reaching age 70

    ·         Roosevelt argued that age prevented justices from keeping up with their workload

    o   Few people believed this logic

    o   Newspapers denounced the “court-packing bill”

    ·         Opposition of conservatives and outraged New Dealers in Congress

    o   Ex. Democratic senator Burton Wheeler

    ·         President argued the purpose was to restore the balance of power among the 3 branches of federal government

    ·         Battle for bill dragged on, and FDR’s claims weakened

    ·         When justice Willis Devanter announced plans to retire, Roosevelt had the first chance to make a Court appointment

    §  Court upheld the constitutionality of some key laws from the Second New Deals

    ·         Including the Social Security Act and National Labor Relations Act

    ·         In August, FDR backed off from his plan and accepted compromise bill that reformed lower court procedures, but left Supreme Court untouched

    ·         FDR won a more responsive Court

    §  Court fight weakened Roosevelt’s relations with Congress

    ·         More conservative Democrats felt free to oppose further New Deal measures

    o   The Women’s Network

    §  Great Depression and New Deal brought significant changes for women in American economics and politics

    §  Women continued to perform unpaid domestic labor within their homes

    ·         Work was not covered by Social Security Act

    o   Growing minority worked for wages and salaries outside of the act

    §  1940, 25% of the workforce was female

    ·         Increase in married working women as a result of hard times

    ·         Sexual stereotyping still forced women into low-paying and low-status jobs

    §  New Deal brought measurable, but temporary, increase in women’s political influence

    ·         New Deal opened possibilities to effect change for women associated with social reform

    §  “Women’s network” was linked by personal friendships and professional connections

    ·         Made a presence in national politics and government

    ·         Most women in the network had been active in movements promoting suffrage, labor law reform, and welfare programs

    §  Eleanor Roosevelt was a powerful political figure in her own rights

    ·         Used her prominence as First Lady to fight for liberal causes she believed in

    ·         Revolutionized the role of political wife by taking a position involving no institutional duties, and turning it into a base for independent action

    ·         Enjoyed great influence with her husband

    ·         Her support for a cause gave the cause instant credibility

    ·         Strong supporter of protective labor legislation for women

    ·         Convened a White House Conference on the Emergency Needs of Women in 1933

    o   Helped Ellen Woodward, head of women’s projects in the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, find jobs for 100,000 women

    §  In jobs ranging from nursery school teaching to sewing

    ·         Worked for anti-lynching legislation, compulsory health insurance, and child labor reform

    ·         Fought racial discrimination in New Deal programs

    ·         Guardian of “human values” within the administration

    o   Buffer between Depression victims and political bureaucracy

    ·         Testified before legislative committees, lobbied her husband and Congress, wrote a widely syndicated newspaper column

    §  Closest political ally was Molly Dewon

    ·         Dewon was director of the Women’s Division of the Democratic Party

    o   Women for the first time played a central role in shaping the party platform and running election campaigns

    o   Proved tireless organizer, traveled to cities and towns educating women about Democratic policies and candidates

    ·         Dewon’s success impressed FDR, and he went to her for advice on political appointments

    ·         Dewon placed more than 100 women in New Deal programs

    ·         Persuaded FDR to appoint Frances Perkins as secretary of labor

    o   The first woman cabinet member in US history

    o   Veteran activist for social welfare and reform

    o   Served as FDR’s industrial commissioner in NY before appointment

    o   Perkins embodied the gains made by women in appointive offices

    o   Department was responsible for creating the Social Security Act and Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938

    §  Both incorporated protective measures long advocated by women reformers

    o   Defined feminism as the movement of women to participate in service to society

    o   New Deal agencies were spaces for scores of women in the federal bureaucracy

    §  FERA, WPA, Social Security Board

    o   Social work profession (roughly 2/3 female in the 1930s) grew rapidly in response to massive relief and welfare programs

    o   New Deal for Minorities

    §  African Americans

    ·         Always around the bottom of the economic ladder

    ·         During the Depression, they suffered disproportionately

    o   Black workers were the “last hired, first fired”

    o   Because jobs were scarce during the Depression, domestic service jobs (cooking, janitorial work, elevator opening) were coveted

    ·         Roosevelt administration made little effort to combat racism and segregation in American life

    o   Worked about offending the powerful southern Democratic congressman key for political coalition

    o   Local administration of many federal programs meant most New Deal programs accepted discrimination

    ·         CCC established separate workers for people with the same jobs

    ·         NRA codes tolerated lower wages for black workers

    ·         TVA would not hire black Americans

    ·         AAA committees in the South reduced acreage and production to boost prices, thousands of black sharecroppers and laborers were forced off the land

    ·         Racism was also in the Social Security Act

    o   Excluded domestics and casual laborers from old-age insurance

    §  Those holding these jobs were mostly African American

    ·         FDR issued executive order in 1935 banning discrimination in WPA programs

    o   Between 15-20% of WPA employees were black

    o   The minimum wage of $12 a week was what allowed many African Americans to survive

    ·         FDR appointed many African Americans to second level positions in his administration

    o   “Black Cabinet”

    §  Mexicans

    ·         Great Depression reduced their demand for labor

    ·         Faced massive layoffs, deepened poverty, and deportation

    ·         During the 1930s, 400,000 Mexican nationals and children returned to Mexico

    o   Often coerced by local officials unwilling to provide them relief, but happy to offer train fare to border towns

    ·         Many native born Americans said deporting Mexicans could reduce unemployment for US citizens

    o   Claims reflected deep racial prejudice

    ·         New Deal programs did little to help the Mexicans still in America

    o   AAA benefited large growers, not stoop laborers

    ·         National Labor Relations Act and Social Security Act made no provisions for farm laborers

    ·         FERA and WPA at first tried to provide relief and jobs to needy, regardless of citizenship status

    o   After 1937, these reliefs were eliminated

    §  New Deal record for minorities was mixed

    ·         African Americans in the cities benefited from the New Deal relief

    o   Though assistance was not color-blind

    ·         New Deal made no attempt to attack deeply rooted patterns of racism and discrimination in American life

    ·         Deterioration faced by Mexicans resulted in a reverse exodus

    ·         By 1936, for the first time, a majority of black voters switched political allegiances to the Democrats

    o   Evidence that they supported the direction taken by the New Deals

    o   The Roosevelt Recession

    §  Economy had improved by 1937

    ·         Unemployment had declined to 14%

    ·         Farm prices had improved to 1930 levels

    ·         Industrial production was slightly higher than the 1929 mark

    §  Economic traditionalists called for reducing the federal deficit

    ·         Grown to over $4 billion in fiscal year 1936

    §  Roosevelt was uneasy about the growing debt, and called for large reductions in federal spending

    ·         Particularly in WPA and farm programs

    §  Federal Reserve System worried about inflation and tightened credit policies

    §  Instead of stimulating business, the retrenchment brought a steep recession

    ·         The stock market crashed again in August 1937

    o   Industrial output and farm prices dropped

    o   Big increase in unemployment

    ·         As conditions worsened, FDR blamed the “strike of capital”

    o   Claimed businessmen had refused to invest because they wanted to hurt his prestige

    o   In reality, the administration’s severe spending cutbacks were mostly responsible for the decline

    §  After 5 years, the New Deal had not brought economic recovery

    ·         Through 1937-1938, administration drifted

    ·         Roosevelt received conflicting advice

    o   Some urged a massive antitrust campaign against monopolies

    o   Some urged a return to the strategy of stimulating the economy with more federal spending

    ·         Republican gains in 1938 made new reform efforts tougher to gain

    §  1938 Fair Labor Standards Act

    ·         Established the first federal minimum wage and set a maximum workweek of 44 hours for employees engaged in interstate commerce

    §  National Housing Act of 1937 (aka Wagner-Steagall Act)

    ·         Funded public housing construction and slum clearance and provided rent subsidies for low-income families

    §  By 1938, the whirlwind of New Deal was over

    ·         Conclusion

    o   New Deal did little to alter fundamental property relations or distribution of wealth

    §  Programs largely failed to help the most powerless groups in America

    §  Changed many areas of American life

    o   New Deal increased the role of federal government in American lives and communities

    §  Western and southern communities were transformed through federal intervention

    §  Relief programs established framework for welfare state

    o   Efforts to end racial and gender discrimination were modest at best

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - World War II

     

     

    ·         Monday, July 16, 1945

    o   First atomic bomb exploded

    §  Heat generated by the blast was 4 times the temperature at the center of the sun

    §  Blew out windows in houses more than 200 miles away

    §  Killed every living creature within a mile

    o   Ruby Wilkening joined several other women waiting for the blast

    §  Worried about her husband who was already at the test site

    §  No one knew what to expect

    o   Franklin D. Roosevelt was convinced that the Nazis might develop an atomic bomb         

    §  Inaugurated a small nuclear research program in 1939

    o   President released resources to create the Manhattan project

    §  Placed it under the direction of the Army Corps of Engineers

    o   1942: Enrico Fermi, Novel Prize winner, produced the first chain reaction in uranium under the University of Chicago’s football stadium

    o   Government moved key researchers to Los Alamos, New Mexico

    §  slowly build houses

    §  men averaged at an age of 27

    §  these scientists and their families formed a close-knit community

    ·         united by the need for secrecy & shared antagonism toward their army guardians

    §  Army atmosphere was oppressive

    ·         Cordoned off by barbed wire and guarded by military police

    ·         Scientists were followed by security personnel whenever they left Los Alamos

    ·         Outgoing mail was censored

    ·         Code names were used

    ·         16 million men and women left home for military service

    o   “a great arsenal of democracy”

    o   States in the South and Southwest experienced huge surges in population

    o   President Roosevelt ordered relocation for 112,000 people to internment camps

    §  Suspecting Japanese Americans of disloyalty

    ·         The coming of World War II

    o   The shadows of war

    §  War spread first across Asia

    ·         Japan turned its sight on China

    o   Seized Manchuria in 1931

    ·         Japan withdrew from the League of Nations

    ·         Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937

    ·         Japan’s army murdered 300,000 Chinese people while destroying the city

    ·         Within a year, Japan controlled all but China’s western interior and threatened all of Asia and the Pacific

    §  Italy and Germany

    ·         Rise of authoritarian nationalism

    §  Germany

    ·         Resentment over the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

    o   Rise of demagogic mass movements

    ·         National Socialists (Nazis)

    o   Led by Adolf Hitler

    o   Combined militaristic rhetoric & racist doctrine of Aryan supremacy

    §  Biological superiority for peoples of northern Europe and classified nonwhites as “degenerate races”

    ·         Hitler prepared for war

    o   Destroyed opposition and made himself dictator

    o   Began to rebuild German armies

    ·         Hitler sent 35,000 troops to occupy Rhineland

    o   Region demilitarized by the Versailles treaty

    §  Italy

    ·         Benito Mussolini

    o   Italian Fascist dictator

    o   “We have buried the putrid corps of liberty”

    ·         Invaded Ethiopia and claimed the impoverished area as a colony

    §  When the Spanish Civil War broke out later in 1936, Italy and Germany both supported the fascist insurrection of General Francisco Franco

    ·         Drew up a alliance in November

    o   Rome-Berlin Axis

    ·         Hitler then was ready to put his plan to secure living space for Germany into action (Lebensraum)

    o   Further territorial expansion

    §  After annexing Austria, Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia

    ·         Both Britain and France were pledged to treaty to assist

    ·         Munich Conference allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland

    ·         Hitler pledged to stop his territorial advance

    o   Less than 6 months later, Hitler broke this pledge and seized the rest of Czechoslovakia

    §  1935: Hitler published the Nuremberg Laws

    ·          Denying civil rights to Jews

    ·         Campaign against them became more vicious

    §  November 9, 1938: Kristallnacht; “Night of Broken Glass”

    ·         Nazis rounded up Jews

    ·         Beat and murdered them

    ·         Smashed windows in Jewish shops, hospitals, and orphanages

    ·         Burned synagogues to the ground

    ·         Hungary and Italy also enacted laws against Jews

    o   Isolationism

    §  Many Americans believed that the US should stay clear of “entangling alliances”

    §  In 1937, 70% of Americans in a poll thought that US involvement in WWI was a mistake

    §  Gerald P. Nye

    ·         Headed a special Congress committee that charged weapons manufacturers with driving the US into WWI

    §  1935

    ·         Congress passed the first of five Neutrality Acts

    o   Deter future entanglements

    o   Required the president to declare an embargo on the sale and shipment of munitions to all belligerent nations

    §  1938: Keep America Out of War Congress

    ·         Led by Norman Thomas

    ·         Communist-influenced

    ·         Against War and Fascism

    ·         More than 1 million members

    §  1940: Committee to Defend America First

    ·         Led by Robert E. Wood

    ·         Opposed US intervention

    ·         Some members championed the Nazis; some simply advocated American neutrality

    ·         Gained attention from many celebrities

    o   Roosevelt Readies for War

    §  October 1937

    ·         FDR called for international cooperation to “quarantine the aggressors”

    ·         2/3 Congress opposed economic sanctions

    o   “back door to war”

    ·         FDR still won $1 billion to enlarge the navy

    §  September 1, 1939

    ·         Hitler invades Poland

    §  Great Britain and France issued joint declaration of war against Germany

    §  After the fall of Warsaw, the fighting slowed

    ·         French and German troops did not exchange fire even on their border

    §  Two weeks before Hitler attacked Poland, the Soviet Union signed a nonaggression pact with its former enemy

    ·         Red Army entered Poland

    ·         Split the nation between them

    ·         Headed north; invaded Finland

    §  April 1940

    ·         Hitler begins a crushing offensive against western Europe

    ·         Blitzkrieg

    o   Lightning war

    o   Fast-moving columns of tanks supported by air power

    ·         Nazis take Denmark and Norway; then Holland, Belgium, & Luxembourg

    §  Germany & Italy took over France in June 1940

    §  Battle of Britain

    ·         Nazis pounded population and industrial centers while U-boats cut off incoming supplies

    §  Opinion polls in the US during this time still wanted to stay out of the war

    ·         Roosevelt believed that the security of the US depended on

    o   A strong defense

    o   The defeat of Germany

    §  Neutrality Act of 1939

    ·         Permitted the sale of arms to Britain, France, & China

    ·         “all aid to the Allies short of war”

    ·         Started to transfer surplus US planes and equipment to Allies

    §  First peacetime military draft in US history

    ·         Selective Service Act of 1940

    o   Sent 1.4 million men to army training camps

    §  Roosevelt’s popularity weakened

    ·         “Roosevelt recession”

    ·         In his campaign for his third term, he promised not to “send your boys to any foreign wars”

    ·         Beat Wendell L. Willkie of Indiana by 5 million popular votes

    §  Lend Lease Act

    ·         Roosevelt proposed a bill that would allow the president to sell, exchange, or lease arms to any country whose defense appeared vital to US security

    o   Passed by Congress in March 1941

    ·         Made Great Britain the first beneficiary of massive aid

    ·         Congress authorized the merchant marine to sail fully armed while conveying lend-lease supplies directly to Britain

    o   Formal declaration of war was coming

    §  Atlantic Charter

    ·         Roosevelt met secretly with Winston Churchill (British Prime Minister)

    o   Mapped military strategy

    o   Declared common goals for the postwar world

    ·         Specified the right of all peoples to live in freedom from fear, want, and tyranny

    ·         Called for free trade among all nations

    ·         Called to an end to territorial seizures

    §  Hitler set aside the Nazi-Soviet Pact to resume his quest for all of Europe

    ·         1941; Hitler invaded the Soviet Union

    o   Promising its rich agricultural land to Germans

    ·         US observed this event and moved closer to intervention

    ·         Pearl Harbor

    o   US had been focusing on Europe instead of Asia

    o   Roosevelt transferred Pacific Fleet from California to Pearl Harbor

    §  May 1940

    §  Oahu, Hawai’i

    o   Japan joined Germany and Ital as Asian partner of Axis alliance

    §  September 27

    o   Roosevelt wanted to save resources

    o   Japan thought that they could take over Southeast Asia if US was preoccupied

    §  French colonies in Indochina

    ·         Vietnam

    ·         Cambodia

    ·         Laos

    §  British possessions

    ·         Burma

    ·         India

    §  Indochina invasion of July 1941

    ·         Roosevelt cut off Japanese assets and oil supplies

    o   Confrontation with Japan became inevitable

    §  US intelligence broke through Japanese secret code

    §  Roosevelt knew Japan would attack Pacific

    ·         All forces on high alert by end of November

    o   December 7, 1941

    §  Japanese carriers attacked Pearl Harbor early in the morning

    §  Japanese pilots destroyed about 200 American planes in 2 hours

    ·         2,400 Americans were killed

    ·         1,200 Americans wounded

    §  Japan struck other US bases

    ·         Philippines

    ·         Guam

    ·         Wake Island

    o   Next day

    §  FDR – “date which will live in infamy”

    §  Congress voted on entering WWII

    ·         Only pacifist Jeannette Rankin of Montana voted no

    ·         Congress approved FDR’s declaration of war

    o   3 days later

    §  Germany and Italy declared war on the United States

    Arsenal of Democracy

    ·         FDR called for “great arsenal of democracy” in 1940

    o   US economy already prepared for military purposes

    o   Federal government poured large amount of energy and money into economy once US entered war

    o   Gave power to federal government

    o   Brought an end to the Great Depression

    ·         Mobilizing for War

    o   War Powers Act

    §  Passed a few days after US declared war on Germany

    §  Established precedent for executive authority

    §  President had power to

    ·         reorganize government and create new agencies

    ·         establish programs censoring news and information

    o   abridged civil liberties

    ·         seize property owned by foreigners

    ·         award government contracts without competitive bidding

    o   Wartime agencies

    §  Reorientation and management of economy

    §  Supply Priorities and Allocation Board (SPAB)

    ·         Oversaw use of scarce materials and resources

    ·         Adjusted domestic consumption for war needs

    §  Office of Price Administration (OPA)

    ·         Imposed price controls to prevent inflation

    §  National War Labor Board (NWLB)

    ·         Mediated disputes between labor and management

    §  War Manpower Commission (WMC)

    ·         Directed mobilization of military and civilian services

    §  Office of War Mobilization (OWM)

    ·         Coordination operations among all agencies

    o   Propaganda

    §  Office of War Information (OWI)

    ·         Created in June 1942

    ·         Regulated media to sell the war to citizens

    ·         Engaged press, radio, and film industry in an informational campaign

    ·         Gathered data and controlled release of news

    ·         Similar to the Committee of Public Information from WWI

    o   Banned publications of advertisements or photographs that showed dead Americans

    §  Thought they would demoralize public

    ·         Worried that Americans had become too confident

    o   Published picture of wounded American in a 1943 Newsweek

    o   Sought to “harden home-front morale”

    §  War bonds

    ·         Henry Morgenthau, Jr.

    o   Secretary of Treasury

    o   Encouraged Americans to purchase government bonds

    o   Planned campaign “to use bonds to sell the war, rather than vice versa”

    ·         America felt more antagonism to Japan rather than Germany

    o   Morgenthau used more Japanese stereotypes in advertising

    ·         Most Americans bought bonds to invest safely, counter inflation, and save for postwar purchases

    o   $185.7 billion in bonds by end of war

    o   Other supportive measures

    §  Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

    ·         Allotted money increased from $6 million to $16 million in two years

    ·         Attorney general authorized wiretapping for espionage or sabotage

    o   Used illegally for domestic services as well

    §  Office Strategic Services (OSS)

    ·         Created Joint Chiefs of Staff

    ·         Used to:

    o   Assess enemy’s military strength

    o   Gather intelligence information

    o   Oversee espionage activities

    ·         Headed by Colonel William Donovan

    o   Wanted to plot psychological warfare against enemies

    o   Increase in size of government

    §  Cost about $250 million a day to engage in warfare

    §  Spent twice as much during war than in entire prior history

    §  Number of federal employees quadrupled

    ·         1 million in 1940 to 4 million at end of war

    §  1942 Roosevelt

    ·         Went from “Dr. New Deal” to “Dr. Win the War”

    ·         Shifted focus from getting country out of depression to allocating all resources for war efforts

    ·         1942 election weakened New Deal coalition

    o   Many Democrats unseated

    o   Republicans gained 46 seats in the House of Representatives

    §  More opportunities to end special program proposals

    o   New Deal agencies vanished

    ·         Organizing the Economy

    o   US ability to out-produce enemies

    §  Decisive factor for victory

    §  US advantages

    ·         Large industrial base

    ·         Abundant natural resources

    o   Free from interference of war

    ·         Large civilian population

    o   Increase labor force and armed forces

    §  Defense spending ended Great Depression

    ·         Created biggest economic boom in history of any nation

    o   Government money in defense production

    §  Summer 1941

    §  Allocations for war equipment topped $100 billion six months after Pearl Harbor attack

    ·         Preceded American production for previous wars

    §  Large war orders led to all-out production

    ·         Factories operated around the clock

    o   Seven days a week

    §  War Production Board

    ·         Created by Roosevelt in January 1943

    ·         “exercise general responsibility” for activity

    o   American productiveness

    §  Better equipment and more motivation

    §  Twice as productive as Germans

    §  Five times as productive as Japanese

    §  Military production increased from 2% of total gross national product in 1939 to 40% in 1943

    o   Profits for businesses from military contracts

    §  Government provided low-interest loans and direct subsidies for expansion of facilities

    ·         Generous tax write-offs for retooling

    §  100 largest corporations

    ·         Produced 30% of all goods in 1940

    ·         Received 70% of all war and civilian contracts and bulk of war profits

    §  Half a million small businesses closed between 1941 and 1943

    o   Other impacts of defense production

    §  Strong impact in West

    ·         Major staging area for war in the Pacific

    ·         Federal government spent $40 billion for military and industrial expansion

    ·         California

    o   10% of all federal funds

    o   Los Angeles

    §  Second largest manufacturing center by 1944

    ·         Detroit was largest

    §  South

    ·         60 of the army’s 100 new camps

    ·         Textile factories prospered

    o   Army needed 520 million pairs of socks and 230 million pairs of pants

    ·         Lifted entire populations out of sharecropping and tenancy into industrial jobs in cities

    ·         Rural population decreased by 20%

    ·         American farmers could not keep up with demand

    o   Despite “Food for Freedom” program

    o   Domestic demand for milk, potatoes, fruits, and sugar

    ·         Sped up development of large-scale, mechanized production of crops

    o   First widespread use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides

    ·         Farm income doubled by 1945

    ·         Thousands of small farms had permanently disappeared

    ·         New Workers

    o   New workers in labor force as a result of wartime economy

    §  Bracero program

    ·         Negotiated by US and Mexico in 1942

    ·         Brought over 200,000 Mexicans to US for short-term employment as farmers

    ·         Opened trade such as shipbuilding to Mexicans

    o   Previously not open to Mexicans

    §  Sioux and Navajos were hired to build ordinance depots and military training centers

    §  African Americans

    ·         Much greater variety of jobs

    ·         Black workers increased from 2,900,000 to 3,800,000

    o   Wage-earning patterns in women

    §  Female labor force grew by 50%

    ·         19.5 million by 1945

    §  Married women became majority of female wage earners

    §  Rate of growth high for women over 35

    §  Changed little for African American women

    ·         90% in labor force in 1940

    ·         Many left domestic service for higher-paying industry jobs

    o   No rush to recruit women

    §  Summer 1942

    ·         Department of War advised businesses to stop hiring women until all make workers were hired first

    §  Women not expected to keep jobs after war ended

    §  “Rosie the Riveter”

    ·         Appeared in posters and advertisements

    ·         Model female citizen “only for the duration”

    §  Washington D.C. female bus drivers

    ·         Wore patches that sais “I am taking the place of a man who went to war”

    o   Gender stereotypes

    §  Made wartime jobs appealing to women

    ·         Made industrial jobs look like simple variations of domestic tasks

    o   Curtains to parachutes

    o   Vacuuming to riveting on ships

    o   WWII opened up new jobs for married women

    §  Different from Great Depression when married women were barred from many jobs

    §  Women automobile workers

    ·         From 29,000 to 200,000

    §  Female electrical workers

    ·         100,000 to 374,000

    §  When polled, 75%  of women workers wanted to keep their jobs

    o   Uneven distribution of economic gains

    §  17 million new jobs created total

    §  Wages increased up to 50%, but not as fast as profits or prices

    §  Produced one of the most turbulent periods in American labor history

    ·         More workers went on strike in 1941 than in any other year except 1919

    §  United Auto Workers (UAW)

    ·         Union drive at Ford Motor Company’s River Rouge plant

    ·         One of most powerful labor organizations in world

    §  Union membership increased

    ·         10.5 million to 14.7 million

    ·         11% to 23% in women

    ·         1,250,000 African American union members

    o   Double the prewar number

    o   No-strike pledges

    §  For duration of US involvement in WWII

    §  Illegal “wildcat” strikes

    ·         Most dramatic in 1943

    ·         Half-million coal miners walked out

    ·         Led by John L. Lewis

    ·         Roosevelt ordered mines to be seized

    o   Saw that Lewis war right and coal could not be mined with bayonets

    §  Democratic party of Congress passed first antistrike bill

    ·         Gave president power to penalize or draft strikers

    §  Number of strikes grew regardless

    ·         While Americans benefited from the burst of prosperity brought on by wartime production, they experienced…

    o   Food rationing

    o   Long workdays

    o   Separation from loved ones

    o   Racial and ethnic hostilities flared repeatedly

    §  On several occasions erupted into violence

    §  National unity ran deep conflicts on the home front

    ·         Families in Wartime

    o   Men and women rushed into marriage due to wartime uncertainties

    §  Wartime economic boom allowed young couples to afford their own households

    §  “Economic conditions were ripe for a rush to the altar”

    §  Bureau estimated that between 1940 and 1943, over 1 million more people married than would be expected without the war

    §  Marriage rate peaked in 1946

    ·         Divorce rates set records by 1946

    o   Housing shortages were acute, rent was high

    §  Apartments were so scarce that taxi drivers became guides to vacancies

    §  Landlords frequently discriminated against families with children

    ·         Even more so against racial minorities

    o   Retailers extended store hours

    §  Shopping time had to be squeezed between long workdays

    §  Extra planning needed for purchasing government-rationed staples

    ·         Meat, cheese, sugar, milk, coffee, gasoline, and even shoes

    §  To free up commercially grown produce for troops overseas, many families grew their own fruits and vegetables

    §  1943: Victory Gardens

    ·         3/5 of the population was growing their own

    o   Amounted to 8 million tons of food that year

    o   Office of Price Administration

    §  Tired to prevent inflation to ensure an equitable distribution of foodstuffs

    ·         Many women found it almost impossible to manage a job and a household

    ·         Dual responsibility of women contributed to high turnover and absentee rates in factories

    o   Care of small children became a major problem

    §  Wartime employment or military service separated husbands and wives

    ·         Leaving children with only one parent

    §  Even families that stayed together normally had 2 parents working long hours

    ·         Sometimes on different shifts

    §  War Manpower Commission estimated as many as 2 million children needed some form of child care

    ·         Federally funded day-care centers served less than 10% of defense workers’ children

    ·         Limited facilities sponsored by industry or municipal governments could not keep up with growing number of “latchkey” children

    o   Juvenile delinquency rose

    §  Employers often relaxed minimum age requirements for employment

    ·         Many teenagers quit school for high factory wages

    ·         Runaways drifted from city to city, finding temporary work at wartime plants or military installations

    §  Gangs formed in major urban areas

    ·         Led to brawling, prostitution, or automobile theft

    §  With so many young men employed in the armed forces, crime by juvenile and adult males declined

    §  On the other hand, complaints against girls increased significantly

    ·         Normally for sexual offenses or for running away from home

    §  Local officials created various youth agencies and charged them with developing more recreational and welfare programs

    §  Local school boards appealed to employers to hire only older workers

    ·         Toward the end of the war, student dropout rates declined

    o   Public health improved greatly

    §  While many were forced to cut back on medical care during the depression, many Americans began to spend large portions of their wartime paychecks on doctors, dentists, and prescription drugs

    §  Over 16 million men inducted into the armed forces and their dependents were provided medical benefits

    §  Incidents of communicable diseases fell by over a third

    §  Life expectancy increased by 3 years

    §  Death rate in 1942 (excluding battle deaths) was the lowest in the nation’s history

    §  South and Southwest racism and widespread poverty combined to halt or even reverse these trends

    ·         These regions continued to have the highest infant and maternal mortality rates in the nation

    ·         Internment of Japanese Americans

    o   Many Americans feared an invasion of the mainland and suspected Japanese Americans of secret loyalty to an enemy government

    o   December 8, 1941, federal government froze the financial assets of those born in Japan who had been barred from US citizenship

    §  Known as Issei

    o   A coalition of politicians, patriotic organizations, business groups, and military officials called for the removal of all Americans of Japanese descent from Pacific coastal areas

    o   State department intelligence report certified their loyalty

    §  Japanese American still became the only ethnic group signaled out for legal sanctions

    ·         2/3 were American born citizens

    o   Sedition masked long standing racial prejudices

    §  Press used the word “Jap” in headlines while political cartoonists used blatant racial stereotypes

    o   February 19, 1942: FDR signed Executive Order 9066

    §  Authorized the exclusion of more than 112,000 Japanese American men, women, and children from designated military areas

    ·         Mainly in California, but also in Oregon, Washington, and southern Arizona

    §  Army prepared for forced evacuation

    §  Rounded up Japanese Americans from the communities where they lived and worked, sometimes for generations

    o   Spring 1942, Japanese American families received one week’s notice to close up their businesses and homes

    §  Could only bring what they could carry

    §  Transported to one of ten internment camps

    ·         Managed by the War Relocation Authority

    ·         Camps were located as far away as Arkansas

    §  By August, almost every west coast resident who had at least one Japanese grandparent was interned

    o   Japanese American Citizens League

    §  Charged that “racial animosity” rather than military necessity dictated internment policy

    o   Korematsu v. United States (1944)

    §  Upheld the constitutionality of relocation on grounds of national security

    §  By this time, plans of gradual release was in place

    o   In protest, nearly 6000 Japanese Americans renounced their US citizenship

    o   Japanese Americans lost homes and businesses valued at $500 million

    §  Worst violation of American civil liberties during the war

    o   1998: US Congress voted reparations of $20000 and a public apology to each of the 60,000 surviving victims

    ·         Double V: Victory at Home and Abroad

    o   African American activists conducted a Double V campaign

    §  Mobilized for the allied victory and their own rights as citizens

    o   Black militants demanded fair housing and equal employment opportunities

    o   A. Randolph: president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and National Negro Congress

    §  Mobilized against discrimination

    o   African Americans prepared for a “great rally” by the Lincoln Memorial on the 4th of July

    §  100,000 people expected to attend

    §  To stop the protest, FDR  met with Randolph

    ·         Randolph proposed an executive order that would make it mandatory for Negroes to be allowed to work in defense plants

    ·         Executive Order 8802 (1941): banned discrimination in defense industries and government

    ·         FDR later appointed a Fair Employment Practices Committee to hear complaints and redress grievances

    §  Randolph called off the march, but said they should still “shake up white Americans”

    o   Civil right organizations formed to fight discrimination and Jim Crow practices

    §  Interracial Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

    ·         Formed by pacifists in 1942

    ·         Staged sit-ins in restaurants that refused to serve African Americans

    ·         Used nonviolent means to challenge racial segregation in public facilities

    §  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

    ·         Took a strong stand against discrimination in defense plants and military

    ·         Grew from 50,000 to 450,000 from 1940-1946

    o   Toughest struggles took place in local communities

    §  About 1.2 million African Americans left the rural South to take wartime jobs

    ·         Faced serious housing shortages

    ·         Whites were intent on keeping African Americans out of the best jobs and neighborhoods

    §  “hate strikes”

    ·         Broke out in defense plants across the country when blacks were hired or upgraded to positions normally held by white workers

    ·         1942: 20,000 white workers at Packard Motor Car Company in Detroit walked out to protest the promotion of 3 black workers

    ·         US Rubber Company factory 1943: over half the white workers walked out when black women began to operate machinery

    o   Detroit race riot

    §  February 1942: 20 black families attempted to move into new federally funded apartments adjacent to a Polish American community

    ·         Mob of 700 white protesters halted moving vans and burned a cross on  the project’s ground

    ·         Two months later, 1750 city police and state troopers supervised the move of families into the Sojourner Truth Housing Project

    §  The following summer, racial violence reached wartime peak

    ·         25 blacks and nine whites were killed and more than 700 were injured

    o   By the time 6000 federal troops restored order, property losses were over $2 million

    o   In the summer of 1943, over 270 racial conflicts occurred in nearly 50 cities

    ·         Zoot-Suit Riots

    o   June 4, 1943: sailors poured into nearly 200 cars and taxis to drive through East Los Angeles to look for Mexican Americans dressed in zoot suits

    §  Sailors assaulted victims at random

    §  Riots broke out and continued for 5 days

    o   Two communities collided

    §  Sailors had recently been uprooted from their hometowns an regrouped under the strict discipline of boot camp

    ·         Stationed in southern CA while awaiting departure overseas

    ·         Saw Mexican American teenagers wearing long-draped coast, pegged pants, pocket watches with oversized chains, and big floppy hats

    o   The sailors found the zoot suits as defiance to patriotism

    o   Zoot-suiters represented less than 10% of the community’s youth

    §  Over 300,000 Mexican Americans served in the armed forces

    ·         A large number representing a greater proportion of their draft age population than other Americans)

    ·         Served in the most hazardous branches

    o   Paratrooper and marine corps

    ·         Others were employed in war industries in LA

    o   For the first time, Mexican Americans were finding well-paying jobs

    §  Unlike African Americans, Mexicans expected government protection from discrimination

    o   Military and civilian authorities eventually contained the zoot-suit riots by ruling several sections of LA off-limits to military personnel

    §  City council passed legislation making the wearing of a zoot suit in public a criminal offense

    ·         Many Mexican Americans showed concern for their personal safety

    o   Feared that government would send them to internment camps like the Japanese

    ·         Popular Culture and “The Good War”

    o   Global events shaped American civilians’ lives, but appeared to only indirectly touch their everyday activities

    o   Food shortages, long hours in factories, and separation from loved ones did not take away the pleasure of wartime employment and prosperity

    §  Americans spent freely at vacation resorts, country clubs, racetracks, nightclubs, dance halls, and movie theaters

    §  Book sales skyrocketed

    §  Spectator sports attracted huge audiences

    o   Popular music bridged the growing racial divisions of the neighborhood and work place

    §  Southern musicians brought regional styles to northern cities

    §  Music played on jukeboxes in bars, bus stations, and cafes

    §  Country and rhythm and blues won over new audiences and inspired musicians to cross old boundaries

    §  Musicians of the war years paved the way musically for the emergence of rock and roll a decade later

    o   Song featured war themes

    §  Personal sentiment meshed with government directive to depict “a good war”

    ·         Justify massive sacrifice

    §  War was to be seen as a worthy and noble cause

    o   Hollywood artists threw themselves into fundraising and morale-boosting public events

    §  Movie stars called on fans to buy war bonds and support the troops

    §  Combat films made heroes of ordinary Americans under fire

    §  Movies with anti-fascist themes promoted friendship among Russians and Americans

    §  Other films portrayed the loyalty and resilience of families with servicemen stationed overseas

    o   Wartime spirits infected juvenile world of comics

    §  Nickel books spawned a proliferation of patriotic superheroes

    ·         Green Lantern and Captain Marvel

    ·         Bugs Bunny even started wearing a uniform and fought sinister-looking enemies

    o   Fashion

    §  Padded shoulders and straight lines became popular for men and women

    §  Patriotic Americans liked uniforms

    ·         Civil defense volunteers and Red Cross workers

    §  Women employed in defense plants wore pants for the first time

    §  Material restrictions influenced fashion

    ·         Production of nylon stockings was halted because the material was needed for parachutes

    §  Women’s skirts were shortened

    §  War Production Board encouraged cuffless “victory Suits” for men

    §  Executive Order M-217

    ·         Restricted the colors of shoes manufactured during the war to black, white, navy blue, and 3 shades of brown

    o   Even those who did not serve in the war experienced intense change during the war years

    §  Popular music, Hollywood movies, radio programs, and advertisements encouraged a sense of personal involvement in collective effort to preserve democracy at home and save the world from fascism

    ·         All was screened by the Office of War Information

    In World War I, Americans served for a short amount of time and in small numbers. World War II had 16.4 million Americans in the armed forces where only 34% saw combat—majority saw combat during the final year of the war. However, the experience of the war affected everyone in the military, reshaping their lives in unpredictable ways.

    ·         Creating the Armed Forces

    o   European war broke out

    §  1939

    §  200,000 men in the U.S. armed force

    ·         Patrolling Mexican border

    ·         Occupying Philippines

    ·         U.S. Marine Corps

    o   Planning since 1920s to extort control of western Pacific from Japan

    o   National Registration Day

    §  October 16, 1940

    §  Men between ages 21 and 36 were legally obligated to register

    §  During the war, the draft age was 18

    ·         Local boards were encouraged to draft the youngest

    o   Selective Service

    §  1/3 of men were rejected from the draft

    ·         Physically unfit

    ·         Screened for “neuropsychiatric disorders or emotional problems”

    o   1.6 million men for this reason

    ·         Illiterate

    §  Those who passed the screening had entered the best-educated army in history

    ·         Half of white draftees graduated high school

    ·         10% went to college

    o   Command and General Staff School

    §  Fort Leavenworth

    §  Highly professional

    §  politically conservative

    §  personally autocratic

    §  General Douglas MacArthur

    ·         Supreme commander in Pacific theater

    ·         Admire German discipline

    §  General Dwight D. Eisenhower

    ·         Supreme commander of All

    o   Transformation of the officer corps

    §  Shortage of officers in WWI

    ·         Prompted expansion of the Reserve Officer Training Corps

    ·         Still could not meet demand

    ·         Racing to fix the problem

    o   Army Chief of Staff George Marshall opened schools for officers

    o   1942

    §  17 week training

    §  Produced more than 54,000 platoon leaders

    §  GI’s (“government issue”)

    ·         Majority of draftees

    ·         Had limited contact with officers

    ·         Forged bonds with company commanders and combat union

    ·         “Everyone wants someone to look up to when he’s scared”

    o   Soldiers depended on solidarity between groups and loyalty between buddies to get through the war

    o   Most soldiers wanted ”to get the task done” to return to their families

    ·         Women Enter the Military

    o   Edith Nourse Rogers

    §  Massachusetts Republican Congresswoman

    §  Proposed the formation of women’s corps

    o   Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), later changed to Women’s Army Corps (WAC)

    §  Supported by Edith Rogers and Eleanor Roosevelt

    o   Women’s Airforce Service Pilots (WAVES)

    §  Creation of the women’s division of the navy

    o   Marine Corps Women’s Reserve

    o   Overall, more than 350,000 women served in WWII

    o   As a group, they were better educated and more skilled than an average soldier

    §  Paid less

    o   Military policy

    §  Prohibited women supervising men

    o   Women were prohibited from combat

    o   However, not protected from danger

    §  Nurses accompanied soldiers in Africa, Italy, France

    §  More than a 1,000 women flew planes (not in combat)

    §  Photographers and Cryptanalysts

    o   Majority of women were far from battle

    §  Stationed in the U.S.

    §  Serving in administration, communication, clerical, or health-care facilities

    o   Bad Commentary and Publicity

    §  WAC’s and WAVES

    ·         Most WAC’s were believed to be prostitutes

    ·         War Department set stricter rules for women because of fear of “immorality”

    ·         U.S. Marine Corps used intelligence officers to track down homosexuality in women

    o   Dishonorable discharge was granted if suspected

    ·         Old Practices and New Horizons

    o   Selective Service Act

    §  With demands of African American leaders, if stated:

    ·         “there shall be no discrimination against any person on account of race or color”

    §  Draft brought hundreds of thousands black men to the army

    o   African Americans in the Armed Forces

    §  Enlisted at a rate of 60% above proportion to the population

    §  1944, they represented 10% of the army

    ·         1 million served in the armed forces in WWII

    §  They were channeled into segregated units

    ·         Poorly equipped

    ·         Commanded by white officers

    o   Secretary of War Henry Stimson did not challenge this policy since he thought it operated efficiently as “a sociological laboratory”

    §  Majority served in the Signal, Engineer, and Quartermaster Corps

    ·         Constructing or stevedoring

    §  Towards the end of WWII

    ·         Shortage of infantry permitted the first African Americans to enter combat

    ·         The 761st Tank Battalion

    o   First African American unit in combat

    o   Won Medal of Honor after 183 days of action

    ·         The 99th Pursuit Squadron

    o   Small number of African Americans in Airforce

    o   Despite that, they earned high marks against German airforce, Luftwaffe

    ·         Marine Corps and Coast Guard agreed to recruit more African Americans

    o   A small number

    ·         To improve morale, the army relaxed its policy of segregation

    §  Ordinary black soldiers, sailors, or marines

    ·         Encounters discrimination

    o   Army canteen, chapel, blood banks, and more

    §  A black physician, Dr. Charles Drew invented the process of storing plasma

    o    1943

    §  Violent confrontations of whites and blacks at military installations

    ·         Especially in the South, where majority of blacks were stationed

    §  Policy of segregation was relaxed in the military

    ·         Mainly in recreational facilities  

    §  Military service provided a bride to postwar civil rights agitation

    ·         Amzie Moore

    o   Helped organize Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

    o   “people are just people”

    §  He acquired this philosophy while in the military

    o   Japanese Americans  in the military

    §  Were stationed in segregated units

    §  Most were sent to fight in the Pacific theatre

    §  Nisei soldiers

    ·         Knew Japanese and served as interpreters and translators

    ·         The regiment of these soldiers created more than 10,000 volunteers step forward

    o   1 in 5 were selected

    ·         The Nisei 442nd heroically fought in France and Italy

    o   Jews and second-generation European immigrants

    §  Military action described as:

    ·         An “Americanizing” experience

    o   Indian Peoples

    §  Left reservation for the first time

    ·         25,000 serving in the armed forces

    §  Navajo “code talkers”

    ·         They used a special code to transmit information among military units

    ·         They learned English

    o   Homosexuals

    §  Despite being barred from the military, some slipped through the screening

    §  Emotional pressure during wartime

    ·         Created fear of death

    ·         Encouraged close friendships

    §  Homosexuals found more room in the military than in civilian life

    ·         Men often danced with one another (this would be subject to ridicule or arrest in the civilian world)

    §  “The war is a tragedy to my mind and soul, but to my physical being, it’s a memorable experience.”

    o   The war created a memorable experience to all soldiers that served in WWII

    §  Twenty-Seven Solider (1944)

    ·         Film created  for the troops by the government

    ·         It sowed Allied soldiers or several nationalities working together

    ·         The Medical Corps

    o   Death and Injury chances

    §  There was a small chance of being killed in combat during WWII

    ·         1 in 50 were killed

    ·         175,000 were killed in action

    §  Risk of injury was higher

    ·         949,000 causalities, including 175,000 killed in action

    o   European Theatre

    §  Produced most causalities

    o   Pacific Theatre

    §  Illnesses and artillery fire were the concerns for death in this region

    ·         Soldier fought in hot, humid jungles

    ·         Illnesses included malaria, typhus, diarrhea, or dengue fever

    §  The 25th Infantry Division

    ·         Landed in Guadalcanal in 1943

    ·         Malaria-carrying mosquitoes terrorized more than Japanese forces

    o   “Battle Fatigue”

    §  Prolonged stress of combat

    §  More than 1 million soldiers suffered debilitating psychiatric symptoms

    §  Soldier discharges for neuropsychiatric reasons was 2.5 times greater than in previous wars

    §  France

    ·         Men spent up to 200 days in combat

    o   Self-inflicting injuries were popular in order to be sent home

    §  Private Eddie Slovik

    ·         Fled the battlefront

    ·         Tried and executed for desertion

    o   First such execution since the Civil War

    §  In 1944, 8 months in combat was the maximum

    ·         Rotational system used to relieve exhausted soldiers

    o   Medical personnel

    §  All soldiers received first aid training

    §  Doctors

    ·         They worked in makeshift tent hospitals

    ·         They advanced surgical techniques

    o   With help of “new wonder” drugs such as penicillin

    §  Saved many lives of wounded soldiers

    o   More than 85% survived emergency surgery on the fields

    o   Less than 4% died from their injuries after medical care

    o   Success of treatment came from the use of blood plasma

    §  Reduced shock from severe bleeding

    o   Red Cross Blood Bank

    §  Formed four years before war

    §  By 1945, they collected about 13 million units of blood which was converted to dried plasma

    ·         Surgeons were considered heroes of the battlefront

    ·         Between 30 to 40 medics were assigned to each infantry battalion

    §  Nurses

    ·         In military hospitals, supplied care to recovering soldiers

    ·         Army Nurse Corps

    o   Created in 1901

    §  It was scarcely a military organization

    §  Nurses did not get military pay nor rank

    o   1944

    §  To overcome shortage, military ranks were extended to nurses for six months after the war

    ·         By 1945, 56,000 women were active in the Army Nurse Corps

    o   Including 500 African American women

    o   Staffing medical facilities in every theatre

    ·         Prisoners of War (POW)

    o   About 120,000 Americans became POW’s

    o   Captured by the Germans

    §  Taken back to camps

    ·         Oflag for officers

    ·         Stalags for enlisted men

    ·         They sat out the remainder of the war

    §  Russian POWs were starved and murdered

    o   Captured in the Pacific theatre

    §  Worse than abysmal

    §  20,000 Americans were captured

    ·         Only 40% survived to return home in 1945

    §  At least 6,000 Americans and Filipinos were:

    ·         Beaten, denied food and water, died on the notorious “Death March”

    §  “Death March”

    ·         Eight mile walk through the jungles on the Bataan Peninsula in 1942

    ·         Survivors arrived at former U.S. Army base Camp O’ Donnell

    o   Hundreds died weekly of disease and squalor

    §  Japanese Army felt scorn for POWs

    ·         Their own soldiers killed themselves before becoming POWs

    §  The Imperial Army assigned strict and brutal discipline in the POW camps

    §  Postwar survey from POWs in the Pacific Theatre

    ·         90% reported to have been beaten

    o   To avenge fellow soldiers captured by other nations, GIs treated Japanese POWs more brutal than enemy soldiers from Africa an

    ·         The World at War

    o   The World at War

    §  First year of declared war

    ·         Allies remained on the defensive

    ·         Axis powers were winning

    §  Allies had a few advantages

    ·         Vast natural resources

    ·         Skilled workforce with sufficient reserves to accelerate the production of weapons and ammo

    ·         The determination of millions of antifascists throughout Europe and Asia

    ·         The capacity of the Soviet Union (now an ally BTW) to endure immense losses

    o   Soviets Halt Nazi Drive

    §  Weapons and tactics of WWI and II were different

    ·         WWII was a war of offensive maneuvers punctuated by surprise attacks

    o   Tanks

    o   Airplanes

    o   Combined mobility and concentrated firepower

    §  Artillery and explosives

    ·         Major improvements in communication systems

    o   Two-way radio transmission

    o   Radiotelephony

    §  Hitler used these methods  to grab an early advantage

    §  Battle of Britain

    ·         The Royal Air Force (Britain) fought the Luftwaffe (Germany) to a standstill and saved England

    §  1941

    ·         Hitler tried to invade and conquer the Soviet Union before the US entered the war

    ·         The invasion had to be delayed to support Mussolini

    o   His weak army had been pushed back in North Africa and Greece

    ·         The attack was late, too late to achieve its goals before the Russian winter

    §  Burden of war fell to the USSR

    ·         From June to September, Hitler’s forces overran the Red Army

    ·         But the Nazis didn’t count on civilian resistance leading to the rally of the Soviets

    o   They cut German supply lines and sent all resources to troops in Moscow

    ·         The onset of the severe winter weather =massive counterattack on the Germans. For the first time, the Nazi war machine suffered a major setback.

    §  Summer 1942

    ·         Germans headed toward Crimea (rich oil fields of the Caucasus) and attacked Stalingrad but failed

    §  February 1943

    ·         The German Sixth Army had been defeated (100,000 Germans surrendered); overpowered by Soviet Union

    §  Battle of Kursk

    ·         In retreat, the Germans tried one last desperate attempt to halt the Red Army

    ·         Kursk, Ukraine, July 1943

    ·         The greatest land battle in history

    o   2 million troops and 6,000 tanks

    ·         Germans were annihilated, turning the tide of the war

    o   The Allied Offensive

    §  Spring 1942

    ·         Germany, Italy, and Japan

    o   Commanded a territory extending from France to the Pacific Ocean

    o   Central Europe

    o   Large Section of the Soviet Union, parts of China, and the Pacific

    ·         Momentum was flagging

    ·         US out produced them

    o   Sub-sinking destroyers reduced Nazi sub threat

    o   Landing craft and amphibious vehicles

    §  Two of the most important innovations of the war

    §  Still, German forces were a might opponent on the European Continent

    ·         Soviets wanted a Second Front against Germany from the west

    §  “Desert Fox”

    ·         October 23-24, 1942

    ·         El Alamein in the desert

    ·         British Eighth Army halted a major offensive and destroyed the Italian North African Army and Germany’s Afrika Korps

    §  Operation Torch

    ·         The landing of Brits and US troops on the coast of Morocco and Algeria in November 1942

    o   Largest amphibious military landing to that date

    ·         January 1943

    o   Roosevelt meets Winston Churchill in Morocco to talk about plans for the war; unconditional surrender

    §  May 1943

    ·         Allied control of North Africa with a secure position in the Mediterranean

    §  Aerial bombing increased pressure on Germany

    ·         B-17 Flying Fortess

    o   Capable of hitting specific targets and sparing civilian life

    o   Bombing missions over the Rhineland and the Ruhr successfully took out many German factories

    §  The Royal Air Force (British Air Force)

    ·         Determined to break German resistance

    o   Leveled Hamburg

    o   Destroyed Dresden (worst air raids)

    o   60 other cities

    ·         Weakened German economy and undermined  civilian morale

    ·         Trying to defend its cities, the Luftwaffe sacrificed many of its fighter planes

    ·         When the allies finally invaded western Europe, they had air superiority

    o   The Allied Invasion of Europe

    §  Summer 1943

    ·         Ally advance on southern Italy

    ·         July 10, Brit/US troops conquered Sicily

    o   Italians celebrated

    ·         Italy surrendered September 8

    ·         But Hitler occupied northern peninsula and stalled the Allied campaign

    §  Armed Uprisings against the Nazis spread

    ·         Warsaw had riots during the winter and spring of 1943

    ·         Scattered revolts followed

    §  Operation Overlord (turns into D-Day)

    ·         A campaign to retake Europe with a decisive counter attack through France

    ·         Began with a pre-invasion air assault that dropped 76,000 tons of bombs on Nazi targets

    ·         Dwight Eisenhower: commander in Europe

    ·         Fake an invasion in Calle

    o   Inflatable tanks, etc

    §  D-Day

    ·         June 6, 1944

    ·         175,000 troops and 20,000 vehicles

    ·         Allies storm Omaha Beach, Normandy

    ·         Load up everything we got!

    o   LCVP

    §  Landing Craft for Vehicle and Personnel Use

    §  Boats with no roofs, have ramps, Higgins boats

    §  Paris

    ·         July 14, 1944

    ·         French Resistance unfurled the French flag on Bastille Day

    ·         General Charles de Gaulle – head of new French government

    o   Arrived in Paris on August 25 to become president of the reestablished French Republic

    §  Occupied nation after nation fell to the allied armies

    o   The High Cost of European Victory

    §  1944

    ·         Allied commanders searched for a strategy to end the war quickly

    o   Missed a chance to invade Berlin

    o   Turned north, opening the Netherlands for Allied armies on their way to Germany’s industrial heartland

    §  Battle of the Bulge

    ·         Hitler’s final, desperate effort to reverse the Allied momentum

    ·         Quarter million men at Allied lines in the Belgian forest of the Ardennes

    ·         Drove the allies back 50 miles before they were stopped

    o   The bloodiest single campaign Americans had been involved in since the battle of Gettysburg

    o   Exhausted the German capacity for counterattack

    §  Christmas Day 1944

    ·         The Germans fell back, retreating into their own territory

    §  March 1945

    ·         Allies took the Rhine and the Ruhr Valley with its precious industrial resources

    §  May 8

    ·         German surrender

    ·         Hitler had committed suicide

    ·         Nazi officials were planning their escape routes

    §  Eastern Front

    ·         200,000 killed

    ·         800,000 wounded

    o   The War in Asia and the Pacific

    §  Scattered fighting across a region  of the world far larger than all of Europe

    §  Japan cut supply routes between Burma and China

    ·         Seized

    o   Philippines

    o   Hong Kong

    o   Wake Island

    o   British Malaya

    o   Thailand

    §  China joined the Allies on December 9, 1941 but was still on the defensive

    §  Nationalist and anticolonial sentiment played into Japanese hands

    ·         Took the occupations with only 200,000 men because Britain/France didn’t want to fight to defend

    §  Japanese set up puppet governments in the conquered settlements

    ·         Led to famines and guerilla resistance armies

    §  6 months after Pearl Harbor

    ·         The US began to regain naval superiority in the central Pacific and halt Japanese expansion

    §  Battle of the Coral Sea

    ·         May 7/8

    ·         Blocking of Japanese threat to Australia

    §  Battle of Midway

    ·         Fought over Midway Island

    o   Strategically vital to US communications and the defense of Hawai’i

    o   US intelligence led to the knowledge of the attack

    o   American planes sank four of Japan’s vital aircraft carriers

    o   Destroyed hundreds of planes

    o   Ended Japan’s offensive threat to Hawai’I and the U.S. west coast

    §  Pulled back the offensive perimeter

    ·         Concentration of forces.

    §  US Command

    ·         Southwest

    o   General Douglas MacArthur

    ·         Central

    o   Admiral Chester Nimitz

    §  Allied counteroffensive

    ·         Solomon Islands and Papua, near New Guinea

    o   Stronghold of Guadalcanal

    ·         Victorious in February 1943

    o   Proved that they could defeat Japanese forces in brutal jungle combat

    §  Island hopping

    ·         U.S. Navy and Marine Corps pushed to capture a series of important atolls from their well-armed Japanese defenders and open a path to Japan

    o   Tarawa – November 1943

    o   1944 (Within air range of the Jap home islands)

    §  Guam

    §  Saipan

    §  Tinian

    o   Battle of the Philippine Sea

    §  June – the Jap fleet suffered a crippling loss

    §  October 1944

    ·         General MacArthur led a force of 250,000 to retake the Philippines

    o   Battle of Leyte Gulf

    §  The largest naval battle in history

    §  Japs lost 18 ships

    §  US control of the Pacific

    o   Iwo Jima invasion was successful

    §  Okinawa

    ·         350 miles southwest of the home islands of Japan

    ·         Vital airbases

    ·         The struggle proved even more bloody

    ·         The invasion of the island, which began on Easter Sunday, April 1, 1945, was the largest amphibious operation mounted by Americans in the Pacific war

    ·         Kamikaze

    o   “divine wind”

    o   Pilots flying suicide missions in planes with a 500-pound bomb and only enough fuel for a one-way flight

    ·         More Americans died or were wounded in Okinawa than at Normandy

    §  Post-Euro war

    ·         Allies concentrated on Japan

    ·         The air and sea attacks on the mainland began to take its toll

    ·         US subs reduced the ability of ships to reach Japan with supplies

    ·         Since the taking of Guam, US bombers could reach Tokyo

    §  US wanted Japan to surrender ASAP so the Red army didn’t take any Japanese territories

    ·         Set up for the last stages of war: the atomic bomb

     

    ·         The Last Stages of War

    o   Roosevelt and his advisors focused on military strength rather than plans on peace

    o   Reconsidered their thoughts after the defeat of Nazi Germany

    o   Roosevelt wanted to crush the axis powers and establish a system of collective security to prevent another war world

    o   Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchhill were known as the “Big Three”

    §  They met to “hammer out the shape of the postwar world”

    o   No nations expected to reach a final agreement and they did not anticipate the sudden global events

    §  Became clear that the only thing holding the Allies together was the mission of destroying the Axis.

    ·         The Holocaust

    o   Americans learned the extend of Hitler’s atrocities during the last stages of the war

    §  Hitler ordered the systematic extermination of Jews, Gypsies, other “inferior races,” homosexuals , and anyone deemed an enemy of the Reich

    §  1933-1941

    -          Nazis murdered as many as 6 million Jews, 250,000 Gypsies, and 60,000 homosexuals

    o   U.S. government released little information on the Holocaust

    §  Liberal magazines such as the Nation and small committees of intellectuals tried to call attention to what was happening in German concentration camps

    §  Major news media like the New York Times and Time magazine made treated the Nazi genocide as minor news

    §  1943- only 43 percent of Americans polled believed that Hitler was systematically murdering European Jews

    o   Leaders of the American Jewish Community were better informed than the general population

    §  Mid 1930’s- petitioning the government to suspend the immigration quotas to allow German Jews to take refuge in the United States

    o   Roosevelt and Congress denied their requests

    §  President maintained that the liberation of the European Jews depended on Allied victory

    §  brushed off a delegation that presented him with the solid evidence of Nazi genocide

    -           December 1942

    §  Roosevelt agreed to change government policy

    §  Treasury Henry Morgenthau gave the president a report on “one of the greatest crimes in history, the slaughter of the Jewish people in Europe”

    -          Suggested that it was-Anti-Semitism in the State Department that had stalled the development of an aggressive plan of action

    o   Roosevelt issued an executive order creating the War Refugee Board in order to avoid scandal

    §  American Jews pleased with the president for a military strike against the rail lines

    -           Lead to the extermination camp in Auschwitz, Poland

    §  The War of Department affirmed that Allied armed forces would not be employed “for the purpose of rescuing victims of enemy oppression unless such rescues are the direct result of military operations conducted with the objective of defeating the armed forcesecitver res of the enemy.”

    -          The government viewed civilian rescue as a diversion from the decisive military operations.

    o   The extent of the Nazi depravity was finally revealed to Americans when Allied troops invaded Germany and liberated the death camps

    §  General Eisenhower found barracks crowded corpses and crematories while touring the Ohrdruf concentration camp in April 1945

    ·         The Yale Conference

    o   In preparing for the end of the war, Allied leaders began to reconsider their goals

    o   The Atlantic Charter stated noble objectives for the world after the defeat of fascism

    o   Roosevelt realized that neither Britain nor the Soviet Union intended to abide by any code of conduct that compromised its national security or conflicted with its economic interests in other nations or in colonial territories

    o   Roosevelt held his last meeting with Churchhill and Stalin at Yalta

    §  Roosevelt recognized that prospects for postwar peace also depended on compromise

    §   U.S. and Great Britain objected to the to the Soviet Union’s plan to retain Baltic states and part of Poland as a buffer zone to protect it against any future German aggression

    §  Britain planned to reclaim its empire in Asia, and the united states hoped to hold several pacific islands in order to monitor any military resurgence in Japan

    §  The delegates also negotiated the terms of membership in the United Nations

    o    Soviet entry into the Pacific War

    §  Biggest and most controversial item

    §  Roosevelt believed it was necessary for a  fast Allied victory

    §  Stalin agreed to declare war against Japan within two or three months of Germany’s surrender

    o   Roosevelt announced to congress that the Yalta meeting was a great success

    §  Proof that the wartime alliance remained intact

    §  Roosevelt concluded that the outcome of conference revealed that the Atlantic Charter had been nothing more than a “beautiful idea.”

    o   Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945 from a stroke

    o   Roosevelt had rebounded in 1944 to win a fourth term as president

    o   In an electoral college victory(432 to 99), he defeated Republican New York governor Thomas E. Dewey

    o   Surrender of Germany took place on May 8, 1945.

    ·         The atomic bomb

    o   Harry Truman

    §  Kansas City politician 

    §  Missouri  judge

    §  U.S. state senator

    §  Lacked diplomatic experience

    §  Roosevelt’s  finesse

    o   Negotiations at the Potsdam Conference

    §  Held just outside Berlin from July 17th to August 2, 1945

    §  Lacked the spirited cooperation characteristic of the wartime meetings of allied leaders that Roosevelt had attended

    o   The American, British, and soviet delegations had a huge agenda

    §   Reparations

    §  the future of Germany

    §  the status of other Axis powers such as Italy

    o    during the Potsdam ,Truman first learned about the success testing of an atomic bomb in New Mexico

    o   the U.S. had been pushing the Soviet Union to enter the Pacific war as a means to avoid a costly U.S. land invasion

    §  Potsdam Truman secured Stalin’s promise to be in war against Japan by August 15

    §  After Secretary of War Stimson received a cable reading “Babies satisfactorily born” U.S. concluded that Soviet assistance was no longer needed to bring that war to an end.

    o    An editorialist wrote in the Japanese Nippon Times, “This is not war, this is not even murder; this is pure nihilism…a crime against God which strikes at the very basis of moral existence.”

    §  Several leading religious publications agreed

    §  The Christian Century interpreted the use of the bomb as a “moral earthquake”

    §  Albert Einstein observed that the atomic bomb had changed everything except the nature of man

    o   On August 7, the news media reported the destruction and death the bomb caused in Hiroshima

    o   Japan surrendered on August 14 after a second bomb destroyed Nagasaki

    §  Killed another 70, 000 people

    o   The Allied Insistence on unconditional surrender and the decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan remain 2 of the most controversial aspects of war

    §  Truman states that he gave the offer no such official estimate exists

    §  An intelligence document of April 30, 1946, states, “the dropping of the bomb was the pretext seized upon by all leaders as the reason for ending the war, but [even if the bomb had not been used] the Japanese would have been capitulated upon the entry of Russia into the war.”

    o   The use of the nuclear force strengthened the U.S. diplomatic mission

    §  it intimidated the Soviet Union

    §  Truman and his advisors knew their atomic monopoly could not last

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Cold War

     

     

    ·         University of Washington, Seattle: Students and Faculty Face the Cold War

    o   May 1948

    §  University of Washington in Seattle

    ·         Melvin Radar

    o   A professor accused of communist actions by two state legislators, members of the state’s Committee on Un-American Activities

    o   Never was a communist

    o   He was a self-described liberal

    o   He was in several organizations supported by Communists

    o   Served as president of the University of Washington Teacher’s Union

    o   He was invited to the Communist party

    §  Refused

    o   “I was an American in search of a way—but it was no the Communist way”

    o   He was caught up in a Red Scare that abridged freedom of speech and political activity

    o   FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

    §  Set camps in universities around the United States

    §  Spying on students and faculty

    §  Screened credentials for jobs and scholarship applicants

    §  Sought students to report roommates as Communists

    o   University of Washing administration

    §  Refused to hire J. Robert Oppenheimer

    ·         Atomic scientist that ran the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

    ·         Robert became an opponent of arms race ad proliferation of nuclear weapons

    §  150 faculty members

    ·         6 were convicted of being in the Communist party

    o   Were brought up to the university’s Faculty Committee on Tenure and Academic Freedom

    o   Charged with violations ranging from neglect of duty and not stating their party membership

    o   Three were dismissed and three went on probation

    o   Icy Relations (provoked this paranoia)

    §  United States vs. Soviet Union after WWII

    ·         Uneasy allies during WWII

    ·         Countries lined up with one or the other

    §  In the United States

    ·         Cold War

    o   Demanded pledges of loyalty from:

    §  Citizens

    §  Universities

    §  Trade unions

    §  Mass media (Hollywood)

    ·         Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (Known as the G.I. Bill of Rights)

    o   Passed by Congress in 1944

    o   Offered stipends covering tuition and housing for veterans

    o   Between 1945-1950

    §  2.3 million students benefitted

    §  More than $10 billion was spent by the government

    ·         J. Edgar Hoover

    o   Director of the FBI

    o   Said that college campuses were centers of

    §  “red propaganda”

    §  Filled with teachers “tearing down respect for agencies of government, belittling tradition and moral custom and…creating doubts in the validity of the American way of life”

    ·         Nationwide stats and facts

    o   200 faculty members were dismissed

    o   Thousands of students

    §  Dropped out of organizations

    §  Changed friends after “visits” from FBI agents

    o   Main effect of the Cold War

    §  Restraint of freedom of speech

    §  Fear of criticizing U.S. racial, military, or diplomatic policies

    ·         Global Insecurities at War’s End

    §  WWII engulfed the world from 1939 to 1945

    §  A 1945 poll indicated

    ·         Peace rested on harmony between the Soviet Union and the US

    o   Facing the Future

    §  1941, Henry Luce

    ·         Publisher of Time, Life, and Fortune magazines

    ·         Forecasted the dawn of “the American Century”

    ·         He said Americans must “accept wholeheartedly our duty and our opportunity as the most powerful and vital nation in the world and in consequence to assert upon the world the full impact of our influence, for such means as we see fit.”

    §  1945, Truman

    ·         After bombing of Japan, he said the United States is “the most powerful nation in the world—and the most powerful nation, perhaps, in all history.”

    §  Post WWII United States

    ·         Unlike great Britain and France, the U.S. prospered

    ·         Capital assets of manufacturing increased 65% over prewar levels

    o   Equal to half the world’s goods and services

    ·         Prosperity of the economy

    o   Due to massive government spending for the war rather than New Deal programs

    §  $340 billion

    ·         Citizens questioned the duration of the striving economy

    o   After veterans got home

    o   After war production slowed

    §  Solution to Postwar Economy

    ·         Will Clayton

    o   Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs

    o   “We need markets—big markets—in which to buy and sell”

    ·         Maintaining the level of growth in economy

    o   Needed an estimated $14 billion in exports

    ·         The U.S. became interested in integrating Western Europe and Asia into international economy open to American trade and investment

    §  Final Stages of WWII

    ·         Roosevelt and advisers planned to establish U.S. primacy

    ·         July 1944, Brent Woods Conference

    o   International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created

    §  By stabilizing exchange rates, IMF would deter currency and trade conflicts

    o   International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) was established

    o   They helped rebuild war-torn Europe

    o   Assisted development  in other nations

    o   The US had the greatest influence over policy for these organizations

    §  Supplied funds, $7 billion

    o   Soviet Union was part of Brent Woods conference but  refused involvement

    §  Allowing the US to build economies along capitalist lines

    o   The Division of Europe

    §  Atlantic Charter of 1941

    ·         recognized each nation with the right to self determination and to renounce all claims to new territories

    ·         The Allied leaders violated this by dividing occupied Europe into “spheres of influences”

    ·         Soviet Union

    o   Wanted to reestablish borders in 1941

    o   Potsdam Conference July 1945

    §  Regained and extended territory

    ·         Most of Eastern Europe

    o   Portion of Poland

    o   Baltic Nations

    o   Did the USSR want all of Europe to be Communist?

    §  Germany’s Future

    ·         Allies decided to divide the nation into four occupation zones

    o   Each government by one Allied nation

    o   No agreement was made for long term plans

    ·         France and Soviet Union opposed reunification of Germany

    o   Roosevelt shared the belief with the Soviets

    ·         Truman and Churchill hoped for rebuilding Germany into a powerful counterforce against the Soviet and a good market for U.S. and Britain

    ·         July 1946

    o   Americans began to have compensation from their zone to have a program of amnesty for former Nazi

    ·         December 1946

    o   American, British, and French merged zones

    o   Soviet Union refused offer in fear of resurgence of united Germany

    ·         U.S. envisioned a united Germany as a fortification against Soviet expansion

    o   The United Nations and Hopes for Collective Security

    §  Dumbarton Oaks Conference

    ·         In Washington D.C. late summer and fall of 1944

    ·         Again in April 1945 in San Francisco

    ·         The Allies worked to shape the United Nations

    o    A world organization that would handle disputes among members as well  as hold back aggressors by military force if necessary

    §  The United Nations

    ·         All fifty nations that signed the UN charter participated in the General Assembly

    ·         Five Nations served permanently on the Security Council

    o   United States

    o   Great Britain

    o   France

    o   Soviet Union

    o   Nationalist China

    ·         The Security Council

    o   “primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security”

    §  They enjoyed veto power

    ·         UN’s Greatest Success was  in Humanitarian programs

    o   Relief agency for Europe and Asia

    §  Provided war-torn nations with billions of dollars for:

    ·         Medical supplies

    ·         Food

    ·         Clothing

    ·         UN Protects Human Rights

    o   High standards of human dignity is owed much to the lobbying of Eleanor Roosevelt

    ·         Cold War

    o   Operated strictly with this

    o   Western nations allied with the US

    §  Help the balance of power

    §  Successfully excluded Communist China

    o   Polarization between East and West made negotiations settlements impossible

    ·         The Policy of Containment

    o   Idea of a community of nations dissolved

    o   Winston Churchill

    §  “an iron curtain has descended across the [European] continent”

    §  Called the United States to recognize its “awe-inspiring accountability to the future”

    ·         Act aggressively to turn back Soviet expansion

    o   United States committed to leadership in a struggle against the spread of communism

    o   The Truman Doctrine

    §  Many Americans believed that FDR would have been able to prevent the tensions between the Soviet Union and the US

    ·         His successor lacked talent in diplomacy

    §  Truman liked to talk tough and act defiantly

    §  February 21, 1947

    ·         Great Britain informed the US State Department that they could no longer afford to prop up the anti-Communist government there

    ·         Announced intention to withdraw all aid

    ·         Truman concluded that Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East would fall under Soviet control

    §  March 12, 2947

    ·         Truman appealed for all-out resistance to a “certain ideology” (Communism) wherever it appeared in the world

    §  Truman Doctrine:

    ·         Congress approved a $400 million appropriation in aid for Greece and Turkey

    o   Helped the monarchy and right-wing military crush the rebel movement

    §  This victory helped Truman’s popularity in the 1948 election

    ·         “contain” communism, both home and abroad

    ·         Outlasted the events in the Mediterranean

    o   US declared its right to intervene to save other nations from communism

    §  February 1946:

    ·         George F. Kennan sent an 8,000 word telegram to the State Department insisting that Soviet fanaticism made cooperation impossible

    o   USSR intended to extend its realm by:

    §  Military means

    §  Subversion within free nations

    ·         US needed to safeguard the “Free World” by diplomatic economic, and military means (if necessary)

    o   Fused anticommunism and internationalism into an aggressive foreign policy

    o   The Marshall Plan

    §  Marshall Plan:

    ·         Sought to reduce hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos

    ·         Restore the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole

    o   Aimed to run back both socialist and Communist electoral bids for power in Europe

    ·         Most successful postwar US diplomatic venture

    ·         Improved the climate for a viable capitalist economy in western Europe

    ·         Brought recipients of aid into a bilateral agreement with the US

    ·         Introduced many Europeans to American consumer goods and lifestyle

    ·         Drove a deeper wedge between the US and the Soviet Union

    §  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

    ·         Reduced commercial barriers among member mnations and opened all to US trade and investment

    ·         Was costly to Americans but effective

    o   Taking 12% of the federal budget in the first year

    ·         Industrial production in European nations covered by the plan rose 200% between 1947 and 1952

    ·         Deflationary programs cut wages and increased unemployment

    o   HOWEVER, profits soared and the standard of living improved

    §  Federal Employees Loyalty and Security Program

    ·         Executive Order 9835:

    o   Barred Communists and fascists from federal employment

    o   Outlined procedures for investigating current and prospective federal employees

    §  National Security Act

    ·         Established Department of Defense, National Security Council, and the Central Intelligence Agency

    §  Smith-Mundt Act

    ·         Launched an overseas campaign of anti-Communist propaganda

    §  NSC-68

    ·         National Security Council Paper calling for an expanded and aggressive US defense policy

    o   Included greater military spending and higher taxes

    §  Internal Security Act

    ·         Also known as McCarran Act and Subversive Activities Control Act

    ·         Provided for the registration of all Communist and totalitarian groups

    ·         Authorized the arrest of suspect persons during a national emergency

    §  Psychological Strategy Board created

    ·         Created to coordinate anti-Communist propaganda campaigns

    §  Immigration and Nationality Act (McCarran Walter Immigration Act)

    ·         Reaffirmed the national origins quota system

    ·         Tightened immigration controls

    ·         Barred homosexuals and people considered subversive from entering the US

    o   The Berlin Crisis and the Formation of NATO

    §  US and Britain introduced a common currency in the western zones

    §  Berlin Blockade: June 24, 1948

    ·         Stalin halted all traffic to West Berlin

    o   Formally controlled by Western allies but situated deep within the Soviet occupied zone

    ·         Created a crisis as well as an opportunity for the Truman administration to test itself

    §  US began an around-the-clock airlift of historic proportions

    ·         Royal Air Force

    ·         Operation Vittles

    o   Delivered nearly 2 million tons of supplies to West Berliners

    §  Soviet Union finally lifted the blockade in May 1949

    ·         Federal Republic of West Germany

    o   Cleared the way for the Western powers to merge their occupation zones into a single nation

    §  German Democratic Republic

    ·         USSR countered in their sector

    §  Berlin crisis made a US led military alliance against the USSR attractive to western European nations

    §  North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

    ·         April 1949

    ·         Included 10 European nations, US, & Canada

    ·         A mutual defense pact in which “an armed attack against one or more of them…shall be considered an attack against them all”

    ·         Complemented the Marchall Plan

    o   Strengthened economic ties among the member nations by keeping “the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down”

    ·         Deepened divisions between eastern and western Europe

    o   Permanent military mobilization on both side inevitable

    §  Congress approved $1.3 billion in military aid

    ·         Involved the creation of US Army bases and the deployment of American troops abroad

    §  Robert A. Taft

    ·         Warned that the US could not afford to police all Europe without sidetracking domestic policies and undercutting the UN

    §  Opinion polls revealed strong support for Truman’s line against the Soviets

    §  When NATO extended membership to West Germany, the Soviet Union created the Warsaw Pact, which included East Germany

    ·         Division of East and West was complete

    o   Atomic diplomacy

    §  Truman invested his faith in the US monopoly of atomic weapons

    ·         US began to build atomic stockpiles

    ·         Conducted test s on the Bikini Islands in the Pacific

    ·         By 1950, the US “had a stockpile capable of somewhat more than reproducing World War II in a single day”

    §  US military analysts estimated it would take the USSR 3-10 years to produce an atomic bomb

    ·         Proved wrong in 1949 when the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb

    §  Within a few years...

    ·         Both the US and the Soviet Union had tested hydrogen bombs a thousand times more powerful than the weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

    §  US and Soviet Union were now firmly locked into the Cold War

    ·         Nuclear arms race imperiled their futures

    ·         Diverted their economics

    ·         Fostered fears of impending doom

    §  Prospects of global peace had disappeared

    ·         The world had again divided into hostile camps

    ·         Cold War Liberalism

    o   Truman portrayed himself as a fighter against all challengers

    §  Wanted to enlarge the New Deal

    ·         Settled on a modest agenda to promote social welfare and an anti-Communist policy

    §  Cold war liberalism

    ·         Domestic and foreign policy became more entangled

    o   “To Err is Truman”

    §  Harry Truman rated lower in public approval than any 20th century president EXCEPT Herbert Hoover

    ·         Responsibility of reestablishing peacetime conditions overwhelmed Truman’s administration

    §  From wartime to peacetime economy…

    ·         President faced millions of consumers that were tired of rationing

    o   Eager to spend their wartime savings

    o   Rapidly outran supply which fueled inflation and created a huge black market

    ·         Truman asked Congress to extend wartime price controls

    o   Republicans (backed by business leaders) refused and cut back the powers of the OPA

    §  Prices kept skyrocketing

    §  1945-1946

    ·         Homemakers protested rising prices by boycotting

    ·         Industrial workers struck in large numbers

    ·         Employers slashed wages or at least held them steady

    o   Workers wanted a bigger cut of the huge war profits they heard about

    ·         Nearly 4.6 million workers on picket line

    §  May 1946

    ·         Truman suggested to draft striking railroad workers into the army

    o   Conservative Senate denied this plan

    §  Congress defeated most of Truman’s ideas to revive the New Deal

    §  One week after Japan’s surrender:        

    ·         President introduced a 21 point program which included:

    o   Greater unemployment compensation

    o   Higher minimum wages

    o   Housing assistance

    o   Later added proposals for national health insurance & atomic energy legislation

    §  Congress turned back most of the bills

    o   Passed the Employment Act of 1946

    §  Created a new executive body

    ·         The Council of Economic Advisers

    o   Conferred with the president and formulated policies for maintaining employment, production, and purchasing power

    o   Did not include funding mechanisms to guarantee full employment

    §  By 1946 Truman’s popularity went downhill

    ·         Republicans began asking voters, “Had enough?”

    ·         Gave Republicans majorities in both houses of Congress and in the state capitals

    ·         Repudiation of Roosevelt

    o   Passed an amendment to the Constitution establishing a two-term limit for the presidency

    §  Republicans dominant for the first time since 1931

    ·         Prepared counteroffensive against the New Deal

    o   Attack on organized labor

    o   Unions had reached a peak in size

    §  Membership topping 15 million

    §  Encompassing 40% of wage earners

    ·         “labor had gone too far”

    o   Republican-dominated Eightieth Congress aimed to outlaw many practices approved by the Wagner Act of 1935

    §  Taft-Hartley Act (Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947)

    ·         Brought an end to…

    o   Closed shop

    o   Secondary boycott

    o   Use of union dues for political activities

    ·         Mandated an eighty day cooling off period in case of strikes affecting national safety or health

    ·         Required all union officials to swear under oath that they were not Communists

    o   Abridged freedoms ordinarily guaranteed by the First Amendment

    ·         Unions that refused to cooperate were denied the services of the National Labor Relations Board

    o   Arbitrated strikes and issued credentials to unions

    §  Truman regained some support when he vetoed the Taft-Hartley Act

    ·         It would “conflict with important principles of our democratic society”

    ·         Congress overrode his veto

    ·         The 1948 Election

    o   By 1946, Truman had forced out advisers who had been the social planners of the New Deals

    §  Believed some of Roosevelt’s advisers to have been “crackpots and lunatic fringe”

    §  Fired secretary of commerce Henry Wallace for advocating a more conciliatory policy toward the Soviet Union

    ·         Refused to retreat

    ·         Made plans to run against Truman for the presidency

    ·         Pledged to expand New Deal programs by moving bolding to establish full employment, racial equality, and stronger labor unions

    ·         Promoted peace with the Soviet Union

    ·         As 1948 election approached, Wallace appeared viable candidate for the New Progressive Party

    o   Then…Truman accused him of being a tool of Communists

    o   Truman had to contend with Democrats defecting from the Right

    §  At the party convention, Democrats endorsed a civil rights platform that called on Congress to “wipe out discrimination”

    ·         Proposed by liberal Minneapolis mayor Hubert Humphrey

    ·         Plank almost passed

    o   Then the bulk of the conservative southern delegation bolted

    §  Southern Democrats then endorsed the States’ Rights (Dixiecrat) ticket

    ·         Headed by Governor Thurmond of South Carolina that was known for having racist views

    o   As the South began to seem a lost cause to Truman, Republicans Thomas Dewey appeared to be a tough opponent for Truman in the coming election

    o   Truman set to reposition himself by discrediting congressional Republicans

    §  Proposed bold programs calling for federal funds for education and new housing and a national program of medical insurance

    §  Also called a reluctant Congress back for a special session

    ·         Truman then signed two executive orders

    o   One integrated the federal workforce

    o   Another integrated the US armed forces

    §  Then began to hammer away at the Republican controlled “do-nothing Congress”

    o   “Give ‘em Hell Harry”

    §  Campaigned vigorously and garnered lots of grassroots support

    §  Fear of the Republicans won back the bulk of organized labor

    §  Recognition of the new State or Israel (1948) helped prevent the defection of many liberal Jewish voters from Democratic ranks

    §  Success of the Berlin airlift also buoyed Truman’s popularity

    §  By the election, Truman had deprived Wallace of almost all his liberal support and had gone far in reviving the New Deal coalition

    o   On the other hand, Dewey was expected to coast to victory

    o   Truman won the popular vote by a margin of 5% and trounced Dewey in the electoral college 303 to 189

    §  Democrats again had majorities in both houses of Congress

    o   However, Truman had hit his highest point of popularity and was about to begin a steady downfall

    ·         The Fair Deal

    o   “Every segment of our population and every individual his a right to expect from our Government a fair deal” ~Truman (1949)

    o   The return of Democratic congressional majorities, he hoped, would enable him to translate campaign promises into concrete legislative achievements and expand the New Deal

    §  However, a powerful block of conservative southern Democrats and Midwestern Republicans turned back his domestic agenda

    o   Truman broke no new ground

    §  Congress passed a National Housing Act (1949)

    ·         Promoted federally funded construction of low income housing

    ·         Raised the minimum wage

    ·         Expanded the Social Security Program to cover an additional 10 million people

    §  Otherwise, Truman made little other impacts

    o   Truman and other congressional liberals introduced a variety of bills

    §  Weaken southern segregationism (federal antilynching laws)

    §  Outlaw the poll tax

    §  Prohibit discrimination in interstate transportation

    §  *these measures were defeated by southern led filibusters*

    o   Proposals to create a national health insurance plan, provide federal aid for education, and repeal or modify Taft-Hartley remained bottled up in committees

    o   Truman managed best to lay out basic principles of cold war liberalism

    §  Toned down the rhetoric of economic equality espoused by the visionary wing of the Roosevelt coalition

    §  Fair Deals exalted economic growth, not the reapportionment of wealth or political power, as the proper mechanism for ensuring social harmony and national welfare

    §  The administration insisted on an ambitious program of expanded foreign trade while relying on the government to encourage high levels of productivity at home

    §  Truman further reshaped liberalism by making anticommunism a key in both foreign and domestic agendas

    ·         The Cold War at Home

    o   Republican senator McCarthy claimed to have in his possession a list of Communists secretly serving in government agencies

    o   By this time, the Communist Party of the USA was losing ground

    o   In the earliest days of the cold war, anticommunism already occupied the center stage of domestic policies

    §  FBI director Hoover characteristically warned Americans not to be complacent in the face of low number of Communists

    o   The federal government with the help of the media led a campaign to find in the threat of communism a rationale for the massive recording of its operation and the quieting of the voices of dissent

    o   Far reaching quest for security led to a greater concentration of power in government

    ·         Also promised to lead the “free world” by allowing many of their own rights to be circumscribed

    o   Imperative of national security destroyed old0fashioned isolation

    §  Forced the US into international alliances such as NATO and into the role of world leader

    §  Truman successfully argued that national security demanded a substantial increase in the size of the federal government

    ·         Both military and surveillance

    §  Security measures were required to keep the nation in a steady state of preparedness, readily justified during wartime, and extended into peacetime

    o   National Security Act of 1947

    §  Laid the foundation for expansion for national security

    §  Act established the Department of Defense and the National Security Council (NSC) to administer and coordinate defense policies and advise the president

    §  Department of Defense replaced the War Department and untied the armed forces (army, navy, and air force) under the jurisdiction of a single secretary with cabinet-level status

    ·         The distinction between citizen and soldier blurred

    ·         The ties between the armed forces and the State Department grew closer as former military officers began to fill State Department and diplomatic corps positions

    §  The act created the National Security Resources Board (NSRB)

    ·         Coordinated plans throughout the government “in the event of a war”

    §  The Department of Defense in alliance with the NSRB became the principal sponsor of scientific research during the first ten years of the cold war

    §  Established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

    o   The Loyalty-Security Program

    §  National security required increased surveillance at home

    §  Within two weeks of the Truman Doctrine, Truman signed Executive Order 9835 (1947)

    ·         Established a loyalty program for all federal employees

    ·         The Federal Employees Loyalty and Security Program established a political test for federal employment and outlined procedures for investigating current and prospective federal employees

    o   The Red Scare in Hollywood

    §  Anti-Communist Democratic representative Martin Dies of Texas chaired a congressional committee on “un-American activities”

    ·         A few years later, J. Thomas of New Jersey directed the committee to investigate supposed Communist infiltration of the movie industry

    §  House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

    ·         Had the power to subpoena witnesses and compel them to answer all questions of face contempt of Congress charges

    ·         Small, but prominent minority refused to cooperate with HUAC
    known as “unfriendly witnesses”

    ·         Declined to testify by claiming freedom and speech

    ·         Several received prison sentences

    §  Hollywood studios refused to employ anyone who refused to cooperate with HUAC

    ·         Resulted in a blacklist that remained in effect until the 1960s

    o   Spy Cases

    §  Hiss was president of Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a former member of FDR’s State Department

    ·         Charged as a fellow Communist in the Washington underground during the 1930s

    ·         Convicted of perjury and received a 5 year prison term

    ·         Hiss was released two years later

    §  Many Democrats including Truman at first dismissed the allegations against Hiss

    §  The most dramatic spy case involved Julius Rosenberg

    ·         Former government engineer

    ·         Accused of stealing and plotting to convey atomic secrets to Soviet agents during WWII

    ·         Government had a weak case

    ·         Found guilty of conspiring to commit espionage

    ·         Press showed no sympathy, but convictions were largely protested in the US and abroad

    ·         McCarthyism

    o   Joseph R. McCarthy

    §  Republican senator of Wisconsin

    §  Announced that the US had been sold out by the “traitorous actions” of men holding important positions in the federal government

    §  Conspiracy theory; charging 205 card-carrying Communists who were working in the State Department

    §  But he refused to reveal names

    o   Investigations uncovered not a single Communist in the State Department

    §  However, there was an offensive against New Deal Democrats and the Truman administration for failing to defend national security

    o   McCarthyism

    §  The entire campaign to silence critics of the cold war

    o   Communism seemed to many Americans to be much more than a military threat

    §  “Better Dead Than Red”

    §  People proclaimed themselves ready for atomic warfare

    o   Civil rights organizations faced the worst persecution since the 1920s

    §  Destruction of the Civil Rights Congress and the Negro Youth Council

    §  Public Figures lost popularity

    ·         W. E. B. Du Bois

    ·         Paul Robeson

    o   Anti-Communist rhetoric cloaked deep fears about changing sexual mores

    §  John Peurify

    ·         Deputy under-secretary         

    §  “purge of the perverts”

    ·         Firing of up to sixty homosexuals per month

    ·         Dishonorable discharge of up to 2,000 per year

    o   McCarthy’s rhetoric was a ruthless attempt to gain power and fame by exploiting cold war fears

    o   But he brought on his own demise

    §  In 1954 he accused several high-ranking officers in the Army of plotting subversion

    §  He failed to prove his wild charges, and in the glare of television cameras he appeared deranged.

    §  The media lost interest in his, McCarthy became an alcoholic, and he died three years later

    ·         Cold War Culture

    o   Cold War Culture

    §  The cold war did not necessarily depend on military confrontation; nor was it defined exclusively by a quest for economic supremacy

    §  It was a contest of values

    o   An Anxious Mood

    §  Manny Americans feared an economic backslide

    ·         If war production had ended the hardships of the Great Depression, how would the economy fare in peacetime

    §  Peace seemed precarious

    ·         President Truman himself suggested that WW III appeared inevitable

    ·         “Permanent alert”

    §  Anxieties by the cold war surfaced major themes in popular culture

    ·         The Best Years of Our Lives (1946)

    ·         The feeling of community shared with wartime buddies dissipated, leaving only a profound sense of loneliness

    §  The genre of film noir deepened the mood into an aesthetic

    §  Movies that featured stories of ruthless fate and betrayal

    ·         Out of the Past

    ·         Detour

    ·         They Live by Night

    ·         Feelings of frustration and loss of control came alive in tough, cynical characters

    §  Plays and novels also described alienation and anxiety in vivid terms

    ·         Arthur Miller

    o   Death of a Salesman (1949)

    o   An exacting portrait of self-destructive individualism

    ·         J. D. Salinger

    o   Catcher in the Rye (1951)

    §  The mental anguish of a teenage boy estranged from the crass materialism of his parents

    §  Cold war anxiety manifested itself in a flurry of UFO sightings

    ·         Americans imagined Communist-like invasions from outer space

    ·         Or they hoped that superior creatures might arrive to show the way to world peace

    ·         The Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956)

    ·         The Family As Bulwark

    o   Postwar prosperity helped to strengthen the ideal of domesticity

    §  Rush to marriage and parenthood

    o   The ultimate symbol of postwar prosperity was the new home in the suburbs

    o   Atomic Age

    §  Boom in real estate with country properties located at least fifty miles outside of major cities

    §  Many suburbanites built underground shelters made of steel-reinforced concrete and outfitted with provisions to maintain a family for several weeks after an atomic explosion

    o   Baby boom

    §  Young couples were marrying younger and producing more children than at any time in the past century

    §  The birthrate continued to grow at a record pace, peaking in 1957

    o   Life magazine

    §  “The year 1946 finds the U.S. on the threshold of marvels, ranging from runless stockings and shineless serge suits to jet-propelled airplanes that will flash across the country in just a little less than the speed of sound.”

    o   By 1950, the majority of Americans could own consumer durables

    o   The baby boom and high rates of consumer spending encouraged a major change in the middle-class family

    §  Women wished to continue full-time employment

    §  By 1952, 2 million more wives worked than during the war

    §  But they had to get minimum-wage jobs

    ·         Clerical work

    ·         Health care

    ·         Education

    ·         Restaurant

    ·         Hotel

    ·         Retail services

    §  Older women worked because they had come to  value a job for its own sake

    §  Younger women often worked for reasons of “economic necessity”

    ·         To maintain a middle-class standard of living that now required more than one income

    §  But popular opinion and expert advice urged women to return to their homes

    o   Modern Woman: The Lost Sex (1947)

    §  Attributed the “super-jittery age in which we live” to women’s abandonment of the home to pursue careers

    §  Proposed federally funded psychotherapy to readjust women to their housewifely roles

    o   Articles in popular magazines, television shows, and high-profile experts chimed in with similar messages

    §  Talcott Parsons

    ·         DISTINGUISHED Harvard sociologist

    ·         Delineated the parameters of the “democratic” family

    o   Husbands served as breadwinners while wives, “the emotional hub of the family,” stayed home to care for their families

    o   Patterns of women’s higher education reflected this conservative trend

    §  G.I. Bill

    ·         Huge upsurge in male enrollment in college

    ·         Women represented 40% of all college grads in 1940 but only 25% a decade later

    o   “American Woman’s Dilemma”

    §  How could women comfortably take part in a world beyond the home and at the same time heed the advice of FBI director Hoover who told the nation’s women to fight “the twin enemies of freedom – crime and communism” by being homemakers and mothers?

    ·         Military-Industrial Communities in the West

    o   Trans-Mississippi West most impacted by cold war

    o   WWII spending stimulated economy in the west

    §  Caused mass migration of people looking for jobs in industry

    o   Successful peacetime production

    §  Los Angeles

    ·         1/8 all new businesses in nation

    o   Cold war boosted western economy

    §  Revived defense funding

    §  Department of Defense and other private corporations invested billions of dollars in research and development of military equipment

    o   Federal government poured defense money into California

    §  10% of entire military budget

    §  California’s economic growth rate from 1949 to 1952 exceeded the country’s

    §  40% from manufacture of aircrafts

    §  1/3 of all workers in Los Angeles were employed in defense industries

    ·         Mostly aerospace

    §  Concentration on defense greater in LA suburbs

    ·         Orange County became major producer of communication equipment

    ·         Cities like San Francisco Bay, Sunnyvale, Mountain View, and San Jose also prospered economically and in technology

    o   Cold war pumped new life into grown communities

    §  Centers for Manhattan Project

    ·         Created many jobs in the construction of cold war nuclear arsenal

    o   More jobs than for the construction of the WWII atomic bombs

    ·         Hanford, Washington

    ·         Los Alamos, New Mexico

    o   Grew into fast pace city in 30 years

    o   Had one of the highest population densities in the state

    o   Still secretive and restrictive

    o   Government still in charge of architecture

    §  Espanola Valley, New Mexico

    ·         Population 90% Hispanic and Native American

    ·         Growing economy

    ·         Center of Waste Isolation Pilot Project

    o   Dump site of laboratory’s waste

    §  Alamogordo, New Mexico

    ·         200% increase in population during first decade of cold war

    ·         Located next to White Sands Missile Range and Holloman Air Force Base

    o   New communities resulted from growth of US military bases and training camps

    §  Hospitals and supply depots

    ·         Some lasted and expanded until virtual warfare end of cold war

    §  Twenty western bases reopened from 1950 to 1953

    §  California and Texas become home to many military personnel

    §  Land availability made the west more attractive

    ·         Especially to military planners

    o   White Sands Missile Range in New Mexican Desert

    o   Developments welcomed by politicians, real estate agents, and merchants

    §  Sources of revenue and employment

    o   Costs for unplanned growth

    §  Government money for highways to accommodate for new population

    ·         Did nothing for public transportation

    §  Traffic congestion, air pollution, and limited water and energy resources

    §  Environmental degradation in communities near nuclear weapons testing grounds

    ·         Also increased cancer rates later on

    ·         Zeal for Democracy

    o   Revitalized patriotism from WWII

    §  Pledging allegiance to flag became more meaningful

    §  Children taught to avoid saluting

    ·         Thought to be similar to Nazi hand-raising

    ·         Right hand over heart instead

    §  Flag Day became more important

    o   Americans chastised for “national apathy” by organizations

    §  Freedoms Foundation of Valley Forge

    ·         Wanted to defend “the American way”

    §  American Heritage Foundation

    ·         Founded in 1947

    §  American Legion

    §  Chamber of Commerce

    §  Other local businesses and veterans groups

    o   “Democracy Beats Communism” Week

    §  Supported by Junior Chamber of Commerce of Kansas City in 1948 election year

    §  Speakers explained American democratic virtues over Soviet slavery

    ·         Superiority of free enterprise over state-controlled economy

    ·         1 in 5 Americans have a phone while 1 in 188 Russians had a phone

    §  “Torch of Freedom” parade

    ·         Carried message to all parts of Kansas City

    o   American Legion of Mosinee, Wisconsin

    §  Used political theatre to demonstrate American virtues

    §  Orchestrated imaginary Communist coup

    §  May Day 1950

    ·         Traditional Communist holiday

    ·         “Communist agents” forced mayor out of his home

    o   Announced Council of People’s Commissars had taken over local government

    ·         Similar things happened to chief of police

    ·         Restaurants served Soviet fare

    o   Black bread, potato soup, and coffee

    ·         Mosinee Times printed special edition on pink paper with masthead “Red Star”

    ·         All property taken over by states and all rights were annulled

    ·         All adults had to work four extra hours without compensation

    ·         Residents rallied in “Red Square” and declared an end to Communist rule

    ·         Covered in the media as “Day Under Communism”

    o   “Freedom Train”

    §  Planned by Attorney General Tom Clark

    §  American Heritage Foundation

    §  Funded by private donors

    §  Supported by President Truman

    §  Carried copies of the Bill of Rights and the Constitution to various cities

    §  About 8,500 people went to see patriotic displays each day

    §  Songwriter Irving Berlin said “you’ll find a precious freight”

    o   Patriotic messages in public education

    §  Truman told teachers to “strengthen national security through education”

    ·         Lesson plans designed to show the superiority of America

    §  “Zeal for Democracy”

    ·         Launched in 1947 by the federal Office of Education

    ·         Implemented by school boards across the nation

    ·         Propaganda

    o   Promote and strengthen democratic thinking

    §  Children taught to duck and cover in case of surprise nuclear attack from the Soviets

    o   Protest of cold war programs

    §  Langston Hughes

    ·         Hoped Freedom Train would not carry a Jim Crow car

    §  Scholars claimed infringement of academic freedom

    §  Many were reluctant to express contrary ideas

    Stalemate for the Democrats

    ·         United States and Soviet Union did not think they would come close to a war

    o   Communists in China seized power in 1949

    §  “loss of China”

    o   Communists threatened to take Korea in June 1950

    §  Americans sanctioned police action in Korea

    ·         1.8 million Americans sent to war with no victory in sight

    §  Stalemate in Korea

    o   Proved political suicide to Truman

    ·         The “Loss” of China

    o   US secured Japan as stabilizing force in Asia after WWII

    o   General Douglas MacArthur

    §  Created interim government and reconstruction program

    ·         Included

    o   Creation of independent trade unions

    o   Abolition of contract marriages

    o   Granting of woman suffrage

    o   Sweeping demilitarization

    o   Constitutional democracy that barred Communists from all posts

    §  Americans tried to recreate nation’s economy with capital ideas

    ·         Integrate Japan into an anti-Soviet bloc

    o   Japan housed military bases to hold US troops and weapons close to Soviet Union

    o   Difficult situation in China

    §  Pro-Western Nationalist government of Jiang Jieshi collapsed after civil war

    ·         US sent aid to unpopular government since end of WWII

    ·         Warned Jiang that government would fall without reforms

    ·         Wanted Jiang to accept a coalition government

    §  Jiang’s troops forced to surrender to C0mmunists

    ·         Led by Mao Zedong

    o   Had support of Chinese countryside

    §  85% of population

    ·         Surrendered entire China mainland

    §  Withdrew to Formosa (Taiwan)

    §  Established People’s Republic of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949

    o   Fall of China created uproar in United States

    §  Asia First wing of Republican Party

    ·         Envisioned Far East as prime site for US trade and investment

    ·         Blamed Truman administration for “loss” of China

    §  Worse for Truman

    ·         USSR and PRC formed alliance in February 1950

    ·         Called Democrats “party of treason”

    The Korean War

    ·         Allies divided the small peninsula of Korea at the 38th parallel

    ·         They hoped to reunite the Korean Government under its own government

    o   The line between the north and the south hardened

    §  Syngman Rhee(The Republic of Korea)

    §  Soviet Union sponsored North Korea Kim II Sung

    ·         June 25, 1950 North Korea attacks South Korea

    o   Truman asks the UN council to send troops to South Korea

    o   The UN council agrees but only because the soviet delegate was not present

    o   Truman send troops to North Korea under General Douglas Macarthur

    ·         Seoul the capital city of South Korea falls to the communist North Korea

    o   Truman reacts and tells the authorizes General Macarthur for an amphibious invasion

    o   On September 15,1960 The general lands on Inchon and halts the North Koreans

    o   October 1960 UN troops take back South Korea

    ·         Truman wanted more than to get back South Korea

    o   Wanted to show that the democrats were not soft on communism

    o   Wanted to push the communists behind the 38th parallel and reunite the nation

    o   Macarthur told Truman he would win with ease at a conference on Wake Island.

    ·         China warned the Americans that any attempt to cross the 38th parallel would be considered a threat to national security

    o   MacArthur attacked but was surprised

    o   The Chinese attacked in human waves and crushed MacArthur’s  force

    o   The Chinese also blockaded the Chinese coast

    §  These actions would eventually lead to the Chinese-American war

    ·         April 10,1951

    ·         Truman dismissed MacArthur  for insubordination and other unauthorized activates

    I.                    The Price of National Security

    ·         Korean War had profound implications for the use of executive power

    o   Truman by passed congressional authority by instituting a peacetime draft in 1948 and ordering American troops into Korea

    o   Taft called the Truman’s actions “a complete usurpation” of democratic checks and balances

    §  Taft charged Truman with transforming his office into an “imperial presidency.”

    §  Truman avoided the criticisms and their constitutional implications by referring to the military deployment as unsanctioned “police action”

    ·         NSC-68

    o   President derived his authority

    o   Paper released to Truman by the National Security Council Act in April  1950

    o   reinterpreted both the basic policy of containment and decision making at the highest levels of government

    o   pledged the US to contain communism and take a further step back to drive communist influence wherever it appeared

    §  “foster the seeds of destruction within the Soviet Union”

    o   Specified that American citizens must be willing to make sacrifices

    o   Articulated the intellectual and psychological rationale behind US national security policies for the next forty years

    ·         Truman fulfilled the prescriptions of NSC-68 after the outbreak of the Korean War

    o   Agreed to its mandate for rapid and permanent military build uo

    o   Defense budget quadrupled in 1953

    §  $13.5 billion to more than $52 billion

    o   US army grown six times its size at the beginning of the conflict

    §  Went up to $13.5 billion in 1953

    o   Federal government accelerated the development conventional and nonconventional weapons in 1953

    §  H-bomb was tested in November 1952

    ·         President Truman had taken steps to transform the OWI into a peacetime program that operated a smaller budget

    o   By 1948, Congress doubled the budget for such programming,

    §  granted $3 million to revive the Voice of America

    §  Voice of America- short-wave internatiofnal radio program

    o   Funded the development of film, print media, cultural exchange programs

    o   Created a foundation to promote anti-Communist propaganda throughout the world

    o   By mid-1950, the immediate goal was the “reorientation” of North Korea toward the Free World

    ·         Government’s vast “information programs” were designed to literate countries already taken under communist rule by causing disaffection among the people

    o   Campaign of Truth 1951

    o   Reached 53 nations

    o   Voice of America broadcasted anti-communist programming in 45 languages

    ·         Project Troy

    o   Initially designed by professors from Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

    o   Aimed to penetrate the Iron Curtain

    §  Used air balloons to distribute leaflets and cheap American goods, such as playing cards and plastic chess sets

    o   Army pilots joined the effort dropping leaflets  on North Korean troops

    o   On April 4, 1951, President Truman signed the order that created Psychological strategy Board to coordinate various operations aimed to rollback Soviet power

    §  Requested $155 million to fund these programs but he managed to only get $85 million

    o   Korean War cost the US approximately$100 billion

    §  inaugurated an era of huge deficits in the federal budget

    §  massive national debt but did nothing to improve the case for rolling back communism

    o   settlement was reached in which North Korea and South Korea occupied almost the same territory as when the war began

    o   approximately 54 thousand Americans died in Korea

    §  north Koreans and Chinese lost well over 2 million people

    o   UN troops had employed carpet booming and napalm

    §  Destroyed most of their housing and food supplies in both Korea’s

    §  Majority of people killed were women and children

    §  Nearly 1 million Koreans were left homeless

    o   Korean War did much to establish ominous trade by contrasting the Communist North with the “democratic” south

    §  Casted the conflict in the ideological terms of the cold war

    o   MacArthur’s early victories had promised the liberation of North Korea and even the eventual disintegration of the Soviet and Chinese regimes

    ·         Americans recognized that Truman had pledged the US to defend a corrupt government and a brutal dictator

    o   Korean War inspired M*A*S*H

    §  Adapted for television from film from written by Hollywood screen writer Ring Lardner Jr.

    o   Ring Lardner Jr.

    §  “unfriendly witness” before HUAC

    §  Jailed during Korean War for contempt of congress

    ·         The Korean War was only one burning issue during the election campaign of 152

    o   Truman’s  popularity had wavered continually since he took office in 1945

    §  Sunk to an all time low in the early 1950’s after he dismissed MacArthur as commander of the UN troops in Korea

    §  Congress received many letters and telegrams calling for Truman’s impeachment

    ·         Dissatisfaction with Truman increased

    o   The Asia First lobby argued that if the president had acted more aggressively to turn back communism in China, the “limited war” in Korea would not have been necessary

    o   Accusations in large scale corruption

    o   Newspaper reported that several agencies had been dealing in 5 percent kickbacks for government contracts

    o   1952- Guallup poll showed the president’s approval for rating 23 percent

    ·         Truman turned to the governor of Illinois, Adlai E. Stevenson Jr.

    o   Admired his honestly and intelligence

    o   Offered no solutions to the conflict in Korea

    ·         Republicans made the most of the Democrat’s dilemma

    o   K1C2

    §  Korea, Communism, and Corruption

    §  Took steady aim at the Truman Administration

    ·         Richard Nixon

    o   Eisenhower’s vice president

    o   Waged a relentless and defamatory attack on Stevenson

    o   Called him an Adlai the Appeaser”

    ·         Republic Campaign

    o   Nixon had been caught accepting personal gifts from wealthy benefactors

    §  Pleading his case on television, admitting he accepted one gift, a puppy.

    §  “the Poor Richard Show”, defused the scandal without answering the most important charges

    ·         Eisenhower continued to enchant the voters to a peace candidate

    o   Ten days before the election he announced “I shall go to Korea” to settle the war.

    o   Received 55 percent of the vote and carried thirty nine states

    o   Won the popular vote in much of the south and in the northern cities of New York, Boston, and Cleveland

    o   Republicans regained narrow control of congress

    o   The New Deal coalition of ethnic and black voters, labor, northern liberals, and southern conservatives no longer commanded a majority 

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - America at Midcentury

     

     

    ·         Popular Music in Memphis

    o   Elvis Presley

    §  19 years old

    §  Overton Park – Memphis’s outdoor amphitheater

    §  July 1954

    §  Headliner country star Slim Whitman

    §  Elvis’s first record

    ·         Sun Records

    §  First big show

    §  Crowd went wild for “That’s All Right”

    o   Start of rock ‘n’ roll

    §  Elvis combined blues, country music, and riveting performance style

    §  Made for teenagers

    ·         Brought teens together around jukeboxes, in cars, at sock hops, and at private parties

    §  Enormous consumer power of emerging youth culture

    §  Post war teenagers

    ·         Most affluent generation of young people in American history

    ·         Ability and eagerness to purchase

    o   Records

    o   Phonograph players

    o   Transistor radios

    o   Clothing

    o   Makeup

    o   Cars

    ·         Helped define affluent society of post war era

    o   Memphis

    §  Halfway between St. Louis and New Orleans

    §  Grew in World War II

    ·         Lumber mills, furniture factories, chemical manufacturing supplementing the cotton market

    §  Diversity of popular theater and music

    ·         Opera house, brass bands, vaudeville and burlesque, minstrel shows, jug bands, and blues clubs

    §  Legally segregated between blacks and whites

    §  Class differences among whites

    ·         Elvis moved from Mississippi to Memphis in 1949 like many other poor rural whites

    o   Presleys poor enough to qualify for public housing

    ·         All-white middle-class like James Conaway considered people like the Presleys “white trash”

    o   Not above or below negroes; from a different universe

    o   Gloria Wade-Gales

    §  Lived in all-black Foote Homes housing project in Memphis

    §  Acknowledged lack of power but believed in strength

    §  “Surviving meant being black, and being black meant believing in our humanity.”

    o   Challenge to class and racial barriers

    §  Elvis

    ·         Dreamy shy boy who turned to music for release

    ·         Wide range of music styles from Memphis

    ·         Influence from choir at Assembly of God Church

    ·         Beatle Street

    o   Main black thoroughfare of Memphis

    o   One of nation’s most influential centers of African American music

    o   Attracted both black and white fans

    ·         Performed with black contestants in amateur shows

    ·         Distinct style of music

    ·         Said that “colored folks been singing and playing it just like I’m doing now, man, for more years than I know.”

    §  White teenagers

    ·         Dissatisfied with cloying pop music

    ·         Turned to rhythmic drive and emotional intensity of black rhythm and blues

    ·         Adopted rock ‘n’ roll

    o   Was an attitude, a celebration of being young, and a sense of having something that adult authority could not understand or control

    o   Expression of revolt against conformity

    o   Elvis as international star

    §  Signed onto RCA Records in 1956

    §  Topped charts and blurred musical boundaries

    §  Television appearances made him more popular

    ·         Uproar of sexual performance style

    §  Established rock ‘n’ roll as interracial phenomenon

    §  Rock ‘n’ roll heralded shift in American society

    ·         American Society at Midcentury

    o   Economist John Kenneth Galbraith

    §  The Affluent Society (1958) – most famous work

    ·         Gave label to postwar America

    §  American capitalism had been successful

    §  Thought Americans needed to spend less on themselves and more on public funds

    §  Most Americans considered strong economic growth fact of postwar period

    o   The Eisenhower Presidency

    §  Dwight D. Eisenhower landslide victory in 1952

    ·         First full two-term presidency since Grant

    ·         Conservative vision of community

    o   America is corporate commonwealth

    §  Like Hoover’s “associative state”

    o   Believed industrial strife, high inflation, and fierce partisan politics could be fixed through cooperation, self-restraint, and disinterested public service

    o   Limits to New Deal

    o   Encouraged voluntary relationship between business and government

    §  Often chose to remain in the “middle of the road”

    ·         Easily satirized by liberals and intellectuals for baldness, verbal gaffes, vagueness, and contradictory pronouncements

    ·         Majority of American population agreed with Eisenhower

    ·         Kept conservative and liberal wings united

    ·         Appealed to many Democratic and independent voters

    §  Wanted to run government like a business while letting states and corporate interests guide domestic policy and economy

    ·         Appointed 9 businessmen to first cabinet

    o   Three from GM

    o   Charles Wilson

    §  Former GM chief

    §  Secretary of Defense

    §  Famous aphorism

    ·         “What was good for our country was good for General Motors, and vice versa.”

    ·         Appointed men congenial to corporate interests to Federal Trade Commission, Federal Communications Commission, and Federal Power Commission

    ·         Secured passage of Submerged Lands Act in 1953

    o   Transferred $40 billion worth of offshore oil lands from government to Gulf states

    o   Greater role in states and private companies

    o   Cost Treasury billions

    §  Greater federal responsibility from New Deal

    ·         Rejected Republican calls to dismantle Social Security

    ·         Moderate expansion of Social Security and unemployment insurance and small increases in minimum wage

    ·         Created Department of Health, Education, and Welfare

    o   Appointed Oveta Culp Hobby as secretary

    §  Second woman to hold cabinet post

    ·         Continued agricultural parity payments designed to sustain farm prices

    o   Federal agriculture spending went from $1 billion to $7 billion from 1952-1960

    §  Hesitant to use fiscal policy to pump up economy

    ·         Economy was in recession after Korean War in 1953 and 1958

    o   Unemployment reached 7.5%

    ·         Refused to cut taxes or increase spending to stimulate economy

    o   Feared starting inflationary spiral

    ·         Real wages for average family rose 20% during Eisenhower’s presidency

    ·         Low inflation and steady growth

    o   Greater prosperity to most Americans

    ·         Created “an atmosphere of greater serenity and mutual confidence”

    o   Subsidizing Prosperity

    §  Federal government played crucial role in subsidizing programs that helped American families reach middle-class status

    §  Federal aid

    ·         Buy homes

    ·         Attend college and technical schools

    ·         Live in new suburbs

    ·         Began in New Deal and World War II

    ·         Federal Housing Administration (FHA)

    o   Established in 1934

    o   Extended government’s role in subsidizing housing industry

    o   Insured long time mortgage loans by private lenders for home building

    o   Attracted private capital and revolutionized the industry

    o   FHA mortgage loan required less than 10%for down payment and spread low-interest monthly payments over thirty years

    ·         Long-range drawbacks of FHA

    o   Insurance went overwhelmingly to new residential developments

    §  Hastened decline of older, inner-city neighborhoods

    §  Bias towards suburban, middle-class communities

    §  FHA policy to favor construction of single-family housing

    ·         Discouraged multi-unit housing

    §  Refused loans for reconstruction of older structures and rental units

    §  Required “unbiased professional estimate” before loan guarantee

    o   Discriminated against racially mixed communities

    §  Inscribed racial and income segregation in suburbia

    ·         Suburbs built as planned communities

    o   Levittown

    §  Opened in Hempstead, Long Island in 1947

    §  1,500 acres of former potato fields

    §  Developed by William Levitt

    ·         Called it the “General Motors of the housing industry”

    ·         First entrepreneur to bring mass production techniques to housing

    §  Materials were precut and prefabricated and put together by unskilled, nonunion workers

    §  More than 17,000 houses and 82,000 people

    §  No residents were African American

    ·         Owners were only allowed to rent out houses to people of the Caucasian race

    ·         1944 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act

    o   Known as the G.I. Bill of Rights

    o   Provided veterans with low-interest mortgages and business loans

    §  Subsidized growth of suburbs

    o   Nearly 10 million veterans received tuition and training benefits in 1956

    o   Loans from Veteran’s Administration totaled more than $50 billion by 1962

    ·         Federal Highway Act of 1956

    o   Authorized $32 billion for construction of a national interstate highway system

    §  Money came from new taxes on gasoline, oil, tires, buses, and trucks

    §  Revenue held separately in a Highway Trust Fund

    o   Single largest public works program by 1972

    §  41,000 miles of highway

    §  $76 billion

    o   Stimulated automobile industry and suburb building

    o   Accelerated decline of American mass transit and older cities

    o   1970

    §  One of world’s nets roads

    §  One of worst public transportation system

    ·         New initiatives for aid of education

    o   After Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, America thought they weren’t training enough scientists and engineers

    o   Eisenhower administration wanted to strengthen education in science, technology and mathematics

    ·         National Defense Education Act (NDEA)

    o   Allocated $280 million in grants in 1958

    §  Matching grants from states

    o   State universities upgraded science facilities

    o   $300 million in low-interest student loans

    §  Only had to repay half if they taught elementary school or high school afterwards

    §  Fellowship support for students who wanted to teach at colleges and universities

    o   New importance on high quality education

    ·         Suburban Life

    o   Suburban boom strengthened the domestic ideal of the nuclear family as the model for American life

    o   The picture of the perfect suburban wife became a dominate  image in television, movies and magazines

    §  Efficient

    §  Patient

    §  Charming

    o   Suburban domesticity was usually presented as women’s only path to happiness and fulfillment

    §  Cultural image often masked existence defined by housework, child care, and boredom

    o   Betty Friedan

    §  Wife, mother, and journalist

    §  Began a systematic survey of her Smith College classmates

    §  Found a “ strange discrepancy between the reality of our lives as women and the image to which we were trying to conform”

    §  Expanded her research and in 1963 published The Feminine Mystique

    -          Landmark book that articulated the frustrations of suburban women and helped to launch a feminist movement

    o   For millions of suburban families the middle class life could be achieved only with 2 incomes

    o   Expansion of the female labor force was a central economic fact of post war world II

    §  Grew from 17 million in 1946 to 22 million in 1958

    §  40 percent of women were employed full-time or part-time

    §  30 percent of all married women worked outside of the home

    o   Married women looked to supplement income and ensure a middle-class standard of living for their  families

    §  The opportunity to move to a more fashionable neighborhood, to purchase a new car, or take a family vacation often depended upon a wife’s second income

    o   The postwar rebirth of religious life was strongly associated with suburban living

    §  In 1940, less than half of the American population belonged to institutionalized churches

    §  By the mid-1950’s nearly three quarters of identified themselves as church members

    o   A church building boom was centered in the expanding suburbs

    o   Norman Vincent Peale and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen

    §  Best selling religious authors

    §  Offered reassurance and the “power of positive thinking”

    §  Stressed individual solutions to problems, opposing social or political activism

    §  Their emphasis on the importance of belonging , of fitting in, meshed well with suburban social life and the ideal of family-centered domesticity

    o   California came to embody postwar suburban life

    o   Center of the lifestyle was the automobile

    §  Cars were a necessity for commuting to work

    §  California also led the nation in the development of drive-in facilities: motels, movies, shopping malls, fast-food restaurants, and banks

    §  More than 50, 000 miles of highways would be constructed around Los Angeles alone

    o   Orange County

    §  Southeast of Los Angeles

    §  The “centeress city”

    §  Emerged as the dominant form of the community

    o   Contemporary journalists, novelists, and social scientists contributed to the popular image of suburban life as dull, conformist, and people exclusively by the educated middle class

    o   John Cheever

    §  Won the National Book Award for the Wapshot Chronicle

    o   Writers tended to obscure the real class and ethnic differences found among and between suburban communities

    o   Many new suburbs had a blue-collar cast

    ·         Organized labor and the AFL-CIO

    o   By the mid-1950s American trade unions reached a high point in their penetration of the labor market

    §  Reflected the gains made during the organizing drives in core mass-production industries during the New Deal and World War II

    o   Union influence in political life increased

    §  The republican swept to power in 1952, meaning was without an ally in the White House

    o   American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) pushed for a merger of the two groups as the way to protect and build on the movement’s recent gains.

    o   George Meany

    §  Head of the AFL

    §  Epitome of the modern labor boss

    §  Originally a plumber

    §  Worked his way through the AFL bureaucracy and had played a leading role on the National War Labor Board during World War II

    §  Pushed the AFL closer to the Democratic Party

    §  Believed unions must focus on improving the economic well-being of their members

    o   Walter Reuther

    §  Meany’s counterpart in the CIO

    §  Originally a tool-and-die maker in the auto shops of Detroit

    §  Come to prominence as a leader of the United Automobile Workers during organizing drives of the 1930’s and 40’s

    §  Believed that American unions ought to stand for something beyond the bread-and-butter needs of their members

    §  Supported broader social vision including racial equality, aggressive union organizing, and expansion of the welfare state

    o   Meany and Reuther believed a merger of their organizations offered the best strategy for the labor movement

    o   In 1955, the newly combined AFL-CLO brought some 12.5 million union members under one banner

    §  Meany was president and Reuther was the director of the Industrial Union Department

     

    o   Merger marked the apex of trade union membership

    §  Share of labor market began a slow and steady decline

    §  Union membership helped bring the trappings of middle-class prosperity to millions of workers and their families

    -          Home ownership, higher education for children, travel, and comfortable retirement

    o   AFL-CIO showed little commitment in bringing unorganized workers into the fold

    §  Scandals involving union corruption and racketeering hurt the labor movement’s public image

    o   In 1957, the AFL-CIO expelled the International Brotherhood of Teamsters because of its close ties with the organized crime

    o   Congress passed the Landrum-Act in 1959 after highly publicized hearings into corruption

    §  Widened government control over union affairs

    §  further restricted union use of secondary boycotts during strikes

    o   during the 1950’s and 60’s union membership increased dramatically

    §  only 400,000 government works belonged to unions in 1955

    §  by early 1970’s, the figure reached 4 million

     

    ·         Lonely crowds and organization men

    o   David Riesman’s “The Lonely Crowd” (1950)

    §  Most ambitious and controversial critique of postwar suburban America

    o   Riesman argued that modern America had created the “other-directed” man

    §  Peer-oriented

    §  Previously, America had cultivated “inner-directed” people

    -          Self-reliant individualists who early on in life had internalized self-discipline and moral standards

    §  Riesman thought Americans were less likely to take risks and act independently

    o   William H. Whyte’s “Organization Man” (1956)

    §  Study of the Chicago suburb of Park Forest

    §  Offered a picture of people obsessed with fitting into communities and jobs

    o   Whyte believed middle-class suburbanites strove mainly for a comfortable, secure niche in the system

    §  They held to a new social ethic

    o   C.Wright Mills

    §   “White Collar” (1951)

    -          Analyzed the job culture that typified life for middle-class salaried employees, office workers, and bureaucrats

    §  “The Power Elite” (1956)

    -          Argued that a small, interconnected group of corporate executives, military men, and political leaders had come to dominate American society

    ·         Expansion of higher education

    o   American higher education experienced rapid growth after the war

    §  The number of students enrolled colleges and universities went from 2.6 million in 1950 to 3.2 million in 1960

    §  Doubled to 7.2 million in 1970, as the baby boom generation came

    o   Reasons to the rapid increase…

    §  GI Bill

    §  National Defense Education Act

    §  Government spending on research and development in universities

    o   20 percent of all college graduates majored in business or other commercial fields by the mid 1950’s

    §  The degree was a gateway to the middle-class

    §  Became a requirement for a whole range of expanding white-collar jobs in banking, insurance, real estate, marketing, ect.

    ·         Health and Medicine

    o   New antibiotics such as penicillin were manufactured and distributed on a mass basis

    §  After the war, they became widely available to the general population

    §  Federal support for research continued after the war with the reorganization of the national Institutes of Health in 1948

    o   By 1960, many dreaded epidemic diseases had virtually disappeared from American life

    §  Tuberculosis

    §  Diphtheria

    §  Whooping cough

    §  Measles

    §  Poliomyelitis

    o   Most celebrated achievement of postwar medicine was the victory over poliomyelitis

    §  Between 1947-1951 killed an  annual average of 39,000 Americans

    §  Crippled those who didn’t die

    §  In 1952, 58,000 cases were reported

    -          Most from crowded swimming pools or other gathering places

    o   In 1955, Jonas Salk pioneered the first effective vaccine against poliomyelitis

    §  Used a preparation of killed virus

    §  A national wide program of polio vaccination virtually eliminated polio by the 1960’s

    o   Benefits of “wonder drugs” and advanced medical techniques were not shared equally by all Americans

    §  More sophisticated treatments and expensive new hospital facilities increases the costs of health care

    §  The very poor and many elderly Americans found themselves unable to afford modern medicine

    §  Thousands of communities lacked doctors or decent hospital facilities

    §  Critics of the medical establishment charged that medical specialists and large hospital complexes has increased the number of unnecessary surgical operations

    §  The decline of the general practitioner

    -          meant fewer physicians made house calls

    -          more and more people went to hospital emergency rooms or outpatient clinics for treatment

    o   The American Medical Association(AMA)

    §  Certified medical schools

    §  Did nothing to increase the flow of doctors

    §  Lobbied hard against efforts to expand government responsibility for public health

    o   Number of physicians per 100,000 people declined between 1950-1960

    §  Shortage was made up by doctors trained in other countries

    o   Eisenhower and Truman’s Plans

    §  Truman had advanced a plan for national health insurance, to be run along the lines of Social Security

    §  Eisenhower proposed  a program that would offer government assistance to private health insurance companies

    §  AMA denounced both proposals as “socialized medicine

    -          Helped block direct federal involvement in health care until the creation of Medicare (for the elderly) and Medicaid (for the poor) in 1965

    ·         Health and Medicine

    o   Improvements in medical care allowed many Americans to enjoy longer, healthier lives

    §  Penicillin was manufactured on a mass basis

    ·         After the war, became widely available to the general population

    §  Federal support for research continued after the war with the reorganization of the National Institutes of Health in 1948

    o   By 1960, many deadly diseases virtually disappeared from American life

    §  Tuberculosis

    §  Diphtheria

    §  Whooping cough

    §  Measles

    o   Poliomyelitis

    §  1947-1951: crippled those it did not kill

    §  Struck an annual average of 39,000 Americans

    §  1952: 58,000 cases reported

    §  1955: Jonas Salk pioneered the 1st effective vaccine against it

    ·         Virtually eliminated polio by the 1960s

    o   More sophisticated treatments increased the costs of health care

    §  Poor and elderly found themselves unable to afford modern medicine

    §  Rural areas and small towns lacked doctors of decent hospital facilities

    o   Critics stated…

    §  The medical establishment increased the number of unnecessary surgical operations

    ·         Especially for women and children

    §  Fewer physicians made house calls

    §  More and more people went to hospital emergency rooms or outpatient clinics for treatment

    o   American Medical Association (AMA)

    §  Certified medical schools

    §  Did nothing to increase the flow of new doctors

    ·         Number of physicians per 100,000 people decreased between 1950-1952

    ·         Shortage was made up by doctors from other countries

    §  Lobbied hard against efforts to expand government responsibility for public health

    o   Harry Truman had advanced a plan for national health insurance

    o   Dwight Eisenhower proposed a program to offer government assistance to private health insurance companies

    §  AMA denounced both programs as “socialized medicine”

    ·         Helped block direct federal involvement in health care until the creation of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965

    ·         Youth Culture

    o   The term “teenager” entered standard usage at the end of WWII

    §  “a separate entity whose influence, fads, and fashions are worthy of discussion apart from the adult world”

    o   Teenagers often found themselves caught between :

    §  Their desire to carve out their own sphere

    §  The pressure to become an adult as quickly as possible

    ·         The youth market

    o   Birthrates accelerated during the late 1930s & more rapidly during the war years

    §  These babies were now teenagers

    ·         Older siblings of the “baby boomers”

    o   Demographic growth of teens and postwar economic expansion created a large youth market

    §  Advertisers focused on the special needs and desires of young consumers

    ·         Cosmetics

    ·         Clothing

    ·         Radios

    ·         Phonographs

    ·         Cars

    o   1959, Life summarized the new power of the youth market

    §  “Counting only what is spent to satisfy their special teenage demands, the youngsters and their parents will shell out about $10 billion this year, a billion more than the total sales of GM.”

    o   Advertisers found that teenagers often played a critical role as “secret persuaders” in family purchase decisions

    o   Special market research organizations sprang up

    §  Eugene Gilbert & company and Teen-Age Survey Incorporated

    ·         Served business clients who were eager to attract teen consumers and instill brand loyalty

    o   1950s and 1960s:

    §  Teenagers had a major voice in determining America’s cultural fads

    o   Many parents thought that the overwhelming youth culture was dangerous to their authority

    o   Increasing uniformity of public school education contributed to public recognition of the status of teenagers

    §  1900: 1/8 of teens were in school

    §  1950s: 6/8 teens were in school

    o   Social scientists stressed the importance of peer pressure to understand teen behavior

    ·         “Hail! Hail! Rock n’ Roll!”

    o   Demands of the new teen market reshaped the nation’s popular music

    o   Television broadcasting was replacing radio as the center of family entertainment

    §  People began using radios in new ways

    §  Production of portable transistor radios & car radios grew rapidly in the 1950s

    ·         Listeners tuned them in for diversion from or an accompaniment to other activities

    §  1950: 2,700 AM stations on air

    ·         70% given to record shows

    o   Concentrated on popular music

    §  Pop ballads, novelty songs, show tunes

    o   Recording industry:

    §  Small independent record labels started recording African American rhythm and blues artists

    §  Atlantic Records

    ·         Most influential galaxy of artists

    o   Ray Charles

    o   Ruth Brown

    o   Joe Turner

    §  Chess

    ·         Blues-based artists

    o   Chuck Berry

    o   Bo Diddley

    §  In New Orleans

    ·         Imperial

    o   Fats Domino

    ·         Specialty

    o   Little Richard

    §  African Americans “crossed over” by adding millions of white teens to their fan base

    §  Older companies (RCA, Decca, MGM, Capitol) ignored black music

    ·         They wanted to offer “cover” versions by white pop singers

    o   Pallid imitations, artistically inferior to the originals

    §  Racism was still a powerful force in American life

    ·         Limited how closely white kids could identify with black performers

    ·         Because of power of major companies, white covers usually outsold black originals

    ·         Some disc jockeys refused to play covers

    o   Attracted enthusiastic audiences (both black and white)

    ·         Alan Freed (disc jockey)

    o   Popularized the term “rock n’ roll”

    §  Describing black rhythm and blues that he played on the air

    §  Stage was then set for white rock n’ roll artists

    ·         Elvis Presley

    o   Reinvented American Pop music

    o   Challenged the old lines separating black music from white

    o   Symbol of rebellious youth

    ·         Buddy Holly, Roy Orbison, Jerry Lee Lewis

    §  Chuck Berry

    ·         African American who was adept at capturing teen spirit with humor, irony, and passion

    o   Defined what it meant to be young in postwar America

    ·         Almost Grown

    o   Teens remade landscape of pop music into their own turf

    o   Dollar value of annual record sales tripled between 1954 and 1959

    §  From $213 million to $603 million

    o   New magazines that were aimed at teens flourished in postwar years

    §  Modern Teen

    §  Teen Digest

    §  Dig

    o   Most teens focused on the rituals, pleasures, and sorrows surrounding teens

    §  Behaviors patters among white teenagers exhibited a new kind of youth

    ·         At the same time, a more pronounced identification with adults

    o   Teens seemed to be determined to become adults as quickly as possible

    o   Postwar affluence multiplied the number of two-car families

    §  Easier for 16 year olds to get driving privileges

    ·         Formerly reserved for 18 year olds

    o   Girls began dating

    §  Wearing brassieres, nylon stockings, and using cosmetics at an earlier age than before

    §  Factors contributing to this trend:           

    ·         Continuing decline in age of first menstruation

    ·         Sharp drop in the age of marriage after WWII

    ·         Precocious social climate of junior highs

    §  Idea of “going steady” became common in high school

    o   Teenagers often felt torn between their identification with youth culture and the pressure to assume adult responsibilities

    §  Many young people had part time jobs, along with school & social life

    ·         Many teen-oriented magazines, music, and movies gave advice and sympathy

    ·         Deviance and Delinquency

    o   Many adults blamed rock n’ roll for the decline in parental control over teens

    §  Opposition to rock n’ roll played on long-standing racist fears that white females may be attracted to black music & performers

    o   Undercurrent for all of this opposition:

    §  Anxiety over the more open expression of sexual feeling by performers & audiences

    o   Increase in juvenile delinquency

    §  Many magazines, books, and newspaper stories asserted that criminal behavior among the nation’s young was chronic

    o   Most attention went to:

    §  Gang fights

    §  Drug and alcohol abuse

    §  Car theft

    §  Sexual offenses

    o   US Senate established a special subcommittee on juvenile delinquency

    §  Convinced much of the public that youthful criminals were terrorizing the country

    ·         Public perception of the problem was exaggerated

    o   Juvenile delinquency tells more about anxieties over family life & erosion of adult authority

    §  Teenagers seemed more loyal to peer culture than their parents

    §  Growing importance of mass media brought efforts to regulate forms believed to cause juvenile delinquency

    o   1954: Fredric Wertham

    §  Published Seduction of the Innocent

    ·         Argued that crime comic books incited teens to criminal acts

    ·         Mass culture could overwhelm the traditional influences of family, school, & religion

    ·         Eventually the comic book industry adopted a code to limit violence & crime

    o   Movies indicated that teens & their parents interpreted youthful deviance in different ways

    §  The Wild One

    ·         Adults thought the film was a critique of mindless gang violence

    ·         Teenagers identified with the main character

    §  Rebel Without a Cause

    ·         Suggested that parents can cause delinquency when they fail to conform to conventional roles

    ·         MISSING DANNYS PART

    ·         Covert Action

    o   Eisenhower combined the overt threat of massive retaliation in his “new look” approach to foreign affairs

    §  Heavy reliance on covert interventions

    §  Support of CIA

    o   Eisenhower was a supporter of covert operations during WWII

    §  During his presidency…

    ·         CIA sponsored covert paramilitary operations became a key facet of American foreign policy

    ·         American public wary of direct US military interventions

    o   CIA promise of cheap, quick, and quiet ways to depose hostile or unstable regimes, or prop up more conservative governments under siege by indigenous revolutionaries

    o   CIA director Allen Dulles

    §  Brother of secretary of state and former leader of CIA’s WWII precursor

    §  CIA’s mandate was to collect and analyze information

    ·         Did much more under Dulles’s command

    o   Thousands of covert agents stationed all over the world carried out a wide range of political activities

    o   Some agents arranged large, secret financial payments to friendly political parties

    §  Conservative Christian Democrats in Italy and in Latin America or foreign trade unions opposed to socialist parties

    o   Soviet Union tried to win influence

    §  Africa, Asia, and Latin America

    §  Attempted to appeal to a shared “anti-imperialism”

    §  Offered modest amounts of foreign aid

    §  Normally, Communists played only small roles in 3rd world independence movements

    §  Issue of race and popular desire to recover national resources from foreign investors inflamed already widespread anti-European and anti-American feelings

    §  When new nations or familiar allies threatened to interfere with US regional security arrangements or expropriate the property of American businesses…

    ·         The Eisenhower administration turned to covert action and military intervention

    ·         Intervening around the World

    o   CIA produced a swift, major victory in Iran in 1953

    §  Iran’s popular prime minister had nationalized Britain’s Anglo-Iranian Oil Company

    ·         State Department worried this would set a precedent in the oil-rich Middle East

    §  Kermit Roosevelt (CIA chief in Iran) organized and financed an opposition within the Iranian army and on Teheran streets

    ·         Led to CIA led movement that forced the prime minister out of office and replaced him with Riza Shah Pahlavi

    o   Proved his loyalty to American sponsors by renegotiating oil contracts

    §  Assured American companies 40% of Iran’s oil concessions

    o   Rivalry between Israel and its Arab neighbors

    §  Complicated US policy in the rest of the Middle East

    §  Arab countries launched an all-out attack on Israel in 1948

    ·         Immediately after the US and the Soviet Union recognized its independence

    ·         Israel repulsed the attack, drove thousands of Palestinians from their home, occupied territory, and seized lands

    ·         Arab states refused to recognize Israel’s right to exist and subjected it to a damaging economic boycott

    ·         Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians languished in refugee camps

    ·         Eisenhower believed that Truman had been too hasty in encouraging the Israelites

    o   But most Americans supported Israel as a refuge for a people who had suffered persecution (especially during the Holocaust)

    §  Israel was a reliable US ally in an unstable region

    ·         Arab nationalism continued to vex American policymakers

    o   Culminated in the Suez crisis of 1956

    §  Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser looked for American and British economic aid

    ·         Dreamed of building the Aswar High Dam on the Nile to create more arable land and provide cheap electricity

    o   When negotiations broke, Nasser announced he would nationalize the strategically sensitive Suez Canal

    §  Turned to Soviet Union for aid

    o   Eisenhower refused European appeals for the US to help seize the canal and returned it to the British

    o   When British, French, and Israeli forces attacked Egypt in October 1956….

    §  The US sponsored a UN resolution for calling for cease-fire and withdrawal of foreign forces

    o   British and French forces withdrew and eventually so did the Israelis

    o   Eisenhower won a major diplomatic battle through patience and pressure, but did not succeed in bring lasting peace

    o   CIA intervention in Guatemala

    §  Fragile democracy had taken root in 1944

    §  President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman aggressively pursued land reform and encouraged the formation of trade unions

    §  2% of Guatemalan population owned 72% of the farmland

    §  Arbenz challenged the long standing dominance fo the American based United Fruit Company

    ·         Threatened to expropriate hundreds of thousands of acres that United Fruit was not cultivating

    ·         Company had powerful friends in the administration and began intensive lobbying for US intervention

    ·         United Fruit linked the land reform program to the evils of communism

    o   Spent $7 million training antigovernment dissidents based in Honduras

    §  The American navy stopped ships bound for Guatemala and seized their cargoes

    §  June 1954: US sponsored military invasion began

    ·         Citizens resisted by seizing United Fruit buildings

    ·         US Air Force’s bombing saved the invasion effort

    ·         Guatemalans appealed in vain to the UN for help

    o   Eisenhower denied any knowledge of CIA activities

    ·         Widespread terror followed

    o   Unions were outlawed and thousands were arrested

    §  United Fruit circulated photos of Guatemalans murdered by the invaders

    ·         Labeled them “victims of communism”

    §  Castillo Armas was assassinated and a decades long civil war ensued between military factions and peasant guerrillas

    §  American intervention in Guatemala increased suspicion of and resentment against American foreign policy throughout Central and Latin America

    ·         Nixon declared that the new Guatemalan government had earned “the overwhelming support of the Guatemalan people”

    o   CIA intervention in Vietnam

    §  From 1950 to 1954, the US poured in $2.6 billion into the fight against the nationalist Vietminh movement

    ·         Led by Communist Ho Chi Minh

    §  Vietminh forces surrounded 25,000 French troops at Dien Bien Phu in March 1954

    ·         French asked US to intervene

    §  Dulles and Nixon recommended the use of nuclear weapons and a commitment of ground troops

    §  Domino theory

    ·         Eisenhower feared that the loss of one country to Communist would lead to others

    §  Geneva accord

    ·         Established a cease-fire and a temporary division along the Vietnam 17thparallel into northern and southern sectors

    ·         The US refused to sign the accord

    §  SEATO

    ·         Eisenhower administration created the pact treaty

    ·         Ike’s Warning: Military Industrial Complex

    o   National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy

    §  Claimed 25,000 members

    o   Small but well-publicized actions against civil defense drills took place in big cities

    §  People marched streets instead of entering bomb shelters

    o   Eisenhower found it difficult to restrain the system he helped create

    §  In his Farewell Address, warned the nation about the dangers of what he termed the military industrial complex

    ·         JFK the New Frontier

    o   Election of 1960

    §  Election featured the first ever televised presidential debates

    §  Political analysts have long argued over the impact of encounters

    §  Both candidates emphasized foreign policy

    §  Close election

    ·         JFK did not fare well in the South

    ·         First Catholic president

    o   New Frontier Liberalism

    §  Advocated liberal programs

    ·         Minimum wage

    ·         Greater federal aid for education

    ·         Increased social security benefits

    ·         Medical care for the elderly

    ·         Support for public housing

    o   NASA

    §  Established under Eisenhower in response to the Soviet success with Sputnik

    §  Kennedy announced that the US’s goal was to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade

    o   Strengthened the executive branch

    §  White House staff assumed many of the decision making and advisory functions previously held by cabinet members

    ·         Increased congressional oversight and confirmation proceedings

    ·         White House aides lacked an independent constituency

    o   Their power and authority was derived directly to the president

    §  Kennedy strengthened a pattern whereby American presidents increasingly operated through small groups of fiercely loyal aides

    ·         Often acted in secret

    ·         Kennedy and The Cold War

    o   Kennedy’s approach to foreign policy shifted

    §  Aggressive containment à efforts at easing U.S.—Soviet tensions

    §  At first, Kennedy considered it his task to confront the Communist threat

    ·         State of the Union Address, January 1961, Kennedy told Congress that America must seize the initiative in the cold war

    §  State Department

    ·         Dean Rusk: conservative

    §  Secretary of Defense

    ·         Robert McNamara

    o   A Republican and Ford Motor Company executive determined to streamline military procedures and weapons buying

    §  CIA director

    ·         Allen Dulles

    o   Between 1960 and 1962

    §  Defense appropriations increased by  nearly a third

    ·         $43 billion to $56 billion

    §  Expansion of Eisenhower’s policy of covert operations, deploying the army’s elite Special Forces as a supplement to CIA covert operations in counterinsurgency battles against third world guerrillas

    §  President wanted greater flexibility, secrecy, and independence in the conduct of foreign policy

    o   Limits on the ability of covert action

    §  Became apparent in Southeast Asia

    §  Laos

    ·         The US had ignored the 1954 Geneva agreement and installed a friendly military regime, the CIA-backed government could not defeat Soviet-backed Pathet Lao guerillas

    ·         The president arranged with the Soviets to neutralize Laos

    §  Vietnam

    ·         Communist Vietcong guerrillas launched a civil war in South Vietnam against Saigon, Kennedy sent reinforcements to support the rule of Ngo Dinh Diem

    ·         Kennedy’s approach reflected an analysis of the situation in that country by two aides, General Maxwell Taylor and Walt Rostow

    o   “The Communists are pursuing a clear and systematic strategy in Southeast Asia

    ·         BY 1963, Diem’s army was un able to contain the Vietcong rebellion even with 16,000 support and combat troops in South Vietnam

    ·         Many South Vietnamese even hated Diem, including highly respected Buddhist monks and their students

    o   News reports showed footage of Buddhists burning themselves to death on the streets of Saigon – the ultimate protest against Diem’s repressive rule

    o   Also showed the mounting casualty lists of U.S. forces in Vietnam

    ·         Fall 1963

    o   President Diem was killed

    §  Latin America

    ·         Kennedy looked for ways to forestall various revolutionary movements that were gaining ground

    o   Millions of peasants were forced to relocate to already crowded cities

    ·         Alliance for Progress

    o   A ten-year, $100 billion plan to spur economic development in Latin America

    o   The US committed $20 billion to the project with the Latin nations responsible for the rest

    o   Main goals

    §  Greater industrial growth and agricultural productivity

    §  More equitable distribution of income

    §  Improved health and housing

    o   Intended to be similar to the Marshall Plan that would benefit the poor and middle classes of the continent

    §  Helped raise growth rates in Latin American economies

    §  Did little to aid the poor or encourage democracy

    §  Eventually degenerated into just another foreign aid program, incapable of generating genuine social change

    ·         The Cuban Revolution and The Bay of Pigs

    o   The direct impetus for the Alliance for Progress was the Cuban Revolution of 1959, which loomed over Latin America

    §  The U.S. economic domination of Cuba that began with the Spanish-America War had continued through the 1950s

    ·         All of the oil production

    ·         90% of its mines

    ·         Half of its railroads and sugar and cattle industries

    ·         Havana, the island’s capital, was an attractive tourist center for Americans

    §  Early 1950s

    ·         A peasant based revolutionary movement, led by Fidel Castro, begain gaining strength in the rural districts and mountains outside Havana

    §  New Year’s Day 1959

    ·         After years of guerilla war, the rebels entered Havana and seized power amid great public rejoicing

    ·         Castro seemed a hero to many North Americans as well

    ·         However, Castro’s land-reform program, involving the seizure of acreage from the tiny minority that controlled much of the fertile land,  threatened to set an example for other Latin American countries

    ·         Castro had not joined the Cuban Communist Party, but he turned to the Soviet Union after the US withdrew economic aid

    o   Began to sell sugar to the Soviets

    o   Nationalized American-owned oil companies and other enterprises

    o   Eisenhower established an economic boycott of Cuba in 1960, then severed diplomatic relations

    §  Plans to invade Cuba

    ·         The secret arming and training of Cuban exiles

    ·         Based on the assumption that a U.S.-led invasion would trigger a popular uprising of the Cuban people and bring down Castro

    ·         Kennedy went along with the plan, but did not supply an Air Force cover for the operation

    ·         April 17, 1961

    o   A ragtag army of 1,400 counterrevolutionaries led by CIA operatives landed at the Bay of Pigs

    §  Sit in Cuba of an unsuccessful landing by fourteen hundred anti-Castro Cuban refugees in April 1961

    o   Castro’s efficient and loyal army easily subdued them

    §  The debacle revealed that the CIA had fail to understand the Cuban Revolution

    ·         No popular uprising against Castro

    ·         The invasion strengthened Castro’s standing among the urban poor and peasants

    o   Attracted by his programs of universal literacy and medical care

    ·         Castro stifled internal opposition

    o   Cuban intellectuals and professionals fled to the United States

    ·         Kennedy reluctantly took the blame for the abortive invasion

    o   His administration was censured time and again by third world delegates to the United Nations

    ·         American liberals criticized Kennedy for plotting Castro’s overthrow while conservatives blamed him for not supporting the invasion

    ·         Despite the failure, Kennedy remained committed to getting rid of Castro and keeping up the  economic boycott

    ·         The CIA continued to support anti-Castro operations and launched at least eight attempts to assassinate the Cuban leader

    ·         The Missile Crisis

    o   The aftermath of the Bay of Pigs led to the most serious confrontation of the war: the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962

    o   Cuban missile crisis

    §  Crisis between the Soviet Union and the United States over the placement of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba

    o   Frightened by U.S. belligerency, Castro asked Soviet Union for help

    §  Khrushchev

    §  Shipped Cuba a large amount of sophisticated weaponry

    ·         Intermediate-range nuclear missiles.

    §  Early October, U.S. recon planes found camouflaged missile silos dotting the island

    §  Aides demanded an immediate bombing of Cuban bases

    §  Kennedy’s aggressive attempts to exploit Cuba in the 1960 election now came back to haunt him

    ·         Critics would accuse him of weakness in failing to stand up to the Soviets

    §  Kennedy went on national tv on October 22

    ·         Announced

    o   Discovery of the missile sites

    o   Demanded the removal of all missiles

    o   Ordered a strict naval blockade of all offensive military equipment shipped to Cuba

    o   Requested an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council and promised than any missiles launched from Cuba would bring a “full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union”

    §  October 26/27

    ·         Khrushchev yielded, ordering 25 Soviet ships off their  course to Cuba

    §  US and Soviet Union made a deal

    ·         Removal of missiles in return for a pledge from the US not to invade Cuba

    ·         Removal of American weapons from Turkey, as close to the USSR as  Cuba is to the US

    §  November 20

    ·         Public announcement

    o   The withdrawal of Soviet missiles

    o   Respect Cuban sovereignty

    o   The crisis had passed

    §  The Soviets began the largest weapons buildup in their history

    §  Kennedy made gestures toward peaceful coexistence with the Soviets

    §  Both sides had been “caught up in a vicious and dangerous cycle in which suspicion on one side breeds suspicion on the other, and new weapons beget counter weapons”

    o   Washington and Moscow set up a “hot line”

    §  Direct phone connection to permit instant communication during times of crisis

    o   Limited Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty

    §  August 1963

    §  US, USSR, Great Britain

    §  Prohibited aboveground, outer space, and underwater nuclear weapons tests

    §  Eased international anxieties over radioactive fallout

    §  Underground testing continued to accelerate for years

    §  More symbolic than substantive (psychological breakthrough)

    ·         The Assassination of President Kennedy

    o   Assassination

    §  The assassination of JFK in Dallas on November 22, 1963 sent the entire nation into shock and mourning

    §  Kennedy ascended to martyrdom

    §  Millions had identified his strengths as those of American society

    ·         Intelligence

    ·         Optimism

    ·         Wit

    ·         Charm

    ·         Coolness under fire

    §  Kennedy placed television at the center of American political life

    ·         Tv riveted a badly chocked nation

    §  Lee Harvey Oswald

    ·         Accused killer

    ·         Obscure political misfit

    ·         He was assassinated as well

    §  Although a special commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren found the killing to be the work of Oswald acting along, many Americans doubted this conclusion

    §  Kennedy’s death led to a lot of non-provable conspiracy theories

    o   We will never know what Kennedy might have achieved in a second term

    §  When he was alive  he demonstrated a capacity to change and grow in office

    ·         Launched new initiatives toward peaceful coexistence

    ·         At the time of his death, US and USSR relations were the best since the end of WWII

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - War Abroad, War at Home

     

    Great Society:

    ·         Progressive expansion

    o   Biggest since New Deal

    ·         “war on poverty”

    ·         OEO

    o   Network of federal programs to attack poverty and social issues faced by Americans

    ·         Neighborhood youth corps

    o   Work for 2 million young people

    o   Low paying jobs, dead end

    ·         Job corps

    o   Gives vocational training for people that need it

    o   Manufacturing, welding, etc.

    o   Some jobs are obsolete with new technologies coming out

    ·         VISTA

    o   Volunteers in Service to America

    o   Domestic version of Peace Corps

    o   Community service

    ·         Community Action Plan (CAP)

    o   Urban areas are experiencing plight

    §  People are now leaving to go to suburbs

    o   Helps people in poor communities to mobilize

    §  Give them a voice politically

    ·         Medicare            

    o   Established in 1965

    o   Healthcare for elderly

    §  Social medicine

    ·         Expanded social security benefits

    ·         Look at page 1062

    ·         ***spending on social welfare jumped***

    o   Departure from what other presidents were doing

    §  From foreign to domestic

    ·         Great Society only did a fraction of what it was meant to do

    o   Sometimes aid didn’t go to where it belonged

    o   Spent too much money  & time on the war

    1968:

    ·         Vietnam war officially becomes unpopular

    o   Majority opposes it

    ·         Tet offensive

    o   Lunar new year for Vietnamese

    o   Vietcong launch offensive to strike urban areas in South Vietnam

    o   US succeeded by…

    §  We stopped it convincingly

    o   US failed by…

    §  Civilian casualties are very high

    §  US citizens are against it

    §  No advances

    §  Credibility gap is shattered

    ·         Claimed that the war was pretty much over

    ·         Media shows people in despair, fighting, etc

    o   US military asks Congress for more troops

    §  They deny

    ·         1968 election

    o   LBJ starts running

    §  Doesn’t do well in primaries

    §  Decides not to run again

    o   Robert Kennedy

    §  Appeared to be a strong candidate

    §  Progressive

    §  Attorney general

    §  Against Vietcong

    ·         Goes against LBJ

    §  Assassinated

    ·         Sirhan Sirhan

    o   Eugene McCarthy

    §  Popular amongst youth

    §  Anti-war

    §  Once delegates saw that Robert Kennedy wasn’t there, LBJ gone…

    ·         Huburt Humphrey

    ·         Democratic party divided

    Nixon Presidency:

    ·         Southern strategy

    o   Democratic party split over Vietnam

    §  LBJ takes blame

    o   Johnson signs Civil Rights Act of 1964

    §  “delivered South to Republicans for a very long time”

    o   Sunbelt communities

    §  Modern agricultural techniques

    §  Southern and Midwestern

    o   Richard Nixon doesn’t win the deep south

    §  George Wallace wins in 5 states

    ·         13% of popular votes

    o   “just and honorable peace in Asia” –Nixon

    §  Wins presidency

    o   Henry Kissinger

    §  Part of the national security council

    §  Wins Nobel Peace Prize

    §  Advises Nixon that US needs to look strong

    ·         Can’t afford a loss in Vietnam

    o   “stabilize Vietnam then leave”

    §  Majority of Americans feel like it was a mistake to send troops to Vietnam

    o   Summer 1969

    §  Nixon withdraws 60,000 troops

    §  One final attempt to win the war

    ·         Take it to Cambodia and Laos

    o   Cut off supply lines

    ·         US doesn’t support this

    o   Protesting

    o   Senate outlaws use of military in Cambodia

    §  Doesn’t pass in House of Representatives

    §  Nixon can still put his plan into action

    o   Advance into Laos was a failure

    §  Guerrilla tactics

    §  Nixon pulls troops out

    o   Nixon sends Kissinger to start a treaty with Vietnam

    §  Cease-fire

    ·         South Vietnam doesn’t want to sign this

    ·         March 1973

    o   US troops leave

    o   $150 billion

    o   Objective was a failure

    ·         1975

    o   North Vietnamese take over South Vietnam

    ·         War crimes

    o   Murdering civilians

    o   Raping and beating civilians

    o   Happened more than once

    ·         American soldiers take bad reputation with them when they come home

    o   “baby killers”

    ·         Nixon & China

    o   Détente with China

    o   US sees China as a good trader

    o   Ease tensions between the USSR and US

    o   Pros:

    §  Opens up an opportunity

    §  Eases Cold War tensions

    §  SALT

    ·         Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty

    ·         US and USSR moving towards peace

    o   Cons:

    §  Fighting Communism in Vietnam but keeping peace with Communism in China

    §  Double dipping

    §  Nationalist Government in Taiwan

    ·         They rely on us

    ·         US has less relations with them

    ·         Watergate

    o   Nixon considered imperial president

    o   Uses wiretaps and CIA

    o   Pentagon Papers

    §  “deceiving American public” about operations in Vietnam

    o   Nixon tries to bar Pentagon papers from getting to the NY times

    §  They do anyway

    o   Age of dirty tricks

    §  Readddd

    o   Committee to Reelect the President

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The Conservative Ascendancy

     

     

    ·         Stagflation

    o   High inflation in a stagnant economy

    o   Slowing of US economy

    o   Inflation: reduction of purchasing power of the dollar

    §  Wages don’t increase but dollars are worth less in the marketplace

    o   Unemployment reached 9% by 1975

    §  Greatest since the Great Depression

    o   GDP slows in growth by 25%

    ·         OPEC and US Oil Consumption

    o   1973: gasoline prices nearly doubled (40 to 70 cents)

    o   US uses 70% of all oil produced

    o   Have to move from US supply to other nation’s supplies

    §  Dependent on other countries to get our oil and have our “American way of life”

    o   1973:

    §  US is importing 1/3 of its crude oil from Middle Eastern countries

    §  OPEC forms

    ·         Mainly Arabic oil producing nations

    o   Conflict with US ally of Israel

    §  Embargo from OPEC

    ·         Expand oil trade with Mexico

    ·         Oil crisis!

    §  Hyper-inflation because oil is an inelastic product

    ·         Move to post industrial era

    o   Leads to stagflation

    o   Era where services are a bigger part of the economy

    o   Hallmark

    §  Country begins to look towards foreign countries for goods

    ·         Cheaper to import foreign goods than to make our own

    o   Impact on labor (AFL-CIO)

    §  Against this move in our economy

    §  “nation of hamburger stands”

    §  Labor needs industry to organize

    §  1970-1982

    ·         AFL-CIO loses almost 30% of its membership

    ·         Industry is moving away from industrial jobs

    o   Moving towards a service-based economy

    ·         Begins to gain members from teaching unions, other service unions

    ·         Sunbelt Migration

    o   Sunbelt – southern and western states

    o   People leaving industrial areas

    §  “rust-belt”

    o   Population doubles from 1940 to 1970 in sunbelt

    §  Elderly begin to migrate to the South

    §  Now have Medicare! Better retirement funds!

    ·         Pensions and retirement packages

    ·         Social security benefits

    §  Baby boom is coming to an end

    ·         READ ABOUT ENDANGERED ENVIRONMENT

    ·         Fall of Saigon; 1975 (during Ford’s presidency)

    o   North Vietnamese makes Vietnam a Communist economy

    o   US did not meet their objective in the Vietnam War

    o   Saigon is renamed Ho Chi Minh City

    ·         Carter and foreign diplomacy

    o   Doesn’t want CIA to do operations to overthrow government, etc.

    o   Egypt wants to take over the Sinai peninsula

    §  Israel agrees to stop pushing into the peninsula

    §  Demilitarization between the two sides

    ·         Camp David Accord

    o   Two advisers for foreign policy – Zbigniew Brzezinski and Cyrus Vance

    §  They both have differing opinions

    ·         Carter wanted to decrease defense spending

    o   Federal debt goes through the roof

    o   US falling on productivity

    §  Money being take for defense spending

    ·         Let’s eliminate it!

    o   National Security Adviser

    §  Brzezinski

    ·         Cold warrior

    o   Animosity towards the USSR

    o   Secretary of State

    §  Vance

    ·         Wants détente

    o   More diplomacy and negotiations

    o   Détente

    §  Renewed peace with China

    §  “hopefully will correlate into lesser defense spending”

    ·         Ease financial burden in the US

    o   SALT II

    §  Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II

    §  Signed in 1979

    §  Senate refuses passage because USSR invades Afghanistan

    ·         Didn’t want to sign a treaty with the USSR because they were “anti-containment”

    o   Hostage crisis

    §  Iran government formally ruled by Shah Pahzavi

    ·         Friendly to the US

    §  Islamic fundamentalists overthrow him

    §  US allows the Shah to come into the United States for medical treatment

    ·         Nationalists in Iran are angered

    o   52 Americans held hostage for 444 days in US Embassy

    §  Brzezinski:

    ·         We need to invade and take care of this

    §  Vance:

    ·         We need to enter into negotiations with Iran and get our Americans back

    §  Carter listens to Brzezinski

    ·         Bad idea!

    ·         Mission is a disaster

    ·         Nighttime helicopter mission

    o   Sandstorm that night and aircraft crash

    o   8 Americans die and Iranians are outraged

    o   Camp David Accords signed in 1978

    §  13 day retreat

    §  Leaders of Egypt and Israel met

    ·         Mutual diplomatic relations

    §  Not a long lasting peace

    ·         Leader of Egypt is eventually assassinated by Islamic fundamentalists

    o   Carter platform was committed to human rights

    §  Hard to achieve because of Brzezinski and Vance

    o   El Salvador/Nicaragua/Apartheid

    §  US will support anyone who is pro-US and anti-Communist

    o   US gives missiles and backs an Islamic Fundamentalist group against the USSR in Afghanistan

    §  Cold war isn’t over!

    ·         Conservative Ascendency

    o   Historical causes

    §  New Deal – 1970s

    ·         Tax hikes to fund government programs

    o   Some programs benefited minorities

    §  When minorities are making gains at typical “American’s” expense, problems occur

    o   Expanded social services for poor

    §  Tax hikes, more money out of working man’s pocket

    o   Environmental protection

    §  Spend a lot of money to conserve the environment

    o   Health care/planned parenthood

    §  Great idea, but average Americans get upset!

    §  Voting increases in conservative citizens

    o   Wedge issues

    §  Affirmative action

    ·         A policy designed to redress past discrimination against women and minority groups through measures to improve their economic and educational opportunities

    o   Taking place in education programs, work places, government contracts

    ·         The New Right charged government at all levels of favoring minorities, the jobless, and criminals over the law-abiding, hard-working, tax-paying majority

    §  Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

    ·         Stated that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex”

    ·         New Right argued that the supporters of the ERA were “a bunch of bitter women seeking a constitutional cure for their personal problems”

    o   The felt it would cancel protective labor legislation

    o   Had a steady campaign against abortion as well

    ·         Against more affirmative action

    §  Homosexuality/Morality

    ·         New Right: moral majority – advocated laws against homosexuality and pornography

    §  Abortion/Roe v. Wade

    ·         New right was against abortion

    ·         “the beginning of life supersede a woman’s right to control her own body”

    ·         Roe v. Wade

    o   Legalizes abortion

    o   Divided pregnancy into 3 trimesters

    §  1st – abortion is legal

    §  2nd – consult a doctor

    §  3rd – only can have a special circumstance

    o   Wasn’t voted for or enacted by legislatures

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The National Experience, 8th Edition

    Here you will find AP US History notes for the National Experience, 8th edition textbook. These National Experience outlines will you study more effectively for your AP US History tests and exams.

    Additional Information:

    • Hardcover: 1056 pages
    • Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing; 8 edition (January 2, 1993)
    • Language: English
    • ISBN-10: 0155003666
    • ISBN-13: 978-0155003668

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - Making Use of a New World

    Chapter 1: Making Use of a New World

    • The first American came from the Bearing Strait 20-40 thousand years ago and was followed by many to disperse into the various parts
    • The tribes of the Americas were very diverse
    • Those in South America were more advanced due to advancements in agriculture (corn), architecture, astronomy and established governments and economies
    • North American Indians were less advanced loosely organized into tribes
    • Combined with their dignity, self-reliance and peaceful natures, they would struggle to fight against strangers more organized

    Exploration

    • Vikings settled in Newfoundland Canada in the eleventh century left

    The Rise of Kings and Commerce

    • The timing of Columbus’ arrival contributed to its great historical impact
    • Wealthy merchant class emerged by 1492 from selling Asian goods

                            Spices, dyes, textiles

    • Europe was searching for a less-risky sea route to Asia
    • Portugal led the way with the sleek caravel ship
    • The focused on Africa-for trade and to travel around

                            Prince Henry (Azores), Diaz (Cape Good Hope), de Gama (rounded tip)

    • The rise of kings of larger kingdoms meant more power and wealth to sponsor journeys
    • Portugal, later Spain, dominated exploration and was the only one interested and able

    Columbus and the Spanish

    • Christopher Columbus wanted to sail west to Asia
    • Despite being told he was wrong about the size of the world by experts and Portugal, Queen Isabella of Spain financed him
    • Columbus was in the Caribbean from October 12, 1492-March 15, 1493
    • Though he never found Asia there, his biggest discovery was gold
    • Spain was one of a few countries that saw the America’s as more than an obstacle to Asia
    • With Portugal and the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), they split the land and received the west half
    • Though outnumbered, explorers were determined to find gold, working to death the Caribbean Natives for it and later African slaves to bring profit from sugar
    • Cortez took over the Aztecs of Mexico and Pizarro the Incas of Peru
    • These natives were divided and saw them as godly figures they’d served before
    • The conquistadors found gold and silver, but most valuably cheap labor from the Natives
    • The govt. and Catholic Church tried to prevent their exploitation but were unable to prevent their enslavement
    • Indians were enslaved or put into the encomienda system for forced labor and were exploited even after the system was made illegal
    • Indians made great profits from the silver mines and fields in the first century but declined rapidly within a century
    • European disease killed most Indians, making room for mestizos-mixed race-Creoles-European descent- and Africans in Latin America
    • The Spanish were not interested North America until the last half of the 1500s
    • When the Spanish started to settle in Florida, New Mexico and Arizona, they planted missions and presidios-military outposts, and later in Texas and California
    • Missions would teach the natives Christianity, farming and crafting techniques

    The Europeans in North America

    • John Cabot, working for England, was the first to report of North America in 1497, seeing it as an obstacle
    • The French sent da Verrazano and Cartier to Canada, returning and forgetting about it when there were no real riches and harsh winters
    • Summer fishers, from all countries, were the first to make use of North America
    • Europeans started to see more resources and traded metals for furs with Indians
    • France, Holland and Sweden set up trading posts all over North America, mainly the northeast
    • The French and Dutch remained friendly with the Indians, despite some setbacks, and only made settlements to push them out when the English arrived en masse

    Tudor England and the New World

    • England’s exploration went from Henry VII to Henry VIII to Elizabeth
    • Changing the country from Catholic to Protestant had a crucial effect to their land

    Henry VIII and the Reformation

    • King Henry VIII at first was against Luther’s Reformation and even wrote a book about it and got a title from the pope
    • Henry turned against the pope because monks were not as loyal as he liked and was annoyed the Church owned monastery land and collected income from them
    • When Henry wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon, the pope refused
    • He married Anne Boleyn anyway and made himself head of the Anglican Church and confiscated monastic lands, officially cutting off the Catholic Church

    The Results of Henry’s Break with Rome

    • Despite disinterest in the New World, Henry’s defiance had large effects on both his lands
    • Anne Boleyn bore Elizabeth I, who ruled 1558-1602, when England flourished and saw great progress
    • England became at intermittent war with Spain by fighting and cutting off trade in the New World
    • The Protestant Movement was revived, but many left for America to complete it when they were not satisfied with the transformation of the English Church
    • Henry started to sell the monastic lands, causing a huge turnover in real estate that threw off the classes (except merchants) and urged many to leave

    Gilbert Finds a Use for North America

    • The Cathay Company formed in 1576 and was the first English interest in the New World, intending to trade with China via a North American settlement
    • It went under when its agent, Martin Frobisher, brought back 1200 tons of worthless rock, mistaken for gold, making investors cautious of North America
    • Humphrey Gilbert was the first Englishman to see America as a positive thing
    • He likened it to a better version of Ireland, which he had conquered earlier
    •                       Larger, fish, find passage to Pacific, sabotage Spanish, exploit natives
    • In 1578, he convinced Elizabeth to grant him a charter allowing rule over a colony, provided it be Christian and gave her a fifth of any gold/silver mined
    • While his first expedition in 1578 is unknown, his second was after he convinced many and left in 1583 with 260 settlers
    • They reached Newfoundland in August and were friendly with the fishers
    • After 2 weeks, the headed south and went into a heavy sea, taking Gilbert with it

    Raleigh and Roanoke

    • After Gilbert’s death, many were inspired and dreamed of the New World, and his younger half brother Sir Walter Raleigh got a charter from Elizabeth for a colony
    • Raleigh was interested in undermining the Spanish and permanent settlements, enlisting Richard Hakluyt to use propaganda to convince emigration
    • In 1584, as a party of 3, he explored and founded Virginia, named after Elizabeth
    • The first settlement of Roanoke Island in 1585 had many great minds but could not find the Pacific, leaving in 1586
    • John White’s 1587 Roanoke colony was found abandoned when he returned in 1590, the only trace being a carving CROANOKE
    • The 1500s ended without an English colony in North America
    • In 1606, some English investors again falsely assumed they could profit from North America, losing money in a venture that would become the United States

    The Founding of Virginia

    • Elizabeth’s successor James I ended the war with Spain in 1604
    • James was unpopular for his ending of the Spanish raids, which brought many, like Sir Francis Drake, fame and wealth
    • Attention shifted back to America to try harder for gold, precious plants and piracy beyond James’ reach

    Jamestown

    • In 1606, nobles, upperclassmen and merchants-petitioned to establish American colonies
    • The joint-stock company funded early English expansion, as ventures were financed by many small contributions, avoiding individual risk
    • 2 groups: Virginia Company of Plymouth, for the north, and of London, for the South, with many financed to become indentured servants before getting wealthy
    • Both companies made a quick start, though Plymouth lasted 1 winter in colony at the Sagadahoc River in Maine, founded in 1607
    • The London company founded Jamestown in Virginia in1607, and despite many difficulties and mistakes, roughed it out
    • Leadership was a major problem, as colonists could not have a respected council without arguing, causing many to neglect their jobs
    • Despite disapproval, John Smith took over and learned how to plant corn, stopped the gold scramble, found cedar wood as a good resource and mapped the area
    • The powers in London were unhappy with Smith

                            No gold, no Pacific, unkind to Indians, described as a tyrant

    • They made a council in 1609 that appointed Lord De La Warr as an all-ruling governor, albeit with a council
    • The company campaigned to sell Virginia to the English public, selling stock to passengers, most of which were men and indentured servants
    • In 1616, everyone was freed, shareholders split profits and received land
    • Setting sail in 1609, only 400 arrived with no governor, causing the colony to come undone
    • In 1611, Gov. Thomas Dale arrived and repaired order, and the colony
    • The settlers struggled to find a luxury resource until 1612
    • Tobacco was native to America, and although it had a Spanish market, John Rolfe’s West Virginia variety was a hit in Europe

    The Virginia Company’s Great Effort

    • The Virginia Company was pleased with this promising product after they were stuck with land and no servants
    • They also still needed another resource and created a reform program under Edwin Sandys in 1618 to convince people and servants to leave:

    1.      Get land to those who paid the fare

    2.      Govern colonies under the same English laws

    3.      Give settlers a representative assembly for laws

    4.      Send craftsmen to diversify the economy

    • Many came from 1618-24, but died from lack of supplies, Indians or returned
    • Those who survived were severely exploited, bankrupting the V.C. and turning control over to James in 1624
    • Despite a bad beginning, the colony of 1200 would survive
    • The population gradually increased with less women, who weren’t used to the hard work, and more servants than African slaves (at this time)
    • King James had a hard time exerting his authority to prevent exploitation again, though the price drop of tobacco in 1630 settled Virginia down
    • Virginians were very stubborn and grew tobacco, despite attempts to steer the away from it
    • Despite being stopped in 1624 when James took over, they have been meeting in representative assemblies since 1629, even before they were recognized in 1639

    The Founding of New England

    • People left England for religious, social and economic reasons, mostly young men
    • About 300 thousand came to Virginia/Chesapeake for tobacco, new colonies north of present-day Maryland, or the West Indies (Bahamas, Barbados) for sugar
    • During the 1630s, the Great Migration to New England started mainly with whole families looking for a new, holier England
    • John Smith was sent in 1614 to Sagadahoc by the Virginia Company, where he described the area and named it New England, but they weren’t impressed enough
    • The group to gain the land was made up of royals planning feudalism, led by Sir Fernando Gorges, where they’d run and be called the Council for New England
    • Before their plans could take off, a group south established Puritanism

     

    Puritanism

    • Puritans’ most distinguishing quality is the strong belief in predestination-that God decided before birth whether a person was destined for heaven or hell
    • They were dedicated followers of God’s commandments and believed conversion appeared as vigorous efforts to obey God, a sign they might be saved
    • They felt responsible to help others obey God and believed this was the government’s purpose
    • They worried about the English government’s disinterest in sins like theft and murder and disagreed with the Church of England’s structure they saw Catholic
    • Puritans disagreed how to fix the church and were divided into Congregationalists, who would settle in New England, and Presbyterians
    • The former believed there should be no general church above individual churches and membership should only be given to those who proved their Christian faith
    • Congregationalist Robert Browne advocated leaving church of England, starting the Separatist Movement, but most Congregationalists wanted to stay and fix it

    The Pilgrims

    • Separatists arrived in Plymouth in 1620, having been formed in Scrooby, persecuted in England, and grown tired of Holland
    • They planned to go to Virginia, working together for 7 yrs before dividing profits with sponsors, but the Mayflower landed at Cape Cod in 1620 and they stayed
    • Many died because they were ill- prepared, but despite this they roughed it out
    • The Mayflower Compact established a government and governor John Carver, and later William Bradford, who allowed them to pay their debt to the sponsors
    • Though they established New England as a livable place, the Plymouth colony never burst with expansion, even after an exodus 10 yrs later

    The Massachusetts Bay Colony

    • Charles I was harsher to the Puritans than James, eliminating Parliament in 1629 and granting power to William Laud, moving closer to Catholicism
    • Puritans started to believe God was about to purge England and left for America
    • Congregationalists bought the New England Company in 1628, becoming the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1629
    • They confirmed their propriety and government rights to the Massachusetts Bay by a charter directly from the king
    • The Puritans transferred the company to Massachusetts in 1629, gaining full governmental control and the right to live the way they had wanted
    • John Winthrop was chosen as governor and left England in 1630, setting all around the Mass. Bay and were joined by thousands more unhappy with Charles
    • Winthrop made the company a commonwealth and made many-mostly Puritans but later all/only Congregationalists-into freemen-able to vote for the assembly
    • After so many became freemen, the General Court became the governor, deputy governor, council of assistants and representatives, all freemen-elected
    • The court was the legislature-to make laws- and supreme court, making the colony self-governing and a Puritan republic

    Puritan New England

    • Puritans disagreed on many things but agreed on congregational churches, a government to enforce God’s will and no bishop, court churches or hierarchy
    • They did not want the clergy to take part in the government, as they saw that as too close Roman Catholicism, and gave most power to the church members’ votes
    • Most leaders and settlers tried to remain friendly with the Church of England, with John Winthrop repeatedly putting away the Separatists’ irrationalities
    • However, during 1634-37, when he was not governor, the colony entranced
    • Roger Williams, a Separatist who arrived in 1631 wanted to forget about the churches of England and insisted the land be properly purchased from the Indians
    • He was unpopular by many because he believed the government have absolutely no control over religious affairs
    • Williams was a likable man but was so persistent he was banished in 1646, leaving with his followers to Rhode Island, while remaining friendly to the colony
    • Anne Hutchinson gained many listeners, yet had a different view of predestination
    • Denied good behavior was sign of salvation; confirmed true believers with the Holy Spirit did not need to obey God’s laws
    • Declaring most ministers to be void, she divided the colony but was also banished to RI when she claimed God gave her a direct revelation
    • Roger Williams obtained a charter from the re-formed Parliament to give RI a govt. similar to Mass. In 1644
    • They elected similar positions but did not limit voting to church members or collect taxes to support the church
    • They confirmed the government’s freedom from religious concerns in 1644
    • In 1636, Thomas Hooker led a Puritan group to Connecticut, modeled it after Mass. and confirmed it in 1662, whilst also joining with New Haven
    • New Haven settlers were disappointed by their lack of commerce, yet pleased with their stricter government and not pleased about this union
    • All of New England was under Puritan control Plymouth, Massachusetts, Hew Haven, Rhode Island, Connecticut
    • The Puritans were determined to be economically stable and attracted those solely seeking wealth
    • The economy was based on selling cattle to new settlers, but when Parliament was restored, many stopped migrating
    • The Puritans went through a minor depression but came out with a more balanced economy than Virginia

                            Fish, corn, wheat, cattle lumber, ships

    • By the mid-1600s, New England set its religious and economic feet down

    Propriety Ventures

    • Non-Puritans were also trying to colonize territory, notably Sir Frances Gorges, until his 1647 death, whose claim eventually become more of Massachusetts
    • George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, first explored Newfoundland, but died and had is son secure Maryland, where the family would be in full govt. control
    • Maryland was Catholic, feudal, a religious haven and economically similar to Virginia, growing tobacco and sharing interests
    • Both Catholics and Puritans came and were welcomed, however Jesuits and Puritans caused some trouble
    • The representative assembly is famous for the 1649 Maryland Toleration Act-religious freedom for Christians who believed in the Trinity
    • This Act paved the way for religious pluralism that would distinguish America
    • By the mid-1600s, England established itself as North America’s dominant force

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The National Experience - Chapter 1 outline63.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - The Pattern of Empire

     

    Chapter 2: The Pattern of Empire

    • The English government, like every other European in the 15-1700s, followed mercantilism
    • They wanted the colonies to accompany it, not just be an outlet for dissenters

    Mercantilism

    • The state controls all internal economic activities and tries to be self-sufficient by allowing more exports than imports
    • England believed expansion would increase self-sufficiency
    • England wanted America to be a source of raw material like Richard Hakluyt said
    • The colonies would provide raw materials and buy English manufactured goods
    • This was mutually advantageous as neither was suited for what the other had
    • The English govt. needed to control the economic activities like they would at home to prevent the colonies from trading and profiting with other countries

    England’s Imperial Delay

    • Early economic rules were usually not enforced largely due to distance
    • During the 1600s, when most colonies were founded, England went through political problems, mostly for control between the king and Parliament
    • After 1688, everyone realized the king was secondary to Parliament
    • The 12 colonies (exc. Georgia) had been founded by a king’s charter and had ambiguous relationships with Parliament
    • The colonies were secondary interests from 1607 (VA founding) to the mid-1600s
    • Oliver Cromwell was the first ruler to think seriously about the colonies, but he barely moved to the West Indies and the ban on foreign trade started Dutch war

    The Navigation Acts

    • When Charles II came to power in 1660, the colonies developed enough to attract merchants’ attention, proposing a plan both the king and Parliament agreed with
    • Colonial trade would be directed into channels most profitable to England
    • The Navigation Acts, in 1660 and 1663, had 3 basic principles:
      1. Trade with colonies forbidden except in English/colonial ships
      2. “Enumerated commodities” could only go to England

                            Sugar, cotton, dyes, tobacco

    1. Colonies must only receive most goods from England
    • Modifications in the 1700s “enumerated” or limited or encouraged certain goods

                            Rice, naval stores, furs, coppers, Wool Act, Hat Act, Iron Act

    • The Acts started to criticism for benefiting one group, usually merchants, and harming another
    • Besides the merchants, the Acts added to the government’s revenue by collecting more taxed goods, though they never increased any taxes
    • The Acts were difficult to enforce due to distance and therefore needed to be enforced on colonists and foreign countries to be fully beneficial

    The Dutch

    • The Dutch were England’s biggest enemy and on top of the world in the 1600s

                            Best traders, pirates, controlled lumber, fish, textiles, etc.

    • They did not fully expand into North America, but the location of New Netherland on the Holland River was strategic and powerful
    • The Dutch settlers surprisingly surrendered very quickly when Charles sent men to give their territory-from Maryland to Connecticut-to the Duke of York, in 1664
    • Holland declared war on England and violated the N.Acts, causing England to focus on controlling the colonies to enforce them

    The Restoration Colonies

    • Proprietors who had full control of their colonies and charged settlers quitrents for living there, founded proprietary colonies founded in the last half of the 1600s
    • Many settlers did not come from England and were simply Europeans looking for the New World
    • Proprietors also eyed many Americans in the New World continually searching for their ideal place to live

    New York

    • New York was the most important of these new colonies
    • Originally it was a bunch a trading posts and had advanced settlements, patroonship (estates, though with little profit) and Puritans
    • The Dutch West India Company governed with poor governors and no assembly

                            Woulter van Twiller, Wilhelm Kieft, Peter Stuyvesant

    • Duke simply improved the quality of governors, not changing the govt. structure
    • When Holland to did not reclaim the territory, its settlers tolerated the new govs.

                            Richard Nicolls, Francis Lovelace, Edmund Andros, Thomas Dongan

    • The Puritans were not happy with the governors even after Nicolls made the Duke’s Laws separate for them in 1665, modeled after New England
    • Since the colony attracted few, the Duke agreed to a representative assembly
    • The Charter of Liberties they made granted English rights to all citizens but was repealed when the Duke became King James II and the colony a royal one

    New Jersey

    • James gave some of New Amsterdam to John, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, who made many mistakes in ruling the area
    • Without knowing of this transaction, Gov. Nicolls moved a bunch of Puritans to the area to produce revenue and pay quitrents to James
    • Berkeley and Carteret moved more Puritans in by promising a rep. assembly
    • They did not have the authority to set up an assembly or appoint a gov., though were met with no opposition from the Duke or his brother, King Charles II
    • Puritans were still unhappy with the proprietors and protested, even more so when New Jersey was divided into East and West and each sold to Quakers
    • The English govt. woke up reunited NJ in 1702 and made it a royal colony with its own rep. assembly and no proprietors to control its government

    The Carolinas

    • Sir John Colleton found a group in Barbados planting sugar, with slaves, waiting to move to North America
    • Colleton realized they were perfect for a colony assembled a group of proprietors to convince the king to give them a charter for a colony

                            John and William (Gov. of VA) Berkeley, Carteret, Cooper (Earl of Shaftesbury), Duke of Albemarle and Earls of Craven and Clarendon

    • They received their charter in 1663 and filled with settlers who grew tobacco
    • This colony of North Carolina was had a capital in Albemarle Sound with a rep. assembly and governor
    • The area south near the Cape Fear River, where another colony was planned, was previously populated by New Englanders and Barbadians, both of whom left
    • Cooper supplied enough settlers in 1669 to go to the Ashley River, moving to Charles Towne (Charleston) in 1680 between the Ashley and Cooper Rovers
    • The Fundamental Constitutions of the Carolinas was aristocratic and democratic, inspired by James’ Harrington
    • Settlers would pay quitrents for their 3/5 of land, have a governor, an upper house of nobles (could only initiate legislation) and lower house of commoners
    • South Carolina had a diverse population that produced pitch, tar, turpentine and rice, fought the Spanish and traded with the Indians to get slaved and deerskins
    • Charles Towne was the only city in the South and allowed SC to be successful
    • The lower house quarreled, claimed the right to initiate legislation and usually got its way, though it caused various troubles
    • In 1729, the proprietors surrendered and each Carolina was instituted a royal government with a king-appointed gov. and council and elected assembly

    William Penn’s Holy Experiment

    • William Penn the younger, son of one of Cromwell’s embarrassed generals, was a friend of Charles, and founded the last colony in the 1600s
    • Penn was traditional in some ways, he untraditionally took certain ideas seriously
    • These ideas were often bizarre, like the early, more radical Quakers

                            James Naylor, who thought he was Christ

    • Though those Quakers, were dealt with, they left an impression even when most Quakers settled down and followed their ideas
    • Quakers lived by the Inner Light, known by other names like conscience
    • They avoided pride and war and embraced brotherly love and trust
    • These ideas may have gotten him expelled from his traditional Oxford schooling and sent him on a grand tour that only temporarily expelled them
    • Penn was one of the best supporters of Quakerism, in addition to freedom of religion, and was intelligent and friendly
    • Quakers were having a hard time in both England and New Jersey, so Penn asked for Pennsylvania in 1680 and later Delaware
    • Penn could govern as he liked, provided he enforce the Navigation Acts, get king’s approval for laws, allow courts’ appeals and provide Anglican ministers
    • He was the gov. when present with a deputy when absent, and ran the colony to show the advantages of his beliefs, but never had extensive power
    • Additionally, there was a council of the upper-class to initiate legislation and assembly of common people, both elected by the landowners
    • Quakers and non-Quakers came for the land, government and religious freedom
    • Penn was only there for a couple years, when he had to return to defend his border (later fixed by the Mason Dixon line) and the throne was passed twice
    • Pennsylvania was mostly successful, but the assembly saw its lack of power as cheating public rights, although they voted for both the assembly and council
    • Both branches disliked the governors, particularly John Blackwell, who was run out of the colony
    • Penn. Was taken away from Penn from 1692-94, after the fall of James II, when it received a royal govt. and the assembly the right to initiate legislation (start laws)
    • When he reacquired it in 1699, he asked the assembly to draft their own govt.
    • They eliminated the council’s right to set up the laws and gave the proprietor only ownership of ungranted land and the power to veto laws
    • This Charter of Privileges in 1701 made Penn. the only unicameral-single legislative body-colony and gave some counties a separate assembly
    • Penn returned to England and ended up in debtor’s prison, dying there in 1718

    Problems of Enforcement

    • Penn. completed England’s control of the east coast from Canada to Florida
    • Each colony had a uniquely shaped govt. that was beyond England’s control, except Virginia
    • During the N. Acts, Charles II gave power away to colonies regarding their government and officials instead of using it for imperial enforcement
    • Charles also granted local legislation, consisting of elected reps., to satisfy the settlers and make the colony a success
    • Despite their usefulness, assemblies could also be defiant against higher authorities, especially in New England

    Recalcitrant Colonists

    • New England was not suited for mercantilism, as it had few, unwanted resources
    • It went into trade, with many formidable merchants to distribute goods
    • They discovered illegal trade with other countries brought better profits
    • Disobedience of England also came out of suspicion of the non-Puritan Charles II
    • They brushed off attempts of control, such as Archbishop Laud’s commission and other laws passed by both Charleses, Cromwell and Parliament
    • Charles II demanded Mass. revise their laws to conform with England’s, a term in its charter, which went ignored in 1662
    • The men he sent to capture New Netherland in 1664 were also sent to investigate New England regarding boundaries, govt. problems and enforcing of the N. Acts
    • The commissioners were welcomed in most areas except Boston
    • Their notes would be recurring themes in English history: the English themselves may be the hardest subjects to control, and the Mass. charter should be revoked
    • In order to do so, it had to be proven Massachusetts’ laws contradicted England’s
    • The General Court-Mass. assembly-supported England but did not send agents to defend itself when Charles ordered
    • They knew their laws-especially their most valued religious laws-did violate English laws and relied on distance to get away with them for a decade
    • Parliament passed an act in 1673 that made smuggling illegal goods harder, yet Massachusetts and other NE areas did it anyway
    • In 1675, Charles created the first administration primarily for colonial affairs: The Lords of Trade
    • The Lords first decided the king should help enforce the colonies to obey English law rather than their governments alone
    • Charles denied Massachusetts of New Hampshire, and gave it a royal govt., but they rightfully purchased Maine before he could prevent their spread there
    • The Lords got the agents they sent for, but they could not answer any of their questions, while the Court claimed Parliament had no authority over them
    • They agreed to enforce the N.Acts to avoid drama, but imprisoned Edward Randolph, the enforcer the king sent, and sent more ineffective agents
    • Legal proceedings began in 1683, the charter was revoked in 1684 and the Duke of York became King James II in 1685

    The Dominion of New England

    • The Lords of Trade, envisioned one colony-The Dominion of New England from NJ northward, with no rep. assembly and a king-appointed governor and council
    • They did not realize the settlers, not just the assemblies, could also cause trouble
    • Bostonians reluctantly agreed to the idea to avoid jeopardizing their prosperity
    • Sir Edmund Andros took easily over by 1688, where he was lieutenant-governor for each colony
    • Although administrative, Andros lacked the social grace to lead the angry New Englanders/Puritans
    • The Lords falsely assumed many disliked their Puritan leaders, and Andros turned away the few that were in reality

                            Rose taxes, denied rights, declared all landownership to be null

    • His task of governing people who’d done so themselves, with very little enforcement, was impossible, and many started to regret their compliance

    The Revolution of 1688

    • James II prevented many parliamentary actions, annoying the English, and was eventually run out in 1688 and replaced by William of Orange
    • Before William took over, when rumors of papal control surfaced, Bostonians responded by imprisoning their new government and restoring their old one
    • They sent minister, Increase Mather, to convince William to give them back their charter, but only succeeded in getting back their govt. until further investigation
    • Plymouth, Conn. and RI also resumed their old govts. While NJ went back to anarchy and NY had a less-than tidy revolution itself
    • Francis Nicholson, unpopular and a critic of public rights, was now left with NY
    • Jacob Leisler led the party that seized and took control of the govt. in May 1689
    • He was named commander-in-chief of the province by representatives in June
    • He claimed his authority from some vague letters to continue govt. from the king
    • Leisler led the colony well, though arbitrarily for almost 2 years
    • When he hesitated to hand his power in 1691, the new governor interpreted this as treason and he was hung that year

    The Reorganization of 1696

    • England became preoccupied and the colonies were neglected for 7 years

                            Lords of Trade given wider duties, William preventing war with France

    • In 1696, Parliament forced all governors to sweat to enforce the N. Acts
    • They also gave each colony customs officers to search for smuggled goods by force and prosecute smugglers without the normally-required juried courts
    • The Lords of Trade were replaced by the Board of Trade (Lords Commissioners of Trade and Plantation) to inform and advise the king of colonial matters in 1696
    • The Board stayed throughout the colonial period, forming most imperial policies
    • Parliament objected to taking away assemblies but agreed to giving colonies, who had not had them, before royal governors, as did the settlers of those colonies
    • Most colonies eventually became royal

                            Maryland, NJ, the Carolinas, and Massachusetts with Plymouth and Maine

    • The king had more direct control in these royal colonies and appointed a gov. and council to serve as the upper legislative house to veto the laws of the lower house
    • Though their laws could be vetoed by more than the upper house, the elected lower house kept most control and could use their tax authority to get their way

    The Old Colonial System

    • The 3 ways to enforce the N. Acts were thwarted, but the Board was still useful

                            Juried/admiralty courts, customs officials, royal governors

    • Colonial merchants were more than happy to be in business with England, creating a lucrative relationship for both sides
    • The Old Colonial System depended on this balance and although it was not airtight, it helped England become the most powerful country

    The Contest for the Continent

    • As English colonies increased, their populations did more so and came into conflict with other groups for land

    Indian Warfare

    • Northeast Indians were too late to realize the land they sold would not be shared
    • They themselves were too divided to fight the Europeans, who were depended on for weapons and metals anyhow
    • VA took on the Powhatan Confederacy after their own massacre while the Puritans wiped out the Pequots
    • The only serious attack wasn’t until 1675 by the Wampanoag chief Metacomet, who lost the battle

    Rivalry with France and Spain

    • The French were interested in internal North America, sending missionaries and coureur de bois- skilled woodsmen for furs
    • The explored and settled in Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Illinois
    • French were better with fur and Indians-teaching Catholicism and English hatred
    • The govt. made New France the equivalent of a royal colony but discouraged the coureurs’ activities, making many work elsewhere

                            Radisson and Chouart found Hudson’s Bay Company for England

    • King Louis XIV wanted the colony to be made of settled down, civilized farmers
    • He sent women, limited trading grants and excommunicated any who left their farms, but in the end only a few settlements were made and few came to them

                            Nova Scotia, St. Lawrence River, Louisiana

    • Govs., such as Count Frontenac, ignored these orders, encouraged coureurs and had them and Indians attack the English, who were allied with the Iroquois
    • When England and France were at war, coureurs and Indians would raid the English, who would capture French property, until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713

                            War of the League of Augsburg, War of the Spanish Succession                       

    • In the south, SC allied themselves with the Yamasee, Creek and Cherokee and pushed back the Spanish and French, before the Creek and Yamasee attacked
    • After they failed, they moved elsewhere while the Spanish threatened to return to areas they had abandoned before
    • English Fort King George was useless, causing settlers simply to return to living and replacing Indians in America

    The Founding of Georgia

    • English colonies reached a million in population after the Treaty of Utrecht
    • Georgia was founded to protect the southern flank and give the poor and unappreciated a new, better place to live by Gen. James Oglethorpe
    • Oglethorpe gathered other generous men to get a charter from the king in 1732
    • It had a strong start, with self-paying immigrants from all over, and chosen peasants, all eager to go to and be equipped for they land they called paradise
    • They tried to ban sins like rum and slavery, but eventually gave in and handed the colony to the king a year before their charter mandated it in 1252
    • Georgia was barely a military success, with 1 venture that accomplished nothing
    • During the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740-48, New England garnered attention for capturing the Louisburg from the French
    • Although they returned it, it was the only English victory and gave respect to the American English
    • Eventually, most of the 1.5 million Americans, while proud to be British subjects, started having their own ideas about some things

     

     

     

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The National Experience - Chapter 2 outline69 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - The First American Way of Life

     

    Chapter 3: The First American Way of Life

    • Americans always dealt with how to live for themselves, for the outside world and with each other

                            1. Tobacco, rice, fur, fish; 2. The Navigation Acts

    • For the third, some, such as William Blackstone, were hermits and lived alone

    Patterns of Existence

    • Each generation lived differently, but the first was the most radical
    • Toward the end of the colonies there were 4 different ways of life

                            Southern plantation, New England town, individual farm, city

    The Plantation

    • Plantations became colonies centered on 1 crop for income

                            VA/MD: tobacco; SC: rice/indigo; West Indies: sugar

    • The word plantation eventually became to imply land where slaves worked
    • Slavery, virtually unknown in England, started in the US in Virginia, where it was the settlers’ most original, effective and oppressive idea for living in the Americas
    • Slavery started when Virginians first needed labor in the 1620s
    • Most gathered indentured servants because their lifespan was less than the maximum 7 years in service, and they were cheaper than slaves from Africa
    • The death rate, mostly of men, was comparable Europe’s during the plague
    • Tobacco prices fell in the 1640s and ‘50s, though Virginians kept importing them as they were cheap, and people started living longer, making them more profit
    • The South became full of plantations, and slaves, as masters became wealthier and freedmen, or ex-servant, themselves went into business
    • This cycle of opportunity and profit ceased turning after 1660
    • More labor meant more tobacco, which became in higher supply than demand when the N. Acts restricted its market, thus lowering its price
    • Production became more expensive when the best land, on the exterior with rivers to transport good, were taken up by the 1670s
    • VA and MD became full of wandering freedmen, mostly young, single and armed
    • Gov. William Berkeley distrusted these men and in 1673 was worried they would betray him when fighting the Dutch to get better land if it re-aligned to Holland
    • Nathaniel Bacon led Bacon’s Rebellion, the largest before the Revolution in 1676 in Jamestown, with servants, slaves and freedmen participating
    • Although the rebellion died down shortly after Bacon and the remainders persecuted to prevent more, the causes, and wandering freedmen, remained
    • As the death rate declined, slaves became more popular, profitable and were considered less dangerous than servants, as no rebellion of theirs reached Bacon’s
    • Slaves were completely overpowered

                            No rights, harsh punishments, unarmed, revealed by race

    • As slaves became more popular, there were less angry servants who would start their own plantations with their own slaves
    • English thought slavery was the most personal form of degradation yet were very tolerant of it put on Indians or blacks, more so than other Europeans
    • White’s enslavement of other races was their most common relationship and their superiority was legally recognized
    • Slaves in the South were worked to death less and their numbers increased naturally by raising children under better circumstances than in the West Indies
    • Although children were considered property that could be sold and bought, slave families could spend time together as a family

                            Had alone time, gardens for food and free time after finishing tasks

    • As more slaves spoke a common language, English, they gained more power and could escape longer
    • Masters started treating them better to make their slaves more cooperative
    • The US received a small percentage of imported slaves, but those slaves produced many children, many with non-Africans
    • The strain of blacks-whites relationship depended on the environment

                            Tobacco plantations with maximum 100 slaves, rice with 30

    • The plantation itself was like a community, especially when by a river
    • The master’s manor would be surrounded by attendant buildings and slave barns
    • Slaves worked in the field or house, making the plantation largely self-sufficient

                            White or black artisans, carpenters, blacksmiths, tailor, cobbler

    • The river connected the plantation with others and London, making it very social
    • The wealthiest planter often directed and helped out smaller farmers, who in turn would usually vote for him in the assembly out of respect
    • These men were active in the community and learned how to deal with people
    • Everyone started to value their own freedom as more learned of slavery

    The New England Town

    • The New England town was built by Puritanism and past experience in England

                            Boroughs, villages and parishes

    • Boroughs were allowed to send 2 to Parliament, elected by freemen/burgesses, in addition to a mayor and council of alderman for local affairs-often very powerful
    • Villages were a cluster of houses who shared the land and farming duties in an open field system, later giving way to individual farms           
    • Parishes incorporated everyone and were originally an area served by a single church but became a small government of itself
    • There were 10-20 vestrymen or 2-3 church wardens who held the power

                            Took care of church, poor, children, taxes and was sometimes a jury

    • New England towns combined all 3 communities but modified them as they liked
    • Puritans got together at Church like a town and covered the same amount of land
    • Notably, the Church and officials had no political power and focused on religion
    • The towns were created by the colony’s General Court, or legislature
    • They would give proprietor’s land that was run like a village, with some land reserved for buildings, and each man receiving scattered parcels of land
    • Most land was undistributed-called commons-and controlled by the proprietors to sell or grant to the anticipated new settlers, or became private property
    • Proprietors control of the commons did not guarantee control in the government
    • Town meetings met to discuss town and citizen affairs, elect officials and representatives for the colonial assembly
    • For the most part, voting was done by freemen-church members and other free males approved by the freemen, though they could not vote for the representatives
    • At first, there were no conflicts of interest between the proprietors, since most members were proprietors, and everyone felt a strong sense of community
    • Conflicts arose by the early 1700s, when many left to find more land, the remaining commons were argued over and religious problems started
    • New, less closely knit towns were being formed with the govt. more interested in real estate, proprietors in private profit and settlers in consolidated land
    • Despite these issues, the towns remained friendly and citizens good-natured
    • Everyone attended Church, though few were “members” (and became increasingly female), and had a say in the minister (who’s salary was their taxes)
    • Men also met to train for the militia, very important in new frontier towns susceptible to Indians, while in older towns men met at the tavern for a drink
    • New Englanders were close with each other, yet independent enough to be satisfied there

    The Farm

    • Most colonists south of New England cultivated land like Europeans but were more distanced from each other
    • American farms were larger and took longer to cultivate, which isolated farmers

                            Plot would be cleared, planted until infertile, abandoned while the farmers moved on, and would eventually reforest

    • This technique got the most crop for the least labor, but Europeans disliked it
    • Many farms became tenants
    • Speculators would buy land when it was cheap in the back country then sell it or rent it out for a higher price to profit from the increasing population
    • New England’s population grew, despite many diseases, from families arriving, more children and living longer
    • The South’s population only soared in the 1700s when more women, immigrants and slaves came and the death rare lowered
    • While most southern immigrants were slaves, middle colonies got a lot of immigrants from North Ireland and Germany who would become farmers
    • Farmers met at taverns to buy goods and became wealthier, yet had almost not organized community
    • Anglican churches attempted parishes but people were too sparse and many were not Anglican, as branches such as Baptists and Presbyterians sent missionaries
    • Colonial farmers would rely on the county court to meet with each other, which was the most crucial form of govt. and found everywhere
    • Family life was very important as what couldn’t be found in the community had to be found at home

                            School, hospital, church

    • Many homes were populated with grandparents, parents and many children, though most would leave for their own farms
    • The farmer’s self-sufficiency was the typical American way of life in the 1700s, though many eventually migrated to similar places

    The City

    • Cities were dramatically different from the farms and for many farmers were just temptation and extravagance
    • Merchants were essential
    • They traded corn, cattle, etc. for molasses to make rum from the West Indies, sometimes slaves, and furs and skins for masts, wool and hardware from England
    • Ship makers, instrument makers, retail traders, millers and coopers relied on them
    • Many other jobs relied solely on other people nearby, like teachers or craftsmen
    • Problems unique to the city included theft, vice, filth, traffic, fires and poverty, which would rise when trade was bad because so many jobs depended on it
    • In Boston, NY and Newport they controlled officials responsible for them but had no say in Charleston or Philadelphia, and relied on volunteers anyway for help
    • Cities grew larger than English ones, except London
    • Boston was first at the top for shipping in the NE but declined from competition
    • NY served farmers in the Hudson Valley, NJ and CT while Philadelphia became one of the largest English speaking cities, serving PA, DE and the south
    • When wheat farmers needed an outlet and sold grain to merchants in the 1760s and ‘70s, Charleston and Norfolk and other southern cities sprung up
    • City goers were well in touch with England and the world, and despite making up a small percentage, they were the most influential and informed Americans

    The Emerging American Mind

    • Until the mid-1700s, most thought of America simply as a place
    • Most Americans thought of themselves as English/British, though they adapted that heritage differently for each region
    • Some ideas became unique in America, paving the way for American nationalism

    Responsible Representative Government

    • English representative govt. came to America and changed once there, starting in the Middle Ages with the House of Common
    • The House’s problems started when virtually abandoned boroughs still sent reps. while newer more populous towns would not
    • Few were allowed to vote, and even then they were mainly meaningless since reps. would be predetermined by themselves, until these elite were divided
    • The House defended this by saying each member reps. the country, not 1 area
    • Colonial assemblies were more representative since more could vote, although some still did not, and had a better time keeping up with expansion than England
    • American assemblymen represented the people who chose him and put them first
    • They were watched much more closely than in England

    Clergy and Laity

    • Americans wanted the clergymen to serve, not rule them like the Anglican Church
    • Raising taxes to support itself in some states was the most political power the Church would have
    • Ministers were highly respected but had no secular power for Puritans
    • Anglican Americans never got a bishop, so while the North constantly asked for them, clergymen in the South came and went as no bishop authorizes their status
    • The Anglican church didn’t send a bishop probably because Anglicans were in the minority of a diverse group of sects, making it harder to one dominate the others

    The Great Awakening

    • In the 1740s, George Whitefield combined Calvinism with entertainment, acting out Hell and scaring people into conversion, creating the Great Awakening
    • This technique of dramatization for conversion was imitated by many
    • Gilbert Tennant, John Davenport
    • It affected all classes, particularly from Jonathan Edwards, who made it academic
    • He emphasized the emotional aspect of God with a stricter Calvinist doctrine
    • Many ministers disapproved of this movement, while people would oust their old ministers for this who preached more extreme beliefs and were more exclusive
    • When the hype died down, all denominations, esp. Calvinists-split
    • Old Lights were against the revival and questioned the Calvinist doctrine, making the road for Unitarianism, Universalism and deism
    • New Lights decided their minister had to be saved himself, but often kicked them out when many decided their religious intellect to be a bad thing
    • Eventually, the Awakening became the New Divinity when Edwards’ beliefs were examined closely and twisted in ways only the clergy could understand
    • Americans abandoned these clergymen, deciding they weren’t serving them, and shopped around for a denomination that suited them in the variety in America

    Education

    • Americans were better educated and less in awe of govt./church than Europeans
    • Most Protestants in NE felt obligated to read the Bible and to teach children to do so, thus having a higher literacy rate,
    • Most rates, amongst free males, not including slaves, were higher than England
    • By the mid-1700s, almost every colony had a printing press, used actively for newspapers for abroad and other colonies, essays, literature, pamphlets, etc.
    • Harvard was founded in 1636 and included the liberal arts along with theology
    • Many other, similar colleges (Yale) were founded and attended by men of all different backgrounds-wealthy and farmers
    • The witchcraft hysteria started not due to lack of education but because most educated people believed it, and was less so than in Europe

    The Enlightenment

    • During the 15/1600s, people like Galileo and Newton started reexamining the universe and decided reason was the key to understanding it, convincing many
    • In doing so, they began seeing God as reasonable and passive, who created the universe and let it run by itself
    • The 1700s were called the Age of Reason
    • John Locke’s An Essay Concerning the Human Understanding concluded that knowledge came from opening the human mind to the world
    • Locke believed God gave humans sets of rules, but they had to enforce them
    • The govt. should be condemned if it did not protect people’s natural rights:

                            Life, liberty, property

    • Locke diminished absolute govt. and supported free trade, speech and thought
    • With reason, people thought the world would start to make sense and cease its mysteries and sins
    • The Enlightenment, another name, had profound impacts on Americans and was welcomed by many, from students to high society
    • Many became scientists themselves, recording American wildlife and astronomy and setting land marks in discovery

                            Mather and Boylston inoculated against smallpox, Rittenhouse replicated solar system

    • The Enlightenment meant more to Americans than Europeans as they always had new situations which could be solved by reason
    • Benjamin Franklin best represented the Enlightenment as a typical American who was successful in all endeavors from printing to inventing to experimenting
    • Franklin’s insistence on finding results was as strong as Americans insisting their govts. And churches did what they expected

    Social Structure

    • By the mid-1700s, status was less impressive in America than Europe
    • Franklin himself warned Americans looked more at skills than status
    • Europeans felt God made people unequal and the wealthy were given dignity and political power
    • American aristocrats had to fight to stay on top of the class system, and could lose their govt. power if they did not please the people
    • Both ends of the ladder had fewer rights than in Europe, as slavery was virtually nonexistent in Europe, and American slaves had no way of moving up
    • The average American was still better off, enjoying political/economic independence, from land ownership, and were armed to give themselves a muscle
    • In the 1700s, Americans started differing from English/Europeans and became more alike
    • In general (unless slaves), they were better educated, had more control over the authorities and lives and used various tools to get what they wanted

     

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The National Experience - Chapter 3 outline59 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Themes

    These American Pageant 13th edition notes are intended to provide you with a general understanding of the themes that are covered in the chapter. These can be helpful when writing US History essays and DBQs.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

    The over-arching theme of chapter 1 is the Old World meeting and clashing with the New World.

    1. In the New World, before Columbus, there were many different Native American tribes. These people were very diverse. In what’s today the U.S., there were an estimated 400 tribes, often speaking different languages. It’s inaccurate to think of “Indians” as a homogeneous group.
    2. Columbus came to America looking for a trade route to the East Indies (Spice Islands). Other explorers quickly realized this was an entirely New World and came to lay claim to the new lands for their host countries. Spain and Portugal had the head start on France and then England.
    3. The coming together of the two world had world changing effects. The biological exchange cannot be underestimated. Food was swapped back and forth and truly revolutionized what people ate. On the bad side, European diseases wiped out an estimated 90% of Native Americans.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

    The over-arching theme of chapter 2 is that the English colonies quickly gained a foothold and grew along the Atlantic coast of America.

    1. Jamestown, VA was founded with the initial goal of making money via gold. They found no gold, but did find a cash crop in tobacco.
    2. Other southern colonies sprouted up due to (a) the desire for more tobacco land as with North Carolina, (b) the desire for religious freedom as with Maryland, (c) the natural extension of a natural port in South Carolina, or (d) as a “second chance” colony as with Georgia.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

    The over-arching theme of chapter 3 is that the northern colonies were started out of religious fervor and they largely grew out of religious fervor.

    1. Plymouth, MA was founded with the initial goal of allowing Pilgrims, and later Puritans, to worship independent of the Church of England. Their society, ironically, was very intolerant itself and any dissenters were pushed out of the colony.
    2. Other New England colonies sprouted up, due to (a) religious dissent from Plymouth and Massachusetts as with Rhode Island, (b) the constant search for more farmland as in Connecticut, and (c) just due to natural growth as in Maine.
    3. The Middle Colonies emerged as the literal crossroads of the north and south. They held the stereotypical qualities of both regions: agricultural and industrial. And they were unique in that (a) New York was born of Dutch heritage rather than English, and (b) Pennsylvania thrived more than any other colony due to its freedoms and tolerance.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventeenth Century

    The over-arching theme of chapter 4 is that the American colonies quickly became unique as compared to any other land. And, that each region quickly assumed its own personality.

    1. The Southern colonies were dominated by agriculture, namely (a) tobacco in the Chesapeake and (b) rice and indigo further down the coast.
    2. Bacon’s Rebellion is very representative of the struggles of poor white indentured servants. Nathaniel Bacon and his followers took to arms to essentially get more land out west from the Indians. This theme of poor whites taking to arms for land, and in opposition to eastern authorities, will be repeated several times (Shay’s Rebellion, Paxton Boys, Whisky Rebellion).
    3. Taken altogether, the southern colonies were inhabited by a group of people who were generally young, independent-minded, industrious, backwoodsy, down home, restless and industrious.
    4. A truly unique African-American culture quickly emerged. Brought as slaves, black Americans blended aspects of African culture with American. Religion shows this blend clearly, as African religious ceremonies mixed with Christianity. Food and music also showed African-American uniqueness.
    5. New Englanders developed a Bible Commonwealth—a stern but clear society where the rules of society were dictated by the laws of the Bible. This good-vs-evil society is best illustrated by the Salem witch trials.
    6. Taken altogether, the northern colonies were inhabited by a group of people who grew to be self-reliant, stern, pious, proud, family oriented, sharp in thought and sharp of tongue, crusty, and very industrious.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

    The over-arching theme of chapter 5 is that the American colonies quickly became unique from any other country. Although the people came from established nations, they blended into “Americans.”

    1. The Americans were very diverse for that time period. New England was largely from English background, New York was Dutch, Pennsylvania was German, the Appalachian frontier was Scots-Irish, the southern coast African-American and English, and there were spots of French, Swiss, and Scots-Highlanders.
    2. Although they came from different origins, the ethnicities were knowingly or what mingling and melting together into something called “Americans.”
    3. Most people were farmers, an estimated 90%. The northern colonies held what little industry America had at the time: shipbuilding, iron works, rum running, trade, whaling, fishing. The south dealt with crops, slaves, and naval stores.
    4. There were two main Protestant denominations: the Congregational Church up north, and the Anglican Church down south. Both were “established” meaning tax money went to the church. Poised for growth were the “backwoods” faiths of the Baptists and Methodists that grew by leaps thanks to the Great Awakening.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - Duel for North America

    The over-arching theme of chapter 6 is that England defeated France to gain control over North America.

    1. Two dominant cultures emerged in the 1700s in North America: (a) England controlled the Atlantic seaboard from Georgia to Maine, and (b) France controlled the area of Quebec and along the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi River.
    2. New England consisted of towns made up by farmers. They cleared the land and pushed the Indians out. New France was made up of fur trading outposts. They were scattered and lived with and often worked with the Indians in the forests and streams.
    3. Like cats and dogs, England and France cannot live together that close. While separated, they were fine, but the two cultures began to rub against one another in the Ohio Valley. This started the French and Indian War.
    4. The French and Indian War saw the English defeat France. France was totally kicked out of North America.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

    The over-arching theme of chapter 7 is how England repeatedly forced its laws and regulations down the unappreciative Americans’ throats; and eventually led to bloodshed.

    1. Following the French and Indian War, the British crown needed money and figured the Americans could help pay for the war.
    2. Also, the economic policy of mercantilism dictated that England try to keep its hard money within the British Empire. So, laws were passed to restrict American trade.
    3. The taxes and regulations that followed were not received well by the Americans, notably the Stamp Act.
    4. Conditions deteriorated and radical patriots brought matters to a head in events such as the Tea Party and Boston Massacre. Even though most Americans would be considered moderates at the time, the radical patriots were the ones making things happen.
    5. The culmination of the patriots’ activities came at Lexington and Concord, when the American Revolution began.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - American Secedes from the Empire

    The over-arching theme of chapter 8 is that America drew out the American Revolution, and in doing so, won.

    1. Nearly every advantage on paper went to Britain during the revolution. They had better troops, training, a much better navy, experienced generals, more money, better weapons and equipment.
    2. The Americans had on their side heart and geography. America was very big and and ocean removed from England.
    3. Perhaps due to necessity rather than plan, American employed a drawn-out strategy where the war drug on for six years. America won by constantly withdrawing to the nation’s interior and moving on to fight another day.
    4. Meanwhile, as the war waged, the Declaration of Independence was written, signed, and approved.

    The Treaty of Paris 1763 legitimized the new nation.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

    The over-arching theme of chapter 9 is that the new nation started out of fear of a strong government. And then, out of necessity, strengthened the government.

    1. The Articles of Confederation, the first government set up after the American Revolution, was structured out of fear of a too-strong government. Therefore, the Articles were very weak on purpose.
    2. Two things showed the Articles as being too weak to the point of being sterile: (a) it could not regulate commerce and the money situation was growing dim fast and (b) Shays’ Rebellion frightened many to the possibility that mobs might just take over and the government might be too weak to stop them. Due to these reasons, the Constitutional Convention was held.
    3. The Constitution was written as something of a balancing act between strengthening the government, yet making sure it doesn’t get too strong to take over. The resulting government was indeed stronger, but also a system of checks and balances were put into place to ensure no one branch becomes like the king had been.
    4. After some negotiating, mostly with the promise of the Bill of Rights, the Constitution was ratified.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

    The over-arching theme of chapter 10 is that President Washington, and especially Secretary of State

    1. Alexander Hamilton, get the U.S. on a solid foothold. With the Bill of Rights quickly ratified, the top problem the new nation faced was financial in nature.
    2. Secretary of State Alexander Hamilton developed a plan that included (a) starting a national tariff, (b) starting a tax on whiskey, (c) setting up a national bank, and (d) paying off the national debt.
    3. Politics quickly fell into two camps: (a) those who followed Thomas Jefferson became the “Democratic-Republicans” and (b) those who followed Alexander Hamilton became the “Federalists.”
    4. Turmoil broke out Europe with the French Revolution, mostly between England and France. The U.S. nearly got sucked into European issues, but both Washington and John Adams kept the America out of war. This was best for the U.S.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic

    The over-arching theme of chapter 11 is that although Jefferson floundered a bit with foreign affairs, the fantastic Louisiana Purchase seemed to make up for everything.

    1. Jefferson’s election was considered a “revolution” because he represented the common people for the first time.
    2. Troubles in North Africa and between England and France emerged. Jefferson’s actions were sluggish.
    3. Trying to again avoid war with England or France, Jefferson bumbled around with an embargo. His theory was that the only way to avoid war was to stop interaction between U.S. ships and Europe. The overall effect was to kill U.S. trade and enrage the merchants and businessmen up North.
    4. The Louisiana Purchase came as a complete surprise and quickly doubled the size of the U.S.
    5. James Madison picked up where Jefferson left off with the embargo in trying to avoid war. But, young western Congressmen wanted war to possibly gain new land, to squelch Indian troubles, and defend the “free seas.” They declared the War of 1812 with England.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

    The over-arching theme of chapter 12 is how the young U.S. proved itself to the rest of the world. The U.S. did this by “sticking up” for herself against Britain in the War of 1812. This caused American patriotism to surge.

    1. The U.S. vs. England fighting had a few themes: (a) U.S. lost in Canada, (b) U.S. surprisingly won at sea, (c) the two split in the Chesapeake, and (d) the U.S. won the big battle at New Orleans.
    2. The war was not universally supported. Mostly, the North opposed the war since it was bad for trade. The South and West generally favored the war.
    3. After the war, the U.S. could focus on herself, as with the “American System” to build up the economy.
    4. In terms of expansion, a few things happened: (a) the Missouri Compromise drew an East-West line to separate slave and free states, (b) Oregon and Florida became American lands, and (c) the Monroe Doctrine warned Europe to “stay away!”
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Rise of a Mass Democracy

    The over-arching theme of chapter 13 is that through Andrew Jackson, political power fell to the people more than any other time in history.

    1. Andrew Jackson felt he’d been robbed the presidency in 1824. This motivated the regular folks to political action. He vowed to win for the people’s sake, and did so.
    2. A conflict started to brew between the north and the south. The issue was the tariff (import tax) and whether the south had the right to “nullify” or wipe it out. The trouble was worked out, but it foreshadowed bigger trouble to come, over slavery.
    3. Jackson distrusted banks—he thought they were tools for the rich to milk money off the poor. He killed the National Bank and threw the whole banking system into chaos.
    4. By the time William Henry Harrison ran for president in 1840, popular, mass politics had grown into the circus-like monster that it’s known as today.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - Forging the National Economy

    The over-arching theme of chapter 14 is that American began to “grow up” economically in the early 1800s.

    1. A wave of immigration came over starting in the 1840s, headed up by hungry Irish and Germans seeking a better life. Both of these groups were looked upon with suspicion, but they were hard workers and did well for themselves.
    2. The factory system was in its infancy, led by Eli Whitney’s “interchangeable parts” Cyrus McCormick’s mechanical reaping machine paved the way for modern agriculture.
    3. Changes were foreshadowed including women beginning to work outside the home.
    4. The nation became “smaller” and tied together more closely thanks to (a) railroads being built, (b) canals such as the Erie, (c) steamships, and (d) the Pony Express.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

    The over-arching theme of chapter 15 is that Americans began to recognize problems and began attempts to clean them up. The major areas were religion, temperance (no alcohol), women's rights, and equality.

    1. The "Second Great Awakening" began in the 1830s. It's purpose was to wake people from lackluster religion and, like the First Great Awakening, was led by passionate and emotional preachers.
    2. The Mormons emerged from these beginnings and wandered westward to the Great Salt Lake.
    3. Free public schools began in large measure.
    4. There was push to ban alcohol called "temperance." This was led by the ladies; they felt the way to save the family was to ban alcohol.
    5. The first women's rights convention was held at Seneca Falls, NY. They asserted that all men, and women were created equal.
    6. Many "utopia experiments" began. The overall mission was to perfect society and create true equality. Most simply failed and none of them succeeded in the ways envisioned.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

    The over-arching theme of chapter 16 is that antebellum (pre-Civil War) society in the South was built on slave labor.

    1. Cotton ran the South before the Civil War— it was "King Cotton." The entire southern economy was based on cotton.
    2. The South had developed a pyramid-like social structure. From top-to-bottom: planter aristocrats, small farmers, the white majority (who owned no slaves), free blacks, slaves.
    3. Life as a slave could be wildly varied—some slave owners were kind toward their slaves, some were immensely cruel. In all situations, slaves were not free to do as they pleased.
    4. Abolition (move to abolish slavery) began with the Quakers. Frederick Douglass became the main spokesman against slavery. And William Lloyd Garrison printed "The Liberator", a radical abolition newspaper.
    5. Southerners countered that northern workers were treated even worse than slaves. Slave owners, they said, had a vested interest in their slaves. Northern factory workers exploited then fired their workers.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

    The over-arching theme of chapter 17 is that the United States chose to pursue a national policy of expansion called “Manifest Destiny.” The U.S. chose to expand it’s borders, and then did it.

    1. A boundary dispute with England over Maine was settled peacably. In the long run, the U.S. likely got the better end of the deal.
    2. Texas finally joined the U.S. Since the Texas revolution, it’d been hanging in the balance. American lawmakers finally decided it was too good of a prize to let slip by, so it was annexed in 1845
    3. Oregon was next on the list of lands to seal up. It was shared land, mainly between the U.S. and England. After some negotiating over the border, the 49th parallel was agreed upon. Again, the U.S. likely got the better.
    4. The election of 1844 saw James K. Polk run on a Manifest Destiny platform. Americans liked the idea, voted him in, and he went after California.
    5. When the Mexican-American war was over, the prize of California that Polk had wanted, was obtained. So was all of the modern American Southwest.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

    The over-arching theme of chapter 18 is that the nation again fell into sectional dispute over slavery and states’ rights.

    1. The main question facing the nation was, “Will new lands won from Mexico have slaves or be free?”
    2. The answer to the question was hammered out in the Compromise of 1850. It said California was to be free, popular sovereignty (the people decide) for the rest of the lands.
    3. A tougher fugitive slave law was a major concession to the South, but it wasn’t enforced. This angered the Southerners.
    4. The North—South rift was widened with the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It repealed the Missouri Compromise which had kept the peace for a generation. In it’s place, popular sovereignty opened the Great Plains to potential slavery. Whereas the slave-land issue had been settled, now it was a big question mark.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - Drifting Toward Disunion

    The over-arching theme of chapter 19 is that compromise had prevailed earlier over the slavery issue, but this time, it failed.

    1. Uncle Tom’s Cabin drove a wedge between the Northerner and Southerner. The South cried foul saying it gave a view of slavery that was too harsh and unrealistic, but it cemented each section’s feelings on the issue.
    2. Kansas became the battleground over slavery. Since slavery there was to be decided by popular vote, each side passionately fought for their position. Bloodshed resulted.
    3. The Supreme Court’s Dred Scott decision was huge. It said that Congress or a legislature cannot outlaw slavery in the territories. Effectively then, all new lands were possible slave lands.
    4. A financial panic in 1857 added to the chaos and uncertainty.
    5. Abe Lincoln arrived on the scene. Although he lost to Stephen Douglas for Illinois Senate, he made a name for himself there.
    6. In 1860, Abe Lincoln won a very sectional race for president over 3 other candidates. The South had promised to leave the union if Abe won. He won, and the South indeed seceded.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Girding for War: The North and the South

    The over-arching theme of chapter 20 is that both sides prepared for war. The North relied on numbers to their advantage, the South hoped for England to intervene on their side, and the border states were in the balance.

    1. After Ft. Sumter started the war, keeping the border states were Abe’s top concern. These were slave states that hadn’t left the nation. Throughout the war, Abe would make concessions to “keep them happy.” The border states never left.
    2. All along the South felt that England would help them. The idea was that King Cotton’s dominance would force the English into helping the Southerners. This never happened, largely because Uncle Tom’s Cabin had convinced the English people of slavery’s horrors.
    3. The North had the advantage in almost every category: population, industry, money, navy.

    Both sides turned to a draft, the nation’s first. The draft was very unpopular and many riots broke out.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 21 - The Furnace of the Civil War

    The over-arching theme of chapter 21 is that the North wore down and then forced the South to surrender.

    1. The North thought they could win in a quick war. After they lost at Bull Run, the quick-victory approach seemed to have been a mistake. A northern loss on “the Peninsula” at Richmond reinforced that this would be a long war.
    2. The South started the war winning. Turning point battles, which the North won, took place at (a) Antietam just before Lincoln’s “Emancipation Proclamation”, (b) Gettysburg which effectively broke the South’s back, and (c) Vicksburg which helped the North control the Mississippi River.
    3. Lincoln won a hard-fought reelection in 1864. He did so by starting the “Union Party” made of Republicans and pro-war Democrats and on the simplicity of the slogan, “You don’t change horses midstream.”
    4. General Sherman marched across Georgia and the South and reaped destruction. And the South began to lose battle after battle. These events drove the South to surrender at Appomattox Courthouse.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 22 - The Ordeal of Reconstruction

    The over-arching theme of chapter 22 is that the South was placed under strict watch for years after the Civil War. Southern blacks saw some brief improvements, until the U.S. pulled back up North and left Southern blacks “hanging out to dry.”

    1. After the war, the question was, “What to do with the southern states?” The more moderate Republicans, like Lincoln and his successor Andrew Johnson, lost out to the Radical Republicans who desired to punish the South.
    2. The South was divided up into military districts. The southern states were not allowed to reenter the U.S. until the North’s stipulations were met.
    3. For Southern blacks, these years were good politically. Since whites wanted nothing to do with the U.S., blacks voted and were often elected to state legislatures and Congress.
    4. Economically, freed blacks fared worse. They were no longer slaves, but with little other options, they largely became sharecroppers. The end result was little different and little better than slavery.
    5. In 1877, a presidential election was essentially a tie. A compromise was worked out, and the South got the U.S. Army to pull out. This left the southern blacks on their own—southern whites reasserted their power.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 23 - Political Paralysis in the Gilded Age

    The over-arching theme of chapter 23 is that the Republicans and Democrats fell into an era of do-little politics. Each was concerned only with getting their party reelected.

    1. President Ulysses S. Grant’s administration was riddled with corruption. Grant himself was clean, but many others were not and Grant was unwilling to fire them.
    2. The political parties fell into the trap of serving themselves more than the people. Their top priority was to get their party reelected. As a result, little actually got done in the government.
    3. Tensions rose over race and ethnicity. When the U.S. Army pulled out of the South as part of the Compromise of 1877, Reconstruction was over and southern blacks were left to fend for themselves. Also, anti-Chinese sentiment ran high and the Chinese were actually banned from immigration.
    4. The government did reach the billion dollar level for the first time. This was largely due to military pension plans. The plans were very popular and revealed the goal of the legislators—pass something that will get me reelected.
    5. Populism started. This was a farmer and worker movement that sought to clean up the government, bring it back to the people, and help the working man out.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 24 - Industry Comes of Age

    The over-arching theme of chapter 24 is that America’s economy turns from agricultural and handiwork to industrial and machine work.

    1. Before the Civil War, railroads had become important. After the war, railroads boomed and were critical to the nation. Railroads, along with steel, were to be the skeleton on which the nation’s economy would be built.
    2. A class of millionaires emerged for the first time ever. Tycoons like Carnegie and Rockefeller made fortunes. This type of wealth was championed by “Social Darwinism” where the strong win in business.
    3. Unfortunately, many of the mega-industries, like railroads, grew at the expense of the “little man’s” interest. As businesses, they were out to make money, and they did. But the working man cried foul.
    4. To right these wrongs, the beginnings of anti-trusts began (to bust the monopolies) and organized labor got a jumpstart (although they were still rather ineffective).
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 25 - America Moves to the City

    The over-arching theme of chapter 25 is that in the late 1800s, the Industrial Revolution forced the American city to gain dominance over rural America.

    1. Cities grew because factories grew. The Industrial Revolution kicked into gear in America in the late 1800s and factories needed workers, so people flocked to the cities.
    2. Problems arose as cities boomed. The problems included: exploitation of immigrant laborers, poor/unhealthy work conditions, over-crowdedness and sanitation problems, corrupton, and “nativism” (anti-immigrant feelings).
    3. Booker T. Washington & W.E.B. DuBois were the top black leaders. They disagreed on how to help blacks—Washington encouraged blacks to obtain a practical skill at a trade school, DuBois encouraged blacks to study anything they wished, even academic subjects.
    4. The roles of women began to change, if only slightly. More women worked, though most were still at home. The “new woman” was idealized by the althletic, outgoing “Gibson Girl.”
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 26 - The Great West and the Agricultural Revolution

    The over-arching theme of chapter 26 is the West was opened up for settlement. This meant the Native Americans were forced out for farmers, miners, and ranchers.

    1. Native Americans out West faced two options: agree to settle on a reservation or fight the U.S. Army as “hostiles.” Some chose reservations, others to fight, but all were cleared out.
    2. Miners looking for silver and/or gold fled to Colorado and Nevada seeking quick fortune. A few found it, the vast majority didn’t.
    3. Cattle became king in Texas as cowboys drove herds north to the Kansas railroads and reaped quick money.
    4. Farmers struggled out west due to several problems: weather, insects, high mortgage rates, high railroad shipping rates, and low prices for their crops.
    5. The farmers’ struggles led to the People’s (or Populist) Party. This party sought “cheap money” (or silver money) in order to create inflation and thus make it easier to pay off debts.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 27 - Empire and Expansion

    The over-arching theme of chapter 27 is that America took over new lands, mostly in the Caribbean and the Pacific.

    1. The Spanish-American War saw the U.S. gain Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guantanomo Bay in Cuba, the Philippines, and other smaller islands.
    2. The Philippines proved to be hard to handle since the Filipino people didn’t want the U.S. there. They waged a guerilla war and resented American control until it was turned back over to the Philippines after WWII.
    3. The U.S. managed to get an “Open Door Policy” with China. This opened the Asian giant to international trade.
    4. Teddy Roosevelt became a vigorous president who obtained and built the Panama Canal. His “Big Stick Policy” toward Latin America increased America’s influence, but also increased animosity toward the U.S.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 28 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

    The over-arching theme of chapter 28 is that reformers called “Progressives” sought to clean up America on behalf of the people. Teddy Roosevelt became the best-known and most active Progressive.

    1. The Progressives grew out of the Populist (or People’s) Party and sought to correct injustices.
    2. Progressives and “muckraker” writers attacked city corruption, corporate greed, poor living and working conditions, alcohol, and women’s right to vote. Each of these ills saw laws and/or Amendments passed to attempt to better the condition.
    3. Teddy Roosevelt made a name for himself as a “trust-buster”. That is, he broke up a few high-profile companies that he said were monopolies (or trusts). Busting trusts and thus creating competition was to benefit the average person.
    4. He also obtained huge tracts of land, usually out West, for parks and conservation.
    5. Roosevelt picked Taft to follow him, but Taft began to stray from Roosevelt’s ways and the two split.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 29 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

    The over-arching theme of chapter 29 is that Woodrow Wilson was an idealist (he had high principles and would not bend them for practical purposes).

    1. Wilson won the presidency mainly because Teddy Roosevelt ran as a third-party candidate and split the Republican vote with Taft.
    2. Wilson was an idealist and progressive who sought to clean up problems. He attacked the tariff as too high, banks as corrupt by the rich, and trusts as milking the people.
    3. Wilson hated war and wanted American foreign policy to be fair and just to all. Conditions in Latin America, however, forced this peaceful president to take military action. Notably, he ordered the US Army to chase Pancho Villa in Mexico.
    4. In Europe, war had begun. In the Atlantic ocean, German subs began to sink sinks carrying Americans, notably the Lusitania. Wilson tried to keep America out of the war, and did, for the time being.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - The War to End War

    The over-arching theme of chapter 30 is that America reluctantly joined WWI, she then threw herself into the war effort with full force.

    1. President Wilson outlined the war’s objectives with his Fourteen Points. They set the goals of free seas, self-determination after the war, and establishing a body to prevent future wars.
    2. A military draft was instituted, the first since the Civil War.
    3. Women went to work more than they’d ever done and black soldiers were drafted into the military into segregated units.
    4. The Americans focussed their military effort in protecting Paris from the Germans.
    5. At the Treaty of Versailles, Wilson agreed to allow England and France to punish Germany for the war. In return, they agreed to start Wilson’s “League of Nations.”
    6. However, the US Senate rejected the Treaty/League. They didn’t wish to turn over America’s decision-making to a foreign body like the League of Nations.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties"

    The over-arching theme of chapter 31 is that America clipped along through the 20s at a fast pace and ran through many cultural changes.

    1. A “red scare” struck America in the 20s. Fear of communism resonated through society and was fueled by mail bombings and illustrated by the Sacco and Vanzetti executions.
    2. Anti-immigration ran high as well. Laws were passed to limit immigration, and specifically, to limit “New Immigrants” from Italy and Poland.
    3. The “Scopes Monkey Trial” illustrated the new controversy of evolution vs. creation.
    4. Businesses had a good run in the 20s and consumers bought products wildly, often on credit or with an installment plan.
    5. Three Republican presidents were pro-business. The economy and consumers got to running too fast, and coupled with over-buying in the stock market, initiated the Stock Crash and Great Depression.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - The Politics of Boom and Bust

    The over-arching theme of chapter 32 is that 20s politics were a time of corruption and business running wild, kind of a throwback to late 1800s.

    1. President Harding had several scandals underneath him, notably the Teapot Dome Scandal over oil.
    2. America entered into policies of “isolationism” whereby the US just wanted to look after herself and leave Europe alone.
    3. Coolidge was very pro-business, following a “hands-off” approach by government.
    4. Hoover held the same ideas with his “rugged individualism” phrase. When the Stock Crash hit and Great Depression started, Hoover was very reluctant and slow to take government action.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

    The over-arching theme of chapter 33 is that FDR led the federal government into his massive New Deal programs. The goal was to re-invigorate the U.S. economy and jolt it right up out of the Great Depression.

    1. FDR quickly got many New Deal programs passed. The general philosophy was: the government will start massive projects and spend huge quantities of money, and this will “jump-start” the economy.
    2. These programs hit on all walks of life. Emphasis was placed on creating jobs, housing, construction projects, and restoring confidence in banks.
    3. Though FDR was popular, there were critics to the New Deal—some saying it did too much, others that it did too little.
    4. FDR pretty much had his way with Congress, until he asked for more Supreme Court judges and was finally told, “No.”
    5. All told, though the New Deal may have helped the economy a bit, it did not boost the U.S. from the Depression.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

    The over-arching theme of chapter 34 is that dictatorships overseas forced FDR to stray from American issues and look outside of the U.S. FDR wanted peace, but events slowly drew the U.S. closer and then into WWII.

    1. When it became evident that both Japan and Germany were marching toward militarism, FDR (and Europe) made it clear they wanted peace. This effectively gave the dictators a “go-ahead” sign.
    2. Events showed war as inevitable. Japan attacked China. Spain became a dictatorship, and Italy and Germany did as well.
    3. After watching Hitler go on the move, he finally broke a pledge to not attack Poland. England and France went to war. The U.S. still wanted to stay out.
    4. As the situation overseas deteriorated, the U.S. began to support England and France more openly with words and supplies. Finally, when Pearl Harbor was attacked, the U.S. entered WWII.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 35 - America in World War II

    The over-arching theme of chapter 35 is the U.S. fought a two-front war: in Europe and in the Pacific. To win, America mobilized its massive resources of people and materials, then steadily fought to overwhelm the enemy.

    1. The first goal of the U.S. in the war was to mobilize. This meant signing up thousands of troops, and switching the American economy over to war. For example, it was time to stop making sedans, and start building bombers.
    2. The war affected all Americans. Men (of all races) went to war and women took the jobs the men had left.
    3. In the Pacific, the U.S. “island hopped” over four years from Hawaii all the way to Okinawa and were “knocking on Japan’s door.” Finally, the atomic bomb drove Japan to surrender.
    4. In Europe, the U.S. and her allies worked from North Africa up through Italy and toward the “soft underbelly” of Germany. Then, the massive D-Day invasion drove the Nazis back to Germany where Hitler committed suicide and his generals surrendered.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 36 - The Cold War Begins

    The over-arching theme of chapter 36 is that post-war America found a new prosperity economically and a new enemy in communist Russia. Opposition to communism would dominate foreign policy for over 40 years.

    1. The production boom of WWII jolted America out of the Great Depression. With other nations torn up by war, America enjoyed an economic dominance for three decades following WWII.
    2. The policy of “containment”, or not letting communism spread, was the basis of the “Truman doctrine.” This policy was drove foreign policy until communism fell in 1989.
    3. With the Marshall Plan, the U.S. gave billions to rebuild western Europe. The Marshall Plan, NATO (alliance between U.S. and Western Europe), the U.S.S.R. and U.S. chose opposite sides of the fence.
    4. When North Korea invaded South Korea, the policy of containment was challenged. The U.S. entered the Korean War to uphold the Truman Doctrine.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 37 - The Eisenhower Era

    The over-arching theme of chapter 37 is how 1950s America entered a period of conformity where middle-class America largely shared the same ideals and to do differently was a major no-no.

    1. American enjoyed its new prosperity and bought up loads of consumer items to go along with new homes. The “baby boom” also began.
    2. “McCarthyism” played off of, and added to, America’s fears of communism.
    3. Black—white segregation in the South became rigid. But, the foundation of the civil rights movement was laid with events such as the Brown v. Board of Education case and Montgomery bus boycott.
    4. The Cold War dominated culture. Incidents between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., such as America’s U-2 spy plane being shot down, added to the tension. Plus, a new “arms race” of nuclear weapons, and a “space race” to develop satellites and rockets began.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 38 - The Stormy Sixties

    The over-arching theme of chapter 38 is that the 1960s were a decade of upheaval. Abroad, the Vietnam War drug throughout the decade; at home, cultural changes were staggering.

    1. John Kennedy bumbled over foreign policy with his failed Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba; then redeemed himself by standing up to the U.S.S.R. in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
    2. JFK also sent U.S. “advisors” to South Vietnam. The goal was to prevent communist North Vietnam from taking over non-communist South Vietnam.
    3. The Civil Rights Movement gained steam and reached full boil with Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream Speech.” The Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act were large steps forward toward ending discrimination.
    4. Lyndon Baines Johnson fought two “wars”: (a) at home, he started the “Great Society” in attempt to make America the place everyone had dreamt it would be, (b) he significantly escalated the U.S. presence in Vietnam after the Tonkin Gulf Incident.
    5. Culturally, young people rebelled against the conformity of the 50s. In the 60s, the norm for many became to not follow the norm. This was seen mostly in the hippies, in music, in drug use, and in the idea of “questioning authority.”
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 39 - The Stalemated Seventies

    The over-arching theme of chapter 39 was that America’s post-war economic prosperity began to take a sharp slide downward.

    1. The economy began to slow. This was mostly due to increased oil prices and resulting inflation. Generally speaking, during the seventies, gas prices tripled and inflation reached double digits by 1980.
    2. Nixon was brought down by the Watergate Scandal. The scandal involved a break-in and mic bugging at the Democratic headquarters. Nixon got into trouble for “obstructing justice” and telling people to keep quiet about it.
    3. Jimmy Carter was elected as a Washington outsider. He struggled as president with (a) the economy which took a nose-dive and (b) foreign affairs as he was unable to deal with U.S. hostages taken in Iran.
    4. Though times were certainly not bad, mixed with the Watergate scandal, it was a decade without tremendous progress.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 40 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

    The over-arching theme of chapter 40 is that Ronald Reagan returned America to more traditional policies and values.

    1. Conservatism emerged through Reagan who supported tax cuts, “supply-side” economics that helped businesses, and a strengthening of the military. The national debt increased dramatically, largely due to increased military spending.
    2. Reagan took a strong stance against communism, calling the U.S.S.R. the “evil empire.”
    3. When Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union, tensions began to soften. Gorbachev’s actions within the U.S.S.R. would eventually lead to communism’s fall in 1989.
    4. In 1991, Iraq invaded Kuwait. This started an international effort to oust Iraq, led by George H. W. Bush and the U.S.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 41 - America Confronts the Post-Cold War Era

    The over-arching themes of chapter 41 is that Bill Clinton and the federal government largely bumbled through eight years of presidency yet enjoyed a robust economy. And George W. Bush took the “War on Terror” overseas to Afghanistan and Iraq.

    1. Entering the White House in 1992, Clinton came with a desire to make several liberal reforms such as gays in the military and universal government-sponsored health care. Most of these were over-estimated and did not pan out.
    2. Two years later, the Republicans, led by Newt Gingrinch, won large numbers in Congress. Then they also over-estimated the call for change.
    3. Problems abroad were also a thorn in Clinton’s side, including chaos in Somalia where the U.S. entered and then left, trade policies with China, ethnic fighting in the Balkans where the U.S. and NATO tried to clean up the mess.
    4. The 2000 election between George W. Bush and Al Gore was the closest in history, and likely the most controversial. Gore got more popular votes, but after counts and recounts in Florida, Bush got more electoral votes and won.
    5. On September 11, 2001, radical Muslim terrorists attacked the U.S. by hijacking airplanes. This motivated President Bush to attack Afghanistan in hopes of (a) ousting the Taliban rulers and (b) uprooting the terrorists.
    6. Believing Saddam Hussein had “WMDs” (weapons of mass destruction) Bush and Congress elected to attack Iraq. Hussein was captured and the U.S. set up a new Iraqi government. Chaos in the streets remained, however, and the rest of the story is still being written.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 42 - The American People Face a New Century

    The over-arching theme of chapter 42 is that America faces new challenges in the future.

    1. The high-tech sector has revolutionized the modern nation. Personal computers are the norm and the internet came in a boom (and a bust). A handful of tech firms and founders became instant billionaires.
    2. The rich-poor gap widened as the wealthy got wealthier during the ReaganBushClinton years. The rich did get richer, and they paid an increasing percentage of the total taxes.
    3. Women broke into many places formerly reserved for men. This was true for both jobs, but also for colleges such as Ivy League schools and military schools.
    4. Family make-up began to change dramatically as divorce increased sharply. Births to unmarried women also increased dramatically.
    5. Demographic changes are seen in (a) baby boomers aging, (b) a large rise in Latino immigration, and (c) a rise of “multiculturalism”.
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Vocabulary Terms

    Key vocabulary terms for the corresponding chapter in the American Pageant, 11th Edition textbook.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 01 - New World Beginnings

    Aztecs
    The Azetcs were a Native American Empire who lived in Mexico. Their capital was Tenochtitlan. They worshipped everything around them especially the sun. Cortes conquered them in 1521.

    Pueblo Indians
    The Pueblo Indians lived in the Southwestern United States. They built extensive irrigation systems to water their primary crop, which was corn. Their houses were multi-storied buildings made of adobe.

    Joint Stock Companies
    These were developed to gather the savings from the middle class to support finance colonies. Ex. London Company and Plymouth Company.

    Spanish Armada
    "Invincible" group of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England in 1588; Armada was defeated by smaller, more maneuverable English "sea dogs" in the Channel; marked the beginning of English naval dominance and fall of Spanish dominance.

    black legend
    The idea developed during North American colonial times that the Spanish utterly destroyed the Indians through slavery and disease while the English did not. It is a false assertion that the Spanish were more evil towards the Native Americans than the English were.

    Conquistadores
    Spanish explorers that invaded Central and South America for it's riches during the 1500's. In doing so they conquered the Incas, Aztecs, and other Native Americans of the area. Eventually they intermarried these tribes.

    Renaissance
    After the Middle Ages there was a rebirth of culture in Europe where art and science were developed. It was during this time of enrichment that America was discovered.

    Canadian Shield
    geological shape of North America; 10 million years ago; held the northeast corner of North America in place; the first part of North America to come above sea level.

    Mound Builders
    The mound builders of the Ohio River Valley and the Mississippian culture of the lower Midwest did sustain some large settlements after the incorporation of corn planting into their way of life during the first millennium AD. The Mississippian settlement at Cohokia, near present-day East St. Louis, Ill., was perhaps home to 40,000 people in about AD 1100. But mysteriously, around the year 1300, both the Mound Builder and the Mississippian cultures had fallen to decline.

    Montezuma
    Aztec chieftan; encountered Cortes and the Spanish and saw that they rode horses; Montezuma assumed that the Soanush were gods. He welcomed them hospitably, but the explorers soon turned on the natives and ruled them for three centuries.

    Christopher Columbus
    An Italian navigator who was funded by the Spanish Government to find a passage to the Far East. He is given credit for discovering the "New World," even though at his death he believed he had made it to India. He made four voyages to the "New World." The first sighting of land was on October 12, 1492, and three other journies until the time of his death in 1503.

    Hernan Cortes
    He was a Spanish explorer who conquered the Native American civilization of the Aztecs in 1519 in what is now Mexico.

    Francisco Coronado
    A Spanish soldier and commander; in 1540, he led an expedition north from Mexico into Arizona; he was searching for the legendary Seven Cities of Gold, but only found Adobe pueblos.

    Treaty of Tordesillas
    In 1494 Spain and Portugal were disputing the lands of the new world, so the Spanish went to the Pope, and he divided the land of South America for them. Spain got the vast majority, the west, and Portugal got the east.

    Mestizos
    The Mestizos were the race of people created when the Spanish intermarried with the surviving Indians in Mexico.

    Marco Polo
    Italian explorer; spent many years in China or near it; his return to Europe in 1295 sparked a European interest in finding a quicker route to Asia.

    Francisco Pizarro
    Francisco Pizarro -- New World conqueror; Spanish conqueror who crushed the Inca civilization in Peru; took gold, silver and enslaved the Incas in 1532.

    Juan Ponce de Leon
    Spanish Explorer; in 1513 and in 1521, he explored Florida, thinking it was an island. Looking for gold and the "fountain of youth", he failed in his search for the fountain of youth but established Florida as territory for the Spanish, before being killed by a Native American arrow.

    Hernando de Soto
    Spanish Conquistador; explored in 1540's from Florida west to the Mississippi with six hundred men in search of gold; discovered the Mississippi, a vital North American river.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 02 - The Planting of English America

    Virginia Company
    A joint-stock company: based in Virginia in 1607: founded to find gold and a water way to the Indies: confirmed all Englishmen that they would have the same life in the New World, as they had in England, with the same rights: 3 of their ships transported the people that would found Jamestown in 1607.

    Iroquois Confederacy
    The Iroquois Confederacy was nearly a military power consisting of Mohawks, Oneidas, Cayugas, and Senecas.IT was founded in the late 1500s.The leaders were Degana Widah and Hiawatha. The Indians lived in log houses with relatives. Men dominated, but a person's background was determined by the women's family. Different groups banded together but were separate fur traders and fur suppliers. Other groups joined; they would ally with either the French or the English depending on which would be the most to their advantage.

    Squatter
    A person who settles on land without title or right: Early settlers in North Carolina became squatters when they put their small farms on the new land. They raised tobacco on the land that they claimed, and tobacco later became a major cash crop for North Carolina.

    Primogeniture
    A system of inheritance in which the eldest son in a family received all of his father's land. The nobility remained powerful and owned land, while the 2nd and 3rd sons were forced to seek fortune elsewhere. Many of them turned to the New World for their financial purposes and individual wealth.

    Indentured Servitude
    Indentured servants were Englishmen who were outcasts of their country, would work in the Americas for a certain amount of time as servants.

    starving time
    The winter of 1609 to 1610 was known as the "starving time" to the colonists of Virginia. Only sixty members of the original four-hundred colonists survived. The rest died of starvation because they did not possess the skills that were necessary to obtain food in the new world.

    Act of Toleration
    A legal document that allowed all Christian religions in Maryland: Protestants invaded the Catholics in 1649 around Maryland: protected the Catholics religion from Protestant rage of sharing the land: Maryland became the #1 colony to shelter Catholics in the New World.

    Royal Charter
    A document given to the founders of a colony by the monarch that allows for special privileges and establishes a general relationship of one of three types: (1) Royal- direct rule of colony by monarch, (2) Corporate- Colony is run by a joint-stock company, (3) Proprietary- colony is under rule of someone chosen by the monarch. Royal Charters guaranteed that colonists would have "rights as all Englishmen".

    Slave Codes
    In 1661 a set of "codes" was made. It denied slaves basic fundamental rights, and gave their owners permission to treat them as they saw fit.

    Yeoman
    An owner and cultivator of a small farm.

    Proprietor
    a person who was granted charters of ownership by the king: proprietary colonies were Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware: proprietors founded colonies from 1634 until 1681:a famous proprietor is William Penn.

    Longhouse
    The chief dwelling place of the Iroquois Indians; c. 1500s-1600s; longhouses served as a meeting place as well as the homes for many of the Native Americans. They also provided unity between tribes of Iroquois Confederacy.

    Slavery
    the process of buying people (generally Africans) who come under the complete authority of their owners for life, and intended to be worked heavily; became prominent in Colonial times around the mid to late 1600's ( but also to a lesser degree, concerning natives during the early 1500's) because of the labor intensive nature of the crops being grown, and the desire for a profit; mainly used on southern plantations, but also a little bit in the north; brought Africans to America, who have now become an integral part of our culture.

    Enclosure
    caused by the desire of land-owning lords to raise sheep instead of crops, lowering the needed workforce and unemploying thousands of poor former-farmers; the lords fenced off the their great quantities of land from the mid to late 1500's forcing many farmers out and into the cities, leading many of them to hire themselves as indentured servants for payment of passage into the New World, and therefore supporting many of the needs of the labor-thirsty plantation owners of the New World.

    House of Burgeses
    The House of Burgeses was the first representative assembly in the New World. The London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as the House of Burgeses. A momentous precedent was thus feebly established, for this assemblage was the first of many miniature parliaments to sprout form the soil of America.

    James Oglethorpe
    founder of Georgia in 1733; soldier, statesman , philanthropist. Started Georgia as a haven for people in debt because of his interest in prison reform. Almost single-handedly kept Georgia afloat.

    John Smith
    John Smith took over the leadership role of the English Jamestown settlement in 1608. Most people in the settlement at the time were only there for personal gain and did not want to help strengthen the settlement. Smith therefore told the people, "people who do not work do not eat." His leadership saved the Jamestown settlement from collapsing.

    nation-state
    A unified country under a ruler which share common goals and pride in a nation. The rise of the nation-state began after England's defeat of the Spanish Armada. This event sparked nationalistic goals in exploration which were not thought possible with the commanding influence of the Spanish who may have crushed their chances of building new colonies.

    Powhatan
    Chief of the Powhatan Confederacy and father to Pocahontas. At the time of the English settlement of Jamestown in 1607, he was a friend to John Smith and John Rolfe. When Smith was captured by Indians, Powhatan left Smith's fate in the hands of his warriors. His daughter saved John Smith, and the Jamestown colony. Pocahontas and John Rolfe were wed, and there was a time of peace between the Indians and English until Powhatan's death.

    John Rolfe
    Rolfe was an Englishman who became a colonist in the early settlement of Virginia. He is best known as the man who married the Native American, Pocahontas and took her to his homeland of England. Rolfe was also the savior of the Virginia colony by perfecting the tobacco industry in North America. Rolfe died in 1622, during one of many Indian attacks on the colony.

    Lord Baltimore - 1694
    He was the founder of Maryland, a colony which offered religious freedom, and a refuge for the persecuted Roman Catholics.

    Raleigh, Sir Walter
    An English adventurer and writer, who was prominent at the court of Queen Elizabeth I, and became an explorer of the Americas. In 1585, Raleigh sponsored the first English colony in America on Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. It failed and is known as " The Lost Colony."

    Oliver Cromwell
    Englishman; led the army to overthrow King Charles I and was successful in 1646. Cromwell ruled England in an almost democratic style until his death. His uprising drew English attention away from Jamestown and the other American colonies.

    Lord De la War
    An Englishman who came to America in 1610. He brought the Indians in the Jamestown area a declaration of war from the Virginia Company. This began the four year Anglo-Powhatan War. De la War brought in "Irish tactics" to use in battle with the Indians.

    Pocahontas
    A native Indian of America, daughter of Chief Powahatan, who was one of the first to marry an Englishman, John Rolfe, and return to England with him; about 1595-1617; Pocahontas' brave actions in saving an Englishman paved the way for many positive English and Native relations.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 03 - Settling the Northern Colonies

    Fundamental Orders
    In 1639 the Connecticut River colony settlers had an open meeting and they established a constitution called the Fundamental Orders. It made a Democratic government. It was the first constitution in the colonies and was a beginning for the other states' charters and constitutions.

    Protestant ethic
    mid 1600's; a commitment made by the Puritans in which they seriously dwelled on working and pursuing worldly affairs.

    Mayflower Compact - 1620
    A contract made by the voyagers on the Mayflower agreeing that they would form a simple government where majority ruled.

    Navigation Laws
    In the 1660's England restricted the colonies; They couldn't trade with other countries. The colonies were only allowed to trade with England.

    The Puritans
    They were a group of religious reformists who wanted to "purify" the Anglican Church. Their ideas started with John Calvin in the 16th century and they first began to leave England in 1608. Later voyages came in 1620 with the Pilgrims and in 1629, which was the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

    General Court
    a Puritan representative assembly elected by the freemen; they assisted the governor; this was the early form of Puritan democracy in the 1600's

    Separatists
    Pilgrims that started out in Holland in the 1620's who traveled over the Atlantic Ocean on the Mayflower. These were the purest, most extreme Pilgrims existing, claiming that they were too strong to be discouraged by minor problems as others were.

    Quakers
    Members of the Religious Society of Friends; most know them as the Quakers. They believe in equality of all peoples and resist the military. They also believe that the religious authority is the decision of the individual (no outside influence.) Settled in Pennsylvania.

    Pilgrims
    Separatists; worried by "Dutchification" of their children they left Holland on the Mayflower in 1620; they landed in Massachusetts; they proved that people could live in the new world

    New England Confederation
    New England Confederation was a Union of four colonies consisting of the two Massachusetts colonies (The Bay colony and Plymouth colony) and the two Connecticut colonies (New Haven and scattered valley settlements) in 1643. The purpose of the confederation was to defend against enemies such as the Indians, French, Dutch, and prevent intercolonial problems that effected all four colonies.

    Calvinism
    Set of beliefs that the Puritans followed. In the 1500's John Calvin, the founder of Calvinism, preached virtues of simple worship, strict morals, pre-destination and hard work. This resulted in Calvinist followers wanting to practice religion, and it brought about wars between Huguenots (French Calvinists) and Catholics, that tore the French kingdom apart.

    Massachusetts Bay Colony
    One of the first settlements in New England; established in 1630 and became a major Puritan colony. Became the state of Massachusetts, originally where Boston is located. It was a major trading center, and absorbed the Plymouth community

    Dominion of New England
    In 1686, New England, in conjunction with New York and New Jersey, consolidated under the royal authority -- James II. Charters and self rule were revoked, and the king enforced mercantile laws. The new setup also made for more efficient administration of English Navigation Laws, as well as a better defense system. The Dominion ended in 1688 when James II was removed from the throne.

    Freemen
    colonial period; term used to describe indentured servants who had finished their terms of indenture and could live freely on their own land.

    visible saints
    A religious belief developed by John Calvin held that a certain number of people were predestined to go to heaven by God. This belief in the elect, or "visible saints," figured a major part in the doctrine of the Puritans who settled in New England during the 1600's.

    covenant
    A binding agreement made by the Puritans whose doctrine said the whole purpose of the government was to enforce God's laws. This applied to believers and non-believers.

    Protestant Reformation
    The Protestant Revolution was a religious revolution, during the 16th century. It ended the supremacy of the Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of the Protestant Churches. Martin Luther and John Calvin were influential in the Protestant Revolution.

    Predestination
    Primary idea behind Calvinism; states that salvation or damnation are foreordained and unalterable; first put forth by John Calvin in 1531; was the core belief of the Puritans who settled New England in the seventeenth century.

    King Philip II
    He was king of Spain during 1588. During this year he sent out his Spanish Armada against England. He lost the invasion of England. Philip II was also the leader against the Protestant Reformation.

    John Cotton
    John Cotton, a puritan who was a fiery early clergy educated at Cambridge University, emigrated to Massachusetts to avoid persecution by the church of England. He defended the government's duty to enforce religious rules. He preached and prayed up to six hours in a single day.

    Sir Edmond Andros
    Head of the Dominion of New England in 1686, militaristic, disliked by the colonists because of his affiliation with the Church of England, changed many colonial laws and traditions without the consent of the representatives, tried to flee America after England's Glorious Revolution, but was caught and shipped to England

    The "elect"
    John Calvin and the Puritans souls who have been destined for eternal bliss or eternal torment; since the beginning of time ; it was discussed by John Calvin in "Institutes of the Christian Religion"

    Patroonship
    Patroonship was vast Dutch feudal estates fronting the Hudson River in the early 1600's. They were granted to promoters who agreed to settle fifty people on them.

    Henry Hudson
    Discovered what today is known as the Hudson River. Sailed for the Dutch even though he was originally from England. He was looking for a northwest passage through North America.

    William Bradford
    A pilgrim that lived in a north colony called Plymouth Rock in 1620. He was chosen governor 30 times. He also conducted experiments of living in the wilderness and wrote about them; well known for "Of Plymouth Plantation."

    Peter Stuyvesant
    A Dutch General; He led a small military expedition in 1664. He was known as "Father Wooden Leg". Lost the New Netherlands to the English. He was governor of New Netherlands

    Thomas Hooker
    1635; a Boston Puritan, brought a group of fellow Boston Puritans to newly founded Hartford, Connecticut.

    William Penn
    English Quaker;" Holy Experiment"; persecuted because he was a Quaker; 1681 he got a grant to go over to the New World; area was Pennsylvania; "first American advertising man"; freedom of worship there

    John Winthrop
    John Winthrop immigrated from the Mass. Bay Colony in the 1630's to become the first governor and to led a religious experiment. He once said, "we shall be a city on a hill."

    John Calvin
    John Calvin was responsible for founding Calvinism, which was reformed Catholicism. He writes about it in "Institutes of a Christian Religion" published in 1536. He believed God was all knowing and everyone was predestined for heaven or hell.

    Anne Hutchinson
    A religious dissenter whose ideas provoked an intense religious and political crisis in the Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1636 and 1638. She challenged the principles of Massachusetts's religious and political system. Her ideas became known as the heresy of Antinomianism, a belief that Christians are not bound by moral law. She was latter expelled, with her family and followers, and went and settled at Pocasset ( now Portsmouth, R.I.)

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 04 - American Life in the Seventh Century

    Jeremiads
    In the 1600's, Puritan preachers noticed a decline in the religious devotion of second-generation settlers. To combat this decreasing piety, they preached a type of sermon called the jeremiad. The jeremiads focused on the teachings of Jeremiah, a Biblical prophet who warned of doom.

    Middle Passage
    middle segment of the forced journey that slaves made from Africa to America throughout the 1600's; it consisted of the dangerous trip across the Atlantic Ocean; many slaves perished on this segment of the journey.

    BACON'S REBELLION
    In 1676, Bacon, a young planter led a rebellion against people who were friendly to the Indians. In the process he torched Jamestown, Virginia and was murdered by Indians.

    LEISLER'S REBELLION - 1689-1691
    an ill- starred bloody insurgency in New York City took place between landholders and merchants.

    Halfway Covenant
    A Puritan church document; In 1662, the Halfway Covenant allowed partial membership rights to persons not yet converted into the Puritan church; It lessened the difference between the "elect" members of the church from the regular members; Women soon made up a larger portion of Puritan congregations.

    William Berkeley
    He was a British colonial governor of Virginia from 1642-52. He showed that he had favorites in his second term which led to the Bacon's rebellion in 1676 ,which he ruthlessly suppressed. He had poor frontier defense.

    Headright system
    way to attract immigrants; gave 50 acres of land to anyone who paid their way and/or any plantation owner that paid an immigrants way; mainly a system in the southern colonies.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 05 - Colonial Society on the Eve of Revolution

    Regulator Movement
    It was a movement during the 1760's by western North Carolinians, mainly Scots-Irish, that resented the way that the Eastern part of the state dominated political affairs. They believed that the tax money was being unevenly distributed. Many of its members joined the American Revolutionists.

    Old and New Lights
    In the early 1700's, old lights were simply orthodox members of the clergy who believed that the new ways of revivals and emotional preaching were unnecessary. New lights were the more modern- thinking members of the clergy who strongly believed in the Great Awakening. These conflicting opinions changed certain denominations, helped popularize missionary work and assisted in the founding educational centers now known as Ivy League schools.

    triangular trade
    Triangular trade was a small, profitable trading route started by people in New England who would barter a product to get slaves in Africa, and then sell them to the West Indies in order to get the same cargo of goods that would help in repeating this process. This form of trading was used by New Englanders in conjunction with other countries in the 1750's.

    Molasses Act
    A British law passed in 1773 to change a trade pattern in the American colonies by taxing molasses imported into colonies not ruled by Britain. Americans responded to this attempt to damage their international trade by bribing and smuggling. Their protest of this and other laws led to revolution.

    Scots-Irish
    A group of restless people who fled their home in Scotland in the 1600s to escape poverty and religious oppression. They first relocated to Ireland and then to America in the 1700s. They left their mark on the backcountry of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. These areas are home to many Presbyterian churches established by the Scots-Irish. Many people in these areas are still very independent like their ancestors.

    Paxton Boys
    They were a group of Scots-Irish men living in the Appalachian hills that wanted protection from Indian attacks. They made an armed march on Philadelphia in 1764. They protested the lenient way that the Quakers treated the Indians. Their ideas started the Regulator Movement in North Carolina.

    Great Awakening
    The Great Awakening was a religious revival held in the 1730's and 1740's to motivate the colonial America. Motivational speakers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield helped to bring Americans together.

    Catawba Nation
    A group of the remains of several different Indian tribes that joined together in the late 1700's. The Catawba Nation was in the Southern Piedmont region. Forced migration made the Indians join in this group.

    Phillis Wheatley
    Born around 1753, Wheatley was a slave girl who became a poet. At age eight, she was brought to Boston. Although she had no formal education, Wheatley was taken to England at age twenty and published a book of poetry. Wheatley died in 1784.

    John S. Copley - 1738-1815
    a famous Revolutionary era painter, Copley had to travel to England to finish his study of the arts. Only in the Old World could Copley find subjects with the leisure time required to be painted, and the money needed to pay him for it. Although he was an American citizen, he was loyal to England during The Revolution.

    Edwards, Johnathan
    Johnathan Edwards, an American theologian and Congregational clergyman, whose sermons stirred the religious revival, called the Great Awakening. He is known for his " Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God " sermon.

    Benjamin Franklin
    He was born January 17, 1706 in Boston Massachusetts. Franklin taught himself math, history, science, English, and five other languages. He owned a successful printing and publishing company in Philadelphia. He conducted studies of electricity, invented bifocal glasses, the lighting rod, and the stove. He was a important diplomat and statesman and eventually signed the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

    Michel-Guillaume de Crevecour
    French settler on America in the 1770's; he posed the question of what "American" is after seeing people in America like he had never seen before. American really became a mixture of many nationalities.

    George Whitefield
    Whitefield came into the picture in 1738 during the Great Awakening, which was a religious revival that spread through all of the colonies. He was a great preacher who had recently been an alehouse attendant. Everyone in the colonies loved to hear him preach of love and forgiveness because he had a different style of preaching. This led to new missionary work in the Americas in converting Indians and Africans to Christianity, as well as lessening the importance of the old clergy.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 06 - The Duel for North America

    Huguenots
    The Huguenots were a groups of French Protestants that lived from about 1560 to 1629. Protestantism was introduced into France between 1520 and 1523, and the principles were accepted by many members of the nobility, the intellectual classes, and the middle class. At first the new religious group was royally protected, but toward the end of the reign of King Francis I they were persecuted. Nevertheless, they continued to grow.

    French and Indian War
    Was a war fought by French and English on American soil over control of the Ohio River Valley-- English defeated French in1763. Historical Significance: established England as number one world power and began to gradually change attitudes of the colonists toward England for the worse.

    Albany Congress
    A conference in the United States Colonial history form June 19 through July 11, 1754 in Albany New York. It advocated a union of the British colonies for their security and defense against French Held by the British Board of Trade to help cement the loyalty of the Iroquois League. After receiving presents, provisions and promises of Redress of grievances. 150 representatives if tribes withdrew without committing themselves to the British cause.

    Proclamation of 1763
    The Proclamation of 1763 was an English law enacted after gaining territory from the French at the end of the French and Indian War. It forbade the colonists from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains. The Colonists were no longer proud to be British citizens after the enactment. The Proclamation of 1763 caused the first major revolt against the British.

    William Pitt
    William Pitt was a British leader from 1757-1758. He was a leader in the London government, and earned himself the name, "Organizer of Victory". He led and won a war against Quebec. Pittsburgh was named after him.

    Robert de La Salle
    Robert de La Salle was responsible for naming Louisiana. He was the first European to float down the Mississippi river to the tip from Canada and upon seeing the beautiful river valley named Louisiana after his king Louis XIV in 1682.

    James Wolfe
    Wolfe was the British general whose success in the Battle of Quebec won Canada for the British Empire. Even though the battle was only fifteen minutes, Wolfe was killed in the line of duty. This was a decisive battle in the French and Indian War.

    Edward Braddock
    Edward Braddock was a British commander during the French and Indian War. He attempted to capture Fort Duquesne in 1755. He was defeated by the French and the Indians. At this battle, Braddock was mortally wounded.

    Pontiac
    Indian Chief; led post war flare-up in the Ohio River Valley and Great Lakes Region in 1763; his actions led to the Proclamation of 1763; the Proclamation angered the colonists.

    Samuel de Champlain
    Samuel de Champlain was a French explorer who sailed to the West Indies, Mexico, and Panama. He wrote many books telling of his trips to Mexico City and Niagara Falls. His greatest accomplishment was his exploration of the St. Lawrence River and his latter settlement of Quebec.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 07 - The Road to Revolution

    Stamp Act Congress
    met in New York City with twenty-seven delegates from nine colonies in 1765; had little effect at the time but broke barriers and helped toward colonial unity; the act caused an uprising because there was no one to sell the stamps and the British did not understand why the Americans could not pay for their own defense; the act was repealed in 1766.

    Intolerable Acts
    The Acts passed in 1774, following the Boston Tea Party, that were considered unfair because they were designed to chastise Boston in particular, yet effected all the colonies by the Boston Port Act which closed Boston Harbor until damages were paid.

    Continental
    The name Continental is associated to two congresses. The first is in 1774 and the second is in 1775. They both take place in Philadelphia. the Continental Congress brought the leaders of the thirteen colonies together. This was the beginning of our national union.

    Quartering Act
    Law passed by Britain to force colonists to pay taxes to house and feed British soldiers. Passed in the same few years as the Navigation Laws of 1763, the Sugar Act of 1764, and the Stamp Act of 1765 Stirred up even more resentment for the British. The Legislature of New York was suspended in 1767 for failing to comply with the Quartering Act.

    The Association
    A document produced by the Continental Congress in 1775 that called for a complete boycott of British goods. This included non-importation, non-exportation and non-consumption. It was the closest approach to a written constitution yet from the colonies. It was hoped to bring back the days before Parliamentary taxation. Those who violated The Association in America were tarred and feathered.

    Stamp Act
    In 1765 Parliament passed the Stamp Act, requiring the colonists to pay for a stamp to go on many of the documents essential to their lives. These documents included deeds, mortgages, liquor licenses, playing cards, and almanacs. The colonists heartily objected to this direct tax and in protest petitioned the king, formed the Stamp Act Congress, and boycotted English imports. In 1766 Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, a major victory for colonists.

    Committees of Correspondence
    Samuel Adams started the first committee in Boston in 1772 to spread propaganda and secret information by way of letters. They were used to sustain opposition to British policy. The committees were extremely effective and a few years later almost every colony had one. This is another example of the colonies breaking away from Europe to become Americans.

    Hessians
    German soldiers hired by George III to smash Colonial rebellion, proved good in mechanical sense but they were more concerned about money than duty.

    Loyalists
    (Tories) Colonials loyal to the king during the American Revolution.

    Navigation Acts
    Between late 1600s and the early 1700s, the British passed a series of laws to put pressure on the colonists (mostly tax laws). These laws are known as the Navigation Acts. Example: 1651- All goods must be shipped in colonial or English ships, and all imports to colonies must be on colonial or English ships or the ships of the producer. 1660- incorporation of law of 1651. it also enumerated articles, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton, can only be exported to England from the colonies. 1663- a.k.a. the staple act of 1663- all imports to the colonies must go through England.

    Declaratory Act
    In 1766, the English Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and at the same time signed the Declaratory Act. This document stated that Parliament had the right "to bind" the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." It is important in history because it stopped the violence and rebellions against the tax on stamps. Also, it restarted trade with England, which had temporarily stopped as a defiant reaction to the Stamp Act.

    First Continental Congress
    a convention and a consultative body that met for seven weeks, from September 5 to October 26, 1774, in Philadelphia; it was the American's response to the Intolerable Acts; considered ways of redressing colonial grievances; all colonies except Georgia sent 55 distinguished men in all; John Adams persuaded his colleagues toward revolution; they wrote a Declaration of Rights and appeals to British American colonies, the king, and British people; created the Association which called for a complete boycott of English goods; the Association was the closet thing to a written constitution until the

    Sugar Act 1764
    The Sugar Act was the first law ever passed by Parliament. The act was put in place for raising revenue in the colonies for the crown. It increased the duties on foreign sugar, mainly from the West Indies. After protests from the colonists, the duties were lowered.

    Townshend Acts
    In 1767 "Champagne Charley" Townshend persuaded Parliament to pass the Townshend Acts. These acts put a light import duty on such things as glass, lead, paper, and tea. The acts met slight protest from the colonists, who found ways around the taxes such as buying smuggled tea. Due to its minute profits, the Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770, except for the tax on tea. The tax on tea was kept to keep alive the principle of Parliamentary taxation.

    "Virtual" representation
    Theory that claimed that every member of Parliament represented all British subjects, even those Americans in Boston or Charleston who had never voted for a member of the London Parliament.

    Boycott
    To abstain from using, buying, or dealing with; happens all of the time everywhere all over the world; labor unions, consumer groups, countries boycott products to force a company or government to change its politics.

    The Boards of Trade
    An English legislative body, based in London, that was instituted for the governing and economic controlling of the American colonies. It lacked many powers, but kept the colonies functioning under the mercantile system while its influence lasted. The height of the Boards' power was in the late 1690's.

    Sons of Liberty
    An organization established in 1765, these members (usually in the middle or upper class) resisted the Stamp Act of 765. Even though the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, the Sons of Liberty combined with the Daughters of Liberty remained active in resistance movements.

    Quebec Act
    After the French and Indian War, the English had claim the Quebec Region, a French speaking colony. Because of the cultural difference, English had a dilemma on what to do with the region. The Quebec Act, passed in 1774, allow the French Colonist to go back freely to their own customs. The colonists have the right to have access to the Catholic religion freely. Also, it extended to Quebec Region north and south into the Ohio River Valley. This act created more tension between the colonists and the British which lead to the American Revolution.

    Internal/External Taxation
    Internal taxation taxed goods within the colonies and acted much like a sales tax. The Stamp Act of 1765 is an example of internal taxation. External taxation applied to imports into the colonies. The merchant importing the good paid the tax on it, much like the Sugar Act of 1764. Colonists were more accepting of external taxation and more opposed to internal taxation.

    King George III
    King George the third was the king of England in the 1770's.Though he was a good man he was not a good ruler. He lost all of the 13 American colonies and caused America to start to gain its freedom.

    Baron Von Steuben
    A stern, Prussian drillmaster that taught American soldiers during the Revolutionary War how to successfully fight the British.

    Mercantilism
    According to this doctrine, the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country; they should add to its wealth, prosperity, and self-sufficiency. The settlers were regarded more or less as tenants. They were expected to produce tobacco and other products needed in England and not to bother their heads with dangerous experiments in agriculture or self-government.

    No Taxation without Representation"
    This is a theory of popular government that developed in England. This doctrine was used by the colonists to protest the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists declared that they had no one representing them in Parliament, so Parliament had no right to tax them. England continued to tax the colonists causing them to deny Parliament's authority completely. Thus, the colonists began to consider their own political independence. This eventually led to revolutionary consequences.

    Royal Veto
    A royal veto was when legislation passed by the colonial assemblies conflicted with British regulations. It was then declared void by the Privy Council. It was resented by the colonists but was only used 469 times out of 8563 laws.

    Lord North
    1770's-1782 King George III's stout prime minister (governor during Boston Tea Party) in the 1770's. Lord North's rule fell in March of 1782, which therefore ended the rule of George III for a short while.

    George Grenville
    George Grenville was the British Prime Minister from 1763-1765. To obtain funds for Britain after the costly 7-Years War, in 1763 he ordered the Navy to enforce the unpopular Navigation Laws, and in 1764 he got Parliament to pass the Sugar Act, which increased duties on sugar imported from the West Indies. He also, in 1765, brought about the Quartering Act, which forced colonists to provide food and shelter to British soldiers, who many colonists believed were only present to keep the colonists in line.

    Samuel Adams
    Often called the "Penman of the Revolution" He was a Master propagandist and an engineer of rebellion. Though very weak and feeble in appearance, he was a strong politician and leader that was very aware and sensitive to the rights of the colonists. He organized the local committees of correspondence in Massachusetts, starting with Boston in 1772. These committees were designed to oppose British policy forced on the colonists by spreading propaganda.

    Charles Townshend
    Charles Townshend was control of the British ministry and was nicknamed "Champagne Charley" for his brilliant speeches in Parliament while drunk. He persuaded Parliament in 1767 to pass the Townshend Acts. These new regulations was a light import duty on glass, white lead, paper, and tea. It was a tax that the colonist were greatly against and was a near start for rebellions to take place.

    John Adams
    patriot of the American Revolution, second president of the US; president from 1796-1800; attended the Continental Congress in 1774 as a delegate from Georgia; swayed his countrymen to take revolutionary action against England which later gained America independence from the English.

    John Hancock
    Nicknamed "King of the Smugglers" ; He was a wealthy Massachusetts merchant in 1776 who was important in persuading the American colonies to declare their independence from England. He was the ring leader in the plot to store gunpowder which resulted in the battles in Lexington and Concord. These battles began the American Revolution.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 08 - America Secedes from the Empire

    Declaration of Independence
    Formally approved by the Congress on July 4, 1776. This "shout heard round the world" has been a source of inspiration to countless revolutionary movements against arbitrary authority. The document sharply separated Loyalists from Patriots and helped to start the American Revolution by allowing England to hear of the colonists disagreements with British authority.

    Loyalists / Tories
    A colonist in the new world who remained loyal to the British during the American Revolution.

    Whigs/Patriots
    Name given to party of patriots of the new land resisting England prior to the Declaration of Independence.

    Treaty of Paris of 1783
    The British recognized the independence of the United States. It granted boundaries, which stretched from the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. The Yankees retained a share of Newfoundland. It greatly upset the Canadians.

    Second Continental Congress
    The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Three delegates added to the Congress were Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Hancock. The Congress took on governmental duties. (United all the colonies for the war effort.) They selected George Washington as Commander in Chief. They encouraged the colonies to set themselves up as states. On July 4, 1776 they adopted the Declaration of Independence. The Congress ended March 1, 1781 when a Congress authorized by the Articles of Confederation took over.

    Common Sense
    Common Sense written in 1776 was one of the most potent pamphlets ever written. It called for the colonists to realize their mistreatment and push for independence from England. The author Thomas Paine introduced such ideas as nowhere in the universe sis a smaller heavenly body control a larger. For this reason their is no reason for England to have control over the vast lands of America. The pamphlet with its high-class journalism as well as propaganda sold a total of 120,000 copies within a few months.

    John Jay
    John Jay was the First Chief Justice of the United States, and also an American statesman and jurist. Elected to the Continental Congress, he also helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris w/ Great Britain, ending the American Revolution. Serving as governor of New York State from 1795 to 1801, he was a advocate of a strong national government. Appointed by Washington, Jay negotiated a settlement when was w/ Britain threatened due to controversies over the Treaty of Paris: it became known as Jay's Treaty.

    Mercenaries
    A mercenary is a person hired for service in the army of a foreign country. For example, in the late 1760's George III hired soldiers to fight in the British army against Americans

    Natural Rights Theory
    The theory that people are born with certain "natural rights." Some say these rights are anything people do in the pursuit of liberty--as long as the rights of others are not impeded.

    Privateering
    Privately owned armed ships specifically authorized by congress to prey on enemy shipping. There were over a thousand American privateers who responded to the call of patriotism and profit. The privateers brought in urgently needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale. (American Revolution, 1775-1783)

    Thomas Jefferson
    Thomas Jefferson was a member of the House of Burgesses, wrote the Declaration of Independence, was ambassador to France, and was the President of the United States of America. He did all these things before, during, and after the Revolutionary war. With his Declaration of Independence he declared the colonies' freedom from England. While President, he bought the Louisiana Purchase and had Lewis and Clark to explore it.

    Marquis de Lafayette
    A wealthy French nobleman, nicknamed "French Gamecock", made major general of colonial army, got commission on part of his family.

    Admiral de Grasse
    Admiral de Grasse operated a powerful French fleet in the West Indies. He advised America he was free to join with them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown. Rochambeau's French army defended British by land and Admiral de Grasse blockaded them by sea. This resulted in Cornwallis's surrender on October 19, 1781.

    Patrick Henry
    Patrick Henry was a fiery lawyer during revolutionary War times. Supporting a break from Great Britain, he is famous for the words, "give me liberty, or give me death!" which concluded a speech given to the Virginia Assembly in 1775. This quote is a symbol of American patriotism still today. After the American Revolution, Henry served two terms as governor of Virginia and was also instrumental in the development of the Bill of Rights.

    Comte de Rochambeau
    Commanded a powerful French army of six thousand troops in the summer of 1780 and arrived in Newport, Rhode Island. They were planning a Franco - American attack on New York.

    Barry St. Leger
    Barry St. Leger was a British officer in the American Revolutionary War. He led a British advance into New York's Mohawk Valley in the summer of 1777. Hoping to join the British army of General John Burgoyne at Albany, St. Leger was halted by American militia in Fort Stanwix. His forces were nearly destroyed while repelling an American relief unit at Oriskany, and the approach of additional American troops forced St. Leger to retreat to Canada.

    George Rogers Clark
    Frontiersman; led the seizing of 3 British forts in 1777; led to the British giving the region north of the Ohio River to the United States.

    Richard Henry Lee
    Richard Henry Lee was a member of the Philadelphia Congress during the late 1770's. On June 7, 1776 he declared, "These United colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." This resolution was the start of the Declaration of Independence and end to British relations.

    Horatio Gates
    Horatio Gates started in the English army and worked his way up through the ranks. Latter during the revolution he turned sides and was appointed to take charge of the Continental army of the North. One of Gates accomplishments was his victory at Saratoga. His career in the army ended when he lost to General Charles Cornwallis.

    John Paul Jones
    The commander of one of America's ships; daring, hard-fighting young Scotsman; helped to destroy British merchant ships in 1777; brought war into the water of the British seas.

    Charles Cornwallis
    Cornwallis was a British general who fought in the Seven Years War, was elected to the House of Commons in 1760, and lost battles to George Washington on December 26, 1776 and on January 3, 1777. Cornwallis made his mark on history, even though he could never ensure an overall British win over the Americans. He had many individual victories and losses against the Americans in the American Revolution and will always be remembered as a great and powerful general.

    Thomas Paine
    Thomas Paine was a passionate and persuasive writer who published the bestseller, Common Sense in 1776. Paine had the radical idea that the colonies should set up America as an independent, democratic, republic away from England. Over 120,000 copies of his book were sold and this helped spark the colonists rebellion later that year.

    Nathanael Greene
    Nathanael Greene was a colonial general who fought the English in the late eighteenth century-- used fighting tactic of retreating and getting the English to pursue for miles. Historical Significance: Cleared Georgia and South Carolina of British troops.

    Benedict Arnold
    He was an American General during the Revolutionary War (1776). He prevented the British from reaching Ticonderoga. Later, in 1778, he tried to help the British take West Point and the Hudson River but he was found out and declared a traitor.

    John Burgoyne
    Burgoyne was a British general that submitted a plan for invading New York state from Canada. He was then given charge of the army. Though defeated, he advanced troops near Lake Champlain to near Albany. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga on Oct. 17, 1777. This battle helped to bring France into the war as an ally for the United States, this has been called one of the decisive battles of history

    George Washington
    Washington pulled his small force back into Fort Necessity where he was overwhelmed (1754) by the French. He was the commander of Virginia's frontier troops as a colonel. Left the army in 1758. Also the first President of the United States. Took office (Apr.30, 1789) in New York City.

    William Howe
    English General who commanded the English forces at Bunker Hill. Howe did not relish the rigors of winter campaigning, and he found more agreeable the bedtime company of his mistress. At a time when it seemed obvious that he should join the forces in New York, he joined the main British army for an attack on Philadelphia.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 09 - The Confederation and the Constitution

    The Federalist
    The Federalist was a series of articles written in New York newspapers as a source of propaganda for a stronger central government. The articles, written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, were a way for the writers to express their belief that it is better to have a stronger central government. The papers turned out to be a penetrating commentary written on the Constitution.

    Confederation
    A confederation is a group of sovereign states, each of which is free to act independently from the others. In 1776, when America gained its independence, a loose confederation was formed among the thirteen colonies. Under this confederation, the states were united by a weak national government, which was completely lacking constitutional authority. The national government had some control over issues such as military affairs and foreign policy. The states, however, took the majority of power into their own hands, such as the power to coin money and raise armies.

    Constitution of the United States
    The foundation of our country's national government; was drafted in Philadelphia in 1787; the Constitution establishes a government with direct authority over all citizens, it defines the powers of the national government, and it establishes protection for the rights of states and of every individual.

    Anti-Federalists
    People against federalists in 1787; disagreed with the Constitution because they believed people's rights were being taken away without a Bill of Rights; also did not agree with annual elections and the non-existence of God in the government.

    Shay's Rebellion
    1786- Led by Captain Daniel Shays, Revolutionary war veteran. An uprising that flared up in western Massachusetts. Impoverished backcountry farmers, many of them Revolutionary war veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. They demanded cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of mortgage fore closures. Hundreds of angry agitators attempted to enforce these demands. Massachusetts authorities, supported by wealthy citizens, raised a small army under General Lincoln.

    Federalists
    A United States political party consisting of the more respectable citizens of the time; Federalists lived along the eastern seaboard in the 1790's; believed in advocating a strong federal government and fought for the adoption of the United States Constitution in 1787-1788.

    The "large-state plan"
    It was the plan purposed by Virginia to set up a bi-cameral congress based on population, giving the larger states an advantage. It was first written as a framework for the constitution.

    Articles of Confederation
    The first "constitution" governing the Untied States after the Revolution; it was ratified in 1781 and it provided for a "firm league of friendship;" the legislative branch (Congress) had no power to regulate commerce or forcibly collect taxes and there was no national executive or judicial branch; it was an important stepping-stone towards the present constitution because without it the states would never have consented to the Constitution.

    Electoral College
    The Electoral College is a group of electors that are elected by the people to elect the President of the United States in every election year. This system was born along side the U.S. Constitution. This system is a way of speeding up Presidential elections and is still in force today. The representatives of each state must reflect the interests of the people within their respective states during each election. After the people in a state have voted, the votes are tallied. Whichever candidate has the most votes gets all of that state's votes in the Electoral College.

    Land Ordinance of 1785
    A red letter law which stated that disputed land the Old Northwest was to be equally divided into townships and sold for federal income; promoted education and ended confusing legal disagreements over land.

    Three-Fifths Compromise
    The three-fifths compromise was where a black slave was counted as three-fifths of a person when they were counting the population. The southern states wanted them counted as one whole person for more representatives in the House of Representatives. The northern states did not want them counted at all.

    Northwest Ordinance
    The Northwest Ordinance took place in 1787. They said that sections of land were similar to colonies for a while, and under the control of the Federal Government. Once a territory was inhabited by 60,000 then congress would admit it as a state. The original thirteen colonies were charters. Slavery was prohibited in these Northwest Territories. This plan worked so good it became the model for other frontier areas.

    States' rights
    The anti-federalists opposed the constitution because they thought it did not give enough power to the states. They believed that each state deserved certain rights that were not clearly defined in the constitution but were pertinent in democracy. Since these rights were not included in the original draft of the constitution there was a delay in the ratification process until the states were granted individual powers in an added clause.

    Popular Sovereignty
    Popular Sovereignty is the idea that people should have the right to rule themselves. This idea had revolutionary consequences in colonial America.

    Anarchy
    In Chapter 8 Anarchy is described as a lack of a strong centralized government. Often resulting in chaos, giving no security to landowners or upper-class people (wealthy). There is no stability, and what few laws exist are openly defied with no form of punishment. There are often problems in creating a usable and effective currency (this was a problem in inter-state relations.) In chapter 8 Anarchy it is referring to the period of time just prior to the creation of the constitution.

    Society of the Cincinnati
    Group of Continental Army officers formed a military order in1783. They were criticized for their aristocratic ideals.

    Great Compromise
    1787; This compromise was between the large and small states of the colonies. The Great Compromise resolved that there would be representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation would exist in the Senate. Each state, regardless of size, would have 2 senators. All tax bills and revenues would originate in the House. This compromise combined the needs of both large and small states and formed a fair and sensible resolution to their problems.

    Consent of the governed
    The people of a country have to consent to be governed, otherwise they have the right to over-throw the government. This theory was coined by John Locke

    Republicanism
    The theory of Republicanism was that the government was under the authority of the people it governs. The power in the peoples hand's is the basis for Democracy. The writers of the constitution used the Republicanism theory.

    Checks & Balances
    Checks and Balances "is the principle of government under which separate branches are employed to prevent actions by the other branches and are induced to share power." The framers of the constitution for the U.S. saw the policy of checks and balances necessary for the government to run smoothly. Third principle has prevented anyone Branch from taking over the government and making all the decisions. (Having a dictatorship.)

    Sovereignty
    Sovereignty is defined as supreme political power. When the Continental Congress in 1776 asked the colonies to draft new constitutions, it was asking them to become new states, whose sovereignty, according to republicanism, would rest on the peoples authority. Power in the peoples hands is the basis for democracy.

    Mobocracy
    Mobocracy- To be ruled by a mob. An example of people who used this method would be the American colonists. When England would impose taxes and acts, such as the Stamp Act, the colonists would become angered and protest it by forming mobs and doing such things as ransacking houses and stealing the money of stamp agents. The Stamp Act was eventually nullified because all the stamp agents had been forced to resign leaving no one to uphold it. This is an example of Mobocracy.

    Daniel Shays
    Captain Daniel Shays was a radical veteran of the Revolution. He led a rebellion, fittingly named Shays Rebellion. He felt he was fighting against a tyranny. The rebellion was composed of debtors demanding cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and suspension of mortgage foreclosures. He was sentenced to death but was later pardoned. The rebellion in 1786 helped lead to the Constitution and Shay somewhat became one of the Founding Fathers.

    Alexander Hamilton
    High Political leader-1786- 32 year old New Yorker who saved the convention from complete failure by engineering the adoption of his report. It called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with commerce alone but to bolster the entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. Congress, because of Hamilton's influence, issued the call for a convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising" the Articles of Confederation. (1787) Hamilton was present as an advocate of super-powerful central government.

    James Madison
    Nicknamed "the Father of the Constitution"; talented politician sent to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787; his notable contributions to the Constitution helped to convince the public to ratify it.

    Primogeniture
    An English law in colonial times that said only the eldest son of the parents could inherit a landed estate. This left the wealthy but landless younger sons to seek their fortune elsewhere. Many of the younger sons went to the New World, and they included Gilbert, Raleigh, and Drake.

    Federation
    Thomas Jefferson wanted a tightly knit federation. This involved the yielding by the states of their sovereignty to a completely new federal government. This would give the states freedom to control their local affairs.

    Abigail Adams
    Abigail Adams was the wife of second president John Adams. She attempted to get rights for the "Ladies" from her husband who at the time was on the committee for designing the Declaration of Independence.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 10 - Launching the New Ship of State

    Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
    The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were put into practice in 1798 by Jefferson and James Madison. These resolutions were secretly made to get the rights back taken away by the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws took away freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the Bill of Rights. These resolutions also brought about the later compact theory which gave the states more power than the federal government.

    Treaty of Greenville
    Gave America all of Ohio after General Mad Anthony Wayne battled and defeated the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. 1795 Allowed Americans to explore the area with peace of mind that the land belonged to America and added size and very fertile land to America.

    Battle of Fallen Timber
    An attack made by American General "Mad Anthony Wayne" against invading Indians from the northwest. The defeat of the Indians ended the alliance made with the British and Indians.

    Farewell Address
    The Farewell Address was a document by George Washington in 1796, when he retired from office. It wasn't given orally, but was printed in newspapers. It did not concern foreign affairs; most of it was devoted to domestic problems. He stressed that we should stay away from permanent alliances with foreign countries; temporary alliances wouldn't be quite as dangerous, but they should be made only in "extraordinary emergencies". He also spoke against partisan bitterness. The document was rejected by the Jeffersonians, who favored the alliance with France.

    Jay Treaty 1794
    a treaty which offered little concessions from Britain to the U.S. and greatly disturbed the Jeffersonians. Jay was able to get Britain to say they would evacuate the chain of posts on U.S. soil and pay damages for recent seizures of American ships. The British, however, would not promise to leave American ships alone in the future, and they decided that the Americans still owed British merchants for pre-Revolutionary war debts. Because of this, many Southerners especially, were angry and rioted and called John Jay the "Damn'd Arch traitor." (176)

    Pinckey Treaty 1795
    Gave America what they demanded from the Spanish. Free navigation of the Mississippi, large area of north Florida. (helped America to have unexpected diplomatic success) Jay Treaty-helped prompt the Spanish to deal with the port of New Orleans.

    Convention of 1800 Treaty
    signed in Paris that ended France's peacetime military alliance with America. Napoleon was eager to sign this treaty so he could focus his attention on conquering Europe and perhaps create a New World empire in Louisiana. This ended the "quasi-war" between France and America.

    Neutrality Proclamation 1793
    issued by George Washington, established isolationist policy, proclaimed government's official neutrality in widening European conflicts also warned American citizens about intervening on either side of conflict

    Alien and Sedition Acts 1798
    Contains four parts: 1. Raised the residence requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years. 2. Alien Act-gave the President the power in peacetime to order any alien out of the country. 3. Alien Enemies Act-permitted the President in wartime to jail aliens when he wanted to.-No arrests made under the Alien Act or the Alien Enemies Act. 4. The Sedition Act-key clause provided fines and jail penalties for anyone guilty of sedition. Was to remain in effect until the next Presidential inauguration.

    John Adams
    A Federalist who was Vice President under Washington in 1789, and later became President by three votes in 1796. Known for his quarrel with France, and was involved in the xyz Affair, Quais War, and the Convention of 1800. Later though he was also known for his belated push for peace w/ France in 1800. Regarding his personality he was a "respectful irritation".

    Talleyrand French
    foreign minister; In 1797, Adams sent a diplomatic commission to France to settle matters about the upset of the Jay Treaty of 1794. The French thought that America was siding with the English violating the Franco-American Treaty of 1778. The commission was sent to talk to Talleyrand about the seizing of American ships by the French. Communication between the commission and Talleyrand existed between three go betweeners (XYZ) because talking to Talleyrand in person would cost a quarter of a million dollars. Americans soon negotiated and this act subtly started an undeclared war with France.

    Compact Theory
    The Compact theory was popular among the English political philosophers in the eighteenth century. In America, it was supported by Jefferson and Madison. It meant that the thirteen states, by creating the federal government, had entered into a contract about its jurisdiction. The national government was the agent of the states. This meant that the individual states were the final judges of the national government's actions. The theory was the basis for the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions passed in 1798.

    Nullification
    The federalist party had passed the alien and sedition acts to regulate the strong opinions of the republicans. These laws violated the freedoms of the first amendment granted to the people, and prosecuted them for speaking out. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison protested the laws by writing the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which asked the states to declare the laws null. They thought that "nullification was the rightful remedy". Virginia and Kentucky were the only states that voted for this nullification, which is to make a law invalid.

    French Revolution
    The French Revolution began in 1789 with some nonviolent restrictions on the king, but became more hostile in 1792 when France declared war on Austria. Seeking help from America, the French pointed to the Franco-American alliance of 1778. Not wanting to get involved for fear of damage to the trade business, Washington gave the Neutrality Proclamation, which made America neutral. This led to arguments between Americans and French. After fighting with the French over such things as the Jay Treaty, the Americans came to peace with France in 1800.

    Jeffersonian Republicans
    one of nations first political parties, led by Thomas Jefferson and stemming from the anti-federalists, emerged around 1792, gradually became today's Democratic party. The Jeffersonian republicans were pro-French, liberal, and mostly made up of the middle class. They favored a weak central govt., and strong states' rights.

    Judiciary Act of 1789
    The Judiciary Act of 1789 organized the Supreme Court, originally with five justices and a chief justice, along with several federal district and circuit courts. It also created the attorney general's office. This Act created the judiciary branch of the U.S. government and thus helped to shape the future of this country.

    Citizen Genet
    1. He was a representative of the French Republic who came to America in order to recruit Americans to help fight in the French Revolution. 2. He landed in Charleston SC around 1793 after the outbreak of war between France and Britain. 3. The actions of Citizen Genet the new government was exposed as being vulnerable. It also showed how the government was maturing.

    Anthony Wayne
    A General, nicknamed "Mad Anthony". Beat Northwest Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794. Left British made arms on the fields of battle. After that the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 led to the Indians ceding their claims to a vast tract in the Ohio Country.

    Amendment Nine
    The amendment states that the enumeration in the constitution shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. It was written by James Madison in 1791 to stop the possibility that enumerating such rights might possibly lead to the assumption that the rights were the only ones protected.

    Tenth Amendment
    The Tenth Amendment is the last Amendment in the Bill of Rights which was created to protect American citizens natural rights. The Tenth Amendment states that the "powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states and the people." This allows for a strong central government but it does not allow it to become all powerful by still allowing states and people rights.

    Agrarian
    Means having to do with agriculture. The agrarian society were the farmers and plantation owners of the south. This was the society that Jefferson wanted to see become the future of America. He appreciated the many virtuous and beneficial characteristics.

    Excise Tax
    a tax on the manufacturing of an item. Helped Hamilton to achieve his theory on a strong central government, supported by the wealthy manufacturers. This tax mainly targeted poor Western front corn farmers (Whiskey). This was used to demonstrate the power of the Federal Government, and sparked the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794.

    The Cabinet
    A body of executive department heads that serve as the chief advisors to the President. Formed during the first years of Washington's Presidency, the original members of the cabinet included the Sec. of State, of the Tres. and of War. The cabinet is extremely important to the presidency, because these people influence the most powerful man in the nation.

    Bill of Rights
    The first ten amendments of the Constitution, the bill of rights was added in 1791 when it was adopted by the necessary number of states. It guarantees such civil liberties as freedom of speech, free press, and freedom of religion. Written by James Madison.

    Whiskey Rebellion
    A small rebellion, that began in Southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794 that was a challenge to the National Governments unjust use of an excise tax on an "economic medium of exchange". Washington crushed the rebellion with excessive force, proving the strength of the national governments power in its military, but was condemned for using a "sledge hammer to crush a gnat."

    John Jay
    Chief Justice of the United States; in 1794 George Washington sent him to negotiate a treaty with England; The Jay Treaty was a failure because it didn't mention British impressments and America had to pay Pre-Revolutionary debts. It did prevent a war with England and helped in the signing of the Pinckney Treaty with Spain.

    Funding at Par
    an economic plan devised in 1790 by Hamilton in order to "bolster the nation's credit" and strengthen the central government. It was a plan to exchange old bonds for new bonds at face value. This would take on the dents of all the states and reinforce faith in the government bonds. (168)

    Strict Constitution
    Jefferson and his states' right disciples believed the Constitution should be interpreted "literally" or "strictly". The reason why was to protect individual rights. Jefferson did not want the Bank of the United States, Hamilton thought it would not only be proper, but also necessary. Jefferson thought it was up to the states and Hamilton thought it was up to Congress. The Bank was created by Congress in 1791. Having a strong central government made people fear that their rights would be taken away from them.

    Assumption
    Part of Hamilton's economic theory. Stated that the federal government would assume all the states' debts for the American Revolution. This angered states such as Virginia who had already paid off their debts.

    Implied Powers
    Implied powers refers to the powers of the government found in the constitution in unwritten forms. Although some situations, such as the creation of the National Bank, are not specifically referred to in the constitution through the elastic clause they are not illegal or unconstitutional. After Hamilton was appointed head of treasury in 1789, debates began between his interpretation of the constitution and Jefferson's views. Eventually this became an issue contributing to the formation of political parties.

    Thomas Jefferson
    Under the executive branch of the new constitution, Thomas Jefferson was the Secretary of State. When Alexander Hamilton wanted to create a new national bank, Jefferson adamantly spoke against it. He felt it would violate states rights by causing a huge competitor for the state banks, then causing a federal monopoly. Jefferson's argument was that since the Constitution did not say Congress could create a bank they should not be given that power. This is the philosophy of strict construction. Thomas Jefferson's beliefs led to the creation of the political party, Democratic Republicans.

    Alexander Hamilton
    Great political leader; youngest and brightest of Federalists; "father of the National Debt"; from New York; became a major general; military genius; Secretary of Treasury; lived from 1755-1804; became Secretary of the Treasury under George Washington in 1789; established plan for economy that went in to affect in 1790 including a tariff that passed in 1789, the assumption of state debts which went into affect in 1790, an excise on different products (including whiskey) in 1791, and a plan for a national bank which was approved in 1791; plan to take care of the national debt--a.

    Henry Knox
    was the first secretary of war; came to power in 1789; was the first to be entrusted with the infant army and navy.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 11 - The Triumphs and Travails of Jeffersonian Democracy

    Embargo Act
    The Embargo Act of 1807 was a law passed by Congress forbidding all exportation of goods from the United States. Britain and France had been continuously harassing the U.S. and seizing U.S. ship's and men. The U.S. was not prepared to fight in a war, so Pres. Jefferson hoped to weaken Britain and France by stopping trade. The Embargo Act ended up hurting our economy more than theirs. It was repealed in 1809. The Embargo Act helped to revive the Federalists. It caused New England's industry to grow. It eventually led to the War of 1812.

    Louisiana Purchase
    In 1803 Thomas Jefferson purchased 828,000 square miles of land for 15 million dollars from Napoleon the leader of France. The land mass stretched from the Gulf of Mexico all the to Rocky Mountains and Canada. The purchase of this land sprouted national pride and ensured expansion.

    Non-Intercoarse Act
    Formally reopened trade with all nations except England and France on March 1, 1809. A replacement of the Embargo Act. Made by the Republican Congress in an attempt to make England and France stop harassing the American ships and recognize the neutrality of America.

    Midnight Judges
    Midnight Judges a nick name given to group of judges that was appointed by John Adams the night before he left office. He appointed them to go to the federal courts to have a long term federalist influence, because judges serve for life instead of limited terms

    The Judiciary Act of 1801
    The Judiciary Act of 1801 was passed by the Federalist congress where the old capital was located. It was one of the last laws passed by the federalist congress. This law allowed the president, then President Adams, would stay up until midnight signing in new federal judges across the nation. It allowed the Federalists to still maintain power in the nation after they were a minority party in congress. This act brought bitterness between the two parties. These judges that were passed during the last day of President Adams were called "midnight Judges".

    Orders in Council
    The Orders in Council was a law passed by the English Parliament in 1793. It was when the British were fighting the French. The British closed off all port vessels that France went through so they couldn't get supplies. American ships were seized also and Americans were impressed into the British navy. This lead to the War of 1812.

    The Chesapeake Incident
    An incident that happened on June 22, 1807. The Chesapeake, a US frigate, was boarded by a British ship, the Leopard. The Chesapeake was not fully armed. The British seized four alleged deserters (the commander of the Chesapeake was later court marshaled for not taking any action). This is the most famous example of impressment, in which the British seized American sailors and forced them to serve on British ships. Impressment was one of the major factors leading to the War of 1812.

    Marbury V. Madison
    Sec. of State James Madison held up one of John Adams' "Midnight Judges" appointments. The appointment was for a Justice of the Peace position for William Marbury. Marbury sued. Fellow Hamiltonian and Chief Justice John Marshall dismissed Marbury's suit, avoiding a political showdown and magnifying the power of the Court. This case cleared up controversy over who had final say in interpreting the Constitution: the states did not, the Supreme Court did. This is judicial review.

    Meriwether Lewis
    Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The expedition was one of the main explorations of the West. The area explored was: The Missouri River through the Rockie Mountains.

    Patronage
    Patronage is like the "spoils system." When an elected official fills appointed positions with friends that helped him/her get elected, it is considered patronage. Thomas Jefferson did not change many of the appointed positions in the government when he was elected in 1801.

    Judicial Review
    Until 1803, the case of Marbury vs. Madison took place this year, there was controversy over who had the final say in determining the meaning of the Constitution, whether loose or strict interpretation should be used and who would decide. Jefferson tried to give the rights to the states in the Kentucky resolutions, but his cousin, John Marshall of the Supreme Court, proposed "judicial review," which gave the Supreme Court the power to decide if a law is or is not constitutional. "Judicial review" was accepted as a result of the famous case of Marbury vs.

    Impeachment
    Impeachment is to accuse a public official of misconduct in office. The Jeffersonians were angry about a ruling made by Chief Justice John Marshall. The House of Representatives attempted to impeach the unpopular Supreme Court Justice, Samuel Chase. Although there were enough votes in the House of Representatives, the Senate did not have enough. Since this attempt in 1804, there has been no serious attempt to impeach members of the Supreme Court.

    Impressment
    the forcible enlistment of soldiers. This was a rude form of conscription that the British have employed for over four hundred years. At this time the London authorities claimed the right to impress only British subjects on their own soil, harbor, or merchant ships. However, many Americans were mistaken for Englishmen and between 1808 and 1811 alone some six thousand United States citizens were impressed by the "piratical man-stealers" of England. This was one of the major causes of the war of 1812.

    Economic Coercion
    The English navy stole American sailors from 1806 until 1811 angering Jefferson and the country. Jefferson, however, did not wish to engage in war with England because of the countries weak navy and army. So he came up with the idea of using economic coercion to force Britain to come to Jefferson, and agree to his terms. He came up with the Embargo Act which cut off all trade with England and everyone else. Jefferson hoped this would force the English to come to his terms and stop stealing American sailors. This, however, did not work and greatly hurt American trade.

    Samuel Chase
    Samuel Chase was a strong supporter of the American Revolution, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, an ardent Federalist, and the only Supreme Court Justice ever to be impeached. A lawyer by profession, in 1796 he was appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court by president Washington. This was after he served as Chief Justice of the General Court of Maryland in 1791. In 1804, for alleged prejudice against the Jeffersonians in treason and sedition trials.

    John Marshall
    Appointed by John Adams (1801) as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court- was a Virginia Federalist who was disliked by the state's rights Jeffersonians. (Served 30 days under Federalist administration and 34 years under the Jeffersonians and their successors) The Federalists died out but Marshall continued to hand down Federalist decisions. IMPORTANT ACT- Although he dismissed the Marbury suit ( 1801) to avoid direct political showdown, he said that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789, on which Marbury tried to base his appeal was unconstitutional.

    Aaron Burr
    Burr was a running mate with Thomas Jefferson. They tied for the presidency. Jefferson won the run off. Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a famous duel. He was tried and acquitted for treason involving a plan to separate the US and combine with Spain.

    William Marbury (1801)
    President Adams named him a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia. Marbury sued James Madison when he learned his appointment would never take place. (Marbury vs. Madison)

    Toussaint L' Overture
    L' Overture skillfully led a group of angry ex-slaves against French troops in Santo Domingo. The French were unable to reconquer this valuable island and hence, had no use for Louisiana to serve as a granary for Santo Domingo. The inability of the French to regain possession of the island caused Napoleon to cede the Louisiana territory to the United States for 15 million dollars. Thus, Toussaint L' Overture's military vigor indirectly provoked Napoleon's decision to sell Louisiana to the Americans.

    James Monroe
    James Monroe was sent to Paris in 1803 to buy New Orleans and as much land as possible to the east for a maximum of ten million dollars. Monroe and Robert Livingston arranged the of all of Louisiana for fifteen million dollars. Monroe later became James Madison's Secretary of State.

    William Clark
    Explorer along with Merriwether Lewis sent out to explore the recently purchased Louisiana Territory. He served as the artist and cartographer. Their exploring lasted from 1804-1806. They traveled up the Missouri River, through the Rockies, and to the mouth of the Columbia River. This exploration bolstered America's claim to western lands as well as opening the west to Indian trade and further exploration. p. 188

    Albert Gallatin
    Albert Gallatin was the secretary of the treasury under Thomas Jefferson. He was called the "Watchdog of the Treasury," and proved to be as able as Alexander Hamilton. He agreed with Jefferson that a national debt was a bane rather than a blessing. Using strict controls of the economy, he succeeded in reducing the debt, and he balanced the budget.

    Robert Livingston
    Robert Livingston bought New Orleans and all the French territory west of the Mississippi River from Napoleon for 15 million dollars. He was only supposed to negotiate for a small part of New Orleans for 10 million so Jefferson was upset when he heard about Livingston's deal.

    Zebulon M. Pike
    A pioneer who explored the Louisiana territory between 1805 - 1807. He explored Colorado, New Mexico, & Mississippi. He was a leader of the new land. He has set up the portal to allow people to migrate toward west. (A paragon - First example to move into the Louisiana territory) P.188

    Thomas Jefferson
    Thomas Jefferson was a Republican who believed that the future of the U.S. would lie in the hands of farmers. "Long Tom" Jefferson was inaugurated to the presidency in the swampy village of Washington on March 4, 1801. While Jefferson was president, the Louisiana Purchase was made, Lewis and Clark were sent to explore the newly acquired land, the Barbary Pirate threat was silenced, and the Embargo Act was passed. While all of Jefferson's presidential acts were not always successful, he always put the country ahead of himself. His patriotism and loyalty to the U.S.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 12 - The Second War for Independence and the Upsurge of Nationalism

    Bonus Bill of 1817
    Securing funding for roads and canals was hard. This bill was passed by Congress to give states $1.5 million for internal improvements, but it was immediately vetoed by Pres. Madison. In his opinion, he believed states should pay for their own improvements.

    Fletcher v. Peck
    Fletcher v. Peck was a court case from 1810. The Georgia legislature, swayed by a bribe, gave 35 million acres of Mississippi land to private speculators. The next legislature cancelled the original ruling. Then the Supreme Court decided the grant was a contract and state law cannot impair contracts. This is one of the first court cases to illustrate the power of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws conflicting with the federal Constitution. Their decision protected the peoples' rights against popular pressures.

    Era of Good Feelings
    the years of Monroe's presidency, during 1817-1825 people had good feelings caused by the nationalistic pride after the Battle of New Orleans and second war for Independence with British, only one political party was present, on the surface everything looked fine, but underneath it all everything was troubled, conflict over slavery was appearing and sectionalism was inevitable, Missouri Compromise had a very dampening effect on those good feelings

    Treaty of 1818
    A negotiated treaty between the Monroe administration and England. This treaty came after the War of 1812 to settle disputes between Britain and U.S. It permitted Americans to share Newfoundland fisheries w/ the Canadians, and fixed the vague northern limits of Louisiana from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. It also provided for a 10-year joint occupation of untamed Oregon country. Surprisingly, neither Britain or America had to surrender rights or claims for this to occur.

    Land Act of 1820
    The Land Act of 1820 was an act replacing the Land Act of 1800. It was a result of the depression, bank failures, bankruptcies, soup kitchens, unemployment, etc. of 1819. The original Land Act allowed Americans to buy 160 acres of land (minimum) at $2.00 an acre over a period of four years. The Land Act of 1820 offered less acreage, but it also cost less. It allowed Americans to buy 80 acres at $1.25 an acre. This helped to calm the westerners when they demanded cheaper land.

    Monroe Doctrine
    What: an expression of the post-1812 nationalism energizing the U.S. Proved to be the most famous of the long-lived offspring of that nationalism. Might have been called the Self-Defense Doctrine. Where & When: Incorporated into President Monroe's annual message to Congress in 1823. Its two basic features were:(1) Non-Colonization (2) Non-Intervention. Colonization's era had ended and England and other foreign powers needed to keep their monarchial systems out of the U.S. Old World powers could not gain anymore settlements. The U.S.

    McCulloch v.Maryland
    Trial during chief Justice John Marchalls reign; involving the state of Maryland& their right to tax the federal bank--sets precedent for the "loose clause"--increased power of Fed, government.

    Tariff of 1816
    caused by British cutting prices below cost in an effort to strangle the American war-baby factories in the cradle. Americans saw British seeking to crush Yankee factories. Nationalist Congress passed the Tariff(1816)- created taxes on imports to protect nation, while at the same time promote welfare. It was the first tariff in American history with aims that were primarily protective to merchants. It was bold beginning to adequate safeguards. A strong protective trend was started that stimulated the appetites of the protected for more protection.

    Cohen's v Virginia
    The Cohen's were a Virginia family accused of selling lottery tickets illegally. The Virginia Supreme Court found the Cohen's guilty, so they appealed to the Supreme Court in 1821. Virginia won in having the Cohen's convicted. Virginia lost in that Judge Marshal made it so that the federal Supreme Court had the right to review any decision involving powers of the federal government. This was a major blow on states' rights.

    The American System
    A plan proposed by Henry Clay, in 1824, to work on economic reform. Henry Clay wanted to help stabilize the country and begin the pursuit for worked recognition. The plan called for a protective tariff to be put in place for the manufacturers, a new Federal Bank to be put in place, and to begin work on many internal improvements.

    Gibbons v Ogden
    This case involved New York trying to grant a monopoly on waterborne trade between New York and New Jersey. Judge Marshal, of the Supreme Court, sternly reminded the state of New York that the Constitution gives Congress alone the control of interstate commerce. Marshal's decision, in 1824, was a major blow on states' rights.

    Internal Improvements
    Henry Clay developed a plan for profitable home markets called the American System in 1824. It enforced a protective tariff to get funding for transportation improvements. These improvements would be the construction of better roads and canals. This would allow industrialization to prosper since the raw materials of the South and West could easily and inexpensively get to the North and East to be manufactured. The manufactured goods could then be shipped back out to the South and West.

    Non-intervention
    Nonintervention was one of the two features located in the Monroe Doctrine. Monroe declared a new policy on foreign intervention. The policy declared that the United States would not become involved in European affairs. Europe would stay out of the Western Hemisphere 1823 as well.

    Virginia Dynasty
    The last four of the Presidents from Virginia. (Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe) The people wondered if all of the presidents were going to be from Virginia. This "dynasty" ended in 1824.

    Isolationism
    Isolationism deals with the Americans trying to separate themselves from foreign affairs. Isolationism takes place on North America and the oceans around it. Washington tries to separate the Americans from all British and foreign continents. Washington displays this in 1793 by the Proclamation of Neutrality and Washington' s Farewell Address in 1796.

    2nd Bank of the United States
    It was a federal establishment operated by the gov't as an attempt to save the welfare of the economy after the War of 1812. It was part of Henry Clay's American System and forced state banks to call in their loans which led to foreclosures and the Panic of 1819.

    George Canning
    British foreign secretary circa 1823 He wanted America to join Britain in a declaration - wanted the protection of the Latin America states. Keep other European countries out of the western Hemisphere. John Adams thought it was best the U.S. make the declaration. It became the Monroe Doctrine.

    Nationalism
    Nationalism is a popular sentiment that places the existence and well being of the nation highest in the scale of political loyalties. It's significance lies in it's role of supplying the ties that bond the nation. An important and impressive result of post Revolutionary and 1812 wars, it was growing rapidly and began to cause a national unity the United States had not seen until this point. Citizens began calling themselves Americans over citizens of their states. Nationalism helped further stabilize our newly formed nation on all accounts, including financially.

    Peculiar Institution
    Another term for slavery; The owning of human beings existed in a country that practiced liberty.

    Protective Tariff
    It was a tariff imposing 8% on the value of dutiable imports. It was passed by the first Congress. Revenue was the main goal. It was also designed to protect small industries just getting started. Hamilton wanted more protection for the well-to-do manufacturing groups. Congress still had agriculture and commercial interest dominating. This was part of Hamilton's economic plan to support the industrialists.

    Noncolonization
    Noncolonization is part of the Monroe Doctrine that was written in 1823. Noncolonization said that America was closed to anymore colonization. A colonization attempt by anyone would be deemed a threat to the United States. It was created by the U.S. to protect the Western Hemisphere.

    Henry Clay
    Clay was a Political Scientist during the 1820's. He was also a Congressman from Kentucky. He developed the American System which US adopted after the War of 1812. The American System created a protective tariff to American Markets. It also used the tariff to build road and canal for better transportation. (The American System started a cycle to trading for US market)

    John C. Calhoun
    John C. Calhoun was part of the New Southern Congress of 1811. He was a representative for South Carolina and one of the original War Hawks. Calhoun supported the Tariff Bill of 1811 because he thought the bill would lead to manufacturing in the south and cultivation of cotton. He later changed his mind, though, and opposed it because the bill was being used to enrich Northern manufacturers.

    John Quincey Adams
    was in power 1810-1825; he forcibly informed Spain of their violation of the Appoint-American Treaty of 1795. This led to the ceding of Florida to the U.S. He was also responsible for keeping the U.S. from signing the Canning Proposal, which would have hindered American expansion. He then drafted the Monroe Doctrine which established the U.S. as the protector of the Western Hemisphere.

    Daniel Webster "Black Dan"
    was a war hawk in Congress in 1816 and was a strong spokesman for New England. He opposed the Tariff of 1816, because it was not in the interest of the shippers that were the majority and that he represented, but was in the interest of manufacturers.

    Andrew Jackson
    Andrew Jackson was the hero of the Battle of New Orleans. In the eyes of many people he helped end the War of 1812. He also was a well known Indian fighter. He took military control of Spanish Fla. this encouraged the treaty with Spain 1819.

    Hartford Convention
    In 1814 a regional secret convention was held in Hartford, Connecticut due to the Federalist discontent because of the lessened voting weight of New England in Congress and Electoral College due to adding states to the Union and also they were not happy with the War of 1812. They were meeting to discuss their minority status in the Union and some Federalist even suggested secession. These Federalists were seen as traitors by the public. Led to the downfall of their party. they met to secure assistance from Washington, due to the blockading British squadrons on the shores of New England.

    Washington Irving 1783-1859
    first American to win international recognition as an author, example of the post war nationalism from the revolution and war of 1812

    James Monroe
    1. The President of the United States of America during the Era of Good Feeling. He delivered a speech to congress named the Monroe Doctrine. The doctrines' two main points were; 1) There would be no colonization of the western hemisphere. 2) Nonintervention from the rest of the world in the western hemisphere. 2. Around 1824 3. Monroe showed a strong since of nationalism, creating national pride. He also helped establish America as a world power.

    James Fenimore Cooper
    one of the nation's first writers of importance; attained recognition in the 1820's; changed the mood of national literature, started textbooks in America being written by Americans, two pieces of his literature include THE SPY and THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS, American themes-example of the nationalism after the Revolution and War of 1812. (pg. 212-213).

    Washington Irving 1783-1859
    first American to win international recognition as an author, example of the post war nationalism from the revolution and war of 1812

    John Quincy Adams
    John Quincy Adams was the puritan son of President John Adams. He led five American peace-makers to Ghent to draw up a treaty between America and Britain to end the War of 1812. The treaty was signed by both sides on Christmas Eve in 1814. Adams was also Monroe's Secretary of State and the real author of Monroe's Doctrine which established isolationism.

    Sectionalism
    Sectionalism is a narrow-minded concern for a devotion to the interests of one section of the country. This began to occur in 1796. This caused the development of two political parties. Washington disagreed with sectionalism. The country split politically and the North voted for Adams and the South voted for Jefferson.

    Constitution
    an American warship, nicknamed "Old Ironsides," in 1812 the Americans created the super frigate which had thicker sides, heavier fire power, and a larger crew than the original British frigate, was a notable ship in the war of 1812 against the British Navy

    Battle of Thames
    The Battle of Thames was fought at the River Thames in Canada on October 13, 1813. In this battle, the redcoats were overtaken by General Harrison and his army after they had withdrawn from Fort Malden. A Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, fought for the British and lost his life. With his death came the death of his confederacy.

    Treaty of Ghent
    It was an agreement signed by the Americans and the British that agreed to stop fighting which potentially led to the end of the War of 1812. It was signed before the Battle of New Orleans, but Americans did not learn of the treaty until after the victory at New Orleans. Americans assumed the "victory" for the war. The British signed quickly because they were more concerned with European affairs.

    Tecumseh
    He was a Shawnee Indian twin brother to the Prophet. They made a stand against western moving settlers by uniting other tribes. He died in the Battle of Thames while fighting for the British. He was one of the most gifted and noble Indian leaders in American history.

    Francis Scott Key
    Poet that wrote "The Star Spangled Banner" in 1814 during the War of 1812. Written while watching Americans defend Fort McHenry. The poem has become an important part of American identity.

    The Prophet
    Who: The twin brother of the Shawnee Indian Tecumseh Where and When: Banded together many of the tribes along the Mississippi River in 1811 to stop the white settlers from pushing farther into the western wilderness. The groups of braves forswore firewater in order to be fit for the last-ditch battle with the whites. Significance: The war hawk Congress sent General William H. Harrison to repel a surprise attack at Tippecanoe and burn the settlement. The war hawks began to feel that the only way to remove Indian menace was to wipe out their Canadian base

    Andrew Jackson
    Andrew Jackson the seventh president of the United States was born on March 15, 1767 in New Lancaster County, South Carolina. He became a general in 1812 and was the leader in the Battle of New Orleans. Two weeks after he had won the battle, the diplomats that returned from Britain came back with a treaty, thus the Americans had believed that the British had once again surrendered and a new era of nationalism came. As president he introduced the spoils system.

    William H. Harrison
    General-Indian fighter-president--hero of Battle of Tippecanoe and Battle of the Thames in the War of 1812--major asset to America by keeping Indians at bay, redcoats from massacre's, and gaining/clearing land in West

    James Madison
    The author of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, Madison was also the father of the Federalist party and the fourth President of the United States. He was President during the war of 1812 and was also Vice-President under Jefferson. He was a great statesman but was not a strong president.

    Oliver Hazard Perry
    American naval officer; managed a fleet on the shores of Lake Erie in 1813; captured a British fleet on Lake Erie, his victory slogan "We have met the enemy and they are ours" brought new life and inspiration to the American troops, he was a hero during the war.(pg.202).

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 13 - The Rise of Jacksonian Democracy

    Eaton Affair
    Eaton, Secretary of War, married the daughter of a Washington boardinghouse keeper, Peggy O'Neal. She had rumors spread about her and the male boarders. She was snubbed by ladies in Jackson's family and Vice President Calhoun's wife. The President wanted to help her because his wife had been the object of many rumors. He tried to force the social acceptance of Peggy. This was called the "Petticoat War." The Eaton scandal played into the hands of Secretary of State Van Buren. He paid attention to Mrs. Eaton so he could get on Jackson's good side.

    South Carolina Exposition
    A pamphlet published by the South Carolina legislature, written by John C. Calhoun. It spoke against the "Tariff of Abominations," and proposed nullification of the tariff. Calhoun wished to use nullification to prevent secession, yet address the grievances of sectionalist Southerners. These sectionalist ideas helped lead to the Civil War.

    Maysville Road
    Maysville road was a road built within Kentucky and was considered an individual state road, but was connected to an interstate. Andrew Jackson withheld funds from localized roads and vetoed a bill for improving the Maysville road. This was a great setback for the internal improvements of the American society.

    Twelfth Amendment
    Amendment to the Constitution; Election of 1824, 1825; allowed the House of Representatives to elect John Q. Adams as President because Andrew Jackson received the most votes but did not get a majority of the votes; angered Jackson and his followers. p.235

    King Mob
    Nickname for all the new participants in government that came with Jackson's presidency. This nickname was negative and proposed that Jackson believed in too much democracy, perhaps leading to anarchy.

    Corrupt Bargain
    Immediately after John Quincy Adams became President, he appointed Henry Clay as Secretary of State. Jacksonians were furious because all former Secretaries of State became Presidents. This "corrupt bargain" occurred after the Election of 1824 when Andrew Jackson had the most electoral votes, but not majority. Then, Henry Clay (having the least of the electoral votes) gave them to John Q. Adams, giving him the majority and making him President. Jacksonians question whether John Q. Adams made Henry Clay Sec. of State for payback in giving his votes.

    Kitchen Cabinet
    President Jackson had an official cabinet, but its members were used more as executive clerks than anything else. Jackson had a private cabinet of about thirteen members that were always changing. The cabinet grew out of Jackson's unofficial meetings and was known as "the Kitchen Cabinet." Jackson's adversaries and enemies gave the group of advisors this name.

    Tariff of Abominations
    1) An extremely high tariff that Jacksonian Democrats tried to get Adams to veto. 2) 1828- Around Presidential elections 3)Jackson was elected as President.

    Revolution of 1828
    What: Election of 1828 - running candidates for president were John Q. Adams and Andrew Jackson. When: 1828 Why: The election of 1828 is often called the "Revolution of 1828." There was an increased turnout of voters at this election. The large turnout proved that the common people now had the vote and the will to use it for their ends. The results of the election show that the political center of gravity was shifting away from the conservative seaboard East toward the emerging states across the mountains. The revolution was peaceful, achieved by ballots.

    Spoils system
    a system that Andrew Jackson set up not long after his election into the presidency in 1828; it had already developed a strong hold in the industrial states such as New York and Pennsylvania; it gave the public offices to the political supporters of the campaign; the name came from Senator Marcy's remark in 1832, "to the victor belongs the spoils of the enemy; made politics a full time business.

    Rotation in Office
    supported by the New Democracy; like the spoils system but used by Jackson, same as patronage-based on favors for those who helped another get into office; Jackson felt it made the government more democratic by having more participation, etc.

    King Caucus
    In 1824, voters were crying that the people must be heard and down with King Caucus. This new and more democratic method of nominating presidential candidates was the have a national nominating convention. A caucus are the leaders of a small political organization.

    Democratic-Republicans
    Once shortened to "Republicans", when Andrew Jackson came into power he renamed the party "Democrats". The Jacksonian Democrats were very democratic and were opposed to the Whigs. Jackson was a real common man and believed in the common man. Opposed to very strong national bank. When he was president the Whigs called him "King Jackson". This party is the present day Democratic party.

    Anti-Masonic Party
    The Anti-Masonic Party was basically against elite groups such as the Masons (a private organization). They were also opposed to Jackson, who was a Mason. The Anti-Masonic party did not hold much bearing while they existed.

    Denmark Vesey
    Denmark Vesey was a free black slave who lived in the Carolinas. Vesey led a slave rebellion in Charleston in 1822. This slave rebellion was part of what led to the anxieties of the South especially in South Carolina. the Missouri Compromise and the slave rebellion both caused the South to worry about Federal government interference in slavery issues.

    Robert Hayne
    Senator from South Carolina, a major player in the sectional debate during 1829 and 1830. A great orator, he denounced New England. He pointed out New England's treasonous activities during the War of 1812. He also spoke out against the "Tariff of Abominations," which hurt the South. He supported Calhoun's idea of nullification. While he did not want secession, he did add fuel to the sectional flames, and this led to secession.

    Common Man
    a political leader who worked his way up to the top from the bottom. Andrew Jackson was the model common man. He had been orphaned, so he fought in the Revolutionary War at age thirteen. In the War of 1812, he became a hero and launched his political career soon after. He was like the rest of the country, and that's why they liked him so much. The common man began to take over during the Jacksonian Democracy.

    New Democracy (1824 - 1850)
    The New Democracy got more people involved in the government. There were also fewer voter restrictions and voter turn-out increased.

    Nullification
    What: states that any law passed by the federal government can be declared null and void by the states When: 1828; the South was extremely upset about the extremely high Tariff of Abominations. " The South Carolina Exposition" written by John C. Calhoun denounced the tariff as unjust and unconstitutional. The document bluntly proposed that the states should nullify the Tariff. Why: The theory of this nullification was further publicized. The even more dangerous doctrine of secession was foreshadowed.

    Andrew Jackson
    Andrew Jackson was a Democratic-Republican who was voted into office in 1828. The people wanted representation and reform from the administration of John Quincy Adams. Jackson believed that the people should rule. He was the first president from the west, and he represented many of the characteristics of the west. Jackson appealed to the common man as he was said to be one. He believed in the strength of the Union and the supremacy of the federal government over the state government.

    William Crawford
    Originally from Georgia, Crawford ran in the 1824 election representing the south. He was forced to drop out of the race due to a stroke.

    Peggy Eaton
    1) Married Sec. of War Eaton. She was snubbed by ladies of the White House. Jackson tried to help her be excepted, but failed. 2)1831 3) The lady in charge of the White House affairs was Henry Clay's wife. It helped in the dissolution of Jackson and Clay.

    John Quincy Adams
    He was the sixth president of the United States. He was a republican from Mass. who was the first minority president. He served only four years, from 1824-1828. He could never gain the support of the Americans because he was a minority president. He was in favor of funding national research and he appointed Henry Clay as his Secretary of State. During his presidency the National Republicans were formed in support of him. He was essentially chosen by the House of Representatives.

    Daniel Webster
    Daniel Webster was a nationalist from New Hampshire. He was involved in the Webster-Haynes debate over states' rights. He served as Secretary of State under the Tyler administration. In 1836 he ran for the Presidency as a member of the Whig party, losing to Martin Van Buren. He was also America's greatest orator.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 14 - Jacksonian Democracy at Flood Tide

    Independent Treasury
    Martin Van Buren passed the "Divorce Bill" in 1840 which created an independent treasury that took the government's funds out of the pet banks that Jackson created and put them in vaults in several of the largest cities. This way the funds would be safe from inflation and denied to the state banks as revenue.

    Anti-Masonic Party
    The Anti-Masonic Party was a third political party that developed during the campaign of 1832 because of the fierce debate between Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson. This party also developed as opposition to the Masons (secret societies). It gained support from evangelical Protestant groups and people who were neglected by Jackson; however, it never took a majority position in elections.

    Pet Banks
    were state banks; existed in the 1830's; state banks that received federal funds from Jackson. These funds were from the removal of the deposits in the BUS in order to insure of the bank's demise when its charter ran out. These banks then loaned money and printed paper to increase spending, which lead to inflation. Jackson attempts to stop this inflation with the Specie Circular, which lead to the Panic of 1837

    Whig Party
    The Whig party was a party that formed for those who opposed Jackson's views. It was created in the 1830s and the 1840s. When Jackson was elected, Clay and Calhoun formed a party for those who opposed Democratic views. The first Whig to become president was Harrison in the 1840 election. Whigs thought that Jackson's views were selfish.

    Lone Star State
    Lone Star State - Texas was first ruled by Spain for over 300 years as a part of Mexico. When Mexico became an independent country in 1821, Texas became a Mexican State and new settlers from the United States were welcomed . The large influx of Americans led to skirmishes with Mexican troops. After a successful war of independence against Mexico, Texans raised the Lone Star flag over their own republic in 1836. Their government was recognized by the United States and several other European countries. In 1845 Texas accepted annexation by the United States and was admitted as the 28th state.

    Force Bill
    Bill passed by the Congress in 1833. (aka "Bloody Bill" to the southerners) This bill allows the US president to use the Army and the Navy to collect federal tariff duties. (If necessary) It is an attachment to the Nullification Crisis during this time.

    Seminole Indians
    They lived in Florida. They waged a seven years war against the Americans to try and remain in the east instead of being forcibly removed to the west. They were tricked into a truce where their chief Osceola was captured. Most were moved to Oklahoma while others remained hidden in the everglades.

    Divorce Bill
    bill proposed by Martin Van Buren; idea: federal money in a separate bank vault so it would not be connected with the ups and downs of the federal economy; barley pass in 1840 by Democrats, then repealed when Whigs came into power a year later.

    Bank of United States
    The federal bank of US was first created in 1791under Hamilton's economic plan. In 1816, the Bank of US's charter was renewed. Because of the economic recession of the 1810's, the bank suffered great mismanagement until 1822 when Nicholas Biddle, a Philadelphia financier, became its president. Andrew Jackson, in 1831, vetoed the charter act to renew the bank's charter which would expire in 1836. This made the government to store all its funds to the state banks (aka King Andrew's pet banks).

    favorite son
    The term "favorite son" referred to the Whig candidates of 1836 that were not nationally known. They were only popular in their home states. The Whigs tried to use these men to scatter the vote and force the House of Representatives to choose the President.

    Tariff of 1832
    tariff passed in 1832; passed to meet Southern demands about previous tariffs; failed because it didn't meet demands but it did do away with the worst of the abominations of 1828 and lowered tariff of 1824 by ten percent; caused Nullification Crisis; was amended by the Compromise Tariff of 1833

    Specie Circular Jackson
    authorized the U.S. Treasury to issue the Specie Circular in 1836. It was a decree which stated that all public lands must be purchase with gold or silver money, because the BUS was collapsing and the paper money floating around was almost worthless. This decree caused a run on the banks for gold and silver and, in turn, ignited the Panic of 1837.

    Slavocracy
    Slavocracy was the northerners' idea of the south. The idea had to do with Texas joining the union. People from the north thought the southern slavocracy was involved in a conspiracy to bring new slave states to America. "Slavocracy" was what the north used to refer to the south's system of slavery.

    Tariff of 1833
    This was a compromise bill. It would gradually reduce the tariff of 1832 by10% over an8 year period. It would be a 20-25% tax on dutiable goods. Henry Clay wrote the bill. It ended the nullification crisis when South Carolina accepted the compromise.

    Panic of 1837
    Nations first economic depression. Banks loaned too much money out for Western expansion and they began to fail one by one. Hardship was acute and widespread and hundreds of banks collapsed. Martin Van Buren (who was president at the time) tried to "divorce" the government from banking altogether. This idea was not highly supported but the Independent Treasury Bill passed congress in 1840. Although the Whigs repealed it the next year, the scheme was reenacted by the democrats in 1846.

    Black Hawk
    The leader of the Illinois tribes of Indians in the 1830's. When the Indians were uprooted, and forced out of their homes, Black Hawk led the Indians in resisting the move. However, he wasn't powerful enough, because in 1832 they were brutally defeated, and forced to move into Oklahoma.

    William Travis
    William Travis was a colonel during the Texas Revolution. He fought on the side of the Texans against the Mexicans in 1836 at the Alamo in San Antonio, Texas. Colonel Travis and two hundred Texans were trapped at the Alamo by Santa Anna and his six thousand men. During this siege, all but one of the Texans was killed.

    Nullification
    It is a right by the states to declare something issued by the national gov't as constitutional or unconstitutional, (as stated in the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions). Calhoun tried to protect the minority (south), instead of seceding. He tried to settle them down without destroying the nation.

    Annexation
    A method used by the government to acquire and establish sovereignty over new territory. Sometimes force is used in annexation, but other times it is done through a legal system, such as a purchase. The United States annexed Texas in 1845 after a consent from Mexico.

    Antislavery
    Antislavery was a wide spread idea (with most of its supporters being in the New England areas) in the 1800's. the North readily opposed the idea of slavery, because it was abusive and their economy didn't rely on it. But even in the South, in the 1820's, there were numerous antislavery societies. These societies were actually more numerous south of Mason and Dixon's line.

    Santa Anna
    Santa Anna was a Mexican dictator who in 1835 wiped out all local rights in Texas and started to raise an army to put down the Texans. With six thousand men he swept through Texas till he was finally defeated by Sam Houston's army. He then signed two treaties dealing with the border of Texas and the withdrawal of Mexican troops. (pg. 259-60)

    Henry Clay
    Who: A National Republican and chief gladiator in the presidential contest of 1832. Threw himself behind the Senate's move to re-charter the bank. Was able to pass a compromise bill that would slowly reduce the 1832 Tariff. When and Where: he came from Kentucky and strongly disliked Jackson. Clay had 50,000 dollars in funds for " life insurance" with the Bank of the United States. Lost the presidential election in 1832:the rich people did not create enough support to elect him president.

    Sam Houston
    Mexicans and Texans were in conflict over issues such as slavery and immigration. In 1836 the Texans declared their independence from Mexico and made Sam Houston their commander in chief. Santa Anna, the dictator of Mexico, resented this American decree and charged into Texas with Mexican forces. Houston and his troops initially retreated, but eventually they defeated the Mexican army and captured Santa Anna.

    John Tyler Ran
    as Vice-President to William Henry Harrison in the election of 1840 as a Whig. Harrison was elected, but shortly died, so Tyler became the first Vice-President to take the office of a dead President. The position gave him experience for becoming President later.

    John C. Calhoun
    In 1834, Calhoun joined with Henry Clay against President Jackson, forming the beginning of the Whig Party. The Whigs along with the Democrats, began the two-system party.

    Osceola
    Who: Leader of the Seminole Indians When and Where: The Seminole Indians in Florida were engaged in a bitter guerrilla war that proved to be the costliest Indian conflict.(1835-1842) Fifteen hundred American soldiers lost their lives in the battle. The war ended when the Americans captured Osceola and held him captive. Osceola eventually died in captivity. Why: Split up the Seminole tribe into the Everglades and Oklahoma. (The costliest Indian conflict) One of the many Indian conflicts that furthered westward expansion for the Americans.

    Martin Van Buren From New York
    Martin Van Buren was Jackson's own choice as his successor. Van Buren became our eighth president in 1836. He was doomed from the start, though, as the people thought he was only "mediocre" and the democrats hated him. He was also left to deal with some very difficult situations, such as a developing depression. Van Buren tried to do his best through such things as the controversial "Divorce Bill," but Martin Van Buren's efforts were futile, as he is not our most memorable president.

    Andrew Jackson
    He was the seventh president, supported mostly but the West and South (the common people). He had no formal education. His beliefs were simple, but his military background often influenced him. He introduced the spoil's system into American gov't, or rotation in office as he called it. His cabinet was called the "kitchen cabinet" because they were thought of as Jackson's friends, not political office holders.

    Stephen Austin
    Stephen Austin was an American colonizer and pioneer from Virginia who worked on the independence of Texas. His father, Moses Austin, secured a land grant from Spain, and Stephen later renewed this grant with the independent Mexico. Austin succeeded in bringing over 20,000 Americans to Texas, by 1830. He requested self-government for the territory, and was subsequently thrown into a Mexican prison. In 1835 he returned, and took the command of a Texan army ready to fight for independence. He soon resigned. After Texas became a republic in 1836, Austin worked for its US annexation

    William Henry Harrison
    1) He was pushed into presidential race. He was a war hero and was not nominated for his ability. 2)1840 Presidential elections. 3) 1st Whig President & 1st President to die in office.

    Nicholas Biddle
    nicknamed "Czar Nicholas I," he was president of the Bank of the United States. He was known for his massive loans as bribes ("Emperor Nick of the Bribery Bank"). Jackson wanted to weaken the Bank and Biddle, so he gradually stopped making deposits, instead stowing his money in his "pet banks." Jackson destroyed the Bank in 1832.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 15 - Forging the National Economy

    Cotton Gin
    The cotton gin is a machine that would separate the seed from the short-staple cotton fiber that was fifty times more effective than the handpicking process. It was constructed by Eli Whitney. It was developed in 1793 in Georgia. It was used all over the South. The cotton gin brought a miraculous change to the U.S. and the world. Practically overnight the production of the cotton was very profitable. Not only the South prospered, but the North as well. Many acres were cleared westward to make more room for cotton.

    Boston Associates
    They were a group of Boston families who joined to form one of the earliest and most powerful joint-capital ventures. They eventually came to dominate the textile industry, the railroad, insurance, and banking business' in all of Massachusetts. With Pride the Boston Associates considered their textile mill in Lowell, Massachusetts a showplace factory. The labor there was mostly New England farm girls who were supervised on and off the job and worked from "dark to dark." (Ch 17, pgs 293-295)

    Clipper ships
    American boats, built during the 1840's in Boston, that were sleek and fast but inefficient in carrying a lot of cargo or passengers. British steamers were more efficient than these ships and so Britain remained the #1 naval power.

    General Incorporation Law
    This was a law created to greatly help in "building" capitalism. It stated that businesspeople could create a corporation if they complied with the terms of the law. It was a great boost to capitalism. It was signed in New York in 1848 to save businesspeople the need to apply for characters form the legislature.

    Pony Express
    A Mail carrying service; ran from 1860-1861; was established to carry mail speedily along the 2000 miles from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California; they could make the trek in 10 days.

    Industrial Revolution
    Began in the 1750's in Britain with a group of inventors perfecting textile machines. These British developments eventually found their way into American Industry. Factories were made to work with the South's raw textiles Industrialization started in the North because of its dense population, reliance of shipping, and its number of seaports The rapid rivers of the North also provided power for turning the cogs of machines The majority of the industrialization occurred between the 1790's and the 1860's

    Limited Liability
    This is a term that applies to the principles of the corporation. This started in a big way in the early 1800's for most Americans. It basically refers to the fact that a business with public stock can fail without any one person losing all of their money. It lowers the risk of new business ventures.

    Cyrus McCormick
    Born in Rockbridge County, Virginia on 1809, he was very interested in helping out the fellow farmer. In 1831, he revolutionized the farming industry by inventing the mechanical reaper. He later improved upon it and patented it in 1834. He then started a company that manufactured this reaper and sold it on the market. He became tremendously rich doing this and later married. He was very generous to his nearby churches and schools.

    Eli Whitney
    Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts. He was a mechanical genius that graduated from Yale. After college he traveled to Georgia to be a tutor while preparing for the law. While in Georgia he was told that the South would make a lot of money if someone could invent a machine to separate the seed from cotton. In 1793, within ten days of being told this, Whitney had constructed a rough machine fifty times more effective than the handpicking process.

    Robert Fulton
    A painter/ engineer who got financial backing to build a powerful steam engine (Clermont). Skeptics called it ''Fulton's Folly''. But in 1807 the boat made the 150 mile run from New York City up the Hudson River to Albany in 32 hours. Within a few years Fulton changed all of America's navigable streams into two-way arteries and forever changed the way the West and the South could transport their goods.

    Samuel Slater
    He was a British mechanic that moved to America and in 1791 invented the first American machine for spinning cotton. He is known as "the Father of the Factory System" and he started the idea of child labor in America's factories.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 16 - The Ferment of Reform and Culture

    John Geenleaf Whittier
    John Greenleaf Whittier lived from 1807-1892. He was insulted and stoned for writing against slavery. Whittier rose the awareness of the people of America about slavery through his poems.

    American Temperance Society
    An organization group in which reformers are trying to help the ever present drink problem. This group was formed in Boston in 1826, and it was the first well-organized group created to deal with the problems drunkards had on societies well being, and the possible well-being of the individuals that are heavily influenced by alcohol.

    Hudson River School
    A type of painting with a romantic, heroic, mythic style that flourished in the 19th century. It tended to paint American landscapes as beautiful and brooding.

    Women's Rights Convention
    Meeting in Seneca Falls, New York of feminists; 1848; First meeting for women's rights, helped in long struggle for women to be equal to men

    Transcendentalism
    The Transcendentalist movement of the 1830's consisted of mainly modernizing the old puritan beliefs. This system of beliefs owed a lot to foreign influences, and usually resembled the philosophies of John Locke. Transcendentalists believe that truth transcends the body through the senses, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were two of the more famous transcendentalists.

    Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
    American poet and professor of modern languages at Harvard. Lived 1807-1882. During a period which was dominated in the literary field by Transcendentalists, Longfellow was an urbane poet who catered to the upper classes and the more educated of the citizens. He was also popular in Europe, and is the only American poet to have a bust in Westminster Abbey.

    William H. Prescott
    He was an historian who lived from 1796-1859. He published classic accounts of the conquest of Mexico and Peru. Prescott lost sight in one eye during college

    Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828)
    A painter from Rhode Island who painted several portraits of Washington, creating a sort of idealized image of Washington. When Stuart was painting these portraits, the former president had grown old and lost some teeth. Stuart's paintings created an ideal image of him.

    Walt Whitman
    Walt Whitman was a poet who lived in Brooklyn from 1819-1892. His most famous collection of poems entitled Leaves of Grass, gained him the title "Poet Laureate of Democracy."

    John J. Audubon
    Audubon lived from 1785 to 1851. He was of French descent, and an artist who specialized in painting wild fowl. He had such works as Birds of America and Passenger Pigeons. Ironically, he shot a lot of birds for sport when he was young. He is remembered as America's greatest ornithologist.

    Nathaniel Hawthorne
    He wrote the Scarlet Letter in 1850. This was his masterpiece. He also wrote The Marble Faun. Many of his works had early American themes. The Scarlet Letter is about a woman who commits adultery in a Puritan village. Hawthorn's upbringing was heavily influenced by his puritan ancestors.

    Robert Owen
    Robert Owen was a wealthy and idealistic Scottish textile manufacturer. He sought to better the human race and set up a communal society in 1825. There were about a thousand persons at New Harmony, Indiana. The enterprise was not a success.

    Henry David Thoreau
    He was a poet, a mystic, a transcendentalist, a nonconformist, and a close friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson who lived from 1817-1862. He condemned government for supporting slavery and was jailed when he refused to pay his Mass. poll tax. He is well known for his novel about the two years of simple living he spent on the edge of Walden Pond called "Walden" , Or Life in the Woods. This novel furthered many idealistic thoughts. He was a great transcendentalist writer who not only wrote many great things, but who also encouraged, by his writings, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

    Herman Melville
    Herman Melville was an author born in New York in 1819. He was uneducated and an orphan. Melville served eighteen months as a whaler. These adventuresome years served as a major part in his writing. Melville wrote Moby Dick in 1851 which was much less popular than his tales of the South seas. Herman Melville died in 1891.

    Louis Agassiz
    Louis Agassiz was a professor at Harvard College. He was a student of biology who insisted on original research. He hated the overemphasis on memory work. Agassiz was one of the most influential American scientists in the nineteenth century.

    William Gilmore Simms
    Novelist, "the Cooper of the South" mostly wrote about southern frontier and revolutionary war

    Elizabeth Cady Stanton
    Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a member of the women's right's movement in 1840. She was a mother of seven, and she shocked other feminists by advocating suffrage for women at the first Women's Right's Convention in Seneca, New York 1848. Stanton read a "Declaration of Sentiments" which declared "all men and women are created equal."

    William Cullen Bryant
    Bryant was born in Cummington, Mass. on Nov. 3, 1794. He was a journalist, literary critic, public speaker, and the first significant poet in 19th century American Literature. He supported Andrew Jackson and the Democrats, defended the right of workers to strike, spoke out against slavery, proposed a central park for the city, helped to organize the Republican party, and fought the Tweed ring.

    Edgar Allan Poe
    Edgar Allan Poe lived from 1809-1849 and was cursed with hunger, cold, poverty, and debt. He was orphaned as a child and when he married his fourteen year old wife, she died of tuberculosis. He wrote books that deal with the ghostly and ghastly, such as "The Fall of the House of Usher." (pg. 345)

    Susan B. Anthony
    Susan B. Anthony was a lecturer for women's rights. She was a Quaker. Many conventions were held for the rights of women in the 1840s. Susan B. Anthony was a strong woman who believed that men and women were equal. She fought for her rights even though people objected. Her followers were called Suzy B's.

    Washington Irving
    Irving published Knickerbockers History of New York in 1809 which had interesting caricatures of the Dutch. Washington Irving's The Sketch Book, published in 1819-1820, was an immediate success. This book made Irving world renown. The Sketch Book was influenced by both American and English themes, and therefore popular in the Old and New World.

    Oliver Wendell Holmes
    An anatomy teacher at Harvard Medical school who was regarded as a prominent poet, essayist, novelist, lecturer and wit from 1809-1894. Poem " the Last Leaf" in honor of the last "white Indian" at the Boston Tea Party, which really applied to himself.

    Lucretia Mott
    A Quaker who attended an anti-slavery convention in 1840 and her party of women was not recognized. She and Stanton called the first women's right convention in New York in 1848

    James F. Cooper
    Writer who lived in New York in 1789-1851. Historical Significance: first novelist to gain world fame and make New World themes respectable.

    Neal Dow
    Mayor of Portland, Maine and one of the leaders against alcohol;1850s; helped pass laws against manufacturing of intoxicating liquor.

    Tammany Hall
    In New York, taken over by Irish, home of powerful city machines; 1850s; Helped in growing population of Irish in America.

    Burned-over District
    This is a term that refers to western New York. The term came at a time when revivals were rampant. Puritan sermonizers were preaching "hell-fire and damnation." Mormons. A religion, newly established by Joseph Smith, who claimed to have had a revelation from angel. The Mormons faced much persecution from the people and were eventually forced to move west. (Salt Lake City) After the difficult journey they greatly improved their land through wise forms of irrigation.

    Dorthea Dix
    A New England teacher and author who spoke against the inhumane treatment of insane prisoners, ca. 1830's. People who suffered from insanity were treated worse than normal criminals. Dorothea Dix traveled over 60,000 miles in 8 years gathering information for her reports, reports that brought about changes in treatment, and also the concept that insanity was a disease of the mind, not a willfully perverse act by an individual.

    Stephen Foster
    Stephen Foster was a white Pennsylvanian that wrote, ironically, the most famous black songs. H lived from 1826 to 1864. His one excursion into the South occurred in 1852, after he had published "Old Folks at Home". Foster made a valuable contribution to American Folk music by capturing the plaintive spirit of the slaves.

    James Russell Lowell
    Lowell lived from 1819 to 1891. He was an American poet, essayist, diplomat, editor, and literary critic. He is remembered for his political satire, especially in the Billow Papers ( which condemned president Polk's policy for expanding slavery). He succeeded professor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow as teacher of modern languages at Harvard.

    Catharine Beecher
    who: unmarried daughter of a famous preacher and sister of Harriet Beecher Stowe. when: 1800's why: She urged women to enter the teaching profession. She succeeded because school teaching became a thoroughly "feminized" occupation. Other work "opportunities" for women beckoned in domestic service. Beecher helped get women jobs that would allow them to be self-supported.

    Phineas T. Barnum
    Phineas T. Barnum was the most famous showman of his era (1810-1891). He was a Connecticut Yankee who earned the title, "the Prince of Humbug." Beginning in New York City, he "humbugged" the American public with bearded ladies and other freaks. Under his golden assumption that a "sucker" was born every minute, Barnum made several prize hoaxes, including the 161-year-old (actually 80) wizened black "nurse" of George Washington.

    Nativism antiforeignism
    it was a fear of new immigrants coming to America. It was feared the new comers would bring a higher birthrate and poverty to America.

    Cult of Domesticity
    Widespread cultural creed that glorified the traditional functions of the homemaker around 1850. Married women commanded immense moral power, and they increasingly made decisions that altered the family. Work opportunities for women increased particularly in teaching.

    Unitarianism
    a "spin-off" faith from the severe Puritanism of the past. Unitarians believed that God existed in only one person and not in the orthodox trinity. They also denied the divinity of Jesus, stressed the essential goodness of human nature, proclaimed their belief in free will and the possibility of salvation through good works, and pictured God as a loving father rather than a stern creator. The Unitarian movement began in New England at the end of the eighteenth century and was embraced by many of the leading "thinkers" or intellectuals of the day.

    Horace Mann
    He was an idealistic graduate of Brown University, secretary of the Massachusetts board of education. He was involved in the reformation of public education (1825-1850). He campaigned for better school houses, longer school terms, higher pay for teachers, and an expanded curriculum. He caused a reformation of the public schools, many of the teachers were untrained for that position. Led to educational advances in text books by Noah Webster and Ohioan William H. McGuffey.

    Peter Cartwright
    Born in 1785, he was the best known of Methodist "Circuit riders". He was a traveling frontier preacher. Ill-educated but still powerful, he reigned for 50 years going from Tennessee to Illinois. He converted thousands of people doing this. He also liked to pick a fight if someone spoke against his religion.

    Noah Webster
    Born in Connecticut. Educated at Yale. Lived 1758-1843. Called "Schoolmaster of the Republic." Wrote reading primers and texts for school use. He was most famous for his dictionary, first published in 1828, which standardized the English language in America.

    Joseph Smith
    reported to being visited by an angel and given golden plates in 1840; the plates, when deciphered, brought about the Church of Latter Day Saints and the Book of Mormon; he ran into opposition from Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri when he attempted to spread the Mormon beliefs; he was killed by those who opposed him.

    Brigham Young
    A Mormon leader that led his oppressed followers to Utah in 1846. Under Young's management, his Mormon community became a prosperous frontier theocracy and a cooperative commonwealth. He became the territorial governor in 1850. Unable to control the hierarchy of Young, Washington sent a federal army in 1857 against the harassing Mormons.

    Carl Shurz
    he was a zealous German liberal who contributed to the elevation of American political life. Shurz was a relentless foe of slavery and public corruption. Shurz could be considered on of the liberal German "Forty-fighters," who left Germany and came to America, distraught by the collapse of the democratic revolutions of 1848, and in search of a stable democratic society. (Ch 18, pg 318)

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 17 - The South and the Slavery Controversy

    Lane Rebels
    In 1832 Theodore Dwight Weld went to the Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio. The Seminary was presided over by Lyman Beecher. Weld and some of his comrades were kicked out for their actions of anti-slavery. The young men were known as the "Lane Rebels." They helped lead and continue the preaching of anti-slavery ideas.

    Sojourner Truth
    Sojourner Truth was a freed slave who lived in America during the late 1800's. She was also known as Isabella. From her home in New York she waged a constant battle for the abolition of slavery. She was also a prominent figure in the fight for women's rights.

    Theodore Dwight Weld
    Theodore Dwight Weld was a prominent abolitionist in the 1830's. He was self-educated and very outspoken. Weld put together a group called the "Land Rebels." He and his group traveled across the Old Northwest preaching antislavery gospel. Weld also put together a propaganda pamphlet called American Slavery As It Is.

    Frederick Douglass
    A former slave who was an abolitionist, gifted with eloquent speech and self-educated. In 1838 he was "discovered" as a great abolitionist to give antislavery speeches. He swayed many people to see that slavery was wrong by publishing "Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass" which depicted slavery as being cruel. He also looked for ways politically to end slavery.

    David Walker
    He was a black abolitionist who called for the immediate emancipation of slaves. He wrote the "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World." It called for a bloody end to white supremacy. He believed that the only way to end slavery was for slaves to physically revolt.

    Nat Turner
    Black priest; led a revolt in Virginia 1831, killed 60 people(mostly women and children). This scared the Southerners because it was the first really violent action of the slaves. As a result slave codes were made stricter.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 18 - Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

    Walker Tariff
    tariff reducing tariff devised by Robert J. Walker during James Polk's presidency; reduce Tariff of 1842 by 7%;1846

    Wilmot Proviso
    Dispute over whether any Mexican territory that America won during the Mexican War should be free or a slave territory. A representative named David Wilmot introduced an amendment stating that any territory acquired from Mexico would be free. This amendment passed the House twice, but failed to ever pass in Senate. The "Wilmot Proviso", as it became known as, became a symbol of how intense dispute over slavery was in the U.S.

    The Tariff of 1842
    A protective tax that was used to create more money for the government. It was reluctantly passed by President John Tyler. The tariff was made to get the government out of a recession

    Bear Flag Revolt
    a revolt from Fort Devenworth to Santa Fe; 1846; John C. Frement- Americans in California wanted to be independent of Mexican rule; when the war with Mexico begin these Californians revolted and established an independent republic; hoisted short lived California Bear Flag Republic

    Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo
    Mexico sold the United States all of the southwest for 15 million dollars in agreement that the rights and religion of the Mexican inhabitants of this land would be recognized by the United States government. It was drawn up by Nicholas P. Trist and sent to congress. The anti slavery congressmen passed the treaty and signed it on February 2nd, 1848.

    Creole (1841)
    an American ship captured by 130 Virginian slaves in the Bahamas. British officials offered refuge to these slaves because there was immense tension between the Americans and British. Other acts of unlawful invasion had occurred because of the British and the possibility of yet another US/ England War was at large.

    Aroostook War
    It was over the Maine boundary dispute. The British wanted to build a road from Halifax to Quebec. It ran through land already claimed by Maine. Fights started on both sides and they both got their local militia. It could have been a war, but it never proceeded that far.

    John C. Fremont
    A captain and an explorer who was in California with several dozen well-armed men when the Mexican War broke out. He helped to overthrow the Mexican rule in 1846 by collaborating with Americans who had tried to raise the banner of the California Bear Republic. Fremont helped to take California from the inside.

    Joint Resolution
    Passed in 1845 by President James K. Polk gained a majority of the two house congress and formally invited Texas to become the 28th state.

    Manifest Destiny
    The Manifest Destiny was an emotional upsurge of certain beliefs in the US in the 1840's and 1850's. Citizens of the US believed they should spread their democratic government over the entire North America and possibly extend into South America. The campaign of 1844 was included in this new surge. James Polk represented the Democrats while Henry Clay was nominated by the Whigs. The campaign and mudslinging was as harsh as ever and spread all over the continent.

    Webster-Ashburton Treaty
    a compromise over the Maine boundary; America received more land but England got the Halifax-Quebec route; it patched up the Caroline Affair of 1837

    Spot Resolutions
    Proposed by Abraham Lincoln in the spring of 1846. After news from president James K. Polk that 16 American service men had been killed or wounded on the Mexican border in American territory, Abraham Lincoln, then a congressman from Illinois, proposed these resolutions to find out exactly on what spot the American soldier's blood had been shed. In Polk's report to congress the President stated that the American soldiers fell on American soil, but they actually fell on disputed territory that Mexico had historical claims to.

    Robert Gray
    Ship captain who explored the Oregon territory in the late 1700's Discovered the Columbia River in 1792. Named the river after his ship

    Zachary Taylor
    A major general from 1846-1847 in the Mexican War. Known as "Old Rough and Ready," he defeated the Mexicans in a campaign that took him to Buena Vista in Mexico. The victorious campaign helped pressure the Mexicans into peace.

    Nicolas P. Trist
    Chief clerk of the State Department, 1848; arranged armistice with Santa Anna; signed Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo; secured Texas and other land as American territories. p.285

    Stephen Kearny
    American Army officer in the Mexican War. In 1846, he led 1700 troops over the Santa Fe Trail to Santa Fe. He conquered New Mexico and moved his troops over to Los Angeles. He was defeated by the Mexicans at San Pascual in 1846. He was arrested for refusing to carry out orders and sent into Mexico, where he died in 1848

    Wilmot, David
    A representative from Pennsylvania who introduced an amendment that would make slavery illegal in territory to be gained from Mexico. He proposed the amendment in 1846. This amendment was at the center of the slavery debate and inflamed both sides.

    John Tyler
    An after-thought Vice President to William Henry Harrison in the election of 1840. He was a democrat but switched over to the Whig Party because he didn't like Andrew Jackson. After Harrison died after a month in office, Tyler took over. Since he was a Democrat in his principle he was against many of the things the Whigs tried to do. He became the first Vice President to take office because of a presidents death.

    John Slidell
    American and Mexico were on unfriendly terms with each other. The disagreement came over boundaries along Texas and in California. John Slidell was sent to Mexico in 1845 as a minister, He was given instructions to offer $25 million to the Mexicans for California. He was rejected by the Mexicans and they called this offer "insulting". After Mexico refused it lead to the Mexico American war.

    Winfield Scott
    Old Fuss and Feathers, led American troops in Mexico City during the Mexican American War Mexicans surrendered to him

    Lord Ashburton
    Lord Ashburton was sent by England to Washington in 1842 to work things out with Secretary Webster over boundary disputes. He was a nonprofessional diplomat that was married to a wealthy American woman. Ashburton and Webster finally compromised on the Maine boundary. They split the area of land and Britain kept the Halifax-Quebec route.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 19 - Renewing the Sectional Struggle

    Kansas-Nebraska Act
    The Kansas-Nebraska Act, set forth in 1854, said that Kansas and Nebraska should come into the Union under popular sovereignty. Senator Stephen A. Douglas introduced it, and it pushed the country even closer the Civil War.

    Free-Soil Party
    The Free-Soil Party was organized by anti-slavery men in the north, democrats who were resentful at Polk's actions, and some conscience Whigs. The Free-Soil Party was against slavery in the new territories. They also advocated federal aid for internal improvements and urged free government homesteads for settlers. This Free-Soil Party foreshadowed the emergence of the Republican party.

    Fugitive Slave Law
    a law passed just before the Civil War also called the "Bloodhound Bill", slaves who escaped could not testify in their behalf and were not allowed a trial by jury. If the judge in the case freed the slave they would receive five dollars, if not they would get ten dollars. Those found helping slaves would be fined or jailed. This added to the rage in the North.

    Underground Railroad
    chain of anti-slavery homes at which slaves were hidden and taken to the north, Harriet Tubman is known for her role in this

    Compromise 1850
    This compromise signed by Millard Fillmore deals with disputed territory, and the controversy of whether California should join. The results were that California joined as a free state, and what was left of the Mexican Cession land became New Mexico and Utah, and did not restrict slavery. The compromise benefited the North more than the South.

    Ostend manifesto
    The Ostend Manifesto took place in 1854. A group of southerners met with Spanish officials in Belgium to attempt to get more slave territory. They felt this would balance out congress. They tried to buy Cuba but the Spanish would not sell it. Southerners wanted to take it by force and the northerners were outraged by this thought.

    Henry Clay
    Should have been nominated by the Whigs in the 1848 election because he was the ideal Whig. However, he made too many speeches which created too many enemies. He also came up with the Compromise of 1850.

    Zachary Taylor
    Taylor was a general and hero of the Mexican-American war. He was elected to the presidency in 1848, representing the Whig party. He was a good soldier but a poor administrator. He was in office during the crisis of California's admittance to the Union but died in office before a compromise could be worked out, and left vice president Filmore to finalize a deal between the hostile north and south.

    John C. Calhoun
    a sixty-eight year old South Carolina senator who died in 1850 of tuberculosis. The tension between the North and South had not began to build and become unbearable. An associate delivered a speech that he wrote which declared slavery okay. He proposed to leave slavery as it was and restore the slavocracy by returning the runaway slaves to their owners. He wanted to preserve the Union and he believed in the Constitution.

    Winfield Scott
    He was the old general figure that the Whigs used to symbolize them. Scott, however, did not win the election of 1852. His personality did not fit with the masses which cost him the election. Pierce won the election of 1852. (P.381)

    Matthew C. Perry
    He was the military leader who convinced the Japanese to sign a treaty in 1853 with the U.S. The treaty allowed for a commercial foot in Japan which was helpful with furthering a relationship with Japan.

    Lewis Cass
    Named father of "popular sovereignty." Ran for president in 1848 but Gen. Taylor won. The north was against Cass because popular sovereignty made it possible for slavery to spread.

    Stephen Douglas
    Stephen Douglas took over for Henry Clay in the Compromise of 1850. Clay could not get the compromised passed because neither party wanted to pass it as a whole since they would be passing things for the opposite party as well as their own. Douglas split the compromise up to get it passed.

    Franklin Pierce
    Franklin Pierce was elected president in the 1852 election as the second Democratic "dark horse." He was a pro-southern northerner who supported the Compromise of 1850 and especially the Fugitive Slave Law. He also tried to gain Cuba for the South as a slave state, but was stopped because of Northern public opinion after the incident in Ostend, Belgium. He also supported the dangerous Kansas-Nebraska Act pushed for by Senator Douglas. He was succeeded in 1856 by James Buchanan.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 20 - Drifting Toward Disunion

    Freeport Doctrine
    The Freeport Doctrine occurred in Freeport, Illinois during the debates of Lincoln and Douglas for senator. This was a question that Lincoln asked Douglas that made Douglas answer in such a way that the South would know that he was not truly supporting them.

    Harper's Ferry Raid
    Occurred in October of 1859. John Brown of Kansas attempted to create a major revolt among the slaves. He wanted to ride down the river and provide the slaves with arms from the North, but he failed to get the slaves organized. Brown was captured. The effects of Harper's Ferry Raid were as such: the South saw the act as one of treason and were encouraged to separate from the North, and Brown became a martyr to the northern abolitionist cause.

    Constitutional Union Party
    also known as the "do-nothings" or "Old Gentlemen's" party; 1860 election; it was a middle of the road group that feared for the Union- consisted mostly of Whigs and Know-Nothings, met in Baltimore and nominated John Bell from Tennessee as candidate for presidency-the slogan for this candidate was "The Union, the Constitution, and the Enforcement of the laws."

    American Know Nothing Party
    Developed from the order of the Star Spangled Banner and was made up of nativists. This party was organized due to its secretiveness and in 1865 nominated the ex-president Fillmore. These super-patriots were antiforeign and anti-Catholic and adopted the slogan "American's must rule America!" Remaining members of the Whig party also backed Fillmore for President.

    Panic of 1857
    The California gold rush increased inflation; speculation in land and railroads "ripped economic fabric"; hit the North harder than South because the South had cotton as a staple source of income; the North wanted free land from the government; drove Southerners closer to a showdown; caused an increase in tariffs; gave Republicans an issue for the election of 1860.

    Lincoln-Douglas Debate 1858
    Lincoln challenged Stephen Douglas to a series of 7 debates. Though Douglas won the senate seat, these debates gave Lincoln fame and helped him to later on win the presidency. These debates were a foreshadowing of the Civil War.

    The Impending Crisis of the South
    A book written by Hinton Helper. Helper hated both slavery and blacks and used this book to try to prove that non-slave owning whites were the ones who suffered the most from slavery. The non-aristocrat from N.C. had to go to the North to find a publisher that would publish his book.

    Bleeding Kansas
    Kansas was being disputed for free or slave soil during 1854-1857, by popular sovereignty. In 1857, there were enough free-soilers to overrule the slave-soilers. So many people were feuding that disagreements eventually led to killing in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces.

    Roger Taney
    He was Chief Justice for the Dred Scott case. A decision was made on March 6, 1857. Roger Taney ruled against Dred Scott. Scott was suing for freedom because of his long residence in free territory. He was denied freedom because he was property and his owner could take him into any territory and legally hold him as a slave. This court ruling was major cause in starting the Civil War.

    John Breckinridge
    John Breckinridge was the vice-president elected in 1856. Breckinridge was nominated for the presidential election of 1860 for the Southern Democrats. After Democrats split, the Northern Democrats would no longer support him. Breckenridge favored the extension of slavery, but was not a Disunionist. Breckinridge also wanted to keep the Union together, but when the polls started he couldn't even get the votes of his own party.

    John Bell
    Nominated for presidency in 1860 by the Constitutional Union Party, which formed a split in the Union. He was a compromise candidate.

    Abraham Lincoln
    nicknamed "Old Abe" and "Honest Abe"; born in Kentucky to impoverished parents and mainly self-educated; a Springfield lawyer. Republicans chose him to run against Senator Douglas (a Democrat) in the senatorial elections of 1858. Although he loss victory to senatorship that year, Lincoln came to be one of the most prominent northern politicians and emerged as a Republican nominee for president. Although he won the presidential elections of 1860, he was a minority and sectional president (he was not allowed on the ballot in ten southern states).

    John Crittenden
    A Senator of Kentucky, that fathered two sons: one became a general in the Union Army, the other a general in the Confederate Army. He is responsible for the Crittenden Compromise. This augments the fact that the war was often between families, and its absurdity. Kentucky and other states were split up between the Union and Confederacy, and both in the North and South sent people to the other side. This makes it clear that the war is primarily over slavery.

    Hinton Helper 1875
    book entitled 'Impending Crisis of the South' that stirred trouble. Attempted to prove that indirectly the non-slave holding whites were the ones who suffered the most from slavery; the book was banned in the South but countless copies were distributed as campaign material for republicans

    John Brown
    John Brown was a militant abolitionist that took radical extremes to make his views clear. In May of 1856, Brown led a group of his followers to Pottawattamie Creek and launched a bloody attack against pro-slavery men killing five people. This began violent retaliation against Brown and his followers. This violent attack against slavery helped give Kansas its nick name, "bleeding Kansas".

    Charles Sumner
    He was an unpopular senator from Mass., and a leading abolitionist. In 1856, he made an assault in the pro-slavery of South Carolina and the South in his coarse speech, "The Crime Against Kansas." The insult angered Congressmen Brooks of South Carolina. Brooks walked up to Sumner's desk and beat him unconscious. This violent incident helped touch off the war between the North and the South.

    Dred Scott
    Scott was a black slave who had lived with his master for five years in Illinois and Wisconsin territory. He sued for his freedom on the basis of his long residence in free territory. The Dred Scott court decision was handed down by the Supreme Court on March 6,1857. The Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott was a black slave and not a citizen. Hence, he could not sue in a federal court.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 30 - America on the World State

    Portsmouth Conference
    The meeting between Japan, Russia, and the U.S. that ended the Russo-Japanese War in 1905. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for stopping the fighting between those two countries.

    Gentleman's Agreement
    An agreement that was negotiated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1908 with the Japanese government. The Japanese agreed to limit immigration, and Roosevelt agreed to discuss with the San Francisco School Board that segregation of Japanese children in school would be stopped.

    Root-Takahira Agreement
    In 1908 the United States and Japan signed this agreement saying they would both honor the territorial possessions of the respective countries that were in the Pacific Ocean, and they would also uphold China's Open Door Policy.

    Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
    In 1901 the United States and Great Britain created an agreement in which the United States would receive exclusive rights to construct the Panama Canal, and presumably control and fortify it. In previous years the agreement had been that the United States and Britain would build and fortify the canal jointly.

    Hay-Buanu-Vanilla Treaty
    The treaty signed in1903 between the United States and Panama that allowed the United States to build the Panama Canal. The United States leased the 10-mile wide canal zone with a down payment of $10 million and an annual payment of $250,000 for ninety-nine years.

    Panama Canal
    The United States built the Panama Canal to have a quicker passage to the Pacific from the Atlantic and vice versa. It cost $400,000,000 to build. Columbians would not let Americans build the canal, but then with the assistance of the United States a Panamanian Revolution occurred. The new ruling people allowed the United States to build the canal.

    Roosevelt Corollary
    Roosevelt stated that the U.S. would use the military to intervene in Latin American affairs if necessary.

    Big Stick Policy
    The policy held by Teddy Roosevelt in foreign affairs. The "big stick" symbolizes his power and readiness to use military force if necessary. It is a way of intimidating countries without actually harming them.

    Clayton -Bulwar Treaty
    The Clayton Bulwar Treaty of 1850 between the British and the US stated that any canal project on the isthmus of Panama would be a joint effort by the two countries.

    benevolent assimilation
    McKinley and the U.S. were trying to assimilate the Philippines to help them become better. American dollars went to the Philippines to improve roads, sanitation, and public health. Although the U.S. might have looked intrusive, they were actually trying to improve the condition of the Philippines.

    Open Door notes
    In 1899 the United States feared that countries with "spheres of influence" in China might choose to limit or restrict trade to and from their respective areas. John Hay avoided any problems with trade by sending notes to each country who held power in China asking them to keep trade open and tariffs low.

    Boxer Rebellion
    The Boxers were a group of Chinese revolutionaries that despised western intervention in China. The rebellion resulted in the deaths of thousands of converted Chinese Christians, missionaries, and foreign legions. It took 5 countries' armies and four months to stop the rebellion.

    John Hay
    Was the Secretary of State in 1899; dispatched the Open Door Notes to keep the countries that had spheres of influence in China from taking over China and closing the doors on trade between China and the U.S.

    Spheres of Influence
    European powers, such as Britain and Russia, moved in to divide up China in 1895. These countries gained control of certain parts of China's economy. These were called spheres of influence. The U.S. feared that these European powers would divide up China so they proposed the Open Door policy. The Chinese did not like the idea of unwelcome foreigners trading freely within their country, so they started the Boxer Rebellion.

    Philippine Insurrection
    Even before the Philippines were annexed by the U.S. there was tension between U.S. troops and Filipinos. One U.S. sentry shot a Filipino who was crossing a bridge. The situation deteriorated and eventually we entered into a war with the Philippines. It would take two years to settle this dispute, as compared to the four months needed to defeat the once powerful Spain. Though the U.S. had better arms, the guerilla warfare employed by the Filipinos left the Americans outmatched. Between 200,000 and 600,000 Filipinos died in the war, most from sickness and disease caused by the war.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 31 - Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt

    Ballinger-Pinchot Affair
    Ballinger, who was the Secretary of Interior, opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska against Roosevelt's conservation policies. Pinchot, who was the Chief of Forestry, supported former President Roosevelt and demanded that Taft dismiss Ballinger. Taft, who supported Ballinger, dismissed Pinchot on the basis of insubordination. This divided the Republican Party.

    Meat Inspection Act
    Passed in 1906. It stated that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection. Part of the Progressive reforms, which helped out the consumer.

    Pure Food and Drug Act
    It was created in 1906 and was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals. It was made to protect the consumer.

    Newlands Act
    Congressional response to Theodore Roosevelt in 1902. Washington was to collect money from sales of public lands in western states and use funds for development of irrigation projects

    Dollar diplomacy
    Taft's foreign policy which replaced "bullets with dollars"; involved investors instead of military. Eventually worked better in Latin America than China.

    Payne-Aldrich Act
    Signed by Taft in March of 1909 in contrast to campaign promises. Was supposed to lower tariff rates but Senator Nelson N. Aldrich of Rhode Island put revisions that raised tariffs. This split the Republican party into progressives (lower tariff) and conservatives (high tariff).

    Seventeenth Amendment
    The Seventeenth Amendment was adopted in 1913 shortly after "direct primaries" were adopted. U.S. Senators were previously chosen by state legislators who were controlled by political machines. These Senators were known for dealing with mainly business matters in politics. The 17th Amendment stated that Senators were now elected by popular vote from the citizens.

    Eighteenth Amendment
    Amendment forbids the sale and manufacture of liquor and made it illegal in 1919.

    Elkins Act
    The Elkins Act of 1903 was an act passed by Congress against the Railroad industries. It was specifically targeted at the use of rebates. It allowed for heavy fining of companies who used rebates and those who accepted them. It is part of the Progressive Reform movement.

    Hepburn Act
    1906 - This Act was signed by Teddy Roosevelt to give the ICC the right to set rates that would be reasonable. It also extended the jurisdiction of the ICC to cover express, sleeping car, and pipeline companies. It prohibited free passes and rebates. It was the first time in U.S. history that a government agency was given power to establish rates for private companies.

    Northern Securities Case
    The Northern Securities Company was a holding company in 1902. The company was forced to dissolve after they were challenged by Roosevelt, his first trust-bust.

    Initiative
    the process of petitioning a legislature to introduce a bill. It was part of the Populist Party's platform in 1891, along with referendum and recall. These all intended to make the people more responsible for their laws and allow them to make political decisions rather than the legislature.

    Referendum
    When citizens vote on laws instead of the state or national governments. The referendum originated as a populous reform in the populist party, but was later picked up by the progressive reform movement.

    Recall
    The people could possibly remove an incompetent politician from office by having a second election.

    Recall
    A second election could be called by the people, and could possibly remove an incompetent politician from office.

    conservation
    Movement in America to begin preserving natural resources and stop the rapid destruction of these resources and land.

    Muckrakers
    Muckrakers- nickname given to young reporters of popular magazines. These magazines spent a lot of money on researching and digging up "muck," hence the name muckrakers. This name was given to them by Pres. Roosevelt- 1906. These investigative journalists were trying to make the public aware of problems that needed fixing.

    Robert M. La Follete
    Governor of Wisconsin nicknamed " Fighting Bob" who was a progressive Republican leader. His "Wisconsin Idea" was the model for state progressive government. He used the "brain trust", a panel of experts, to help him create effective, efficient government. He was denied the nomination for the Republicans in favor of Theodore Roosevelt.

    Hiram Johnson
    A progressive reformer of the early 1900s. He was elected the republican governor of California in 1910, and helped to put an end to trusts. He put an end to the power that the Southern Pacific Railroad had over politics.

    Charles Evans Hughes
    A reformist Republican governor of New York, who had gained fame as an investigator of malpractices by gas and insurance companies and by the coal trust. He later ran against Wilson in the 1916 election.

    Upton Sinclair
    He was the author of the sensational novel, THE JUNGLE, published in 1906. His intention was to describe the conditions of canning factory workers. Instead, Americans were disgusted by his descriptions of dirty food production. His book influenced consumers to demand safer canned products.

    William Howard Taft
    In the 1908 election Taft was chosen over William Jennings Bryan to succeed Roosevelt. As president he approached foreign policy by using America's wealth to negotiate politically. He also brought suits against 90 trusts during his administration. Due to his lack of political skills, he helped divide the Republican Party.

    Henry Demarest Lloyd
    He wrote the book "Wealth Against Commonwealth" in 1894. It was part of the progressive movement and the book's purpose was to show the wrong in the monopoly of the Standard Oil Company.

    Jacob Riis
    Jacob Riss was a reporter for the New York Sun. He was a photo journalist. His book HOW THE OTHER HALF LIVES detailed life in the slums. He was trying to bring attention to the situation of the poor to bring about some sort of change.

    Ida Tarbell
    Ida Tarbell was a "Muckraker" who wrote in the magazine McClure's (1921). As a younger woman, in 1904, Tarbell made her reputation by publishing the history of the Standard Oil Company, the "Mother of Trusts."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 32 - Wilsonian Progressivism at Home and Abroad

    LUSITANIA
    The Lusitania was a British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The unrestricted submarine warfare caused the U.S. to enter World War I against the Germans.

    Sussex
    Germany agreed not to sink unarmed passenger ships with out warning. They violated this in 1916 when they torpedoed this French passenger ship. Wilson threatened to break diplomatic relations because of this.

    Federal Trade Commission
    A committee formed to investigate industries engaging in interstate commerce. It was created to stop unfair trade practices and to regulate and crush monopolies.

    Clayton Act
    This helped to control monopolies by lengthening the Sherman Act's list of business practices that were objectionable (interlocking directorates). It exempted labor and agricultural organizations from antitrust prosecution; legalized strikes and peaceful picketing.

    Federal Farm Loan Act
    Passed by president Wilson in 1916. Was originally a reform wanted by the Populist party. It gave farmers the chance to get credit at low rates of interest.

    Jones Act
    Jones Act (1916): signed by President Wilson, it granted territorial status to the Philippines and promised to grant independence as soon as a stable government was established.

    Allies
    Composed of France, Britain, and Russia, and later Japan and Italy, the Allies fought the Central Powers in World War I. The United States joined the Allies in 1917, and after major economic and military blows, World War I ended with the Treaty of Versailles.

    Federal Reserve Act
    The most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. It created a regulatory agency for banking with 12 regional reserve districts. Each bank was independent but was controlled by the Federal Reserve Board, which was controlled by the public. The Federal Reserve controls the amount of money in circulation through reserves and interest rates.

    Charles Evans Hughes
    He was a Republican governor of New York who was a reformer. He was later a supreme court justice who ran for President against Woodrow Wilson in 1916. The Democrats said that if Hughes won then the country would end up going to war. Hughes lost a very close race for the position to Wilson.

    New Nationalism
    Progressive policy of Theodore Roosevelt--1912 Progressive party platform--favored a more active government role in economic and social affairs--favored continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions and the growth of powerful regulatory agencies in Washington--favored women's suffrage and social welfare programs (including minimum-wage laws and "socialistic" social insurance).

    New Freedom
    Wilson's policy that favored the small business, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and unmonopolized markets.

    Underwood Tariff (1913)
    The Underwood Tariff, substantially reduced import fees. Lost tax revenue would be replaced with an income tax that was implemented with the 16th amendment.

    Sixteenth Amendment
    It was adopted in 1913 and stated that Congress shall have the power to lay and collect income taxes. This amendment was passed because earlier the Supreme Court had declared that an income tax was unconstitutional. It was part of the progressive movement. It was created to shift the burden of taxes to the wealthy.

    Louis D. Brandeis
    A prominent reformer and Attorney in "Muller vs. Oregon" (1908) that persuaded Supreme Court to accept constitutionality of laws protecting women workers saying conditions are harder on women's weaker bodies. Wrote book "Other People's Money and How Bankers use it" (1914) that pushed reform within the banks. Nominated in 1916 by Woodrow Wilson for Supreme Court.

    Venustiano Carranza
    He became president of Mexico in 1914. He succeeded the harsh President Huerta. President Carranza at first supported Wilson's sending General Pershing into Mexico to look for the criminal Pancho Villa, but when he saw the number of troops he became outraged and opposed Wilson.

    Pancho Villa
    Pancho Villa was a combination of a bandit and a Robin Hood. He was a rival of President Carranza of Mexico. He alluded Pershing and was never caught because Pershing was forced to go fight in WWI.

    John J. Pershing
    Pershing was an American general who led troops against "Pancho" Villa in 1916. He took on the Meuse-Argonne offensive in 1918 which was one of the longest lasting battles- 47 days in World War I. He was the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during World War I.

    Kaiser Wilhelm II
    Ruler of Germany; congratulated the Boers of South Africa for capturing a British raiding party; this turned British anger toward Germany and prevented a war between the US and Britain over the Venezuelan Crisis

    Central Powers
    During WWI, the powers opposing the Allies. These countries included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey.

    Woodrow Wilson
    The Democratic representative in the presidential elections of 1912 and 1916. He was elected into the presidency as a minority president. He was born in Virginia and was raised in a very religious family. He was widely known for his political sermons. He was an aggressive leader and believed that Congress could not function properly without good leadership provided by the president. His progressive program was known as New Freedom and his foreign policy program was Moral Diplomacy. He was president during World War I.

    Herbert Croly
    He favored the regulation of trusts and labor unions with a strong national government and inspired the book The Promise of American Life

    Eugene Debs
    Represented the Socialist Party in the 1908 and 1912 elections; high number of votes in the 1912 election made Socialists think that they would win the presidency in 1916

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 33 - The War to End Wars

    Food Administration
    An administration created to feed wartime America and its allies. Herbert Hoover, a Quaker-humanitarian, was chosen as the leader, mostly because of his already existent title of "hero" that he acquired leading a massive charitable drive to feed the starving people of war-racked Belgium. This was the most successful of the wartime administrations.

    Bolsheviks
    These communists organized a revolution in Russia to overthrow the tsar. The communist revolution caused Russia to pull out of WWI.

    Doughboys
    The nickname given to regular soldiers in World War I. They were part of the American Legion that was lobbying for veteran's benefits. They wanted to receive their "dough" to make up for the wages that they lost when they joined the military.

    Big Four
    The "Big Four" refers to the four countries that were allied together in WWI. The countries were the U.S. represented by President Wilson, England represented by David Lloyd George, France represented by Georges Clemenceau, and Italy represented by Vittorio Orlando.

    Irreconcilables
    During World War I, senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, led a group of people who were against the United States joining the League of Nations. Also known as "the Battalion of Death". They were extreme isolationists and were totally against the U.S. joining the League of Nations.

    Treaty of Versailles
    This treaty was created to solve problems made by World War I. Germany was forced to accept the treaty. It was composed of only four of the original points made by President Woodrow Wilson. The treaty punished Germany and did nothing to stop the threat of future wars. It maintained the pre-war power structure.

    Nineteenth Amendment
    This amendment gave women suffrage in 1920. Women were guaranteed the right to vote after a century of conflicts.

    Committee on Public Information
    It was headed by George Creel. The purpose of this committee was to mobilize people's minds for war, both in America and abroad. Tried to get the entire U.S. public to support U.S. involvement in WWI. Creel's organization, employed some 150,000 workers at home and oversees. He proved that words were indeed weapons.

    Espionage and Sedition Acts
    Espionage Act of 1917; Sedition Act of 1918; reflected current fear about Germans and antiwar Americans; Among the 1,900 prosecuted under these laws were antiwar Socialists and members of the radical union Industrial Workers of the World; were enacted during WWI to keep Americans united in favor of the war effort.

    Industrial Workers of the World
    Also known as "Wobblies," a more radical labor organization that was against war.

    War Industries Board
    President Wilson appointed Bernard Baruch to head the board in March of 1918 during WWI--intended to restore economic order- to make sure we were producing enough at home and abroad--never had more than feeble formal powers--was disbanded a few days after the armistice.

    Collective security
    Described what the League of Nations should do. It said that the League of Nations was supposed to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all countries.

    normalcy
    After a long reign of high morality, outrageous idealism, and "bothersome do-goodism", people longed for the "normalcy" of the old America, and were ready to accept a lower quality president who would not force them to be so involved. Harding coined the phrase a "return to normalcy".

    Zimmerman note
    Written by Arthur Zimmerman, a German foreign secretary. In this note he had secretly proposed a German- Mexican alliance. He tempted Mexico with the ideas of recovering Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. The note was intercepted on March 1, 1917 by the U.S. government. This was a major factor that led us into WWI.

    Fourteen Points
    The Fourteen Points were introduced by Wilson in 1918. It was Wilson's peace plan. Each of the points were designed to prevent future wars. He compromised each point at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. The only point which remained was the 14th (League of Nations). Each one was appealing to a specific group in the war and each one held a specific purpose.

    League of Nations
    In 1919, after the war, Wilson proposed the League in the 14th point of his peace plan. He envisioned it as an Assembly with seats for all nations and a special council for the great powers. The US voted not to join the League because in doing so, it would have taken away our self-determination, and Congress could not decide whether to go to war or not.

    Marshal Foch
    The quiet Frenchman who became the supreme commander of the Allied forces during Germany's attack on the Western front in World War I; his axiom was, "To make war is to attack."

    Henry Cabot Lodge
    Lodge was an outspoken senator from Massachusetts. He came from a distinguished lineage that dated back to the colonial times. He introduced the Literacy Test bill in 1896 to be taken by immigrants, but it was vetoed by Cleveland. The bill however was passed and enacted in 1917. Lodge also led a group of Republicans against the League of Nations. Lodge proposed amendments to the League Covenant but Wilson would not accept. We did not join the League.

    Warren G. Harding
    He was easygoing and kind, and therefore one of the best liked men of his time. As a president, however, he had a weak. He won the 1920 election but he was unable to detect moral wrongs in his associates. He appointed "great minds" to office because he knew he lacked in intelligence, but a few of the men he appointed were morally lacking. He was called an "amiable boob,". He died in 1923 from a stroke.

    James M. Cox
    He was the democrat nominee chosen to run for the presidency against Harding in the 1920 election. His vice-presidential running mate was Franklin Roosevelt.

    Self-Determination
    The idea that all people can have independence and make up their own government. This was one of Wilson's fourteen points.

    Eugene V. Debs
    Socialist, Eugene V. Debs, was accused of espionage and sent to a federal penitentiary for ten years. All this came about because of a speech that he made in Columbus, Ohio at an anti- war rally. Despite his imprisonment he ran for presidency in 1920. Although he didn't win, he had many votes; in fact he had the most that any candidate of the Socialist party had ever had.

    Bernard Baruch
    Bernard Baruch was a stock speculator appointed by Wilson to head the War Industries Board. The Board had only formal powers and was disbanded. He was later a United States delegate for the U.N. during the Cold War.

    George Creel
    Journalist who was responsible for selling America on WWI and was head of the Committee on Public Information. He was also responsible for selling the world on Wilsonian war aims.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 34 - American Life in the "Roaring Twenties"

    Flappers
    The dynamic 1920's revealed women notorious for their risky attire and dance styles. Referred to as "wild abandons," these girls exemplified the new sexually frank generation.

    Modernists
    believed that God was a "good guy" and the universe a pretty chummy place; these were the people who believed in God but were also able to except evolution and modern science

    Sacco and Vanzetti Case
    Nicola Sacco was a shoe-factory worker and Bartholomew Vanzetti was a fish peddler. They were both convicted of murdering a Massachusetts paymaster and his guard in 1921. They were supported by Liberals and Radicals. The case lasted 6 years and resulted in execution based on weak evidence. Mainly because Americans were xenophobic (afraid of foreigners).

    Ku Klux Klan
    In the 1920s this group was very anti-foreign. It was against all groups which did not have a protestant background. They were most prevalent in the Midwest and the south. They eventually became less popular when Klan officials were caught embezzling money.

    Emergency Quota Act 1921
    This law restricted immigration to 3% of each nationality that was in the United States in 1910.

    Immigration Quota Act 1924
    was passed in 1924--cut quotas for foreigners from 3 % to 2% of the total number of immigrants in 1890--purpose was to freeze America's existing racial composition (which was largely Northern European) --prevented Japanese from immigrating, causing outrage in Japan.

    Volstead Act
    The Volstead Act implemented the 18th Amendment. It established illegal alcohol at above .5%.

    Fundamentalism
    A movement that pushed that the teachings of Darwin were destroying faith in God and the Bible. It consisted of the old-time religionists who didn't want to conform to modern science.

    Sinclair Lewis
    Lewis was the chief chronicler of Midwestern life. He was a master of satire and wrote "

    Main Street
    " in 1920. Then he wrote "Babbit" which describe a materialistic middle-class American businessman.

    William Faulkner
    He was a writer. In 1926 he wrote a bitter war novel called "Soldier's Pay". He also wrote many other powerful books about the lives of Southerners during the Civil War.

    Buying on Margin
    This kind of buying stocks was usually only used by poor and middle class people. They would buy the stock, but only pay for part of it and borrow money from the stockbrokers to pay the rest. Then when they sold the stock for a higher price, they would pay the broker off and keep the rest of the profit. This practice led to the great depression, because the banks couldn't get their money back when the stock market crashed.

    Red Scare
    The Red Scare erupted in the early 1920's. The American public was scared that communism would come into the US. Left-winged supporters were suspected. This fear of communism helped businessman who used it to stop labor strikes.

    Sigmund Freud
    The Viennese physician that believed sexual repression was responsible for a variety of nervous and emotional diseases. He argued that health demanded sexual gratification and liberation. His writings seemed to justify the new sexual frankness of the 1920s.

    H. L. Mencken
    H.L. Mencken was a patron to many young writers in the 1920's. He criticized many subjects like the middle class, democracy, marriage and patriotism in his monthly AMERICAN MERCURY.

    F. Scott Fitzgerald
    He belonged to the Lost Generation of Writers. He wrote the famous novel "The Great Gatsby" which explored the glamour and cruelty of an achievement-oriented society.

    Ernest Hemingway
    Ernest Hemingway fought in Italy in 1917. He later became a famous author who wrote "The Sun Also Rises" (about American expatriates in Europe) and "A Farewell to Arms." In the 1920's he became upset with the idealism of America versus the realism he saw in World War I. He was very distraught, and in 1961 he shot himself in the head.

    Margaret Sanger
    She led an organized birth control movement that openly championed the use of contraceptives.

    Andrew Mellon
    Mellon was the Secretary of the Treasury during the Harding Administration. He felt it was best to invest in tax-exempt securities rather than in factories that provided prosperous payrolls. He believed in trickle down economics. (Hamiltonian economics)

    Bruce Barton
    A founder of the "new profession" of advertising, which used the persuasion ploy, seduction, and sexual suggestion. He was a prominent New York partner in a Madison Avenue firm. He published a best seller in 1925, The Man Nobody Knows, suggesting that Jesus Christ was the greatest ad man of all time. He even praised Christ's "executive ability." He encouraged any advertising man to read the parables of Jesus.

    Henry Ford
    Henry Ford - he made assembly line production more efficient in his Rouge River plant near Detroit- a finished car would come out every 10 seconds. He helped to make car inexpensive so more Americans could buy them.

    Frederick W. Taylor
    Taylor was an engineer, an inventor, and a tennis player. He sought to eliminate wasted motion. Famous for scientific-management especially time-management studies.

    Margaret Sanger
    she organized a birth-control movement which openly championed the use of contraceptives in the 1920's.

    A. Mitchell Palmer
    Attorney General who rounded up many suspects who were thought to be un-American and socialistic; he helped to increase the Red Scare; he was nicknamed the "Fighting Quaker" until a bomb destroyed his home; he then had a nervous breakdown and became known as the "Quaking Fighter."

    John Dewey
    He was a philosopher who believed in "learning by doing" which formed the foundation of progressive education. He believed that the teachers' goal should be "education for life and that the workbench is just as important as the blackboard."

    John T. Scopes
    In 1925 Scopes was indicted for teaching evolution in Tennessee. His trial was watched all over the country. This trial represented the Fundamentalist vs. the Modernalist. In the outcome Scopes was only fined $100.00 dollars. While it seemed the Fundamentalists had won, the trial made them look bad.

    William Jennings Bryan
    Joined the prosecution in the " Monkey Trials" (Scopes Trial) against the teachings of evolution in schools, he was supposed to be an expert on the Bible, but was made to look silly in the case and died soon afterward

    Clarence Darrow
    A famed criminal defense lawyer for Scopes, who supported evolution. He caused William Jennings Bryan to appear foolish when Darrow questioned Bryan about the Bible.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 35 - The Politics of Boom and Burst

    Federal Housing Authority
    Established by FDR during the depression in order to provide low-cost housing coupled with sanitary condition for the poor

    Herbert Hoover
    He was the head of the Food Administration during World War I. He became the Secretary of Commerce and encouraged businesses to regulate themselves. Hoover was a Republican known for his integrity who won the election of 1928. He had to deal with the Great Crash of 1929, which caused the Great Depression. He signed the Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act. His belief in "rugged individualism" kept him from giving people direct relief during the Great Depression.

    Hawley-Smoot Tariff
    Began as a protective measure to assist farmers, but turned out to be the highest protective tariff in the nation's peace time history. It raised the duty on goods from 38.5 percent to 60 percent in 1930.

    Black Tuesday
    It occurred on October 29, 1929, when 16,410,030 shares of stocks were sold in a save-who-may scramble. It marked the beginning of the Great Depression.

    Reconstruction Finance Corporation
    (1932) This corporation became a government lending bank. It was designed to provide indirect assistance to insurance companies, banks, agricultural organizations, railroads, and even hard-pressed state and local governments. Under this plan, to preserve individualism, no loans were made to individuals. In the election of 1932, Hoover ran against FDR and this was part of Hoover's plan.

    Bonus Army
    A group of almost 20,000 World War I veterans who were hard-hit victims of the depression, who wanted what the government owed them for their services and "saving" democracy. They marched to Washington and set up public camps and erected shacks on vacant lots. They tried to intimidate Congress into paying them, but Hoover had them removed by the army, which shed a negative light on Hoover.

    Hoover-Stimson doctrine
    This said that the United States would not recognize any territorial acquisitions that were taken over by force. (This doctrine is related to Japanese aggression in Manchuria in 1931)

    Kellogg-Briand Pact
    (1929) created by Frank B. Kellogg and Aristide Briand, this pact promised to never make war again and settle all disputes peacefully. Sixty-two nations signed this pact. The treaty was hard to enforce and had no provisions for the use of economic or military force against a nation that may break the treaty.

    Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law
    In 1922, Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Law. As a result, foreign tariff 's became as high as 38.5%. This was designed to equalize the price of American and Foreign products

    Teapot Dome Scandal
    One of many scandals under Harding. Involved priceless naval oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming. Albert B. Fall got Secretary of Navy, Denby to transfer valuable goods to Interior Department secretly. Harry Sinclair and Edward L Dohney were released the lands after paying a large bribe. Scandal polluted governments prestige and made public wonder about the sufficiency of government and undermined faith in courts

    McNary -Haugen Bill
    This bill was favored by agricultural states. It was pushed to keep high prices on agricultural products by authorizing the government to purchase agricultural surpluses and selling them. The losses of the government could be repaid by a special tax on the farmers. It was passed twice by Congress and vetoes twice by Coolidge.

    Dawes Plan
    Calvin Coolidge's running mate, Charles Dawes is largely responsible for the Dawes plan of 1924; an attempt to pay off the damages from WWI. This intricate monetary "merry-go-round", as it was often called, gave money to Germany who then paid France and Britain for debts of the war. Former allies then paid the U.S. When the Depression hit, the "merry-go-round" stopped. Finland was the only nation to pay off their debts to the very last penny in 1976. The U.S. never received the money it was owed.

    John W. Davis
    John W. Davis: Democratic convention nominee in 1924 against Coolidge. He was a wealthy lawyer connected with J.P. Morgan and Company. Coolidge easily defeated Davis.

    Robert La Follette
    A senator from Wisconsin who ran for the presidency of 1924 on the Progressive party's ticket. Their platform called for government ownership of the railroads and relief for farmers and it lashed out at monopolies. He lost however to Coolidge.

    Alfred E. Smith
    He ran for president in the 1928 election for the Democrat Party. He was known for his drinking and he lost the election to Herbert Hoover. Prohibition was one of the issues of the campaign. He was the first Roman Catholic to run for president, and it was during a time many people were prejudice toward Catholics.

    Ohio Gang
    A group of poker-playing, men that were friends of President Warren Harding. Harding appointed them to offices and they used their power to gain money for themselves. They were involved in scandals that ruined Harding's reputation even though he wasn't involved.

    Washington conference
    The Washington Conference 1921-1922 was a meeting between most major world powers. This conference was for the disarmament of these countries. This meeting also prevented the U. S. and Britain from fortifying their Far East possessions and established the Four Power treaty. The major powers promised to preserve the status-quo in the Pacific. Reduced the number of large battleships for the major powers.

    Andrew Mellon
    He was the Secretary of the Treasury during the 1920s and under Harding that had the theory that high taxes forced the rich to invest in tax-exempt securities rather than in factories that provided prosperous payrolls. He had followers in his theory called Mellonites. He helped engineer a series of tax reductions and reduced national debt by $10 billion. He was accused of indirectly encouraging the bull market and starting the descent into the stock market crash.

    Herbert Hoover
    The president of the United States from 1929 to 1932 He was a republican who ran on a campaign of prohibition and prosperity. The early years of his presidency brought about a great deal of prosperity for the United States. Many people blamed him for the stock market crash.

    Albert B. Fall
    He was Secretary of the Interior during Harding's administration, and was a scheming anticonservationist. He was convicted of leasing naval oil reserves and collecting bribes, which was called the Tea Pot Dome scandal.

    Harry M. Daugherty
    Attorney General during the 1922 strike against the Railroad Labor Board. The strike ended when Daugherty stopped the strikers in one of the most sweeping injunctions in American history. He was a member of Harding's Ohio Gang. He was accused of the illegal sale of pardons and liquor permits. He was forced to resign. He was tried but a jury failed to convict him.

    Charles R. Forbes
    In 1923 he resigned as head of the Veteran's Bureau. He swindled $200 million from the government in building Veteran's hospitals. He was sentenced to two years in the penitentiary. This was part of the Harding scandal and the "Ohio gang"

    Calvin Coolidge
    became president when Harding died of pneumonia. He was known for practicing a rigid economy in money and words, and acquired the name "Silent Cal" for being so soft-spoken. He was a true republican and industrialist. Believed in the government supporting big business.

    Warren G. Harding
    Warren G. Harding - one of the best liked men of the generation, he was spineless and a bad judge of character. He is compared to Grant because his term in office was scandalous. Many corporations could expand, antitrust laws were ignored, and he achieved disarmament with the Open Door in China. The tariff increased also. He died on August 2, 1923 of pneumonia and thrombosis while making speeches.

    Charles Evan Hughes
    He was the Republican governor of New York who ran for the presidency in 1916. He lost to Wilson. He was a strong reformer who gained his national fame as an investigator of malpractices in gas and insurance companies. In 1921 he became Harding's Secretary of State. He called together the major powers to the Washington Disarmament Conference in 1921.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 36 - The Great Depression and the New Deal

    Congress of Industrial Organizations
    Also known as the CIO, this labor union formed in the ranks of the AFL. It consisted of unskilled workers. The AFL got scared of their influence on workers and suspended all members of the CIO. In 1938 it broke with the AF of L. By 1940 it had 4 million members.

    Liberty League
    The Liberty League consisted of the conservatives that opposed the New Deal introduced by FDR. Their common opinion was that FDR was pushing the United States too close to socialism. They saw the New Deal as being more apt to hurt United States economics than to help it. (Herbert Hoover and General Motors)

    Twentieth and Twenty-first Amendments
    The Twentieth Amendment changed the calendar of Congressional sessions and the date of the presidential inauguration (January 20th). In short, it shortened the length of lame duck periods for the presidency. The Twenty-first Amendment to the Constitution ended prohibition and allowed the distribution and drinking of alcoholic beverages to commence once again.

    Court-packing scheme
    Roosevelt tried to put an extra justice on the Supreme Court for every justice over 70 years old who wouldn't retire. These justices would be supporters of Roosevelt and there would be a maximum of 15 judges. The plan failed. Congress would not accept.

    National Recovery Act
    During the Great Depression, this act was created in 1933 as a helping hand for industry, labor, and the unemployed. It granted labor additional benefits and guaranteed the right to organize through representatives of their own choosing. It was a part of Franklin D. Roosevelt's new plan, but was later declared unconstitutional. Symbol was the "Blue Eagle"

    Tennessee Valley Authority
    First Government owned corporation. Started to create jobs and build dams in the Tennessee River Valley to supply electricity to poorer areas after the depression.

    Social Security Act of 1935
    It created a federal insurance program based on the automatic collection of taxes from employees and employers throughout people's working careers. They would receive this money in a monthly pension when they reached the age of 65. The unemployed, disabled, and mothers with dependent children would also receive this money.

    Wagner Act
    Same as the National Labor Relations Act (1935) and set up the National Labor Relations Board and reasserted the right of labor to engage in self-organization and to bargain collectively.

    National Labor Relation Board
    Created by the National Labor Relations Act, also known as the Wagner Act it was created in the 1930's by congressman Wagner who was sympathetic to labor unions. The National Labor Relation Board was an administrative board that gave laborers the rights of self-organization and collective bargaining.

    The three R's
    Roosevelt's New Deal programs aimed at the three R's- relief, recovery, and reform. Roosevelt's plan was announced on March 4, 1933 to lift the burden of the Great Depression.

    Glass-Steagall Act
    In 1933, this act allowed the banks to reopen and it gave the president the power to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange.

    Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
    The CCC was created by the Unemployment Relief Act of 1933. It provided employment in government camps for 3 million uniformed single, young men during the Great Depression. The work they were involved in included reforestation, fire fighting, flood control, and swamp drainage.

    Works Progress Administration
    Congress created this in 1935 as an agency that gave jobs to people who needed them. They worked on bridges, roads, and buildings. They spent 11 billion dollars and gave almost 9 million people jobs. It was one of the New Deal Agencies.

    New Deal
    After Franklin Roosevelt was inaugurated in 1933, he decided the U.S. must improve economically to recover from the Great Depression. His policy, the New Deal, focused on relief, recovery, and reform. Short term goals were relief and immediate recovery. Permanent recovery and reform were done by long-range goals. Programs were established to improve unemployment, regulate minimum wage, and reform many other social issues.

    Brain Trusts)
    Small group of reform minded intellectuals, mainly young college professors. Considered much of the New Deal legislation and worked as a kitchen cabinet for Franklin Roosevelt.

    George W. Norris
    He was a Senator from Nebraska, whose steadfast vision and zeal helped an act creating the Tennessee Valley Authority to be passed in 1933.

    John L. Lewis
    John L. Lewis was the leader of the United Mine Workers. He also formed the CIO (Committee for Industrial Organization). He led a "sit-down" strike on General Motors at Flint, Michigan in 1936. Unionists from the Republic Steel Co. wanted to join the CIO, and a fight broke out in 1937 called the

    Memorial Day Massacre.
    Lewis is responsible for the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Acts (Wages and Hour Bill) which set minimum wage, overtime pay for work over 40 hours in one week, and kids under age 16 could not work.

    Alfred M. Landon
    Alfred M. Landon was the republican candidate in 1936. This honest and wealthy man from Kansas lost greatly to the Democrat Franklin Roosevelt. He had stressed balancing the budget.

    Parity
    A plan to help farmers injured from low prices and over-production. From 1909-1914, farms had enjoyed a period of prosperity. Parity was the price placed on a product that gave it the same value, in buying power, that it had from 1909-1914. The AAA paid farmers to reduce production. The payment for this came from taxes gotten from the makers of expensive farm equipment.

    Frances Perkins
    First woman appointed to a cabinet position. Appointed by FDR, she became Secretary of Labor. She received a lot of undeserved criticism from male politicians and businessmen.

    Father Coughlin
    Anti-New Deal Catholic Priest; began broadcasting in 1930; called the "microphone messiah"; slogan was "Social Justice"; silenced in 1942 when his broadcasts became too radical.

    Huey Long
    Nickname "Kingfish"; Senator of Louisiana. He pushed his "Share Our Wealth" program, which would make "Every Man a King". Long planned to run against FDR in the 1936 elections, but he was assassinated.

    Francis Townshend
    Townshend was a retired physician who developed a plan in which the government would give monetary resources to senior citizens ages sixty and over. This plan was a type of pension for older Americans. He had a lot of followers. This people thought FDR wasn't doing enough.

    Harold Ickes
    "Honest Harold"; Secretary of the interior; became head of the Public Works Administration (PWA); dealt with industrial recovery and unemployment relief by creating jobs (over thirty-four thousand project jobs for workers). His determination to prevent waste prevented maximum relief.

    Franklin D. Roosevelt
    --- governor of NY -- 5th cousin to Theodore Roosevelt --- wealthy family -- went to Harvard -- served as secretary of the navy -- was suave and conciliatory -- handicapped --came up with New Deal --- elected as a democrat President in 1932 --elected 4 times (only one to do so) --dealt with Great Depression and WWI

    Eleanor Roosevelt
    Wife of Franklin Roosevelt; she traveled everywhere with him on behalf of all his campaigns; she became the most active First Lady in history. She fought for the rights of all Americans.

    Harry Hopkins
    The head of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA). A friend and advisor to President FDR. He was very involved in reforms in the Great Depression and in the 30's and 40's in such issues as unemployment and mortgages.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 37 - Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Shadow of War

    America First Committee
    A committee organized by isolationists before WWII, who wished to spare American lives. They wanted to protect America before we went to war in another country. Charles A. Lindbergh (the aviator) was its most effective speaker.

    Lend-Lease
    A law passed in March of 1941 by sweeping majorities in both houses of Congress. This law said that the U.S. would lend or lease weapons to overseas countries and victims of aggression who would in turn finish the job of the fighting, and keep the war overseas from the U.S.

    Atlantic Charter
    This was created by Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a secret conference. It outlined the hopes of the democracies and their intentions for improvements after World War II.

    Nye Committee
    The Nye Committee investigated arms manufacturers and bankers of World War I. Claimed they had caused America's entry into WWI. Public opinion pushed Congress to pass the Neutrality Acts to keep us out of WWII.

    Neutrality Acts
    Congress made an effort to legislate the nation out of war. The Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 stipulated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war certain restrictions would automatically go into effect. No American could legally sail on a belligerent ship, or sell or transport munitions to a belligerent nation, or make loans to a belligerent.

    Hitler-Stalin Nonaggression Pact
    This pact was signed by Hitler and Stalin on August 23, 1939. It allowed Hitler to attack Poland without fear of an attack from Russia. This pact helped spur the start of World War II.

    "cash and carry"
    Only way that Europe could buy American war materials in World War II. They would have to transport the munitions in their own ships and they could only purchase the munitions with cash.

    "Phony war"
    During World War II Hitler removed his forces from Poland to focus his efforts in France and Britain. All of Europe fell rather silent at the shock of Hitler's move. This silence and period of inactivity in Europe came to an end when Hitler again moved his forces, and attacked the weaker Norway and Denmark. The period of silence in Europe was known as the phony war.

    Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act
    (1934) The Act was designed to raise American exports and was aimed at both relief and recovery. Led by Cordell Hull, it helped reverse the high-tariff policy.

    Nazi Party
    The Nazi Party was established in Germany with much of the same beliefs as the Fascists. Nazis believed that the state is more important than the individual and that there should be a strong central government with absolute power. Adolph Hitler is known for leading the Nazi Party. Hitler is also credited with taking the Fascist beliefs a step further and adding the racism into the beliefs. Nazis believed that white people with blonde hair and blue eyes made up a superior race of humans that would one day rule the world.

    Rome-Berlin Axis
    In 1936 Hitler and Mussolini allied together in the Rome-Berlin Axis. They were both allied with Japan. They fought against the Allies in World War II.

    Isolationism
    The opposition of the involvement of a country in international alliances, agreements, etc. The U.S. remained isolated in the 1920's because of the disillusionment in WWI. This isolationist sentiment was prevalent during WWII.

    Good Neighbor Policy
    This was established by Herbert Hoover to create good relations with Latin America. It took much of the American military out of these countries. It also nullified the Roosevelt Corollary.

    Winston Churchill
    He was the prime minister of England during World War II. He was known as the bull-dog jawed orator who gave his people the nerve to fight off the air bombings occurring in their cities. He was in favor of the Eight-point Atlantic Charter and he was involved in the first conference. He was also one of the Big Three.

    Charles Lindbergh
    In 1927, he was the first person to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in his plane, the Spirit of Saint Louis. He later became an ambassador of goodwill for the United States.

    Wendle Willkie
    Republican presidential candidate versus Roosevelt in the election of 1940. He lost, but put up a good "race."

    Reciprocity
    a recognition of two countries or institutions of the validity of licenses or privileges granted by the other. Part of the New Deal trade policy was to reduce tariffs to encourage trade. Idea was that if we reduce tariffs other countries will reduce tariffs on us.

    Totalitarianism
    Type of government where the government has complete control and the people are powerless.

    Urenburg Trials
    After WWII, the Allied forces agreed that Nazism had to be cut out of Germany. They tried twenty-two Nazi war criminals in Nuremberg, Germany in 1945-1946. Twelve of the tried were hung, and seven sent to jail.

    Cordell Hull
    Secretary of State during FDR's presidency; believed in reciprocal trade policy of the New Dealers, as well as a low tariff; led to passage of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934; also believed in Good Neighborism.

    Joseph Stalin
    Harsh and strict Communist dictator of Russia. One of the three big powers during WWII along with Roosevelt from the US and Churchill from Great Britain. Constantly asked for a western front to be established to relieve USSR during WWII.

    Benito Mussolini
    The Facist dictator of Italy. He sought to create a new empire, much like the Roman one. He became an ally with Adolf Hitler in the Rome-Berlin Axis, and led his forces against the Allied powers in WWII. He was overthrown and beheaded in 1943, after the fall of Sicily during the war.

    Francisco Franco
    With the help of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, Franco overthrew the Loyalist regime and became the dictator of Spain in the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939.

    Adolf Hitler
    A very crude leader that took advantage of a disillusioned and depression-stricken nation. After the Treaty of Versailles blamed Germany for WWI, Hitler lead the nation into WWII under the "big lie." He was a manipulative and feared dictator that vented his anger on the Jewish Nation.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 38 - America in World War II

    Second Front
    The second Front was the invasion of western Europe by the US ,British, and French in 1944. This invasion was to take pressure off the Russians and divide the Germans. It was established by the D-Day Invasion.

    D-Day
    D-day was the first day of the Normandy landings which started the invasion of western Europe and liberated France from the Germans.

    V-E Day
    Victory in Europe Day. The German government surrendered unconditionally during WWII on May 7, 1945

    Potsdam Conference
    Held near Berlin in 1945 with Truman, Stalin and Clement Atlee who issued an ultimatum to Japan to surrender or be destroyed. This is where Truman learned about the Atomic Bomb.

    V-J Day
    Victory in Japan Day was celebrated on August 15, 1945 after the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan. The celebrations continued through the official end of World War II on September 2, 1945 when Japan officially surrendered.

    War Production Board (WWII)
    This board halted the manufacture of nonessential items such as passenger cars. It assigned priorities for transportation and access to raw materials. It imposed a national speed limit and gasoline rationing because, due to the Dutch East Indies ending their exports of natural rubber to the U.S., they wanted to conserve rubber. They also built fifty-one synthetic rubber plants.

    Office of Price Administration
    FDR created this in order to prevent inflation in the economy during WWII.

    Fair Employment Practice Commission
    Roosevelt established this initially to give fair employment to blacks. Eventually, and to this day, its purpose is to protect and serve all races, sexes, ages, and ethnicities involving employment.

    Harry S. Truman
    He took over the presidency during World War II with the death of Roosevelt. He was called by many the "average man's average man" for his appearance and personality, and he was one of the only presidents without a college education. He was an artillery officer in World War One. He was responsible for the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan to end World War II..

    Albert Einstein
    A German-born scientist who encouraged Roosevelt and America to build the first atomic bomb.

    Chester Nimitz
    Nimitz served as an Admiral in the Battle of Midway in 1942. He commanded the American fleet into in the Pacific Ocean and learned the Japanese plans through "magic" decoding of their radio messages. With this intercepted information, Nimitz headed the Japanese off and defeated them.

    Dwight D. Eisenhower
    He was the U. S. general who led the attack in North Africa in Nov. of 1942.He was the master organizer of the D-Day invasion in Europe (June 6, 1944). He ran for the Republican ticket in the 1952 and the1956 elections and won. He was very well liked by the public.

    Stalin
    Soviet Dictator during WWII and the beginning of the Cold War. In 1943 regained two-thirds of Soviet motherland taken from him by Hitler. Leader of Soviet Union against Hitler, allied with United States. Met with Churchill and Roosevelt at Teheran from November 28 - December 1, 1943 and agreed to attack Germany from all sides.

    George S. Patton
    "Blood 'n' Guts"; commanded lunges across France by American armored tank division; commander during WWII

    Thomas E. Dewey
    The Republican presidential nominee in 1944, Dewey was the popular governor of New York. Roosevelt won a sweeping victory in this election of 1944. Dewey also ran against Harry Truman in the 1948 presidential election. Dewey, arrogant and wooden, seemed certain to win the election, and the newspapers even printed, "DEWEY DEFEATS TRUMAN" on election night. However, the morning results showed that Truman swept the election, much to Dewey's embarrassment.

    Dust bowl
    A region in South-central US that had a harsh changing climate for farmers during the Great Depression. (Successive years of drought destroyed farms.)

    A. Philip Randolph
    He was the black leader of The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. He demanded equal opportunities in war jobs and armed forces during WWII.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 39 - The Cold War Begins

    Taft-Hartley Act
    (1947) It outlawed the "closed" shop, made unions liable for damages that resulted from jurisdictional disputes among themselves, and required union leaders to take a non-Communist oath.

    Fair Deal
    Made by Truman in his 1949 message to Congress. It was a program that called for improved housing , full employment, higher minimum wage, better farm price supports, new TVA's, and the extension of social security. Its only successes: raised the minimum wage, better public housing, extended old-age insurance to more people.

    Thirty-eighth parallel
    The line dividing Korea into two sections, north of the parallel the communist Soviet Union was in charge and south of the parallel was democratic America was in charge. This line would become the demilitarized zone after the Korean conflict.

    NSC-68
    First drawn up in 1950, NSC-68, or National Security Council Memorandum Number 68, was buried until the Korean crisis later that year. This document suggested that the U.S. could afford to spend upward of 50% of its gross national product for security.

    Inchon landing
    The landing of UN troops, by General Douglas MacArthur, behind enemy lines at Inchon in Korea. In order to push back the North Korean troops.

    Containment
    US foreign policy after WWII designed to stop the spread of communism. (Truman Doctrine)

    Truman Doctrine
    Truman wanted to prevent the spread of communism. He wanted it "contained". The first implementation of the Truman Doctrine was $400 million given to aid Greece and Turkey to prevent a communist takeover.

    Marshall Plan
    Issued in response to the struggling European countries, the Marshall Plan would allow the U.S. to give financial assistance to certain countries. This was done to prevent communism from rising in countries like France and Italy, whose economies where suffering after WWII. It was agreed in July 1947 that the U.S. would spend $12.5 billion, over four years, in sixteen different nations. In order to receive financial assistance you had to have a democratic government.

    National Security Act
    Passed by Congress in 1947 and it created the Department of Defense. It also established a National Security Council (NSC) to advise the president on security matters and a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government foreign fact-gathering.

    North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
    Military alliance between the US, Canada and 10 European nations signed on April 4, 1949. It was committed to building military defense of Europe against Communist Russia. Dwight D.Eisenhower became the Supreme Commander of NATO.

    Yalta Conference
    A conference between Stalin and FDR in an attempt to get Russian support in the highly anticipated invasion of Japan. Russia ,in return, received the southern part of Sakilin Island that it had lost to Japan and joint control of Manchuria's railroads. The Allies also reluctantly allowed Poland to become communist. Many Americans saw this deal as a failure.

    Cold War
    The Cold War began in 1945 after WWII. It was a global ideological conflict between democracy and communism. (United States versus Soviet Union)

    United Nations
    United Nations conference took place on April 25, 1945 --FDR died on April 12, but had chosen Republican and Democratic representatives to meet at the San Francisco War Memorial Opera House with representatives from 50 nations, fashioning a United Nations' charter similar to the old League of Nations covenant --- featured a Security Council dominated by the US, Britain, USSR, France, and China (the big 5 powers) who could veto, and an Assembly that could be controlled by smaller countries --the UN's permanent home was in NY city.

    Iron Curtain
    The "iron curtain" refers to the secrecy and isolation of the Soviet Union and its satellite states, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland, after World War II. The phrase was first used by Winston Churchill while he was giving a speech in the United States.

    Berlin airlift
    The USSR had embargoed all supplies that would go into the Allied Germany. In response, America used many planes to take and drop food and supplies into Berlin. They did this to show the USSR that they were determined to maintain control of Berlin. It worked, the Soviets lifted the blockade.

    J. Strom Thurmond
    He was nominated for president on a States' Rights Party (Dixiecrats) in the 1948 election. Split southern Democrats from the party due to Truman's stand in favor of Civil Rights for African American. He only got 39 electoral votes.

    Thomas Dewey
    He worked for a well known New York City law firm. He was Governor of New York State and was elected District Attorney in 1937. He was Governor 3 different times and ran for president twice although he was defeated both times. 1948 the newspapers had him defeating Truman but Truman won.

    Adlai Stevenson
    The Democratic candidate who ran against Eisenhower in 1952. His intellectual speeches earned him and his supporters the term "eggheads". Lost to Eisenhower.

    Dwight Eisenhower
    Called "The Republican's Choice" along with his vice president Richard Nixon. He was the commander of the allied forces in Europe, the army chief-of-staff after the war, and the director of NATO for two years. Dwight displayed "grandfatherly good will". The night before the 1952 presidential elections, he declared that he would personally go to Korea and end the war. This helped to win the majority in 41 of the lower 48 states. Eisenhower reigned over a period of unstable peace and prosperity. He was elected to another term in 1956.

    Richard Nixon
    He was a committee member of the House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities (to investigate "subversion"). He tried to catch Alger Hiss who was accused of being a communist agent in the 1930's. This brought Nixon to the attention of the American public. In 1956 he was Eisenhower's Vice-President.

    George F. Kennan
    A brilliant young diplomat, and a Soviet specialist, who crafted the "containment doctrine."

    Douglas MacArthur
    He was the supreme allied commander during the Cold War in 1945. After World War II, MacArthur was put in charge of putting Japan back together. In the Korean War, he commanded the United Nations troops. He was later fired by Harry Truman for insubordination.

    Douglas MacArthur
    Allied commander and five star general in the U.S. army. He headed the U.S. army in Japan and Korea but was fired by Truman for questioning the actions of his superiors in the midst of the Korean war.

    Joseph McCarthy
    A Republican Senator from Wisconsin who was strongly against communism. McCarthy claimed there were many communists in the State Department. He did not have much evidence to support his accusations, and his search for communists was considered a type of "witch-hunt." When his lack of evidence was discovered, he was censored by Congress and lost his seat in Congress.

    Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
    They were convicted in 1951 of giving atomic bomb data found by American scientists to the Soviet Union. They are the only Americans ever executed during peacetime for espionage.

    Harry S. Truman
    He was called the "accidental president" and "the average man's average man." He was the first president in many years without a college education, he had farmed, served as an artillery officer in France during WWI, and failed as a haberdasher. Then he rose from precinct-level politics in Missouri to a judgeship to the U.S. Senate. Though a protege of the political machine in Kansas City, he had kept his own hands clean.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 40 - The Eisenhower Era

    Sputnik
    The first satellite ever launched into space, was launched by the Russians; began the "race for space" where Americans competed with the Russians to get farther into space. Was launched on Oct. 4, 1957 (Sputnik I).

    Missile Gap
    The United States and the Soviet Union were involved in a race to discover who had more missiles and war equipment. The missile gap was the difference in how much the United States had compared to how much the Soviet Union had.

    National Defense and Education Act
    (NDEA) After the Russian satellite "Sputnik" was successfully launched, there was a critical comparison of the Russian to the American education system. The American education system was already seen as too easygoing. So in 1958 Congress made the NDEA, authorizing $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the purpose of improving the teaching of the sciences and languages.

    U-2 Incident
    Under Eisenhower administration just before the "summit conference" in Paris scheduled for May 1960, the American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia. Eisenhower was forced to step up and assume personal responsibility for the incident. Francis Gary Powers was the pilot that was captured by the Russians but returned. Incident kept Khrushchev from meeting with Eisenhower.

    Suez Crisis
    Suez Crisis: when President Nasser of Egypt announced his intention to build a damn in the Suez to provide power and irrigation to Egypt, the United States offered its financial support, withdrawing it when Nasser spoke with the Communists on the subject. Nasser responded by nationalizing the Suez canal, which was previously owned by British and French stockholders. This hurt Europe by crippling their oil supply, most of which came from the Persian Gulf.

    Eisenhower Doctrine
    1957 - Congress and US President pledged US military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression. Under the Doctrine the US was able to openly land several thousand troops and help restore order without taking a single life.

    Landrum-Griffith Act
    America was in desperate need of labor reform. Union leaders and big industries were involved in many scandals. In 1959 Congress passed the Landrum-Griffith Act. It would prevent bullying tactics and would make labor leaders keep accurate financial records.

    South East Asia Treaty Organization
    SEATO was introduced by secretary Dulles as a prop for his shaky policy in Vietnam. (Similar to NATO)

    Hungarian Revolt
    When the Hungarians tried to win their freedom from the Communist regime in 1956, they were crushed down by Soviet tanks. There was killing and slaughtering of the rebels going on by military forces.

    desegregation
    During the 1960's, integration of southern universities began. President Kennedy supported black's civil rights. Some desegregation was painless, but much of it resulted in violent campaigns and riots.

    massive retaliation
    John Foster Dulles formulated this policy for Eisenhower. He was Eisenhower's secretary of state in the 1950's. It stated that America would be willing to use nuclear weapons against aggressor nations instead of "limited" warfare. This led to the stockpiling of nuclear weapons.

    military-industrial complex
    During the Cold War military funding increased tremendously and at the end of Eisenhower's administration he warned about forming a "military-industrial complex" in which industry received huge government contracts to build for the military.

    Brown v. Board of Education
    The case brought before the Supreme Court in May 1954 in which the Court ruled that segregation of races in public schools was unconstitutional.

    Geneva Conference
    The Geneva conference split the nation of Vietnam roughly in half along the seventeenth parallel., and established a shaky peace in the nation of Laos.

    Gamal Abdel Nasser
    The hard-nosed Arab-nationalist president of Egypt during the Suez Canal crisis in 1956. He seized the Suez Canal from the English and French. England and France were willing to use force to get it back. Soviets try to interfere. Eisenhower made them back down when he put the Strategic Air Command on alert.

    Nikita Khrushnev
    The premier of Russia during the race to get satellites into space between Russia and the United States. He used many propaganda techniques to try to fool the world of Russia's intentions. President's Eisenhower and Kennedy dealt with his communist attitudes.

    Fidel Castro
    He engineered a revolution in Cuba in 1959. He denounced the imperialists and took valuable American property for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro took more U.S. land and resulting from that his dictatorship became similar to Stalin's in Russia. (Communism in the Western Hemisphere)

    John F. Kennedy
    He was the youngest president ever elected, as well as the only Catholic to take office. He represented the democratic party with his "New Frontier" platform in the 1960 election. He was a major contributor to the space program and to the civil rights movement. He was assassinated on Nov. 22, 1963.

    McCarthyisim
    McCarthyism was the communist witch hunts of the 1950's. This fear of Communism ruined many lives and families. The Senate hearings on communism were run by Senator Joseph McCarthy.

    Earl Warren
    Chief Justice and former governor of California; brought originally taboo social issues, such as civil rights to African Americans, to the attention of Congress and the country. Known for the "Brown v. Board of Education" case of 1954.

    Rosa Parks
    Rosa Parks a seamstress and a secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, was known as the "mother of the civil rights movement." In December of 1955, Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white rider. She was jailed and fined $14 for the offense. This led to Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Montgomery Bus Boycott.

    Ho Chi Minh
    The Vietnamese leader who believed in Asian nationalism and anti-colonialism in his country. He was trying to get rid of the French colonial rule in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh's beliefs were discouraged by the Cold War and he became increasingly communist. He lead the North Vietnamese against the U.S. and the south Vietnamese. He was the enemy in Vietnam.

    Ngo Dinh Diem
    Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong anti-communist, proclaimed South Vietnam a republic on Oct. 26, 1956 and became its first president. He was formerly the Premier of Vietnam. He was assassinated by a military coup d'etat.

    Dwight Eisenhower
    when elected President, he was the most popular American; "I like Ike!" button; elected to two consecutive terms in 1952 and 1956. President during the prosperous 1950's. Modern Republicanism---didn't undo the New Deal of the Democrats.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 41 - The Stormy Sixties

    Tet Offensive
    The name given to a campaign in January 1968 by the Viet Cong to attack twenty-seven South Vietnamese cities, including Saigon. It ended in a military defeat for the Viet Cong, but at the same time, proved that Johnson's "gradual escalation" strategy was not working, shocking an American public that believed the Vietnam conflict was a sure victory.

    Civil Right Act of 1964
    Passed by Congress in 1964 in honor of the late President Kennedy. This act banned racial discrimination in places such as hospitals and restaurants. This act also gave the government the power to desegregate schools. It led to the creation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

    Twenty-Fourth Amendment
    (1964) abolished the poll tax in federal elections. This joined the blacks with the whites during the civil rights movement.

    Voting Rights Act
    This act, passed in 1965, outlawed literacy tests and sent federal voter registrars into several Southern states. This act did not end discrimination and oppression overnight, but it helped blacks get a foothold on change.

    Operation Rolling Thunder
    President Johnson launched Operation Rolling Thunder, a massive air bombardment of North Vietnam, in April of 1965. The targets were directly chosen by the president. These were regular full scale bombing attacks against Vietnam.

    Pueblo Incident
    In January 1968 during the Vietnam War the North Koreans seized the "Pueblo", a U.S. intelligence ship, evidently in international waters. They imprisoned the crew of some eighty men for eleven months. This episode stirred American anger, but provoked no military response.

    Great Society
    The Great Society was President Johnson's policy. It was a continuation of the democratic ideals of FDR's New Deal and Truman's Fair Deal. It was a war on poverty in which such issues as health care, education, and welfare were covered and increased in importance. (Medicare and Medicaid)

    Tonkin Gulf Resolution
    In August 1964 shots were allegedly fired at American navy ships by the North Vietnamese. LBJ quickly ordered an air raid on North Vietnamese bases, and pushed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution through Congress. This gave the president a blank check to uses for further force in Southeast Asia. Because of this, LBJ had total control, and did not need the approval of Congress to enter the war.

    nuclear-test ban treaty
    (1963) Kennedy and the Russians signed a pact prohibiting trial nuclear explosions in the atmosphere. This was signed following the Cuban missile crisis.

    March on Washington
    In August of 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. organized a massive protest on Washington, D.C. where he gave his "I have a dream" speech. The march was organized to protest racial discrimination and to demonstrate support for major civil-rights legislation that was pending in Congress.

    War on Poverty
    The name President Lyndon Johnson gave to his crusade to improve the lifestyle of America's poor, especially those in Appalachia. It included economic and welfare measures aimed at helping the large percentage of Americans who lived in poverty.

    New Frontier
    The New Frontier was the new programs introduced by President Kennedy in the early 1960's. These programs included the space program to the moon and the peace corp.

    Peace Corps
    Kennedy proposed this which was an army of idealistic and mostly youthful volunteers to bring American skills to underdeveloped countries.

    Alliance of Progress
    Alliance of Progress - this was a Marshall Plan for Latin America that was suggested by President Kennedy to help the Good Neighbors close the gap between the rich and the poor and to help quiet the communist agitation. It was unsuccessful because there was little alliance and no progress.

    Bay of Pigs
    Kennedy was told that there were enough people in Cuba that would support an uprising, so he sent American troops along with Cuban exiles to the Bay of Pigs. When no one was there to support the raid, Kennedy withdrew air support. Therefore, Castro was able to defeat the uprising. This was Kennedy's big failure in his foreign policy.

    Cuban Missile Crisis
    In Oct. of 1962, U.S. intelligence confirmed reports that the U.S.S.R. was constructing missile launching sites in Cuba. President Kennedy rejected a full-scale attack and, instead, delivered a public ultimatum to the U.S.S.R. The U.S.S.R. backed down and the U.S. promised not to overthrow the Cuban government.

    Richard M. Nixon
    Richard M. Nixon - elected President in 1968 and 1972 representing the Republican party. He was responsible for getting the United States out of the Vietnam War by using "Vietnamization", which was the withdrawal of 540,000 troops from South Vietnam for an extended period. He was responsible for the Nixon Doctrine also. He was involved in D�tente, which was a way to create peaceful relations between the United States and the communist countries of Moscow and Beijing.

    Richard M. Nixon
    He was the Republican President of the United States during the Vietnam War (1969-1974). He made many improvements for the environment, and he took the United States off the gold standard. As a result of the Watergate Scandal, Nixon was forced to resign. Many other problems hurt his term such as the energy crisis, but mainly Watergate. He removed US troops from Vietnam in 1973 with his Vietnamization policy.

    George Wallace
    A third party ticket candidate for the American Independent party in 1968 that lost against Nixon. He was a former governor of Alabama and had stood in the doorway to prevent black students from entering the University of Alabama.

    Flexible response
    Kennedy's plan to deal with foreign powers by not always resorting to nuclear weapons but using specialist like the Green Beret

    Credibility Gap
    This was the gap between the people and the government that grew as the people became disillusioned with the Vietnam war and Watergate.

    Stokely Carmichael
    Carmichael was a black civil rights activist in the 1960's. Leader of the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee. He did a lot of work with Martin Luther King Jr. but later changed his attitude. Carmichael urged giving up peaceful demonstrations and pursuing black power. He was known for saying," black power will smash everything Western civilization has created."

    Eugene McCarthy
    a little known Democratic Senator from Minnesota, he represented the Democratic party in the 1968 presidential election. He was a devout Catholic and a soft-spoken, sometimes poet. He used a group of antiwar college students as his campaign workers. He, with the help of his "Children's Crusade", got 42% of the democratic votes and 20 out of 24 convention delegates.

    Hubert H. Humphrey
    The democratic nominee for the presidency in the election of 1968. He was LBJ's vice president, and was supportive of his Vietnam policies. This support split the Democratic party, allowing Nixon to win the election for the Republicans.

    Barry Goldwater
    Republican senator from Arizona nominated on the Republican ticket for the Presidency in the election of 1964. He ran against Lyndon B. Johnson and lost the election.

    Malcolm X
    a black Muslim preacher who favored black separation and condemned the "blue-eyed white devils". He was shot by a black gunmen while giving a speech in New York City.

    Robert S. McNamara
    Robert S. McNamara was the secretary of defense under Kennedy. He helped develop the flexible response policy. He was against the war in Vietnam and was removed from office because of this.

    Charles de Gaulle
    President of France, he was suspicious of American plans for Europe, and wanted to recapture the feeling of the Napoleonic era. He constantly vetoed actions by or in the interest of the U.S. that would increase their control in European affairs.

    Martin Luther King, Jr.
    A leader in the civil rights movement in the 1950's and 1960's. Preached non-violent forms of revolting such as sit-ins and friendly protests. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4, 1968.

    Lee Harvey Oswald
    On November 22, 1963, he assassinated President Kennedy who was riding downtown Dallas, Texas. Oswald was later shot in front of television cameras by Jack Ruby.

    Lyndon B. Johnson
    A democratic egotist. He was Kennedy's vice president, and became president when Kennedy was assassinated. He escalated the war in Vietnam and the failure to win the war was blamed on him. Johnson had a great domestic policy called " The Great Society" and helped push for the passing of the civil rights act to end discrimination. He also issued all federal contractors to take "affirmative action" against discrimination.

    John F. Kennedy
    He was the youngest most glamorous president ever elected. He won the 1960 presidential election against Nixon. He was the first Catholic president. During his presidency, he sent the Green Beret (Marines) to Vietnam. He helped develop the Peace Corps. His foreign policy was Flexible Response. His domestic program was the New Frontier. He appointed his brother, Robert Kennedy as Attorney General. Robert Kennedy dealt with the Civil Rights issue as well. John F. Kennedy was assassinated on Nov.22,1963.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 42 - The Stalemated Seventies

    OPEC
    "Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries." -this oil cartel doubled their petroleum charges in 1979, helping American inflation rise well above 13%.

    Iranian Hostage Crisis
    called Carter's and America's bed of nails; captured Americans languished in cruel captivity; American nightly television news cast showed scenes of Iranians burning the American flag; Carter tried to apply economic sanctions and the pressure of world opinion against Iranians. Carter then called for rescue mission; rescue attempt failed; The stalemate with Iran went on through the rest of Carter's term hurting his bid for reelection.

    SALT
    Strategic Arms Limitation Talks- A pact that served to freeze the numbers of long-range nuclear missiles for five years in 1972. This treaty between Nixon (U.S.), China, and the Soviet Union served to slow the arms race that had been going on between these nations since World War II.

    MIRVS (Multiple Independently-targeted Reentry Vehicles)
    MIRVS were designed to overcome any defense by "saturating" it with large numbers of nuclear warheads, similar to a rocket.

    The Watergate Scandal
    The Watergate Scandal was a problem in Washington during the presidency of Richard Nixon. The members of an association working to have Nixon re-elected, CREEP, were involved in a burglary, and it was then linked to Nixon. The CREEP group had also gotten lots of money from unidentifiable places. Suspicion set in and Nixon was accused of getting illegal help in being re-elected. Nixon tried to use government to cover-up his involvement. Impeachment proceedings were started but Nixon resigned from his office in August of 1974.

    CREEP
    Richard Nixon's committee for re-electing the president. Found to have been engaged in a "dirty tricks" campaign against the democrats in 1972. They raised tens of millions of dollars in campaign funds using unethical means. They were involved in the infamous Watergate cover-up.

    War Powers Act
    Passed during the Vietnam War, Congress passed this act to restrict Presidential powers dealing with war. It was passed over Nixon's veto, and required the President to report to Congress within 48 hours after committing troops to a foreign conflict or enlarging units in a foreign country.

    Nixon Doctrine
    During the Vietnam War, the Nixon Doctrine was created. It stated that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments, but in the future other countries would have to fight their own wars without support of American troops.

    My Lai massacre
    In 1968 American troops massacred women and children in the Vietnamese village of My Lai; this deepened American people's disgust for the Vietnam War.

    Kent State Killings
    In April of 1970, police fired into an angry crowd of college students at Kent State University. Four students were killed and many others were wounded. The students were protesting against Nixon ordering US troops to seize Cambodia without consulting Congress.

    Twenty-Sixth Amendment
    This lowered the voting age to 18 years old. It was a result of the Vietnam war, in which young men felt that if they could fight, they should be able to vote.

    Pentagon Papers
    Papers that "leaked" to "The New York Times" about the blunders and deceptions of the Kennedy and Johnson administrations in Vietnam, especially the provoking of the 1964 N. Vietnamese attack in the Gulf of Tonkin. This is linked to Watergate.

    Aytollah Khomeini
    He was a Muslim holy man who sparked opposition toward the United States in the Middle East.

    D�tente
    A period of relaxed tension between the communist powers of the Soviet Union and China and the U.S. set up by Richard Nixon that established better relations between these countries to ease the Cold War. During this time the Anti-ballistic Missile treaty as well as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks were set up to prevent nuclear war

    Executive Privilege
    This policy came into effect during the Nixon administration when members of the executive branch were being questioned by authorities. The policy stated that Congress could not question any of the past or present employees about any topic without the president's approval.

    Vietnamization
    President Nixon's policy to withdraw the 540,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam over an extended period. It would bring and end to the war in 1973.

    Shah of Iran
    Pahlavi became Shah in 1941, when the allies of WWII forced the abdication of his father. Communist and Nationalist movements created unrest and tension during the early years of his reign. The Shah distributed royal lands to poverty-stricken farmers. He is known for both social and economic reform in Iran. With the abundance of oil-drinking machines, Pahlavi became a powerful world leader, and the main military power in the Middle East. Muslims and the Ayatollah forced the Shah and his family into exile in 1979, where he died in Cairo on July 27, 1980.

    Warren Burger
    Burger was the Supreme Court justice during the Nixon administration. He was chosen by Nixon because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. He presided over the extremely controversial case of abortion in Roe vs. Wade.

    George McGovern
    A Senator from South Dakota who ran for President in 1972 on the Democrat ticket. His promise was to pull the remaining American troops out of Vietnam in ninety days which earned him the support of the Anti-war party, and the working-class supported him, also. He lost however to Nixon.

    Sam Ervin
    Ervin was a North Carolinian who headed a Senate committee that investigated the Watergate incident. The hearings, which were held in 1973-1974, were widely televised in order to inform the nation of the White House dealings in the crime. Ervin subsequently became rather well-known across the country for his involvement.

    John Dean
    He testified against Nixon as well as other cabinet members in the Watergate hearings. His testimony helped led to the removal of several White House officials and the resignation of Nixon. Before his testimony he had been a White House lawyer.

    Gerald Ford
    Gerald Ford was the first president to be solely elected by a vote from Congress. He entered the office in August of 1974 when Nixon resigned. He pardoned Nixon of all crimes that he may have committed. The Vietnam War ended in 1975, in which Ford evacuated nearly 500,000 Americans and South Vietnamese from Vietnam. He closed the war.

    Jimmy Carter
    He was Georgia's governor for four years before he was elected the dark-horse president of 1976, promising to never lie to the people. He was politically successful at first, but was accused of being isolated with Georgians after a while. His greatest foreign policy achievement was when he peacefully resolved Egypt and Israel relations in 1978.

    Spiro Agnew
    Governor of Maryland who ran as Vice President with Richard Nixon in 1968. He was known for his tough stands against dissidents and black militants. He strongly supported Nixon's desire to stay in Vietnam. He was forced to resign in October 1973 after having been accused of accepting bribes or "kickbacks" from Maryland contractors while governor and Vice President.

    Daniel Ellsberg
    He was a former employee of the Defense Department and gave the New York Times the "Pentagon Paper" which was information on how the US government got involved in Vietnam. Very embarrassing to the government.

    Henry Kissinger
    Nixon's national security adviser. He and his family escaped Hitler's anti-Jewish persecutions. Former Harvard professor. In 1969, he had begun meeting secretly on Nixon's behalf with North Vietnamese officials in Paris to negotiate an end to the war in Vietnam. He was also preparing the president's path to Beijing and Moscow.

    Earl Warren
    He was the Chief Justice who discussed taboo issues like black civil rights. He made the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, which said that segregation in public schools was not equal. He conducted the investigation into Kennedy's assassination. Accepted the ruling of the lone gunman.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 43 - The Resurgence of Conservatism

    ROE V. WADE
    ROE V. WADE was decided by the Supreme Court in 1973. It prohibited state legislatures from interfering with a woman's right to abortion. Norma McCarvey, a.k.a. Jane Roe, said in 1995 that she no longer believed in abortion rights.

    Affirmative Action
    Affirmative Action: programs designed to encourage employers and colleges to hire or accept more minorities and women to even out the workforce, eliminate racism in the hiring process, and improve the lives of impoverished minorities in America. The programs were opposed by many as reverse discrimination against those who were not hired in an effort to keep the workplace ethnically diverse.

    Neoconservatism
    neoconservatives were a small influential group of thinkers who were supporters of Ronald Regan. They were acting against the 1960's liberalism. They took tough anti-Soviet positions in foreign policy. They championed free-market capitalism liberated from gov't restraints. They questioned liberal forms of welfare programs and affirmative action policies. They encouraged traditional values, individualism, and the centrality of the family.

    Sunbelt
    15 state area from Virginia to Florida and west to California. It included Texas, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Everyone was moving into these areas because they had a great and strong economy.

    Grenada Invasion
    Ronald Reagan dispatched a heavy- fire- power invasion force to the island of Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought Marxists to power ----Americans captured the island quickly demonstrating Reagan's determination to assert the dominance of the US in the Caribbean

    Yuppies
    young, urban professionals who wore ostentatious gear such Rolex watches or BMW cars. They came to symbolize the increased pursuit of wealth and materialism of Americans in the 1980s.

    Strategic Defense Initiative
    This was Regan's proposed high-tech, anti-nuclear missile, defense system. It was said to be scientifically impossible. It was nicknamed "Star Wars."

    Betty Friedan
    She was a leader in the modern feminist movement in the 1960s. She wrote "The Feminist Mystique."

    Reverse Discrimination
    During the 1970's, white workers and students felt that they were being discriminated against by employers and admission offices because too much weight was put on race and ethnic background. In the court case, Bakke vs. California, the Supreme Court declared that preference in admissions to a college could not be given to a certain race, but racial factors could be taken into account in a school's overall admissions policy.

    Geraldine Ferraro
    In 1984 she was the first woman to appear on a major-party presidential ticket. She was a congresswoman running for Vice President with Walter Modale.

    Sandra Day O'Connor
    She was appointed by Reagan as a Supreme Court justice. She is a brilliant Stanford Law School graduate. She was sworn in on Sept.25, 1981. She was the first woman to ascend to the high bench in the Court's nearly 200 yr. History.

    "supply-side economics"
    The nickname given to the type of economy that Ronald Reagan brought before Congress. It involved, among other things, a 25% tax cut that encouraged budgetary discipline and would hopefully spur investments. However, the plan was not a success and the economy was sent into its deepest recession since the 1930's.

    Moral Majority
    An evangelical Christian group that was created to fight against the liberal ideas and politics that developed in the 60's and after. It is a "right-wing," conservative group.

    Chappaquiddick
    Senator Edward Kennedy, brother of John F. Kennedy, was at a Batchelor party on an island. There were some young women there and there was some drinking and Kennedy ended up taking one of the young ladies off the island. But when they were crossing a bridge Kennedy's car went off the bridge. The young woman was killed. Kennedy's story was that he swam across a bay to get help but it was too late. There was much controversy over this incident about Kennedy's motives, such as if he was trying to kill the lady because she knew something and that Kennedy was already married.

    Anwar Sadat
    President of Egypt; Carteer invited Sadat and Israel's Menachem Begin to a conference at Camp David; the two signed an agreement that served as a step toward peace between Egypt and Israel.

    Walter Mondale
    He was the vice president of Carter and when he won the democratic nomination he was defeated by a landslide by Reagan. He was the first presidential candidate to have a woman vice president, Geraldine Ferraro.

    Jesse Jackson
    A black candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 1988 election who attempted to appeal to minorities, but eventually lost the nomination to Michael Dukakis

    Edward Kennedy
    He is a Senator from Massachusetts and the last of the Kennedy brothers. In 1979, he said that he was going to challenge Carter for the Presidency, but an incident back in '69 with a car crash, handicapped his decision.

    Ronald Reagan
    Ronald Reagan was first elected president in 1980 and elected again in 1984. He ran on a campaign based on the common man and "populist" ideas. He served as governor of California from 1966-1974, and he participated in the McCarthy Communist scare. Iran released hostages on his Inauguration Day in 1980. While president, he developed Reagannomics, the trickle down effect of government incentives. He cut out many welfare and public works programs. He used the Strategic Defense Initiative to avoid conflict. His meetings with Gorbachev were the first steps to ending the Cold War.

    John Anderson
    Ran against Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter on the independent ticket, tallying 7 percent of the popular vote and not a single electoral vote.

    Martin Luther King Jr.
    He was an African American minister who was instrumental in starting the Black Civil Rights Movement of the 1960's. He formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference of 1957. Led a peaceful "March on Washington" King fought for, and won, the outlaw of literacy tests in the voting booth. He was assassinated on April 4, 1968.

    Viet Cong
    South Vietnamese Communists.

    Jimmy Carter
    He was a Democratic, dark-horse candidate who won the 1976 presidential election. Carter was a humanitarian, and got Israel and Egypt to sign a peace treaty in 1978 at Camp David.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Chapter 44 - The American People Face a New Century

    Underclass
    The underclass in America is made up of mostly blacks and minorities living in the ghettoes of old industrial cities. This is due to all the minority groups that settled in the old industrial cities while most whites and upper class blacks moved away from the big cities at the end of the twentieth century. Without a middle class in the cities, the underclass suffered. They had poor schooling, unemployment, drug addiction, and a lack of hope.

    stagflation
    Took place in the 1970's and was the product of high inflation and high unemployment rates.

    Cultural nationalism
    In the 1980's new social issues came up as conservatives fought new-right activists. During this time, many Americans with different cultural backgrounds (like the Japanese, Chinese, etc.) began to seek rights like the African-Americans had in the 1960's. They often fought such things as unfair laws and segregation.

    Immigration and Nationality Act
    This act was signed by Johnson in 1965. It abolished the national origins system, this new act stated that no more than 20,000 people from any one country could immigrate over to America in a year.

    Equal Rights Amendment
    In 1923, the National Women's Party campaigned for the equal rights of women in the work place. It was never passed.

    International Economy
    Beginning in the 1920's and continuing to the present day, the U.S. has become a mass consumer economy with heavy machinery and automobile corporations. The "information age" developed, and technology has become and industry in itself. Communication to businessmen became much quicker and also made business transactions in different areas of the world much easier. The U.S. has become more and more involved with foreign trade as technology and communication has advanced.

    Information superhighway
    A phrase associated with the new computer age. It refers to the communication revolution that occurred in the 1990's that involved the Internet.

    "classrooms without walls"
    The idea that supports having classrooms in which students are able to use a computer to do their studies without a teacher giving a lecture but there to be more of a mediator.

    biological engineering
    A modern scientific question in America is about whether or not the human gene pool should be engineered and conformed with how scientists want it to be. The question may never be answered, but biological engineering is the manipulation of human genes to produce the desired outcome.

    Family Leave Bill
    In 1993, Congress passed this to mandate job protection for working fathers as well as mothers who needed to take time off work for family-related reasons.

    Electronic Revolution
    The electronic revolution was in the 1970's. The information economy brought the large use of computers to America. The silicon chip, made in 1959, is a small one quarter of an inch square that can hold incredible amounts of information. This is called a microchip, and it helped to cause the electronic revolution.

    Immigration and Nationality Act
    (1965) This law made it easier for entire families to migrate and established "special categories" for political refugees. This act increased the amount of immigration.

    United Farm Workers
    Organizing Committee Headed by Cesar Chavez, it succeeded in helping to improve working conditions. It was organized to help mainly the Chicano population.

    Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
    Passed to decrease the number of illegal aliens in US; penalized employers of aliens and granted amnesty to aliens already in US

    OJ Simpson Trial
    This case gained world wide exposure because OJ was a star football player and was accused of murdering his wife. The main issue in this case that may have caused turmoil was the allowing cameras in the courtroom.

    Comparable Worth
    The principle that states the people should receive equal pay for work that is different form, but just as demanding as, other types of work. This idea has been applied to many discrimination cases including race, age, and gender discrimination.

    IBM
    IBM, International Business Machines, was part of the historic shift to a mass consumer economy after World War II, and symbolized another momentous transformation to the fast-paced "Information Age."

    Microsoft
    This computer company sent the U.S. down an information superhighway. The internet and computer discs allowed for more information to be available to anyone at the click of a button

    OPEC
    (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) Through the OPEC Middle Eastern Sheiks quadrupled the price for crude oil in 1974, disrupting the balance of international trade for the U.S. This helped show the U.S. government that they could never have economic isolation.

    New Immigration
    The New Immigrates in the 1980's and 1990's came from Asia, Latin America and mostly from Mexico. These new immigrates came for many of the same reasons that the old immigrates came such as growth in population, and to look for jobs. They mostly settled in the Southwest. During this time nearly a million people came to America each year.

    gated communities
    These were suburban housing communities with gates and guards that started to gain popularity in the later half of this century

    Ceser Chavez
    Leader of the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee who improved working conditions for Chicano workers.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Topic Outlines

    One page US History outlines of the topics below. These topic outlines, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, court cases, political parties, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    01. Exploration

    I. Prehistory
        A. Bering Land Bridge
        B. Hundreds of independent tribes
        C. Civilizations – Mayans – Central, Incas – South, Aztecs – Mexico
        D. Mount Builders – Ohio

    II. Early Discoverers
        A.    Vikings – Leif Ericsson – Greenland – Northern Canada – 1000 AD
        B.    Italian Christopher Columbus – for Spain – 1492 - Guanahani

    III. Spanish/Portugese Exploration
        A.    Reasons for exploring
            a.    Wealthy nations – gold based
            b.    Renaissance – optimism/humanism – we can do anything
            c.    Trade routes
            d.    Printing press – ideas spread
            e.    Mariner’s compass – exploration possible
        B.    Spain – peace w/ Isabella and Ferdinand uniting plus no Moors/Muslims
            a.    Conquistadores – Spanish – gold/glory – fighting tradition
        C.    Portugal
            a.    Looking water route to Asia – brought slavery from Africa
        D.    Treaty of Tordesillas – 1494 – Pope divides New World
            a.    Brazil to Portugal – Rest to Spain

    IV. Explorers – conquest – weapons + disease + use rival tribes
    A.    Ponce de Leon – fountain of youth
    B.    Pizarro – defeated Incas
    C.    Cortez – defeated Aztecs/Montezuma

    V. Spanish
        A. Encomienda System – Spaniard gets land and all inhabitants become laborers
        B. Missions – Junipero Serra – San Diego + 21 missions
            a. Spread religion – centers of trade/education
            b. “Black Legend” – missionaries kill Indians – disease kind of true

    VI. Exchange of goods
    A.    Improved diet of Europeans – corn, tobacco, tomato, avocado – balanced
    B.    Cattle, horses, germs to New World

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Exploration Topic Outline26.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    02. Colonization

    I. England
        A. Buccaneers – Protestantism and Plunder – Sir Francis Drake
        B. Roanoke Island – 1585 – “lost colony” – forgotten during war – CROATOAN
        C. Reasons for Colonization
            1. Enclosure – small farmers forced out
            2. Unemployed farmers
            3. Primogeniture – oldest son
            4. Joint Stock Company – investment
            5. Peace with Spain
            6. Adventure

    II. South – Rivers, plantations, seasons – suitable for farming – started by single males
        A.    Virginia - Jamestown – Virginia Company – Starving Time – Pocahontas – John Smith
            a.    “He who shall not work shall not eat” – John Smith
            b.    wrong type of explorers/colonists – age, gender, motivation – gold
            c.    John Rolfe – Tobacco – “bewitching weed”
        B.    Maryland – Catholic haven
        C.    West Indies – Sugar – absentee slave owners – mostly male slaves
        D.    Carolinas – linked to W. Indies – Charles
            a.    N. Carolina – less aristocratic, independent, some outcasts, religious
        E.    Georgia – buffer zone and philanthropic experiment – new start for criminals

    III. Northern Colonies – Protestant, shipping, fishing, small farms, harsh winters, harbors
        A.    Protestant Reformation – Puritanism – Church of England not reformed/true
            a.    Puritans – Separatists – Holland – Mayflower – landed N. of Virginia
                i.    Brought “strangers” – useful labor
                ii.    Mayflower Compact – gov’t by majority
                iii.    Plymouth Colony – not large or important economically
            b.    Non-Separatists – change English religion from within – interact
                i.    Massachussetts  Bay Colony – City on a Hill – 11 ships, 1000
                ii.    Church and state – theocracy
                iii.    Protestant work ethic – follow your calling – God likes effort
            c.    Anti-Puritan – Anne Hutchinson – meetings, questioned teaching/banish
            d.    Rhode Island – Roger Williams “new and dangerous opinions”
                i.    Believed – pay Indians for land, separate church/state, outcasts
            e.    Connecticut – Thomas Hooker – women’s rights – Fundamental Orders
            f.    New Hampshire – fishing

    IV. Middle Colonies – fertile soil, industry, shipbuilding, some aristocrats, plantations/small – farms
        A.    New York – Old Netherlands – Dutch company – aristocratic
        B.    Delaware – New Sweden
        C.    Pennysylvania – William Penn – pacifist, bought Indian land

    V. New England Confederation – 1643 – unite for Indians/runaways/internal problems

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Colonization Topic Outline25 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    03. Colonial Society in the Mid-Eighteenth Century

    I. Social Structure/Family Life
        A. South – gap wide between rich and poor – hierarchy of wealth and status
            1. Planter aristocracy w/ slaves mimicking feudalism of Europe
            2. However, these planters were hardworking, involved in day-to-day affairs
            3. Few cities – poor transportation
            4. Women more powerful – men die leaving property to widows
                a. Weaker gender – see Eve’s failure
                b. Divorce rare – courts could order you to reunite
        B. North– not as much disease due to weather, reproduction high – fertile people/not soil    
            1. Early marriage = high birth rates, several mothers – death during childbirth
                a. Habits of obedience, strong links to grandparents
                b. Women’s role not as powerful – no property rights
        
    II. Farm and Town Life
        A. Towns in New England united – geography/fear of Indians force close relations
            1. Puritanism makes unity important
            2. More than 50 families in town requires education
            3. Puritans ran churches democratically – led to democratic government
            4. New England way of life – climate, bad soil, Puritanism made people touch, self-reliant
                a. Seasons led to diversified agriculture and industry to survive
                b. Dense forests led to shipbuilding
                c. Not diverse at first – immigrants not attracted
        B. Southern settlement random by independent individual

    III. Immigration – melting pot from the beginning
        A. Germans – left for war, religion, bad economy – settle in Pennsylvania – not pro-British
        B. Scotts-Irish – Scottish kicked out of Ireland because not Catholic – settled in mountains
            1. Lawless, individualistic – lived in Appalachian hills – whickey making
            2. Not wanted by Germans or New Englanders – forced to hills
        C. Other groups embraced – French, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, Swiss
        D. Largest immigrant group – slaves

    IV. Economy – triangle trade in South – natural resources to England > weapons/textiles to Africa >slaves to Indies/South > sugar to America > England
        A. Economy – Agriculture #1 but, putting out system at home – manufacturing/lumbering
        B. South – staple crops of indigo, rice, tobacco

    V. Great Awakening – people swaying from the lord – God all powerful – must return to church
        A. Started by Jonathan Edwards – Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”
        B. Powerful, angry, animated speaking spread across colonies – United colonies ***

    VI. Education – New England – colleges for lawyers, priests – theology and dead languages
        A. Independent thinking not encouraged – discipline severe – stuck in the classics

    VII. Colonial Folkways – life not romantic, pretty boring
        A. Food pretty high protein, homes poorly made
        B.  pleasure came from working together – quilting, raising barn, painting, funerals, weddings
        C. Lotteries, horse racing, holidays celebrated, but not Christmas in New England
        

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Colonial Society in the Mid-Eighteenth Century Topic Outline23.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    04. Causes of the American Revolution

    I.    Revolution Questions
        a.    Necessary – Coming of Age/Time Had Come or America would have remained obedient had England not made mistakes
        b.    A true revolution or merely transfer of power from one wealthy group to another
        c.    Capitalist motivation to keep money in America instead of taxes going overseas

    II.    Decades before 1754 – proud to be Englishmen
        a.    Colonists annoyed at Navigation Acts, Brits annoyed with chaotic legislatures
        b.    Grown apart - could govern selves better than overseas

    III.    Causes
        a.    Sprit of self-reliance – decades of colonial legislatures, economicly indep.
        b.    Religious annoyance – haven’t forgotten being kicked out
        c.    England trying to improve trade/industry at America’s expense
        d.    Colonists should pay for expense –no “taxation without representation”
        e.    Enlightenment – well-read Jefferson, Adams
        f.    Mercantilism clashes with capitalism – trade w/ everyone

    IV.    Irritants
        a.    America forced to take in British criminals
        b.    Northern colonies that wanted to stop slave trade could not
        c.    Royal governors looked down noses at colonists

    V.    British Debt – Americans seen as Englishmen, must bear cost/taxes
        a.    Centuries of fighting/French and Indian War costly
        b.    Troops needed to remain in America to protect against Indians

    VI.    Types of Protests
        a.    Speeches – James Otix/Patrick Henry
        b.    Harassment – burning governors homes/tar and feathering tax collectors
        c.    Boycotts – refuse to buy British goods
        d.    Committees of Correspondence – method of colonies talking
        e.    Propaganda/Pamphlets – Common Sense – Thomas Paine

    VII.    Catalysts
        a.    1763 – Proclamation of 1763 – Colonists can’t move west of Appalachian
        b.    1764 – Sugar Act – duties on sugar, textiles, coffee, wine
        c.    1764 – Currency Act – colonists can’t make paper money – how to trade?
        d.    176 5 – Stamp Act – all legal documents - $ goes back to England – a first
        e.    1765 – Quartering Act – colonists house and feed British troops
        f.    1765 – Virginia Resolutions – Patrick Henry – only Virginia can tax
        g.    1767 – Towshend Acts – more taxes
        h.    1770 – Boston Massacre – 5 killed after harassment – propaganda wins
        i.    1772 – Gaspee ship attacked and burned – culprits threatened back to Engl
        j.    1773 – Boston Tea Party – Sons of Liberty mad Tea Act not enforced
        k.    1774 – Coercive Acts/Intolerable Acts – punish Boston
        l.    1774 – First Continental Congress – colonial militia
        m.    1775 – Concord and Lexington – fight starts after Brits try to get weapons
        n.    1776 – Declaration of Independence – 12 of 13 endorse, 55 sign “hang apart”

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Causes of the American Revolution Topic Outline29 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    05. Critical Period – 1776-1787

    I.    State Constitutions
        a.    Kept some of old – provincial assemblies
            1.    Colonial self-government for 150 years
            2.    “their just powers from the consent of the governed”
        b.    Methods – written constitutions
            1.    written by provincial assemblies
            2.    Mass. – town meetings, state conventions
        c.    Format – dec. of independence + citizen rights + executive/legislative
            1.    weaken powers of governor
            2.    white males with property eligible to vote
        d.    Anti-slavery
            1.    Dec. of Indep. Mentions slavery – South forced out
            2.    Mass. 1783 – slave sued “all men are created equal” – freed

    II.    Continental Congress
        a.    1777 – Articles of Confederation – ratified in 1781
        b.    Until ratified – Continental Congress governed
            1.    Lost power as war progressed – most talented returned to state
        c.    Succeses – army, navy, marines, appointed George Washington, supplied army
        d.    Failure – financing war – taxes optional, money worthless “not worth a Continental”

    III.    Articles of Confederation - failures
        a.    States jealous of others/competitive – 9 of 13 states to pass
        b.    Taxes voluntary
        c.    Fear of strong executive – no one to enforce laws
        d.    Individual trade agreements w/ foreign nations & states – nobody wants to trade with U.S. – fearful of stability
        e.    Still left England in possession of frontier

    IV.    Articles of Confederation – successes
        a.    Precedent – something to work with
        b.    Northwest Ordinance
            1.    land-locked states feared other states would get too big
                i.    Easily pay war debts – too much representation
                ii.    Maryland refuses – leads protest
            2.    Virginia finally gives land claims to federal gov’t – others follow
            3.    Land could be sold to make money for fed gov’t
            4.    Add-A-State Plan – Northwest Ordinance 1787
                i.    Population + legislature + 60,000 men can + religious freedom
        c.    Peace treaty with England

    V.    Shay’s Rebellion – 1787 – debtors can’t pay and rebel – proved to wealthy that something must be done – catalyst for Constitutional Convention
        a.    Post-war depression made life worse
        b.    Jefferson – “a little rebellion every now and then is a good thing”

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Critical Period – 1776-1787 Topic Outline23 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    06. Making a Nation – 1788-1810

    I. Constitutional Convention – 55 delegates meet in Philadelphia – Washington – Presid.
        A. Virginia Plan – large state plan – representation based on population
        B. New Jersey Plan – small state plan – every state receives equal rep
            1. Great Compromise – House + Senate
            2. Slaves = 3/5 of the population for House rep counting purposes
        C. Bill of Rights – citizens rights to prevent oppressive gov’t - 1791
        D. Hesitancy to ratify – Anti-Federalists believe states should have more power –  Federalists believe strong executive necessary
            1. Federalist Papers convince New York/Virginia – Rhode Island last

    II. Finalizing the Executive
        A.    Judiciary Act – 1789 – created Supreme Court, federal and district courts
        B.    Hamilton’s Plan – if gov’t benefits wealthy, they’ll invest in gov’t
            a.    Assume all debt of states – Virginia already paid off debt – get D.C.
            b.    Debt good – more people owed, more have stake in success of gov’t
            c.    Tariff taxes + duties on whiskey
            d.    National Bank – Jefferson wanted states to control $, Hamilton wins
                i.    First National Bank – 1791-1811 – Philadelphia
        C.    Whiskey Rebellion – proves executive tough – sent in thousands to put down
        D.    Alien and Sedition Acts – Adams oversteps power of president – punishes Democratic Republicans – Alien – 5-14 years, jail/Sedition – jail for libel
            a.    Virginia/Kentucky Resolutions – states can ignore bad laws – sets states/federal gov’t conflict
        E.    Strengthening Supreme Court – Marbury vs. Madison
            a.    Supreme Court can say laws are unconstitutional – gives power

    IV. Foreign Policy
        A. Barbary Pirates
            1. Been paying bribes to Tripoli, African Barbary pirates to not steal stuff
            2. sent Navy to Tripoli to fight pirates – finally got peace treaty – America values Navy
        B. Lousiana Purchase – wanted New Orleans, got all of Louisiana Territory
            1. Napoleon couldn’t have American empire – lost in Haiti – Toussant L’Ouverture
            2. Doubled size, 3 cents per acre
            3. Created Constitutional Conflict – loose/strict interpretation
                a. Says nowhere in Constitution about buying land – Jefferson hypocrite?
            4. Lewis and Clark explore – sets off wave off Westward movement
            5. Increases nationalism – pride for U.S.
            6. Federal gov’t power now shifting West – away from New England/Virg
        C. Monroe Doctrine – follows Washington’s Farewell
            1. US stay out of Europe, Europe stays out of Americas – our sphere of influence

    V. American System – Henry Clay’s idea federal gov’t pays for roads, canals, business
        A. Protects American business through high tariffs – 25% - buy US goods vs. better/cheaper European goods

    VI. Avoiding conflict – Missouri Compromise – draws slave line – keeps slavery in U.S.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Making a Nation – 1788-1810 Topic Outline32.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    07. War of 1812

    I. Causes Foreign– France and England attacking American merchant ships/impressment
        A.    French Revolution turns violent – Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans favor
        B.    Washington stays out – Neutrality Proclamation 1793 – U.S. just beginning
        C.    Jay’s Treaty – Britain won’t attack in future, but won’t pay for past attacks
        D.    Washington’s Farewell Address – stay out of foreign alliances – policy for next 100 years
        E.    Adams next president – XYZ Affair – American ambassadors not bribed
        F.    Jefferson deals with France
            a.    Embargo Act – don’t trade with anyone – totally fails/destroys econ.
            b.    Nonintercourse Act – Trade w/ everyone but Britain/France
            c.    Macon’s Bill No. 2 – Madison – trade again w/BritainFrance if…

    II. Causes Domestic
        A.    British forts along frontier
        B.    Helping Native Americans fight colonists moving west
            a.    Wipe out Canada – Indians will have no home base/British support
            b. Tecumseh tries to unite Indians – big battle lost at Tippecanoe

    III. Federalists opposed to war
        A.    Take Canada – a ton more farmers to join Democratic Republicans
        B.    Hurting trade
        C.    Supported Britain
        D.    Later have Hartford Convention and threaten to have New England break away
            a.    Signals end of Federalist Party – bad idea to talk of new country during wartime

    IV. Importance
        A.    Peace Treaty changes nothing – status quo ante bellum – same as before
        B.    Gives war hero – Andrew Jackson
        C.    Gives national song – Star Spangled Banner
        D.    Unites Americans against common enemy
        E.    American beginnings of strong navy – USS Constitution – Old Ironsides

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon War of 1812 Topic Outline26.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    08. Jacksonian Democracy

    I. Definitions
        A. Series of reforms – altering federal government and bringing vote to people
        B. Andrew Jackson and Democratic Party running country
        C. Contradiction – period of slavery and horrible treatment of Native Americans – Jackson also develops “monarchical” attributes
        D. Attractive candidate - Andrew Jackson attractive – war hero, man’s man, self-made wealth, westerner – “old hickory” “man of the people”

    II. Causes – economic shift + no longer belief that aristocracy of old should rule all
        A.    Causes by economic and social changes  - shift in power
            1.    Transportation + immigration takes power from plantation aristocracy and New England elite
            2.    Cotton increase power of Southern economy
            3.    Westward movement – taking of Native American/Hispanic land
        B.    Non large property holding whites get worried
            1.    Immigrants, nonslaveholding Southerners, westerners nervous that they will be abused by growing capitalists
        C.    Who should rule?  Old aristocracy/new wealthy/majority of other whites
        D.    During Era of Good Feelings – Supreme Court and Federal government choices looked like power was moving toward an elite few in fed. gov’t

    III. Reforms – radical shift to create equality for all white men - take power from moneyed elite and ignore class -meritocracy
        A.    Political – voters, campaigns, election process
            1.    End state property requirements for voting
            2.    Electors chosen by people not state legislatures
            3.    Changed elections – buttons, kissing babies, parades, bbqs, free drinks, smear campaign – Jackson marriage illegal – wife died soon after
            4.    Spoils system – give gov’t jobs to people who helped get elected
                i.    “Kitchen cabinet” – old friends
            5.    Increased power of executive – ignored Supreme Court, vetoed laws
        B.    Economic changes – men should be economically independent
            1.     Southerners want low tariffs and more states rights
                a. Jackson makes high tariffs first to increase national economy – lowers during second term
            2.  Westerners want cheaper land + relief from debt collectors and banks
                a. Veted Second National Bank – supported “pet banks” in states
            3.    Interstate roads good – roads within states not good

    V. Opposition – for nonwhites a total disaster
        A.    Wealthy planters feared him – federal government getting too much power
            1.    Threaten nullification of tariffs – secession
        B.    Whigs – named for anti-king movement of Revolutionary War – King Andrew
        C.    Racial treatment  - Western movement assumed Hispanics and Native Americans inferior races – “manifest destiny” policy pushed
            1.    Trail of Tears – even Europeanized Cherokees kicked out
        D.    Allowed slavery to continue – white supremacy
            1.    Fought abolitionists – allowed gag rule on slavery in Congress
        E. Propagandists – supported wealthy but said they acted for commoners

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Jacksonian Democracy Topic Outline31 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    09. Creating an American Culture – 1790-1860

    Creating an American Culture – 1790-1860

    I. Religion – by 1850 ¾ claim to be religious, but not most far from Puritan form
        A. Deism – God is great clockmaker – founding fathers
        B. Unitarianism – God is loving creator, father figure, people control destiny
        C. Second Great Awakening – attempt to return to conservative religious practice
            1. Effects – more converted, some churches destroyed, others created
                a. Methodists/Baptists – poor attracted/non-traditional
            2. Camp Meetings – traveling preachers, thousands gather, get “saved”
        D. Mormon – Joseph Smith – organized, group dynamic – new message from God
            1. Feared by neighbors – voted as unit, polygamy, n ot individualistic
            2. Brigham Young moved to Utah – MO and Ohio kicked out

    II. Education Reform – creation of public schools/state sponsored universities
        A.    Before – public schools seen as for poor only – convinced that education benefits society
        B.    Little Red Schoolhouse – not effective, multiple grades one room, poorly trained teachers
        C.    Horace Mann – longer school term, better teacher training/pay
        D.    Universities start for women + state supported universities
        E.    Create common school texts to be shared across nation – Webster’s Speller

    III. Reform Movements – inspired by Great Awakening – on earth you should try to combat evil
        A.    Women – considered keeper’s of nation’s morals – led movement
            a.    Gained more power – especially on frontier – supply and demand
        B. Some say those involved for self-centered reasons – they get to create society to benefit self
        C.    Temperance – excess drinking affecting labor, family, crime, and rowdy social occasions
            a.    Choices – temperance (moderate use) or legislation
                i.    Women’s usage actually decreases
        D.    Jails – not just punishment but help “penitentiaries” (penance) or “correctional facilities”
        E.    Mentally ill – Dorothea Dix – better treatment living conditions at mental hospitals

    IV. Transcendentalists – avoid conformity, get to know nature, think about world, Civil Disobedience

    V. Literature – Begins to be dark – looks at faults of human soul – Edgar Allen Poe

    VI. Utopian Movements – design perfect societies where everyone works together
        A.    Over 40 attempted – failed – uncommon sexual practices + lazy people
            a.    People end up desiring independence and market economy/free enterprise
        B.    Oneida – free love, male birth control
        C.    Shakers – religious group, eugenic selection of parents

    VII. Alexis de Tocqueville – What then is this American?
        A. America successful because based on meritocracy not birth

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Creating an American Culture – 1790-1860 Topic Outline27 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    10. Native American Treatment

    I.    17th and 18th Century - disease
        A. New England – lived separate – Squanto interpret saved > Thanksgiving
            1. King Phillip > relative Squanto’s tribe > unites New England
            2. Pennsylvania/William Penn & Rhode Island/Roger Williams buy land
            3. 1704 Deerfield Massacre – raid/tomahawk/kidnap
            4. Albany Plan of Union – Franklin – union 1754 w/ Iroquois against other tribes
        B. Virginia – “starving time” > stealing > Indian Raids
        C. Spanish – encomienda – slavery, missions - California
        D. French – worked with – fur trappers
        E. French and Indian War – 1757-1763 – Proclamation Line of 1763 – no west of Appalach.

    II.    19th Century
        A. War of 1812 – 1795-1809 48 million acres sold to gov’t
            1. Battle of Tippecanoe – Tecumseh – united – treaties others Indians – defeated
                a. British helped > Native Americans warpath > kill settlers > war begins
        B. Andrew Jackson – move > west Mississippi
            1. 94 Treaties – some peaceably, some fought
            2. Seminoles – Florida swamps – Chief Osceola – 1830s
            3. Cherokees – Americanized – Georgia
                1. Clothes, farms, factories, schools – Sequoya – alphabet
                2. Worcester v. Georgia – Marshall saved lands
                3. Jackson “Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it.”
                    a. Trail of Tears – 1838 – 15,000 – 1500 died
        C. 1850-1900 – 420,000 > 250,000 left
        D. Indian Wars – 1850 > 1890 – buffalo basis of life, slaughtered by whites
            1. White settlers move onto lands, forts to protect travel
            2. 1868-1869 – gather onto big reservations – forced out of wilderness
                a. Many resisted – “Wild West” – Custer’s Last Stand – Sioux – Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse Chief Joseph “From where the sun now stands I will fight                 no more, forever.”
            3. Wounded Knee – kids, women slaughtered – signaled the end

    III.    20th Century – by 1990 – 2 mill.  #s up – but worst health, income, unemployment, suicide
        A. Snyder Act – 1924 – citizenship
        B. FDR – Indian New Deal – no sell lands, rebuild culture
        C. WWII – 25,000 soldiers – Windtalkers – code
        D. Eisenhower – termination – no fed. Involvement > but states don’t help
            1. “relocation” – urbanization > 45% urban by 1970 > but displaced, Indian ghettos
        E. Lyndon Johnson – “The Forgotten American” - $510 mil. – Indian aid programs
        F. Richard Nixon – Indians run reservations, positions in Bureau of Indian Affairs
        G. Education – 1970s/1980s – bilingual – good>pride – bad> compete jobs
            1. Education peaked 1970s then declined
            2. study tribal history, culture & language also
        H. Indian Power –AIM – American Indian Movement  
            1. violence – occupy buildings – want $/recognition for treaties– 1969>1971 – Alcatraz
        I. State courts – return land – 1970s-1980s
            1. 1850-1900 – 420,000 > 250,000
        J. Multibillion $ gambling industry – 1990s
        K. Stages: 1) Part of wilderness to be cleared, 2) “wards” of the state, taken care of – reservations, 3) relocated to cities, 4) given autonomy over             reservations

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Native American Treatment Tropic Outline24.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    11. Sectionalism 1820-1860

    The South – low immigration, huge income disparity, replicated Medieval Europe
        A.    Cotton Kingdom – 1788 – South dying, overworked land, unmarketable products
            a.    Slavery increased – Eli Whitney – Cotton Gin
                i.    Increased labor also improved Northern shipping industry
            b.    ½ cotton in world from the South, England 75% from South
                i.    England economy depended on Southern cotton
        B.    Planter Aristocracy – “cottonocracy” – oligarchy – few control many
            a.    Biggest planters controlled social, political, economic life
            b.    Received finest education – statesmen who served public
                i.    Public education suffers
            c.    Women bought into system – controlled households
        C.    Poor whites – accepted system, dream of moving up, needed racial superiority
        D.    Scotch Irish – Appalachian Mountains – “white trash” – civilization ignored
        E.    Nature of Slavery
            a.    One 20th century view – slavery ending, owners paternalistic, blacks naturally inferior – need to be taken care of
                i.     Not true – economically still expanding, not dying
                ii.    1954 Slavery compares to concentration camps
                iii.   Paternalistic – selfish method just to get more labor
                iv.   Slaves fake “Sambo” laziness as method of coping/rebel
            b.    Black women must balance as white caregiver, laborer, family anchor

    The North – industry, manufacturing, heavy immigration – urbanized
        A. Immigration – 95% came to the North
            a. Irish – NY/Boston – low skilled labor – left due to potato famine
            b. German – left due to crop failures, democracy failure of 1848 revolution
                i. Midwest – contributed - gave US literature, kindergarten, Xmas tree

    The West – young attracted, adventurous opportunities – life actually sucks
        A.    Gradually destroyed land – overworked, just moved on – pushed out Indians, animals
        B.    Frontier – belief that you can always start out fresh out West
        C.    More equality for women, supply and demand, they can leave if not treated properly
        D.    Squatters – simply move to land, build house, claim property – hard to kick off

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Sectionalism 1820-1860 Topic Outline22.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    12. Westward Expansion

    I.    Gradual Expansion of Frontier – Each addition adds to slavery issue, moves frontier, Indian problems
        A.    Proclamation of 1763 – Colonists not west of Appalachians – annoys colonists
        B.    Treaty of 1783 – Britain gives US land to Mississippi
        C.    1803 - Louisiana Purchase – Napoleon realizes he can’t keep French empire - $15 mil
            i.    Brings up issue of constitutionality of president purchasing land
            ii.    Lewis and Clarke – ecology, Native Americans, surveying, claiming Oregon
                1.    Open up westward movement
        D.    1820s-1830s – Texas – Mexico encourages movement – $.12 per acre – become Catholic
            i.    After Santa Anna – Alamo – country Republic of Texas
            ii.    Not annexed right away – fear it would be broken into many slave states
        E.    1847 – Utah – Mormons – organized voting block/feared for organization – kicked out
        F.    1846 – Polk – 54 40 or Fight! – extend America into Canada above Washington
            i.    America can’t fight Mexico and Britain – agree to make boundary above Wash.
        G.    1946-1848 – Mexican War – looks like land grabbing – Zachary Taylor creates catalyst
            i.    Defeats Mexico City – Guadalupe Hidalgo gives Southwest – 1848 Gold discover

    II.    Transportation
        A.    Turnpikes – toll roads – 1812-1825
        B.    Cumberland Road – federal road – 1806-1850 connects Midwest to Virginia
        C.    Canal Building – 1825-1840 – Erie Canal starts
            i.    1 ton of goods now for 1 cent per mile not 20 cents per mile
            ii.    Takes away farming from Northeast – moves to Midwest
            iii.    People can now move to Midwest and get supplies still to Atlantic Ocean
        D.    Steamboat – 1810-1840 – up and down rivers – not mercy of wind
        E.    Railroads – bought by federal government, made privately
            i.    Faulty creation, corruption, accidents of both railroads and steamship building
        F.    Mail – 1896 – finally mailbox delivery – before if rural must go to post office
        G.    Morse/Telegraph – 1844 – “What hath God wrought?” DC > Baltimore – Samuel Morse

    III.    Towns – build city infrastructure first, people come later
        A.    Balloon frame + nails – quick building
        B.    Wagons – families come out – Oregon Trail – leave Independence, MO – near St. Louis
        C.    Passing of frontier after Civil War
        D.    Buffalo slaughter – 15 million down to 1 thousand – sport – destroys Native American lives
        E.    Mining towns – boom bust – Northwest territories – become ghost towns – no other source of income – minerals gone, town gone
            i.    Women gain equality here first – state voting first – have power supply/demand
        F. Cattle drives big until fenced in – changes American landscape

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Westward Expansion Topic Outline25 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    13. Causes of the Civil War

    I.    Slavery – not on the minds of Northern soldiers when war started, but clearly an issue that pervaded all of the social, political and economic causes
        a.    Would there have been a split without slavery – no – root of all conflicts
        b.    Conflicts existed from birth of nation

    II.    Economic – two competing industries – industrial north vs. agrarian south – free labor vs. slave labor
        a.    Tariff battle for almost a century – south wants low, north high
            i.    Believed in nullification of Congressional laws
                1.    Goes back to Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions regarding Alien and Sedition Acts
            ii.    South needed low tariffs because they existed on King Cotton
            iii.    Recession of 1857 causes bigger divide

    III.    Political
        a.    Representation in Senate/Congress
            i.    Every new state could ruin balance – both sides feared other side would try to mandate their society on the other federally      
            ii.    Ostend Manifesto – slavery in Cuba as well as slavery in West? – bad news
        b.    State power vs. Federal power
            i.    Southern states still felt states were sovereign – goes back to Federalist/Anti-Federalist battle
        c. Free Soil Party – 1847 – no slavery in territories

    IV.    Social – North sees south as aristocratic medieval country, South sees North as corrupt immigrant urban
        a.    Abolitionisism – slavery moral wrong – Second Great Awakening
        b.    Anti-aristocratic ethos – common man better than gentry south

    V.    Catalysts – events that made both sides look evil, and created larger tension
        a.    Compromise of 1850 – CA admitted, popular sovereignty, DC no slaves, tougher/enforced fugitive slave act
        b.    Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Stowe – first glimpse of Europe and North of life in South – kept England out of war – queen allegedly cried
        c.    Fugitive Slave Act – force Northerners to return blacks to South
        d.    Kansas-Nebraska Act – 1854 split territories– dissenters create Republican Party
            i.    Popular Sovereignty – let states decide for themselves – ignore 1820 compromise
            ii.    Bleeding Kansas – Jayhawkers vs. Bushwackers fight for control
                1.    Pottawatomie Creek Massacre – Brown hacks bodies - radical
            iii.    Caning of Sumner – Senate violence after anti-South speech
        e.    Realignment of Parties
            i.    Whigs die
            ii.    Republicans – Northern party to outlaw slavery Free Soil + anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats
        f.    Dred Scott – Justice Taney – slaves aren’t human/can’t sue – Comp. 1820 illegal
        g.    Lecompton Compromise – bad Constitution proposal where your only choices were limited slavery or full slavery – anti-slavery people don’t even            vote
        h.    Lincoln Douglas Debates – run for Senator – Lincoln proves more logical for why slavery should not be expanded – loses Senate, but gains                    prominence
        i.    John Brown – Harper’s Ferry – tries to take over South – idiot or martyr?
        j.    Election of 1860 – S.C. threatens and does secede after Lincoln elected

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Causes of the Civil War Topic Outline23.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    14. The Civil War

    I. The Union Homefront
        A. Mobilization and Finance
            1. First conscription – can buy way out, Lincoln asks for more troops before Congress meets
            2. Increased tariffs, income tax, sold bonds, printed currency “greenbacks”
            3. War profiteers – industry/manufacturing make a lot of money – some corrupt
        B. Suspension of Civil Liberties/Ignoring the Constitution
            1. Lincoln thought better to save United States than follow Constitution
                A. Blockade, increased army, $2 million to 3 men for army purchases – none of this in Constitution
            2. Needs to keep border states
                A. Suspends habeus corpus – don’t tell why arrested
                B. “supervised” voting – colored ballots – march past armed guards
                C. Newspapers/editors influenced/pressured
        C. Election of 1864 – Republican Party becomes Union Party for a bit
            1. “bayonet vote” – some soldiers return to vote -  49 times/others vote on front
            2. Sherman captures Atlanta – gives boost to cause

    II. Southern Homefront – President Jefferson Davis declared martial law – suspended habeus corpus
        A. Confederate Constitution – can’t have strong fed. gov’t when some states still want to threaten secession
        B. Mobilization and Finance – must have conscription – leads to class conflict – poor serve
            1. Tariffs hard to collect due to blockade – money made through bonds
            2. Prints a lot of money with no value – extreme inflation

    III. Foreign Affairs/Diplomacy – must gain European support (South) keep Europe out (USA)
        A. Trent Affair – Union takes two diplomats off ship for Britain – looks bad
        B. Some Canadians working with South to bomb Northern cities
        C. Napoleon III takes opportunity to ignore Monroe Doctrine and take over Mexico

    IV. Military strategy – Mississippi River, Capitals, Blockade “Anaconda”, Attrition, Wait

    V. Ending Slavery – Confiscation Act – army seizes property of South – slaves
        A. Emancipation Proclamation – after Antietam – frees none – only in seceding states
        B. Freedmen’s Bureau – gov’t sponsored agency – goes South to educate blacks
        C. Thirteenth Amendment – frees slaves

    VI. Major effects – slavery banned, secession issue finally ended, industry can now expand
        A. Industry/North decides future path of nation – no longer aristocracy/agrarian
        B. Role of Central Government expanded
            1. 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments – first amendments that don’t take power away
            2. Taxation – printing currency – National Banking System
            3. Standing army
            4. Freedmen’s Bureau – American sponsored welfare program – precedent
        C. Labor Saving Devices – change occupations – move to petroleum/coal jobs
            1. Labor moves West looking for jobs
        D. Women – took jobs of men – gov’t workers
            1. Fighting – spies, impersonating men
            2. Nurses – Clara Barton – starts Red Cross later
            3. Raised money for cause – soldiers – organized bazaars/fairs/made goods to sell

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Civil War Topic Outline23 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    15. Reconstruction – 1865-1877

    I. Presidential Plans – tough to be successful with Radical Republicans demanding revenge
        A. Lincoln – if lived – impeached like Johnson or more sensitive to the South?
            1. Believed South never legally withdrawn – 10% plan + create new state gov’t
            2. Congressional fear that South would return to aristocracy and re-enslave blacks
                a. Wade-Davis Plan – 50% sign oath + emancipation guarantees
                    1. Lincoln pocket vetoes and allows states to choose either plan
            3. Congress is a majority moderate Republicans with some Radical Republicans
        B. Johnson – surprised Congress – followed 10% plan and some states reentered
            1. State constitutions only have to 1) repeal secession, 2) repudiate debts, 3) ratify 13th
            2. Johnson pardoned many aristocrats

    II. Congressional Reconstruction
        A. December 1865 – Southern delegates arrive in D.C. – many of same Confederate leaders
            1. Republicans outraged at seeing these elected Confederate aristocrats return
                a. December 4, 1865 – Congress closes doors – fears too much Democrat power
                    1. Can’t be enemies one minute – peers the next
                    2. South actually has more power – more electors/Reps due to cancelled 3/5
    3. If Southern Dems. Join with Northern Dems. – they control gov’t and can repeal laws passed during Civil War and re-enslave blacks
        B. Pass through 14th Amendment – gives freedmen (former slaves) citizenship +
            1. Any state that refuses black voting rights – loses reps
            2. Former Confederate leaders can’t run for U.S. Congress
            3. Repudiates Southern debts
        C. Andrew Johnson “Sir Veto” starts vetoing Radical Republican Congress laws
            1. 1866 election vetoproofs Congress – they now have 2/3 to overrule
        D. Military Reconstruction – Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner – lead  Radicals
            1. 5 Military Districts run by Union General + 20,000 soldiers – Supreme Court allows
            2. Blacks must be allowed to vote – 15th Amendment makes voting permanent
            3. Because only forced on them, as soon as soldiers leave “white redeemers” return South

    III. Realities of Radical Reconstruction
        A. Benefits – Blacks in South AND North can now vote – Union League organized blacks
            1. New Southern constitutions written
            2. Black participation in Congress – 14 black Congressmen, 2 black senators
            3. Improved  Southern infrastructure – schools, public works, property rights for women

    IV. Impeachment of Johnson – Congress passes laws they know he will have to disobey
        A. Tenure of Office Act – Senate approval before any Presidential firings
        B. Johnson impeached after firing Secretary of War Stanton – he was spying for Radical Republ
            1. Almost impeached, but luckily Senate didn’t because 1) replacement bad 2) would hurt country, 3) Johnson said he’d stop vetoing

    V. Overall Assessment of Reconstruction
        A. Theory – failed because North cared about helping Republican Party and free slaves quickly
        B. Fails because most Northerners stop caring
        C. Fails  -US beliefs in personal property, self-govt, state control conflict with Reconstruction
        D. Opinions – North wronged South through Reconstruction – just as bad as Civil War
            1. or…Noble attempt to give equal rights to slaves – blacks received unprecedented freedoms initially

    VI. Reconstruction ends - Hayes-Tilden corrupt election 1876 – Hayes wins but agrees to pull out troops

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Reconstruction – 1865-1877 Topic Outline23 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    16. Industrialization and Corporate Consolidation

    I. Industrial Growth in America - Reasons
        A. Natural Resources – coal, oil, iron
        B. Immigration – steady flow both Asia and Europe
        C. Capitalist mentality supported by laissez faire government
        D. Ingenuity – 440,000 patents in 1800s – inventions – Edison’s invention factory
        E. Railroads – 1865 – 35,000 Miles > 1900 – 200,000 miles
            A. Land claiming – railroad companies given land claims – size of Texas
            B. Success of town based on railroad stop – no railroad > “ghost town”
            C. Transcontinental – Leland Stanford Union Pacific meets Central Pacific
            D. Corruption – money from government not used appropriately – Credit Mobilier
                1. Abuse of Chinese, other immigrant labor
                2. Faulty tracks just to make a dime
            E. Improvements – steel – safer/stronger – standardized size – standardized time
            F. “Stock watering” – make stock in railroads look better than it is – bribed judges
        F. Steel – Andrew Carnegie – monopolized then gave away $450 million by death
            A. America producing 1/3 of world’s steel thanks to Bessemer Process
            B. Carnegie - $1.4 billion more than US worth in 1800
        G. Oil – Rockefeller – kerosene first pushed – then automobile
            A. Consolidation – own supply and distribution
                1. 95% of oil refineries
                2. Rockefeller – uses illegal rebates and spies to control industry

    II. Laissez Faire Conservatism – government policy in late 19th century > industry controls gov’t
        A. Gospel of Wealth – Lord gave money to wealthy class – must be morally responsible
        B. Social Darwinism – wealthy deserve it – inherently better
            1. Poor by own shortcomings – “Acres of Diamonds” – poor deserve it

    III. Effects on worker – Business becomes depersonalized – feel like merely a cog in a machine – hurts creativity
        A. Free enterprise/farming replaced by corporation
        B. Factory controls life – whistle and artificial discipline – become subservient
        C. Gibson Girl – advertising campaign encourages women to work in offices
        D. 2/3 dependent on wage – unemployment not based on effort, but larger economic issues
    VI. Union Movement
        A. Manual laborers vulnerable – employers can always bring in cheaper immigrant labor
        B. Machines displace workers
        C. Corporations make labor organization impossible
            1. Control legal process – best lawyers, politicians corrupt
            2. employs “scabs”/strike breakers – Gould “I can hire one half to kill the other half
            3. Force workers to take ironclad oath – won’t join a union
            4. Create company town – employees in debt to company stores
        D. Knights of Labor – replaced National Labor Union – began as a secret society
            1. Open to everyone – regardless of gender/race
            2. Overzealous – talked about social reform/changing society – goals to unrealistic
        E. Haymarket Square – Chicago – dynamite injures cops – anarchists linked to unions
            1. Leads to massive riot – destroys reputation of Knights of Labor
        F. American Federation of Labor – Samuel Gompers – “bread and butter” unionism
            1. More realistic – wages, hours, working conditions
            2. Used walkout and boycott to get way
            3. by 1900 view of labor starts to change – not seen as chaos starters

    VII. Industrialization Judgment – were capitalists “Captains of Industry” or “Robber Barons”
        A. Class tension never as big a deal in America as in Europe
        B. Creates belief in upward mobility
        C. But…destroyed traditional farmer’s values/spiritual lives for capitalism
        D. Two classes resulted – owners of labor class and the labor class

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Industrialization Topic Outline24 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    17. The Gilded Age

    A. Cities – offer jobs, entertainment, plumbing, electricity, phones, department stores, architecture
        1. Immigration – antiforeignism – Nativistist Movement – Know-Nothing Party
            A. Pre 1880 – immigrants came from Germany, British Isles – high literacy
            B. Post 1880 – New Immigrant – Mediterranean, Slavic – poor literacy, arrive impoverished
            C. Reasons for leaving – population explosion, persecution, exaggerated letters – streets paved with gold
        2. City Problems – waste disposal of packaged products, sewage
            A. Criminals, sanitoriums – homeless roaming the streets
            B. Slums – dumbbell tenement – one toilet, poor ventilation, disease spreads – easy to build
        3. Machine Politics – Boss System – a political machine “machine politics” controls who gets elected
            A. Boss Tweed – help immigrants in exchange for votes – government leaders then have to give them kick-backs/money from government projects
            B. Provides services/infrastructure for cities, but above the law – controls judges/politicians

    B. Politics – existed for benefit of interest groups – conservative leaders who want to avoid conflict
        1. Conservative Presidencies – 1876-1992 – “Forgettable Presidents” – laissez faire policies
            A. “Rutherfraud” B. Hayes – ended Reconstruction in exchange for votes – election 1876
            B. Garfield – Killed by civil servant – eventually led to civil service reform – who gets what background jobs
            C. Chester Arthur – elected due to strong boss system of New York
        2. Tariff Controversy - $145 million budget surplus per year due to high tariffs
            A. Solution – 1) pork-barrel bills or 2) lower tariffs – politicians and industry both interested
        3. Railroad regulation – hesitant to intervene – building industry – American Dream
            A. Wabash Case – 1886 – states can’t regulate interstate railroads
            B. Interstate Commerce Act – creates Interstate Commerce Commission – supposed to regulate commerce, but hard to enforce – at least it’s a             step to regulate monopolies
        4. Trusts – competition hurts prices so companies unite to control prices/earnings – hurts customer
            A. Veritical Integration – control all areas of production – oil from ground to gas station
            B. Horizontal Integration – competitive companies from same industry form a trust

    C. Agrarian Discontent - Land not as productive – grasshoppers, overused soil, droughts
        1. Land easy to tax – other industries can had profits/parts of company
        2. Trusts – barbed wire, fertilizer, harvester trusts push prices too high – hurts farmers
        3. Railroads control price of transportation
        4. ½ population farmers, but can’t organize – consolidation not part of American independence ethos
        5. Rising expenses plus lower prices for goods = can’t pay back debts – want free silver

    D. Crisis of 1890s – common man fights back – tired of being abused
        1. Populism – People’s Party (Populists) came from Farmer’s Alliance – big gains in 1892 election
            A. Free coinage silver – 16 to 1 ration
            B. Graduated income tax based on wealth
            C. Government ownership of utilities – railroad, telephone, telegraph – think Monopoly
            D. Direct election of Senators/ One term presidents
            E. Initiatives and Referundums for civilians to control municipal issues
            F. Shorter workday
            G. Immigration Restriction
            H. Solicited black vote – black participation only increased anti-voting laws in South

    E. Election 1892 – free silver, William Jennings Bryan –Messiah- Democrat – Cross of Gold – great speaker
        1. Populists have no party since Bryan’s silver views are theirs
        2. Republicans create massive war chest from all industrialists/bankers who fear free silver
        3. Millions show up to vote
        4. Shift in politics – next 30 years, people become apathetic politically, Republicans dominate
        5. Third Phase of Party System eras…

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Gilded Age Topic Outline24.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    18. Foreign Policy 1865-1914

    I. Purchase of Alaska – Russia realizes too hard to keep, and might lose in a battle with Britain
        A. Why America? Buffer zone.
        B. America agrees – 1) Russia helped Civil War, 2) oil, gas, gold fish
        C. William Seward – “Seward’s Folly” and “Seward’s Icebox” – started anti-imperialism

    II. New Imperialism – Secretary of State James Blaine – goal open markets to U.S. traders
        A. Minor incidents bring US to verge of conflicts
            1. Chile – 2 US Sailors killed, Canada – seal hunting, Italy – lynching of Italians
            2. Venezuela – disputed land with British Guiana
                a. President Cleveland says Britain breaking Monroe Doctrine
        
    III. Spanish American War – Spanish misrule of Cuba, America supports Cuban nationalists
        A. Yellow journalism – exaggerates brutality of Butcher Wegler
        B. U.S.S. Maine sunk in Havana harbor, yellow press blames it on Spanish
        C. Cuban independence guaranteed with Teller Amendment
            1. Platt Amendment says US can still intervene
        D. Philippines – first time American taking heavily populated territory
            1. Starts our imperialism

    IV. Arguments about Imperialism
        A. Against – Hypocrisy – America claims gov’t chosen by people, but…
            1. America will now be involved in Asian conflicts
        B. Reasons for Imperialism
            1. White Man’s Burden – white civilized men help out heathen brothers
            2. Missionary - Spread Protestantism to Catholics, Democracy to autocracies
            3. Capitalism – natural resources + markets
            4. Social Darwinism – Europeans strongest for a reason
            5. Manifest Destiny – god made us chosen ones – continuation of City on a Hill

    V. John Jay – Open Door Note – after China defeated by Japan, Europe moves in to carve up China
        A. Jay sends Open Door Note to European powers asking/demanding equal access to             Chinese markets
        B. Boxer Rebellion – Chinese nationalists “Kill Foreign Devils”
            1. 200 whites/missionaries killed
            2. America joins in FIRST European alliance to overthrow rebels

    VI. Theodore Roosevelt – traveler, adventurer, tough guy image, not afraid to use war
        A. Gained fame through the Rough Riders attack on San Juan Hill at Cuba
        B. Election of 1900 tried to pit anti-Imperialist Bryan vs. enslaver of Malayans Roosevelt
            1. Roosevelt won – economy doing well at home
        C. Big Stick Policy – military force used when necessary – “speak softly and carry a big stick”
        D. Panama Canal – 1) needed for trading, 2) needed to move military easily
            1. Panama breaks from Columbia in revolution, America looks bad
            2. Panama Canal land bought for $10 million
            3. “Cowboy Diplomacy” – America looks bad
        E. Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine – America will help Latin American countries in         debt pay off European debtors – “Bad Neighbor Policy” – look like an Empire
        F. Taft – Dollar Diplomacy – foreign investment will keep Latin America on our side
        G. Wilson – Moral Diplomacy – let nation’s citizens decide on leader – gave money to                 Mexican resistance because they had a corrupt leader    

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Foreign Policy 1865-1914 Topic Outline24.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    19. The Progressive Era

    I. Definition – the middle class feels those above are abusing the system and those below are becoming a Socialist threat – must have government become an “agency of human welfare”
        
    II. Progressive Roots
        A. Jane Addams – Hull House – starts Settlement House movement
            1. Neighborhood activities, counseling, childcare, education for the poor
        B. Protestant Clergymen – “Social Gospel” – “Christian Socialists” – God says must help society
        C. Greenback Labor Party 1870s and Populists 1890s – demanded social help
        D. Nation becoming frustrated with monopolies
        E. Prided individualism to justify inaction no longer makes sense in machine age
        F. How the Other Half Lives – Jacob Riis – shows life of poor

    III. Muckrakers – publishers make money off exposing ills of society – term given by Teddy Roosevelt
        A. Magazines – McClures, Cosmopolitan, Colliers
            1. Lincoln Steffens – Shame of the Cities – business and cities have corrupt alliance
            2. Ida Tarbell – Standard Oil Company – how monopolistic practices destroy small companies

    IV. Municipal, State, National Reform – how to solve problem that elected officials who make laws are corrupt
        A. Initiative – propose laws, Referendum – people vote on laws, Recall – chance to remove bad officials
        B. Laws to limit election, political gifts
        C. Direct election of Senators to avoid “Millionaire’s Club”
        D. Public commissioner and city manager – outside position to regulate how city is being run
        E. Stop monopolies at city level – stop selling of streetcars and utilities to private companies

    V. Social Problems
        A. Try to stop prostitution – force police to enforce laws
        B. Safety, sanitation and child labor laws
            1. Prompted by Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of 1911 – women trapped in factory and die
        C. Temperance/Prohibition of Alcohol – some states and counties passing “dry laws”
            1. Alcohol blamed for crime, unemployment, prostitution, wasting of wages, hurts family
        D. Women’s Suffrage – western states pass first – Suffragettes still seen as women who want to be men
        E. Blacks – WEB Dubois demands immediate equality – NAACP pushes for laws
    1. Booker T. Washington work with system – get educated in manual labor
    2. Marcus Garvey – preaches black solidarity – “back to Africa” movement – black pride

    VI. Progressive Presidents
        A. Theodore Roosevelt – a “Square Deal” for all Americans – 3 C’s
            1. Control of Corporations – sides with strikers in 1902 coal strike – a first
                a. Trustbuster – 1st railroad then others – brings 44 indictments – goes to Supreme Court
            2. Consumer Protection – after Upton Sinclair’s – The Jungle - Meat Inspection Act
                a. Pure, Food and Drug Act – can’t change or alter goods or labels on goods
            3. Conservation of Natural Resources – saves America’s forests
                a. Newlands Act – sell land and with money pay for irrigation
                b. Saved 125 million acres of forest – actually implemented National Parks law
                c. More efficiently balanced corporate interests with those of nature – Sierra Club
            4. Set precedents – social reform, used publicity to increase presidential power
        B. Taft – bigger trustbuster than Roosevelt – 90 indictments vs. 44
            1. Ballinger-Pinchot controversy – Ballinger selling public land, Pinchot complains then fired
            2. Payne-Aldrich Tariff – actually signs bill that increases tariffs on most items – angers support
        C. Wilson’s New Freedom – assault on “the triple wall of privilege” – tariff, banks, trust
            1. Tariffs – Underwood Tariff Bill – pressured reps. to pass, graduated income tax revenue
            2. Banking – Federal Reserve Act 1913 – 12 regional banks run by gov’t - $ now easily increased
            3. Anti-Trust Act of 1914 – Clayton Anti-Trust Act – allows for labor protests – tries to control sneaky tricks of trusts – one man runs 4-5 different                 companies – controls costs

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Progressive Era Topic Outline24 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    20. The First World War

    I.    Problems of neutrality – Wilson says be neutral in thought/deed
        A.    Submarines – British navy blockades German ports, u-boats only way to fight back
            1.    Lusitania – part cruise ship, part munitions transport
            2.    At first Germany gives Sussex Pledge, don’t shoot without warning, but then…
        B.    Economic ties – America was in a recession – JP Morgan and bankers loan money
            1.    Military orders from France and Britain huge
        C.    Psychological and ethnic ties – align with British – control propaganda/Kaiser embodies autocrat
            1.    Germany’s strike on neutral Belgium – makes Germans look like Huns
            2.    Wilson an anglophile
            3.    11 million w/ ties to Germany/Austria-Hungary – recent immigrants

    II.    Preparedness and pacifism – Teddy Roosevelt pushes for war – cries of America to stay out
        A.    Russia turns communist and drops out, now America can fight for “democracy”
        B.    1915 – Council of National Defense – look into how to mobilize for war/launched shipbuilding
        C.    Most labor unions support war, except for IWW “Wobblies)

    III.    Mobilization
        A.    Fighting the war – army ranked 15th – Americans feared gov’t intervention
            1.    Doughboys – conscription – no draft dodgers to buy selves out – 18-45 register
            2.    Work or fight
            3.    America’s biggest contribution through food/munitions – only two big battles
        B.    Financing the war – no forced rationing- propaganda – Herbert Hoover controls food admin.
            1.    Voluntary – farm production increased
            2.    Victory Loan Drives “Halt the Hun” – 1/5 of all money, $21 billion
                a)    Extreme peer pressure to buy war bonds
            3.    Rest of money from taxes
        C.    War boards – gov’t tries to takes over production
            1.    Bernard Baruch – War Industries Board – not effective – companies want laissez faire
        D.    Propaganda, public opinion, civil liberties
            1.    George Creel – Committee of Public Information – sell America on war and war aims
                a)    Four-minute men to give speeches, posters, billboards, booklets, movies
                b)    World expects too much – inspired with passion to want to buy bonds/participate
            2.    German-Americans targeted – blamed for diarrhea, sickness, spying – some tarred
                a)    Espionage Act – Sedition Act – anything against America can be jailed
                    (1)    Targeted anti-war socialists, and union leaders (IWWW)
                    (2)    Pardons given once war over, but civil liberties still broken

    IV.    Wilson's Fourteen Points – Wilson idealist – “make the world safe for democracy” – goal to prevent war
        A.    No treaties, freedom of seas, reduce military
        B.    Self-determination – let peoples decide their fate
        C.    Create League of Nations to settle international disputes
        D.    Treaty of Versailles – Idealist Wilson vs. Imperialist Europeans who want revenge
            1.    Punishes Germany – unrealistic reparations, demilitarize, accept full blame
        E.    Ratification fight – League of Nations – Senate can’t lose war declaration power
            1.    America’s history of avoiding entangling alliances
                a)    Senate – Henry Cabot Lodge – afraid of Article X – must fight in war
            2.    Strong German sentiment in Mid-West makes Wilson’s tour unsuccessful
            3.    America’s refusal makes League powerless and America looks pathetic not agreeing to what they proposed

    V.    Postwar demobilization – America wants to return to normalcy – keep economy going, go America
        A.    Red scare – Russian communism spreading – Crusade against left-wingers – anti-Americans
            1.    Palmer Raids – Mitchell Palmer arrest anyone considered radical
        B.    Labor strife – gov’t goes back to laissez faire – helping corps. – unions look red/communist

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The First World War Topic Outline33 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    21. The Great Depression

    Complaints:  Left – didn’t go far enough to remake society, Right – created welfare state

    I. Wall Street Crash – started business depression home/abroad unprecedented
        A. 5000 banks collapse, 25% unemployed nationwide
        B. Hoover’s reaction – “rugged individualism” – locals gov’t and indiv. Take care of selves
        C. Depression Economy – Hoover actually pioneered New Deal – just didn’t market it properly
            1. Created public works projects - $2.25 billion – Hoover Dam
            2. Reconstruction Finance Corporation – gave loans to needy
            2. Fought against anti-union behavior
            3. But…didn’t have help from Congress – couldn’t pass a lot
            4. Set important precedent that FDR would take further
        D. Hawley Smoot Tariff – 38% to 60% - world responds with similarly high tariffs – out of control

    II. Moods of Despair
    A. Bonus Army – Bonus Expeditionary Force – demand payment of 1945 retirement money
            1. 20,000 march on Washington – set up Hoovervilles – 2 die
    2. Riots put down by General Douglas MacArthur – tear gas – injured – Hoover looks bad

    III. Franklin D. Roosevelt – 1921 paralyzed, wife Eleanor – “conscience of New Deal” –
        A. Loved by liberals – golden speaking voice – “traitor to his class”
        B. New Deal – for “forgotten man” – Brain Trust – relief, recovery, reform
        C. 100 days – “alphabet agencies”- based on Progressive Movement
    1. unemployment insurance, old age insurance, minimum wage, conservation, child labor
    2. Created jobs – CCC, CWA, FERA
        D. Critics – either too autocratic or not going far enough
    1. Father Charles Coughlin – Catholic Priest
    2. Huey Long – Kingfish – “Share our Wealth” “Every Man a King” – assassinated
    3. Court packing – Supreme Court sees practices as socialist – add 6 judges because tired
        a. Seen as dictator – destroying checks and balances – but courts start changing > liberal
    4. Some graft and abuses, depression still exists in 36 (hey that rhymes)
    5. Capitalists – thought they were being punished
        a. Many say his programs saved capitalism, just got rid of abusers
        E. Rise of CIO – labor strikes – Roosevelt passes minimum  wage, max hour work week
            1. CIO emerges – 4 million members by 1940s – 200,000 blacks
            2. Seemed like civil war between AFL and CIO
        F. Recession of 1938 – eventually runs out of new programs – depression still exists
            1. “Spendocracy” – Keynes – run massive deficit spending – Keynesian
            2. National debt - $19 billion to $40 billion

    IV. American People in the Depression
        A. Social values, women, ethnic groups – start working together – everyone suffering
            1. Eleanor Roosevelt – women first time have influence – Mary Dewson
                a. Frances Perkins – first cabinet –Secretary of Labor
            2. But women take women’s jobs to not take away job from male “breadwinners”
            3. Birth rates drop, men’s #1 role in family diminishes
        B. South – 1938 – worst section of nation – economics, schools, housing, income – blacks worst
        C. Indian Reorganization Act – slowed loss of Indian lands – encourages self- government
            1. Some thought it demeaning – “back to the blanket” – treated like museums
        D. Mexican-American Deportation – 1-2 million deported to free up jobs for “real” Americans

            

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Great Depression Topic Outline25 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    22. Foreign Policy in the 1930s

    I. Hoover/Stimson Diplomacy Japan
        A. Japan alleges provocation – invades Manchuria – Japan quits League of Nations
            1. Interventionist Sec. of State Stimson encourages embargo/Isolationist Hoover disagrees
            2. 1932  - Stimson doctrine – US would not recognize new territorial acquisitions
            3. League proves useless World War II technically begins

    II. Good Neighbor Policy – economic imperialism difficult with slowing economy – alters Roosevelt Corollary
        A. Hoover takes troops out of some S. American nations – treat Southern neighbors more fairly

    III. London Economic Conference – Summer 1933
        A. American wants to stay isolated so doesn’t meet with other nations to work on ending Depression
            1. Led to extreme nationalism among European countries – working together ain’t happening

    IV. Disarmament
        A.

    V. Congress Legislates Neutrality – World War I blamed on munitions makers wanting money
    A. Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, 1937 – America could not sell/transport to belligerents, sail on their boats, or make loans – only effects American-declared wars
        1. Ended freedom of the seas – also won’t even help victims – considered belligerent
        2. Some even ask for Constitutional Amendment

    VI. Aggressors: Japan, Italy, and Germany – nations swept up in nationalism, militarism – dictators rule

    VII. Appeasement – avoiding World War II at all costs – gives into demands of leaders
        A. Germany – Ignore Treaty of Versailles – Austria > Czechoslovakia – Munich Conference
        B. Japan invades China – Roosevelt’s Quarantine Speech decried by isolationists

    VII. Rearmament – cash and carry policy first – to stop Germany’s blitzkrieg (lightning fast war)
        A. Lend-lease – US would be arsenal of democracy – send guns, not sons – lend arms and then they can return later – led to America’s rearmament
        B. Destroyers for bases – give old destroyers in exchange for bases around world

    VIII. Atlantic Charter – Atlantic Conference 1941 – Churchill and Roosevelt meet for first time
        A. Discuss how to make world safer for democracies at end of war
        B. People can choose own government, can take no territory without consent of people
        C. Looked at as non-isolationist – Roosevelt making treaties with other nations

    IX. Pearl Harbor – 1940 embargo on Japan bound supplies – taking oil hurts Japan
        A. Broke Japanese code – knew war was coming – thought in Malaya or Philippines
        B. December 8, 1941declared war on Japan after “date that will live in infamy” short by one vote

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Foreign Policy in the 1930s Topic Outline24 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    23. The Second World War

    I.    Organizing for war – Total War – Government controls everything, citizens willing to help
        A.    Mobilizing production – massive military orders pulled US out of Depression
            1.    War Production Board – government takes over manufacturing
                a)    Stops production of nonessentials – cars
                b)    Wartime rationing after supply of rubber cut off by Japan’s invasion of Malaya
        B.    Full employment led to inflation
                a)    Office of Price Administration – regulated prices
        C.    Labor unions increase in size
            1.    Women – Rosie the Riveter, African-Americans enter workforce in masse
            2.    Some strikes led to Government taking over industry – Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Law
        D.    Propaganda – buy war bonds, support rationing, work harder
            1.    Posters, movies, demonize/dehumanizes Japanese
        E.    Roosevelt works with businesses – in capitalism “you have to let business make money”
        F.    Internment of Japanese Americans – Executive Order 9066
            1.    Moved for protection, but mostly fear of spying or aiding invasion
            2.    Constitutionality upheld by Korematsu vs. U.S. case – acceptable during wartime
            3.    1988 - $20,000 to each camp survivor
    II.    The war in Europe, Africa, and the Mediterranean; D Day
        A.    Strategy – take Africa > go through Italy to set up Southern Front – Russia holds Eastern Front > Create Massive Western Front > D-Day                        Normandy “Beginning of the End”
    III.    The war in the Pacific: Hiroshima, Nagasaki
        A.    Priority take out Germany first
        B.    Island hopping – take island at a time to provide landing bases – get closer to prepare for invasion
            1.    Firebombing Tokyo and other cities
        C.    Manhattan Project – secret plan to create Nuclear Bomb
            1.    Hiroshima/Nagasaki Fat Man/Little Boy bombed
                a)    Save Japanese civilians/American soldiers lives if invasion
                b)    Warning to Russia – starts arms race
    IV.    Diplomacy
        A.    War aims – work with Russia – Russia holds off Germany until America/Britain can hold front – hesitant friends – realize communism will be                    problem after war
        B.    Wartime conferences: Teheran, Yalta, Potsdam – Big Three – Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill
            1.    Casablanca Conference. – invade Italy/unconditional surrender;
            2.    Teheran – set up U.N.
            3.    Yalta – divide Germany into four sections
            4.    Potsdam – hot to govern Germany, attack Japan next
    V.    Postwar atmosphere; the United Nations
        A.    America feels like king of the world, homeland relatively unhurt
        B.    Russia takes over Germany’s Eastern holdings, promises to let them have free elections, but…
            1.    Threat of WWIII with Russia almost immediate
        C.    Hiroshima and Nagasaki – first shots of Cold War – attempt to frighten Soviets unnecessary
        D.    Racial/gender inequality returns
        E.    Economy falters at first – potentially huge unrest – would US return to Depression
            1.    What to do about returning men – industries drop output at first
            2.    Massive inflation
            3.    Organized labor has more power
            4.    War industry buildings sold cheaply to private industries

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Second World War Topic Outline27 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    24. Truman and the Cold War

    I. Postwar Domestic Adjustments
        A. Initial faltering economy – inflation rises, GDP down, strikes
            1. Taft-Hartley Act – put limits on labor unions
                a. Outlawed closed shop, labor leaders take non-Communist oath
            2. Sold war factories cheaply to private companies
            3. G.I. Bill – paid for school for soldiers; home, farm, and small business loans
        B. GDP growth lasts next two decades – Americans – 6% of population controlled 40% of earth’s $
            1. Middle class doubles, home ownership increases
            2. Not touched by war – America dominates ruined global landscape
            3. Rising education level, better technology, workforce leaves agriculture
            4. Move to suburbs – massive baby boom

    II. Civil Rights - war generated new militancy among blacks, generation of college grads
        A. 1948 – Truman ends segregation in federal civil service, equality of treatment in military
        B. Election of 1948 – Democrats against Truman because of civil rights stance
            1. Form Dixiecrats – States Right – nominated Governor Strom Thurmond of S. Carolina
            2. Vice-President Henry Wallace enters election for Progressive Party – pro-Soviet platform
            3. Harry delivers 300 “give ‘em hell Harry” speeches – Republican Dewey should have won
                a. Chicago Tribune ran newspaper – Dewey Defeats Truman – but…farmers, workers, blacks not interested with Republicans

    III. Containment in Europe and the Middle East
        A. Truman Doctrine - $400 million for Greece and Turkey – help fight Communism
            1. Bigger issue – protect any “free peoples” from outside Communist pressure
                a. Problem – any tyrant can claim Communist threat and get help
        B. Marshall Plan – 1) make capitalism attractive, resist Communism 2) help rebuild Europe
            1. $12.5 billion – reverse of Versailles – helps nations rebuild – became economic miracle
        C. Berlin crisis – Berlin divided among four allied powers – France, England, Britain, Russia
            1. Becomes East and West Berlin – Russia wants Eastern Europe as “satellite nation”
            2. 1948 – Soviets cut off train/highway access – Allies respond w/ massive airlift
                a. Symbolic importance – America determined to protect interests
        D. NATO – 12 original say an attack on one is an attack on all – isolationists defeated
    1. Officially ended American isolationism, helped unite Europe, militarizes Western Europe for Cold War
        E. 1949 – Truman announces Soviets had tested nuclear bomb
            1. US in 1952 gets Hydrogen bomb, then Soviets get hydrogen bomb next year

    IV. Revolution in China
        A. American backed Jiang Jieshi defeated by Communist Mao Zedong and banished to Taiwan
            1. Looks like America “lost” China to Communism – US looks for someone to blame

    V. Korean War – Korea divided into Russia and US spheres of influence at 38 degrees
        A. N. Korea invades and then pushed back by MacArthur and UN soldiers, drives to China border
            1. China then attacks and pushes forces back to start – 38 degrees
        B. NSC-68- Truman quadruples defense spending
            1. Belief that American economy can handle any expenditure on defense
        C. MacArthur calls Truman a communist appeaser because he has to fight limited war
            1. Wants to drop nukes and invade China
            2. Truman has to fire MacArthur – returns a hero
        

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Truman and the Cold War Topic Outline26 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    25. Eisenhower and Modern Republicanism

    I. Modern Republicanism – keep social/economic programs but push for military build-up
        A. Ike allowed McCarthy because his target was oftentimes previous Democ. Administration
            1. Master of manipulating media – careers ended because he “named” you
            2. Majority of polled Americans approved of McCarthy – made it hard to criticize
            3. Army hearings destroy him in front of 20 million on TV – dies alcohol 3 yrs. Later

    II. Civil Rights Movement
        A. The Warren Court – Congress resists change, Ike not interested – go to courts
            1. Brown v. Board of Education reverses Plessy vs. Ferguson - unanimous
            2. Confronted important social issues instead of refusing to hear
            3. Little Rock 9 – high school integrated only after Eisenhower intervenes over gov.
        B. Montgomery Bus Boycott – year long successful boycott after Rosa Parks refuses seat
            1. Martin Luther King – Southern Christian Leadership Conference – gains status
            2. Proved blacks could unite
    C. Greensboro sit-in – spontaneous sit-in at Woolworth’s – later fad spread all over South in pools, restaurants, public places

    III. John Foster Dulles – churchgoer – push back Communist advances, “liberate captive people”
            1. Also try to balance budget by reducing military spending
        A. Massive retaliation – build-up of Strategic Air Command + nukes to level cities
            1. “More bang for the buck” – turned out to be extremely expensive
                a. Eventually Ike warns against “military-industrial complex”
            2. Problem – can’t use massive nuclear attack threat on minor issues – Hungary
        B. Southeast Asia – Ho Chi Minh wants independence – America can’t let go Communist
            1. French forces fail at Dien Bien Phu – America must support France for help in Eur.
                a. Loss forces compromise – divide country and elect in a year
                b. South Vietnam U.S. backed leader Diem takes money but doesn’t help
                c. America firmly involved backing losing horse
        C. Empires die out – Middle East and Latin America push for independence – democracy
            1. Iranians seen as supporting USSR, so US sponsors coup and puts in dictator – shah
                a. Arab world angered at US intervention
            2. Egyptians not given US money for dam, they end up nationalizing Suez Canal
                a. Britain and France go to war against Egypt without US help
                b. Demonstrates reliance of west on oil – power shifts to Middle East
        D. Khrushchev – tensions only get more fierce after failed attempts at summits
            1. Khrushchev shallowly promises disarmament to UN
            2. Ike looks stupid when U-2 plane crashes after US says we don’t fly spy missions

    IV. American people – homogenized society – buys same thing/has same values – keeping up with the Joneses
        A. White collar jobs outnumber blue collar jobs
        B. Women – return to female jobs – domestic – baby boom
            1. Cult of domesticity – later refuted by Betty Friedan’s Feminine Mystique
            2. Ozzie and Harriet and Leave it to Beaver – TV shows with perfect suburban fams
        C. Consumer culture – Diner’s Club 1st credit card, McDonalds
            1. Rapid TV growth – movie attendance sinks
            2. Cultural and social growth destroyed by consumerism and TV media
            3. Popular music turns to “crossover” Elvis Presley – black, country, British
            4. Americans buy mass-produced, standardized products – where’s the difference
    V. Space Race – Sputnik USSR satellite – communism actually key to future – USSR ahead of US
        1. Fear – USSR education stronger, could now attack US from space w/ missile
            a. Education – too easygoing – substitute square roots for square dancing
            b. Authorized loans for college

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Eisenhower and Modern Republicanism Topic Outline26.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    26. Kennedy's New Frontier; Johnson's Great Society

    I. New Domestic Programs – New Frontier to “get the country moving again”
        A. Tax cut – though at odds with companies over Steel threats, he regained favor with tax cuts to business – seen as a Republican measure
            1. Additional tax cuts pushed through by Johnson after Kennedy assassinated
        B. War on Poverty – Johnson – Great Society – “rights revolution” – helped Americans/hurt budget
            1. Proposed $1 Bill(Later $2 bill. dollar package – focused on Appalachian mountains and poor
                a. Economic and welfare programs – similar to New Deal
                b. Michael Harrington’s The Other America – shows 20% of population in poverty
            2. Two new cabinet offices – Housing and Urban Development, Department of Transportation
            3. Big Four Feats – education, aid to elderly/indigent, immigration reform, voting
                a. Education – loans straight to kids, not schools – Project Head Start
                b. Medicare/Medicid

    II. Civil Rights and Civil Liberties
        A. The New Left and the Counterculture – divides America’s into two morals
            1. Negative attitude toward authority – America not free of racism, sexism, imperialism, povert
            2. 1950s – “Beat” poets - Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Rebel without a Cause
            3. UC Berkeley – Free Speech Movement, sexual revolution, lived in communes
            4. Turned into violence and cynicism
        B. Republican Party – reaction to “flower children” – silent majority
            1. Republicans in South – Kennedy – anti-Catholic – Bible belt
            2. 1968 – American Independent Party – George Wallace – South really doesn’t want integration – can no longer follow Democrats
            3. Blacks move to cities, Democrats begin appealing to urban areas, Republicans elsewhere
        C. The Supreme Court – Warren’s Court – After 1953
            1. Cases affect sexual freedom, criminals’ rights, religious rights, structure of political representation
                A. Griswold v. Connecticut – Condoms OK – people have privacy in lives
                B. Gideon v. Wainwright – Defendants have right to legal counsel
                C. Miranda/Escobedo – right to remain silent, can’t get confession from torture
                D. New York Times v. Sullivan – public figures only win libel if malice intended
                E. Engel v. Vitale – prayer illegal in schools
                F. Reynolds v. Sims – redraw district lines to better represent population

    III. Foreign Policy – Cold war still dominates thinking
        A. Bay of Pigs – plan made under Eisenhower to have CIA help Cuban exiles retake gov’t from Castro
            1. Fails miserably when Cubans don’t side with Cuban exiles
            2. America looks like idiots for sponsoring a revolution – Kennedy held responsible
        B. Cuban Missile Crisis – closest America gets to WWIII – US tells USSR to get missiles out of Cuba
            1. Puts in “quarantine” – can’t do blockade because it’s an act of war
            2. If Russia doesn’t back down > Cuba invaded > Berlin invaded > World War III
            3. Khruschev - Russia eventually back down for America’s promise to take out missiles Turkey
            4. Created direct phone line between leaders – too close to death
        C. Vietnam Quagmire – no-win situation – escalation not possible, N. Vietnamese won’t quit
            1. Can’t escalate because might bring in China or Russia, but can’t win without escalation
            2. American public – due to media – getting tired of unwinnable wore and empty promises
            3. Victory confusing – based on body counts and not land taken (land gets retaken later)
            4. People begin dodging draft, tons of protests, Veterans not welcomed back
            5. Tet Offensive actually a victory but media portrayal makes it look like gov’t has no touch w/ reality – they had just promised a huge victory
            6. Destroys Johnson’s policies

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Kennedy's New Frontier; Johnson's Great Society Topic Outline30.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    27. The Nixon Years

    I. Election of 1968 – most heated political season in history
    A. Democratic convention has mass riots – mobs bait officers – feces, shouts
        1. Eventually police riot breaks out
        2. Robert Kennedy had been killed – leaves pro-war Humphrey in power
    B. Republicans – victory in Vietnam and strong anticrime policy
    C. George Wallace – segregation campaign – gets 45 electoral votes from South
    C. Nixon wins – doesn’t win one city – Democrats vote cities, blacks vote cities

    II. Johnson remembered – Vietnam failure, but done more for Civil Rights than Lincoln    

    III. Nixon-Kissinger Foreign Policy
        A. Vietnam – escalation and then pull-out troops
            1. Asians and others have to fight own wars
            2. Vietnamization – train Vietnamese to fight war for selves
            3. Bomb Cambodia to clear out Vietnamese
        B. China – restoring relations – road to getting out of Vietnam requires help of China
            1. China starting to clash with Soviets – take opportunity
            2. 1972 makes journey to China
        C. Soviet Union – détente – relaxed tension – slowing of arms race
            1. Soviets need U.S. food and are afraid of US supported Chinese
                a. $750 million in wheat, corn
            3. Anti-ballistic missile treaty – limited nations to defensive weapons
                a. SALT – freeze number of missiles for 5 years

    IV. New Federalism- Expands welfare programs – not liked by Conservatives
        A. Increases for food stamps and Medicaid
        B. Supplemental Security Income for disabled
        C. Poverty rate reduced to 11% - lowest in modern history
    D. Attack on racial discrimination – affirmative action – protection for groups not just individuals
        1. Supreme Court prohibits intelligence or other tests that hurt women/blacks
    E. Environmental Protection Agency – dealt with smog, pesticides and pollution

    V. Supreme Court – Roe v. Wade – prohibited states from passing laws against abortion
        A. Warren Court of previous two decades had changed face of nation - reformist
    1. Rights of accused, legality of contraception, sue for libel if you could prove malice, support black people in civil rights cases, redraw district lines

    VI. Watergate Crisis and resignation
        A. Nixon paranoid – believes liberals of Kennedy/Johnson destroyed political career
        B. Wins 1972 election by landslide but actions come back to haunt him
    1. Plumbers supposed to seal “leaks” after Pentagon Papers show fault in previous presidents
    2. Group caught in Watergate Hotel at Democratic Party
    3. CREEP – committee to reelect president has tons of money to play “dirty tricks” on opposition
        C. Reports Woodward and Bernstein uncover story – eventually traced to Nixon
        D. Nixon resigns before impeachment – later pardoned by Ford – only
        E. John Dean states that Nixon had bugged rooms to record conversations
            1. Eventually Nixon tapes asked for, but denied – minutes “lost”

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon The Nixon Years Topic Outline23.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    28. Women's Rights

    POLITICAL

       1. Women followed England’s example
             1. Running in front of horses
       2. 1848 – Seneca Falls
             1. Declaration of Sentiments
       3. Organizations:
             1. 1869 – NWSA

    a.       fighting in Congress

                          b.  1869 - AWSA

                                    a.  fighting in states

                          c.   1966 – NOW

                                    a.  equality in workplace

          3.  Federal Acts

                          a.  1893 – CO lets women vote

                          b.  1920 – 19th Amendment

                            c.  1960 – FDA approves birth control pills

                            d.   1963 – Equal Pay Act

                            e.  1973 – Roe vs. Wade

                                    a.  safe and legal abortion

                            f.  1978 – Pregnancy Discrimination Act

                            g.  1994 – Violence Against Women Act

     

    SOCIAL

       1. Women’s Role
             1. no vote, husband has control, no property unless widowed
             2. women are few in the west / have more power
       2. 1920’s
             1. flappers, new ideas of women

    a.       seen as deteriorating society

    b.       clothing shorter – WWI rationing

    a.       showing knees, calve

    b.  birth control

            a.  women have power to control life

    c.  Car - changed dating

    d.  Alcohol

            a.  women drinking in bars, more equal

       3. 1930’s – Great Depression
             1. huge destruction of family unit

    a.       women becoming breadwinners

          b.  FDR – 1st woman in cabinet

                    a.  Eleanor Roosevelt – fought for everyone

       4. 1940’s – WWI
             1. Rosie the Riveter
             2. Sexual Evolution

                                                                   i.      Sinatra, bobbysoxers

                                                                  ii.      Relationships pushed with men going to war

       5. 1950’s – Return to Normalcy

    a.       backwards movement / women back to the home

                                                                   i.      gov’t told women to return home

    1.       housing boom – track homes

    b.       advertising

                                                                   i.      TV consumerism  - products for women in the home

                                                                  ii.      Ideal mother - Leave it to Beaver etc.

       6. 1960’s & 70’s

    a.       birth control approved

            a.  women have the right to choose home/career

    b.  Feminism movement

            a.  learns from civil rights movement

                            1.  civil disobedience – bra burning, pageant protesting

    c.  1963 - Feminine Mystique - Betty Freidan

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    29. Civil Rights Movement (1955-1960)

    I)    Events
        a)    Murder of Emmett Till-boy from Chicago
            i)    Whistle @ white women…murdered by women’s husband and brother
                (1)    Emmett=martyr
            ii)    Open-casket funeral…huge media coverage
            iii)    Mrs. Till & Mose Wright (uncle) spoke against whites
            iv)    Murders convicted not guilty…all white jury
        b)    Montgomery Bus Boycott (Dec.1, 1955)
            i)    Non-violent
            ii)    Rosa Parks-white section >SC integrating buses
        c)    Little Rock, Arkansas
            i)    Desegregation of schools-state vs. federal
                (1)    Nt’l Guard vs. U.S. Army
            ii)    “Little Rock 9”-good AA students
                (1)    Escorted by “101st Hall Monitors”(U.S. Air Force)
            iii)    1st integrated school
        d)    Sit-ins-Greensboro, NC…Nashville, TN…big media… Purpose-be arrested
            i)    Jim Lawson non-violent workshop…rules on sitting, clothes etc
            ii)    Both black and whites worked together
        e)    Freedom Rides…integrate buses on state line
            i)    Washington D.C. >deep south
            ii)    SNCC-main org.
            iii)    JFK sends federal troops
        f)    March on Washington…250,000-300,000 b&w together
            i)    “I have a dream”
            ii)    No riots – fed gov’t expected chaos
       g)    Birmingham-“Bombingham”…AL
            i)    Media=big…spraying water
            ii)    Church bombing…4 kids killed
        h)    Mississippi Burning…shows S problems
            i)    Get AA to vote (3 guys…two white, one black, one Jew)…KKK kills them
            ii)    Kennedy passes-Voting Rights Act of 1965
                (1)    Verify 15th Amendment
        i)    Black Power Movement…Malcolm X founded ideology…ghetto-ised
            i)    Black panthers…stop being “victims”
            ii)    Olympics-black fists
    II)    People
        a)    Martin Luther King-minister from church…non-violent civil rights activist…killed 1968
        b)    JFK-35 pres…not elected as civil rights activist…brother Robert Attorney G. more active                than JFK killed in 1963 (end of CRM)
        c)    Malcolm X-fighting back…Islam…black supremacy…big media…killed by Islams (blacks)

    III)   Phases – NAACP lawsuits, legislative branch won’t budge – senate filibuster
        a)    Go to courts – Brown v. Board, but not enforceable
        b)    Executive branch finally steps in Ike>Little Rock, Kennedy>Freedom Rides,                            Johnson>Civil Rights Act
            i. Before governors and states had ruled, finally federal gov’t stops allowing South to have            separate rules
    IV)    Cooperation – Early part, blacks and whites worked together in SNCC, CORE
        a) Conflicts between conservative SCLC and NAACP, the big moneymakers and SNCC & CORE         the actual activists
        b) By late 1960s, Black Power mvmt emerges wanting nothing to do with white help

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon Civil Rights Movement (1955-1960)24.5 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    30. 1920s America – Roaring Twenties/Jazz Age

    I. Red fear- radical ideas – Russia – anti-union/pro business
        A. Strikes – labor = Bolsheviks, Left wing = un-American
        B. Sacco/Vanzetti – Mass. murder, Ital, atheists, anarchists, draft dodgers
        C. A.Gen. Palmer – “Fighting Quaker” – bomb – paranoid dude
        D. Buford “Soviet Ark” – 249 deported – not nice

    II. Race/Immigration Issues
        A. KKK – anti Jew, foreign, Catholic, pacifist, bootlegger, birth control – crabby dudes
            1. 1925  - 5 mil, march on Wash
            2. Died w/ corruption of leaders
        B. Immigration – new immigration bad, we like Northern Europeans, white, white people –             first time America restricts immigration
            1. Emergency Quota Act – 1921 – 3 % of 1910 numbers
            2. Immigration Act of 1924 – 2% of 1890 #s – no Japanese

    III. Social Lives
        A. Prohibition – 1919 18th Amendment, Volstead Act enforces
            1. South likes (conservative, don’t want drunk blacks), N.Eastern cities no
            2. Joke – can’t legislate personal lives – tough to enforce – speakeasies, home brew
        B. Consumerism – war + Mellon’s nice taxes + machines + oil + assembly line + electricity + buy on credit/installment
            1. Car symbol of all – advertising, rubber, glass follows – 1930 20 mill.
                a. Freedom, roads, women free, death toll “demon machine”
        C. Entertainment
            1. Watching Sports – Babe Ruth - baseball, Jack Dempsey – boxing
            2. Airplanes – “flying coffins” – WWI, but others famous
                a. Charles Lindbergh – Lucky Lindy – New York/Paris $25K
            3. Radio – 1920 Pittsburg – announces election – national programming – home
            4. Hollywood- movies – nickelodeons – 1927 Jazz Singer, 1915 Birth of Nation
                a. $100,000 salaries, Americanization – vulgar pop culture
        D. Battle of Morals – change, move to cities
            1. Feminism – Sanger – birth control, 1923 Equal Rights Amendment failed
            2. Religion – Modernism – God nice guy
            3. Sexuality – “struck sex o’clock” – flappers – danced, knees, dark movies
            4. Scopes Monkey Trial – Tennessee – old Bryan vs. young Darrow - $100 fine
        E. Music – jazz, blues – Big Bands
            1. Racial pride – Harlem Renaissance – Langston Hughes – poetry
                a. Marcus Garvey – African Homeland – United Negro Improvement Association –                         support black communities – pay for improve
        F. Literature – not all white protestants, energy – resented old ideals
            1. Mencken – journal – mocked old ideals – American Mercury
            2. Fitzgerald – jazz age – This Side of Paradise/Gatsby
            3. Hemingway – anti-progovt-propaganda – Farewell to Arms
            4. Poetry – T.S. Eliot – Wasteland, Hughes, ee cummings – dared to be diff.

    AttachmentSize
    Microsoft Office document icon 190s America - Roaring Twenties/Jazz Age Topic Outline23 KB
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    31. The United States since 1974

    I. The New Right and the Resurgence of Conservatism – response to counterculture of 1960s

                A. Most concerned about social issues – not economics

                            1. Denounced homosexuality, pornography, abortion, feminism, affirmative action

                            2. Wanted prayer and tougher penalties on criminals

                            3. Milliken v. Bradley – says you don’t have to bus kids across lines, whites move to suburbs

     

    II. Ford and Rockefeller – Ford seen as dumb, pardoning Nixon seen as “buddy deal”

                A. Tries to continue Détente at Helsinki Accords – finalized boundaries of East – gave freedoms

     

    III. Jimmy Carter

                A. Double-digit inflation – more than 10% per year – oil prices from OPEC killed them

                            1. High lending rate – 20% - don’t want to be repaid with cheap money

                            2. Calls to improve energy conservation

                            3. Eventually escapes to Camp David where he meets with advisors, then chastises Americans

                B. Iranian Hostage Crisis – hostages taken because US aided in revolution – putting Shah in power

                            1. Nightly news show Iranians burning US flags – failed economic sanctions and commando                    escape attempt

                C. Camp David Accords – Israel and Egypt agree to withdraw to pre-1967 territory to avoid conflict

     

    IV. Ronald Reagan – former actor, California governor, helps wealthy, return to good old days – US pride

                A. Reaganomics – trickle-down – supply-side economics – help out wealthy, economy improves for all

                            1. Huge tax cuts for wealthy, gov’t has huge budget deficits pay for weapons/economy – but OK

                B. Defense buildup – method of bankrupting Soviet Union – can’t keep up with us, eventually kills them

                            1. Money taken from school lunches for huge weapons programs – military industrial complex

                C. Disarmament Treaties – “Star Wars” – Strategic Defense Initiative – blowing up nukes in space

                            1. “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” – glasnost “openness”, “perestroika” restructuring

                                        a. INF treaty – bans all intermediate missiles in Europe

                D. Iran-Contra – America sells weapons to Iranians covertly and gives money to Contra rebels Nicaragua

                            1. Violates congressional ban on sending weapons to Contras – President ignores

                            2. Daily TV congressional hearings show President probably knew but everyone pleads 5th

     

    V. Society – two nations – affluence and inequality – poverty rates highest among minorities

                A. Feminist revolution – Working moms, athletics, anti-sexual discrimination cases – still “glass ceiling”

                            1. Sandra Day O’Connor First Justice, women leaders of companies

                            2. Women authors

                B. African-Americans – Clarence Thomas Judge

                C. New immigration – Asia/Mexico – urban coastal cities and Southwest (Mexicans) dominated

                            1. Concentration of Mexicans unprecedented

                            2. Ethnic pride – some people anti-American and/or hold their groups as most important

                D. Urban problems – minorities centralized, money not put into rebuilding, drugs, welfare, poor schools

                            1. Pollution, traffic – endangering species

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit Notes

    Unit notes that cover an entire section of US History and not just one particular chapter. These unit notes, along with the US History outlines, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 01 - 1600-1763

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Exploration

    Exploration
    Explorers in the late 15th, 16th, nad early 17th centuries began the European phase of American history. Their "discoveries" in the New dispelled rumors of a northwest passage and settled ancient questions of world geography. Contact between Europeans and Native Americans would have a dramatic effect on Europe, but a devastating impact on those who were wrongly called "Indians."

    Christopher Columbus: Spanish explorer who, with the backing of Ferdinand V and Isabella I, discovered the North American continent on October 12,1492. Though he was originally seeking a westward route to India, his fleet of ships consisting of the Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria reached the island of Hispanola, claiming it for Spain.

    Giovanni Verrazano: Mariner who explored the East coast of the United States and Nova Scotia under the commission of France in 1524. He was commissioned to claim new lands in the New World and find a route to China. He was the first European to enter New York Bay. His land claims were not colonized until the 17th century.

    Ferdinand Magellan: Portuguese explorer who was the first person to sail across the Pacific Ocean and to circumnavigate the globe. Sailing under a Spanish commission, he attempted to reach the Spice Islands. After crossing the Pacific, Magellan was killed battling natives in the Philippines but two of his ships returned to Spain.

    Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer and military leader who conquered Peru. Pizarro was part of many early explorations of the New World and was involved in the colonization of Panama. When he found the Inca empire in Peru he organized a expedition of 180 men and destroyed the empire in 1531.

    John Cabot: Explorer sent by Henry VII in 1497 who explored and claimed Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and the Grand Banks for England. Cabot was originally sent by Henry in violation of the treaty of Tordesillas to find a direct route to Asia. Cabot, like Columbus thought he had reached Asia, unaware he was exploring a new continent.

    Pedro Alvares Cabral: Portuguese navigator and explorer who explored what is now Brazil. While making a trip to India on April, 22, 1500 his fleet was forced off course by weather and he reached what is now the state of Bahia, Brazil. He claimed this land for Portugal.

    Vasco Nunez de Balboa: Spanish explorer who is best known for being the first to reach the Pacific Ocean in 1513. While attempting to escape debt he joined an expedition lead by Martin Fernandez de Enciso where he took control of the party and led it across the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean, which he claimed for the Spanish monarchs.

    Jacques Cartier: French explorer who explored the Saint Lawrence River. In 1534 Cartier lead a two ship party to find the northwest passage to Asia. He explored Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. While exploring, he claimed the lands for France which made up most of its claim to Canada.

    Juan Ponce de Leon: Spanish explorer who discovered the present day state of Florida on March 27, 1512. Following reports of a fountain of youth, he sailed from his colony in Puerto Rico to the eastern shore of Florida where, upon landing, his party was attacked by natives and where he was mortally wounded before retreating to Cuba.

    Hernando Cortez: Spanish conquistador who is best known for the destruction of the Aztec Empire in present day Mexico. On February 19,1519 Cortez left Cuba with a force of 600 men. Upon landing, Cortez was greeted by the Aztecs who he began to subjugate. He destroyed all resistance and destroyed the Aztec capital in present day Mexico City.

    encomiendas: Grants that give a person the right to take labor in the form of slaves or any type of homage form a designated group of Indians. Christopher Columbus who was sailing for Spain and who was one of the first conquistadors also began this practice in Hispanolia.

    Spanish Armada, 1588: Naval force launched by Phillip II of Spain to fight England. The Fleet was the largest of its time in the 16th century. The Armada was severely damaged when it was attacked off the coast of England on August 7,1588 and cut nearly in half by storms upon return to Spain, making Britain the dominant sea power.

    Colombian Exchange: The exchange of biological organisms between continents. The diseases brought to the American continent that helped to nearly destroy the native populations is one example of that exchange. Besides disease, many plants and animals have been brought to new environments with varying consequences.

    Order of Colonization: (colony, date, prominent figure) Virginia in 1607, John Smith; Plymouth in 1620, William Bradford; New York in 1626, Peter Minuit; Massachusetts Bay in 1630, John Winthrop; Maryland in 1633, George Calvert; Rhode Island in 1636, Roger Williams; Connecticut in 1636, Thomas Hooker; New Hampshire in 1638; Delaware in 1638; North Carolina in 1653; South Carolina in 1663; New Jersey in 1664; Pennsylvania in 1682, William Penn; Georgia in 1732, James Oglethorpe.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Great Awakening

    Great Awakening
    A series of religious revivals swept through the colonies in the 1730s. Key players were Theodore Frelinghuysen, William and Gilbert Tenant, Jonathan Edwards, and George Whitefield. Through the awakening emerged the decline of Quakers, founding of colleges, an increase of Presbyterians, denomenationalism, and religious toleration.

    Jonathan Edwards - Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, A Careful and Strict Enquiry into. . . That freedom of Will:     Sermon about how one must have a personal faith and relationship with Jesus Christ to gain salvation instead of an afterlife in hell. The sermon also used the fury of the divine wrath to arouse religious fervor.

    George Whitefield: English clergyman who was known for his ability to convince many people through his sermons. He involved himself in the Great Awakening in 1739 preaching his belief in gaining salvation. Coming from Connecticut, most of his speeches were based there. His presence helped raise the population by about 3000 people.

    William Tennent: Presbyterian minister who played a chief role in the Great Awakening in Central New Jersey by calling prayer meetings known as the Refreshings around the 1730’s. Another one of his significant projects was the founding of his influential Log College which had teachers educated in all areas of study.

    Gilbert Tennent:     American Presbyterian minister, in 1740 delivered a harsh sermon, "The Dangers of Unconverted Ministry," in which he criticized conservative ministers who opposed the fervor of the Great Awakening. The result was a schism (1741) in the Presbyterian church between the "Old Lights" and the "New Lights," led by Tennent.

    Old Lights, New lights: Two groups of ministries who frequently had heated debates on the issue of God during the Great Awakening. The Old Lights rejected the Great Awakening and the New Lights, who accepted it and sometimes suffered persecution because of their religious fervor.

    Harvard University:     University located in Cambridge, Mass. that was founded in 1636 on a grant from the Mass. Bay Colony. The school was originally organized to educate ministers because of the scarcity of clergy and lack of an educational institution in the new colony. The university eventually developed a more secular format

    effects of the Great Awakening on religion in America: Long term effects of the Great Awakening were the decline of Quakers, Anglicans, and Congregationalists as the Presbyterians and Baptists increased. It also caused an emergence in black Protestantism, religious toleration, an emphasis on inner experience, and denominationalism.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Puritans

    Puritans
    The Puritans first came to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. The Pilgrims, as they were called, were separating from the Anglican church and escaping religious persecution in England by escaping to America. Other Puritans soon flocked to America hoping to "purify" the Anglican Church and develop a colony which would be a model to the world ("a city upon a hill")

    Calvinism: The teachings and doctrine of John Calvin, a leader in the Protestant reformation. Calvinism is unique in its rejection of consubstantiation, the Eucharist and in its doctrine of predestination, the belief that no actions taken during a persons life would effect their salvation. The Puritan colonies were based on Calvinist doctrine.

    Church of England:     The established church in England that is also known as the Anglican church. The Church of England was founded in 1534 by Henry VIII after a dispute with the Roman Catholic church over the annulment of his marriage which culminated in the Act of Supremacy, declaring the King to be the head of the church.

    Mayflower Compact: Agreement made by the Pilgrims in 1620 when they landed at Plymouth. The compact created the Plymouth colony and made a civil government under James I based on the will of the colonists. The Compact was important in the early organization and success of the colony.

    William Bradford: The second governor of the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts, he was elected over John Carver in 1621 and was reelected thirty times. He was important in the organization and success of the colony and kept a history of the development of the Plymouth colony that was published in 1856.

    Pilgrims: The original group of puritan separatists that fled religious persecution in England and found refuge in what is now Massachusetts. The Pilgrims sailed across the Atlantic and reached America in 1620 where they founded the Plymouth colony and organized a government based on the Mayflower compact.

    Puritans: Reform movement in the Anglican church in the 16th and 17th centuries and came to America in 1629. The movement aimed at purifying the church of corruption split into separatists, who wanted to end ties with the established church and non-separatists. Seeking religious freedom was a strong motivation for colonies in America.

    Pilgrims vs. Puritans: Pilgrims and Puritans were extremely similar in most practices and beliefs, but Pilgrims were a distinct group of puritans who were not only against the Anglican church but called for total separation from the church, a dangerous belief in religiously tense England. For this reason they fled the town of Scrooby, England, where they originally had assembled and ended up in Plymouth with intentions of creating a community free of English control.

    Separatists vs. Non-Separatists: Separatists were a group of Puritans who advocated total withdrawal from the Church of England and wanted the freedom to worship independently from English authority. They included the Pilgrims who migrated to America. Non-Separatists sought to reform the Church from within.

    Massachusetts Bay Colony    : Colony created by the Massachusetts Bay Company. Under the leadership of John Winthrop, the colony was created to provide the world with a model Christian society. The colony was created in 1630 and it was governed through a General Court selected by church members.

    City Upon a Hill: Name given to the Puritan society that was to be created in the New World. The leader of the Puritan migration, John Winthrop planned to create a utopian society based on Puritanism that would have no class distinction and would stress the importance of community and church. The society was to be an example to all the world of what could be achieved. It was anticipated that once the world saw this great city it would follow it example.

    Cambridge agreement:     Plan used in 1629 to colonize America by allowing immigration of puritan settlers who would control the government and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay company. The agreement was based on the creation of a market for trade but instead developed a religiously based government.

    Puritan Migration:     The term given to the migration of Puritans to America in the early 17th century. Following the restoration of James I to the throne Puritans in England became persecuted and with the accession of Charles I to the throne the situation became worse. The puritans fled England and came to America to have freedom of religion.

    John Winthrop: The first governor and one of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and a member of the Massachusetts Bay Company. He played a key role in the puritan migration and intended to create a utopian society in America. He was elected governor twelve times and pursued a conservative religious and governmental policy.

    saints: High standing members of the church who gained recognition and were put on a council that governed the congregation. Under Puritan doctrine, to become a saint the person had to be a member of the congregation and have been chosen by the church council.

    New England Way:     The Puritan dominance of New England and their desire to create a utopian society based on their doctrine created a distinct society in New England. Unlike other colonies, Puritans were guided by their religion and created a government and society tied to the church.

    Covenant Theology: Christian Theology that stressed that a agreement was made by God with humans with the death of Jesus for the salvation of mankind. The theology differs from sect to sect, some assert that salvation is granted to all, some that its is earned and others that it can be achieved by faith alone.

    conversion relation: Part of the Massachusetts Puritans practice, it was a requirement of new members. The Relation required that any member of the congregation must go through an examination before the congregation. Because of its unpleasantness, later generations did not go accept it and the half-way covenant was adopted.

    Congregationalism: Protestant organizational system based on the freedom of each church to control its affairs. An offshoot of the separatist, it was continued by the pilgrims in America where it was adopted by the new churches as a way to maintain local independence. Congregationalism was part of the strong independence of the colonies.

    Cambridge Platform: Agreement and plan formed by Puritans before they landed in 1629. The platform was the source for the Puritans of the government and organization for their colony, and it established a government under the authority of the King of England.

    Contrast Puritan Colonies with others: Because most colonies were created with financial or political gains in mind, puritan colonies had a special distinction from them. The puritans came to American seeking religious freedom and had a strong work ethic enabling them to achieve a success not seen in other colonies.

    dissenters: People objected to the accepted doctrine of the established church. The puritans who migrated to America were dissenters from the Church of England who created a new church in the colonies. Religious outcasts from the puritan church such as Ann Hutchinson and Roger Williams were also dissenters.

    Anne Hutchinson, antinomianism:     Early New England religious leader who founded the doctrine of antinomianism, the belief that the Gospel frees Christians from required obedience to laws. She was banished to Rhode Island in 1637 for her belief in antinomianism and her insistence on salvation by faith and not works.

    Roger Williams, Rhode Island: Early colonial clergyman who founded the religiously tolerant colony of Rhode Island in 1636. Williams was banished from Massachusetts for his belief in religious freedom, he established a colony at Providence in 1636 that tolerated all dissenters and was in good relations with the Natives.

    Massachusetts School Law: Law also Known as the Old Deluder Act of 1647, that replaced home education by creating a system in which small towns would have a person capable of teaching the children and every town of over one hundred homes would have a school. The law was a step towards creating a universal education system.

    town meetings: The center of Colonial America political life especially in New England. Town Meetings were gatherings where all the voters in the town or nearby countryside would all congregate and go over issues that most interested them, such as town officers, and taxes for the following season.

    Voting Granted to Church Members: The New England puritans developed a more democratic system of government than in England that gave the power to elect the governor to all male saints. The idea was furthered in 1644 when it adopted a bicameral court with elected delegates.

    Half Way Covenant: A modification in the Cambridge Platform in 1662 that enabled people who had not experienced the conversion relation to become part of the congregation. With the later generations of Protestant settlers unwilling to undergo the conversion relation, church membership was threatened and the compromise was made.

    Brattle Street Church: Church located in Boston, Mass. Completed in 1699. Thomas Brattle, a wealthy merchant and official of Harvard College organized the church against the will of Cotton Mather because of its closeness to the Church of England. The Church was strongly opposed to the Salem Witchcraft trials in 1692.

    Salem Witch Trials: The fear of witchcraft that came to a head in the 1691-1963, especially boiling over in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. This fear ended with the death of many innocent women. Most of the women were middle aged wives or widows. Many implicated others for fear of their lives. The Salem Witch Trials pinpointed the underlying tension that was coming to head in many colonies due to religion and social standings.

    Puritan Ethic: Term that characterizes the strong sense of purpose and discipline that Puritans had. Part of the work ethic also resulted from a belief that wealth and success were a sign of saintliness and that idleness was a sin. This work ethic also helped the Puritans find success in the colonies and translated to an American colonial work ethic.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Red, White, and Black

    Red, White, and Black
    With the colonization of certain regions in America came conflicts with the Native Americans and the earliest traces of slavery in America. Originally using African-Americans only as indentured servants, the growers and farmers eventually began to rely on African-Americans and Native Americans as a free source of labor.


    Iroquois Confederacy:     The joining of six sects of the Iroquoian family and of the Eastern Woodlands area. By the 1700s, the tribes in the confederacy were the Onondaga, Cayuga, Oneida, Mohawk, Seneca, and Tuscarors. By combining they were a stronger force against the colonists.


    Native American Relations in the first settlements:     Relations characterized by resistance to the expansion of English settlement, submission into "praying towns," and devastation through war and disease. Many of the Massachusetts Indians sought protection from Winthrop by selling their land and surrendering their independence.


    Pequot War    : So-called war consisting of clumsy plundering by Massachusetts troops and raids by Pequots in 1637. The colonists eventually won the alliance of rival tribes and waged a ruthless campaign. The war tipped the balance of military power to the English, opening the way to New England’s settlement.

    King Phillips War:     War between the Native American tribes of New England and British colonists that took place from 1675-1676. The war was the result of tension caused by encroaching white settlers. The chief of the Wampanoags, King Philip lead the natives. The war ended Indian resistance in New England and left a hatred of whites.


    Tuscaroras and Yamasees:     Two opposing Indians tribes whose disunity lead both to destruction. The Tuscaroran people were defeated by the colonists with the help of the Yamasees in 1713, and the Yamasees were themselves defeated around 1715. Both tribes were scattered and soon disappeared.


    praying towns:     Towns set up by puritan missionaries for Indian converts to spread puritan Christianity, the first of which, Natick, was founded in 1651. As the Indian population in the east waned, assimilation as "Praying Indians" became the only option besides retreating farther west.


    Beaver Wars    : Wars that resulted from furious trading and hunting of Beaver pelts by the Dutch, the French, and the New Netherlands. The Overhunting of Beavers sent prices so high in 1742 that the Dutch armed the Iroquois and what resulted was bloody battles against Pro-French tribes.

    Slavery Begins: Followed the exploration of the African coast and the establishment of a slave trade Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. The slave trade then moved in to America as the development of a plantation system in Virginia offered a market for slavery and the first slaves arrived there in 1619. Slavery remained small among the colonies, however because it was not yet profitable for slavery under the conditions. As trade and agriculture grew and a plantation system grew so did slavery.


    Barbados Code:     Code adopted by Carolina in 1696 to control slaves at the will of their masters. It was often noted as an inhumane code but the society revolved around slaves, so laws like this were created in order to keep control in the society. White owners relied on force and fear to control the growing black majority in the Carolinas.


    Maryland Slave Code, 1661:     The first actual definition by the colonies of slavery as a "lifelong, inheritable, racial status." It was issued by Maryland in 1661 in order to set up a distinct place for the slaves in the society. Out of the Maryland Slave Code of 1661 came the establishing of other slave codes that set up strict legal codes.


    Stono Rebellion:     Slave uprising in South Carolina in 1739, in which twenty slaves robbed guns and ammunition from the Stono River Bridge along with killing civilians. Officials suppressed the rebellion and stopped any more chaos and damage. It was a significant encounter because it caused white apprehension and led to a new slave code.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Regionalism

    Regionalism
    As life in the colonies progressed, certain regions of America developed distinct characteristics and each had its own unique niche. The contrasts between the different regions were involving crops, religion, and control. The distinct regions were New England ,the Chesapeake Bay area, the southern colonies, the middle colonies, and the frontier.

    New England: Region of the colonies lying on the northeast Atlantic Coast. It started as a highly religious, Puritan society, but eventually became a commercialized "Yankee" society. Of all the colonies, the New Englanders prospered the least, had the most overpopulated towns, and had the poorest soil. To make up for the lack of farming, New Englanders turned to fishing and the merchant marine, and by 1700, this was one of the largest industries in the colonies.

    New England Confederation, 1643: A concord among the New England colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven in the years from 1643-1684. The union was for the purpose of ensuring safety and peace between the colonies. The confederation was used most effectively advising during King Phillips War.

    The Dominion of New England: Centralized government imposed upon the New England colonies by England in 1686 as a result of the Restoration monarchy’s need for control and renewed colonial interest. The Dominion was governed by New York governor Sir Edmund Andros. The consolidation was strongly opposed by the colonists because of the elimination of all colonial legislatures, and was ended by colonial insurrection.

    Massachusetts Bay Company: Company in 1628 to govern the Massachusetts Bay Colony on granted by the Council of New England in America. Puritan settlers who founded their settlement at Boston first colonized the land, starting a trend of religiously independent settlements. The Company was dissolved in 1684.

    Sir Edmund Andros: Political leader appointment as governor of the Dominion of New England in 1686. Andros was extremely unpopular because of his suppression of colonial legislatures, town meetings and enforcement of the Navigation Acts. Boston colonists forcefully removed Andros from office in 1689.

    Thomas Hooker: Religious leader in colonial America and founder of Hartford, Conn. As a clergyman in Massachusetts, Hooker grew dissatisfied with the rigid practices and government of the Puritan church. In 1635 he lead a group of followers to start a more liberal colony in Hartford.

    Saybrook Platform: A modified version of the Cambridge platform that was used by Connecticut Congregationalists and contained a more centralized church government. The government was for the colony at Saybrook of which John Winthrop’s son was governor.

    Fundamental Orders of Connecticut: The constitution of the Connecticut colony that was established in 1639. Written by Thomas Hooker and similar to the government of Massachusetts Bay, it contained a preamble and 11 orders. Following the puritan ideal, it put the welfare of the community above that of individuals.

    Poor Richard’s Almanack: Publication written by Benjamin Franklin in 1732 that gained an immense following with its home remedies and practical wisdom. It can be said that Poor Richard’s Almanack helped define the American culture by giving them traditions and wisdom’s all their own, separate from Britain.

    Phillis Wheatly:     African American poet who was brought to America by slave traders at the age of eight and was bought by the Wheatly family. In 1767, at the age of 8, Phillis found her first fame while escorting one of the Wheatly’s in England. One of her works is "To the University of Cambridge in New England."

    Ann Bradstreet:     The first woman to write poems in colonial America and receive acclaim for them. She was born in 1612 as the daughter of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her poems, which were published as The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung up in America, asserted that women had the right to gain knowledge.

    Southern Colonies: Region consisting mainly of the Carolinas and Georgia. The Southern Colonies were distinct from other colonies mostly on their dependence for slave labor and for farming. The main crop in the South was rice, leading to an absence of large cities in the south. But although most southern cities were tiny, Charleston became the fourth largest city in the colonies. The Southern Colonies were also the only colonies with a large population of blacks and an ethnically stratified society.

    Culpeper’s Rebellion: Rebellion against the colonial government in Carolina in 1677. The rebellion was lead by John Culpeper and was directed against the government’s acceptance of English trade laws. The rebellion succeeded in disposing the governor and placing Culpeper in his position, but he was removed in 1679.

    Georgia: Colony founded in 1733 by a charter granted to James Oglethorpe. The colony started with a settlement in Savanna created by Oglethorpe as a debtor’s colony. The high ideals of Oglethorpe, such as bans on slavery and rum, slowed growth as large settlement did not occur until after slavery was brought to Georgia.

    James Oglethorpe: English soldier and founder of the colony of Georgia in 1733. Oglethorpe founded Georgia after a grant from King George II and settled with a small group on the Savanna River. Oglethorpe’s ideals in creating a debtors colony free of vice were a distinction from other colonies.

    Tidewater vs. Piedmont: Two regions of contrasting economic opportunity. The Tidewater was along the coast, where most of the opportunity was in shipping and fishing. the Piedmont, on the other hand, was where farming took place. This contrast represented an East-West dichotomy to accompany the North-South one.

    Maryland:     Proprietary colony originally intended to be a refuge for English Catholics. Maryland was created in 1632 when Lord Baltimore (Cecilius Calvert) was given a land grant and created a manor based state with a headright system. However, Protestants formed a majority and the manors evolved into plantations.

    sugar colonies: Colonies that produced sugar for England, like New Netherlands, New England, Virginia, Maryland, and the Caribbean. Sugar was produced because it could make people rich quickly because it was sold at very high prices. Sugar plantation owners liked to use black slaves because they were able to work harder and longer.

    Chesapeake Society: Society characterized by few neighbors and isolated families whose lives depended on tobacco. Chesapeake society also revolved around fertile soil near navigable water because tobacco needed such an environment to be grown profitably. Because of this, most farms were located along Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake society also had a powerful merchant class who controlled both export and import commerce. Slow urbanization also characterized society around the Chesapeake.

    Lord Baltimore: Founder of Maryland who, in 1632, received a charter from King Charles I for a tract of land to the northeast of the colony of Virginia. It comprised the present-day states of Maryland and Delaware. He wrote the charter for the colony but died before he got it.

    Maryland Act of Toleration: Act that resulted when the Catholics began feeling threatened by the overwhelming Protestant population. The Maryland Act of Toleration was passed in 1649 so all types of Christians could have equal political rights. Along with this equality Lord Calvert allowed a representative assembly for the Catholics.

    Maryland’s Protestant Association: Group of Protestants in Maryland during late 1600s who controlled the lower house but not the upper, which the Catholics ruled. Eventually, after the Act of Religious Toleration was passed, the Protestant majority barred Catholics from voting and threw out the governor and repealed the act.

    Huguenots: French Protestants. The enlightened and religiously skeptical spirit of the 18th century, however, was opposed to religious persecution, and during this time the French Protestants gradually regained many of their rights. The Huguenots slowed the colonization process for the French, because of the religious wars with French Catholics.

    Carolinas: Colonies created when Charles II rewarded eight of the noblemen who had helped him regain the throne from the Puritan rule in 1663 by giving them land. North Carolina originated as an extension of Virginia and South Carolina came from planters from Barbados, who founded Charleston in 1670.

    John Locke, Fundamental Constitution    : Intricate constitution written by Cooper and John Locke in 1670, meant to stabilize the government of Carolina by basing the social rank on one’s "landed wealth." It formed the three orders of nobility with the proprietors at the top, the caciques in the middle, and the landgraves at the bottom.

    Charleston:     City that became the fourth largest city in North America. It was a place where the upper class could pass their time so they could stay away from the heat of their plantations. Many whites were lured to Charleston in hopes of reducing the black majority. These job seekers usually ended up competing for jobs with the black slaves.

    staple crops of the South: The major staple crop of the south was rice, which was picked by African-American planters who were imported by the Dutch in 1616. Other crops were tobacco, indigo, various grains, wood, and skins. All of these products were exported to Europe and the west Indies. Most of the colonists’ profit came from farming.

    Middle Colonies: The middle colonies were Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey, all of which produced iron, grain, flour, wood, and tobacco which were exported to Britain, Europe and the West Indies. Pennsylvania was built on the basis of being a religious haven for Quakers. New York was built upon the rule of James Duke of York who sent out John Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret to be the first two proprietors of New Jersey.

    Restoration Colonies: Colonies created following the Stuart restoration in 1660 when England again took interest in America. The colonies enabled England to control the East Coast, Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These colonies had governments that made a social hierarchy geared toward a dominant wealthy class.

    Primogeniture, entail: The practice of passing on land to a son, usually the eldest, when no will was left for the land. This practice became came over with the colonists and was introduced into common law, but it did not take long for the practice to die out in the colonies.

    quitrents: Federal payments that the freeholders had to pay the people who were getting the land from proprietors. With the Restoration and the creation of Restoration Colonies, the dues were still enforced, with the money no longer going to the proprietors but instead to the king or queen as royal revenue.

    SPG, Society for the Propagation of the Gospel: An organization founded in 1701 to serve the spiritual welfare of the colonists. After a visit to Maryland, Thomas Bray received a royal charter from King William for overseas missionary work. It was seen as a conspiracy, thus showing a fear of tyranny of the church and state.

    Pennsylvania, William Penn: Pennsylvania was founded as a refuge for Quakers by William Penn in 1681. The Quakers believed that an "inner-light" allowed them to be on a personal level with God. Penn and his people did not experience a starving time which was very common for starting colonies. They started with a strong government.

    Quakers: Religious movement founded in 1600 by a religious belief that divine revelation is immediate and individual and that all persons may perceive the word of God in their soul. They rejected a formal creed and regarded every participant as a potential vessel for the word of God. They were based in Pennsylvania.

    George Fox: Preacher of the "inner-light" doctrine who spoke against formalized religion, mainly Presbyterianism, and advocated divine communion as he practiced it. He objected to political and religious authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human actions must be directed by inner contemplation.

    George Keith:     Member of the Quaker church who told the Quakers that they needed a formal doctrine. His ideas were not accepted among the Quaker majority, so in 1692 he joined the Church of England. With his heresy conviction the Quaker population in Pennsylvania dropped, and the Anglican population and political power rose.

    liberal land laws in PA: Laws that were set up by William Penn which were very liberal because that was his nature. The 1701 Frame of Government stated that the proprietors had no power to do mischief. Penn himself carefully oversaw land sales in the colonies to avoid improper disputes. This liberal planning ensured no starving time.

    Holy Experiment: The main part of this theology that George Fox taught was that people had an inner light that could spiritually inspire their souls. He objected to political and religious authority, opposed war and slavery, and believed that all human actions should be directed by inner contemplation and a social conscience inspired by God.

    1701 Frame of Government:     The first set of laws set up in Pennsylvania which were written by William Penn. In his constitutional type document Penn preached "that the will of one man may not hinder the good of the whole company." The document was revised seven times and held a strong executive, and a limited lower legislative chamber.

    New York: Dutch, 1664 English: Charles II gave his brother James title to all the Dutch lands in America in 1664. James became King in 1685 and appointed Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret as the first proprietors of New Jersey. For years to come there were conflicting claims to the territory and finally in 1702 it became a royal colony.

    East/ West Jersey: They were colonies that resulted from the sale of the Jersey territory to Quakers. English settlers resisted the original proprietors’ authority, so in 1674 Berkeley sold his half to a union of Quakers. East Jersey then became dominated by Scottish Quakers whereas West Jersey became the home to many English Quakers.

    patroon system: The system of feudal estates created by large New York landowners in the early 1700s. The estates were created in order to raise revenue by collecting tenant rents. Later, by about 1750, the patroon owners emerged as a class of landed elite, almost like the British landed aristocracy.

    Peter Struyvesant: Dutch governor who was attacked by Charles II in 1664 so that the British could control North America. Struyvesant, whose army was already hurt from Indian attacks, peacefully surrendered and gave New Netherlands to Charles II, forming the New York and Jersey colonies with a large remaining Dutch population.

    the middle colonies as a religious haven: William Penn founded Pennsylvania originally as a religious haven for Quakers who were not accepted elsewhere in 1681. Similarly, Maryland was founded by George Calvert in 1632 and served as a refuge for English Catholics. Rhode Island was founded by Roger Williams in 1644 for dissenting Puritans.

    crops in the middle colonies: The middle colonies rich level lands produced lengthy growing seasons and gave good bumper crops. The middle colonies were major exporting colonies because of their accessible sea ports. Their exports were rice, iron, grain, flour, wood, and tobacco which were shipped to Europe and the West Indies.

    New York City and Philadelphia as urban centers:     Both cities were the two biggest exporting cities in America thus making them rapidly growing urban centers. High population and bad sanitation allowed many of the people to catch viruses and diseases. Recessions hit frequently and the job force was very unstable.

    Leisler’s Rebellion: Anti-Stuart rebellion in which Captain Jacob Leisler took command over New York in hopes of protecting it from Andros and other supporters of James II. In 1691, Leisler denied the passing of English troops to important forts, leading to his arrest and death when his enemies gained control of the government.

    Benjamin Franklin:     A notable American printer, author, diplomat, philosopher, and scientist, his contributions epitomized the Enlightenment. In 1731 he founded what was probably the first public library in America. He first published Poor Richard’s Almanack in 1732 and played a crucial role in the American Revolution and community.

    John Bartram:     Botanist who was known as the father of American Botany. Bartram traveled extensively through the colonies, observing wildlife, writing, collecting plants, and making maps. He performed important experiments involving plant hybridization and in 1728 he founded the first botanical garden in America near Philadelphia.

    Frontier    : Area of land important in the development of a distinctly American culture and political life, as explained by Fredrick Turner’s Frontier Thesis. The frontier also offered limitless land, which democratized America by elimating the significance of voting property requirements. Finally, the frontier represented a raw environment that helped mold American civilization by giving it coarseness, strength, acuteness, pragmatism, and inventiveness.

    North-South economic differences:     The North was much more concerned with shipping, fishing, and industry whereas the South was based on an agricultural society. Also, the North had more towns, cities, and ports. In contrast, the South was characterized by cash crops, an aristocracy, and plantations.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Salutary Neglect

    Salutary Neglect
    Britain’s absence in colonial America due to pressing issues in England left the colonies alone for the most part to govern themselves. During this time they flourished and developed a British origin, yet with a distinctly American flavor. It was because of this absence that the colonies became more self sufficient and eventually it led them to a feeling of individuality that they feared losing, thus bringing forth the Declaration of Independence after a series of events.

    mercantilism:     features, rationale, impact on Great Britain, impact on the different colonies: Economic policy prevailing in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries under which governmental control was exercised over industry and trade in accordance with the theory that national strength is increased by a majority of exports over imports. The colonies adopted mercantilism as business in which the mother country could benefit.

    triangular trade:     Trade that takes place between three places is called triangular trade. Colonial trade was not very triangular because the Navigation Acts forced American merchants to trade only with Britain. However, the Americans still managed to smuggle goods with the French Caribbean and India.

    consignment systems:     A system of drafting sailors into the British navy. The British could freely use the soldiers at their convenience by the rules of this draft. The draft caused many problems in the life of young American men. Many teenagers tried to avoid the draft by giving false information about themselves.

    Molasses Act, 1733:     Legislation by the British Parliament for taxing and imposing shipment restrictions on sugar and molasses imported into the profitable colonies from the West Indies. It was meant to create profitable trade as a protective tariff, but it was never meant to raise revenue.

    Woolens Act, 1699; Hat Act, 1732: Iron Act, 1750: Act specifying certain enumerated goods—principally tobacco, rice, and indigo—that the colonists could export only to another English colony or to England. These were attempts to prevent manufacturing in the British colonies that might threaten the economy of England.

    Currency Act, 1751:     Act passed by British Parliament that affected the colonies by adjusting the currency. The point of this attack was to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was a clear example of how Salutary Neglect was coming to an end with the French and Indian War.

    Currency Act, 1764: Another Act passed by the British Parliament that affected the colonies and was meant to raise revenue for Great Britain. It was very similar to the other previous Currency Act but this act was targeted towards the people and raising the taxes so that the Parliament could make more money.

    Magna Carta, 1215:     A charter granted by King John, that exactly established the relationship between the kings and barons and guaranteed ideas of free commerce, the right to a fair trial, and the right to a trial by your peers. Many of the base rights in the United States Constitution are included in it.

    Petition of Right, 1628: Petition given to Charles I by parliament, asking him to stop sending soldiers to live in private citizens homes, stop taxing without its consent and stop declaring martial law in a time of peace. This occurred partially because Charles was trying to pay off his war debt.

    Habeas Corpus Act: Act saying that a person can not be held in prison without being charged and tried. They put this into effect to help stop innocent people from being thrown into jail with no specific reason why. This idea was adopted into our Constitution in Article 1, Section 9. It can only be revoked in time of rebellion.

    Navigation Act, 1651: Parliament passed this legislation in 1651 in order to protect English trade from foreign competition. It was only temporary and it stated that goods imported or exported by the colonies in Africa and Asia must be shipped out or imported only by English vessels and the crews must be 75% British. It also helped U.S. capitalism.

    Navigation Act, 1660: This Parliamentary act renewed the 1651 act and specified certain innumerable articles which could be exported only to the English or to another English colony in 1660. Among these goods were tobacco, rice, and indigo. American shipbuilding thus prospered and there was a stable protected market for producers.

    Navigation Act, 1663:     This Parliamentary act disallowed colonial merchants from exporting products like sugar and tobacco anywhere except to England and from importing goods in ships not made and produced by the English. Along with the 1660 act, it was passed to help English commercial interests in 1663 but helped the U.S.

    Navigation Act, 1696: This was the fifth and final Parliamentary Navigation Act. It allowed for methods of enforcing the acts, provided more penalties for evasion, and introduced use of vice-admiralty courts. It was passed in 1696 in an effort to strengthen its effect on colonists. It was felt much more harshly by the colonists and led to hostility

    admiralty courts: These were courts that were created to bring sailors to trial for going against the navigation acts. They were often held away from the colonies, a fact that the colonies viewed as being unconstitutional. Also, the courts awarded judges money for every conviction, thus judges became more apt to find people guilty.

    merchants/markets: People and places involved in the trading system of the colonies were merchants and the markets with which they traded. The Navigation Acts opened up British markets to American merchants, and the number of merchants increased during the 1750’s as well.

    Board of Trade, (of the Privy Council):     This board was part of the Privy Council which was one of the committees formed by the British Parliament In 1793 Britain’s Privy Council sent out orders that any foreign ships caught trading with the French Islands located in the Caribbean to be automatically captured and taken away. They deliberately waited to publish these instructions so that American ships would be seized, causing over 250 ships were captured.

    Robert Walpole: Statesman who is considered Britain’s first prime minister. He entered the English Parliament in 1701 and became a well known speaker for the Whig Party. In 1708 he was named Secretary of War. In 1739 he declared war on Spain, which caused division in his party (Whigs) for support for him in elections.

    the Enlightenment: A period in the 1700s when a new method of thought was employed. It was a time when great minds awoke and started thinking, affecting the colonies as well as Europe. Some beliefs brought to the forefront were the laws of nature, optimism, confidence in human reason, and deism. Its ideas lead to revolutionary ideas.

    John Locke’s Ideas:     John Locke was a philosopher that supported Colonial America. He criticized the "divine right" kings had and believed that the people should have a say and that the supreme power should be state power, but only if they were governed by "natural" law. His ideas can be seen in the Constitution.

    John Peter Zenger Trial: Trial involving the founder of the New York Weekly Journal , who received money from influential town members. So when Zenger published articles by his contributors that criticized Colonial government he was arrested and put on trial. He was announced not guilty, his success paving the way for freedom of the press.
    Characterized by regular assemblies and appointed militia, law, and local administration. Often, these were dominated by the colonial elite despite libera

    Colonial Government: l qualifications for male voters. Because of low voter participation and indifference toward politics, colonial government only truly flourished in the major seaports. The most significant development of colonial government was the rise of the assembly and the limiting of the power of governors.

    Rise of the lower house: In Colonial America the lower house had increasingly equal if not more power than the upper house. The house had the power of the purse which led them to being the more dominant house. More common people could get into government than before and make a difference which helped build the foundations of America.

    Proprietary, Charter, Royal Colonies: These are three ways one could come upon owning land in Colonial America. One such way was for a company to give out land so an area would become populated. Kings and Queens could also give away land as well as people having property passed on to them, therefore having an influence on decisions the new powers would make. All of these ideas helped shape America’s way of government life.

    colonial agents: Representatives sent by Great Britain to the colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries. They would observe the colonies and then send the information back to England. The problem is by the time it got back to England the information that had once been true was now old and wrong.

    Glorious Revolution: When Mary and William over run James II in England in 1688, British citizens saw this as a win in liberty for parliament would have more control than ever. Moderate uprising that came out of the Colonial America during this time ended with William and Mary taking apart the Dominion of New England.

    Bill of Rights, 1689: Bill that said no Roman Catholics could hold a position of king or queen in England. It also made it illegal for a monarch to postpone laws, have a standing army, or levy taxes without the okay of the British Parliament. The colonies then interpreted the law and used it against the British (levy tax).

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Virginia Settlement

    Virginia Settlement
    One of the New England colonies and chartered by James I in 1606, Virginia was founded to give the English territorial claims to America as well as to offer a colonial market for trade. Jamestown, became a prosperous shipping and tobacco producing colony and the colony developed the House of Burgesses, a bicameral legislature in 1619.

    Joint Stock Company:     A business owned by investors through control of stocks. Examples operated in England and dealt with colonial markets in America. Such companies organized and supported the colonies through charters from the British government and while they worked with the government they made private profits.

    Jamestown: The first successful settlement in the Virginia colony founded in May, 1607. Harsh conditions nearly destroyed the colony but in 1610 supplies arrived with a new wave of settlers. The settlement became part of the Virginia Company of London in 1620. The population remained low due to lack of supplies until agriculture was solidly established. Jamestown grew to be a prosperous shipping port when John Rolfe introduced tobacco as a major export and cash crop.

    starving time:     The period early in any settlements development when food and supplies are scarce due to lack of preparation, unfamiliarity with the surroundings, weather, and inability to successfully grow crops. The starving time usually cost a large percentage of the settlers lives and lasted for the first few years.

    John Smith: Colonial leader who brought structure and stability to Jamestown during its starting years. As a member of the governing council of Virginia he was chosen to replace the previous president in 1608. Smith is credited with organizing trade with the Powhatan Confederacy and leading the colony through its roughest years.

    John Rolfe: English colonist and farmer who greatly aided the colony. Rolfe is credited with introducing tobacco as a crop for export, which ensured the colony of profits as well as bringing eight years of peace between Indians and colonists through his marriage to Pocahontas.

    purpose of Virginia:     Virginia was founded primarily for the purpose of profit by the joint-stock owned Virginia Company of London. It was also important in giving England territorial claims in America to match Spanish and French expansion, and to also give England markets and resources in the New World.

    indentured servants: People who promised their lives as servants in order to get to the colonies. The servants, who were usually white, worked for a certain amount of time so to pay off their debt. This practice led to social tensions with such eruptions as Bacon’s Rebellion and eventually was replaced by race slavery.

    problems and failures of Virginia: Included trouble with Indians and a "starving time" in the winter of 1609 which the colony barely survived. Virginia also suffered from debt, a high death rate, fraudulent local officials, and more Indian trouble. The problems eventually made the Virginia Company go bankrupt.

    headright system: System enacted first in Virginia then in Baltimore to attract people to the sparsely populated colonies. The system worked by granting large amount of land to anyone who brought over a certain amount of colonists. In Baltimore, anyone bringing five adults at their own expense would receive two thousand acres.

    House of Burgesses: A regular assembly of elected representatives that developed in the Virginia colony in the 1630’s. The House of Burgesses was split into two chambers in 1650, creating the House of Burgesses and the Governors Council. The House was a bicameral legislature that was a model for our congress.

    successes of Virginia: Virginia succeeded politically in terms of creating the House of Burgesses as a semi-democratic assembly and forcing governors to cooperate with the legislature. They did this through the power of the purse as governors did not control money, and therefore depended on the legislature for they salaries.

    Cavalier: The group of supporters of Charles I in the English Civil War which lasted from 1642-1648. The term Cavalier continued to be used to mean any supporter of the British crown, especially Americans who were British sympathizers during the American Revolution.

    Bacon’s Rebellion: Colonial rebellion against the governor of Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon was the leader of the uprising protesting Governor Berkeley’s neglect of calls for a stronger military presence in the frontier to end problems caused by Indian hostility. The revolt succeeded in driving away the governor and it appeared it would achieve success when Bacon died shortly after the initial success before any progress was made and the rebellion dissipated.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 02 - 1763-1783

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Great Britain Versus France

    Great Britain Versus France
    With America as a new prospect for both France and Great Britain, tensions grew between the two countries. The result was a series of wars like King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War, the War of Jenkin’s Ear, King George’s War, and the French and Indian War.

    Changes in land Claims of 1689, 1713, 1763: Before 1689 almost all of the land belonged to Spain, and France with Britain only starting. Then by 1713 France was dominating the North America and Britain was spreading up and down the coast. In 1763 with the Treaty of Paris, Britain became the overwhelming power.

    Differences between French and British colonization: The French mostly had fur traders and posts in North America so they could get goods, they were more inland and made friends with the Indians. While the English were settling for good on the shore, making homes and government- they were all there to start a new life.

    Why Great Britain eventually won: When William Pitt joined the British leaders he turned things around. He began to treat the Americans like equals or allies instead of subordinates. This lead Americans to feel a sense of pride and a renewed sense of spirit that sent them into several victories that made France eventually concede.

    King William’s War: In Europe a war fought between the Grand Alliance and France which also embroiled the colonies. The entire war was battled over who would reign in England. In the colonies the Indians were fighting for the French. In 1697 fighting ceased due to the Peace of Ryswick which restored Port Royal to the French.

    Queen Anne’s War: The second of the four imperial wars that were fought between Britain, France and Spain. It took place from 1702-1713. Though many Spanish colonial towns were captured and burned by English forces, American colonists met with military failure creating a feeling of dependence on Britain. The war ended with Peace of Utrecht.

    Peace of Utrecht: Treaty that ended Queen Anne's War in 1713. Due to this treaty France had to give up Acadia, Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory to England but got to keep Cape Breton Island. The treaty also introduced a period of peace in which the American colonists experienced growth economically and politically.

    War of Jenkin’s Ear: This war was British versus Spain. It was fought in Georgia and North Carolina. Lieutenant Governor William Gooch led Virginia’s 400 men into the whole 3000 men colonial army and after their Colonel died Gooch succeeded him. When they attacked Cartagena it proved disastrous, though Gooch wouldn’t report it that way.

    King George’s War:     War fought between Britain and France and Spain. It took place not only in Europe but also in North America with American colonists supporting the British with thousands of troops. In the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Britain gained lands in India but lost Louisburg, which embittered Anglo-American relations.

    French and Indian War: The French and Indian war was fought between Britain and France. It lasted from 1754-1760, with the colonies supporting Britain and the Indians supporting France. This war spanned three different continents and it was the main factor in the ending of "salutary neglect." This war planted the seeds of misunderstanding between Britain and the colonies and indirectly was one of the causes of the Revolutionary War. Britain came out victoriously with the Treaty of Paris.

    Coureurs de Bois: Unlicensed trader who traded illegally with Indians. Many young men seeing only the prospective wealth left their families and traded illegally with Indians, some even married into the tribes. They also enlisted Indians in the French Army. These Coureurs de Bois were important in setting up fur trade in Canada.

    Francis Parkman: Francis Parkman was one of the prominent historians of his time (1823-1893). Most of his work concerned the conflict that arose between France and Britain for land in Colonial America. Later on in his career he went west and traveled with tribes, such as the Sioux, which ended with the book, The Oregon Trail.

    Albany Plan of Union, Benjamin Franklin: Colonial confederation based on the ideas of Franklin calling for each town to have independence in a large whole, known as a Grand Council. It was used for military defense and Indian policies and set a precedent for later American unity.

    Edward Braddock: Braddock was the General of all the British Troops (French and Indian War), he led an attack against Fort Duquesne, never reaching his destination for they were attacked by the Monongahela River where 900 of his 1200 men were wounded or killed. Braddock was wounded at this battle and died soon afterwards.

    William Pitt: Prime minister for Britain, who helped Britain bounce back after the Revolutionary War and who lead the war effort against France. Pitt had two terms, 1783 to 1801 and 1804 to 1806. He was considered a moderate, with the backing of the king and the parliament. Pitt’s time in office became a foundation for future prime ministers.

    Fort Duquesne: This was the fort that General Braddock tried to take during the French and Indian War but him and his troops were slaughtered in an ambush at the Monongahela, where 900 of the 1200 troops were wounded or killed. Later General Amherst captured the fort.

    Wolfe, Montecalm, Quebec- the Plains of Abraham: The battle of the French and Indian War, between General Wolfe and General Montecalm in which both were killed . It ended with the capturing of Quebec and was one of the final steps that lead Montreal to surrender, thus making Canada no longer a threat.

    Land squabbles in North America, where, why and what over:     Any of the imperial wars that were fought in North America, for if when Britain won they would usually gain territory they had wanted before. Also various battles with Indians over pieces of land because colonists pushed their way onto Indian land, not caring if it belonged to them.

    Treaty of Paris (1763):     Treaty that ended the French and Indian War was ended by the Treaty of Paris. This treaty ended French reign in Canada. The treaty also called for Spain to give Florida to Britain, and for France to give all lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain. It also was a precursor, for colonial politics would follow Britain.

    Proclamation of 1763: This proclamation stated that no white settlers could go past the crest of the Appalachians. While this upset many colonists who had claims that far west, Britain explained it was only temporary, for it was meant to calm the Indians, sure enough five years later the boundary was moved further west.

    Pontiac’s Rebellion, 1763: After France had to give up the territory they had near and around the Appalachian Mountains the Indians were afraid that the British would come in and start to settle down permanently, to make sure this didn’t happen Chief Pontiac launched an offensive at Bushy Run and Pontiac’s forces won for the time being.

    Proclamation of 1763:     The British issued this in 1763 in hopes of conciliating the Indians and to lessen white expansion. It banned colonists from settling west if the Appalachian mountains. Though it was supposedly a temporary measure, colonists were angered and the line was moved further west five years later for speculators.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    New British Policy and Colonial Resistance

    New British Policy and Colonial Resistance
    In order to tighten control over the colonies, Great Britain instated many acts and taxes which enraged colonists who argued that it was unfair to tax them when they had no direct representation in Parliament. This resistance was the beginning of America’s revolt against its mother country.

    writs of assistance: The royal governor of Massachusetts allowed British revenue officers to use this in 1760 in order to capture goods imported illegally in: It was a search warrant allowing officials to enter buildings in which smuggled goods may be. It required no cause for suspicion and homes were often ransacked. It also contributed to the Revolution.

    James Otis: He was a colonial leader who was also advocate general of the Boston Vice Admiralty Court in 1756. His opposition to the writs of assistance and Townshend Acts led him to declare that Parliament did not have the right to violate natural rights of colonists. He thus published The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proven.

    Pontiac’s Rebellion: Ottawa chief Pontiac attacked and besieged ten British forts in May, 1763, in order to keep British out of the Appalachians. An uneasy truce was negotiated by 1764, and as a result, the Proclamation of 1763 was put forth in order for Britain to maintain 10,000 soldiers in the U.S. to occupy French ceded territories.

    Paxton Boys:     This group of Rangers from Pennsylvania Paxton in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, killed some Sasquehannock Indians in 1764. The conflict arose as a result of the desire to expand westward. Governor John Penn in 1764 attempted to punish them, but the people of the area were so upset that a revolt ensued; Benjamin Franklin solved it.

    Grenville’s Program: British Prime Minister George Grenville was the principal architect of the Sugar Act; his method of taxation and crackdown on colonial smuggling were widely disliked by Americans. He passed the Stamp Act arguing that colonists received virtual representation in Parliament, even though Americans didn’t elect members.

    Sugar Act, 1764: George Grenville introduced this act which amended the Molasses Act that had taxed all foreign molasses entering the U.S. at sixpence a gallon in 1764. The new act ended the previous British policy of keeping Americans out of all revenue-raising measures. It stated that colonists exported certain items to foreign countries only if they passed through Britain first. Parliament hoped that Americans would buy more British items and it increased British sale of European wine.

    Currency Act, 1764: extended currency Act, 1751: A Parliamentary act, which was originally applicable only in Massachusetts in 1751, but in 1764, it was applied to all the colonies as a means of raising revenue. It increased colonial resentment toward Britain because it disallowed the issuance of colonial money.

    vice-admiralty courts: Parliament was responsible for this new form of juryless court in Nova Scotia. From 1763 to 1765, when Americans were caught smuggling in violation of the Acts of Trade, they were tried by corrupt judges who received a percentage of the confiscated goods if they found the defendants guilty.

    A Democracy or not?:     Colonial America was a place with more liberal voting qualification, no aristocracy and rise of the assembly. But the ruling class was still the wealthy, they had the power, also voters turn out wasn’t large. One had a better chance in becoming part of the "system" but it wasn’t democratic.

    Deism: most of the religious thinkers during the Enlightenment were deist. The deists believed that God was a clockmaker who created the world but now just watches it work. They believed that we lived in a perfect universe and that we are laws that we created were natural.

    Non-consumption: The Sons of Liberty began the idea of non-consumption in 1774 with their vow of non-importation of British goods. When the Boston Port Bill was passed, colonists once again agreed to ban all British goods in order to boycott the British until demands were met. Because of this, state or individual opposition was despised.

    virtual, actual representation: Parliament felt colonists had virtual representation because every member of Parliament considered the rights of all subjects; the House of Commons was responsible for protecting the rights of all British and colonists. Because the British elected members, they enjoyed actual representation, but colonists had none.

    no taxation without representation: John Adams, in his Circular Letter, in 1768, openly criticized Parliament’s practice of taxation without proper colonial representation. It was said that no tax that was issued in order to produce revenue for Great Britain was constitutional because American representatives had not voted to allow the tax.

    colonial view of the constitution: Colonial views toward the Constitution varied greatly in 1781, due mostly to regional and bipartisan differences. Federalists were those who advocated a strong central government, at state’s expense. Antifederalists demanded more state power. Depending on size, states wanted different types of representation.

    Compact theory: First expressed by Jefferson and Madison in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves of 1798, it declared that each state comprised the national government through a compact whose provisions were established in the Constitution. Hence, the states could decide when the compact was broken. It further led to the doctrine of States Rights.

    Stamp Act: British prime minister George Grenville’s most detested act, the Stamp Act was introduced in 1765 as a means of raising revenue in the colonies, and was passed by Parliament. It stated that all legal documents, contracts, licenses, pamphlets, and newspapers must carry a stamp that is taxed. It was intended to raise money for keeping up defense in colonies. It infuriated colonists because it was an internal tax that few could escape. Opposition to the Stamp Act led to formation of the Stamp Act Congress.

    stamp distributors: These were the men who had the job of accepting money from the special water-marked paper put into circulation with the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765. They were a target for such associations as the Loyal Nine and Sons of Liberty who attempted, through violence, to force the distributors to resign before taxes were due.

    Patrick Henry: He was an orator and statesman who played a key role in igniting patriotism and leading the colonists toward the American Revolution. In 1763 he became a member of the House of Burgesses where he introduced seven resolutions against the Stamp Act. He is famous for his comment "Give me liberty or give me death."

    Virginia Resolves: American leader Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia House of Burgesses to state their opposition to taxation in 1765. They adopted several resolutions which refuted the power of Parliament to tax the colonies. Henry’s fiery orations caused, by the end of the year, eight other colonies to also denounce taxation and declare rights.

    Stamp Act Congress, 1765: This was an assembly of delegates from nine of the original thirteen colonies in 1765 which was intended to protest the Stamp Act. They met in New York City and presented the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, but the group’s demand for no taxation without representation was refused by the House of Commons.

    Non-importation: There existed, between many of the colonial merchants, an agreement to not import any British goods until the Townshend acts were repealed. When the tea tax was kept, they were unsure whether or not to keep the boycott going. When non-importation collapsed, the Sons of Liberty agreed not to consume British tea in protest.

    Sons of Liberty: Members included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere; it was a secret society of patriots which was organized in 1765 in the colonies. They formed a Committee of Correspondence to defend themselves against British actions. One of the actions they took was to adopt a policy of non-importation in which merchants refused to import goods sent from Great Britain. They also participated in terrorizing the stamp distributors through house-wrecking and tar-and-feathering in order to achieve respect.

    Daughters of Liberty: Upper class female patriots who formed a union in 1765 in order to give aid to the cause of defeating the reviled Stamp Act. They proved their value to the cause both by attending political rallies and protests and also by refusing association with men who were Loyalists, however, they ultimately played a small role.

    internal/external taxes: Introduced by the British Parliament in 1765, the Stamp Act was an internal tax which few colonists could escape, all of the colonists were drastically affected by this tax. An example of an external tax is the Sugar Act passed in 1764 which raised costs only for a select group of people; public opposition to the tax was minute.

    Revenue Act: Parliament passed the Revenue taxes in 1767. The Act taxed glass, paint, lead, paper, paint, and tea. In colonial opinion, it was just like the Stamp Act in that, though it was said to be an external tax, it was still put into effect solely to raise revenue for the British treasury. It further angered colonial resentment to Charles Townshend.

    Right of revolution: In John Lock’s Two Treatises of Government, written in 1690, it is stated that "It is a state of perfect freedom [for man] to do as they wish and dispose of themselves and their possessions." He claims that any person has the right to revolt if the government does not fulfill its duties. His ideas led to the Declaration of Independence.

    The Loyal Nine: A group of middle class workers joined this association in the summer of 1765 in order to resist the Stamp Act. They realized that if they could intimidate stamp distributors with house-wrecking and tar-and-feathers, they could bully them into resigning before the act could be put into effect, making it impracticable.

    Guy Fawkes Day: Thousands of ardent Bostonians gathered to celebrate this day on November 5, 1765. The day was named for the anniversary of the day Catholic Guy Fawkes attempted to blow up Parliament and King James I. In celebration of his failure, mobs gathered in the streets of Boston to protest and to set fire to figures of the Pope.

    Declaratory Act. 1766:     This was a Parliamentary act which was issued in 1766 in order to confirm the British government’s right to pass acts which were legally binding to the colonists. Because the Stamp Act was so opposed by the colonists as well as the British business community, it was repealed, but only with the passage of this confirmation.

    Quartering Act (called the Mutiny Act by the British): Passed by Congress, this was one of the Intolerable Acts in 1774. It effectively served to further punish the colonists. Basically, it allowed for much-hated British officers to be permitted to requisition empty, private buildings. All resistance was repressed by this blatant attempt to force troops in.

    Reactions to the Townshend Acts: Under the control of British Prime Minister Charles Townshend, Parliament passed these measures in 1767. The first called for suspension of the New York Assembly because it would not abide by the Quartering Act. The Revenue Act called for customs duties on imports of glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea. As a result of unrest over these acts, the Massachusetts legislature was dissolved. Colonial reaction was that of further discontent toward their motherland.

    John Dickinson, "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania": He was a lawyer in Philadelphia and a leader in the movement against taxation on the colonies in the 1760s. Formulating a declaration of rights at the Stamp Act Congress, he argued against the duties of the Townshend acts in this publication. He sought appeasement of the British.

    Massachusetts Circular Letter: The Massachusetts legislature sent the other 12 colonies a letter in 1767 in response to the Townshend Acts and asked for a united response from the colonies. The British threatened to dissolve the Massachusetts court unless it was withdrawn. They refused and were dismissed. The other assemblies defiantly signed.

    Sam Adams: He was an outspoken advocate of the Sugar Act, and served on the General Court of Massachusetts in 1765. Moreover, he was a main proponent of opposition to the Townshend Acts and a key figure in the formation of the Sons of Liberty. Starting a movement for an uprising against the Boston Massacre, he led several other angry colonists in the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Due to his literary agitation, Adams contributed to the movement for revolution.

    The Association: The First Continental Congress agreed to this "association," which was a simple sort of agreement in 1774. It was formed in response to anger over the recently passed Tea Act. Members pledged not to import, export, or consume products of Britain unless their demands were met. This led to increased hostility toward the colonists.

    repeal of the Townshend Acts exept tax on tea    : Lord North, in a Parliamentary act in 1770, wanted to eliminate the Townshend duties due to increased hostility against the British and to keep the boycott from gaining momentum. However, he still recommended they maintain the tea tax, because it was profitable for the Royal Treasury in Great Britain.

    American Board of Customer Commissioners: Townshend introduced legislation in 1767, serving to create an American Board of Customs Commissioners whose sole job would be to enforce the Navigation Acts . They were created because Townshend wanted to crack down on colonial smuggling. The corrupt members of the Board practiced customs racketeering, which was a legalized form of piracy. This led to a major movement between colonists of anger and violence toward the Board members.

    John Hancock’s Liberty: Customs commissioners in Boston requested an armed force for protection and the government dispatched the Romney to Boston in June, 1768. When told that a customs official had been locked up, while John Hancock unloaded without paying the duty, the Liberty was seized. This led to further discontent towards Britain.

    Boston Massacre, 1770: British troops, (which were resumed in the city in 1770 in order to discourage opposition to the Townshend Acts), when hit by hecklers within the crowd, opened fire upon the innocent; five men were killed. Eight soldiers were tried for murder; their attorney was John Adams. Many were acquitted and anti-British feelings rose.

    Crispus Attucks: He was the leader of a group of colonists who were killed in the 1770 Boston Massacre. Though he was the first man to be shot, he was only one of five colonists. He was either African-American or Native American and he may have been a runaway slave. In 1888 a monument of him was erected in his honor in Boston.

    John Adams: He was the lawyer for the soldiers who were tried for murder in the Boston Massacre in 1770. He successfully defended his clients in defense that they were trying to protect their own lives. He additionally denounced the Stamp Act, analyzed the demands facing the colonists, and was a member of both Continental Congresses.

    Carolina Regulators: This name applies to several groups of insurgents who, in 1764, wanted to protect the rights of their community. The North Carolina Regulators threatened to rebel and not pay taxes. The South Carolina Regulators, in 1767, opposed corrupt government and cleared their homeland of outlaw bands of terrorists.

    Battle of the Alamance: The North Carolina Regulators found their movement peak in this battle on May 16, 1771. With an army of 2500, these Regulators fought a band of eastern militia started up by the governor of North Carolina, and 300 casualties were inflicted. The Regulator uprising fell apart and colonies found it harder to resist British.

    Gaspee Incident: A customs schooner was beached in Providence, RI, on June 9, 1772. This upset Americans because it was one of the last of the customs racketeering ships. Stuck in the mud, it was burned down by local inhabitants. When investigators were sent to find the initiators, they failed; the suspects would have faced trial without jury.

    Governor Thomas Hutchinson of Mass.:     A colonial governor, he opposed taxes that harmed U.S. trade, but still supported Britain’s right to impose taxes. When the Stamp Act controversy was in effect, his home was ransacked in 1765. In 1773, he refused to allow British ships to be returned without unloading and the Boston Tea party resulted.

    committees of correspondence: They were colonial groups in 1772 which were organized to form resistance to British tyranny. The Boston town meeting made up a 21 member committee "To state the Rights of Colonists and of this Province in Particular." This committee became a major political force responsible for the Boston Tea Party.

    Lord North: He was a British member of the House of Commons during the 1770s. Under the orders of King George III, he taxed Americans, though he found it morally wrong to do so. By 1776, he demanded an early peace with the Americans hoping to put an end to the Revolutionary War. By 1779, he realized the war was a lost cause.

    Tea Act: The Parliamentary Tea Act eliminated import duties entering England, lowering the selling price to consumers, also allowing selling directly to consumers, hurting middlemen. Colonial smuggling was very harmful to the East India Company which had held a monopoly on tea. The act provided savings for Britain.

    Boston Tea Party: A group of Boston citizens organized a protest on December 16, 1773, which was against the British tax on tea imported to the colonies The citizens were angry and disallowed three British ships to unload their cargo in Boston. Led by Samuel Adams and members of the Sons of Liberty, the group, disguised as Indians boarded the ships and dumped all the tea into Boston Harbor in protest. The American government later refused to pay for the tea and was punished through closure of the port.

    Coercive Acts: Passed by the British Parliament, several laws were composed in 1774 in response to colonial rebellion. The Boston Tea Party was the last straw leading to the passage of these harsh acts as measures against the colony of Massachusetts. The four measures passed were to serve as warnings to the rest of the colonies. They included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Quartering Act, and the Administration of Justice Act. Americans united in sympathy for Massachusetts.

    Boston Port Act: Parliament passed this act on April 1, 1774, as one of the Intolerable Acts; it ordered the U.S. navy to close Boston Harbor. Unless they paid for the ruined tea, the port would be subject to permanent closure. They imposed a deliberately short deadline to ensure that the harbor would close, which would lead to economic difficulties.

    Massachusetts Government Act:     Parliament passed this act in 1774 as the second of the Townshend Acts which revoked the Massachusetts charter and restructured the government. The Governor gained control over naming sheriffs, who, in turn, gained control over jurymen. The number of Massachusetts town meetings were also reduced.

    Quebec Act:     Parliament passed this greatly detested law which established Roman-Catholicism as the official religion in Quebec, making Protestants angry. Also, Canada’s government was awarded an abundance of powers, but was in turn, given no legislature. The law also extended Quebec’s 1774 land claims, further angering colonists.

    First Continental Congress, 1774: The First Continental Congress convened in Philidelphia in September, 1774, to consider the situation resulting from the Intolerable Acts. They issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances to George III, and called for the Continental Association, and agreement to boycott trade with Britain. committees of Safety were in charge of enforcing the Continental Association. Before it was adjourned, the delegates agreed to meet in May, 1775 if the situation still hadn’t been resolved.

    Suffolk Resolves    : The first Continental Congress passed this in 1774 in response to the Intolerable Acts. They called for non-importation and preparation of local soldiers in the event that the British should have restorted to military force. The passage of these resolves marked the willingness of the colonies to defend their rights militarily.

    Galloway Plan: Joseph Galloway called for a union of the colonies and a rearrangement of relations with Parliament, but it was refected by Congress by a narrow margin. Most delegates felt that such a mild measure would not help, since matters had already gone too far.

    "country ideology":     The plain farmer had this mind set in the 1770s due to the corruption of rulers and "court" hangers-on. It warned against the natural tendency of all governments to enfringe on the natural rights to liberty for all its people. This honest wisdom further led to the Quid’s mind set during the time of Jeffersonian Democracy.

    Continental Association: Issued by the First Continental Congress, it was an agreement to boycott trade with Britain, or non-importation, designed to pressure Britain’s economy. Any colony that did not follow those provisions was to be boycotted. By taking these drastic measures, the colonies moved away from reconciliation towards war.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Revolt to Revolution

    Revolt to Revolution
    With such events as Lexington and Concord as well as the actions of the Second Continental Congress and America’s faith held in the Declaration of Independence and Thomas Paine’s "Common Sense," America’s revolt against Great Britain became a revolution.

    Lexington and Concord, April 19th, 1775: American Captain John Parker and seventy Minutemen waited for the British at Lexington, on April 19. A British officer ordered the Minutemen to lay down their arms, but a shot from an unknown source was fired. The British then opened fire and charged. Afterwards, the British continued on the Concord only to find that almost all of the weapons and supplies had been moved. While retreating to Boston, they were fired on by Minutemen from local cities.

    Paul Revere, William Dawes: Seven hundred British troops, on the night of April 18, 1775, were sent to find and destroy a cache of colonial weapons and supplies at Concord. However, they were detected by Americans, and news was dispatched throughout the countryside by Paul Revere and William Dawes.

    Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. They drew up the Olive Branch Petition, which begged George III to restore peace, and adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking up Arms. Congress was divided into two main factions: the delegates that were ready to go to war and declare independence, and those that weren’t ready to go that far. The Second Continental Congress later evolved into the revolutionary government.

    Olive Branch Petition: The Second Continental Congress issued this petition to King George III on July 5, pleading with him to intercede with Parliament to restore peace. After he ignored it, he issued a Prohibitory act, which declared all colonies in a state of rebellion no longer under his protection. Thus, Americans prepared for an all out war with Britain.

    Thomas Paine, Common Sense: Thomas Paine published this in January 1776, which called for immediate independence. Although its arguments were extreme, it had much influence in favor of independence. Combined with the Prohibitory Act, it convinced many Americans that the British had every intention to carry out a full scale war.

    natural rights philosophy: Thomas Jefferson was influenced by the natural rights philosophy. He emphasized the equality of all people and their natural right to justice, liberty, and self-fulfillment. In the writing of the Declaration of Independence, he draw upon some of the ideas of natural rights.

    John Locke, Second Treatise of Government: John Locke stressed that governments were legitimate only if they rested on the consent of the governed and protected basic rights of their people. If the government and laws lacked the consent, then they were not legitimate, and had to be dissolved and replaced with legitimate government or just laws.

    "First American Revolution" (Possiter Thesis): This thesis is the idea that the real American Revolution could not have been made possible had not a First American Revolution paved the way. The First Revolution consists of the first sparks of discontent. Previously, there had been a great deal of affection between the U.S. and its mother country, due to the protection colonists enjoyed. However, with colonial governments, colonists were enjoying democracy, leading to opposition against taxation.

    George III:     After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the people of Britain wanted retaliation, and King George III, on August 23, proclaimed New England in a state of rebellion. In December Parliament declared all colonies in a state of rebellion, and made their ships liable to seizure.

    Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution: Colonial leader Richard Henry Lee presented several formal resolutions to Congress on June 7, 1776. These resolutions called for independence and a national government. As a result, the Committee on Independence was formed to further accommodate his proposal.

    Committee on Independence: After Richard Henry Lee’s resolution on June 7, 1776, the Committee on Independence was formed. Members included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman. Its purpose was to draft a statement of reasons for independence which led to the Declaration of Independence.

    July 4th, 1776 and the Declaration of Independence: Written by the Committee on Independence, he Declaration of Independence contained a list of grievances placing the blame on George III. Additionally, it asserted certain natural rights: "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" and the "Consent of the governed" to revolt against tyrannical governments. The English Revolution of 1688 and Enlightenment writers inspired some of the ideas in the Declaration of independence.

    Preamble of the Declaration of Independence: Written by the Committee on Independence in 1776, the Preamble to the Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal," and are furthermore allotted unalienable rights by God. Moreover, it is believed that this is a statement of faith displays wisdom; it’s not a fact revealing truth.

    slavery clause in the Declaration of Independence: Two passages in Jefferson’s original draft were rejected by the Second Continental Congress in 1775. The first passage was an exorbitant reference to the English people, and the second passage was an attack on the slave trade.

    Somerset Case (in Great Britain)    : Despite the Enlightenment’s condemnation of black slavery, sugar produced by black slaves was considered of utmost importance. Granville Sharp defended several blacks in the case Somerset v. Stewart. The decision reached was regarded as the end of slavery in England.

    Quock Walker case- Mass    : Nathaniel Jennison was accused of assaulting Quock Walker, a negro. Jennison defended himself on the grounds that Walker was his slave. Although slavery wasn’t forbidden by the constitution of Massachusetts, the Superior Court rejected his defense because it was unconstitutional in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    War for Independence

    War for Independence
    With the Declaration of Independence as its fuel, America entered a war for independence with Great Britain: the Revolutionary War. Throughout the war, America developed its first real feelings of nationalism and ended up being victorious in its fight for freedom.

    Advantages/Disadvantages for Britain: The British were well equipped, well trained, and well disciplined. They had a strong navy to land troops, transport troops, guard communication and supply lines. Also, they had a large sum of money which could be used to hire foreign mercenaries. However, they were outnumbered by the U.S.

    Advantages/Disadvantages for U.S.: Many colonists knew how to use firearms. They had a superior rifle range and accuracy over the smoothbore British muskets. Washington was a highly respected, experienced commander-in-chief, and they were fighting in their own territory. However, their naval power was less than that of Britain.

    Loyalists/Tories: They were Anglican clergymen, ethnic and religious minorities, government officials, and some wealthy merchants comprised the Loyalists. About one-fifth to one-third of the population remained loyal to Britain. They felt that war was unnecessary to preserve the rights of the colonists, and maintained a respect for the monarchy. The majority of ethnic and religious minorities, however, were supporters of the revolution. Eighty thousand Loyalists left, leaving their positions for others.

    John Adams: He was one of the first men to propose American independence when the Revolution began. Moreover, he served on the Committee on Independence, and also helped persuade the Second Continental Congress to adopt the Declaration of Independence. In Congress and in diplomatic missions abroad, he served the patriot cause.

    Abigail Adams:     Even though she had a scarce formal education, she was among the most influential women of her day, particularly as a leader of fashion and social mediator. She was the wife of John Adams, and mother of John Quincy Adams. Also, she challenged the lack of equality for women and was a strong advocate of the Revolutionary War.

    Mercy Otis Warren:     Before the imperial crisis, she was known for her nonpolitical poetry, but soon began writing political satires in the early 1770s. In doing so, she challenged the assumption that women were naturally dependent on men. The subordination of women, which was taken for granted, later became the subject of debate.

    George Washington and the Revolution: George Washington created the Continental Army that had fought against the British. He was a strong influence in persuading the states to partake in the Constitutional Convention, and he used his prestige to help gain ratification of the Constitution. He earned a good reputation from the French and Indian War in 1763. His early military experience taught him the dangers of overconfidence and the necessity of determination when faced with defeat.

    Edmund Burke: In 1766 he was elected to Parliament. Almost immediately Burke sought repeal of the Stamp Act. He urged justice and conciliation towards the American colonies in a pamphlet, Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents, and in two speeches, "On American Taxation" and "Conciliation with America".

    Benjamin Franklin and the Revolution: From, Pennsylvania, he served on the Committee for Independence in 1776. Moreover, as a prime minister to Britain, he along with John Adams and John Jay, signed a peace treaty between the U.S. and England, which concerned new American borders, on November 30, 1782.

    Lafayette: The Marquis de Lafayette’s close connections with the French court in 1778 indicated that Louis XVI might recognize U.S. independence and declare war on Britain. After France and the United States entered into an alliance against Great Britain, Lafayette returned to France to further the granting of financial and military aid to the Americans.

    George Rogers Clark: George Rogers Clark led 175 militia and French volunteers down the Ohio River and took several British forts along the northwestern Ohio Valley in the spring of 1778. He was a surveyor and a frontiersmen who also led successful military operations against Indians allied to the British on the western frontier.

    Benedict Arnold:     He led one of the Continental Armies into Canada but was defeated. A fervent patriot, he later turned into a traitor. With 400 men, he attacked Fort Ticonderoga in April of 1775, along with Ethan Allen, who raised an army for the same purpose, but without command.

    Robert Morris: When the United States, under the Articles of Confederation, was unable to prevent national bankruptcy, Congress turned to him. Hoping to panic the country into creating a regular source of national revenue, he engineered the Newburgh conspiracy along with Alexander Hamilton.

    John Paul Jones: United States Captain John Paul Jones attacked the British territory, which raised American morale and prestige. He also led the famous ship, Bonhomme Richard, against Britain’s ship, the Serapis, in which the war was brought to England’s shores, boosting American morale and credibility.

    The War at Sea: American captains such as John Paul Jones fought in this War at Sea during the War for Independence against Britain. Despite Britain’s naval advantage, on September 23, 1779, Jones engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This was the most famous naval battle in the war.

    Continental Army:     Composed of colonial men, the Continental Army consisted of less than 10,000 men prepared for duty at one time. Out of the potential 250,000 men living in the colonies, the Continental Army was quite diminutive at the dawn of the war. Led by George Washington, this army fought in various battles such as Valley Forge.

    Native Americans in the Revolutionary War:     The colonists’ expansion into the Ohio Valley drove the western Indians into allying with the British. In the East, the Iroquois in New York were neutral until 1777, when the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy split, leaving all but the Tuscaroras and most Oneidas on the side of the British.

    Black Americans in the Revolutionary War: About 5,000 blacks served in the army and navy, mostly New England freemen, and fought in every major battle of the war. However, the South feared possible slave revolts, which inhibited use of blacks in the South. Governor Dunmore offered freedom to slaves who joined the British army.

    Invasion of Canada: U.S. General Richard Montgomery forced the British to evacuate Montreal in 1775 and invade Canada. A second force led by Benedict Arnold invaded the land by combining an attack on Quebec; however, it was a failure in that Montgomery was killed, Benedict was shot, and one-third of the colonial troops were killed or captured.

    Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill): Three British generals arrived in Boston in May, 1775 to assist General Gage. After two failed British attacks on Breed’s Hill, the colonists ran out of ammunition, and the British succeeded. The colonists now had two choices: to commit to a full-scale revolution, or to accept the rule of the British.

    "Bonhomme Richard" and the "Serapis": John Paul Jones took command of a rebuilt French merchant ship and renamed it the U.S.S. Bonhomme Richard. On September 23, 1779, he engaged the British frigate, the Serapis, in the North Sea. This was the most famous naval battle in the American Revolution.

    Conway Cabal:     United States Major General Thomas Conway wrote a letter to General Horatio Gates that revealed a military side of the Conway Cabal, which aimed at the removal of Washington as the leader of the Continental Army. Conway later resigned after subsequent public revelations, and was replaced by Friedrich von Steuben.

    Reasons for the French Alliance of 1778: France entered into two treaties with America, in February, 1778. The first was a treaty of goodwill and commerce, and granted most favored nation status to one another. The second treaty was the French Alliance of 1778, to be effective if war broke out between Britain and France.

    Saratoga: British General John Burgoyne felt overwhelmed by a force three times larger than his own, and surrendered on October 17, 1777. This forced the British to consider whether or not to continue the war. The U.S. victory at the Battle of Saratoga convinced the French that the U.S. deserved diplomatic recognition.

    Valley Forge: American survivors from the Battle at Brandywine Creek marched through Valley Forge in early December, 1777. The Continental Army marched through Valley Forge while the British army rested miles away in Philadelphia. After the arrival of Baron Friedrich von Steuben, the Continental army emerged from Valley Forge.

    Hessians: They were German mercenaries who were comprised of approximately 30,000 soldiers in the British army during the Revolutionary War. They fought among 162,000 other Britons and loyalists but were outnumbered by the 220,000 troops of the Continental Army.

    the "black" regiment:     They were a group of dignified clergymen who preached against British tyranny and resistance to British authority in 1765. Because sermons were such a common form of communication, nearly every colonist saw public fasting and communication and were infected with the idea that it was a sin not to reject Britain.

    General Thomas Gage:     He was the commander in chief of Britain’s military forces in America from 1763 to 1775. In April 1775, he issued the order for British troops to march on to concord and seize American weapons stored up there. During his career as commander in chief, he was appointed as the new governor of Massachussetts.

    British Generals: Henry Clinton, William Howe, John Burgoyne: General Howe planned to set up headquarters in New York in 1776 but was delayed by Washington’s escape to Long Island. General Burgoyne was trapped at Saratoga in 1777 and was forced to surrender. General Clinton succeeded Howe as commander in chief in 1778.

    Yorktown, Lord Cornwallis: Washington, along with Admiral de Grasse’s French fleet, trapped British General Cornwallis on the Yorktown peninsula. The Siege of Yorktown began in September of 1781, and ended when Cornwallis realized that he lost three key points around Yorktown and surrendered.

    League of Armed Neutrality: The empress of Russia, Catherine II, made a declaration in 1780, restricting the category of contrabands to munitions and essential instruments of war. She also secured the freedom of the navigation of neutral nations, even to ports of belligerents. The U.S. could not join because it was fighting in the Revolutionary war.

    Treaty of Paris, 1783: Great Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris, which brought an end to the American Revolution, on September 3. Great Britain recognized the former 13 colonies as the free and self-governing United States of America.

    French and British intrigue over U.S. boundaries (in Treaty of Paris): France and Britain shared much interest in American territory following the War for Independence. The French wanted to further continue their residence in Virginia, which led to further dispute between them and the colonists.

    social impact of the war:     Women did not receive the status implied by the American Revolution’s ideals. Though the Revolution was fought in the name of liberty, slavery still existed, creating a paradox between the slavery and the freedom. However, slavery virtually ended in the North during the Revolutionary era.

    How Revolutionary?: Even though the former colonies were joined under a central government provided by the Articles of Confederation, they still acted independently in various areas. Some state constitutions were identical to the English charters that had governed them. On the other hand, the idea of the separation of church and state grew stronger, toleration of religious minorities became more prevalent, inflation became widespread, industry was stimulated, and trade with foreign nations increased.

    Disestablishment, Virginia Statue of Religious Freedom: Thomas Jefferson worked on the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom after independence was declared. It became a law in 1786, and was the model for the clause in the First Amendment guaranteeing freedom of religion. Separation of church and state became more popular.

    New States Constitutions:     It was necessary for the former colonies to assemble new state governments after the fall of British authority in 1775. Massachusetts voters insisted that a constitution were made by a convention rather than the legislature, in hopes of implicitly making it superior to the legislatures. Most state constitutions included a bill of rights, although the constitutions ranged from extremely democratic models to unicameral legislatures.

    Newburgh conspiracy:     The new nation under the Articles of Confederation was in a financial crisis. Through the Newburgh Conspiracy, which was engineered by Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris, the army, whose pay was overdue, threatened to force the states into surrendering more power to the national government.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 03 - 1783-1800

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Articles of Confederation

    Articles of Confederation
    Drafted in 1796 by John Dickinson, the Articles of Confederation established a single-chamber national Congress elected by state legislatures, in which each state held only one vote. These Articles notably left out both and executive and judicial branch, and provided Congress no power to tax or regulate commerce. However, the Articles established states’ rights and also provided for American independence, uniting all the colonies during the war.

    Maryland, cession of western land claims:     Maryland waited to agree to the new government until lands north of the Ohio River were turned over to the United States in 1779. Maryland did not want big states (NY, VA) to grow and dominate the new nation, instead equalizing the power of the states and opening the union up for expansion.

    Strengths of the Articles of Confederation: The thirteen states established a permanent government in 1781 in the form of a confederation which included a congress that represented the states and had the power to conduct Indian and foreign affairs, mediate disputes between states, and establish a standard for weights and measures. The Articles protected against an oppressive central government, such as a monarchy or oligarchy, by placing power within the fragmented states.

    Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation: The government established in 1781, was a confederation; each state was its own powerful entity and had its own tariffs and currencies, making it harder for interstate commerce to occur. The federal government lacked the power to tax and form a militia without the approval of all the states. Amending the Articles was a difficult and tedious process, because the amendment would have to be accepted by each state in order to be passed.

    Pennsylvania militia routs Congress, 1783: Eighty soldiers marched from Lancaster to Philadelphia to obtain justice from the state government and Congress on June 17, 1783. Protesting in front of Independence Hall, which housed Congress and the state government, the rebels were successful in moving the government away from Philadelphia.

    Northwest Posts: After the Revolutionary war, the British did not leave their posts in an effort to preserve both the flourishing fur trade and the improving relations with the Native Americans. This showed Britain’s unwillingness to give up and the weakness of the American government, problems which culminated in the War of 1812.

    Land Ordinance of 1785:     Congress enacted this law to set a uniform procedure for surveying land in 1785. It established that the settlement of a town would be six square miles and would contain land set aside for schools, setting a precedent for the public education system in the United States.

    Northwest Ordinance, 1787:     Congress passed this law to define the steps for the formation and admission of states into the Union in 1787. It applied to the lands north of the Ohio River which had been established as the Northwest Territory. The existence of slavery could be determined by popular sovereignty in these territories.

    Proposed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty, 1785: John Jay tried to negotiate with Spain for trading rights in New Orleans in 1785, but returned with a treaty that renounced Spanish claims to southwestern lands and opened Spanish markets to eastern merchants. In exchange, the U.S. gave up Mississippi trading rights, thus fueling the North-South conflict.

    Shays’ Rebellion:     A group of Massachusetts farmers led by Daniel Shays protested after taxes were raised to pay for Revolutionary debts in 1786. The high taxes, combined with the depression that hit after British markets were lost, forced the farmers to revolt. The result was an increase in tension between the North and South.

    Annapolis Convention, 1786: A group of delegates from five states met in Annapolis, Maryland in 1786, in an effort to solve the problems of interstate commerce. Because there was little representation, the delegates decided that a convention of all states should be held the year after in order to amend the Articles of Confederation.

    1780’s depression:     The first major depression of the American states occurred after the Revolutionary War in New England. The causes included high taxes imposed to finance the war debt, the tightening of credit, and a short growing season that kept crop yields low. Shays’ rebellion occurred ultimately because of this depression

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Federalists and Republicans

    Federalists and Republicans
    By the election of 1796, the United States political system had become bipartisan, largely a result of the disagreements over Hamilton’s programs and foreign policies. The split in the Federalist party became official with Jefferson’s resignation from Washington’s cabinet in 1793, upon which he formed the Republicans, whose ideology claimed that the Federalists had become a party geared toward enriching the wealthy at the expense of the poor.

    election of 1796: President Adams, Vice-president Jefferson: Jefferson was supported by the Republicans, while Adams was supported by the Federalists. Adams was victorious in the election, Jefferson was made Vice-president, as a constitutional law stated that the candidate with the second highest number of electoral votes got that position.

    new states:     Vt, Ky, Tenn: Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were all admitted into the United States between 1791 and 1796 by the federal government. Their admission was spurred by the hope that they would then become completely loyal to the Union, as they had not been before.

    Federalists: The Federalist party was the starting point of the movement to draft and later ratify the new Constitution. It urged for a stronger national government to take shape after 1781. Its leaders included Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, James Madison, and George Washington rose to power between 1789-1801. Under Hamilton, the Federalists solved the problem of revolutionary debt, created Jay’s Treaty and also the Alien and Sedition Acts.

    Democratic-Republicans:     The first political party in the United States, the Democratic-Republican party was created by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in opposition to the views of Alexander Hamilton. It arose to power in the 1790s and opposed the Federalist party, while advocating states rights and an agricultural society. The party expressed sympathy towards the French Revolution but opposed close ties with the British.

    Society of the Cincinnati:     A post-war organization of veteran officers from the Continental Army, the Society of the Cincinnati was feared by many because its charter had the possibility of becoming a hereditary aristocracy, as it gave membership to descendants.

    Democratic Societies:     An organization in which the wealthy are on a level of equality with the poor. This is best exemplified by the Philadelphia Democratic Society, in which Republicans were united by wealth rather then by status, as well as believed that those with talent and ambition should not forget their dreams.

    Alien and Sedition Acts:     In 1798, the Neutralization Act said residence must remain in the United States for five years before becoming naturalized while the Alien Act allowed the exportation of any alien believed to be a threat to national security. The Alien Enemies Act allowed the President to export aliens during times of war and the Sedition Act made it a criminal offense to plot against government. These acts were criticized because they oppressed the people’s First Amendment rights.

    Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions:     Written by Jefferson and Madison in protest to the Alien and Sedition Acts, the Virginia Resolution stated that states possessed the right to intervene in unconstitutional acts in government, and the Kentucky Resolution stated that federal government could not extend powers outside of constitutionally granted powers.

    Fries Rebellion: Pennsylvanian German farmers, in 1799, rebelled against the government after it released debtors and citizens who did not pay taxes. This action infuriated the farmers because the money was needed to fund the expansion of the nation’s army. This rebellion alerted those in power to the general disgruntlement of much of the nation.

    doctrine of nullification:     A group of Kentucky Resolutions adopted in 1799, the Doctrine of Nullification stated that any federal laws considered by the people to be "objectionable" may be nullified by the states. The passage of these resolutions proved the probability of upcoming violent disagreements of how the law should be interpreted.

    Convention of 1800: The Federalist party split into two factions during the Convention of 1800, as the party was undecided as to who their presidential candidate should be. The Federalists wanted to nominate Adams, while the "High Federalists," led by Alexander Hamilton, denounced his candidacy.

    Second Great Awakening:     Occurring mainly in the frontier states, the Second Great Awakening began in the 1790s and was characterized by "camp meetings," or open air revivals which lasted for weeks at a time where revivalists spoke of the second coming of Jesus. Charles Finney, an especially prominent preacher of the time, preached not only the second coming of Jesus, but also the gospel of free will, which lead to a greater democratic power commonly seen in the ideals of Jacksonian democracy.

    Fugitive Slave Law: Enacted by congress in 1793, the law required judges to give a slave back to its owner or his representative if caught after running away. This law indicated tightening racial tensions, as well as stripped slaves of the right to trial by jury or presentation of evidence of freedom.

    Gabriel’s Rebellion: Led by Gabriel Prosser in August 1800, the rebellion broke out near Richmond, Virginia when 1,000 slaves marched to the capital. Thirty five slaves were executed by a swift state militia, but whites still feared what many occur in the future with slave uprisings. The rebellion increased tensions between the North and the South.

    Logan Act:     Enacted in 1795 by the legislative assembly, the Logan Act allowed city councils the power to establish, as well as to support and to regulate, a system consisting schools for the general public. This act led to the establishment of school systems throughout the U.S.

    Legal equality for free blacks:     These measures first appeared in the 1780s and 1790s, when states dropped restrictions on freedom of movement, protected the property of blacks, and allowed them to enroll in the state militia. By 1796, all but three states allowed blacks voting rights.

    Alexander McGillivray:     The leader of the Creek Indians, who in 1790 signed a peace treaty with the United States that allowed whites to occupy lands in the Georgia piedmont, but spared the rest of the Creek lands from white settlement. He received a large bribe for signing the treaty.

    Gilbert Stuart:     An American painter who is particularly well known for his many portraits of wartime hero and President George Washington. His three styles of portrait painting: the "Vaughan" half-length, the "Lansdowne" full-length, and the "Athenaeum" head have often been mimicked.

    Charles Wilson Peale: As a portrait painter of the Federalist period, Peale is best known for his fourteen portraits of George Washington. In 1786, Peale began a museum of parts of nature in Independence Hall, Philadelphia of portraits and helped to found the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in 1805.
     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Constitution

    The Constitution
    After the Revolutionary War, the problems with the Articles of Confederation became increasingly obvious, resulting in the Philadelphia Convention, whose purpose was to rewrite the Articles. However, instead of submitting the Articles for revision, the delegates decided to begin again, resulting in the drafting of a new frame of government outlined in the Constitution, a document that compromised conflicting interests, unifying all the states under a powerful federal government.

    Philadelphia Convention: A congressional convention met in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation in 1788. The delegates, which included Madison, Hamilton, and Franklin, believed that there should be checks and balances in the government to give each branch equal amounts of power. The convention ultimately scrapped the Articles and came up with the much more effective Constitution, in which various compromises were made to pacify sectional differences.

    Delegates: Alexander Hamilton, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin: At the Philadelphia Convention in 1788, George Washington presided over the convention while he and Franklin helped in mediating heated debates. Hamilton wrote the "Federalist Papers," along with John Jay, in defense of the Constitution.

    Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws: Montesquieu was a French writer whose writings helped bring about the French Revolution. His book "The Spirit of the Laws," written in 1748, examines types of government and how each evolves through factors such as location and climate. He believed in separate and balanced branches of government.

    Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan in 1651, as a commentary on his doctrine of sovereignty. His philosophies represented a reaction against the chaotic Reformation of the seventeenth century. These ideas generally stated that all men should submit to absolute supremacy, influencing the idea of sovereignty in the United States.

    James Madison, "Father of the Constitution": Madison drafted the Virginia Plan of national government that became the basis for its bicameral structure in 1788. He also assisted in the writing of the "Federalist Papers" in order to persuade delegates who were fearful of centralized power.

    Great Compromise: Also called the Connecticut compromise, this compromise was introduced by the Connecticut delegation in 1788, and contained both the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan. It provided for a presidency, a senate with states represented with two senators each, and a House of Representatives with representation according to population. The plan resolved the dilemma of using only one of the two self serving documents in the Constitution.

    VA Plan, NJ Plan: The Virginia Plan called for an executive branch with two houses of Congress which were both based on population. The New Jersey Plan, introduced by William Patterson, called for a legislature with equal representation and increased powers for the national government.

    Checks and balances—examples: Examples of checks and balances in the Constitution are the congressional power to impeach the president and the presidential power to appoint his cabinet. This system helps to keep all three branches of the government in check and maintain equal amounts of power.

    North-South Compromises: There are two main North-South compromises in the Constitution. One dealt with the structure of Congress, the Great Compromise; the other dealt with slavery and the three-fifths clause. Both aided in easing the problems that arose because of the imbalance of power between states in the Articles of Confederation.

    Slavery and the constitution: slave trade, three-fifths clause, Fugitive Slave law: Although the word "slavery" was not used in the Constitution, the idea surfaces in three places in the Constitution: the three-fifths clause, which lessened the power of the voting south by making the votes of three slaves equal that of five white votes; the Fugitive Slave Law, which captured and returned runaway slaves who fled into free territories, and lastly Congress’ option to ban the slave trade in Washington D. C. after 1808.

    procedures for amendments: To amend the Constitution, a bill must first be proposed by either two-thirds of both houses or each state conventions. For the amendment to be ratified, three-fourths have to approve the bill. In order to protect the United States and its citizens, this process made it difficult to alter the Constitution without valid reason.

    Beard thesis, his critics:     Beard criticized the Constitution in his "Economic Interpretation of the Constitution" in 1913. Unlike his opponents, who believed in the Constitution’s democratic purpose, Beard argues that it was written to give them economic advantages that would stem from the stability of the economy.

    Fiske, The Critical Period of American History:     John Fiske, an American historian and philosopher, wrote The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789 in 1788. In the book, Fiske argues that the Constitution had saved the nation from imminent interstate conflict.

    Antifederalists:     Antifederalists were opponents of the Constitution who thought that it failed to balance power between the national and state governments. Believing that a balance was impossible to reach, the opponents thought that the new government would ultimately ruin the states.

    supporters of the Constitution: The supporters of the Constitution, including Hamilton, Jay, and Madison, who called themselves the Federalists. These men became important in the ratification process of the Constitution; they persuaded many of its opponents to ratify it through their speeches, the Federalist Papers, and other propaganda.

    opponents of the Constitution:     The opponents of the Constitution were called the Antifederalists; they opposed it because it failed to balance power between the national and state governments. They thought that a balance would be impossible to reach and that the new government would ultimately ruin the states.

    George Mason, Bill of Rights: Mason was a delegate at the Constitutional Convention and helped draft the Constitution. Troubled by its power and its failure to limit slavery or contain a bill of rights, he would not sign it. Some states refused to ratify the Constitution until 1791, when a bill of rights was added to the Constitution.

    The ratification fights: Critics, such as Sam Adams, were successfully won over by the Federalists in Massachusetts. The fight in Virginia ended after the addition of the Bill of Rights, defeating Mason and Henry, and affected the decision in New York, where Hamilton won the fight using the "Federalist Papers."

    The Federalist Papers, Jay, Hamilton, Madison: The Federalist papers were written by Jay, Hamilton, and Madison in 1788, during the Philadelphia Convention as a response to Antifederalist objections to the Constitution. The eighty-five newspaper essays offered a glimpse of the framers’ intentions in designing the Constitution, and shaped the American philosophy of the government. They explained that the Constitution would protect the minority’s rights but would not make them too powerful.

    The Federalist, number 10: Madison, in the Federalist number ten, rejected the Antifederalist argument that establishing a republic in United States would lead to a struggle for power. He also argued that the Constitution would prevent the formation of national factions and parties.

    implied powers, elastic clause, necessary and proper clause: An implied power is one not granted in a job description, yet is meant to be taken. The elastic clause was included into the Constitution to allow flexibility. Congress was granted the right to make all laws which they deemed necessary and proper thus expanding their power.

    loose, strict interpretation of the Constitution: The strict interpretation of the constitution meant that it was to be followed exactly to the word, a philosophy adopted by Jefferson. Hamilton believed in a loose interpretation, or that powers implied within the Constitution should be included in the new government to fit changes over time.

    Reserved and Delegated Powers: Delegated powers were specifically enumerated rights granted to Congress and the President. The delegated powers of Congress included the ability to tax, issue currency, borrow money, declare war and sustain an army. All powers not stated specifically in the Constitution were reserved to the states as stated in the Tenth Amendment. These reserved powers were the result of flexibility in the Constitution to adapt over time.

    Undemocratic Elements in the Constitution: According to Charles Beard, the Constitution was written to the advantage of the elite in the United States. The founding fathers did not believe in total democracy, or mob rule, and so used state legislatures and the electoral college to elect senators and the president, respectively.

    Flexibility in the Constitution: The flexibility in the Constitution enabled it to adapt over time; there have only been sixteen amendments since 1791. Our founding fathers used vague language, and so Supreme Court interpretations of the Constitution changed over time; the Elastic clause and the reserved powers are examples of this ambiguity.

    Upper and Lower House:     The senate was seen as the upper house because there were less delegates, the age requirement was higher, and the term limits were six years as opposed to two for the House of Representatives. As a result the Senate was seen as more of an elitist institution while the House was viewed as reflective of the common people.

    Electoral College: In order to protect the interests of the elite, land owning class, the framers of the Constitution added the electoral college as a safeguard against the majority opinion. As a result, electors could elect a presidential candidate without considering the popular vote and elections could be won without a majority in the popular vote.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Washington and Hamilton

    Washington and Hamilton
    As the first president of the newly formed United States, George Washington played a largely passive role, suggesting few laws to Congress, attempting to reassure the public he was above favoritism and sectional interests. Alexander Hamilton, on the other hand, took advantage of Washington’s reluctance to be involved with domestic issues, and, as secretary of the treasury, attempted to restore American credit by advocating a perpetual debt.

    Post Revolutionary America—West:     In the late eighteenth century, masses of people had moved into the trans-Appalachian frontier to escape post-revolutionary depression, despite the risk of violence presented by Indians and the British in their Northwest posts. Congress aided the expansion with the Land and Northwest Ordinances

    Post Revolutionary America—South:     Many of the southern citizens had bought land in the west and watched the price of land eagerly. Aside from the unstable land speculation, the south had recovered from the war. It had diversified its crops and exported them at prewar levels.

    Post Revolutionary America—North: Plagued by high taxes, overpopulation, and rebellion, the North’s efforts at postwar recovery was impeded by the depression of the 1780s. Manufacturing and merchant marine industries were also, negatively affected by independence; the British imposed new embargoes and tariffs on the United States.

    President George Washington: George Washington was elected president in 1788 and again in 1792. Washington’s two terms set the precedent for being President of the United States. He tended to shy away from the affairs of Congress and also formed the first Presidential cabinet, appointing two of the ablest men into high positions of responsibility into his cabinet. His farewell address cautioned the American people to stay out of international affairs, remain isolationist, and to beware of impending bipartisanship.

    Washington’s Definition of the Presidency: George Washington set the precedent for being the President of the United States. He humbly served two terms and appointed the first cabinet. Washington stayed out of Congress’ way and supported the United States’ isolationist stance in world affairs.

    Vice President John Adams: Because he ran second to George Washington in the elections of 1788 and 1792, he became the nation’s first Vice President, limiting himself to presiding over the senate. Prior to his term as Vice President, he was a diplomat to European nations such as France, Britain, and the Dutch Republic.

    Judiciary Act, 1789: The Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789, in an effort to create a federal-court system and replace the old system, in which the courts varied from state to state. They were burdened with filling in the holes of the judiciary system left by the Constitution.

    Secretary of Treasury Hamilton:     Hamilton was appointed in 1789, when the nation’s economy was in shambles. In 1790, he submitted to Congress a Report of the Public Credit that provided for the payments of all debts assumed during the war. He wanted a national bank and encouraged manufacturing through financial government protection.

    Secretary of State Jefferson:     As Secretary of State for Washington’s first term, Thomas Jefferson wanted to establish reciprocal trade agreements with European nations and deny it to the British. This plan, in 1783, died in Congress, along with his other plans to try to manipulate the European countries. He resigned after the Citizen Genet scandal.

    Secretary of War Knox: Henry Knox was the Secretary of War from 1789-1794, the first one under the United States Constitution. Prior to this, he fought in major Revolutionary battles, was in command of the West Point fortress in New York, and was the Secretary of War under the Articles of Confederation.

    Attorney General Randolph:     Edmund Jennings Randolph was the Attorney General under the Washington Administration from 1789-1794; before which he was the head of the Virginia delegation at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and submitted the Virginia Plan.

    Hamilton’s program: ideas, proposals, reasons for it: Alexander Hamilton wrote to Congress a Report on Public Credit which proposed a way in which the national and foreign debts could be funded and how the federal government would take charge of the debts left by states from the resolution in 1790. The plans attempted to end wartime debt problems. Hamilton believed that constant deficit was necessary to stimulate the nation’s economy, and also believed that the U.S. should immediately repay its foreign debt.

    Hamilton’s Legacy: Hamilton’s devices for restoring the credit of the nation led to great monetary gains for merchants, speculators, and others working in the port cities. The government’s takeover of state debts freed those of New England, New Jersey, and South Carolina from harsh taxes.

    Tariff of 1789:     A revenue raising tariff enacted by Congress, it encouraged the people of the U.S. to manufacture earthenware, glass, and other products in their home in order to avoid importation. With a duty of 8.5%, the tariff succeeded in raising much needed funds for Congress

    Bank of the U.S.: Chartered by the newly formed federal government, the bank was established in Philadelphia in 1791, and was permitted by the government to issue legal tender bank notes that could be exchanged for gold. The bank successfully established a national currency, but the charter ended in 1811, for economic and political reasons.

    national debt, state debt, foreign debt: National debt accumulated by the US during the Revolutionary war continued to plague Americans. The states were also in debt after borrowing heavily from the government. Hamilton, in his Report on Public Credit, wanted to pay off foreign debt immediately and then through tariffs repay the national debt.

    excise taxes: A fixed charge on items of consumption, usually used for revenue raising. The first excise tax placed upon the United States in 1791, by Parliament was one which taxed all domestic distilled spirits. Anger towards this excise tax led directly to the Whiskey Rebellion.

    Report on Manufacturers:     Presented to Congress in 1791, by Alexander Hamilton, the report suggested that protective tariffs on imports from foreign lands would lead Americans to produce more in their homelands, thus building national wealth and attracting foreigners.

    Report on Public Credit: Hamilton submitted his report to Congress in 1790, hoping to seize it as an opportunity to rebuild the country’s credit base. He reported that the US was 54 million dollars in debt: 12 million to foreigners, and the rest to Americans. On top of that, he estimated that the states held debts of over 25 million dollars.

    location of the capital: logrolling, D.C.: The nation’s capital was originally located in New York, but later was transferred to Washington D.C.. Originally planned by Charles L’Enfant, the city consisted of beautiful walkways, tree lined streets, and masterfully architecture buildings.

    Indian Decline: The frontier warfare during the post-revolutionary era combined with the continuing penetration of western ways into Indian culture caused severe reductions in Indian population and territory. An increasing amount of hatred towards the "redskins" further encouraged the violence towards Indians.

    Residence Act: Determined that a ten mile square area for the capital of the United States would be chosen along the Potomac River along the Virginia-Maryland boarder. The area was to be named the District of Columbia, after Christopher Columbus, and was selected by George Washington.

    Major L’Enfant, Benjamin Banneker: Pierre Charles L’Enfant was the French architect who, in 1791, drew the plans for the nations capital in Washington D.C., on which the city is now based. Benjamin Banneker was appointed in 1791, by President Washington to assist L’Enfant in surveying the land where the capital city was to be built.

    Whiskey Rebellion: An organized resistance in 1794, to the excise tax on whiskey in which federal revenue officials were tarred and feathered, riots were conducted, and mobs burned homes of excise inspectors. The federal militia captured many of the protesters, but most were released.

    French Alliance of 1778: Alliance made between France and the United Sates during America’s civil war in 1778. The alliance was used to convince French citizens living in United States territory to become citizens of American, and therefore to bear arms or participate in the war.

    French Revolution:     The revolution was a period consisting of social and political upheaval from 1789-1799. Caused by the inability of the ruling class and clergy to solve the states problems, the hunger of the workers, the taxation of the poor, and the American Revolution, it led to the establishment of the First Republic and the end of the monarchy.

    Citizen Genet:     Sent to the United States by the French in 1793 to find soldiers to attack British ships and conquer the territories held by the Spanish, Edmund Genet founded the American Foreign Legion despite Washington’s April 22 proclamation of American neutrality.

    Neutrality Proclamation: Issued by President George Washington on April 22, 1793, the Neutrality Proclamation stated that the United States would remain a neutral faction in the war with France against Britain and Spain despite heavy French pressures to join their forces. Many Americans felt the war to be a violation of their neutrality.

    XYZ Affair, Talleyrand: When a commission was sent to France in 1797 in order to negotiate problems between the two countries, they were told by the French foreign minister Talleyrand that the agents X, Y, Z, three officials who did not take the process seriously, would only negotiate for a lend of $10 million to the French government.

    undeclared naval war with France: Otherwise known as the Quasi-War, the undeclared conflict between the two nations lasted from 1798 to 1800. In the conflict, the United States managed to capture ninety-three French ships while France captured just one U.S. ship.

    British seizure of American ships: The Privy Council issued a secret order on November 6, 1793, to confiscate any foreign ships trading with French Caribbean islands. In this decision, they seized over 250 American ships which were conducting trade with the islands.

    Royal Navy: They navy of the British empire, the Royal Navy began to inspect American ships in 1793 for suspected defects of the British Navy, who they then forcibly placed back into their own navy. These bold actions commonly referred to as impressment, further strengthened hostilities between the two countries.

    "Rule of 1756":     The French opened colonial trade to the Dutch, who were a neutral party. British prize courts, in response, stated that neutrals could not engage in wartime trade with a country if they were not permitted to trade with that country at times of peace.

    Jay’s Treaty: Negotiated between the United States and France in 1794, the treaty evacuated British posts in the West, appointed a committee to set up the U.S.-French boundary, and named a commission to determine how much the British should pay for illegally seizing American ships. It did not resolve the British West Indies trade dispute.

    Pinckney’s Treaty, right of deposit at New Orleans: Ratified in 1796, the treaty gave westerners the right to access the world markets duty-free through the Mississippi River. Spain promised to recognize the thirty-first parallel, to end U.S. camps, and to discourage Indian attacks on western settlers.

    Spanish intrigue in the Southwest:     Spain attempted, in many cases, to detach the West from the United States, hoping to further expand their territory into the vast land. Washington’s attempts at a failed alliance with the Creek Indians to expand into their lands only led to further conflicts between America and Spain.

    James Wilkinson: An American soldier who participated in the American Revolution and the War of 1812. Wilkinson was the man who reported Burr’s conspiracy to access Louisiana to President Jefferson. He served as Secretary to the Board of War and was a brigadier general under Anthony Wayne.

    "Mad" Anthony Wayne: Known as Mad Anthony due to his quick temper and his bravery, Wayne was a General during the American Revolution. He began his service with the Pennsylvania militia. He participated in the battles of Brandywine and Germantown and distinguished himself in the Battle of Monmouth.

    Battle of Fallen Timbers: At the Battle of Fallen Timbers, in 1794, Anthony Wayne defeated a coalition of Native American tribes as the major general and commander in chief of the troops. The battle took place around present day Toledo and led to the Treaty of Greenville which opened up the Northwest to American settlers.

    Treaty of Greenville, 1795: This treaty, which was drafted in 1795, opened the Northwest Territory to settlement by white United States citizens. The territory had formerly only been inhabited by Indians, so therefore the treaty between the two races was an important one. The treaty served to end white-Indian hostilities for sixteen years.

    Barbary Pirates: Following the American Revolution, the Barbary pirates began to raid the ships of the United States. The United States therefore formed treaties with Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis, as European nations already had, that gave them immunity from these attacks.

    Tripolitan War: From 1801-1805, the war was a battle between the North African state Tripoli and the United States. The Tripolitans had seized U.S. ships in the U.S. refusal to pay in increase in the tribute paid to the pasha of Tripoli. In the end, the demand for payment was ended and the U.S. paid $60,000 to free Americans caught captive.

    Washington’s Farewell Address: In his realization of the important role that he had take in developing the role of the president of the United States, Washington’s farewell address asked the citizens of the United States to avoid involvement in political problems between foreign nations.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 04 - 1800-1840

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Abolitionism

    Abolitionism
    Abolitionism is support for a complete, immediate, and uncompensated end to slavery. In the North before the Civil War, there were only a few abolitionists and these were generally considered radicals. However, they were prominent and vocal, and as sectional tension mounted, they became more prominent and influential.

    Abolitionism: Abolitionism was the movement in opposition to slavery, often demanding immediate, uncompensated emancipation of all slaves. This was generally considered radical, and there were only a few adamant abolitionists prior to the Civil War. Almost all abolitionists advocated legal, but not social equality for blacks. Many abolitionists, such as William Lloyd Garrison were extremely vocal and helped to make slavery a national issue, creating sectional tension because most abolitionists were from the North.

    American Antislavery Society:     The American Antislavery Society was an organization in opposition to slavery founded in 1833. In 1840, issues such as the role of women in the abolitionist movement, and role of abolitionists as a political party led to the division of the organization into the American Antislavery Society and Foreign Antislavery Society. Because the organization never had control over the many local antislavery societies, its division did not greatly damage abolitionism.

    William Lloyd Garrison: William Lloyd Garrison was a radical who founded The Liberator, an abolitionist newspaper, in Boston in 1831. He advocated immediate, uncompensated emancipation and even civil equality for blacks. This made Garrison a famous and highly controversial abolitionist whose main tactic was to stir up emotions on the slavery issue.

    The Liberator: The Liberator was an anti-slavery newspaper published by William Lloyd Garrison and Isaac Knapp beginning in 1831. Its bitter attacks on slavery and slaveowners, as well as its articles and speeches using arguments based on morality to advocate immediate emancipation made it one of the most persuasive periodicals in the United States at the time.

    Theodore Weld: Weld was an abolitionist student at the Lane Theological Seminary. He was dismissed when, in 1834, the trustees of the seminary tried to suppress abolitionism. He led an antislavery demonstration on campus and a mass withdrawal of students from the school. These students then centered their activities at Oberlin College.

    Grimké sisters: Angelina and Sarah Grimké were sisters who toured New England, lecturing against slavery, in 1837. They became controversial by lecturing to both men and women. In 1838 both sisters wrote classics of American feminism; Sarah wrote Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes and Angelina wrote Letters to Catherine E. Beecher.

    Theodore Parker:     Parker was a clergyman, theologian, and the author of A Letter to the People and A Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion. He was also an active opponent of slavery who aided in the escape of slaves and the rescue of Anthony Burns, supported New England Emigrant Society, and participated in John Brown’s raid in 1859.

    Elijah Lovejoy: Lovejoy was American abolitionist and the editor of the an antislavery periodical, The Observer. Violent opposition from slaveholders in 1836 forced him to move his presses from Missouri to Illinois, where he established the Alton Observer. Lovejoy was killed by an mob in 1837, and his death stimulated the growth of abolitionist movement.

    Wendell Phillips: Phillips was an American orator, abolitionist, and reformer. He also spoke publicly in favor of women’s rights, temperance, abolition and elimination of capital punishment. His most famous speech, The Murder of Lovejoy speech protested the murder of Elijah Lovejoy and gained him recognition from the public.

    Nat Turner's Insurrection: Turner was a slave who became convinced that he was chosen by God to lead his people to freedom. In Virginia in 1831, Turner led about 70 blacks into a revolt against their masters. Before the uprising was brought to a halt by white militiamen, 55 whites were killed by Turner and his followers and many blacks were lynched by white mobs. Turner and fifteen of his companions were hanged. The rebellion convinced white southerners that a successful slave insurrection was an constant threat..

    Gabriel Prosser:     Prosser a Virginia slave who planned a slave uprising in 1800 with the intent of creating a free black state. They intended to sieze the federal arsenal at Richmond, but the plan was betrayed by other slaves. Prosser and his comrades were captured by the state militia and executed.

    Denmark Vesey:     Vessy was a slave from South Carolina who bought his freedom with $1,500 that he won in a lottery. In 1822, he planned to lead a group of slaves in an attacking Charleston and stealing the city’s arms. However, the plan was betrayed by other slaves, resulting in the hanging of Vessy and his followers.

    David Walker, Walker’s Appeal:     David Walker was a free black from Boston who published his Appeal in 1829, advocating a black rebellion to crush slavery. The purpose of Walker’s Appeal was to remind his people that they were Americans and should be treated fairly.

    Frederick Douglass: Douglass was an escaped slave, who became a powerful aboltionist orator. He captured his audiences with descriptions of his life as a slave. He also published a newspaper, the North Star, in the early 1830s. Douglass’ influential speeches encouraged slaves to escape as he did and motivated northerners to oppose slavery.

    Sojourner Truth:     Sojourner Truth was a runaway slave who became an influential figure in both women’s societies and the abolitionist movement. In spite of her illiteracy, she traveled widely through New England and the Midwest, making eloquent speeches against sex discrimination, Godlessness, and slavery which attracted large audiences.

    Harriet Tubman: Tubman was a black woman who, after escaping from slavery in 1849, made 19 journeys back into the South to help as many as 300 other slaves escape. She was the most famous leader of the underground railroad. Because of her efforts to lead her people to freedom, Tubman was known as "Moses" among blacks.

    underground railroad: The underground railroad was a secret network of antislavery northerners who illegally helped fugitive slaves escape to free states or Canada during the period before the American Civil War. The system had no formal organization, but it helped thousands of slaves escape and contributed to the hostility between the North and South.

    Creole affair:     The Creole Affair was an uprising by a group of slaves who were in the process of being transported in the ship, the Creole. They killed the captain, took control of ship and sailed for Bahamas, where they became free under British. Incidents such as this contributed to the intensification of sectional conflict in the United States.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Antebellum Reform

    Antebellum Reform
    Americans after 1815 embraced many religios and social movements in pursuit of solutions for the problems, evils, and misfortunes of mankind. These movements were generally more active in the Northern states.

    Hudson River school of art:     Americans painters also sought to achieve a sense of nationality in art. Flourishing between the 1829s and 1870s, the painter realized that the American landscape lacked the "poetry of decay" of Europe. Realizing this, they began to paint the awesomeness of nature in America.

    Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America:     A French Civil servant, he traveled to this country in the early 1930s to study the prison system. DiA was a result of his observations. It reflected the broad interest in the entire spectrum of the American democratic process and the society which it had developed.

    millenialism: In the 1830s, William Miller claimed the Second coming of Christ would occur in 1843. Following him were the Millerites. After the failure of his prophecies, his disciples divided into smaller Adventist groups of which the two largest are the Advent Christian Church and the Seventh-Day Adventists

    Charles G. Finney:     Known as the "father of modern revivalism," he was a pioneer of cooperation among Protestant denominations. He believed that conversions were human creations instead of the divine works of God, and that people’s destinies were in their own hands. His "Social Gospel" offered salvation to all.

    Mormons, Brigham Young: Joseph Smith organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints after receiving "Sacred writings" in New York Unpopular because of their polygamy, they moved to Missouri, then to Nauvoo, Illinois. They were then led to the Great Salt Lake by Brigham young after Smith was killed.

    Brook Farm, New Harmony, Onieda, Amana Community:     Attempting to improve man’s life during industrialism, these cooperative communities, known as Utopian communities, were formed. These communities often condemned social isolation, religion, marriage, the institution of private property.

    lyceum movement: Began by Josiah Holbrok in the 1820, lyceums were local organizations that sponsored public lectures. Lectures were held on such topics as astronomy, biology, physiology, geology, conversation. The spread of these lecture revealed the widespread hunger for knowledge and refinement.

    Dorothea Dix: In 1843, after discovering the maltreatment of the insane in 1841, presented a memorial to the state legislature which described the abhor conditions in which the insane were kept. She, along with help from Horace Mann and Samuel G. Howe, led the fight for asylums and more humane treatment for the insane.

    National Trade Union: Organized in 1834, this association was created after the New York Trades Union called a convention of delegates from numerous city centrals. Headed by Ely Moore, who was elected to Congress on the Tammany ticket, this union disintegrated along with a number of other national conventions with the Panic of 1837.

    Commonwealth vs. Hunt: This decision deemed that the trade union and their strike techniques were legal, contradicting the traditional idea of unions being illegal under the conspiracy laws of the English common law. Although this was a milestone, it in fact did not open a new era for labor unions. Most judges still believed unions were illegal.

    criminal conspiracy laws:     Initially, trade unions were persecuted for their strikes because they were construed as illegal conspiracies under the common law.. The early unions strove for higher wages, shorter hours, union control of apprenticeship and a closed shop.

    Oberlin, 1833; Mt. Holyoke, 1836: After it was established in 1833, Oberlin College was converted into the center of western abolition by Theodore Dwight Weld. Founded by Mary Lyon in 1836, Mt Holyoke College in Massachusetts is the oldest U.S. college devoted to women’s education.

    public education, Horace Mann:     The most influential of reformers, Man became the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. For the next ten years, Mann promoted a wholistic change in public education. Mann wanted to put the burden of cost on the state, grade the schools, standardize textbooks, and compel attendance.

    American Temperance Union:     The first national temperance organization, it was created by evangelical Protestants. Created in 1826, they followed Lyman Beecher in demanding total abstinence from alcohol. They denounced the evil of drinking and promoted the expulsion of drinkers from church.

    Irish, German immigration- 1845-1854:     In this single decade, the largest immigration proportionate to the American population occurred. The Irish was the largest source of immigration with the German immigrants ranking second in number. This spurred new sentiment for nativism and a new anti-Catholic fervor.

    Nativism:     The Irish immigration surge during the second quarter of the nineteenth century revived anti-Catholic fever .Extremely anti-Catholic, in 1835 Morse warned that the governments of Europe were filling the US with Catholic immigrants as part of a conspiracy to undermine and destroy republican institutions.

    Women’s rights:     Women could not vote and if married, they had no right to own property or retain their own earnings. They were also discriminated in the areas of education and employment, not receiving the opportunities that men possessed. This encouraged the development of educational institutions for women.

    Lucretia Mott:     1848, Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized a women’s rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York, proclaiming a Declaration of Sentiments Months earlier, along with Stanton, they successfully worked for the passage of the New York Married Women’s Property Act which recognized women’s right to her separate property.

    Elizabeth Cady Stanton:     She along with Lucretia Mott planned a women’s right convention at the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Seneca Falls which sparked the women’s movement. She was also active in the fight for abolition and temperance, but was devoted to women’s rights.

    Seneca Falls, 1848: Under the eye of Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, this convention adopted resolutions for women’s rights. Among those adopted were a demand for women’s suffrage and a diminution of sexual discrimination in education and employment.

    Emma Willard: In 1814, Willard established the Middlebury Female Seminary where she devised new innovations in female education. She also established the Troy Female Seminary in 1821. She provided instruction in math and philosophy in which women could not take earlier. She led the fight for educational equality among sexes.

    Catherine Beecher:     Lyman Beecher’s daughter and a militant opponent of female equality, she fought for a profession in which females could be appreciated. With this, she discovered the institution of education in which women could play an important part in. In this profession, women became the main source of teachers.

    "Cult of True Womanhood": The alternate ideal of domesticity, this slowed the advance of feminism. Because it sanctioned numerous activities in reform such as temperance and education, it provided women with worthwhile pursuits beyond the family.

    American Peace Society:     In a social reform movement, William Ladd led the peace movement by establishing the American Peace Society in 1828. He was joined in the peace movement by Elihu Burritt who founded the League of Universal Brotherhood in 1846 and promoted the 2d Universal Peace Conference held in Brussels in 1848

    prison reform:     Prison were meant to rehabilitate as well as punish. The Auburn System allowed prisoners to work together but never make contact and remain confined at night in a windowless cell. The Pennsylvania system made each prisoner spend of his/her time in a single cell with no outside contact.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Economic Growth

    Economic Growth
    Industrialization and the transportation revolution were a considerable force in American history, changing the character of life in America by facilitation westward expansion, and urbanization. This period was distinguished by the establishment of factories and the creation of many new inventions to save time, improve transportation and communication, and increase productivity.

    transportation revolution: The transportation revolution was the period in which steam power, railroads, canals, roads, bridges, and clipper ships emerged as new forms of transportation, beginning in the 1830s. This allowed Americans to travel across the country and transport goods into new markets that weren’t previously available.

    Erie Canal: The Erie Canal, the first major canal project America, was built by New York beginning 1817. Stretching 363 miles from Albany to Buffalo, it was longest canal in western world at the time. It was a symbol of progress when it was opened in 1825, and it later sparked artistic interest in the Hudson River when its use peaked in the 1880s.

    National Road(Cumberland Road):     The National Road was a highway across America. Construction began in 1811; the road progressed west during early 1800s, advancing father west with each year. Its crushed-stone surface helped and encouraged many settlers to travel into the frontier west.

    Commonwealth v. Hunt: In the case of Commonwealth v. Hunt, the Massachusetts Supreme Court in 1842 ruled that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies in restraint of trade. Although this decision made strikes legal, it did not bring significant changes in the rights of laborers because many Massachusetts judges still considered unions illegal.

    Robert Fulton, steamships:     Fulton was an artist turned inventor. In 1807, he and his partner, Robert Livingston, introduced a steamship, the Clermont, on the Hudson River and obtained a monopoly on ferry service there until 1824. Steamships created an efficient means of transporting goods upstream, and this led to an increase in the building of canals.

    clipper ships:     Clipper ships were sailing ships built for great speed. The first true clipper ship, the Rainbow, was designed by John W. Griffiths, launched in 1845, but this was modeled after earlier ships developed on the Chesapeake Bay. During the Gold Rush, from 1849 to 1857, clipper ships were a popular means to travel to California quickly.

    Samuel Slater:     Slater was the supervisor of machinery in a textile factory in England. He left England illegally in 1790 to come to Rhode Island, where, in 1793, he founded the first permanent mill in America for spinning cotton into yarn. In doing this, Slater founded the cotton textile industry in America.

    Boston Associates:     The Boston Associates were a group of merchants in Boston who created Boston Manufacturing Company in 1813. Capitalizing on new technology, they built textile factories in the towns of Waltham and Lowell which produced finished products, challenging cottage industries. Also, they hired young, unmarried women, rather than entire families.

    Lowell factory: The Lowell factory was a factory established in 1813 by the Boston Manufacturing Company on the Merrimack River in Massachusetts. It was a cotton textile mill that produced finished clothing, eliminating the need for cottage industries. Also, the Lowell factory hired mainly young girls, separating these girls from their families.

    factory girls (Lowell factory):     "Factory girls" were young, unmarried women, usually between 15 and 30 years old, working in textile factories such as the Lowell factory. Most of these girls left their families’ farms in order to gain independence or to help their families financially. In the factories, they found poor working conditions and strict discipline.

    ten-hour movement:     The ten-hour movement was the attempt by workers to obtain restrictions on the number of hours they worked per day. They wanted to limit the day to 10 hours, from the 12 or 14 hour days that were not uncommon. The movement was supported by Lowell Female Reform Association and other reform associations.

    Elias Howe: Howe invented the sewing machine in 1845 and patented it in 1846. After a difficult battle defending his patent, he made a fortune on his invention. The sewing machine allowed clothing to be stitched in factories very quickly, contributing to the transition from handmade garments to inexpensive, mass-produced clothing.

    Eli Whitney, interchangeable parts:     Whitney was an inventor who introduced the concept of interchangeable parts in 1798. The tools and machines he invented allowed unskilled workers to build absolutely uniform parts for guns, so that the whole gun no longer had to be replaced if a single part malfunctioned or broke. This was the beginning of mass production.

    Cyrus McCormick, mechanical reaper: McCormick was an inventor who improved upon previous designs for the mechanical reaper. He patented his reaper in 1834 and built a factory to mass produce it in 1847. This invention lessened the work of western farmers by mechanizing the process of harvesting wheat.

    Samuel F.B. Morse, telegraph:     Morse invented the telegraph in 1844. This invention was enthusiastically accepted by the American people; telegraph companies were formed and lines erected quickly. The telegraph allowed rapid communication across great distances, usually transmitting political and commercial messages.

    Cyrus Field: Field was a financier who promoted the first transatlantic telegraph cable. In 1841, Field founded a company, Cyrus W. Field and Co. After four failed attempts, Field laid a cable between Irealand and Newfoundland in 1866. This cable was 2,000 miles long and laid from the Great Eastern, a ship. This allowed for rapid transatlantic communication.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Expansion to 1840

    Expansion to 1840
    1n 1790, a great majority of Americans lived east of the Appalachian Mountains, but many began moving west intermittently. Before, 1840, they mainly settled the areas east of the Mississippi River and avoided the arid Great Plains region. Texas was a popular destination for American settlers, especially southern planters with slaves, so when the Mexican government tried to restrict the rights of these settlers, the Texas War for Independence resulted.

    Stephen Austin:     Austin was a prominant leader of Americans in Texas. In the 1820s, he was a highly successful empresario, who had contracted 300 American families to move to Texas by 1825. After Mexican president Santa Anna invaded Texas in1835, Austin became one of the leaders of the Texas Revolution.

    Texan War for Independence: In 1836, Mexican president Santa Anna invaded Texas and brutally crushed the rebels at the battle of the Alamo. However, the leader to the Texans, Sam Houston, retaliated at the battle of San Jacinto. At San Jacinto, the Texans killed half of Santa Anna’s men in 15 minutes and Houstan captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence. The Mexican government never recognized this treaty, but could no longer afford to fight, so Texas became the Lone Star Republic.

    Alamo: The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, that became the setting for and important episode in Texan war for independence from Mexico. In 1836, Mexican forces under Santa Anna besieged San Antonio and the city’s 200 Texan defenders retreated into the abandoned mission. All of the Texans were killed in their attempt to fight the Mexican army.

    Davy Crockett:     Davy Crockett was a politician, a frontiersman, and a soldier. From 1827 to 1835 Crockett represented Tennessee in Congress. In he 1835 went to Texas and joined the revolution against Mexico. He was killed while defending the Alamo in 1836. Exaggerated stories written after his death made Crockett an American folk hero.

    William Barrett Travis:     Travis was a lawyer before he moved to Texas in 1831. In 1835, became colonel in Texas Revolution. In 1836, Travis became a war hero when he was ordered to defend San Antonio and the Alamo. When Santa Anna and his men attacked, greatly outnumbering Travis’ 200 troops, Travis and all of his men died in battle.

    San Jacinto:     The battle of San Jacinto was the last battle of Texan war for independence. Texan General Sam Houston and 800 of his men ambushed Santa Anna and the Mexican army. The battle lasted less than 20 minutes, during which after Santa Anna was captured and forced to signed a treaty granting Texans their independence.

    Santa Anna: Santa Anna was elected president of Mexico in 1833. However, in 1834, he overthrew government and named himself dictator. He invaded Texas in 1835, but got captured at the battle of San Jacinto in 1836. After this defeat, he was forced into retirement until 1838. He was overthrown in 1845, but called back in 1846 to fight in the Mexican War.

    Sam Houston:     Houston was a military commander and an American statesman who served in House of Representatives from 1823 to 1827. In 1836, Houston was chosen as president of the Texan rebels. He led them in the battle of San Jacinto, where he captured Santa Anna and achieved Texan independence.

    Republic of Texas: Texan rebels declared their independence from Mexico in 1836. They drafted a constitution modeled after the United States Constitution and chose Sam Houston as their president. Texas was an autonomous nation from the time Santa Anna recognized Texan independence at the battle of San Jacinto until it was annexed by the United States in 1845.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Jacksonian Democracy

    Jacksonian Democracy
    Jackson personified the desireable and undesireable qualities of Westerners. He stood for the right of the common people to have a greater voice in government. Distinct changes in laws, practices, and popular attitudes gave rise to Jacksonian Democracy and were in turn accelerated by the new equilitarian spirit.

    Jacksonian Revolution of 1828:     Jackson won more than twice the electoral vote of John Quincy Adams. However the popular vote was much closer. Adams had strong support in New England while Jackson swept the South and Southwest. In the middle states and the Northwest, the popular vote was close.

    age of the common man:     All white males had access to the polls. Jackson was portrayed by the opposition as a common man, an illiterate backwoodsman, during the election of 1828. He was depicted as being uncorrupt, natural, and plain. His supporters described his simple and true morals and fierce and resolute will.

    spoils system: Jackson defended the principle of "rotation in office," the removal of officeholders of the rival party on democratic grounds. He wanted to give as many individuals as possible a chance to work for the government and to prevent the development of an elite bureaucracy.

    National Republicans: They became the Whig party during Jackson’s second term. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay guided this party in the 1830s. They were the Jeffersonian Republicans, along with numerous former Federalists who believed that the national government should advocate economic development.

    Trail of Tears:     A pro-removal chief signed the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 which ceded all Cherokee land to the United States for $5.6 million. Most Cherokees condemned the treaty. Between 1835 and 1838, 16,000 Cherokees migrated west to the Mississippi along the Trail of Tears. 2,000 to 4,000 Cherokees died.

    kitchen cabinets:     During his first term, Jackson repeatedly relied on an informal group of partisan supporters for advice while ignoring his appointed cabinet officers. Supposedly, they met in the White House kitchen. Martin Van Buren and John H. Eaton belonged to this group, but were also members of the official cabinet.

    Worcester v. Georgia, 1832: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokees were not a state nor a foreign nation and therefore lacked standing to bring suit. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 1831: Marshall ruled that the Cherokees were a "domestic dependent nation" entitled to federal protection from mistreatment by Georgia.

    Whigs: The National Republican party altered its name to the Whig party during Jackson’s second term. They were united by their opposition of Jackson’s policies, committed to Clay’s American System and believed in active intervention by the government to change society. They became a national party with appeal by 1836.

    Maysville Road veto: President Jackson vetoed a bill to grant federal aid for a road in Kentucky between Maysville and Lexington in 1830. He believed that internal improvements violated the principle that Congress could appropriate money for objectives only shared by all Americans. It increased Jackson’s popularity in the South.

    election of 1832: Jackson, a strong defender of states’ rights and Unionism won the presidency. The National Republicans ran Henry Clay whose platform consisted of his American System. The Anti-Masonic Party ran William Wirt who received 7 electoral votes.

    Bank War: Nicholas Biddle operated the Bank of the United States since 1823. Many opposed the Bank because it was big and powerful. Some disputed its constitutionality. Jackson tried to destroy the Bank by vetoing a bill to recharter the Bank. He removed the federal government’s deposits from the Bank and put them into various state and local banks or "pet banks." Biddle tightened up on credit and called in loans, hoping for a retraction by Jackson, which never occurred. A financial recession resulted.

    Roger B. Taney: Jackson’s policy was to remove federal deposits form the Bank of US and put them in state banks. Secretary of treasury Roger B. Taney implemented the policy. Critics called the state-bank depositories pet banks because they were chosen for their loyalty to the Democratic party.

    Webster-Hayne Debate: Senator Robert Hayne of South Carolina made a speech in favor of cheap land in 1830. He used Calhoun’s anti-tariff arguments to support his position and referred to the plausibility of nullification. Webster contended that the Union was indissoluble and sovereign over the individual states.

    Peggy Eaton affair: Jackson’s secretary of war, John H. Eaton, married Peggy Eaton in 1829. They were socially disregarded by Calhoun’s wife and Calhoun’s friends in the cabinet. Jackson believed that the Eaton affair was Calhoun’s plot to discredit him and advance Calhoun’s presidential ambitions.

    Calhoun resigns: When Jackson favored the higher rates for the Tariff of 1832, Calhoun resigned in the same year. He went back to South Carolina and composed an Ordinance of Nullification which was approved by a special convention, and the customs officials were ordered to stop collecting the duties at Charleston.

    Nullification Crisis: Calhoun introduced the idea in his SC Exposition and Protest. States that suffered from the tariff of 1828 had the right to nullify or override the law within their borders. Jackson proclaimed that nullification was unconstitutional and that the Constitution established "a single nation," not a league of states. A final resolution of the question of nullification was postponed until 1861, when South Carolina, accompanied by other southern states, seceded from the Union and started the Civil War.

    Clay Compromise: He devised the Compromise Tariff which provided for a gradual lowering of duties between 1833-1842. The Force Bill authorized the president to use arms to collect customs duties in South Carolina. Without the compromise, he believed that the Force Bill would produce a civil war.

    Martin Van Buren:     The accepted name for a group of Democratic party politicians, their activities were centered in Albany, NY. They took a leading role in national and NY State politics between 1820 and 1850. One of the earliest, competent political machines in the US, prominent members included Van Buren.

    Chief Justice Roger B. Taney:     The Charles River Bridge Company sued to prevent Mass. from permitting the construction of a new bridge across the Charles River. Taney ruled that no charter given to a private corporation forever vested rights that might hurt the public interest.

    panic of 1837:     Prices began to fall in May 1837 and bank after bank refused specie payments. The Bank of the United States also failed. The origins of the depression included Jackson’s Specie Circular. Also, Britain controlled the flow of specie from its shores to the US in an attempt to hinder the outflow of British investments in 1836.

    Dorr’s Rebellion:     As a popular movement emerged in Rhode Island to abolish the limitations set forth by the charter granted by Charles II in 1663, so did much violence and serious disturbances. The protesters sought to do away with the state constitution which restricted suffrage to freeholders led the reform to grant suffrage to non-property owners.

    Independent Treasury Plan:     Instead of depositing its revenue in state banks, Van Buren persuaded Congress to establish an Independent Treasury in which the federal government would keep the revenue itself and thereby withhold public money from the grasp of business cooperation.

    election of 1840:     Van Buren was nominated but no vice president was put up. His opponent, William Henry Harrison was ridiculed as "Old Granny" by the Democrats, and was given the most successful campaign slogans in history. "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" Harrison won 80% of the electoral vote but died a moth later.

    rise of the second party system:     Because of the gradual hardening of the line between the two parties, interests in politic erupted among the people. New things such as rousing campaign techniques, strong contrasts, and simple choices began to appeal to the ordinary people.

    Tariff of 1842:     In August of 1842, due to the need of revenue to run the government, Tyler signed a bill which maintained some tariffs above 20%, but abandoned distribution to the states. This satisfied northern manufacturers, but by abandoning distribution, it infuriated many southerners and westerners

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Jeffersonian Democracy

    Jeffersonian Democracy
    Jefersonian Democracy refers to the term of office of Thomas Jefferson which marks the end of Federalist control of American politics. A milder agrarian aristocracy replaced a commercial aristocracy, thereby setting an example of democratic simplicity. Jeffersonian placed more emphasis in the common man and brought moreidealism into the government.

    Election of 1800:     Jefferson and fellow Republican Aaron Burr, who ran for Vice-presidency in the same year, received an equal number of electoral votes, thus creating a tie and throwing the presidential election into the House of Representatives, in agreement to Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution. With Hamilton’s coercion, Jefferson was elected as president, with Burr as Vice-president. (The Constitution was amended to require separate votes for each position.)

    Revolution of 1800:     Described by Jefferson in the his election of 1800, in which he sought to restore the country to the liberty and tranquillity it had known before Alexander Hamilton’s economic program and John Adams’s Alien and Sedition Acts. The national debt, most internal taxes, and the navy, where some of the problems needed to be fixed.

    Jeffersonian Demogracy: Jefferson’s administration severely cut naval and military operations. 70 percent of the national revenue was applied to reducing the national debt as well. Most importantly, Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory from the French, though a Constitutional violation. Gallatin was the genius behind the public debt cut and creating a large surplus of funds. He opposed war, seeing it as detrimental to the national economy.

    Midnight judges: Federalists dominated the government, but with the election of 1800, Jefferson drove them out, resulting in Adams’s last day in office (December 12, 1800). On this date he appointed last-minute judges to keep the judiciary in the Federalists hands, by using the Judiciary Act of 1801.

    Justice Samuel Chase: Associate justice of the Supreme Court and signer of the Declaration of Independence, he was appointed to the Supreme Court in 1791 by Washington, and was impeached for his criticism of President Jefferson. Chase was defended strongly, and was later acquitted by the Senate.

    Tripolitan War:     (1802-5) War between the United States and the North African state of Tripoli, to which the US had been paying tribute, since 1784, for shipping access. The US refused to pay in 1801, which resulted in US ships being captured, but the US captured the town of Derna, led by Lieut. Stephen Decatur in 1805, to end the war.

    Treaty of San Ildefonso: Treaty on October 1, 1800, in which Spain ceded the Louisiana territory to France, which was becoming a foremost military power. Threat of French expansion was the result of Jefferson’s goal to obtain the territory, not for expansionism, but the opportunities of trade by New Orleans as a sea port.

    Louisiana Purchase: When France obtained the territory from Spain, Jefferson’s goal to purchase the territory was the great port of New Orleans, land West of the Mississippi, as well as the threat of French invasion. Jefferson obtained the territory for $15 million, and was ratified as a treaty by the Senate, though purchasing the territory was Constitutionally illegal and going beyond his presidential rights. From this territory became 14 new state governments.

    Toussaint L’Ouverture: Haitian general on the island of Santo-Domingo, who succeeded in liberating the island from France in 1801, and becoming president for life of the country. 1802, Napoleon sent troops to crush the Haitians, and Toussaint was defeated, and accused of conspiracy; where he was imprisoned and died in France.

    Louisiana Purchase: Most Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase on the grounds that it would decrease the relative importance of their strongholds on the eastern seaboard. Jefferson, a Republican, saw no reason to hand the Federalists an issue by dallying over ratification of the treaty made to obtain the territory.

    Hamilton-Burr duel: Election of 1800 Between Jefferson and Burr, had turned to the House of Representatives for the decision of the next president Burr’s election in 1804, for the governor of NY State, where Hamilton opposed him, again. Dueled Hamilton on July 11, 1804, where Hamilton was killed.

    Burr treason trial:     Burr purchased land in the newly acquired Louisiana territory, and intended to invade the Spanish territory and establish a separate republic in the Southwest, or seize land in Spanish America. He was arrested and indicted for treason, and was acquitted on Sept. 1, 1807, after a six-month trial in Richmond, Virginia.

    Lewis and Clark: They explored the vast territory west of the Mississippi River by the US, when they where commissioned by Jefferson. They cataloged plants and animals, and established relations with Indian inhabitants. They reached the Rockies, over the Continental Divide, and reached the Pacific in November 1805.

    Berlin Decree, 1806:     Was created in response to the Orders in Council by the British, in which the French proclaimed a blockade of the British isles, and any ship attempting to enter or leave a British port would be seized by France. The Decree was answered with another Orders in Council, in which all ships must come to England for licenses of trade.

    Milan Decree, 1807: Napoleon replied to the continuous British opposition, with the Milan Decree, which was to tighten his so-called Continental System. The decree proclaimed that any vessel that submitted to British regulations or allowed itself to be searched by the Royal Navy, was subject to seizure by France.

    Orders in Council: In May 1806, the British followed the Essex decision with the first of several trade regulations, known as the Orders in Council, which established a blockade of part of the continent of Europe and prohibited trade with France, unless American vessels went to British ports for licenses for trade.

    impressment:     Arbitrary seizure of goods or individuals by a government or its agents for public services. Used by British to regain deserters from the Royal Navy to American vessels during 1790 to 1812. This was one of the reasons for the War of 1812, when British vessels boarded and obtained their crew from the high paying American ships.

    Chesapeake-Leopard affair: In 1807 the US Chesapeake was stopped in the mid-Atlantic by the British Leopard. The British demanded the return and surrender of four deserters from the royal navy, in which the Chesapeake’s commanding officer, James Barron, refused, resulting in British attack. Barron relented and the men were seized.

    Embargo of 1807    : This law was passed in December 1807 over Federalist opposition, and prohibited United States vessels from trading with European nations during the Napoleonic War. The Embargo Act was in response to the restrictive measure imposed on American neutrality by France and Britain, who where at war with each other. To pressure the nations to respect the neutral rights of the US and to demonstrate the value of trade with the US, Jefferson imposed the embargo instead of open warfare.

    Non-Intercourse Act: The Non-Intercourse Act of March 1, 1809, repealed the Embargo Act, and reactivated American commerce with all countries except the warring French and the British. The US also agreed to resume trade with the first nation of the two, who would cease violating neutral rights, pressuring the needs for American goods.

    Macon’s Bill No. 2:     Nathaniel Macon created the Macon’s Bill No. 2, in May 1810, which was designed to discourage the British and the French from interfering with US commerce, by bribing either the England or France in repealing their restrictions on neutral shipping; who ever obliged, the US would halt all commerce with the other nation.

    Tecumseh:     A Shawnee leader, who fought against the United States expansion into the Midwest. He opposed any surrender of Native American land to whites, and tried with his brother, Tenskwatawa the "Prophet," in uniting the tribes from American customs, especially liquor. He was defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Nationalism

    Nationalism
    The nationalistic movement was one which brought the nation together. The economy of the nation was a large force in the merging of the nation, and the government took considerable actions to piece it together.

    Economic Independence after War of 1812:     The War of 1812 was in part responsible for creating a great sense of national purpose and awareness. There was a large dependency on trade, evident to merchants when the Embargo of 1807 and the War of 1812 suspended trade to Europe. This was an economic blow that had repercussions.

    Second Bank of the US:     Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter bill of the Second Bank of the United States on July 10, 1832, which was a blow against monopoly, aristocratic parasites, and foreign domination, as well as great victory for labor. Instead, Jackson created pet banks and destabilized the national currency and aid.

    Tariff of 1816 (protective): This was a protective tariff that was principally intended to hold the production of textiles and goods. This tariff was made in order to defend the industries that were established during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, promoting new industries. A revision was made in 1824 to clear problems that aroused.

    Bonus Bill Veto: In 1817, the development of America was creating a need for a well made transportation facilities to link the outlying agricultural regions with the trade eaters in the Eastern sea ports. This was Madison’s last act, which he vetoed the bill on constitutional ground.

    Rush-Bagot Treaty: Rush-Bagot was an agreement between the US and Great Britain concerning the Canadian border in 1817. The decision was that there would be a disarmament of the US-Canadian frontier, and that there would be a precedent for the amicable settlement of peace between the US and Canada.

    Convention of 1818: Signed at London, by Richard Rush, Great Britain’s Prime minister, and the French prime minister, Albert Gallatin. This treaty fixed the 49th parallel to divide the US and Canadian boundary, and also established fishing privileges for the United States off the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.

    Panic of 1819: Occurred when the Second Bank of the United States tightened its loan policy, triggering a depression, that caused distress throughout the country, especially western farmers. Even more so, British exports unloaded textiles, causing a great depression for farmers.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Reform: Social & Intellectual

    Reform: Social & Intellectual
    European Romanticism branched into American mainstream society. The basic goals emphasised were to transced the bounds of intellect and to strive for emotional understranding. It agreed on the scaredness, uniqueness, and the authority of the individual apprehension experience.

    Transcendentalists:     Transcendalists included many brilliant philosophers, writers, poets lecturers and essayists. These included such intellectuals as Ralph Waldo Emerson Henry David Thoreau, and Walt Whitman. They believed in emphasis of the spontaneous and vivid expression of personal feeling over learned analysis.

    Ralph Waldo Emerson:     Serving briefly as a Unitarian minister, he was a popular essayist and lecturer. The topics of his essays were broad and general. He wrote on subjects such as "Beauty," "Nature," and "Power." He was a Transcendalist who believed that knowledge reflected the voice of God, and that truth was inborn and universal.

    Henry David Thoreau, On Civil Disobedience:     He was considered to be a "doer." He wrote OCD to defend the right to disobey unjust laws. He was also a Transcendalist who believed that one could satisfy their material purposes with only a few weeks work each year and have more time to ponder life’s purpose.

    Orestes Brownson:     A member of the Transcendentalist movement, Brownson was a flexible theologian and writer. He was particularly active with the founding of the Workingman’s and Loco-Focos parties in New York. These Locos-Focos called for free public education, the abolition of imprisonment for debt, and a ten-hour workday.

    Margaret Fuller, The Dial: A feminist, critic, philosopher, and journalist, she edited The Dial, which was a Transcendalist journal with Ralph Waldo Emerson and George Ripley. After writing Summer on the Lakes, she was offered a job and wrote significant literature as a critic of the Tribune from 1844 to 1846.

    James Fenimore Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans, The Spy, The Pioneers: He wrote historical novels under Sir Walter Scott’s influence. To fiction, he introduced characters like frontiersmen, and developed a distinctly American theme with conflict of between the customs of primitive life on the frontier and the advance of civilization.

    Herman Melville, Moby Dick: Drawing ideas and theme from his own experiences in life, Melville wrote with much pessimism. His book, which contains much pessimism, focuses on the human mind instead of the social relationships. He, along with Poe and Hawthorne, were concerned with analyzing the mental states of their characters.

    Nathanial Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter: Hawthorne turned to his Puritan past in order to examine the psychological and moral effects of the adultery. He, along with Poe and Melville, wrote with concern for the human mind because of their pessimism about the human condition.

    Edgar Allen Poe: Poe, with Melville and Hawthorne saw man as a group of conflicting forces that might not ever be balanced. He changed literature by freeing it from its determination to preach a moral and established the idea that literature should be judged by the positive effect they had on the reader.

    Washington Irving: Residing in New York and serving in the war of 1812, he left the US and lived in Europe until 1832. He wrote Sketch Book, which contained "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," and "Rip Van Winkle," which continued to give the him the support of Americans who were proud of their best known writer.

    Henry Wadsworth Longfellow:     Coming from New England, the area from which literature was most prominent, Longfellow, a poet, wrote Evalgeline which was widely read by schoolchildren in America. His poems of Evalgeline and Hiawatha preached of the value of tradition and the impact of the past on the present.

    Walt Whitman:     By writing Leaves of Grass, Whitman broke the conventions of rhyme and meter to bring new vitality to poetry. Not only did he write in free verse. but his poems took on a different style, being energetic and candid at a time when humility were accepted in the literary world.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Sectionalism and Slavery

    Sectionalism and Slavery
    In the early 1800s, slavery was becoming an increasingly sectional issue, meaning that it was increasingly dividing the nation along regional lines. Northerners were becoming more opposed to slavery, whether for moral or economic reasons, and Southerners were becoming more united in their defense of slavery as an institution.

    sectionalism: Sectionalism is loyalty or support of a particular region or section of the nation, rather than the United States as a whole. Slavery was particularly sectional issue, dividing the country into North and South to the extent that it led to the Civil War; for the most part, southerners supported slavery and northerners opposed it.

    "necessary evil": In the South, slavery was considered necessary in order to maintain the agricultural economy of the entire region. Before George Fitzhugh in 1854, southerners did not assert that slavery was a boon to society; they merely protested that it could not be eliminated without destroying the South.

    Slave Power:     The term Slave Power refers to the belief that pro-slavery southerners were united an attempt to spread slavery throughout the United States. Most Northerners were suspicious of the influence of southern slaveholders in Congress, especially because of the Fugitive Slave Act, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the repeal of the Missouri Compromise.

    "King Cotton":     In the 1800s, cotton became the principal cash crop in the South. The British textile industry created a huge demand for cotton, and the invention of the cotton gin made it practical to grow cotton throughout the South. It was so profitable that the vast majority of southern farms and plantations grew cotton, and the "Cotton Kingdom" spread west into Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas. Essentially, the entire Southern economy became dependent on the success of cotton as a crop.

    George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society: In 1854, Fitzhugh wrote Sociology for the South, defending slavery. He argued that slavery benefited the slave by providing him with food and shelter, and that free laborers in the North were not treated any better than slaves. This was the first description of slavery as a "positive the farmer groups good."

    positive good:     In the South, George Fizhugh established the philosophy that slavery was "positive good." It was believed that slavery benefited slaves by providing them with food, shelter, and often Christian religion. Also, Fitzhugh argued that free laborers in northern factories were not treated any better than slaves.

    Hinton Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: In 1857, Helper wrote The Impending Crisis of the South in an attempt to persuade non-slaveholders that slavery harmed the Southern economy, using the poor whites of the pine-barrens as an illustration of how the institution of slavery degrades non-slaveowning southerners.

    mountain whites in the South, pine barrens: The poorest class of whites in the Lower South tended to cluster in the mountains and pine-barrens, where they survived by grazing hogs and cattle on land that the usually didn’t own. They were considered lazy and shiftless, and were often cited by northerners as proof that slavery degraded non-slaveholding whites.

    West Florida, 1810: Annexed when southern expansionists went into the Spanish Dominion, captured the fort at Baton Rouge, and proclaimed on September 26, the independent State of republic of West Florida. It was adopted as a resolution on January 15, 1811 and authorized as an extenuation of US rule over East Florida.

    Purchase of Florida: Spain surrendered Florida to the United States in 1819 by the Adams-Onis Treaty, with a sum of five million dollars. This however began a rebellion by the Indians, starting the Seminole War (1835-42), and becoming another reason for Indian hatred of the white man.

    Adams-Onis Treaty: It was the treaty in 1819 that purchased eastern Florida to establish the boundary between Mexico and the Louisiana territory. It provided for the cession of Florida to the United States in return for American settlement of claims of her citzens against Spain.

    Quadruple Alliance: Formed in 1815, the Quadruple Alliance consisted of England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, and it regulated European politics after the fall of Napoleon. The Holy Alliance was an organization of European states that advanced the principles of the Christian faith.

    George Canning: The British foreign minister, he supported nationalist movements throughout Latin America and dissuaded foreign intervention in American affairs. He proposed that the US and Britain issue a joint statement opposing European interference in South America and guaranteed that neither would annex Spain’s old empire.

    Monroe Doctrine: origins, provisions, impact: President Monroe’s message to Congress on Dec. 2, 1823, it consisted of 3 principles: U.S. policy was to abstain from European wars unless U.S. interests were involved, European powers could not colonize the American continents and shouldn’t attempt to colonize newly independent Spanish American republics. Ridiculed in Europe, it was used to justify U.S. expansion by presidents John Tyler and James Polk. In 1904, the Roosevelt Corollary was introduced.

    Era of good feelings:     This phrase exemplifies both of Monroe’s presidencies, from 1816-1824. The War of 1812 eliminated some divisive issues, and Republicans embraced the Federalist’s issues. Monroe made an effort to avoid political controversies, but soon sectionalism divided the nation.

    Chief Justice John Marshall decisions:     Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) The question was whether New Hampshire could change a private corporation, Dartmouth College into a state university. It was unconstitutional to change it. After a state charters a college or business, it can no longer alter the charter nor regulate the beneficiary.

    Tallmadge Amendment: The Tallmadge Amendment (1819) restricted further importation of slaves into Missouri and freed slave descendants born after Missouri’s admission as a state, at age 25. It passed in the House but not the Senate due to sectionalism.

    Missouri Compromise: Congress admitted Maine as a free state in 1820 so that Missouri would become a slave state and prohibited slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase territory north of 36 30, the southern boundary of Missouri. Henry Clay proposed the second Missouri Compromise in 1821, which forbade discrimination against citizens from other states in Missouri but did not resolve whether free blacks were citizens. Congress had a right to prohibit slavery in some territories.

    Clay’s American System:     In his tariff speech to Congress on March 30- 31, 1824, Clay proposed a protective tariff in support of home manufactures, internal improvements such as federal aid to local road and canal projects, a strong national bank, and distribution of the profits of federal land sales to the states.

    Daniel Webster: Supporting the tariff of 1828, he was a protector of northern industrial interests. In the debate over the renewal of the charter of the US Bank, Webster advocated renewal and opposed the financial policy of Jackson. Many of the principles of finance he spoke about were later incorporated in the Federal Reserve System.

    federal land policy: The federal land law passed in 1796 established a minimum purchase of 640 acres at a minimum price of $2 an acre and a year for full payment. In the federal land law passed in 1804, the minimum purchase was decreased to 160 acres. In 1820, the minimum purchase was reduced to 80 acres. In 1820, it was reduced to $1.25.

    John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State: Fla: With Monroe’s support, Adams forced Spain to cede Florida and make an agreeable settlement of the Louisiana boundary, in the Transcontinental (Adams-Onis) Treaty, drafted in 1819. Spain consented to a southern border of the US that ran from the Miss. River to the Rocky Mountains.

    Election of 1824: popular vote, electoral vote, House vote: Jackson, Adams, Crawford, Clay: All five candidates, including Calhoun were Republicans, showing that the Republican party was splintering, due to rival sectional components. Calhoun withdrew and ran for the vice presidency. Jackson won more popular and electoral votes than the other candidates but didn’t manage to gain the majority needed Because Clay supported Adams, Adams became president.

    "corrupt bargain": After Adams won the presidency, he appointed Clay as secretary of state. Jackson’s supporters called the action a "corrupt bargain" because they thought that Jackson was cheated of the presidency. Although there is no evidence to link Clay’s support to his appointment of the secretary of state, the allegation was widely believed.

    Panama Conference: President Adams angered southerners by proposing to send American delegates to a conference of newly independent Latin American nations in Panama in 1826. Southerners worried that U.S. participation would insinuate recognition of Haiti, which gained independence through a slave revolution.

    Tariff of Abominations: Named by southerners, this bill favored western agricultural interests by raising tariffs or import taxes on imported hemp, wool, fur, flax, and liquor in 1828. New England manufacturing interests were favored because it raised the tariff on imported textiles. In the South, these tariffs raised the cost of manufactured goods.

    Vice-President Calhoun:     South Carolina Exposition and Protest, nullification: He anonymously wrote the widely read South Carolina Exposition and Protest, in which he made his argument that the tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional. Adversely affected states had the right to nullify, or override, the law, within their borders. He acknowledged that he wrote the SC Exposition and Protest in 1831. In 1832, he convinced the South Carolina legislature to nullify the federal tariff acts of 1828 and 1832.

    internal improvements:     President Adams proposed a program of federal support for internal improvements in Dec. 1825; strict Jeffersonians claimed it to be unconstitutional. The South had few plans to build canals and roads. Jackson, with a political base in the South, felt that federal support meant a possibly corrupt giveaway program for the North.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    War of 1812

    War of 1812
    The war of 1812 was one which the Americans were not prepared to fight. The young congressman known as War Hawks pushed Madison into a struggle for which the country was not prepared and which ended without victory.

    War Hawks: A group of militants in Madison’s Democratic-Republican party, who wanted more aggressive policies toward the hostile British and French. Thus creating a war spirit by several young congressman elected in 1810. This group in the House of Representatives, led by Henry Clay preferred war to the "ignominious peace."

    War against Great Britain:     For the most part, the Napoleon Wars were played out in Europe, and the French accepted the United States merchant marine neutrality by the Berlin and Milan Decrees. Hatred of the British persisted, with the constant violations of neutrality on the seas and in the Great Lakes.

    Federalist Opposition to the War of 1812: The Federalist party were deeply opposed to the war, for their lack of support for commercial and diplomatic policies of Jefferson and Madison. Even more so, was their opposition to Jefferson and Madison’s trade programs of neutrality and trade, for example the Non-intercourse act.

    Naval Battles in the War of 1812: The beginning of the War of 1812, encounters were with single-ship battles. The frigate Constitution defeated the Guerriere in August 1812, and in the same year, the Untied States seized the British frigate Macedonian. However, the Chesapeake lost to the Shannon, continuing British blockade.

    Results of the War of 1812: After the treaty of Ghent, the British wanted neutral Indian buffer states in the American Northwest and wanted to revise both the American-Canadian boundary. The Treaty of Ghent secured US maritime rights and peace around Europe and the Americas. Rising Indian opposition to American expansion in the Northwest and Southwest was broken, and there was an increased sense of national purpose and awareness.

    Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key: During the War of 1812 on September 13-14, Fort McHenry withstood a 25-hour bombardment by the British Vice-Admiral Alexander Cochane and his fleet, which prompted the famous "Star-spangled Banner," by Francis Scott Key when he saw the flag still standing.

    Jackson’s victory at New Orleans: Jackson, during the War of 1812, captured New Orleans with a small army against the British army, which was composed mainly of veterans. This victory on January 8, 1815 occurred after the peace treaty that ended the war.

    Essex Junto: The Essex Junto was a name given to the extreme nationalist wing, led by Timothy Pickering, Senator George Cabot, Theophilus Parsons, and several of the Lowell family of merchants and industrialists in New England. It opposed the Embargo act and the War of 1812.

    Hartford Convention: The Hartford Convention of 1814 damaged the Federalists with its resolutions to the idea o secession, leaving an idea of disloyalty to use against them. The convention on December 14, 1814 was to oppose the war, which was hurting American industries and commerce. The recommendation of the convention was to have an amendment to the Constitution that would grant taxation and representation in each state, and prohibit congress from the embargo.

    Henry Clay, Gallatin, and treaty negotiations:     Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine and arranged for the Treaty of Ghent that ended the War of 1812. Gallatin also was a part in the negotiations of the Treaty of Ghent, as well as Clay, with hope of ending the war of 1812.

    Treaty of Ghent:     This was an agreement between the United States and Great Britain, in Belgium, on December 24, 1814. This treaty ended the War of 1812, and provided that all territory captured would be returned to the rightful owner. Great controversy occurred over fishing rights and the Northwest Boundary, between England and America.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 05 - 1840-1877

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Expansion and Slavery

    Expansion and Slavery
    The expansion of slavery into new territories and onto the western frontier became a major issue after the Mexican-American War. Southerners fought to assert their rights while many Northerners wished to prevent the expansion of slave labor into new states.

    panic of 1857: The causes of the panic were overspeculation in railroads and lands, false banking practices, and a break in the flow of European capital to American investments as a result of the Crimean War. The South’s less industrial economy suffered less than the North, who viewed this as a proof of superiority in both Southern economy and slavery.

    Wilmot Proviso:     David Wilmot, a Congressman from Pennsylvania, proposed that slavery be banned in land acquired from the Mexican War. The proviso was given to Congress in August 1846. It never passed the Senate, but passed the House. It was taken out of the War Appropriations bill in order for Senate to pass the actual bill.

    Barnburners:     The Barnburners were a part of the Democratic party in New York. They left in 1848 to form the Free Soil Party but rejoined after the election of 1848. They believed slavery should not be extended into the newly acquired U.S. territory and were pro-Wilmot Proviso. Their party slogan was "Free Trade, Free Labor, Free Speech, Free Men."

    Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:     This was the peace treaty between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican War. Through the treaty, Mexico gave Texas with Rio Grande boundary, California , and New Mexico to the United States. The U.S. assumed all claims of the American people against the Mexican government and also paid Mexico 15 million dollars. The treaty was signed on February 2, 1848. In the end, the treaty worked to expand the U.S. territory to include parts of Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Nevada.

    Free Soil Party: The Free Soil Party created by the Barnburners, Conscience Whigs, and the former Liberty party members in the election of 1844. They nominated Martin Van Buren on a platform of opposition to any kind of slavery. Although they were unable to carry any state, they had enough influence in North to convey their point.

    California applies for admission as a state:     Because the population grew during the gold rush and they were in need of a better government, California decided to petition to become a state in September of 1849. There was controversy on the issue of it being a free or slave state, but through the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted as a free state.

    Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was an eight part compromise devised by Henry Clay in order to settle the land disputes between the North and South. As part of the compromise, California was admitted a free state, while a stricter Fugitive Slave Law was enforced. Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, while slavery itself was not abolished and sectional peace returned to the northern and southern states for a few years. The issue of slavery eventually did lead to future conflicts, though.

    Omnibus bill: The omnibus bill is a term used to describe a bill that has many unrelated and separate topics within it. The bill most commonly known for being omnibus is the Compromise of 1850. Henry Clay introduced the bill as a whole, but it was later pushed through Congress as separate measures. Today, most states do nor allow omnibus bills.

    Henry Clay: Henry Clay was an influential American politician who earned the title of "The Great Pacificator" with his development of three compromises. He ran, unsuccessfully, for president six times and devised the "American System" that favored a protective tariff and federal support of internal improvements.

    Webster’s 7th of March speech:     Webster’s speech was an eloquent one presented in favor of the Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that years of tension built up from the North’s growing power would be relieved by the compromise and that the North would make the South its equal, thus saving the Union. Despite his efforts, the speech made few converts.

    John C. Calhoun:     Calhoun is most known for the "nullification crisis" in 1828 between he and president Jackson over the tariff of 1828 (tariff of abominations). He supported the Compromise of 1850 on the basis of the theory of nullification. He was a senator during the debates over the compromise. Calhoun was also a war hawk.

    Fugitive Slave Law: Unlike the previous 1793 slave law, the 1850 slave law was more strictly enforced. The results of the law were that the North became a hunting ground for slaves and slaves were denied a trial by jury and other protections they were entitled to. The anger of the slaves led to riots and other acts of violence.

    Personal Liberty Laws: Discontent with the injustice of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, northern states passed "personal liberty laws" in order to strengthen the use of the habeas corpus writs and prohibit state officials from accepting jurisdiction under federal law. The laws included the prohibition of the use of state jails to confine alleged fugitives. Southern states objected to the laws because they violated sectional equity and reciprocal trust. Northern resistance demonstrated that the slavery issue could not be ignored.

    Gadsden Purchase: The Gadsden Purchase was the 1853 treaty in which the United States bought from Mexico parts of what is now southern Arizona and southern New Mexico. Southerners wanted this land in order to build southern transcontinental railroad. The heated debate over this issue in the Senate demonstrates the prevalence of sectional disagreement.

    Perry and Japan:     Commodore Perry opened relations with Japan, a country closed to the rest of the world for 2 centuries, in 1853. The treaty he forged protected the rights of sailors shipwrecked in Japanese territory from inhumane treatment, permitted American ships to buy coal in Japan, opened Japanese ports of to U.S. commerce, and ended Japan’s isolation.

    Anthony Burns: Burns was an American slave who escaped in 1834. He was arrested on charges of theft and violation of the Fugitive Slave Law. During the trial, a mob of Boston abolitionists stormed into the courthouse to attempt, unsuccessfully, to rescue Burns. President Pierce sent him back to his master, but Burns was resold to friends who freed him.

    Ableman v. Booth:     Booth was arrested for aiding the escape of a fugitive slave in 1859. The Wisconsin Supreme Court issued a writ of habeas corpus to release him, but habeas corpus was not valid as a result of Chief Justice Taney’s decision that a court or judge has certain limits of power. In turn, the battle for federal supremacy commenced.

    Prigg v. Pa., 1842:     This case resulted when Pennsylvania attempted to ban the capture and return of runaway slaves within its territory, a challenge to the fugitive slave law of 1793. Because article IV, section 2 of the Constitution deems the return of fugitive slaves a federal power, the state law was declared unconstitutional.

    Ostend Manifesto:     American ambassadors to Great Britain, France, and Spain met in Ostend, Belgium in 1854 to issue an unofficial document that gave the United States permission to attain Cuba by any necessary means, even force, and include the island in the Union. President Pierce, however, rejected the manifesto.

    Stephen A. Douglas: American politician known for his debates with Abraham Lincoln prior to the election of 1860. Douglas was an advocate of the annexation of Mexico, who aroused the question of slavery in territories with the development of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. He was also a strong supporter of the Compromise of 1850.

    Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854:     The Kansas-Nebraska Act ended the peace established between the North and South by the Compromise of 1850. It was proposed by Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois and repealed the Missouri Compromise. The act enforced popular sovereignty upon the new territories but was opposed by Northern Democrats and Whigs. It was passed, however, because President Pierce supported it. The purpose of the bill was to facilitate the building of the transcontinental railroad on a central route.

    popular sovereignty: this compromise solution was first proposed during the time of the Wilmot Proviso: the residents of each territory had the option of determining whether it would be a free or slave state; a part of the Compromise of 1850 and Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.Stephen Douglas a strong advocator.

    36° 30’ line: The 36° 30’ line was established by the Missouri Compromise and drew on parts of California and New Mexico. The Wilmot Proviso sought to extend the boundary line westward, blocking slavery and territory north of that line. Polk supported the idea of expansion to end the discussion of whether the new territory acquired was slave or free.

    "Bleeding Kansas" and Lawrence:     Topeka and Lecompton were the two rival governments of Kansas. Each claimed to be the lawful one, thus armed themselves and commenced guerilla warfare. In 1856, Missouri "border ruffians," those who supported slavery, sacked the town of Lawrence. John Brown, an abolitionist, also led a retaliation two days later .

    "Beecher’s Bibles": Because the abolitionist government in Kansas was organized in 1856, a pro-slavery posse armed with guns mobbed through the town. Ridiculing the free staters, they dubbed their guns "Beecher’s Bibles," following the advice of an antislavery minister that rifles would do no more than Bibles to enforce morality in Kansas.

    Pottawatomie Massacre: John Brown led a small group of abolitionists into a pro-slavery settlement in 1856 to kill unarmed men and boys at Pottawatomie Creek in retaliation to the border ruffians’ invasion and sacking of the abolitionists’ town of Lawrence. The retaliation was preceded by a pro-slavery posse’s armed raid through Kansas.

    Lecompton Constitution:     This constitution was devised by the anti-slavery delegates of Congress in 1857 to protect the rights of the slaveholders in Kansas and advocate popular sovereignty. Buchanan disapproved of it, but supported it so that Kansas could be admitted as a state.

    New England Emigrant Aid Company: Aiming to prevent the expansion of slavery into Kansas, Northerners sent antislavery settlers into this area in 1854, but their attempt was unsuccessful. Settlers from New England arrived slowly, though the majority of settlers originated from Missouri and the Midwest. Settlers were mixed in their views on slavery.

    Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 during Illinois senatorial campaign:     The Lincoln-Douglas debates were a series of seven, where Douglas argued on the basis of his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and depicted Lincoln as a radical abolitionist. Lincoln condemned Douglas for not taking a moral stand against slavery.

    Lincoln’s "house divided" speech:     The "house divided" speech was a speech presented before the Republican party’s state convention in 1858 in Springfield, Illinois. It warned the people that a "house divided against itself cannot stand," referring to the slavery issue. Lincoln predicted in his speech that there would mean eventual freedom for the slaves.

    Freeport Doctrine:     Stephen A. Douglas’ "Freeport Doctrine" stated that exclusion of slavery in a territory could be determined by the refusal of the voters to enact any laws that would protect slave property. In 1858, southerners rejected the doctrine because it did not insure the rights of slaves, a reaction that hurt him in the election.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Grantism and Postwar Politics

    Grantism and Postwar Politics
    Ulysses S. Grant was elected president of the United States in 1868 because he was a war hero, but his cabinet was riddled with corruption. Grant did manage to make some important accomplishments in the area of foreign policy, but his ability to cope with domestic controversy, especially the economic issues which began to arise, created chaos in national politics.

    Ulysses S. Grant: Grant was an American general and the 18th president of the United States. A war hero, Grant was admired throughout the North and was endorsed by Union veterans. Although he was a strong military leader, Grant proved to be a passive president with little skill at politics.

    purchase of Alaska: Alaska was ceded to the United States by the Russian Czar Alexander II in a treaty signed on March 30, 1867. Secretary of State William Henry Seward arranged the $7.2 million purchase at 1.9¢ per acre. Critics ridiculed this purchase as "Seward’s icebox," but it expanded American territory at a reasonable price.

    Secretary of State William Seward: Seward was the American Secretary of State who handled diplomatic issues during and after the Civil War. He was involved in the Trent Affair and his most notable act was the purchase of Alaska. This purchase was denounced at the time as "Seward’s folly, but it added a significant amount of territory to the United States.

    Napoleon III:     After his election in 1848, Napoleon III proclaimed himself the Emperor of France, instituted reforms, and rebuilt Paris. His successful imperialist ventures were overshadowed by a failed campaign in Mexico to create a French-Mexican Empire and the Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in his deposition.

    Maximilian in Mexico: Maximilian was instructed by Napoleon III in 1864 to establish a French empire in Mexico, but the Mexicans were hostile to Maximilian and loyal to President Juárez. The United States invoked the Monroe Doctrine as justification for their demand for French nonintervention. Although the French drove Juárez’s army from the capital, Maximilian’s empire disintegrated when French troops withdrew.

    Treaty of Washington, 1871: The Treaty of Washington was a treaty arranged by Hamilton Fish. In it, the U.S. and Great Britain settled many minor disputes such as the Alabama claims, which had arisen during the U.S. Civil War. The treaty also provided for arbitration of disagreements over the Canadian-American boundary and fishing rights.

    Secretary of State Hamilton Fish:     Fish served as Grant’s secretary of state. He arranged the Treaty of Washington, which settled disputes with Britain over the Alabama claims the and Canadian-American boundary. Also, he prevented American filibustering expeditions against Cuba from escalating into war with Spain.

    "Whiskey Ring": Grant’s private secretary, Orville Babcock, was unmasked in 1875 after taking money from the "whiskey ring," a group of distillers who bribed federal agents to avoid paying millions in whiskey taxes. On May 10, 1875, 16 distillers in areas of Saint Louis, Milwaukee, and Chicago were captured.

    Black Friday: Scandal caused a short-lived financial crisis in the United States that occurred on Friday, September 24, 1869. The panic was precipitated when two financial speculators, James Fisk and Jay Gould, attempted to corner the U.S. gold market. Fisk and Gould probably made a profit of about $11 million through their manipulations.

    "Salary Grab Act": In the Salary Grab Act of 1873, Congress voted a 100% pay raise and a 50% increase for itself. Both raises were made retroactive two years back. The public was shocked, leading to a Democratic victory in the next congressional election. The act was later repealed, but it was another example of the corruption of the postwar government.

    Credit Mobilier: Officials of the Union Pacific Railroad created a fake construction company, called the Credit Mobilier, in order to cheat the government out of money allotted to the construction of the Union Pacific Railroads. Grant’s vice-president, Colfax, was linked to this scandal.

    Sanborn Grab Fraud: In the Sanborn Grab Fraud, a politician named Sanborn was given a contract collect $427,000 in unpaid taxes, receiving a 50% commission for all money collected. He then used this commission as Republican campaign funds, allowing the candidate to focus on his campaign rather than fundraising.

    Bribing of Belknap: William E. Belknap was Grant’s secretary of war. He took a bribe to sell lucrative Indian trading posts in Oklahoma. Belknap resigned in 1876 when voters learned of his corruption. Although Grant was not personally involved, he loyally defended his subordinates.

    Liberal Republicans: The Liberals Republicans’ revolt marked a turning point in Reconstruction history. They split the Republican party, supporting the Republican southern policy while attacking regular republicans on several key issues and denouncing Grantism and the spoils system.

    election of 1872:     In 1872, Republicans unhappy with the reelection of President Ulysses S. Grant formed the Liberal Republican party and nominated as their candidate the journalist Horace Greeley. Although he was also endorsed by the Democrats, Greeley was defeated, and the new party collapsed.

    Panic of 1873, depression: Transforming the northern economy, the Panic of 1873 triggered a five-year depression. Banks closed, farm prices plummeted, steel furnaces stood idle, and one out of four railroads failed. However, once the depression began, demand rose. This issue divided both major parties and was compounded by the repayment of federal debt.

    "Waving the bloody shirt": During the election of 1876, the Republicans backed Rutherford Hayes against the Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden. They resorted to a tactic known as "waving the bloody shirt," which was used in the last two elections. The tactic emphasized wartime animosities by urging northern voters to vote the way they shot.

    Greenbacks, Ohio Ideas: During the Civil War the Union had borrowed money through the sale of war bonds, known as Greenbacks, to private citizens. Senator John Sherman of Ohio and other Republican leaders obtained passage of the Public Credit Act of 1869, which promised to pay the war debt in "coin." Debtors favored the Greenbacks because they could repay debts easier with this inflated currency.

    Specie Resumption Act: The Sherman Specie Resumption Act promised to put the nation effectively on the gold standard in 1879. With some convincing, it changed the minds of the Republican voters who also wanted to continue Greenbacks for the sake of "easy money." Grant signed this act. Unfortunately, robber barrons schemed to corner the gold market.

    Greenback-Labor Party:     The Greenback party was formed in 1876 with James Weaver as its presidential candidate. The party adopted the debtors’ cause, fought to keep greenbacks in circulation, and promoted the inflation of farm prices. The party elected 14 members to Congress . As prosperity returned, the Greenbacks faded.

    election of 1876:     The presidential election of 1876 resulted in neither Democrat Samuel Tilden nor Republican Rutherford Hayes receiving the 185 electoral votes necessary to become president. There were 20 disputed votes, and a Congressional committee gave all of these to Hays, making him president. In exchange, he ended military rule of the South.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Manifest Destiny

    Manifest Destiny
    Manifest Destiny is the belief that Americans had the right, or even the duty, to expand westward across the North American continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This would spread the glorious institutions of civilization and democracy to the barbaric Native Americans. In order to accomplish this destiny, Americans did not flinch at atrocities such as provoking war with Mexico or slaughtering Indians.

    Great American Desert: The "Great American Desert" was a nickname for the Great Plains. This area, the present -day Midwest, was characterized by its arid climate, a flat topography, and lack of trees. Because of these features, it was considered inhospitable and early settlers chose to cross it on the way to the Willamette Valley of Oregon rather than settling there.

    "Manifest Destiny": "Manifest Destiny" was the term used, throughout the 1840s, to describe Americans’ belief that they were destined by God to spread their beliefs across the continent. This sense of duty created a sense of unity among the nation and stimulated westward expansion. The term itself was coined by John O’Sullivan in an 1845 magazine article. The concept justified westward expansion in all its forms and ramifications, including the Mexican War, the persecution of the Indians, and other such ethnocentric acts.

    Was it Imperialism?:     American annexation of territories such as Oregon are generally not considered imperialistic because these lands were obtained by negotiation between two equal powers and the people there were not opposed to joining the Union. However, lands gained by force, such as the Mexican cession, are considered imperialistic conquests.

    Horace Greeley: Greeley was a journalist and political leader. He opposed slavery, but he was not an abolitionist. He was editor of the New Yorker and a Whig associated with Governor Seward of New York. In 1841, he founded the New York Tribune. In 1872, he was the Liberal Republican nominee for president.

    Annexation of Texas, Joint Resolution under President Tyler: In 1843, Tyler started a campaign to annex Texas, and in 1844 he succeeded in sending a treaty to Congress for the annexation. This treaty was defeated in the Senate, but later, in early 1845, Congress passed a joint resolution to annex Texas because of the growing popularity of annexation.

    Reoccupation of Texas: After Congress voted to annex Texas, the Mexican governmen began war preparations when Texans accepted annexation. In response, Polk sent troops to occupy Texas and the disputed territory south of the Nueces River. Polk believed that the land was part of the Louisiana Purchase, and therefore it belonged to the United States.

    Reannexation of Oregon: Prior to 1846, America and Great Britain had jointly occupied the Oregon Country. However, in 1844, Polk began to demand that America obtain the entire territory. In compromise, a treaty was signed in 1846 giving the United States all of Oregon south of the 49th parallel.

    Election of 1844: In the election of 1844, the Whigs nominated Henry Clay. The Democrats, however, were divided between Martin Van Buren and Lewis Cass. A deadlock at the Democratic national convention resulted in the nomination of dark-horse candidate James K. Polk. The Liberty party, consisting of a small group of northern antislavery Whigs who were alienated by Clay’s indecisiveness, nominated James G. Birney. Also, large numbers of Irish immigrants turned out to vote for Polk, and he won by a small margin.

    JAMES K. POLK: Polk was a slaveowning southerner dedicated to Democratic party. In 1844, he was a "dark horse" candidate for president, and he won the election. Polk favored American expansion, especially advocating the annexation of Texas, California, and Oregon. He was a friend and follower of Andrew Jackson. He opposed Clay’s American System, instead advocating lower tariff, separation the treasury and the federal government from the banking system. He was a nationalist who believed in Manifest Destiny.

    54° 40’ or Fight!: In the election of 1844, Polk used "54° 40’ or Fight!" as a campaign slogan, implying that the he would declare war if Britain did not give the United States all the Oregon territory up to its northern boundary, the line 54° 40’ N. latitude. However, in 1846 Polk agreed to negotiate, and the two countries divided Oregon at the 49th parallel.

    Slidell Mission to Mexico:     Slidell was a negotiator sent to Mexico by James Polk with orders to gain Mexico’s recognition of the independence of Texas and to purchase California and New Mexico. However, he was not received by the Mexican government because the threat of military revolt left the Mexican president to weak to negotiate.

    Rio Grande, Nueces River, Disputed Territory: A dispute over the southern boundary of Texas contributed to the Mexican War. Mexico claimed that the Nueces River was boundary of Texas, but Polk insisted that the Rio Grande River was the boundary line. The land between these two rivers was uninhabited, but it was a significant slice of Mexican territory.

    Mexican War: The Mexican war lasted from 1846 to 1848. The main cause of the war was American desire for territory, especially Texas and California. The war took place mainly on Mexican soil. Partially because of disorganization and instability in the Mexican government, the war resulted in and American victory. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ending the war, made the southern boundary of Texas the Rio Grande, gave California and New Mexico to the United States, and gave $15 million to Mexico in compensation.

    General Zachary Taylor:     Taylor was an American major general who became a war hero during the Mexican War. His troops won important victories in northern Mexico at Matamoros, Monterrey, and Buena Vista, and his resulting popularity helped him win the presidential election in 1848.

    Battle of Buena Vista:     The battle of Buena Vista was a battle during Mexican War. Five thousand American troops commanded by General Taylor defeated three times as many Mexican troops under Santa Anna. As a result of this battle, Taylor was put in control of all of northern Mexico. This American victory also hastened end of the War.

    Stephen Kearney: Kearney was an American colonel in the Mexican War. In 1846, he led an army to Santa Fe and took the New Mexico territory without firing a shot. Kearny then suppressed a rebellion of both Indians and Mexicans, and managed to send a detachment of his army south into Mexico in time to join Taylor in the Battle of Buena Vista.

    John C. Fremont:     Fremont was an explorer, soldier, and politician known as "the Great Pathfinder." In 1846, he assisted in the annexation of California by capturing insurgents, seizing the city of Sonoma, and declaring the independence of the "Bear Flag Republic." In 1856, Fremont became the first presidential candidate for the Republican party.

    Senator Thomas Hart Benton: Senator Benton was an American statesman. He represented Missouri in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. His daughter, Jessie Benton, married adventurer John C. Fremont, and Benton used his influence to have records of Fremont’s explorations published as government documents.

    General Winfield Scott: General Scott commanded American troops during the Mexican War, and led those troops victory at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and Chapultepec. He also led the final defeat of Santa Anna when he captured Mexico City in 1847. He ran for president of United States in 1852.

    Nicholas Trist: Trist was the chief clerk of state department and a peace officer. He was sent to Mexico by Polk to negotiate with Mexican president Herrera. They wanted Trist to convince Herrera to lower the price he was asking for California and to give Americans the right of movement over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. In 1846, Herrera rejected the offer.

    All Mexico Movement: Many Senators in Congress wanted the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to include all of Mexico, because they believed that to have control of all of Mexico would give the United States more power. However, this movement failed because the acquisition of California and her ports satisfied Polk.

    Mexican Cession: The Mexican Cession was the land that Mexico ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadelupe Hidalgo in 1848. This territory included California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Texas, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. The addition of so much land to the United States exacerbated conflict over the expansion of slavery because some Northerners feared that the extension of slavery into California and New Mexico would deter free laborers from settling there.

    Webster-Ashburton Treaty: The Webster-Ashburton Treaty was a treaty negotiated by Lord Ashburton of Great Britain and Daniel Webster of the United States in 1842. It settled a dispute over the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. The treaty was very popular in the North because the United States got more than half of the disputed territory.

    Caroline Affair:     The American steamboat, the Caroline, was being used by Canadian rebels when it was attacked by the government of Canada in late 1837 in American waters. In 1842 Daniel Webster asked for an apology from British government. The event heightened tensions between the United States and Britain, but this tension was soon eased.

    Aroostook War: The Aroostook War was a boundary dispute between settlers in Maine and New Brunswick from 1838 to 1839. Full-scale war was avoided through an agreement in 1839, and the issue was settled by Webster-Ashburton Treaty in 1842.

    Oregon Fever:     During the 1830s and 1840s, many Americans traveled to the Oregon Territory in order to start a new life. The fertile farmland available in the Willamette Valley attracted many farmers. People in the East heard exaggerated, enthusiastic reports from missionaries and pioneers, convincing them that Oregon was a "pioneer’s paradise." Many settlers traveled to Oregon overland by way of the Oregon Trail or around Cape Horn in the newly invented clipper ships. This was an important part of westward expansion.

    John Jacob Astor:     Astor was a wealthy New York merchant who invested in real estate. He became involved in the fur business and organized a fur trading empire from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean and to China and Japan. He created the American Fur Company and established Astoria, the first major fur trading post in Oregon.

    Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was an overland route to the Oregon territory, stretching almost 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri to the Willamette Valley. The pioneers who traveled this trail in wagon trains faced many dangers. It is estimated that about 11,500 emigrants used overland trails like the Oregon Trail to reach Oregon between 1840 and1848.

    Willamette Valley:     The Willamette Valley was an area of fertile farmland in the Oregon Territory which attracted large numbers of farmers in the 1830s and 1840s, especially those from the Mississippi River Valley. Reports of the abundance of this land sparked the movement of many pioneers to the West Coast.

    Oregon Territory: Congress made the Oregon Territory an official territory of the United States in 1848. Prior to 1846, the Oregon Territory had been jointly occupied by Great Britain and the United States with its northern boundary the line 54°40’. In a 1846 treaty, the two countries split the territory, dividing it at the 49th parallel.

    49th Parallel:     The 49th parallel was the line of latitude dividing the United States’ and Great Britain’s portions of the Oregon Territory after 1846. Originally they had jointly occupied the entire territory, but a compromise was forged in 1846 because president Polk demanded title to this territory and neither side wanted to go to war over it.

    Election of 1848:     Cass, Taylor: Zachary Taylor was the Whig candidate in the election of 1848, and his platform was based solely on personal popularity because he was a war hero.; Lewis Cass was the Democratic candidate. Both parties avoided making the issue of slavery a campaign issue. Taylor won election on his popularity.

    Joseph Smith: Joseph Smith was the founder of the Mormon church. He translated the Book of Mormon in 1827, after which, he and his followers set up a model city and temple in Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith saw himself as a prophet, increasing the negative sentiment towards Mormonism. After being charged with treason and jailed, he was killed by a mob in 1844.

    Brigham Young:     Brigham Young was the patriarch of the Mormon church who took control of the church after Joseph Smith was killed. After the Mormons were forced out of Illinois, Young led them to Utah in 1846, where they prospered. Young has been criticized for both his support of polygamy and his intolerance towards opposition.

    Mormons: The Mormon religion was founded in 1827 by Joseph Smith. Their church is based in Utah and they believe that the Book of Mormon is the supplement for the Bible. The Mormons are characterized by their preference to be set apart from the rest of the community, apparent in their views, which were antebellum in the time the religion was born.

    John Sutter: John Sutter was granted 49,000 acres of land by the Mexican government in 1834 and established a sawmill on the land in 1846. In 1848, he discovered gold. This discovery led to the onset of the California Gold Rush. Land squatters disputed over Sutter’s land claims and, subsequently, Sutter’s holdings were found invalid by the Supreme Court.

    forty-niners:     In 1849, 100,000 Americans, along with immigrants from Europe, Asia and South America rushed to California in search of easy riches. Competition led to violence and greed. As a result of inadequate shelter and food and the lack of medical supplies, 10,000 died the first year and few even benefited from the expedition.

    Walker Tariff, 1846: The Walker tariff was created by Robert J. Walker, Polk’s secretary of the treasury, in 1846. The bill slashed all duties to the minimum necessary for revenue. It also reversed the trend of replacing certain specifics for ad value duties and dropped the minimum valuation principle. The tariff was signed July 30, 1846.

    Independent Treasury System, Van Buren:     The system was introduced by Martin Van Buren in 1837 and it passed through Congress in 1840. The bill had the federal government keep their revenue, and by doing this, kept public money from private business corporations. This also kept the government’s money out of state banks.

    Independent Treasury System, Polk:     After Van Buren was defeated in the election of 1840 by William Henry Harrison, the Independent Treasury System was repealed. However, when Polk was elected in 1844, he brought back the Independent Treasury System. This intensified the divisions between the Whigs and Democrats.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Reconstruction

    Reconstruction
    Reconstruction was the process of bringing the southern states that had seceded during the Civil War back into the Union. There were many disagreements about the best way to accomplish this and many important pieces of legislation emerged as a result. Reconstruction lasted from the end of the Civil War in 1865 until the Tilden-Hays Compromise in 1877 restored the Democrats to power in the South.

    Lincoln’s ten percent plan:     In it all southerners, except high-ranking Confederate officials, could get a full pardon and restoration of rights after taking an oath, pledging loyalty to the Union and accepting the end of slavery. When ten percent of the 1860 voting population had taken this oath, citizens could vote in elections that would create new state governments and new state constitutions. After that the state would once again be eligible for representation in Congress and readmitted to the Union.

    assassination of April 14, 1865: President Lincoln wass assassinated while attending a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, escaped with a broken leg, but he was shot later. Lincoln was succeeded by his vice president, Andrew Johnson.

    John Wilkes Booth: Booth was a Southern sympathizer during the Civil War, who plotted with six fellow-conspirators to assassinate Union leaders. On Apr. 14, 1865, he shot President Lincoln during a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. He escaped, but was later shot and killed.

    Ex parte Milligan: Ex parte Milligan was an 1866 Supreme Court limiting the authority of martial law and the suspension of habeas corpus in times of war. In this case, the court declared that "martial law can never exist where the courts are open in the proper and unobstructed exercise of their jurisdiction."

    Radical Republicans: The Radical Republicans were a group of Republicans unhappy with the corruption and policies of Grant’s administration. Among their leaders were Carl Schurz, Horace Greely, and Charles Sumner. The party nominated Greeley for president. Greely was a choice acceptable to the Democrats, but unpopular with many of the leaders of his party, so Grant won reelection despite the corruption within his administration and his poor leadership.

    Wade-Davis bill, veto, Wade Davis Manifesto: Congress, in July 1864, passed the Wade-Davis Bill, calling for a stricter form of Reconstruction than that proposed by Lincoln. After Lincoln pocket vetoed this bill, radicals sought to displace him. They issued Wade-Davis Manifest, which declared the primacy of Congress in matters of the Reconstruction.

    Joint Committee on Reconstruction: The Joint Committee on Reconstruction was the Congressional committee consisting of leaders of both houses of Congress which led Congressional Reconstruction after the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 were passed. This committee would exist until after Hayes was elected president.

    Reconstruction acts, 1867:     The Reconstruction Acts divided the Confederate states except Tennessee into five military districts. Military commanders in the districts were appointed to oversee constitutional conventions in the districts and the creation of state constitutions. This military occupation would last until the states created new constitutions that included black suffrage, the permanent disfranchisement of Confederate leaders, and ratification of the 14th Amendment.

    conquered territory theory: The conquered territory theory was a popular theory held by many Reconstruction policy makers after the Civil War that the southern states which seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America should be treated as if they were territories conquered from a foreign nation.

    Texas v. White, 1869: The trial of Texas v. White in 1868, was a case which involved the disposition of Civil War bonds used by Texas, which had left the Union. It was held that states in rebellion did not lose their existence or identity. The decision also declared secession unconstitutional.

    the unreconstructed South:     This term refers to failure of Reconstruction to permanently reform the South. Even after Republicans withdrew, there was corruption in the states, and exploitation of African-Americans was common. When the states were readmitted into the Union, civil rights legislation was practically overturned with open discrimination.

    scalawags:     A scalawag was a white Southerner who joined the Republican party during the Reconstruction period. Scalawags were considered traitors to the Southern cause and were condemned by Southern Democrats. The term scalawag was applied both to entrepreneurs who supported Republican economic policies and Whig planters who had opposed secession.

    carpetbaggers: Carpetbaggers were Northerners who went to the South during Reconstruction. They carried their belongings in carpetbags, and most intended to settle in the South and make money there. The African-American vote won them important posts in Republican state governments.

    "forty acres and a mule": "Forty acres and a mule" refers to the desire of Radical Republicans such as Thaddeus Stevens to carry out land redistribution in the South. He wanted to subdivide confiscated land and distribute it among the freedmen. Proposals such as these failed in Congress and state legislatures.

    black codes: The black codes were local laws intended to force African-Americans to continue working as plantation laborers. They imposed prohibitive taxes, harsh vagrancy laws meant to intimidate the freedmen, restrictions on blacks’ ability to own property. Essentially, they condemned the newly-freed slaves to conditions not unlike slavery.

    Ku Klux Klan: The KKK was an organization formed by ex-Confederates and led by Nathan B. Forrest. It was founded in the South in 1866 in opposition to Reconstruction. Members used disguises, rituals, whippings and lynchings, to terrorize African-Americans and their supporters. Forrest disbanded the Klan in 1869.

    Thaddeus Stevens: As a leader of the radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program after the Civil War, Stevens saw the Southern states as "conquered provinces." He sincerely desired the betterment of the lives African-Americans. He proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing civil rights and was a leader in the impeachment of President Johnson.

    Charles Sumner: Sumner was the aggressive abolitionist who was physically assaulted by Preston Brooks after making a strong antislavery speech. He was one of the leaders of the radical Republicans’ Reconstruction program and was also an active participant in the impeachment of Andrew Johnson.

    Andrew Johnson:     As president he was denounced by the radical Republicans for his Reconstruction program. When Johnson tried to force Stanton out of office, the radical Republicans passed a resolution of impeachment against him for violation of the Tenure of Office Act, but the Senate failed to convict him by one vote.

    Freedmen’s Bureau:     The Freedmen’s Bureau furnished food and medical supplies to blacks, and to needy whites as well. It was also concerned with the regulation of wages and working conditions, the maintenance of schools for illiterate former slaves, and the distribution of lands abandoned by or confiscated from Southern proprietors.

    General Oliver O. Howard: Howard was a Civil War general who took part in the Bull Run, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga campaigns. As commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau after the war, he was unable to prevent many abuses to freedmen, but managed to provided needed food and medical and employment aid to many people.

    Civil Rights Act:     This act was passed in Congress with nearly unanimous Republican support in March 1866, and it attempted to redress the issue of slavery by defining all persons born in the nation as citizens. It also specified the rights of citizens, the right to sue, make contracts, give evidence in court, hold, convey, and inherit property.

    Thirteenth Amendment:     The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1865. It prohibited "slavery or involuntary servitude except as punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted." This amendment guaranteed freedom for African Americans.

    Fourteenth Amendment: The Fourteenth Amendment was passed in 1868. It said that no state can make or enforce any law which "deprives any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." Also, states could not "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."

    Fifteenth Amendment: Secretary of State Hamilton Fish ratified the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of United States on March 30, 1870. This amendment explicitly forbid denial of the right to vote for citizens "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."

    Tenure of Office Act:     The Tenure of Office Act was a measure passed by Congress in 1867. It prohibited the president from dismissing any cabinet member or other federal officeholder whose appointment had required the consent of the Senate unless the Senate agreed to the dismissal. Johnson’s violation of this act caused the impeachment crisis.

    Impeachment: Impeachment is the formal accusation by a legislature against a public official, to remove him from office. The term includes both the bringing of charges, or articles, and the trial that may follow. President Andrew Johnson, after violating the Tenure of Office Act, by removing Secretary of War Stanton faced impeachment. The formal accusation of Johnson went through the House on Feb. 24, 1868, but the Senate failed to convict him. This is the only instance of impeachment of an American president.

    Chief Justice Chase: Salmon Chase was the sixth chief justice of the Supreme Court and an abolitionist. As chief justice, he presided over the impeachment trial of President Johnson. His greatest achievement, however, was as secretary of the treasury, when he created a national bank system.

    Secretary of War Stanton:     Edwin Stanton served as the secretary of war under Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, but his dismissal by President Andrew Johnson and his subsequent refusal to leave office act precipitated the impeachment of President Johnson in 1868.

    Hiram R. Revels, Blanche K. Bruce:     Revels and Bruce were the first two African-American politicians to serve a full term in the United States Senate. They were both representatives from Mississippi, and were the only two African-American Senators during Reconstruction.

    Compromise of 1877: As a result of the electoral vote from the election of 1876, Congress created a 15-member bipartisan commission, on January 29, 1877, to resolve the dispute concerning the electoral votes between Tilden and Hayes. The committee consisted of five Democrats, five Republicans, and five Supreme Court justices. Hayes was unanimously awarded the electoral votes from Oregon and South Carolina and the ones from Louisiana by a commission vote of 8 to 7.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The 1850s: The Road to Secession

    The 1850s: The Road to Secession
    During the 1850s, sectional issues such as slavery became very divisive. The issue of slaver polarized people, and Southern slaveowners felt that their rights and interests were no longer being fairly represented. Northerners began to increasingly support free soil and even abolition, so tensions between the two-sided mounted until Southerners became convinced that nothing short of secession could protect them Northern persecution.

    Nashville Convention: Delegates of the northern and southern states assembled in the summer of 1850 to decide on the issue of the Compromise of 1850. Fire-eaters discussed southern rights, while suspicion of their secession rose amongst the northerners. The meeting itself led to the ultimate decision on the compromise.

    fire-eaters:     The fire-eaters were extreme advocates of southern rights. They walked out on the Nashville convention in 1850, raided a mass of Irish canal workers, and whipped and lynched slaves in the 1860s. They were labeled "fire-eaters" due to their recklessness and by making their presence strongly felt by all those around.

    Uncle Tom’s Cabin:     Harriet Stowe, a Northern abolitionist outraged by the Fugitive Slave Law, wrote this novel to illustrate the evils of slavery. Though the South denounced the novel, 500,000 copies were sold in the U.S. and others were translated into 20 languages. The novel stimulated Northern action against slavery, contributing to the Civil War.

    Harriet Beecher Stowe: Stowe was an abolitionist writer who wrote powerful novels attacking slavery both before and after the Civil War in such novels as Dred, A Tale of Great Dismal Swamp (1856) and The Minister’s Wooing (1859). The novels are rambled in structure, yet rich in pathos and dramatic incident. She also wrote short stories and poetry.

    election of 1852:     The election of 1852 was the end of the Whig Party. Enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act split the Whig Party, and the nomination of General Winfield Scott exacerbated the sectional split. The loss of votes from the South was the result of Scott’s campaign. Franklin Pierce of the Democratic party won the election with 27 of 31 states.

    birth of the Republican Party: The party was formed in 1854 by northern Democrats who left the party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Former Whigs and Know-Nothings were party members, also. All opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act and believed that slavery should be banned from all territories of the nation, except those states where slavery already existed.

    election of 1856: Republican Party, Know-Nothing Party: This election was between John C. Fremont of the Republican Party, Millard Fillmore of the Know-Nothing Party, and James Buchanan of Democratic Party. Fillmore’s inexperience weakened his party, increasing the popularity of the Republicans. Buchanan won the election.

    John Brown’s raid: The raid took place at Harper’s Ferry in 1859, and was conducted by an abolitionist to raid the federal arsenal and start a slave uprising. It failed and Brown was convicted of treason and hanged because he had ties with the northern abolitionists. At his death, southern fear of future slave uprisings increased, leading to the cruel treatment slaves.

    Sumner-Brooks affair:     Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts, made a speech titled, "The Crime Against Kansas," denouncing slavery, and, at the same time, ridiculing the South Carolina senator, Charles Butler, in 1856. Preston Brooks, Butler’s nephew came into the Senate chamber and hit him on the head, making Brooks a hero in the South.

    Dred Scott Decision: Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Scott was not a citizen because he was a slave in 1856, therefore, he did not have the right to sue in federal court. It was determined that temporary residence in an area did not make one free, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it violated the fifth amendment, which did not allow Congress or territorial governments to exclude slavery from any area. Republicans became more suspicious of Slave Power in Congress.

    Chief Justice Roger B. Taney: Taney was a Southerner appointed by Jackson as the 5th justice of the Supreme Court. He is well-known for handing down the Dred Scott decision. Under his leadership, the federal government had increased power over foreign relations. Taney ruled in 1861 that Lincoln exceeded his authority in suspending habeas corpus.

    John Brown:     John Brown was an American abolitionist who attempted to end slavery through the use of violence. This increased the tension between the North and South. He was the leader of John Brown’s raid and the Pottawatomie massacre. His life ended when he was hanged for murder and treason. He is regarded a martyr to the cause of human freedom.

    Compact Theory of Government: This theory involves the idea that the United States of America was founded by the union of thirteen individual states creating a federation of states. This plays a major role in justifying the secession of the Southern states by stating that a state had the right to withdraw from the political entity it created.

    Election of 1860: candidates, parties, issues: A united republican party attempted to appeal more to the North in order to win the campaign and developed an economic program to amend the damages of the 1857 depression. They nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held a moderate view on slavery. The democrats nominated two candidates, Douglas and Breckenridge, each with opposing viewpoints on the slavery issue. The constitutional party, created by Whigs, nominated John Bell, who had the desire to preserve the Union.

    Democratic Party conventions:     The first assembly of delegates in Charleston in 1860 resulted in the split of the Democratic party as the Southern "fire-eaters" left the convention. They were unable to agree on a platform based on the protection of slavery. An unsuccessful second attempt to reach a consensus in Baltimore led them to nominate two candidates.

    John Bell: Opposed to both Lincoln and Douglas, Whigs nominated Bell in 1860, an opposer of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Lecompton constitution. Bell created the new Constitutional Union party, which had a platform based on the preservation of the Union, and not on the controversial slavery issue.

    John Breckenridge: A division in the Democratic Party led to the nomination of two candidates for the 1860 election. Breckenridge, Buchanan’s vice president, was nominated by secessionists on a platform based on protection of slavery in territories. His nomination completed the split of the Democratic party.

    Republican Party of 1860: In order to lure votes from Northern states to their party, an economic system based on protective tariffs, federal aid for internal improvements and the distributing of 160-acre homesteads to settlers in order, was organized in favor of the Northerners. Lincoln’s nonchalant views towards slavery led them to victory.

    Buchanan and the secession crisis: Buchanan declared secession of states illegal, yet he had no power to prevent it. He refused Southern demands to remove troops from Fort Sumter. Because his efforts to supply the fort failed and due to failure of a constitutional plan, he left the office disappointed and discredited.

    Crittenden Compromise proposal: The compromise was proposed by John Crittenden in an attempt to preserve the Union. The amendments were to bar the federal government from intervening in southern states’ decision of slavery, to restore the Missouri Compromise, and to guarantee protection of slavery below this line. It also repealed personal liberty laws.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Civil War

    The Civil War
    The Civil War was a terrible, bloody war fought mainly over the issue of slavery. It divided the nation and resulted in the death of more Americans than all other wars combined. The Union, with advantages such as greater organization and prosperity, eventually won, but not before 620,000 Americans died and thousands of fields, homes, and entire towns were destroyed.

    secession: Slavery fueling the states’ rights issue along with the loss of Congress and Northern opposition to the new Fugitive Slave Law made the election of 1860 the straw that broke up the union. By March 1861, Lincoln’s innauguration South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded.

    South’s advantages in the Civil War: The Confederate States of America had a strong advantage in the fact that they were fighting a defensive war in familiar territory, but it also had advantages buried deep within its much stronger military tradition. Southerners came from a rural rather than urban environments and therefore had more men experienced in the use of firearms and horses. This allowed the Confederacy to produce a more able corps of officers, such as Robert E. Lee.

    Tredegar Iron Works:     guided by Joseph Reid to success during a time when the economy in the North and South began to plunge because of their increased divergence. It became the nation’s fourth largest producer of iron products. During the Civil War the company contributed to the Confederacy cause.

    North’s advantages in the Civil War:     The Union clearly had more military potential with its larger population of 22 million. In addition to that, the Union had more advantages in terms of material goods such as money and credit, factories for manufacturing war goods, food production, mineral resources, and an established railroad system to transport these material resources. The North in comparison with the South in these areas makes the North seem more advantageous.

    Fort Sumter: Fort Sumter is a fort in Charleston harbor, South Carolina and it was the site of the first conflict of the Civil War on Apr. 12, 1861. The Confederates under Beauregard bombarded the fort and were eventually victorious, but the fort was eventually retaken by Union forces in 1865.

    Bull Run: On July 16, General McDowell began to move on Confederate General Beauregard at Manassas Junction. McDowell attacked Beauregard’s soldiers, with aid from the forces of Johnston, near the bridge over Bull Run River and drove them to the Henry House Hill, but Jackson checked the advance and routed the raw Union troops.

    Monitor and the Merrimac:     March 8, 1862 was the date of first naval battle between ironclad ships. The Confederate ironclad frigate Merrimac had sunk the Cumberland and defeated the Congress in Hampton Roads but was forced to withdraw March 9 after an engagement with the Union’s ironclad Monitor, built by John Ericsson.

    Lee: Commanding the Army of N. Virginia, he took the offensive in the 7 Days Battle and beat the Union army at the 2nd battle of Bull Run. Lee repulsed Union advances at the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville and Grant’s assaults in the Wilderness Campaign. Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomatox Courthouse.

    Jackson:     At the 1st battle of Bull Run Jackson earned his nick name when he and his brigade stood "like a stone wall." Serving under Lee, Jackson flanked the Union army to set up the Confederate victory at the second battle of Bull Run. At Chancellorsville Jackson again flanked the Union army but was mortally wounded by his own troops.

    Grant: In 1862 he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee, barely escaped defeat at the Battle of Shiloh and ended Confederate control of the Mississippi in Vicksburg. Commanding in the West, he thoroughly defeated Bragg at Chattanooga. He directed the Union army in the Wilderness Campaign and he received Lee’s surrender.

    McClellan: He was criticized for overcaution in the unsuccessful Peninsular Campaign and removed from command. Called on again in 1862, he checked Lee in the Antietam Campaign, but he allowed the Confederates to withdraw across the Potomac and was again removed. He would run for president in 1864.

    Sherman:     He fought in the Vicksburg and Chatanooga campaigns and ge undertook the Atlanta Campaign. He burned Atlanta and set off, with a force of 60,000, on his famous march to the sea, devastating the country. After capturing Savannah, he turned north through S. Carolina, and received the surrender of General Johnston.

    Meade:     He made himself known in 1862 at Seven Days Battle and the battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and later at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He commanded of the Army of the Potomac from 1863, and won the battle of Gettysburg, but he was criticized for not following up his victory.

    Vicksburg:     It was a battle fought for control of the Mississippi River. By late 1862, the Union controlled all of the river except for the 200 miles south of Vicksburg. In May of 1863 U.S. Grant opened siege, and after 6 weeks the Confederates surrendered. Vicksburg’s fall completed the encirclement of the Confederacy.

    Gettysburg:     It was Lee’s second invasion of the North. Meade and Lee met just west of Gettysburg. First, the Union was pushed to Cemetery Hill. Then the South took the Peach Orchard but were repulsed. On July 3 Lee ordered George E. Pickett’s division forward in its infamous disastrous charge against the Union center.

    Antietam: In September 1862, trying to invade Maryland and Pennsylvania, Lee sent Jackson to capture Harpers Ferry, but Lee’s own advance was halted by McClellan, who attacked him at Antietam Creek, Maryland., on September 17, the so-called bloodiest day of the war. It was a Union victory only in that Lee’s advance was stopped.

    Appomattox:     Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union Gen. U.S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse on April 9, 1865. The surrender at Appomattox virtually ended the Civil War, but the rest of the Confederate forces did not surrender until May 26 at Shreveport, Louisiana.

    Jefferson Davis:     He left Washington after the secession of Mississippi. As president of the Confederacy, he assumed strong centralized power, and weakened the states’ rights policy for which the South had seceded. He had many disputes with Confederate generals, and Lee surrendered without his approval.

    Alexander Stephens: He was a U.S. congressman from Georgia and was opposed to secession but he remained loyal to Georgia when the state seceded. He was elected vice president of the Confederacy, and he was against many of the policies of President Davis. After the war he was interned for several months.

    cotton versus wheat: Efforts by the Confederate government during the Civil War to convince planters to grow to wheat instead of cotton received little success. While some planters heeded the government’s pleas, many clung to the belief that cotton would never fail them. As a result, food shortages plagued the Confederacy.

    Copperheads: Copperheads were Northerners who sympathized with the South during the Civil War. The term Copperheads was also used to label all Democratic opponents of Lincoln. The group was led by Clement L. Vallandigham and was especially strong in the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio.

    Congressman Clement L. Vallandigham: Vallandigham was the leader of the Copperheads during the Civil War. He was briefly imprisoned in 1863 for maintaining in a speech that the war was being fought to free African-American and enslave whites. The 1864 Democratic platform reflected his pro-Southern views.

    suspension of habeas corpus: Writs of habeas corpus are court orders requiring that the a cause of imprisonment be demonstrated before a person is jailed. This basic civil liberty was suspended by both Lincoln and Davis during the war to deal with dissent. Lincoln used it to intimidate border states into rejecting secession.

    Republican legislation passed in Congress after Southerners left: banking, tariff, homestead, railroad: After the South seceded, northerners in Congress enacted legislation such as the Pacific Railroad Act authorizing a transcontinental railroad and the Homestead Act granting free land in the west. Acts such as these had been blocked by southerners.

    Homestead Laws: The Homestead laws were laws passed in Congress in 1862. They permitted almost any American citizen to acquire a homestead of up to 160 acres of land in the West, on the condition that the homesteader cultivate the land for 5 years. This allowed poor farmers to obtain land in the west and increased westward expansion.

    Northern blockade: During the Civil War, the north attempted to establish a blockade of all Southern ports in order to stop the flow of essential supplies to the Confederacy. The Union navy was fairly weak, so at first the blockade was not as effective as northerners had hoped it would be and blockade-running was a common way for Southerners to obtain supplies

    Anaconda Plan:     The Anaconda Plan was a Union strategy in the Civil War calling for the establishment of a naval blockade around the Confederacy to prevent the importation of supplies from Europe. It was slowly implemented and only partially successful, but the blockade did contribute to the Northern victory.

    Submarine: Four submersible vessels were built during the American Civil War by the Confederates for use against the federal fleet. One of these submarines successfully dragged a mine through the water to sink a northern ship, but sunk itself as well. Submarines were used only to a limited degree in the Civil War, and they were far from perfected.

    Black Soldiers:     It was not until late in the Civil War that African American soldiers were allowed to participate in combat, and when they were, they suffered a far higher mortality rate than white troops. Despite the many hardships that it entailed, military service was a source of pride for blacks because it symbolized their freedom.

    Gatling Gun: The Gatling gun was one of the earliest machine guns, but it was the most effective of early models. The Gatling gun was created created a man by the name Gatling, who intended to make war so horrible that it would make peace. This weapon contributed to the high number of casualties in the Civil War.

    Rifle: An improved rifle was one of the important technological advancements that transformed the Civil War. They were able to hit targets more accurately at large distances than previous guns, making open fields a hazard, so that trench warfare became a necessity. This also contributed to the high number of casualties during the war.

    conscription, draft riots:     The Federal Militia Act of 1862 and the Confederate Conscription Act of 1862 allowed for conscription, but contained many loopholes. Riots in 1863 by anti-conscription protesters and impeded the process of drafting soldiers, but the establishment of a draft prompted volunteering.

    Emancipation Proclamation:     The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order ending slavery in the Confederacy. It was issued by President Lincoln after the battle of Antietam. The Emancipation Proclamation only freed slaves residing in the territories in rebellion against the government of the United States. This proclamation had the dual purpose of injuring the Confederacy and preventing Great Britain from entering the war in support of the Confederacy. It also pushed the border states toward abolishing slavery.

    Charles Francis Adams:     Adams was an American diplomat who, as ambassador during the Civil War, helped to keep the British from recognizing the Confederacy. In the Trent affair, he was instrumental in averting hostilities between the two nations, although he failed to stop the sailing of the Alabama, a raider built in Great Britain for the Confederacy.

    Alabama claims:     There were a series of claims for indemnity made by the United States upon Great Britain in 1862. The claims were for compensation for damages inflicted on Union property by a Confederate steamship built by the British, the Alabama. The claims were not resolved until the Treaty of Washington in 1871.

    Trent Affair: In Nov., 1861, A Union captain stopped and boarded a British vessel, the Trent, and removed Mason and Slidell, two Confederate emissaries who were on board and he interned them in Boston. President Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, but the issue increased tension between the Union and Britain.

    Laird rams:     The Laird rams were two double-turreted, ironclad steamers, built by a company in England for the Confederate navy. The United States threatened war if these ships were released to the South, so the British purchased them for the royal navy. This was another source of diplomatic tension during the Civil War.

    "continuous voyage": The concept of "continuous voyage" involves the idea that a voyage intended for an enemy port, regardless of the number of stops made before arrival in the port, contains contraband. During the Civil War the Union embraced this idea, seizing ships traveling from England to the West Indies with the final destination of Confederate ports.

    election of 1864:     In 1864, a number of Republicans sought to prevent Lincoln’s renomination. In order to balance Abraham Lincoln’s Union ticket with a Southern Democrat, the Republicans nominated Andrew Jackson for vice president. Lincoln was able to overcome Democratic candidate George McClellan and win a second term in office.

    financing of the war effort by the North and the South: In order to pay for the Civil War, both the Confederate and Union governments were forced to sell public lands and tax. The fear that heavy taxation would cause unrest and corrode support of their cause, the governments issued bonds and, in the North, greenbacks. This led to high inflation.,

    Clara Barton:     Clara Barton, a Union nurse during the Civil War, was known as "the Angel of the Battlefield." She not only helped the war effort by nursing; she also helped the Union obtain medical supplies. After the War, Barton worked for the International Red Cross in the Franco-Prussian War, and organized the American Red Cross, which she headed until 1904.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Legacy of Reconstruction

    The Legacy of Reconstruction
    Reconstruction changed the lives of southerners, especially those of the many slaves who first tasted freedom during this period. Southern society changed in order to adjust to emancipation, but former slaves were still relegated to inferior and submissive positions through economic, political, and social restrictions of their rights. The social and political atmosphere of the postwar South would endure long into the 20th century.

    Reconstruction Myth: The Reconstruction Myth is the false belief that during Reconstruction, Radical Republicans intended to exploit the South by forcing it into economic and political submission. Such beliefs were promoted by movies such as Birth of a Nation, and Gone With the Wind.

    Solid South: After Reconstruction, the South became solidly Democratic. Once they gained control, the Democrats cut back expenses, wiped out social programs, lowered taxes, and limited the rights of tenants and sharecroppers. These white southerners remained a major force in national politics well into the 20th century.

    sharecropping:     It was the farm tenancy system that arose from the cotton plantation system after the Civil War. Landlords provided land, seed, and credit. The croppers contributed labor and received a share of the crop’s value, minus their debt to the landlord. This along with the crop lien system held back African Americans economically.

    crop lien system:     Through this system, the white southern landowners possessed a tight hold over African American farm production during much of the Reconstruction periond. Black economic rights were eroded away with this crop lien system and along with sharecropping. A cycle of dependency and debt would be the result of these systems.

    segregation: Segregation was the practice held in the South after legislation made explicit discrimination in law illegal. In response to that legislation the concept of "separate but equal" dominated the policies Southern policy makers. This practice of keeping the races separate would not officially broken up until the mid-twentieth century.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 06 - 1865-1900

    Below are the US History topics that are covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    From Melting Pot To Salad Bowl

    From Melting Pot To Salad Bowl
    The earlier immigrants to American consisted mainly of Northern Europeans. However, during the 1870s, a flood of immigrants, arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe, gushed into the already overcrowded metropolises. Many immigrants faced the dual problems of changing cultures and migrating from a rural life to an urban one. In addition to these difficulties, the new immigrants often faced prejudice from nativist Americans.

    "New Immigration":     They were a new group of immigrants coming into the United States that consisted of Italians, Slavs, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians. They came from both Southern and Eastern Europe, and also from the Middle East. In the 1890s, their numbers first began to increase, and the numbers continued to increase for the next three decades. Most of the immigrants came from peasant and poor backgrounds and boosted America’s foreign-born population by 18 million. They were often discriminated against.

    "Old Immigration":     This Term applies to those migrating from Western and Eastern Europe. They were the largest group of immigrants that migrated to the United States. The largest group of approximately three million, came from Germany in the 1840s and 1850s. Next came the British, Scottish, and Welsh immigrants, which totaled 2 million. In addition, one and a half million traveled over from Ireland. All of these immigrants came over in search of jobs and of new economic opportunities.

    Literacy tests:     Passed by Congress in 1917in order to restrict immigration, the law enlarged the group of immigrants that could be excluded from the United States. Literacy tests were imposed on all immigrants, and any immigrant who could not pass the tests was not allowed entry into the U.S.

    Chinese Exclusion Law, 1882: Passed by Congress, it was one of three laws that attempted to solve the increasing immigration problem. There had also been increasing labor violence against the Chinese. By this law, immigrants had to be examined, and all convicts, polygamists, prostitutes, anarchists, persons suffering from loathsome or contagious diseases, and persons liable to become public disturbances and problems were all excluded form the U.S.

    American Protective Association:     Founded by Henry F. Bowers, this was a secret anti-Catholic society founded in 1887, in Clinton Iowa. The panic of 1893 greatly increased its membership, and it supported the Republican Party until it split over the question of whether or not to support William McKinley. It died in 1911.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Gilded Age Politics

    Gilded Age Politics
    As America modernized, politics played an increasingly important role in the lives of the common men. Diverse groups participated in the political arena as they attempted to reform the social, political and economical problems of the newly industrial nation. Taking its name from the novel, The Gilded Age, the era referred to the decades from the 1870s to the 1890s where Americans struggled to battle corruption in a morally deteriorating society.

    Pendleton Civil Service Act:     Because of the Pendleton Civil Service Act, political candidates were forbidden from soliciting contributions from government workers. This act also set up a civil service commission to prepare competitive exams and establish standards of merit for a variety of federal jobs. In 1883, Congress enacted a civil service law introduced by Senator George Pendleton of Ohio. Although President Arthur was a Stalwart, he had the courage to endorse the act which reformed the spoils system.

    Chester A. Arthur:     He became president after the assassination of Garfield. This 21st president, who served from 1881 to 1885, rose above the political corruption prevalent during the times and headed a reform-oriented administration that enacted the first comprehensive U.S. civil service legislation. He supported the passage of the Pendleton Act in 1883.

    Election of 1884: James G Blaine was nominated by the Republicans, while Grover Cleveland was the Democratic nominee. The Independent Republicans, known as "Mugwumps," supported Cleveland, which cost Blaine the election. The Democrats controlled the House, while the Republicans dominated the Senate.

    Stalwarts, Roscoe Conkling:     The Stalwarts, who favored the spoils system of political patronage, were lead by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling. The battle over patronage split the Republican party into two factions: the Half-breeds and the Stalwarts. The two differed mainly over who would control the party machinery.

    Half-breeds:     They argued with the Stalwarts on the issues of who would control the party of machine and would distribute patronage jobs. The Half-breeds supported civil service reform and merit appointments to government posts. They were joined together as the Republican party, but disputes over patronage split it into two: Stalwarts and Half-breeds.

    James G. Blaine: Blaine was a Republican Congressman, senator, secretary of state under Garfield, and a presidential candidate under the Republican Half-Breeds, who ran against Conkling. Blaine was considered one of the most popular Republicans of his time, and was elemental in his party’s success in elections.

    Mugwumps:     This term designated dissident members of the Republican party, who, in the presidential election of 1884, refused to support the nominee of their party, James G. Blaine. Instead, they supported the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland, who was later elected. The term was first used derisively in a New York City newspaper, the Sun.

    "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion":     At a rally on election eve, a clergyman denounced the Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion." Blaine failed to repudiate the remark and the Democrats widely publicized this insult to Catholics, drinkers and patriotic Democrats. Blaine’s mistake allowed Cleveland to obtain New York’s electoral votes.

    High Tariffs: Republicans preferred high tariffs, while Democrats preferred low ones. Cleveland supported low tariffs. The Dingley tariff of 1879 increased rates to an all-time high levels while the Currency Act of 1900 officially changed the U.S. gold standard. The Wilson-Gorman Protective Tariff also unsuccessfully attempted to create an income tax.

    Treasury surplus: The high tariffs were feeding a large and growing budget surplus. This surplus stood as a continual temptation to distribute it in the form of veterans pension or expensive public-work programs, known as pork barrel projects. Cleveland was convinced that surplus constituted a corrupting influence.

    Pension GAR:     After the Civil War, veterans formed the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR) to lobby for pensions. Veterans disability pensions cost the government millions dollars a year, but in 1879, bowing to GAR pressure, Congress had eased the rules for securing them. The GAR actively encouraged veterans to file claims.

    Secret ballot:     Between 1888 and 1896, 90% of all the states were convinced to adopt a new ballot like the one in Australia, which was a method of voting that listed voter options. This was a Populist goal articulated in the Omaha Platform. The paper ballot emerged as a dominant voting method. The secret ballot is also known as the Australian ballot.

    "Murchinson letter":     Charles Murchinson wrote a letter to the British Ambassador to ask how he should vote during the election of 1888. The ambassador fell into the trap and advised Murchinson to vote for Cleveland, rather than Harrison. The Republicans gracefully publicized the "Murchinson Letter" as a foreign attempt to meddle in an American election.   

    Cleveland’s 1887 annual address:     Cleveland focused his entire annual address message to Congress on the tariff issue. He argued that lower tariffs would not only cut the federal surplus but also reduce prices and slow the development of trusts. His tariff message upset many corporate boardrooms who thought that lowering the tariff would hurt their prosperity.

    Presidential Succession Act of 1886:     This act determined that if both the President of the United States and the Vice President both died or if they were both disqualified, there would be a line of succession. The line started with first the president pro tempore, secretary of state, secretary of treasury, secretary of defense, and continued.

    Election of 1888, candidates, issues: Because Blaine decided not to run, the Republicans turned to Benjamin Harrison. Republican focused on the tariff issue. The Republicans falsely portrayed the Democrats as advocates of "free trade," which many felt would have horrible consequences. Harrison won in the electoral college by defeating Grover Cleveland.

    Benjamin Harrison, Billion dollar congress, Czar Reed:     Harrison quickly rewarded his supporters. He appointed a past GAR commander as commissioner of pension. In 1890, Harrison signed the pension bill that Cleveland had earlier vetoed. The Republican Congress of 1890 became known as the Billion-dollar Congress.

    McKinley Tariff:     His administration enacted a higher tariff in 1897 and committed the country to the gold standard in 1900. It generally promoted business confidence. Probably in part because of these policies, the economy recovered from a severe depression, and the Republicans became identified with economic prosperity.

    Election of 1892: The Republicans re-nominated Harrison, while the Democrats turned to Grover Cleveland who was a Conservative. The Populists nominated James B Weaver who did not did better than expected. Voters generally reacted against the high McKinley Tariff. Cleveland’s conservative economic policies brought him support, and he won the election.

    Morgan bond transaction:     During the depression of 1893 to 1897, the gold reserve dwindled to $41 million. Cleveland turned to Wall Street bankers J.P. Morgan and August Belmont agreed to lend the government $62 million in exchange for U.S. bonds at a special discount. The government then bought gold, which restored confidence in the government.

    Wilson-Gorman Tariff: In order to increase the sight of the governments role in an age of towering fortunes, this tariff became a law without the signature of approval from Cleveland. It did have a modest income tax of 12% on all income over $4000, but the supreme court declared it unconstitutional in 1895.

    Dingley tariff:     The McKinley administration furthered its conservative platform through the Dingley Tariff of 1897, which increased rates to all-time high levels. The Currency Act of 1900 officially changed the U.S. to the gold standard. Due to the discovery of gold in Alaska and the prosperity of farms prices, there was little protest against the Dingley tariff.

    Gold Standard Act, 1900:     This act officially put the United States on the gold standard. It was passed by William McKinley’s administration during a time when both the House of Representatives and the Senate were dominated by Republicans. Subsequent to this act, the U.S. went on and off the gold standard several times and abandoned it in 1971.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Industrial America

    Industrial America
    During the late 19th century, the industrial sectors of society rapidly expanded. Corporations emerged, and the captains of industry created ,major industrial empires that drastically changed the face of American business. Although many opposed the large businesses when they hurt individuals, Americans generally favored industrialization. Even the common man shared in the American desire to gain wealth through the new industrial economy.

    Laissez-faire: It meant non-governmental interference in business. The doctrine favors capitalist self-interest, competition, and natural consumer preferences as forces leading to optimal prosperity and freedom. It began in the late 18th century as a strong liberal reaction to trade taxation and nationalist governmental control known as mercantilism.

    Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations: In The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, Adam Smith believed that self-interest was an "invisible hand in the marketplace, automatically regulating the supply of and demand for goods and services." He endorsed a laissez-faire approach to economics and was the first to define the system of capitalism.

    Andrew Carnegie:     Carnegie decided to build his own steel mill in 1870. His philosophy was simple: "watch the costs and the profit will take care of themselves." At the age of 33, when he had an annual income of $50,000, he said, "beyond this never earn, make no effort to increase fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes."

    Union Pacific Railroad, Central Pacific Railroad:     The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 had authorized the construction of the transcontinental railroad. The Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads were joined together to form the first transcontinental railroad in May 1869 when railroad executives drove a golden spike into the ground at Promontory Point, Utah in order to connect the two. It allowed Americans to travel from coast to coast in a week; it had previously taken several months to do so.

    "Robber Barrons": Known as the great captains of industy and as robber barons who lined their pockets, these captains, or villains, of industry made their money by manipulating the stock markets and company policies. Some of these Robber Barrons were Jay Gould, Hill, and John D. Rockefeller.

    John D. Rockefeller:     He is famous for his Standard Oil Company. He had a desire for cost cutting and efficiency. Rockefeller helped form the South Improvement Company in early 1872, which was an association of the largest oil refiners in Cleveland, and he arranged with the railroads to obtain substantial rebates on shipments by members of the association.

    Standard Oil Company:     The Standard Oil Company was organized in 1870 by Rockefeller, his brother William, and several associates. In 1882 Rockefeller formed the Standard Oil Trust. This, the first corporate trust, was declared an illegal monopoly and ordered dissolved by the Ohio Supreme Court in 1892.

    Horizontal consolidation: Within three years, the Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude oil by buying throughout its member firms. It had slashed the number of refineries in half. Rockefeller integrated the petroleum industry horizontally by merging the competing oil companies into one giant system.

    Vertical consolidation: The Standard Oil Trust had consolidated crude-oil buying throughout it members firms and slashed the number of refineries in half. Rockefeller integrated the petroleum industry vertically by controlling every function from production to local retailing. He controlled all aspects of manufacturing from mining to selling.

    Henry Clay Frick:     Frick’s job was to manage the daily operations of Carnegie’s company. With Frick’s great leadership, Carnegie’s steel mill profits rose every year despite labor troubles and a national depression. With Henry’s help, Carnegie was free to pursue philanthropic activities.

    Charles Schwab:     He became president of Carnegie Steel when he bought half of the company for half a billion dollars. Therefore, he combined Carnegie’s company with Federal Steel. After the agreement, Morgan set up the U.S. Steel corporation. This became the first business to capitalize at more than $1 billion dollars.

    Thomas A. Edison: He epitomized the inventive impulse. An American inventor, his development of a practical electric light bulb, electric generating system, sound-recording device, and motion picture projector had advanced the life of modern society. He shared the same dream as Carnegie to interconnect industry system with technology.

    Alexander Graham Bell:     An American inventor and teacher of the deaf, he was most famous for his invention of the telephone. Since the age of 18, Bell had been working on the idea of transmitting speech. He was one of the cofounders of the National Geographic Society, and he served as its president from 1896 to 1904. He also founded the journal Science in 1883. His other inventions includes the induction balance, audiometer, and the first was recording cylinder introduced in 1885.

    Leland Stanford:     An American Railroad magnate and a politician, he served as the Republican governor of California and the U.S. senator from California. With Hill, he started the Central Pacific Railroad Company, and in 1870, he founded the Southern Pacific Railroad Company.

    James G. Hill, Great Northern Railroad: He reorganized and expanded the railroad industry in the 1870s and 1880s. He was exemplified as a robber baron who manipulated stock markets and company policies. He and three other partners bought the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad.

    Cornelius Vanderbilt: An American industrialist and philanthropist, he became associated with the New York and Harlem Railroad in 1867, and became president in 1886. At the same time he began to act as head of the Vanderbilt family. He founded the Vanderbilt University.

    Bessemer process: The process consisted of a shot of air blasted through an enormous crucible of molten iron to burn off carbon and impurities. This new technology, combined with cost analysis, provided a learning railroad experience for Carnegie. The bessemer invention offered a means of driving up profits, lowering cost, and improving efficiency.

    United States Steel Corporation, Elbert H. Gary:     Gary was a lawyer who later became president of the Federal Steel Company in 1898. Gary was a strong foe of unions, but he introduced profit sharing and encouraged higher wages and better working conditions. The city of Gary, Indiana., originally a steel company town, is named after him.

    Mesabi Range:     Andrew Carnegie bought an ore company in the newly opened Mesabi Range in Minnesota in 1892. The hills contained large deposits of iron ore. The Mesabi Range is one of the chief iron-producing regions in the world. Iron production began there in the late 19th century.

    J. Pierpont Morgan: When national depression struck a number of railroads in 1893, Morgan refinanced their debts and built an intersystem alliance by purchasing blocks of stock in the world of competing railroads. He also marketed U.S. government securities on a massive scale.

    Gustavus Swift, Phillip Armour:     Swift, a Chicago meatpacker, and Philip Armour turned pigs and cattle into bacon, pork chops, and steaks. They also developed the technique of refrigerating food in order to ship food across seas. They both won a large share of the eastern urban market for meat.

    James B. Duke: An American tobacco industrialist and philanthropist whose career originated with a small family business, James, along with four partners, merged to form the American Tobacco Company in 1890. The family concentrated on cigarette production in 1881. Within few years, James lead and dominated the national market.

    Andrew Mellon: An American financier, industrialist, and statesman, and educated at the University of Pennsylvania, he started his career in the banking firm of Thomas Mellon and Sons of Pittsburgh. He later became a partner and the president, in 1902, of the firm that developed into the Mellon National Bank.

    "Stock watering": This term referred to the act of issuing stock certificates far in excess of the actual value of the assets. Some who "stock watered" persuaded the populace to buy up stock, but then sold the stock when prices rose, and made a profit while ruining the business of other investors. This was during 1890 when the stock market was at an all time high.

    Jay Cook Co.:     He was a Philadelphia banker who had taken over the new transcontinental line, the Northern Pacific, in 1869. In September of that year, his vault was full of bonds that he could no longer sell. Cook fail to meet obligation and his bank, which was the largest in the nation, was shut down.

    Jay Gould and Jim Fiske: They attempted to corner the gold market in 1869 with the help of Grant’s brother-in-law. When gold prices tumbled, Gould and Fiske salvaged their own fortunes. Unfortunately, investors were ruined. Grant’s reputation was tarnished and could not be restored.

    Pool, Trust: Competition became so vicious that railroads tried to end it by establishing pools in order to divide the traffic equally and to charge similar rates. The pool lacked legal status, while the trust was a legal device that centralized control over a number of different companies by setting up a board of trustees to run all of them.

    Rebates: A rebate is a partial monetary return of an amount paid. The Interstate Commerce Act prohibited rebates for railway rates because they discriminated between different groups. Small farmers were angered that they were required to pay more than other interests were. This Act was passed in 1887 with the Interstate Commerce Commission.

    Depression of 1873: Early in Grant’s second term, the country was hit by an economic depression known as the panic of 1873. Brought on by over expansive tendencies of railroad builders and businessmen during the immediate postwar boom, the Panic was triggered by economic downturns in Europe and by the failure of Jay Cooke’s bank.

    Holding Companies: A holding company is a corporation that owns a controlling share of the stock of one or more other firms. When Standard Oil faced the problem of antitrust suits in 1892, lawyers invoked New Jersey law that allowed permitted corporations to own property in other states by simply reorganizing the trust as an enormous holding company.

    Fourteenth Amendment’s "due process clause":     The fourteenth amendment declared in its first clause that all person born or naturalized in the United States were recognized as citizens of the nation and as citizens of their states and that no state could abridge their rights without due process of law or deny them equal protection of the law.

    Interstate Commerce Act, Interstate Commerce Commission: The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was passed to provide that a commission be established to oversee fair and just railway rates, prohibit rebates, end discriminatory practices, and require annual reports and financial statements. The act established a new agncy, the Interstate Commerce Commission, which allowed the government to investigate and oversee railroad activities.

    Long haul, short haul:     It was cheaper to ship a long haul on the railroads than it was to ship a short haul. Small farmers were angered that they, who made many short hauls, were discriminated against. In the 1870s, many state legislatures, outlawed rate discrimination as a result of protests led by the Grangers.

    Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890:     Fearing that the trusts would stamp out all competition, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890, which outlawed trusts and other restraints of trade. Violators were fined up to five thousand dollars and one year in prison. The Sherman Antitrust act failed to define either trust or restraint of trade clearly. As a result, between 1890 and 1904, the government prosecuted only eighteen antitrust suits, and it was instead used to hinder the efforts of labor unions who acted "in restraint of trade."

    Frank Norris, The Octopus:The U.S. novelist Frank Norris, was a noted pioneer of naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology on the human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus, published in 1901, and The Pit , published in 1903, attack the railroad and wheat industries in the United States.

    New South, Henry Grady: Henry Grady was a U.S. journalist and orator born in Athens, Georgia. He bought share in Atlantic Constitution in 1879. As editor, he did much to restore friendly relations between the North and South during a period of bitter hatred and conflict. He often lectured on the concept of "The New South," which referred to a rejuvenated south.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    New Imperialism

    "New Imperialism"
    Growing into a leading nation, the United States hoped to further its international standing by emulating European nations that were expanding their influence throughout the world. During the 1870s, the U.S. "new imperialism" was directed towards finding access to resources, markets for surplus production, and opportunities for overseas investments. Although the U.S. did expand its influence in other countries, it preferred market expansion to the traditional European territorial colonialsim.

    Alaska: Secretary of state William H. Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska in 1867. $7.2 million was paid to Russia for Alaska, and it was highly contested by Congress. Also known as "Seward’s Icebox" or "Seward’s folly," it was generally thought to be useless, but later proved to be an excellent addition.

    Pan Americanism, James Blaine:     In 1881 Secretary of State James G. Blaine advocated the creation of an International Bureau of American Republics to promote a customs union of trade and political stability for the Western Hemisphere. The assassination of Garfield kept Blaine from his organization until 1889.

    US mediation of border disputes:     The United States offered its aid to promote the peaceful resolution of border conflict between a number of states. The United States also worked to bring an end to the War of the Pacific which was fought between Chile and the alliance of Peru and Bolivia.

    Port of Pago Pago:     Restless stirrings in America were felt in the far-off Samoan Island in the South Pacific. The U.S. navy sought access to the Port of Pago Pago as a refueling station. The U.S. ratified a treaty with Samoa in 1878 which gave America trading rights and a naval base at Pago Pago.

    Tariff autonomy to Japan: During the Meiji period following the collapse of the shogunate, Japan transformed, from its traditionally isolationist feudal society into a world power, taking on imperialistic quailites. Emperor Meiji took it upon himself to enact tariffs, and thus, Japan controlled its own tariffs.

    Hawaiian Revolution:     Hawaii’s wholesale sugar prices plummeted as a result of the elimination of the duty-free status enjoyed by Hawaiian sugar. Facing ruin, the planters deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Jan 1893, proclaimed the independent Republic of Hawaii, and requested U.S. annexation. Hawaii was claimed as an American territory in 1898.

    Sino-Japanese War: A Chinese patrol clashed with Japanese troops on the Marco Polo Bridge near Beijing on July 7, 1937. Using the incident as a pretext to begin hostilities, the Japanese army in Manchuria moved troops into the area, precipitating another Sino-Japanese war. Although the war was never actually declared.

    Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power:     A Union naval officer during the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, Mahan served in the navy for nearly 40 years. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1885. The title of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, received international recognition as a comprehensive of naval strategy.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Reform Populism In The 1890s

    Reform Populism In The 1890s
    Populism emerged in the 19th century in order to reform the system from within. Creating the Populist Party with James Weaver as their presidential candidate, the Populists strove to bring their reforms into the political limelight. Although they did not succeed in electing their candidate to the presidency, many of their reforms were later enacted.

    Granger Movement: During the decade of the 1870s, U.S. farmers were beset with problems of high costs, debts, and small profits. the farmers made their grievances known through the Granger Movement. Membership peaked in the mid-1870s. There was little the farmers could do concerning prices. Only in 1877 did the Supreme Court rule that states could regulate businesses of a public nature. To counteract unjust business practices, the farmers were urged to start cooperatives such as grain elevators, creameries, and stores.

    Granger Laws:     The Grangers in various states lobbied state legislatures in 1874 to pass maximum rate laws for freight shipment. The railroads appealed to the Supreme Court to declare the "Granger laws" unconstitutional. Instead, the Court ruled against the railroad’s objections in Munn v. Illinois.

    Farmers’ Alliance:     This alliance was a political organization created to help fight railroad abuses and to lower interest rates. It called for government regulation of the economy in order to redress their greivanes. It was founded in New York in 1873, and consisted of the Northwest Farmers' Alliance in the north and the National Farmers' Alliance and Independent Union in the south. They failed to unite, however, and in 1892 gave way to the Populist party.

    Populist Party Platform, Omaha Platform, 1892:     The Populist party, or people's party, was a party that represented the "common man." It was created towards the end of the nineteenth century. Some of their goals included creating postal savings banks, enacting immigration restriction, setting a graduated income tax and limiting the presidency to a single six-year term. The Populist platform represented views of farmers in the West. The Omaha platform of 1892 nominated James Weaver of Iowa for president.

    "Crime of 1873": This is the term given to a federal law of 1873, which adopted the gold standard over the silver standard. This dropped silver coinage in favor of gold coinage, by advocating free silver. This "Crime of 1873" was one of the motivating forces behind the beginning of the Free Silver movement.

    Bland-Allison Act: This act was passed over the presidential veto in 1878 and required the secretary of the treasury to buy at least 2 million dollars of silver each month and coin it into dollars. Because of its weight and bulk and the fact that it had not been coined since 1806, most of the silver did not circulate; rather, remained in the treasury.

    Sherman Silver Purchase Act: This act forced the treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver each month.. However, the price of silver did not rise and precious gold was being drained away from the treasury while cheap silver piled up. This act, therefore, helped to precipitate the panic of 1893, and it caused a decrease in foreign investments in the U.S. economy.

    Bimetallism: Bimetallism is the use of both silver and gold as the basis of an economy as opposed to the use of one or the other or none. During the gold and free silver campaigns of the early 1900s, the Republicans believed in a money system based on the single gold standard, while the democrats believed in bimetallism.

    "Coin" Harvey: The silverites’ most influential piece of propaganda was William H. Harvey's Coin’s Financial School, published in 1894. It explained the monetary issue in simplified partisan terms, denounced "the conspiracy of the Goldbugs," and insisted that the free coinage of silver would eliminate the debt.

    Free silver: This was a chiefly unsuccessful campaign in the late 19th-century U.S. for the unlimited coinage of silver. Major supporters of this movement were owners of silver mines, farmers, and debtors, for whom silver production would be economically favorable. William Jennings Bryan led the democratic party to support free silver during the 1890s.

    16 to 1: During the Panic of 1873 the world market ratio of silver to gold fell below the ratio of 16:1 for the first time in world history. This coincided with the opening of rich silver mines in the Western united States and also with post-Civil War deflation. It resulted in the movement in favor of free silver and bimetallism of the populists

    Depression of 1893:     This panic swept the country two months after the second inauguration of President Grover Cleveland. Banks closed their doors, railroads went bankrupt, and farm mortgages were foreclosed. People hoarded gold, and the treasury’s gold reserve was depleting. A notable cause was the struggle between the free silver and gold advocates.

    Coxey's Army, 1894:     This was actually a band of unemployed people who marched to Washington DC during the depression of 1894 under the leadership of Jacob S. Coxey, a quarry operator. They urged the enactment of laws which would provide money without interest for public improvements, which would create work for the unemployed.

    Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1893: In 1893 President Grover Cleveland, who stood for the gold standard, succeeded in having the Sherman Silver Purchase Act repealed over the strong objections of William Jennings Bryan. However, little gold was in the treasury; thus, the panic of 1893 could not be avoided and the crisis remained until 1896.

    Ocala Demands, 1890:     These demands were essentially a platform of the Democratic/ Populist party for the 1892 election created at a gathering in Ocala, Florida in 1890. Northern leaders generally favored a third party candidate, while Southerners feared that it would weaken the southern Democratic Party.

    Tom Watson:     An U.S. journalist, legislator, and a southern alliance leader from Georgia, he urged southern farmers to recognize their common plight and act together. He was also the Populist party’s presidential candidate in 1904 and 1908, served as a senator from 1921 to 1922, and edited The Weekly Jeffersonian, a populist magazine.

    James B. Weaver: An United States legislator and prominent figure during the Populist movement, he served as a congressman from 1879 to 1781 and 1885 to 1889. He was the presidential candidate of the Greenback and People’s parties in 1892. Weaver was also a former civil war general.

    "Pitchfork" Ben Tillman: An U.S. Populist party leader born in South Carolina, he was elected governor of South Carolina in 1890 and 1892, and he served on the U.S. Senate from 1894 to 1912. Very progressively minded, Tillman promoted many reform programs in South Carolina, including better public education.

    Mary Ellen Lease: She was a fiery lawyer from Wichita, Kansas who was very active in the movements for agrarian and labor reform. She burst out on to the scene in the 1890's as a spellbinding Southern alliance orator vehemently crying that the farmers needed to "raise less corn and more hell."

    "Sockless" Jerry Simpson:     He was an intelligent rancher from Kansas who lost his stock in the hard winter of 1886 to 1887, and he became a major Southern Alliance leader. When he mentioned the expensive silk stockings of a conservative politician and remarked that he could afford no such fineries a hostile newspaper editor named him "Sockless Jerry."

    Ignatius Donnelly:     A noted United States writer and a champion of the Populist Party, Donnelly served as an U.S. Congressman from Minnesota from 1863 to 1869. He also wrote Great Cryptogram in an attempt to prove that Francis Bacon wrote William Shakespeare's works.

    William Jennings Bryan: Despite the fact that he was defeated three times for the presidency of the United States, William Jennings Bryan, the principal figure of the Populist party, molded public opinion as few leaders have done. A surprise to the public, he polled many votes during the 1896 election, which may have been a direct result of his "Cross of Gold Speech." For many years he was the leader of the Democratic party, and it was his influence that won the Democratic presidential nomination for Wilson in 1912.

    "Cross of Gold Speech": William Jennings Bryan won the national Democratic convention's nomination for the presidency in 1896 through a vigorous appeal for free coinage of silver known as the "Cross of Gold" speech. Turning to those who wanted only gold as the monetary standard, he exclaimed: "You shall not crucify mankind upon this cross of gold." As a Populist, he did not support the gold standard since it would deflate the currency, which would make it more difficult for citizens to repay debts.

    Election of 1896, Candidates, Issues:     The presidential candidates were the Republican William McKinley from Pennsylvania, and the Democrat William J. Bryan. The Populists also supported Bryan for the presidency, but chose Tom Watson for the vice presidency. The Republicans believed in the gold standard, while the Democrats believed in bimetallism and the unlimited coinage of silver. McKinley won the election. The Populism collapsed after 1896, but Progressivism emerged in its wake.

    Marcus Hanna:     He was an industrialist who became convinced that the welfare of industry, and therefore the nation, was bound by the fortunes of the Republican party. To further his goals he waged the most expensive political campaign the nation had ever seen to get William McKinley elected president in 1896. He also served in the Senate.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Emergence Of Modern Woman

    The Emergence Of Modern Woman
    The new urban environment fostered the growth of feminism. As millions of women began to work outside the home, they saw themselves in a new light, and began to demand certain rights. Many women asserted their independence by participating in social reform movements. Along with their male counterparts, they crusaded for pressing reforms, such abolition and prohibition.

    Susan B. Anthony:     For more than half a century Susan B. Anthony fought for women's suffrage. She traveled from county to county in New York and other states making speeches and organizing clubs for women's rights. She pleaded her cause with every president from Abraham Lincoln to Theodore Roosevelt.

    Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A pioneer in the modern quest for women's rights, Stanton helped to organize a political movement that demanded voting rights for women. She was a prominent leader in the campaign for what became the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution which guaranteed female suffrage.

    Carrie Chapman Catt:     When Susan B. Anthony retired in 1900 from the NAWSA, she chose Carrie Chapman Catt to take her place. Though Catt was forced to resign in 1904 due to her husbands illness, she remained active in NAWSA and in 1915 became its president. After this, Catt continued to play a large role in the fight for Women's rights.

    Alice Paul:     Alice Paul was a U.S. woman suffragist who was born in Moorestown, N.J. She was imprisoned three times in England and three times in the U.S. for activities in woman suffrage movement. She led the Congressional Union for Women's Suffrage, later called the National Woman's party, in lobbying for the right to vote during World War I.

    Women’s Christian Temperance Union:     The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded in 1874. Partly through their efforts, six states adopted Prohibition by 1890. It became the nation’s first mass organization of women. Its activities included welfare work, prison reform, labor arbitration and public health.

    Francis Willard:     In 1874 a temperance crusade swept the United States. A young lecturer and educator, Frances Willard, joined the movement, became famous for building the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). She soon became the president of the newly formed union. Willard stressed religion and morality in her work.

    Carry A. Nation: A vehement foe of alcoholic beverages, Carry A. Nation would appear at a saloon, berate the customers, and proceed to damage as much of the place as she could with her hatchet. She was the scourge of tavern owners and drinkers alike in Kansas, as well as in many other states.

    Clara Barton:     Single-handedly, she organized supply depots to serve Civil War soldiers. For four years after the war, she headed the search for missing soldiers. In 1872 she campaigned to organize a branch of the Red Cross in the United States. She succeeded in 1881. For 23 years she directed Red Cross work in every great disaster.

    Colleges admitting women:     By the end of the 19th century the number of women students had increased greatly. Higher education was broadened by the rise of women's colleges and the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of resident college students were women. By 1900 this had increased to more than one third.

    Bicycling emerges as a hobby for women: Constraints on women were loosened toward the end of the nineteenth century when bicycling swept the U.S. Fearful of waning vitality, middle and upper-class women turned to bicycle riding as a source of exercise, recreation, and a way to escape the restrictive Victorian attitudes towards female physical activity.

    Divorce rate: By the turn of the twentieth century divorce rate in the United States had started to steadily grow. This was due to more opportunities for women which made them less economically dependent on their husbands. An increased number of people living in the cities also contributed to the fact that cities had higher divorce rates than rural areas.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Flowering Of American Culture

    The Flowering Of American Culture
    Along with the new social currents of the day caused by rapid urbanization, immigration, and the growth of business, came a fervor of cultural display. American culture diversified as Americans saw the society around them drastically changing, causing them to strive to express their views through various forms.

    Henry James: James was a writer and brother of philosopher William James. He wrote about the impact of European culture on Americans who traveled or lived abroad. Some of his famous writings include The Ambassadors, The Wings of the Dove, and The Golden Bowl.

    Charles Darwin: Darwin was a British Scientist who created the theory of modern evolution. In his theory, the development of organisms came through a process called natural selection, which is often called "survival of the fittest." His theories were presented in his novel The Origin of Species.

    Rev. Russell Conwell, "Acres of Diamonds":     Conwell was a Baptist minister who preached about ordinary man's and capitalist's materialistic longings. He used religious virtue to justify the quest for wealth as a Christian endeavor. This was the message in his "Acres of Diamonds" lecture, which he gave over 6000 times.

    Dwight L. Moody: Moody was the creator of the Illinois Street Church which was later renamed the Moody Memorial Church. Together with Ira Sankey, he began a series of revival meetings and opened the Northfield Seminary for Young Women and the Mount Hermon School for Boys. He also founded the Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889.

    Rerum Novarum, 1891:     Formulated by Pope Leo XIII, it was the Catholic social doctrine. It held private property as a natural right, and it found fault with capitalism for the poverty and insecurity that it left the working class in. Many Catholic socialism movements are derived from this.

    Charles Sheldon, In His Steps: He was a Congregational clergyman and a social reformer. He was also the author of the book In His Steps , which is the story of people who tried to pattern their lives after the life of Jesus. It emphasized social problems which tied it into the Social Gospel Movement.

    Mary Baker Eddy: She was the founder of the Christian Science Association and the Church of Christ, Scientist. After a remarkable recovery from sickness, she published Science and Health, about the fundamentals of her metaphysical system of healing. In addition, she founded the international daily newspaper Christian Science Monitor.

    Chautauqua Movement: Methodists John Heyl Vincent and Lewis Miller founded this movement, which combined daily Bible studies with healthful recreation. It later expanded to include concerts, lectures, and courses in science and humanities. The movement was imitated numerous times in the United States.

    Johns Hopkins University:     Financed by John Hopkins, it is an institution of higher learning in Baltimore, Maryland. It was founded in 1876. It is world renowned for its medical school and its applied physics laboratory. Former President Woodrow Wilson received his Ph.D. in political science here.

    Charles W. Eliot, Harvard: Educated at Harvard University, he was an assistant professor of mathematics and chemistry there for five years. In 1869, he became the president of Harvard, who remodeled the curriculum on a liberal basis. He created a set of books containing 50 volumes known as Harvard Classics.

    Josiah Willard Gibbs: At Yale, he was a professor of mathematical physics for 34 years. He laid the foundations of the modern understanding of electromagnetic phenomenon and thermodynamics. The real importance of his studies and theoretical descriptions of the behavior of subatomic particles have only been recently recognized.

    Morrill Land Act, 1862: Introduced to Congress by Republican Justin Morrill, the act introduced a bill to establish state colleges of agriculture and to bring higher education within the reach of the common people. Proceeds from the sale of public lands were given to states to fund the establishment of these universities of agriculture and mechanics. They were called land grant colleges and were located in the Midwest and West. Many universities such as Michigan, Iowa State, and Purdue profited from its provisions.

    Hatch Act, 1887: It was an act written by Representative William Henry Hatch of Missouri. This act gave each state $15,000 a year to help establish and maintain agricultural experiment stations. It was a supplement to the land grant colleges, which the government in order to promte the teaching of agriculture.

    "gilded age":     Given its name by the novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley, it is a time period which criticized the lobbyists, swindlers, politicians who took bribes, and those who got rich in the postwar boom. The period was characterized by industrial production, westward expansion, immigration, and urban growth, as well as strikes, depressions, despair and bitterness, buoyancy and free-spending. The span of this era ranges from the end of the Civil War, 1869, to the turn of the century.

    Nouveau riche: It was the new class of people which was created by the wealth and prosperity generated from the industrial capitalism and the big businesses. This class grew during the Gilded Age. Most of these people were self-made and showed their importance through ostentatious displays. Robber barons were included in this class.

    William James:     James was a philosopher and psychologist, who came up with the philosophy of pragmatism, which is summed up in his lectures entitled Pragmatism: A New Name for Old Ways of Thinking. As a psychologist, he wrote his famous Principles of Psychology which established him as one of the most influential thinkers of the time.

    Pragmatism:     Developed by William James and Charles Sanders Pierce, it is a philosophical doctrine stating that the test of the truth of a proposition is its practical utility, the effect of an idea is more important than its origin, and the purpose of thought is to guide action.

    E.L. Godkin, editor of The Nation: Godkin was an editor, whose criticism in his book The Nation and New York's Evening Post, which he edited, was influential in the reform movement. He and others codified the standards in the Victorian era in both literature and the fine arts. He was also a former mugwump and anti-imperialist.

    William Dean Howells: Howells was a novelist, critic, and editor of the Atlantic, who championed authors such as Stephen Crane, Mark Twain, Frank Norris, and Henry James. He was also president of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. In his life he wrote many works, including A Fearful Responsibility, and The Rise of Silas Lapham.

    Stephen Crane:     Cranes was a writer and poet who began the use of the naturalistic style of writing. His most famous novels include The Red Badge of Courage, Maggie, a Girl of the Streets, and The Open Boats and Other Stories. The Black Riders and Other Lines, and War is Kind and Other Poems are two volumes of his poems.

    Hamlin Garland: Garland was a short story writer who used his experiences working on farms in Iowa and South Dakota as central themes for his countless short stories that denounced American farm life. He published these stories under the titles Main-Travelled Roads and Other Main-Travelled Roads.

    Bret Harte: Harte was a writer who was also the editor of the Overland Monthly, which published many of his famous works. These stories included "The Luck of Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat." He published a collection of his works called The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Short Stories. He also wrote for Atlantic Monthly.

    Mark Twain: Twain was a writer named Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who used Mark Twain as his pseudonym. He is characterized by his humor and sharp social satire. His many famous novels include The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn, Tom Sawyer, and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.

    The Gilded Age, Mark Twain and Charles Dudley: It is a novel written in a time when materialism and corruption controlled the lives of Americans. It was written by Twain, and Dudley was the coauthor. Many of the characters in the novel were recognized by readers of the book as figures in society.

    Horatio Alger's Books for Youth: Alger was a writer of juvenile fiction. His novels held a theme of rags to riches, where poor youth would win fame and money by having virtues of honesty, diligence, and perseverance. Among his collection are Luck and Pluck, Tattered Tom, and his most famous Ragged Dick. By emphasizing merit rather than focusing on social status as the way to determine success, his more than 100 novels had a major impact on the youth of that time.

    James McNeill Whistler: Whistler was an etcher and painter who was a champion of modern art. He also incorporated Japanese styles of art and made many technical innovations in art. He is also well known for his portraits. The White Girl and Twelve Etchings from Nature are his most famous etchings.

    Winslow Homer:     One of the greatest American painters, Winslow Homer is best known for his watercolors and oil paintings of the sea. These paintings often have great dramatic effect because of the way they show man's powerlessness in the face of the unfeeling and mysterious forces of nature.

    Joseph Pulitzer:     Joseph Pulitzer was a large newspaper publisher. In the newspaper circulation wars of the 1890s, publisher Joseph Pulitzer was one of the leading combatants. His chief opponent was William Randolph Hearst. The two used every tactic, including sensational yellow journalism, to encourage people to buy their papers.

    William Randolph Hearst:     Through dishonest and exaggerated reporting, William Randolph Hearst's newspapers whipped up public sentiment against Spain, actually helping to cause the Spanish-American War. Hearst was quite willing to take credit for this, as his New York City newspaper testified in an 1898 headline: "How Do You Like the Journal’s War?"

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Frontier West

    The Frontier West
    As America expanded, many Americans desired to move westward and cultivate new lands. Federal government policies intended to facilitate the move westward, but it was often at the expense of the Native Americans who already occupied the land. As Americans continued to move the frontier farther and farther west, America expanded across the continent.

    Great American Desert: For years, the geography of the U.S. was unknown to most Americans. Their perceptions of western regions were drawn from descriptions left by early travelers. Maps published prior to the Civil War often called the Great Plains area the "Great American Desert." It was a region deemed unfit for settlement.

    Homestead Act, 1862: This act cut up Western public lands into many small holdings for the free farmers. It was originally started by Andrew Johnson as the first homestead bill but met strong opposition by Southern Representatives and therefore could not be passed until the secession of the Southern States during the Civil War.

    Barbed wire, Joseph Glidden:     Barbed wire was invented and patented by Joseph Glidden in 1874 and had a major impact on the cattle industry of the Western U.S. Accustomed to allowing their cattle to roam the open range, many farmers objected to barbed wire. Others used it to fence in land or cattle that did not belong to them.

    I    ndian Appropriations Act, 1871: By this act Congress decided that Indian tribes were no longer recognized as sovereign powers with whom treaties must be made. Existing treaties, though, were still to be considered valid, but violations continued to occur. This lead to many conflicts, including that between the Sioux and the U.S. at Little Big Horn.

    Plains Indians:     Great Plains tribes began attacking wagon trains carrying settlers during the 1850s. They had been angered by settlers who drove away the buffalo herds they depended on for food, clothing, and shelter. When war would break out, the Indians would either be defeated and transported, or a treaty would be made in which they lost part of their lands.

    Chivington Massacre:     The United States Army, led by Colonel John M. Chivington, attacked and massacred the Cheyenne Indians that were settled along Sand Creek, Colorado in 1864. At the time, the Cheyenne were being led by Chief Black Kettle, and were attacked despite a previous agreement made with the governor.

    Battle of Little Big Horn:     The Sioux refused to sell the land to the government in 1875, and refused to leave the area to inhabit reservations. When the Sioux refused, the army under Lieut. Col. Custer, was sent to enforce the order.In this battle the main body of Indians, under Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, wiped out General Custer's men in 1876.

    Chief Joseph: When he became chief of the Nez Perce Indian tribe in the American Northwest in 1871, Joseph led his people in an unsuccessful resistance to white settlers who were confiscating land. The tribe was ordered to move. Joseph agreed, but when three of his tribe killed a group of settlers, he attempted to escape to Canada with his followers.

    Ghost Dance Movement: As the Sioux population dwindled as a result of the federal government policies, they turned to the Ghost Dance to restore their original dominance on the Plains. Wearing the Ghost Shirts, they engaged in ritual dances that they believed would protect them from harm. The ritual allowed them to reaffirm their culture amidst the chaos.

    Battle of Wounded Knee: Convinced that Sitting Bull was going to lead an uprising, the United States Army massacred more than 200 Indians at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on Dec. 29, 1890. After the incident, the Ghost Dance movement which had been recently revived by Indians rapidly died out. This event ended the conquest of the American Indian.

    Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor:     This book, by Jackson, was a discourse concerning the plight of American Indians published in 1881. She gathered information regarding American Indians and their lives while serving on a federal commission investigating the treatment of Indians. Jackson also wrote Ramona concerning the same topic.

    Dawes Severalty Act, 1887: It was proposed by Henry L. Dawes, and was passed in 1887. It was designed to reform what well-meaning but ignorant whites perceived to be the weaknesses of Indian life-- the lack of private property, the absence of a Christian based religion, the nomadic traditions of the Indians, and the general instability in their way of life -- by turning Indians into farmers. The main point of the law was to emphasize treating Indians as individuals as opposed to members in a tribe, or severalty.

    Frederick Jackson Turner, Frontier Thesis:     In his analysis of how the frontier, moving from east to west, shaped the American character and institutions, Turner decisively rejected the then common belief that the European background had been primarily responsible for the characteristics of the United States. He also justified overseas economic expansion as a means to secure political power at a time when America began focusing on expanding its influence throughout the world.

    Safety Valve Thesis:     This assertion stated that as immigrants came to the eastern United States during the late nineteenth century and "polluted" American culture, citizens of the U.S. would have the West as a "safety valve" to which they could go in order to revitalize their pure Americanism.

    Comstock Lode: One of the richest silver mines in the United States was discovered in 1859 at the Comstock Lode in Nevada. This discovery contributed to the speed by which Virginia City, Nevada was built. An influx of settlers came to Nevada, and Nevada granted statehood in 1864.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Growth Of Labor

    The Growth Of Labor
    Reacting to the emergence of big business, workers organized themselves to protect their welfare. Feeling that they were helpless against the practices of the large corporations, workers collectivized to gain power through their numbers. Labor Unions, such as the National Labor Union and the Knights of Labor, were created in order to establish forums for workers to express discontent.

    National Labor Union, William Sylvis:     In 1866, acting on his dream of a nationwide association to represent all workers. Sylvis called a convention in Baltimore that formed the National Labor Union (NLU). The organization supported the eight-hour day movement, but also embraced banking reform and an end to conviction labor.

    Knights of Labor, Uriah Stephens, Terrence Powderly:     The Knights of labor dreamed of a national labor movement. This organization was founded in Philadelphia in 1869, and was led by Uriah Stephens, who was also the head of the Garment Cutters of Philadelphia. They welcomed all wage earners, and demanded equal pay for women, an end to child and convict labor, and cooperative employer-employee ownership. In their organization, they excluded bankers, lawyers, professional gambler, and liquor dealers.

    American Federation of Labor (AFL): Confronted by big business, Samuel Gompers and Adolph Strasser put together a combination of national crafts unions to represent the material interests of labor in the matter of wages, hours, and safety precautions. They demanded bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations such as railroads, mining, and manufacturing. They did not intend to have a violent revolution nor political radicalism.

    Samuel Gompers: An American labor leader, he, as president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), stressed cooperation between management and labor instead of strike actions, as a means of obtaining labor demands. He led the AFL for forty years, until his death in 1924.

    Collective bargaining:     The major function of unions is collective bargaining, a process by which unions and employers negotiate terms of employment. The terms are set forth in a written agreement that the union and the employer promise to enforce. The AFL demanded collective bargaining in labor contracts with large corporations.

    Injunction: An injuntion is a court order. It was generally used against strikers. It is an order or decree in the law of equity, requiring a defendant to refrain from committing a specific act, either in process or threatened, injurious to the plaintiff. Injunctions are generally preventive, restraining, or prohibitory in nature.

    Pinkertons:     They were a group in Allan Pinkerton’s organization, the National Detective Agency. They often spied on the unions for the companies. In 1877, when a railroad strike broke out, they were called in as strikebreakers. In the Homestead Strike, the Pinkertons fired on the strikers, killing many of them.

    Closed Shop:     The closed shop is an agreement between a trade union and an employer which is a collective bargain. It provides that employees in the bargaining unit shall be union members and remain in good standing in the union as a condition of employment. Many of these shops were banned by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947.

    Blacklist, Yellow Dog Contracts: With the formation of labor unions, workers began to strike to obtain better conditions. However, employers blacklisted employees that went on strike, which which made getting another job later much harder. They also made employees sign yellow dog contracts, which forced the employee to agree not to strike or join a union.

    Company Union: First adapted by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in 1915, it was a company-sponsored labor union that was dominated by the management. The workers wanted unions, and they got them, but they were controlled by the management, so the company had the final word on the labor policy.

    Great Railroad Strike, 1877: A group of railroad workers on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad rose up and began to strike due to wage cuts. This spread up and down the railroad line across the nation. Railroad roadhouse were torched. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in troops to stop the strike. 100 people died in the strike.

    haymarket square riot: Strikers and police had a confrontation while a strike was in progress on May 4, 1886, at the McCormick reaper works in Chicago. Several protesters were shot by police the day before, and a protest against police violence was called. The police were attempting to break up the meeting when a bomb was thrown by a protester. A violent gun battle ensuedin which seven police were killed. Many police and civilians were injured as well.

    John Peter Altgeld: He served as the liberal governor of Illinois from 1893 to 1897. He was criticized for pardoning the anarchists who threw the bomb in the Haymarket Square Riot and for objecting to the use of federal troops in the Pullman strike. His action was considered dangerously radical by the American public.

    Homestead Strike:     Called in 1892 by the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers, it was one of the most violent strikes in U.S. history. It was against the Homestead Steel Works, which was part of the Carnegie Steel Company, in Pennsylvania in retaliation against wage cuts. On July 6, company guards and Pinkertons opened fire on the strikers after four months of striking, killing and wounding many strikers. The state militia dispersed the strikers.

    American Railway Union: Created by Eugene V. Debs, it was a union created in a short-lived attempt to bring all of the railroad workers into one organization. This union was a precursor of the union movement that followed in the 1930s. The union was involved in the 1894 Pullman Strike.

    Pullman Strike: The American Railway Union and Eugene V. Debs led a nonviolent strike which brought about a shut down of western railroads, which took place against the Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago in 1894, because of the poor wages of the Pullman workers. President Grover Cleveland interfered and stopped the strike by saying that they had interfered with the right of the government to maintain the uninterrupted transport of mail. Debs was arrested and the strike was broken up.

    Eugene V. Debs:     As the president and the organizer of the American Railway Union, he helped bring about the shut down of western railroads with the 1894 Pullman Strike. He was arrested for these actions. He also helped organize the Social Democrat party in 1897, after meeting socialist Victor Berger. He was the party’s presidential candidate five times: in 1900, 1904, 1908, and 1912. He later became a lecturer and organizer for the Socialist movement.

    Richard Olney: He was the United States Attorney General from 1893 to 1897. He also sat on the board of directors of three major networks of railroads. The General Manager’s Association attempted to get an federal injunction from Olney against the strikers for refusing to move cars carrying U.S. mail.

    Danbury Hatters Strike:     The Supreme Court declared in 1908, after a strike by workers in Danbury, Connecticut, which was known for its hat industry, that unions were prohibited from setting up boycotts in support of strikes. It was said that a boycott was a "conspiracy in restraint of trade."

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Middle Class Reform Impulse

    The Middle Class Reform Impulse
    As Americans viewed the poverty throughout their cities, middle class Americans strove to enact reform measures that would aid their society. Groups were formed to aid the less fortunate Americans who inhabited the slums of the cities. Although these citizens strove to aid their fellow man, in many cases, there was a prevalent feeling of condecension towards the poorer classes.

    Jane Addams, Hull House: She was a social worker and a Nobel laureate. With the help of Ellen Star, she created the Hull House in 1889 in Chicago, which was the first settlement house in the U.S. It was a welfare agency for needy families, and it also served to combat juvenile delinquency and to assist the recent immigrants in learning the English language and in becoming citizens. In addition, in 1912, Addams played a large role in the formation of the National Progressive Party and the Women’s Peace Party.

    Lester Frank Ward: Ward worked with the U.S. Geological Survey. He argued against William Graham Sumner in his Dynamic Sociology and stated that the laws of nature could be changed by mankind through government experts regulating big business, protecting society’s weaker classes, and preventing the destruction of natural resources.

    Social Gospel: It was a Protestant liberal movement led by Washington Gladden and Walter Rauschenbusch that applied Christian principles to the numerous social problems that affected the late 19th century United States as a result of industrialization. The movement preached and taught religion and human dignity to the working class in order to correct the effects of capitalism. In 1908 the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America adopted a social creed that called for many improvements in society.

    Walter Rauschenbusch: He was a clergyman who was one of the leaders of the Social Gospel movement. He sought to solve social problems caused by the industrialized society by applying Christian principles. He also helped found the Society of Jesus to publish periodicals for the working class.

    Washington Gladden: He was a Congregationalist minister who became known for his pragmatic social theology. He linked theological liberalism with strong social concern. He worked with Walter Rauschenbusch as a leader of the Social Gospel movement. In addition, he wrote 38 books, which include Working People and their Employers.

    Anti-Saloon League:     During and after the American Civil War, the laws regulating many aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in this league in the fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23 states and in 1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.

    Salvation Army: Founded by Methodist William Booth, it is a religious and charitable organization dedicated to spreading the Christian faith and giving assistance to those in need of both spiritual and material aid. It was founded in 1865 in England as the Christian Mission, whose goal was to give aid to the London slums.

    YMCA: British Sir George Williams founded this organization in response to unsanitary social conditions in large cities at the end of the Industrial Revolution, and to stop the young workers from gambling and engaging in other disreputable. In the U.S., it began constructing gyms, libraries, and summer camps.

    Rev. Josiah Strong: Strong was the secretary of the American Home Missionary Society and the minister of Cincinnati's Central Congregational Church. Afraid that poverty was escalating, he wrote his book Our Country; Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis in 1885, where he stated that cities were centers of anarchy and destruction.

    Social Darwinism: It is a theory developed in the late 19th century by which individuals and societies believed that people, like all other organisms compete for survival and success in life. It was believed that human progress depended highly on competition. Those who were best fit for survival would become rich and powerful, and the less fit in society would be poor and the lower classes. Many felt that this theory was expounded by Charles Darwin, but in reality, they misinterpreted his words.

    Herbert Spencer:     Spencer was a British philosopher, who was regarded as one of the first sociologists. His works include Social Statics, Principles of Psychology, and A System of Synthetic Philosophy. He created a system of philosophy that included his own theory of evolution, but also incorporated all existing fields of knowledge.

    William Graham Sumner, What Social Classes Owe Each Other:     Sumner was a sociologist and author of What Social Classes Owe Each Other. In this book, he stated that unchangeable laws of nature, such as survival of the fittest, control all social order and they can not be changed by man.

    Henry Ward Beecher:     Beecher was the pastor of the Plymouth Church of the Pilgrims in Brooklyn, New York, who was also one of the earliest and best known abolitionists. Also, he was an effective champion of women's rights and suffrage. He was also editor in chief of the religious and political periodicals Independent and The Christian Union.

    Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward, 2000-1887:     He was an essayist and journalist who founded the Springfield Daily News, and then turned toward literature. He published his most famous work in 1888, which was entitled Looking Backward, 2000-1887. This novel was a depiction of an ideal society in the year 2000. This novel led to the formation of many socialistic clubs. To further publicize his views, Bellamy created the journal, New Nation, in 1891.

    Henry George, Progress and Poverty: George was an economist and social philosopher. In his book Progress and Poverty, he stated that land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few, and these people reap the benefits of the rise in value of the land. He recommended a shift to what he called a single tax.

    The Single Tax: Developed by social philosopher and economist Henry George, it was a doctrine of social reform where all taxation should be reduced to a single tax on land. The doctrine was described in his book Progress and Poverty, and it was influenced by 17th century philosopher John Locke and British economist David Ricardo.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Urbanization

    Urbanization
    Rapid urbanization began in the 1870s as people flocked to the cities. These urban centers quickly crowded, and many cities became impersonal metropolises that were divided into business, residential, social and ethnic centers. Amidst this chaos, corruption thrived as political bosses ran the city for their own personal gain. It appeared as if the nation was modernizing quicker than it could deal with problems of urbanization.

    George Washington Plunkitt:     A minor boss in Tammany Hall and a member of the New York State Assembly, he was skilled in winning numerous votes for party candidates by associating with and being kind to the people in New York. He was paid by these candidates, and he received generous rewards.

    "Honest Graft":     This term, created by George Washington Plunkitt, referred to the police corruption that took place in the Tammany Hall political machine. The practices included paying bribes to make an individual a police officer, to get him a promotion, or to get him to the position of a sergeant.

    Boss Tweed: He was an important figure in New York’s political machine, the Tammany Society. He held New York City and state political posts where he increased his power. Forming the Tweed Ring, which bought votes, he controlled New York politics, and encouraged judicial corruption.

    Boss George B. Cox:     Cox, the boss of Cincinnati’s Republican political machine, had a reputation for being one of the most honest bosses. He worked his way up the ladder from being a newspaper boy to being the head of the political machine. In addition, he helped with many public works in the city.

    Tammany Hall:     Founded by anti-federalist William Mooney, it is the name for the New York Democratic party machine, also known as the Tammany Society, whose supposed goal was to preserve democratic institutions. However, Tammany Hall gained a great reputation for its corrupt practices, and was opposed by reform groups. It began to gain power with the rise of Boss Tweed in 1868. Its leader, Alfred E. Smith, ran for president of the United States.

    Thomas Nast: A political cartoonist and caricaturist, he became an illustrator for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper in 1855. He later worked for Harper’s Weekly. He was best known for his cartoons slandering the corrupt Tammany ring of New York during the period from 1869 to 1872.

    Streetcar Suburbs: The creation of electric streetcar systems allowed families to move farther from the city’s center. Streetcar companies purchased land on the city’s periphery and made tremendous profits on the sale of the real estate. The streetcar system allowed people to live farther away from their work. This facilitated the move away from the city’s center.

    Tenements: Built by a landlord, tenements were small housing units that were extremely overcrowded, poorly built, and that contained filth. There was a lack of fresh air and light in these housing units, and in addition, they were inhabited mainly by new immigrants. The worst tenements became known as slums.

    Denis Kearney: He was a labor leader who protested the increasing numbers of Chinese laborers when California had an economic depression in 1877. With his support, he formed the Workingman’s Party of California, which later became associated with the Grange movement.

    James Bryce:     He was a British historian and statesman who became the leader of the Liberal Party. He served as the ambassador to the United States from 1907 to 1913. He was also the author of The American Commonwealth (1888), which is one of the most discerning studies ever written on U.S. political institutions.

    John A. Roebling:     Roebling was one of the creators of the suspension bridges. He also created and manufactured steel-wire ropes which he used, along with steel cables, in his construction. One of his most famous works was the Brooklyn Bridge which he completed shortly before his death.

    Louis Sullivan: Sullivan was an American architect who used steel frames to design skyscrappers. He was also the founder of what is now the Chicago School of Architects. His most famous pupil was Frank Lloyd Wright, who later became a famous architect. Together with his partner Dankmar Adler, he produced over 100 buildings.

    Frank Lloyd Wright: Wright was one of the greatest twentieth-century architect and is cosidered a pioneer of the modern style. He began as a designer for the Adler Sullivan firm, and he introduced many innovations, including double-glass windows, metal furniture, and air conditioning. He created the philosophy of "Organic Architecture."

    Ashcan School:     This school contained a group of painters, known as The Eight, who exhibited their style together as a group in 1908. Led by Robert Henri, the Ashcan School focused on more contemporary subjects, rather than on the academic and impressionist styles of the 19th century.

    Armory Show:     It was an art exhibition that took place in New York between February 17 and March 15, 1913 at the 69th Regiment Armory. It was an international exhibition in which modern art was first shown in the United States. A quarter of a million paid to see the show.

    Anthony Comstock: Comstock was a reformer, who helped organize the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1873, of which he became secretary. He was also influential in the passage by Congress of the 1873 law concerned with obscenity in the U.S. mails. It became known as the Comstock Law.

    Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Riis was a social reformer and writer who wrote one of the most influential, popular, and early social documentaries in American history. He wanted to reform tenement housing and schools. In addition, he was influential in bringing about parks and playgrounds in overcrowded neighborhoods.

    Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: Thorstein Bunde Veblen was best known for his book, The Theory of The Leisure Class, which was published in 1899. Introducing the concept of "conspicuous consumption," his writing was an assault on the values and lifestyles of the Gilded Age businessmen.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 07 - 1900-1920

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First World War

    First World War
    When war burst upon Europe in August 1914, most Americans wanted no part. Wilson immediately proclaimed American neutrality and called on the nation to be neutral "in thought and in action." Yet the United States and Britain were linked by extensive economic ties and many Americans felt close emotionally with the British. Fearing a world dominated by imperial Germany, and seething over violation of neutral rights on the seas, Wilson declared war in 1917.

    "Sick man of Europe," Ottoman Empire, Balkan Wars:     The ancient Ottoman empire had lost its grip throughout the late 1800’s. In the Balkan Wars, Balkan States gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire, called the "sick man of Europe." From it, the newly independent nations of Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia were created.

    Triple Entente:     Allies: Beginning in the early 1900’s, Britain, France and Russia had signed treaties with each other. After Austria declared war on Serbia, Germany declared war on the allies (Russia and France), in turn drawing Great Britain into the war. This system of alliances had escalated what was once a localized incident.

    Triple Alliance: Central Powers: The Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, Austria- Hungary, as well as Italy. Germany, with its blank check provision to Austria- Hungary, had in encouraged the war declaration on Serbia. Afterwards, Germany declared war on Russia and France, Serbia’s allies by treaties.

    loans to the Allies: In total, the United States lent the Allies over $10 billion. Great Britain owed the United States over $4.2 billion by the end of the war. This great indebtedness led to conflict later when the United States attempted to collect. Also, it led to increased reparations for Germany because of allied indebtedness.

    British blockade: In an attempt to win the war of attrition that was World War I, Great Britain utilized its sizable navy to blockade all trade going in and out of Germany. Germany responded with its U-boats, eventually going on the offensive in 1917 by itself blockading Britain at the cost of American involvement.

    Lusitania, Arabic pledge, Sussex pledge:     In 1915, the British Lusitania was sunk bringing protests from Wilson. The Arabic was sunk in the same year and Germans followed with the Arabic pledge promising to stop attacks on passenger vessels. In 1916, Germans sunk the Sussex and made the Sussex pledge to promise a stoppage of attacks.

    election of 1916:     Hughes, Wilson, issues: Wilson ran for reelection for the Democrats on the call that he had kept the United States out of the war. Charles Evans Hughes was the Republican candidate who attacked the inefficiency of the Democratic Party. Wilson won the election, so was able to continue his idealistic policies.

    unrestricted submarine warfare:     On January 31, 1917, Germany announced it would resume unrestricted submarine warfare, a repudiation of the Sussex pledge, and sink all ships without warning whatsoever. This action was backed by the German belief that this would lead it to victory before the Americans could become involved in the war.

    Zimmerman Note:     Also known as the Zimmerman Telegram, the Zimmerman note was a message intercepted by British intelligence from Germany to Mexico in 1917 proposing that in the event of a German war with the United states, Mexico should attack the US. It would be a Mexican opportunity to retake the Mexican Cession. This was one of a few events which led to widespread public support for the Allies and eventual United States involvement in the World War.

    Russian Revolutions, 1917, March and Bolshevik: In March 1917 a revolution overthrew Russia’s tsarist regime. The second Revolution, commonly called the October Revolution, was an armed coup organized by the Bolshevik party. These revolutions were caused by and led to Russia pulling out of World War I.

    war declared, April 1917: On March 2, 1917, President Wilson called a special Congressional session for April 2, in which he proposed the declaration of war against Germany. The declaration was passed by the Senate by a vote of 82 to 6 and in the House by a vote of 373 to 50 before it was then signed by Wilson.

    Wilson’s "Peace without victory": In 1916 President Wilson called for a "peace without victory." His words were a call to the European nations to stop the conflict based on a balance of power and to form a peace in which nations together would keep the peace. Wilson foresaw the vengeful atmosphere that would follow a prolonged war.

    "Make the world safe for democracy":     "Make the world safe for democracy" was Wilson’s famous line justifying United States involvement in the World War. It was based on the belief that from this international power struggle, a democratic revolution could arise. In other words, a new democratic world order led by the United States would follow.

    Creel Committee:     The Committee on Public Information, formed in 1917, was headed by journalist George Creel. At the beginning of the first World War, Americans sided with neutrality. The CPI was a propaganda committee that built support for the war effort in Europe among Americans. It depicted Germans and other enemies on bad terms, and served to censor the press. Anything German was frowned upon. The Creel Committee, or CPI, was successful in raising widespread American support for the war effort.

    bond drives: Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo organized the raising of funds, or Liberty Loans, necessary for the war with five campaigns between 1917 and 1919 with much excitement. People felt obliged to buy bonds because they were afraid of being seen as unpatriotic. Eventually, they raised over $21 billion for the war.

    War Industries Board:     Created in July 1917, the War Industries Board controlled raw materials, production, prices, and labor relations. It also encouraged production by allocating raw materials, standardizing manufactured products, instituting strict production and purchasing controls, and paying high prices to businesses.

    Bernard Baruch:     Bernard Baruch was a Wall Street broker before being chosen by President Wilson in 1918 to head the War Industries Board. He was aided by a coalition of 100 businessman who advised him on fiscal policy. This was part of Wilson’s effort to take stronger action in the war effort.

    Herbert Hoover, Food Administration: The Food Administration was created in 1917 as part of the war effort, and a response to the poor harvests of 1916 and 1917. Headed by Herbert Hoover, it set prices for agricultural goods high to encourage the production of agricultural products. It encouraged conservation with such days as "meatless Tuesdays."

    Espionage Act, 1917; Sedition Act, 1918: The Espionage Act of 1917 enacted fines and imprisonment for false statements, inciting rebellion, or obstructing recruitment or the draft. Also papers which opposed the government could be banned from the U.S. postal service. The Sedition Act of 1918 made illegal any criticism of the government. It was poorly applied and used to trample civil liberties during the war hysteria as in the example of the imprisonment of Eugene Debs.

    Eugene V. Debs imprisoned:     Eugene Debs was questionably imprisoned and was given a 10 year prison term for giving a speech at a Socialist’s convention. The speech criticized American policy, involvement in the war and for warning of the dangers of war and militarism. His imprisonment was an example of the reactionism and hysteria of the period.

    AEF: From 1917-1918, the AEF, or American Expeditionary Force, sent 2 million men to France under General John J. Pershing. Most enlisted in search of action and adventure. The United States insisted the AEF be independent of French and English armies because it was believed the U.S. would have a stronger bargaining voice with a separate army.

    selective service: As part of US mobilization for war, on May 18, 1917, the Selective Service Act was passed. Men from 21-30 were to register for the military. At the time, the United States military was in poor disarray and men were desperately needed. Made into a party-like atmosphere, 24 million registered, and 3 million were actually drafted.

    Eddie Rickenbacker: Rickenbacker was an American Aviator during World War I. During the war, he served in the US Air Service as commander of the 94th Aero Pursuit Squadron. Shooting down 22 planes, he was America’s leading pilot. He received the Distinguished Service Cross as well as the Congressional Medal of Honor.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Impact of the War

    Impact of the War
    The war affected the lives of millions of industrial workers, farmers, women, and blacks in important ways. For all its horrors, World War I brought prosperity to the American economy. The wartime mood also gave a boost to moral-reform movements. Still, the wartime spirit saw new racial violence and fresh antiradical hysteria. The antiradical panic crested in the Red Scare of 1919-1920. Americans, tired of idealism, revealed their feelings in the election of 1920 leaving Republican Warren Harding in the office.

    Women’s Roles in World War I:     Prominent women’s leaders like Carrie Chapman Catt and Anna Howard Shaw saw war as an opportunity for women’s rights. Thousands of American Women took vacated jobs and became involved in industrial production as well as volunteer agencies at home and abroad. Supplied America’s labor needs.

    Harriet Stanton Blatch:     A prominent women’s leader who during the war offered a view on why women should play a role in the wartime effort. In a variant of Wilson’s theme of determining the postwar peace, women should play a role so that after the war, they will have an opportunity to gain power and rights.

    black migration to Northern cities: During the war, blacks left their traditional homes in the South and migrated North for job opportunities in the war industries. About 500,000 blacks migrated North during the war. Led to racial tension and violence in the North. This growing concentration of blacks led to the Harlem Renaissance.

    wartime manpower losses: During World War I, military casualties alone accounted for just over 8.5 million deaths on both sides. Russia and Germany by far lost the most men at 1.7 million killed each. In comparison, the United States lost only 126,000 men. In all, over 21 million men were injured during the war.

    Congressional elections of 1918:     In 1918, the Republicans gained an advantage in both the House of Representatives as well as the Senate. Republicans no who had traditionally supported Wilson’s plans in Europe no longer supported him because of his cry to voters for a Democratic Congress.

    Red Scare, Palmer raids:     In 1919, there was a string of bombings. Among the victims was Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. In November 1919, Palmer led raids and arrested around 700 suspected communists and anarchists. Some were deported under the Alien Act. The Red Scare in the United States followed Communist revolutions in Russia.

    strikes: 1919, coal, steel, police:     Post-war strikes occurred because of an increase in prices. The most famous strike was in a Seattle shipyard. The government responded with troops to break up the strike. Chicago police struck and were all fired. The United Mine Workers of America under John L. Lewis struck as well, fueling the Red Scare.

    inflation during the First World War:     As Americans were sent to Europe to fight in World War I, a labor shortage was created. With the shortage came higher wages which led to more purchases and in turn, inflation. The rise in prices was regulated by the WIB which set prices.

    election of 1920:     candidates, issues: Senator Warren G. Harding was the Republican dark horse with running mate Calvin Coolidge. They advocated a "return to normalcy" from the war environment. James Cox, and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Democratic nominees. They ran on a platform endorsing the League with reservations.

    brief depression, 1920-1921:     A brief depression occurred from mid-1920 to the end of 1921. It was due to decreased European purchases from American industries after the war. Prices fell and unemployment was over 12% at its height. It was followed by the improved economy of the 1920’s until the Great Depression struck.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Imperialism

    Imperialism
    As the 19th century came to a close, many voices cried for American expansionism to match the imperialistic ambitions of Europe and Japan. The dream for global destiny was justified by such logic as the expansion of overseas markets, desire for a stronger navy, and the spreading of Christianity to uncivilized peoples around the globe. Eventually, this expansionism translated into conflict, climaxing in 1898 with the Spanish-American War.

    James G. Blaine, Pan-Americanism: As Secretary of State, Blaine fostered closer U.S.-Latin American relations and brought about the first Pan-American Congress in order to forge commercial, social, economic, military, and political cooperation among the 21 republics of North, Central, and South America.

    Venezuelan boundary dispute: Venezuela had a dispute over its boundary with the British Colony of Guiana. In 1895, while the British refused to resolve the issue, United States Secretary of State Richard Olney sent a message to London declaring that the US would be "practically sovereign on this content."

    Bering Sea seal controversy:     When the US purchased Alaska in 1867, it included some small Pribilof Islands in the Bering Sea. Congress leased the island to a US company which killed seals with the understanding that they would not kill more than 10,000 male seals per year. This led to the regulation of pelagic sealing in 1893.

    "Yellow journalism": Two rival newspapers in New York City, William Randolph Hearst’s Journal, and Joseph Pulitzer’s World, sensationalized editorializing on the issues to increase circulation. One of Hearst’s gimmicks was "The Yellow Kid," which gave the name of Yellow Journalism to this tactic.

    Josiah Strong, Our Country: Reverend Josiah Strong wrote the book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis expressing his fears of the inability of relief organizations to cope with the explosive growth of the urban poor in the 1870’s and 1880’s.

    Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1890) helped create and develop the expansionist movement. Mahan, former head of the Navy War College at Newport, Rhode Island wanted to expand United States Navy to build an isthmusian canal, and to establish strategic colonies as cooling stations, and to protect US political and economic interests.

    Samoa, Pago Pago:     America’s Navy wanted to establish a port in the Samoan Islands, so their ships could refuel in the island of Pago Pago. This was an example of the United States Navy’s expansion efforts in the pacific. Their goal was to obtain more ports so they could have more ships out on the ocean to control the seas.

    Virginius:     In 1873 a Spanish gunboat captured the Virginius, a ship fraudulently flying the American flag, in Cuba. Secretary of State Fish and the Spanish minister came together in Washington and signed a protocol bringing the end to the Virginius affairs. Spain paid the US $80,000.

    de Lôme letter: On February 8, 1898, Hearst’s Journal published a private letter written by Spanish minister to the United States Depuy de Lôme regarding his reservations for Cuban independence and disparaging President McKinley. Many Americans would have agreed, but they resented hearing it from a Spanish diplomat.

    Maine explodes: When an explosion rocked the Maine in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 266 American crewmen, irritation turned to outrage. A review of the evidence later concluded that a ship-board ammunition explosion caused the blast. Still, a navy inquiry blamed the blast on a "Spanish mine."

    Teller Amendment: The U.S. had been motivated o war in part by the desire to aid the Cubans in their attempt to liberate themselves from the colonial rule of Spain. To this end the Teller Ammendment was added to the Declaration of War. It speciffically prohibited the annexation of Cuba, as a cause of the war.

    Spanish-American War: The Spanish-American War lasted just three months with only a few days of actual combat. Action started on May 1, 1898, when George Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines and seized or destroyed all ten Spanish ships anchored there. The war ended after Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera attempted to break through American forces losing 474 men. The Filipinos celebrated their freedom from four hundred years of Spanish rule on July 4,1898.

    Assistant Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt:     Theodore Roosevelt was appointed as Assistant Secretary of the Navy by President William McKinley in 1897. Roosevelt was an impatient disciple in the Spanish-American War, acting largely on his own. In 1898, Roosevelt resigned to become second in command of the Rough Riders.

    Commodore Dewey, Manila Bay: The first action of the Spanish-American War came in 1898 when Commodore George Dewey’s fleet steamed into Manila Bay in the Philippines. This fleet destroyed and captured all ten Spanish ships that were assigned in Manila Bay. One American and 381 Spanish men died in the attempt.

    Cleveland and Hawaii:     In 1887 the United States gained the right to establish a naval port in Pearl Harbor. President Grover Cleveland was troubled with the crisis in Hawaii since Hawaiians claimed to want annexation. However, once their queen was overthrown, Hawaiians were uncertain if they wanted annexation at all.

    Queen Liluokalani:     Liluokalani was the Queen of Hawaii who did not like Americans since they built their port in Pearl Harbor. Queen Liluokalani was overthrown when Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40% and planters wanted the independent Republic of Hawaii.

    Annexation of Hawaii:     In 1890 under the McKinley Tariff, domestic sugar growers ended the duty-free status of Hawaiian sugar. After Hawaii’s sugar prices dropped 40% and Queen Liluokalani was overthrown, the Hawaiians decided to request United States annexation.

    Rough Riders, San Juan Hill:     The battle of San Juan Hill was fought on July 1, 1898 during the American advance on Santiago during the Spanish-American War. A division including the Rough Riders, under the command of General Kent, captured the hill, placing the American army on high ground overlooking Santiago.

    Treaty of Paris, 1898: The Treaty of Paris ended the Spanish-American War and developed an American empire overseas. In the treaty, Spain agreed to abandon Cuba and exchange Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines to America for $20 million. The treaty gave the United States a new imperialistic reputation.

    American Anti-Imperialist League: The critics of imperialism were many and influential. Forming the Anti-Imperialist League, they believed that every country captured by the U.S. had the same rights under the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.

    Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico: By the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1898, Spain recognized Cuba’s independence and ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific Island of Guam to the United States in exchange for $20 million. As 1899 dawned Americans possessed an island empire from the Caribbean to the Pacific.

    Walter Reed: In 1900 Walter Reed was appointed to the Yellow Fever Commission as a result of his investigation of the disease. After being sent to Cuba to find out more about Yellow Fever, he discovered that the disease was carried by a mosquito. He later became a curator at Army Medical Museum and a professor at Army Medical College.

    Insular Cases: The decisions regarding whether the Constitution applies to Puerto Rico and the Philippines are known as the Insular Cases. They ruled that the residents are inhabitants but not citizens of the United States. Because of this ruling, these countries were not honored by the Constitution and were treated as colonies.

    Platt Amendment: Senator Orville Platt, at the request of the War department, made a revised bill to remove some of the restrictions stated in the Teller Amendment. The Platt Amendment stated that the United States would withdraw from Cuba if they did not sign a treaty with any other foreign power. It also gave the United States the right to interfere with Cuba if they believed that it was not a fit enough country to take care of itself. Also, they established the right to hold a naval base in Cuba.

    Protectorate:     When a more powerful state controls the economy, foreign affairs, or police power of another state, it is considered a protectorate. In the case of the United States, Cuba was a protectorate as a result of the Platt Amendment. Other examples might include Nicuaragua, the Dominican Republic, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands.

    Aguinaldo, Philippine insurrection:     In 1896 Emilio Aguinaldo started a Filipino movement for independence to get out of Spain’s control. When Spain surrendered, Aguinaldo drew up a constitution and proclaimed the Philippines’s independence. When the Treaty of Paris gave the United States power over the Philippines, Aguinaldo became angry and tried to fight. He soon realized that he would lose and gave up.

    Secretary of State John Hay, Open Door Notes:     John Hay’s Open Door Notes was a policy that explained the importance of American commercial influence on foreign policies. The Open Door Notes stated that the pre-thought "informal empire" was correct as opposed to overseas colonies being favored by imperial power.

    Boxer Rebellion:     The Boxers, a secret group of Chinese men known as I Ho Ch’uan, opposed Christianity in their country. Numbering 140,000, the Boxers killed thousands of foreigners as well as Chinese suspected of being Christian. British, American, Russian, Japanese and French soldiers were sent to China to end the "Boxer Rebellion."

    Extraterritoriality: Extraterritoriality is a principle in international law that allows certain visiting foreign citizens or their property to be exempt from the laws of a host nation. Foreign heads of states traveling abroad and diplomats representing their home countries are examples of people benefiting from extraterritoriality.

    Most favored nation clause: The most favored nation clause is a commercial treaty that regulates special low tariffs on goods imported to the United States. All countries awarded the Special Nation Status must be treated equally. Duties for the same group of goods should be the same low regardless from which country signatory of the status they are imported.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Postwar Aims

    Postwar Aims
    During the war, Wilson believed that United States involvement would translate into a new democratic world order. In a fourteen-point speech to Congress, Wilson summed up United States war aims and its noble objectives. November 1918 saw the war grind to a halt. The peace conference, held at Versailles in 1919, was dominated by conflict among the "Big Four," and the resulting treaty proved a disaster. Ultimately, Wilson failed in his most cherished objective, American membership in the League of Nations.

    aims of Allies and US at peace conference: The main goal of Wilson and the American delegation was to secure an international peacekeeping organization; a peace based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points. The aims of the other allies were not as liberal as that of the US. The enormous reparations settled on was representative of this atmosphere.

    Fourteen Points:     The Fourteen Points were Wilson’s proposals and beliefs for a post-war world order. They dealt with the things that led to the first World War. For example, the first points called for open treaties, freedom of the seas, arms reduction and free trade. The other points dealt with self determination and finally a general association of nations, the League of Nations. During the conference of Versailles, Wilson pushed the Fourteen points and was partly successful.

    Versailles Conference and Treaty: The Big Four dominated the conference in 1919 that determined the postwar world order. Wilson promoted his Fourteen Points while other Allies sought vengeance. The treaty found Germany liable for the war and established new nations based on self determination. It also made German colonies mandates under the League of Nations and included the controversial article X that kept the US out of the League. These provisions set the stage for World War II.

    US Versailles delegation: The delegation was headed by President Wilson himself, and included Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker Bliss, Colonel Edward M. House, and attorney Henry White. Blatantly missing from the delegation were any Republican leaders, so the conference became not an American but a Democratic affair.

    Big Four: Wilson, George, Clemenceau, Orlando: The Big Four were the dominating four at the Versailles conference after World War I. President Woodrow Wilson represented the United States, Lloyd George for Britain, Clemenceau for France, and Vittorio Orlando represented Italy. Each had a different prerogative and differing interests.

    League of Nations:     The organization promoted by Wilson in his Fourteen Points was the League of Nations. The US never joined because of controversy over Article X of the League Covenant that took away the United States’s freedom of determination in world affairs. Implemented at the Versailles conference, it existed from 1920 to 1946, meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, until it was taken over by the United Nations. After WWI, it divided German colonies into mandates of various League members.

    collective security:     Collective security was the dogma behind Article X of the League of Nations covenant of the Versailles Treaty. It stated that every nation would serve to protect the territorial integrity and existing governments of all other League nations. Hence, it was felt that this would ensure peace in the postwar world order. The belief manifested inself in the international world court that was established and later in the establishment of the United Nations after the demise of the League.

    new nations, self determination: The idea of new nations and self determination was behind some of the aspects of the Treaty of Versailles. Self determination meant every nationality getting their own country, so new nations were created to allow this. Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland were new nations which filled this definition. Even with the doctrine of self determination, boundaries for new countries still left many misrepresented and under others’ control.

    reparations:     Reparations were implemented by European powers wanting vengeance against Germany. Germany was forced to pay a huge sum, some $33 billion to the Allies for civilian and veterans costs. This huge amount led to Germany’s economic downfall, allowing for the rise of Hitler and World War II

    mandate system:     As a provision of the Versailles Treaty, Germany’s colonies became mandates of the League of Nations and delegated to France, Japan and Britain. The colonies became in actuality, those of the respective countries, which was one of their purposes in fighting the war.

    Article 10 of the Versailles Treaty:     The most controversial of the League of Nations covenants, Article 10 said that all nations must protect the territorial and political integrity of other League members. The article meant that if one nation was engaged in war, all others must become involved. This article was a large part of why the US rejected the League.

    Article 231 of the Versailles Treaty:     By Article 231, Germany accepted total responsibility for her and her allies for starting the First World War. Reparations payments were based on this claim. It led to hatred among Germans and inadvertently contributed to conditions precipitating World War II.

    Senate rejection, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, reservations: Senate reservationists did not fully oppose the League except for mainly one Article. They did not want the United States going to war defending another League member without Congress’s permission, as was stipulated by Article X. They wanted that article removed before ratification.

    "irreconcileables":     Borah, Johnson, La Follette: The irreconcileables were those in Congress who felt the United States should not be a member of the League under any circumstances. They opposed nearly all of the provisions of the League of Nations and felt that the League obstructed the United State’s freedom of self determination. Wilson attempted to overcome them and get ratification for the League but was unsuccessful in his campaign. The United States never joined the League of Nations.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Progressivism to Wilson

    Progressivism to Wilson
    In 1912, the divided Republicans were no match for the united Democrats. Woodrow Wilson easily glided to victory as the Democrats also took both houses of Congress. Except on the issue of race, the election identified the party firmly with reform for the rest of the century. Wilson’s agenda included tariff reform, banking and currency reform, corporate regulation, and labor legislation. Four amendments to the Constitution within the span of eight years demonstrated the efficiency of the progressive impulse.

    Woodrow Wilson, New Freedom: The Democratic Party, to which Wilson belonged, had a past history of 45 ballots without a nomination. To overcome this stumbling block the Democrats united with the Progressives, running under a compromise platform. Wilson’s "New Freedom" campaign was concerned with progressive programs similar to both parties. He did not, however, support trustbusting in the same way that Roosevelt did. To him, all big business was morally evil and should be broken up.

    Theodore Roosevelt, New Nationalism: In the election of 1912 Roosevelt was nominated under a platform nicknamed "The New Nationalism." This platform followed the previous trustbusting and regulation trend as well as alleviating many common progressive concerns such as child labor, woman’s suffrage, and minimum wages. A Federal Trade Commission was also planned to regulate the economy. This platform was essentially identical with many of the progressive reforms later passed under Wilson.

    Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life: Croly best captured the nature of progressivism in this book. He dreamed of an activist government which would serve all citizens. Specifically, he suggested a redefinition of government, democracy, and individualism. Roosevelt copied many of his ideas for his New Nationalism platform.

    Election of 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, Debs - issues: The election of 1912 was very interesting for most Americans since there were 4 active political parties. Roosevelt tried to run with the Republican Party, but Taft was chosen. He left and created the Progressive Party. Wilson ran with the Democratic Party. Debs continued to run on the Socialist platform. All of the platforms dealt primarily with economic reform, indicating the change that Americans wanted. Debs even received 900,000 votes.

    Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party: Eugene V. Debs was an American Socialist leader and five time presidential candidate. In 1897 he created the Social Democratic Party of America. He received nearly one million votes for president while he was imprisoned in jail. His Socialist party was quite popular until it splintered apart along internal divisions.

    Daniel DeLeon, IWW, Wobblies, "Big Bill" Haywood: The Industrial Workers of the World, nicknamed the "Wobblies," was a radical labor group formed by "Big Bill" Haywood. They were never large, but they captured many people’s imaginations as they preached revolution. Though they won several strikes, they were more rhetoric than action.

    National Monetary Commission:     The National Monetary Commission examined monetary data collected by the Pujo Committee and recommended a new form of banking. This advice, suggesting a secure Treasury reserve and branch banks, later became the Federal Reserve System, used to adjust the value of money to keep the economy stable.

    Edgar Lee Masters, Spoon River Anthology: Edgar Lee Master’s poems are unique in that they are presented as the voices of a town’s graveyard talking about their lives. His work’s realism and irony contrast with the romantic and sentimental trends in progressive literature, demonstrating the revolt against conventional social standards that was beginning.

    D. W. Griffith, The Birth of a Nation: D. W. Griffith revolutionized the field of motion pictures after his production of The Birth of a Nation in 1915. This story demonstrated the power of film propaganda and the racist effects it had on people. It also began a trend towards hour-long, dramatic, well-acted films.

    Edwin Porter, The Great Train Robbery:     The Great Train Robbery, produced by Edwin Porter in 1903, was the first major American film. It used new innovations such as the intercutting of scenes shot in different settings. These scenes were later unified to form a coherent narrative ending in a scene of suspense.

    Nickelodeons:     Nickelodeons, movies costing a nickel each, became extremely popular in the Progressive Era due to the freedom they offered children from parents. Immigrant children could easily imagine away their restrictive home conditions. Noticing the lack of moral oversight, many progressives moved to create censorship boards for these films.

    Scott Joplin, Ragtime:     Scott Joplin was a pianist and one of the most important developers of ragtime music. He believed that ragtime should evolve into an indigenous black American opera style. His 1899 release of "Maple Leaf Rag" was the beginning of popular ragtime music.

    Eugenics movement: The Eugenics movement is one of the best examples of progressive ideas contradicting science. Some Americans believed that the society could be improved by controlled breeding. They accomplished this by sterilizing many criminals and sex offenders. The right to do so was upheld in the court case Buck v. Bell.

    Mary Ritter Beard, Charles A. Beard, Historical revisionism: Mary and Charles were two historians that pioneered a new perspective on history. They each believed that history must be reexamined from a modern perspective and that the economic, political, and social threads of present time must be followed back to generate a clearer picture.

    Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race: This book, published in 1916, is a preview to the ideas later espoused by Adolf Hitler. Written in the Progressive Era, this book calls for absolute racial segregation, immigrant restriction, and a forced eugenics movement by crime and by race type.

    Billy Sunday: Billy Sunday was an American Fundamentalist preacher and professional baseball player. He conducted regular ‘revivals’ throughout the nation, in which he used broadcasting to strengthen people’s bond with Christianity. The broadcasts of his revivals are considered among the most effective ever.

    Margaret Sanger: Sanger was a leader among birth-control advocates. She attacked the Comstock Law, a law which prevented the distribution of birth control. In 1916 she opened the first American birth-control facility. She was convicted for this "public nuisance," won an appeal, and eventually gained the right for birth-control.

    Sixteenth Amendment: The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, is an obvious indicator to the Progressive era in which it was passed. It authorized the income tax thereby allowing the Underwood-Simmons Tariff of 1913 to lower many tariffs. This amendment invalidated an earlier Supreme Court decision calling the income tax was unconstitutional.

    Seventeenth Amendment: The Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, moved the election of senators from the state legislatures to the general populace. It followed the ideas already laid down by the Australian secret ballot and the direct primary. This law was intended to create a more democratic, fair society in the eyes of progressives.

    Eighteenth Amendment:     The Eighteenth Amendment, ratified in 1919, prohibited the non-medical sale of alcohol. This amendment resulted from intense efforts among various women’s movements, proving to the nation that women could effect political changes. This amendment is the midpoint of a growing drive towards women’s rights.

    N    ineteenth Amendment: The Nineteenth Amendment, granting women the vote in 1920, is a logical progression from the prohibition movement. As women felt their power in politics increasing, they began to demand the ability to vote from their male peers. In the spirit of progressivism they were granted the vote in 1920.

    Charles Evans Hughes:     Charles Evans Hughes was an American jurist and statesmen. As governor of New York he eliminated much of the corruption in government, passing many progressive reform measures. He served as the chief justice of the Supreme Court in the depression years of the 1930s and supported many aspects of Roosevelt’s liberal New Deal.

    Pujo Committee: The Pujo Committee researched and later reported on the concentration of money and credit over the general populace. They found that the money and credit of the US is localized inside a small group of rich capitalists. This committee’s findings later led to the creation of the Federal Reserve Banking system.

    Federal Reserve Act: The Federal Reserve Act was a compromise designed to stabilize the currency in the US. It split the US into 12 regions with one Federal bank in each region. Commercial banks bought stock from this bank. The discount rate at which the federal bank lent the money determined the interest rate.

    Underwood-Simmons Tariff: The Underwood-Simmons Tariff reduced the tariffs from the Payne-Aldrich Tariff to about 29%. It included a graduated income tax, made legal by the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution, to correct for this monetary loss. Wilson, noticing that it followed his principle of "New Freedom," heavily advocated it.

    Income tax:     The income tax, originally declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, was later ratified as the Sixteenth Amendment. This new power was first used in the Tariff Act of 1913 which set the tax of corporate income at 1%. It also levied a 1% tax on all rich families. Income tax has been greatly increased as tariffs have been lowered.

    Federal Trade Commission, cease and desist orders: The Federal Trade Commission, created by the Federal Trade Commission Act, promoted free and fair trade competition. It investigated economically unfair business practices and regulated these. The commission also regularly generated statistics of economic and business conditions to the public.

    Clayton Antitrust Act, labor’s Magna Carta (?): The Clayton Act was designed to clarify the Sherman Antitrust Act in terms of new economic issues that had arisen. Practices such as local price-cutting and price discrimination were made illegal. The right of unions to strike, boycott, and picket was also confirmed. This act would have been labor’s Magna Carta had it been followed, but unfavorable court interpretations rendered many of its pro-labor sections powerless without further legislation.

    Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan: From 1913-1915, Bryan served as Secretary of State to Wilson. The US’s stubbornness on the issue of neutrality rights led Bryan to resign his position in 1915. He felt that instead of insisting on passenger’s rights, the United States should keep Americans off belligerent ships, a differing view on neutrality.

    arbitration treaties:     The arbitration treaties were negotiated by Secretary of State Root with 25 other nations. International disputes could be deferred to the Hague Tribunal as stipulated by the arbitration treaties. An example of such a treaty is the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The treaties were undermined by disputes of individual national interests.

    Panama Tolls dispute: In 1912, the United States passed a bill that would exempt the United States from payment in the use of the Panama Canal. Great Britain opposed the move saying it violated the 1901 Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. After some dispute the United States eliminated the exemption clause and the president signed the bill in 1914.

    Colonel House:     Colonel Edward M House was part of the Wilson administration and served as an advisor to the president. He later was part of the Roosevelt administration and was involved in New Deal legislation taking his traditional Wilsonian democracy to the New Deal era and its actions.

    Louis Brandeis, "Brandeis brief": In 1916, Woodrow Wilson appointed Louis Brandeis, a Jew, to the Supreme Court, which was briefly opposed because of anti-Semitism. In 1908 in Muller v. Oregon, his Brandeis brief provided evidence as to why women need limited work hours. This represented the Court’s adapting to the new, changing industrial society.

    La Follette Seaman’s Act:     Passed in 1915, the La Follette Seaman’s Act improved working and living conditions as well as making ships safer. It applied to US ships as well as any ship docked in a US port. Included provisions regulating work hours, as well as pay and food quality. The act was designed to attract Americans to ocean occupations.

    Keating-Owen Act:     The Keating-Owen Act, passed in 1915, attempted to prevent the problem of child labor. It forbade interstate shipment of products whose production was due to the labor of children under fourteen or sixteen. This law was particularly important because it was the first attempt by Congress to regulate interstate commerce.

    Workmen’s Compensation Act: The Workmen’s Compensation Act heightened the rights of employees to bring legal action against their employers for injuries. Prior to this act, the employee had to prove they were not at fault and that it was not a normal risk. This act created scales of compensation for any injury, regardless to the party responsible.

    Federal Warehouse Act:     Wilson heavily supported the Federal Warehouse Act, which allowed farmers to more easily secure long-term, low-interest credit, using land or crops as the loan security, from regional Farm Loan Banks. Prior to the passage of this act, farmers had to use actual money or property as security, making loans harder to obtain.

    Federal Highways Act, 1916:     The Federal Highways Act of 1916 was pushed by Wilson and supported by the Democratic congress. It stated that federal funds would match appropriations made by states funds for highway construction. This aided the automobile industry and allowed for the existence of more cars.

    Adamson Act, 1916:     The Adamson Act of 1916 was a compromise that avoided a railroad strike. It set an eight hour day for interstate railroad workers with a salary of one and a half for overtime work. The act signaled a major victory for railroad workers. An example of Wilson’s sympathy to labor and was one of his important worker protection laws.

    Smith-Lever Act:     The Smith-Lever Act, enacted in 1914, created a system of agricultural extension work funded by federal grants. Students not in college benefited because they were taught agricultural skills by county agents. It was part of the governments plan to encourage a growth in American agriculture.

    Smith- Hughes Act:     The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 created the Federal Board for Vocational Education to encourage agricultural growth. Furthermore, it gave the federal government greater control over education because it required that states submit proposals for education to a federal board.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Roosevelt & Progressivism

    Roosevelt & Progressivism
    Many intellectuals increasingly challenged the foundations of the social order. Voices of reform thundered over the nation calling for democratic government, better cities, and the curbing of corporate power. This movement, labeled progressivism, found its first national leader in Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt actively pursued many of his goals: labor mediation, consumer protection, conservation, business virtue, and activism abroad. His successor, Taft, continued in Roosevelt’s aims but lacked his political genius.

    Election of 1900: candidates and issues: William McKinley, the Republican candidate, beat William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic candidate, for President. The Republican campaign theme of prosperity, summed up in the slogan "A Full Dinner Pail," easily won him a second term. McKinley had 284 electoral votes where as Bryan had 115.

    Roosevelt’s Big Stick diplomacy:     One of Roosevelt’s most famous statements was "speak softly and carry a big stick." An example of his meaning in this statement was when Canada wanted the Alaskan land that America owned. They were fighting over the boundaries because of gold found in the area. Roosevelt simply stated that if the boundaries would change, there would be serious consequences. Because of his problem solving method, Roosevelt was known to use "Big Stick" diplomacy.

    Clayton-Bulwer Treaty: The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 stated that both the United States and Britain promised not to claim control over any canal built between the oceans that separated their countries. This included the Panama Canal which America later took over anyway.

    Hay-Pauncefote Treaty: In 1901, the United States planned to construct the Panama Canal. This meant they would be in need of a new treaty. Secretary of State John Hay and British Ambassador Sir Julian Pauncefote agreed on a new treaty that would drop England’s claim on the canal.

    Panama Revolution:     Financed by Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief agent of the New Panama Canal Company, the Panama Revolution was a planned revolt by Panamanians against Colombian occupation of the Isthmus of Panama. The United States did not encourage the revolution, but it did make clear that it would not allow it to fail.

    The Panama Canal: When a French company supposed to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama went bankrupt, it offered to sell its assets to the United States. The Hay-Herrán agreement, which would have granted the US a ninety-nine-year lease on a strip of land for canal construction, was rejected by the Colombian senate. Determined to have a canal, Roosevelt found a collaborator in Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who organized a "revolution." After Panama was recognized, the canal building commenced.

    Virgin Islands purchased: Denmark, in 1917, sold to the United States its West Indian territories for $25 million, including the Virgin Islands. These islands, located at the perimeters of the Caribbean, were of great military importance during the Second World War. They mainly served to protect the US mainland as well as the Panama Canal.

    Goethals and Gorgas: George Goethel was a civil engineer who directed a completion of the Panama Canal. William Gorgas helped to make it possible to construct Panama Canal by killing mosquitoes carrying yellow fever and malaria. Theodore Roosevelt later appointed these men important positions in The Panama Canal Zone.

    Venezuela Crisis, 1902: In 1902 the country's debts became so large that European creditor nations blockaded Venezuela; the United States intervened to obtain arbitration of the dispute. Castro's departure for Europe in 1908 opened the way for his deputy, Juan Vicente Gomez, to seize power.

    Drago Doctrine: Luis Maria Drago was an Argentine diplomat who formulated a supplement to the Monroe Doctrine known as the Drago Doctrine. In 1902, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy imposed a joint naval blockade on Venezuela in order to coerce that country into paying its debts.

    Roosevelt Corollary: In 1904, Roosevelt created the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine justified U.S. intervention in the affairs of Latin American nations if their weakness or wrongdoing warranted such action. An example of this interference was the American intervention in Haiti when it was not wanted. The document was primarily a pass for the US to interfere with other countries’ business when it was not wanted nor needed.

    U.S. intervention in Haiti:     In 1915, President Woodrow Wilson sent the United States Marines into Haiti. The purpose was to calm the anarchy that the US claimed existed in the country. In 1916, Congress ratified a treaty that would allow the US ten years of control over Haiti to maintain order and give political and economic assistance.

    Dominican Republic:     In 1915, after bloody upheavals in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Wilson ordered the marines. A Haitian constitution favorable to U.S. commercial interests was ratified in 1918. The marines remained in the Dominican Republic until 1924, and in Haiti until 1934.

    Revolution in Nicaragua: In 1911 a US-supported revolution in Nicaragua brought to power Adolfo Díaz, an officer of the American-owned Nicaraguan mining property. American bankers loaned the Díaz government $15 million in exchange for control of most of Nicaragua. When a revolt broke out, Roosevelt ordered in the marines.

    Russo-Japanese War, Treaty of Portsmouth:     The Russo-Japanese war (1904-05) was the first conflict in which an Asian power defeated a European country. Fighting began when the Japanese attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur after Russia, which had occupied Manchuria during the Boxer Uprising in China, refused to withdraw its troops.

    San Francisco School Board Incident: American relations with Japan suffered when the San Francisco school board, in 1906, ordered all Asian children to attend segregated schools. Summoning the school-board members to Washington, Roosevelt persuaded them to reverse this discriminatory policy.

    Elihu Root:     As secretary of war in the cabinets of William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, Root reorganized the army and established the Army War College. As Roosevelt's secretary of state from 1905 to 1909, he reformed the consular service, improving US relations with Latin America, and sponsoring a series of arbitration treaties.

    Taft-Katsura Memo: By the Taft-Katsura Memo of 1905, the United States and Japan pledged to maintain the Open Door principles in China. Japan recognized American control over the Philippines and the United States granted a Japanese protectorate over Korea.

    Gentleman’s Agreement: In the 1890’s, workers feared their jobs would be taken by the Japanese immigrants and they wanted a law preventing any more immigrants to move to the United States. In 1907 Japan proposed the Gentlemen’s Agreement which promised that they would halt the unrestricted immigration if President Roosevelt promised to discourage any laws being made that would restrict Japanese immigration to the US.

    Great White Fleet: This was a naval fleet that went on a voyage around the world. After 15 months, when the fleet returned, President Roosevelt met all the crew members personally. The two objects of this voyage were being friendly with the nation’s allies but also to show other nations the naval power of the United States.

    Lodge Corollary: When a Japanese syndicate moved to purchase a large tract of land in Mexico’s Lower California, Senator Lodge introduced a resolution to block the Japanese investment. The Corollary went further to exclude non-European powers from the Western Hemisphere under the Monroe Doctrine.

    Root-Takahira Agreement: In 1908, Japan and the United States signed the Root-Takahira Agreement. Through this document the two nations promised not to seek territorial gain in the Pacific. These two nations also promised to honor an open door policy in China.

    Lansing-Ishii Agreement, 1917: Robert Lansing, Secretary of State under President Wilson, negotiated the Lansing-Ishii agreement on November 2, 1917 with Japan, whereby the United States recognized Japan's special interests in China. However, the US still felt they had a right to China.

    Jones Act, 1916 (Philippines): In 1916, Congress passed the Jones Act which provided for a government for the Philippines and committed the United States to granting Filipino independence. The government created was based on the Constitutional model. In 1934, a bill was finally passed to actually grant the Filipinos their independence.

    Jones Act, 1917 (Puerto Rico): The Jones Act of 1917 was passed by the United States to regulate trade in Puerto Rico. It established the Sea Land service to prevent carriers and shippers from using unfair pricing practices. Its establishment encouraged parallel pricing for all carriers.

    Mexican Revolution, Díaz, Huerta, Carranza: Rebels, led by Francisco Madero in 1911, overthrew Porfirio Díaz. In 1913, Madero was overthrown by a military regime led by Victoriano Huerta. The US refused to recognize Huerta’s government because it had come to power violently. Eventually, this led to Mexican-American hostilities.

    Mexican migration to the U.S.: In the period from 1877 to 1910 economic conditions were worsening in Mexico. By 1914 more than 100,000 Mexicans had migrated to the United States. These new immigrants found mainly in railroad industries and agriculture where jobs were vacated by the war. They filled partly the US need for labor during war.

    "watchful waiting": "Watchful waiting" refers to Wilson’s policy towards the events unfolding in Europe. In effect, it was America’s policy of neutrality throughout most of the First World War. This policy was taken although it was clear that the United States had obvious ties to Britain and would likely favor it.

    ABC Powers: The ABC powers consisted of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. In 1914, the ABC powers called a conference to prevent a war between the United States and Mexico caused by the Veracruz Incident. When president Carranza rejected the proposal for a new Mexican government, the conference came to an end.

    Pancho Villa, General Pershing: During the political turmoil of Mexico in 1916, bandit Pancho Villa murdered 16 Americans, then burned down Columbus in New Mexico. With the U.S. outraged, General John J. Pershing was sent with 12,000 troops to catch Villa with no avail. Massive US response angered some Mexicans and led to hostilities.

    Archangel expedition: In 1918, Allied forces landed in the port of Archangel, Russia to defend Allied military stockpiles from German attack. Allied forces later became anti-Bolshevik and seized the port. Allies favored the Whites during the period of Russia’s civil war. United States involvement in this campaign compromised American neutrality.

    Democracy, efficiency, pragmatism: Democracy is a form of government in which a substantial proportion of the citizenry directly or indirectly participates in ruling the state. Pragmatism is a philosophical movement, developed in the United States, which holds that both the meaning and the truth of any idea is a function of its practical outcome.

    Wright Brothers, Kitty Hawk: Wilbur and Orville Wright created the modern field of aeronautics. After over 200 calculations and tests at Kitty Hawk they built the first practical airplane, marking the beginning of the individual progressive spirit. They were highly honored internationally and a monument to them was built at Kitty Hawk.

    "Muckrakers": Those American writers who early in the 20th century wrote both fiction and nonfiction to expose corruption in business and politics were called the muckrakers. Muckraker was a term first used by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906. They were given this name because of their tendency to "spread the muck around."

    Henry Demarest Lloyd, Wealth Against Commonwealth: A leading opponent of business monopolies, Henry Demarest Lloyd was one of the pioneer muckrakers of the late 19th century. He developed his antimonopoly theme as financial writer and editor at the Chicago Tribune.

    Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class:     Thorstein Veblen is best known for his book The Theory of The Leisure Class (1899). Veblen’s book is a classic of social theory that introduced the concept of "conspicuous consumption." Veblen continued to write other books dealing with the same general theories.

    Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives:     A journalist, photographer, and reformer, Jacob August Riis publicized the plight of immigrants in New York City slum tenements. His photographs, articles, and books focused on the squalid living conditions of the city's poor and spurred legislation to improve those conditions.

    Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities:     An eminent American reformer and journalist, Joseph Lincoln Steffens, was a leader of the muckrakers. He wrote a series of articles that documented corruption in American cities, asserting that some cities were run by political bosses who remained in power with the help of powerful businessmen.

    Frank Norris, The Octopus: The U.S. novelist Frank Norris was a noted pioneer of naturalism in literature. His novels portray the demoralizing effects of modern technology on human fate. His best-known works, The Octopus (1901) and The Pit (1903), attacked the railroad and wheat industries in the United States.

    Ida Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company: As a Pennsylvania journalist, editor, and biographer, Tarbell became famous as a muckraker through her well-documented articles on political and corporate corruption in McClure's Magazine and American Magazine.

    David Graham Phillips, The Treason of the Senate:     Author of many popular problem novels of the early 20th century, Phillips was also a prominent journalist. His "Treason of the Senate" series of articles (1906) in Cosmopolitan magazine were an important contribution to the muckraking movement in American journalism.

    Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Woman and Economics: Gilman was a leading American feminist writer known for Woman and Economics (1898), a feminist classic she wrote. It attacked the commonly accepted idea that women should be economically dependent on men while suggesting alternatives such as cooperative kitchens and day-care programs.

    John Dewey, The School and Society, "progressive education," "learn by doing": Dewey’s ideas of progressive education, described in The School and Society, greatly affected educational techniques. He founded the Laboratory School, a school in which students learned of life by actively doing things rather than following a strict curriculum.

    Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Supreme Court: Holmes was a professor of law at Harvard who resigned to become a member of the Supreme Court. As a jurist he interpreted the Constitution in a very liberal manner, earning him the name "the Great Dissenter" among his colleagues.

    Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts: The Boy and Girl Scouts, formed to educate the youth of America, heavily embody Dewey’s concept of "learn by doing." They focused on teaching children of their proper patriotic role in society and working to broaden the horizons of their members though a number of varied activities.

    Edward Ross: Ross wrote one of the first books dealing with social psychology. He analyzed the transmission of social behavior through society by its transmission from one person to another. His ideas conflicted with McDougall’s, another psychologist who believed that the process of evolution created instinctive sociological behavior.

    Richard Ely: Ely, a progressive economist, was an economics research professor at Northwestern University. He founded the American Economic Association in 1899 and was the first economist to suggest that government interference in regulation of the national economic was not harmful but even sometimes helpful.

    Initiative, referendum, recall: These were three types of progressive electoral reforms passed by some western states. Initiative allowed voters to enact laws directly. The referendum allowed voters to express their opinions of specific issues. Through recall voters were able to directly remove public officials from office.

    Direct primary: The direct primary was another progressive municipal reform. It originated in Wisconsin (1903) and rapidly spread throughout the rest of the United States. It provided that the members, not the leadership, of each party nominate the party’s nominees for public office.

    Australian ballot (secret ballot): Many electoral reforms gave voters greater control over the government, especially at the ballot boxes where voters could be easily swayed. By 1910 all states had replaced the corrupt system of preprinted ballots with a new secret ballot, begun in Australia, which was much more difficult to rig.

    Triangle Shirtwaist Co. fire: An accidental fire at the Traingle Shirtwaist Company killed 141 workers. It prodded the concerns of many progressive reformers since the workers, locked in the factory and unable to escape, were killed by brutal working conditions. These concerns raised new questions of human and immigrant rights and of existing labor laws.

    International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU): This union of American needle-trade workers launched drives to improve working conditions, end the practice of workers paying for their own equipment, and raise working rates. It is remembered for the militancy of its early organizational drives and its fight against sweatshops.

    Anti-Saloon League: During and after the American Civil War the laws regulating many aspects of saloons were either reduced or eliminated. As a result, many people united in this league in their fight against saloons. By 1916 they enacted anti-saloon laws in 23 states and in 1917 they passed the 18th amendment beginning prohibition.

    Square Deal: Roosevelt, on a speaking tour against the Northern Securities Company, called for a "square deal." This progressive concept denounced special treatment for the large capitalists and is the essential element to his trustbusting attitude. This deal embodied the belief that all corporations must serve the general public good.

    Forest Reserve Act, 1891: The Forest Reserve Act, strongly supported by Roosevelt and Pinchot, created a system of national forests, consisting of approximately 200 million acres, which were protected from the short-sighted greed Roosevelt saw in many large companies. Through this act Roosevelt also enlarged Pinchot’s forest staff from 123 to 1,500 people.

    Newlands Reclamation Act, 1902: Roosevelt drafted the Newlands Reclamation Act when he noticed that decades of rapid industrial growth had destroyed much of the limited natural resources of the land. It insured that all natural resources would be managed by experts. Funding came from public-land sales and was used to build irrigation projects.

    Conservation conference, 1908: As Roosevelt’s conservative trend began to permeate through the public mind, he began to create several groups to raise public awareness of nature and the necessity of conservation. The first meeting was of the White House Conservation Conference, followed by the National Conservation Commission.

    Anthracite coal strike, 1902, George F. Baer: The Anthracite coal strike was the first strike in which the government became involved but did not side with the management. Roosevelt instead mediated a series of negotiations between the strikers and the owners over issues of wages, safety conditions, and union recognition.

    Elkins Act, 1903, rebates:     The Interstate Commerce Commission was initially created to regulate the economy for the federal government. It was not originally given enough power to regulate the monopolized railroad system. The Elkins Act strengthened the ICC by stiffening penalties against secret railroad rebates to favored shippers.

    Hepburn Act, 1906: The Hepburn Act, in conjunction with the Elkins Act, granted the Interstate Commerce Commission enough power to regulate the economy. It allowed the ICC to set freight rates and, in an attempt to reduce the corruption in the railroad industry, to require a uniform system of accounting by regulated transportation companies.

    Mann-Elkins Act, 1910: The Mann-Elkins Act further extended the regulatory ability of the ICC. It allowed them to regulate cable and wireless companies dealing with telephone and telegraph lines. The ICC was also given greater rate-setting power as well as the ability to begin court proceedings against companies disputing the new rates.

     "trustbuster":     Teddy Roosevelt, deeply conservative at heart, did not want to destroy the big corporations that he saw necessary to American life. He did, however, believe that they must be held to strict moral standards. He earned the "trustbuster" name when he filed suit against the Northern Securities Company, followed by 43 other cases. He left many of the larger companies serving the public good alone, but he broke up many other large, monopolistic companies in the interests of American welfare and economy.

    Northern Securities Co. case: This was the first company Roosevelt filed suit against in his trustbusting stage. It was a large holding company formed by railroad and banking interests. In 1902 Roosevelt "trustbusted" them by claiming they violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act in holding money against the public good. The company was dissolved.

    Meat Inspection Act:     The Meat Inspection Act was passed by Roosevelt as a strong response to Sinclair's book describing the conditions of food as well as wartime scandals in 1898 concerning spoiled canned meats. It created strict sanitary requirements for meat, began a quality rating system, and provisioned for a federal department to inspect meat.

    Immunity of Witness Act: The Immunity of Witness Act, passed in 1906, prevented corporate officials from pleading immunity in cases concerning their own corporation’s illegal activities. Previously, many officials used this immunity plea to avoid testifying in any way concerning their actions.

    W.E.B. DuBois: For more than 50 years W.E.B. DuBois, a black editor, historian, and sociologist, was a leader of the civil rights movement in the United States. He helped found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and was its outstanding spokesman in the first decades of its existence.

    Niagara movement: At a meeting in Niagara Falls, Ont., in 1905, W.E.B. DuBois and other black leaders who shared his views founded the Niagara Movement. Members of the Niagara group joined with concerned liberal and radical whites to organize the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

    Springfield Ill riot, 1908: The period of Booker T. Washington represented a period of increasing anti-black violence. The large anti-black riot in Springfield in 1908 was representative of the peak of a period of harsh discrimination, white resentment of black advances, and mass public segregation.

    National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The NAACP was an organization founded in 1909 by blacks and whites under such leaders as W.E.B. DuBois to safeguard civil, legal, economic, human, and political rights of black Americans. It lobbied for legislation, sponsored educational programs, and engaged in protest actions.

    The Crisis:     The Crisis was the magazine of the NAACP. It generally reflected the views of the blacks and whites who headed the NAACP. W.E.B. DuBois was editor of The Crisis from 1910 to 1934. He often wrote that Blacks should develop industry and business separate from the white economy in order prove their non-dependence on white society

    Brownsville Incident: Roosevelt, though not as racist a president as those before him, did not have a perfect record. In 1906 he discharged an entire regiment of blacks accused of rioting in Brownsville. This unfair and illegal action was later reversed by Congress once all involved parties had died.

    Upton Sinclair, The Jungle: Sinclair was an American writer and reformer who wrote The Jungle. This book exposed the unsanitary working conditions in the stockyards of Chicago, eventually leading to an investigation of both working conditions and the conditions of food. It eventually led to the enactment of the Pure Food Act.

    Pure Food and Drug Act: The Pure Food and Drug Act, enacted through the efforts of Harvey Wiley and Sinclair in 1906, gave consumers protection from dangerous and impure foods. All products must be clearly labeled and must explain a product which cannot be seen or judged by a consumer. This act solved problems concerning fraudulently labeled items.

    Panic of 1907: Roosevelt’s constant trustbusting of large corporations caused questionable bank speculations, a conservative gold standard, and strict credit policies, eventually leading to the Panic of 1907. This panic brought the need for banking reform to the forefront of political activity, finally culminating in the Federal Reserve Act.

    Election of 1908:     candidates, issues: The Republican platform consisted of Taft and Sherman. They ran for continued anti-trust enforcement, conservation, and increased international trade. William Jennings Bryan ran for the Democratic Party on a similar anti-trust platform. The Socialist Party was represented by Eugene Debs. Taft easily won.

    Mark Hanna: Hanna was a successful American politician and businessman. He helped manage several campaigns including the Republican presidential nomination of McKinley. Hanna was later selected chairman of the Republican National Committee, an organization he used to collect a large war chest to assist in McKinley’s election.

    Scientific management, Frederick W. Taylor:     Taylor was an engineer who first integrated scientific management with business. He became foreman of the Midvale Steel Company in 1878 and used mathematics to determine maximum industrial productivity, using time and motion studies to find what each worker should for the highest efficiency.

    Wisconsin, "laboratory of democracy": La Follette enacted sweeping changes during his governorship of Wisconsin in 1900. He adopted a direct primary system, began to regulate the railroads in his state, increased corporate taxes, and passed other progressive reform legislation. He also created a legislative reference library for lawyers.

    Robert M. La Follette: La Follette, initially a Republican in Congress, broke from this party in 1924 when he realized big business was dangerously out of control. The populace agreed with this opinion by electing him governor as an independent. He took the reform movement, previously only found at the municipal level, to new heights, the state. The new state level of regulation had some inherit problems, but as the progressive movement entered the national government, these problems were solved.

    Regulatory commissions: As the Progressive Era advanced, regulatory commissions became more prevalent and numerable. The excesses of the monopolistic railroad companies became known to all. In an effort to end the abuses of the rich capitalists regulatory commissions were created to divide the concentrated wealth.

    Jane Addams, Hull House: Addams was a prominent social reformer in the US and Europe. In 1889 she created Hull House in Chicago, a settlement home designed as a welfare agency for needy families. It also tried to teach immigrants English customs. Addams also played an important role in the National Progressive party.

    Florence Kelley, consumerism: Kelley was largely responsible for the regulation of child labor. She saw its evils as a resident in Hull House for several years. In 1899 she was selected general secretary of the National Consumers’ League, which used organized consumer boycotts and strikes to force improved factory conditions.

    home rule for cities: Home rule was a new form of city government other than the mayor-council form that emerged in the Progressive Era. Under this form of government the city was run by a committee of three elected commissioners. They locally ran the county rather than allowing the state to handle affairs.

    Municipal Reform:     The beginning of the Progressive Era is marked by a great increase in municipal reform. Nearly all elements of the urban population participated in these reform efforts. The middle class began the movement and was the core of urban beautification. Businessmen pushed for citywide elections and for the city-manager system of government. In reforms concerning the commoners, even the political bosses assisted. This municipal level reform soon moved to the state level.

    Tom Johnson, Sam (Golden Rule) Jones, Brand Whitlock, Hazen Pingree:     These were all progressives who reformed the political process. Johnson reformed public ownership of utilities in Chicago. San Jones reformed profit sharing and education in Toledo, Ohio. Pingree reformed taxes, the honesty in government, and beautified his city.

    City manager plan, commission plan: This form of government replaced the traditional mayor/council version in several cities. It began in Texas when progressives removed the corrupt mayor and council, replacing them with five elected commissioners. They were experts in rebuilding the ruined city, which is what they were elected to do.

    Daniel Hudson Burnham, 1909 Chicago Plan: Burnham, in conjunction with John Root, built the first steel-frame buildings that later developed into modern skyscrapers. Burnham was the designer of the famous Chicago Plan, a plan in which many beautiful pre-skyscraper buildings were designed in Chicago.

    William Howard Taft: As president, Taft focused primarily on a continuation of trust-busting and reuniting the old conservatives and young progressives of the Republican Party. Taft also strongly supported a national budgetary system. He was unable to reunite the two parties and, as a result, the Democratic party swept the 1912 elections.

    Department of Labor (from 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Corporations also in 1903):     This department was created in 1913 with the intention of assisting the welfare and working conditions of the general worker. It was empowered to investigate and report illegal corporative activities.

    Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 1909: This tariff was initially intended to lower several other tariffs, but after numerous compromises in the Senate it became a protective measure. Many Progressive reformers considered this a sign that the companies and various special interests were preventing consumer prices from reaching reasonable levels.

    Ballinger-Pinchot controversy: Pinchot charged that Ballinger was giving the nation's natural resources to private corporate interests. Under investigation it was found that Ballinger did nothing illegal though he did bend the government's environmental policies. Since Taft have given him support, Taft lost standing with the progressive Republicans.

    Insurgents:     Insurgents was a nickname for a small group of reformist Republicans. This group, including La Follette and Norris, turned against Taft after his passage of the 1909 tariff and completely separated after he supported the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. The separation between progressive and conservative republicans was caused by this group.

    Uncle Joe Cannon (Old Guard): Cannon was a Republican who served as Speaker of the House from 1903 to 1911. He strongly opposed many progressive reforms and was thus not very popular in the house. Progressives and Democrats joined to remove much of his power in 1910, allowing the Republican-Democratic coalition to run the Senate.

    Senator George Norris: Norris was a reformist senator who favored federal regulation of public utilities. Through a change in House rules he ended the rule of the Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon. He also created the Tennessee Valley Authority, a dam building company. As he ignored the limitations of party politics he slowly lost support.

    Rule of reason: Standard Oil case, American Tobacco case: In 1911 a progressive interpretation of the Sherman Act was enacted by the Supreme Court. According to this "rule of reason" principle, only "unreasonable" combinations restraining trade were illegal. This interpretation emerged when the court broke these two companies into smaller firms.

     "dollar diplomacy":     In an effort to avoid Roosevelt’s "big stick" economic policy, President Taft sought to avoid military confrontation by using money to increase foreign interest in the US. He planned to donate large sums of money to generate economic, social, and political stability in Latin America rather than sending the military to force stability. His efforts were largely a failure as most of the money never reached the actual people of Latin America. Most of the money was stolen by corrupt government officials.

    Secretary of State Knox:     Knox was responsible for the creation of the Latin American Division of the State Department. He planned to promote better relation, but the US kept a portion of the military in the Dominican Republic. This was planned to quiet revolutionary thoughts and to prevent foreign financial problems.

    Manchurian railroad scheme:     In an attempt to force Japan and Russia to sell their land in Manchuria for railroad investment, President Taft moved to construct his own competing rail system. China refused to approve Taft’s plan and Japan and Russia began to grow suspicious of the US’s motives.

    Roosevelt’s Osawatomie, Kansas speech:     The differences between Taft and Roosevelt were revealed in Roosevelt’s 1910 Osawatomie "New Nationalism" speech. Roosevelt unveiled a plan in which he called for a protection of welfare over property, opposing Taft’s support of numerous tariffs as well as the Old Guard in Congress.

    Taft-Roosevelt split: In 1912 the Democrats finally regained control of the presidency due to the Taft-Roosevelt split. Taft’s inability to associate with the progressive elements of his party convinced Roosevelt to return. Roosevelt formed the Progressive Party and thus siphoned enough votes to cause the Republicans to lose the election.

    Bull Moose Party:     This party, formally known as the Progressive Party, was created by Theodore Roosevelt after his split with Taft. It was created in his anger of Taft being nominated in the Republican Party. They advocated primary elections, woman suffrage, and prohibition of child labor. They outpolled the Republicans but lost to the Democrats.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 08 - 1920-1940

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Foreign Policy in the 1920s

    Foreign Policy in the 1920s
    In relation to the rest of the world, the United States drew into isolation, as reflected through its foreign policy during the twenties. New restrictions on immigration and a lack of membership in international organizations, such as the League of Nations and the World Court, contributed to this isolationist period of America. Focus during this era was upon domestic affairs more so than foreign affairs.

    Collective Security:     The term "collective security" was first mentioned in the inaugural speech made by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on Oct 5, 1937. In that speech Roosevelt refereed to the need to quarantine aggressor nations by acting upon them in a collective measure, thus saying that nations need to stick together in order to combat evil. The isolationist disposition of the U.S. called for collective security, for Americans sought to secure their nation after the effects of World War I and maintain prosperity.

    World Court:     Also named the International Court of Justice, the World Court was established in 1946 exceeding from a charter that was established by the UN. The principle is to hear cases that extended from the different participants in the court; not all cases submitted would be tried; the World Court has the option of choosing cases.

    reparations:     Reparations is a term applied to the issuing of money from one nation to another. The money is usually given to a nation that has been damaged by the destructiveness of war due to the acts from the other county. During the First and Second World Wars, reparations were a major concern.

    Twenty-One Demands:     Japan in 1915, at the end of WWI, invaded the city of Shandong and forced China to hand over the right of Japanese imperialism in the former German regions plus the city of Shandong. This act prompted the formulating of the Twenty-One demands written by China. These demands recognized Japan’s rights in Shandong.

    Lansing-Ishii Treaty:     Signed on Nov 2, 1917, this treaty was a series of notes between U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing and the Japanese military informer Kikujiro Ishii. Pertaining to this treaty was the reconciliation of the two countries on the issue of foreign policy in the Far East. It also helped to reinstate the Open Door Policy.

    Washington Disarmament Conference: Also called the Washington Naval Conference it convened during 1921-1922. At the conference which was called by the United States the issue of the arms race and the idea of keeping peace on the Pacific ocean were discussed. From this conference came the ideal of setting a standard on the desired tonnage that each nation should have, and the desired amount of battleships that each nation should have.

    Five Power Treaty, Four Power Treaty, Nine Power Treaty: The 4 Power treaty (US, GB, Fr., and Japan) discussed respect towards Pacific nations. The 5 power treaty (US, GB, Fr., USSR, and Italy) halted battleship construction for 10 years and developed the ideal tonnage ratio. The 9 Power Treaty restated the Open Door Policy.

    5-5-3-1.75-1.75 ratio:     These ratios were conceived on Dec 14, 1920 at the Washington Arms Conference. The numbers are the allowed amount of tonnage for each nations’ supply of battleships. The ideal tonnage ratio for the countries were 5-US, 5-GB, 3-Japan, 1.75-France, 1.75 Italy.

    Dawes Plan, Young Plan:     The Dawes Plan, Aug 1924, regarded reparations payments and consisted of an annual allotment of 2.5 billion gold pieces to the US from Germany. The Young Plan signed on Jun 7, 1929 was for the final installment of the reparation payments and reduced the amount due by Germany significantly.

    Kellogg-Briand Treaty:     This treaty of 1928 denounced war between countries when it was used for the purpose of handling relations between countries. Signed by Frank Kellogg of the US and Aristicie Briand from France on Aug 27, 1928, it sought to bring about a change in the way countries dealt with foreign policy.

    Sending troops into Nicaragua, relations, 1927-1928: The United States refused to recognize the government established in Nicaragua under the regime of Emiliano Chamorro. Calvin Coolidge, the president at the time felt it necessary to send troops to Nicaragua. However, by 1933 Hoover expelled the troops for they were no longer needed.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Gathering Storm

    Gathering Storm
    The two decades prior to the outbreak of hostilities in World War II were a period of increasing unrest both politically and socially in many areas of the world. Some of the issues were related to unresolved conflicts left over from World War I. Depression and out of control inflation totally destabilized Germany’s government and allowed the rise to power of the Nazis, who were able to capitalize on a German sense of injustice and nationalistic frustration.

    Montevideo Conference: This conference was held in 1933. A U.S. delegation to the conference endorsed a document that declared "no state has the right to intervene in the internal affairs of another. Secretary of State furthered the interests of Latin American States when he asked for a reduction of trade barriers.

    Rio de Janeiro Conference, 1933:     Meeting of 19 American republics, in which the American treaty of reciprocal Assistance was signed, committing each republic to assist another in times of any attack or if an American republic were threatened by a situation not involving an armed attack, members would meet and decide necessary actions to be taken

    Buenos Aires Conference, 1936: It was opened by Roosevelt when he stated in a speech that any non-American state seeking "to commit acts of aggression against us will face a Hemisphere wholly prepared to consult together for our mutual safety and our mutual good." Also a pact was adopted promising consultation if war was imminent

    Lima Conference, 1938:     Another conference before WWII, the Lima Conference adopted the Declaration of Lima, and also restated the sovereignty of the American states; Additionally, it expressed the U.S. determination to resist "all foreign intervention or activities that may threaten them."

    Declaration of Panama, 1939:     Adopted at Panama city by the foreign ministers of the American Republics, sixteen resolutions were passed to deal with the outbreak of war in Europe. Resolution no. XIV entitled "Declaration of Panama," stated that American waters should be free of hostilities from non-belligerent nations.

    Act of Havana, 1940: The act was created to prevent the transfer to European colonies to Germany in the western hemisphere. It stated that the American Republics would take over and administer any European possession in the New World endangered by aggression. It was unanimously approved by the Pan American Nations.

    Jones Act, 1916: This act provided for the government of the Philippines and committed the U.S. to the future independence of the Philippines. Descendants of Spanish subjects in 1899 were designated citizens. Voting rights were given to all literate male citizens over 21, the Philippine Congress was made elective, and Supreme Court justices were to be appointed by the president.

    Tydings-McDuffie Act, 1934, Philippines: The act eliminated certain objectionable provisions of a previous act known as the Hawes-Cutting Act, which provided for the independence of the Philippine Islands after 12 years; It also provided for trade relations with the U.S. effective 10 years after the inauguration of an authorized government.

    Nye Committee: Instituted due to public concern over the issue that the U.S. was dragged into WW I, this committee was headed by Senator Gerald Nye. The Committee held hearings between 1934 and 1936 and compiled evidence of involvement of U.S. banks and corporations financing WWI and supplying arms and loans to the Allied nations.

    "merchants of death":     This term refers to the business corporations and banks who were blamed for dragging the U.S. into the war because they were desperate to protect the millions of dollars invested in loans and weapon sales to Britain and France. All these allegations were investigated by the Nye committee.

    neutrality legislation: A series of Neutrality Acts were passed in 1935, 1936, and 1937, these laws placed an embargo on exports of war materials to belligerents. It also warned U.S. citizens not to travel on belligerent vessels, prohibited loans to belligerent nations, and instituted the cash and carry policy which meant that nations that were seeking to trade with the U.S. had to purchase the goods they wanted as well as provide their own vessels in which they could be shipped out to their country.

    Popular Front: In order to gain the support of the Allies, Russia’s Commissar of Foreign Affairs MaksimM. Litvinov asked for action against fascist governments. Russia sought a formation of united-front governments in foreign countries. This united or popular front formed in 1938, called for a collaboration of Communist Socialist to fight fascism.

    Spanish Civil War, Franco: This war lasted from 1936-1939. In July of 1936, fascist Franco led the Spanish army units to overthrow the elected government in Spain. The revolution was supported by Spanish conservatives, monarchists, landowners, industrialists, and Roman Catholic hierarchy.

    Ethiopia: Mussolini was intent on building an African empire comparable to those of the European nations. In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia which did not have a way of stopping him from invading because Ethiopia was such a weak nation without a strong army and a supply of ammunition.

    Mussolini: Mussolini founded the Fasci de Combitimmento after being kicked out of the Socialist party in 1919. He came into power in the 1920s, and by 1926, Mussolini had transformed Italy into a single-party totalitarian regime. He also pursued an aggressive policy which won him support in every sector of the population.

    Japan Attacks China, Chiang Kai-shek: Japan was taken over by a militaristic government that had expansionist dreams. In 1931, Japan attacked the Chinese province of Manchuria and installed a puppet government. In 1937, Japan declared war against China; China’s leader, Chiang Kai-shek, was powerless to stop it.

    Panay Incident, 1937:     Japanese bombers engaged in war with China bombed and sank the marked U.S. gunboat Panay and three Standard Oil ships, which were evacuating American officials from China. Japan accepted responsibilities of bombing the ships, made a formal apology and promised indemnities later set at $2 million.

    "Quarantine speech," 1937: Roosevelt recognized the power of the antiwar feelings demonstrated at home; not one to push ahead of public opinion, he assured a visiting Australian leader in 1935 that America would never enter a war. In a 1937 speech, he suggested the possibility of a "quarantine" of aggressor nations.

    Hitler, Nazism: Adolf Hitler’s Nazi party came into power in 1933 and clamped a dictatorship on Germany. His racist views targeted all non-white Christians who expressed anti-German ideas. He pursued a militaristic and expansionist foreign policy, evident in his plan to raise a half million man army and expand German borders to Russia.

    Kristallnacht: Meaning "The Night of Broken Glass," this rampage was carried out by Nazis all over Germany and Austria to destroy Jewish homes and structures. Thousands of homes were vandalized and synagogues were burned to the ground. Jewish businesses and schools were wrecked and looted. Nothing was spared.

    Munich Conference, appeasement, Neville Chamberlain: This conference was held in 1938 between England and Germany. Chamberlain, representing England, gave in to Hitler’s demands on territory that Germany had lost after the end of WWI. Chamberlain was very much blamed for the oncoming of WWII due to his actions toward Hitler. Many people in Britain were very disappointed in Chamberlain and how easily he had appeased to the demands of Hitler. He was replaced soon after by Winston Churchill.

    Austria Annexed: Hitler annexed Austria in 1938 and expanded the German borders. Nazi sympathizers in Austria welcomed Hitler’s annexation of Austria. He proclaimed an Anschluss between Austria and Germany and German troops rolled into the capital city Vienna. Hitler’s actions here furthered his plans to expand German borders and his rule.

    nonaggression pact between Germany and USSR:     Stalin, who advocated a popular front against fascism, signed a pact with Nazi Germany on August 24, 1939 agreeing not to make war on each other and divided up Poland between the two nations: the USSR and Germany. This was a severe blow to the Popular Front.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Hoover Administration

    Hoover Administration
    When Herbert Hoover was elected to the presidency in 1928, Americans viewed him as a man who would further boost the nation’s growing prosperity. During his term of office, however, came the onset of the Great Depression, and the ensuing struggle of the government to relieve Americans and recover the economy. Unfortunately for Hoover, his ideologies and legislation were not as effective in restoring prosperity to the nation.

    The Fordney-McCumber Tariff, 1922:     This tariff rose the rates on imported goods in the hopes that domestic manufacturing would prosper. The goal of this tariff was to push foreign competition out of the way of American markets and after an isolationist principle was introduced, the U.S. would become self sufficient.

    "Rugged Individualism":     American Individualism, 1922: The ideal quality which every American should possess, "rugged individualism" meant people who were self made individuals, who could handle the pressures given by a damaged society, and who would rise above them in order to succeed. These ideas were encompassed in Hoover’s book.

    Welfare capitalism: Hoover welcomed this idea and urged further movement in this direction. Hoover also believed that cutthroat capitalism was unnecessary. He believed that economic development demanded corporate cooperation in the areas of workers wages and production regulations.

    Voluntarism: Hoover believed that a socially responsible economic order could only be brought about by the voluntary action of capitalist leaders and not through governmental persuasion. Hoover saw this as a way to accelerate the decade’s trend towards corporate consolidation and cooperation.

    Federal Reserve Board:     The Federal Reserve Board tried to establish an easy credit policy. To accomplish this they increased the rate on federal reserve notes to decrease speculation; it also warned member banks not to loan money for the purpose of buying stocks. Their message went unheard, and the stock market crash of 1929 resulted.

    Black Thursday: Black Thursday refers to Oct 29, 1929 when the great stock market crash occurred. The crash was caused by a number of ailments: the decline of agriculture, the unregulated trade within the process of buying stocks, and the panic which led to bank foreclosures all over the United States.

    Causes of the Great Depression: The Great Depression was not solely caused by the stock market crash in Oct of 1929. On the contrary there were many other factors involved. The inflation in agriculture, the uncontrolled policies of the stock market, the overproduction of goods by industries, the loss of enthusiasm directed at the consumer products that were being produced and a loss of mirth in the economy created a no buying situation.

    Depression as an International Event:     Due to the devastating effects that the Depression had on the American way of life a spiral of depressions sprung up all over Europe. America could not keep up with international trading thus further deepening the problem. The areas hardest hit was England for it depended greatly on U.S. exports.

    Trickle Down Theory: Applied by Herbert Hoover, the Trickle Down theory was an economic ideal which held the belief that the government should get involved in the economy by pumping money into it, and thus creating a surplus supply of money that would "trickle" down onto the rest of society.

    Reconstruction Finance Corp., (RFC):     Created under the presidency of Herbert Hoover, the RFC was designed to give out loans to banks, railroads, and monopolistic companies in order to pump money back into the economy during the years of the Depression.

    Federal Home Loan Act:     Under the presidential term of Hoover in 1931 the Federal Home Loan Act was created. Within the act a five man Home Loan Board was created and the creation of banks to handle home mortgages provided money to homeowners that needed loans.

    National Credit Corporation:     Created in 1931, the National Credit Corporation under the persuasion of Herbert Hoover got the largest banks in the country, at that time, to provide lending agencies that would be able to give banks, on the brink of foreclosure, money that could be used for loans.

    Hoover Dam:     Originally called Boulder Dam, it stands 726 feet high and 1244 feet wide. Located on the Colorado River in Arizona, Hoover Dam provides flood control, electricity, and irrigation for farms. As part of the New Deal it was constructed between 1931 to 1935 and began operations in 1936.

    the Hawley-Smoot Tariff, 1930: Like the Fordney-McCumber Tariff, the Hawley-Smoot Tariff also rose protective tariffs on the United States. It pushed rates on imported goods to the highest point they’ve ever been. The isolationist principle also reflect the isolationist move the US was moving towards in the 1920s..

    Emergency Committee for Employment: The Emergency Committee for Employment was created in 1930 under the presidency of Herbert Hoover. The goal for the committee was to coordinate efforts between other agencies in order to provide relief for the massive unemployed during the years of the Great Depression.

    Farmers’ Holiday Association:     In 1931 farmers from the Midwest got together to discuss the methods they would use in order to stop the policies that devastated the agricultural economy. Out of the meeting came the decision to withhold grain and livestock from the economy.

    Hoover Moratorium:     The Hoover Moratorium was held in 1931 to discuss the payment of the allied war debts sustained during WWI. Though the issue was never reconciled due to the fact that Britain and other European Countries went off the gold standard before the plan could be implemented.

    Bonus Army: The Bonus Army was a group of WWI veterans who were supposed to be given economic relief from the government due to their involvement in the war. However, in 1932 the deadline for the veterans was pushed back by the government to a latter date thus causing the group to march onto Washington to demand their money. Excessive force was used to disband these protesters, and because they were veterans and heroes of this country, Hoover’s popularity plummeted because of it.

    "Hooverville":     "Hooverville" was a name given to any shanty town that manifested itself during the period when Herbert Hoover was president. The name was termed due to the cold, unfriendly disposition that Hoover took on the policy of helping out the poor. Hoover believed that giving economic aid to the poor would stifle the economy.

    Clark Memorandum:     The memorandum was called by the U.S. Representative J.Reuben Clark in Dec of 1928. The purpose of the meeting was to reinstate the principles of the Monroe Doctrine to the events that were happening in Latin America; it was contradictory to the ideals of the Roosevelt Corollary.

    London Naval Conference: US, GB, Japan, France, and Italy convened in 1930 to come to a mutual agreement pertaining to the number of battleships that were in existence. The number of battleships was a great concern to these nations for they wanted to live in peace with one another, not in a war like situation.

    Stimson Doctrine: Based on the principles of the Kellogg-Briand pact, the Hoover-Stimson doctrine was a collection of letters from the U.S. to China and Japan. These letters written on Jan 7, 1932, concluded that the U.S. did not formally recognize any change in territory if it was brought about by armed forces.

    Mexico’s naturalization of oil: The president of Mexico in 1938 was a man named Lazaro Cardenas. Cardenas nationalized many oil companies, from England and the United States, valued then at 450 million dollars. The conditions were that Mexico had to give fair compensation to the countries.

    Ambassador Morrow: Turned into an ambassador for Mexico, Dwight D. Morrow also named Ambassador Morrow was a worker for J.P.Morgan and Company. The main issue that he focused on was the methods he could use to reconcile differences between the Mexican government and the Church.

    Norris-La Guardia (anti-junction) Act, 1932:     The Norris-La Guardia Act forbade the issuing of injunctions to maintain anti-union contracts of employment, the prevention to perform work, and the restraining of an act committed by either a group or of an individual striker.

    Election of 1932:     candidates, issues: The Republican candidate was Hoover and the Democratic one was Franklin D. Roosevelt. The issue was ending the Great Depression. Hoover’s platform was to increase the government’s role in the economy; Roosevelt’s message was "Pay attention to the forgotten man at the bottom of the economy period." Roosevelt won.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Roaring Twenties

    Roaring Twenties
    American culture and society in the 1920s were marked by a wave of new lifestyles and ideas. While the movie industry produced new celebrities and jazz music became popular, literature flourished and flappers defined a social trend. Amidst the speakeasies, jazz, and jitterbugs, Americans began to stray from traditional values as the culture changed.

    Prosperity: This is a term that refers to the economic stability and opportunity experienced during the 1920s. The inventions of new consumer goods and home electrical products contributed to this prosperity. The economy during this time was stimulated by the new and booming electrical industry. A growth oriented business climate of the time was expansionist regarding American capitalism. This boom also was started with the invention of the affordable automobile.

    KDKA, Pittsburgh: This was the first successful radio station in the U.S. to start broadcasting on Nov 2, 1920. It began the radio era when KDKA, based in Pittsburgh, broadcast the news of President Harding’s election. This radio station also influenced the establishment of the Federal Radio Commission.

    Federal Radio Commission, 1927:     The FRC was created by Congress and extended the principle of governmental regulation of business activity to the new radio industry. This can be seen as an example of the progressive spirit that still survived in the legislative branch and its effect on society.

    Women’s Christian Temperance Movement:     Formed in 1874, the Women’s Christian Temperance movement grew in momentum during the progressive era. This occurred because the war with Germany fermented wider support for the movement. By 1917 it successfully established prohibition in 19 states.

    Anti-Saloon League: Another organization formed during the progressive era, the Anti-Saloon league was spurred by the Women’s Christian Temperance Movement in 1893. Progressives encouraged the legal abolition of alcohol. The result of the efforts of the ASL was the 18th amendment passed in 1918.

    National Women’s Party, Alice Paul:     During the twenties, feminist Alice Paul’s National Women’s Party lobbied for an equal-rights amendment to the Constitution. Other feminists, radicals, and labor activists condemned Paul’s stance on this issue. Unfortunately, the proposed amendment never succeeded through the party.

    Garvey, Marcus, Universal Negro Improvement Association:     Garvey was a black nationalist leader who created the "Back to Africa" movement in the U.S. In 1907, he led a printers’ strike for higher wages at a printing company in Kingston. In 1914 he founded the UNIA and in 1916, he started a weekly newspaper called the Negro World.

    Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes: Hughes was an American writer known for the use of jazz and black folk rhythms in his poetry. He used musical rhythms and the traditions of African American culture in his poetry. In the 1920s he was a prominent figure during the Harlem Renaissance and was the Poet Laureate of Harlem. The Harlem Renaissance refers to the black cultural development during the 1920s. However, the movement depended on the patronage of white people.

    de Mille, Cecil B.:     He was an American motion picture director and producer who in 1913 joined with Jesse Lasky and Samuel Goldwyn to form the Jesse L. Lasky Feature Play Company. De Mille produced and directed the first feature film made in Hollywood called The Squaw Man in 1914.

    Valentino, Rudolph, Chaplin, Charlie: Valentino was an actor who was idolized by female fans of the 1920s. His first silent film was The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) but his peak was with The Sheik (1921). Charlie Chaplin was a silent film actor who appeared in 1914 with the Keystone Film Company.

    Ford, Henry, the Model T, Sloan, Alfred P.: In 1893, Ford completed the construction of his first automobile and in 1903 he founded the Ford Motor Company. In 1908 he started production of the Model-T. In 1913 Ford began using standardized interchangeable parts and assembly-lines in his plants.

    Johnson, James Weldon: American author, lawyer, and diplomat who reflected his deep consideration of black life in the United States, James Weldon Johnson served as field secretary of the NAACP from 1916-1920. In 1920 he became the NAACP’s first black executive secretary.

    Ruth, Babe, Dempsey, Jack: Babe Ruth was the most popular player in the history of baseball. He began in 1914 on the Baltimore team of the International League. Jack Dempsey was an American professional boxer who became world heavyweight champion in 1919 but lost the title in 1926.

    Lindbergh, Charles, Spirit of St. Louis: Lindbergh was an American aviator, engineer , and Pulitzer Prize winner. On May 20, 1927, he was the first person to make a nonstop solo flight across the Atlantic. Flying in his single engine plane, Spirit of St. Louis, he flew from New York City to Paris.

    The Jazz Singer: The Jazz Singer was a movie, made in 1927, that started a demand for dancers who could fulfill the expectations of the 1920s. Fred Astaire was involved with the choreography in the movie along with other famous dancers such as Berkeley, Balanchine, and De Mille.

    the Jazz Age: The Jazz Age is the general label of what the twenties represented. Such a title reflects the revolution in music during the time, when jazz music became popular and in style. This name also refers to the general prosperity and liberation of the people during the time; those were the "good times."

    Freud’s, Sigmund theories: Freud was a Viennese physician whose studies of human sexuality and human psychology first appeared in the 1890s. However, his ideas became popular during the 1920s. His lectures in 1909 at Clark University advanced psychoanalysis in the United States.

    Barton, Bruce, The Man Nobody Knows 1925: Barton was an advertising executive that described Jesus Christ as a managerial genius who "picked up twelve men from the bottom ranks of business and forged them into an organization that conquered the world." By this he referred to the public’s admiration of leaders like President Harding.

    "the Lost Generation":     This term refers to a group of American writers who lived primarily in Paris during the 1920s and 1930s. Bitter about their World War I experiences and disillusioned with different aspects of American society, these writers were seen to be ex-patriots. The writers include: Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and William Carlos Williams. They never formed a formal literary movement, but individually they were all influential writers.

    Lewis, Sinclair, Main Street, Babbitt: Main Street was written in 1920 and is where Lewis first developed the theme of the monotony, emotional frustration, and lack of values in American middle-class life. Babbitt, written in 1922, comments on how people conform blindly to the standards of their environment.

    Mencken, H.L., editor of the magazine, The American Mercury: Mencken founded the magazine The American Mercury in 1924. Mencken remained the editor until 1933. He targeted his work at the shortcomings of democracy and the middle-class American culture.

    Eliot, T.S., The Waste Land: Eliot won the Nobel Prize for literature for his poem The Waste Land. This poem that is one of the most widely discussed literary works. Written in 1922, The Waste Land expresses Eliot’s conception of the contrast between modern society and societies of the past.

    Fitzgerald, F. Scott, The Great Gatsby:     Fitzgerald wrote this book in five months and completed it in 1925. The plot was a sensitive and satiric story of the pursuit of success and the collapse of the American dream. Being one of the writers of the Lost Generation, Fitzgerald was bitter because of the effects of the war.

    Dreiser, Theodore, An American Tragedy: In 1925, An American Tragedy had great success. Dreiser believed in representing life honestly in his fiction and accomplished this through accurate detail and descriptions of the urban settings of his stories. He also portrays his characters as victims of social and economic forces.

    Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms: In Hemingway’s novels, he usually depicted the lives of two types of people: men and women deprived of faith in their values by World War I, and men of simple character and primitive emotions. This was Hemingway’s second most important novel next to The Sun Also Rises (1926).

    New woman: During the 1920s changes in postwar behavior had a liberating effect on women. Women of the twenties were noticed more for their sex appeal and presented as thus in the advertising industry. The burden of domestic chores were alleviated with new technology, while women themselves turned to a more liberated attitude.

    Flappers:     Called a flapper because they would leave their boot flaps open, the flapper was the stereotype of a woman in the 1920s. Independent and representing the rebellious youth of the age, the flapper was usually characterized by her "bobbed" hair, dangling cigarette, heavy make-up, and her ever shortening skirt length.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Roosevelt and the New Deal

    Roosevelt and the New Deal
    Declining appeal of Hoover to the public led to the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932. Roosevelt’s extensive program to restore the economy made up the New Deal. Overall, these legislative measures dealt with assisting people financially, reform other systems and institutions, and recover the prosperity before the Depression. While not all were entirely successful, the various programs all contributed to the eventual, though gradual, recovery of the economy.

    Age of the Radio:     Radio reached its climax in the 1930s when millions of Americans listened to network news commentators, musical programs, and comedy shows. Also, the president and business companies utilized this resource to attract people, sell products, or to promote a political issue.

    Fireside Chats: During the first hundred days of Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office Roosevelt held informal radio conversations every so often that were dubbed "fireside chats." The topic discussed was the economy that had been plagued by the depression, and the means that were going to be taken in order to revive it.

    Roosevelt, Eleanor: Eleanor Roosevelt is portrayed as a U.S. humanitarian and displayed her politics and social issues as a wife of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. She mostly fought for women and minority groups. Many of her books include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and This Is My Story and On My Own.

    Perkins, Frances, Secretary of Labor: Being the first woman to be appointed to a Cabinet position (1933-1945), Perkins was also a social reformer. During her term, Perkins strengthened the Department of Labor, pushed for a limit on employment age, and developed the CCC, the Social Security Act, and Fair Labor Standards Act (1938).

    Brain Trust: The term brain trust refers to the individual people outside the Franklin Roosevelt appointed presidential cabinet that helped in the decision making process of the president. The men most known are: Raymond Moley, Rexford Tugwell, and Adolph A. Berle. Moley was conservative while Tugwell and Berle were interested in reform.

    Keynesian economics:     Keynes looked at the economy in a wider sense: macroeconomics. He theorized that the relationship between supply and demand was critical: when the demand doesn’t meet expectations there is unemployment and depression while if demand surpasses production inflation occurs. The solution is to have the government spend while maintaining low taxes and when there is demand that a tight budget should be created.

    Pump-priming: Supported by Roosevelt, this theory pumped governmental money to the poor so they could buy products. This would increase sales and cause a demand for that product. This demand in turn will produce jobs for the poor. Now that the poor have jobs they have the necessary income to buy products and this cycle occurs again.

    Deficit spending: The manner in which the government spends more than it receives is refereed to as deficit spending. This is done to stimulate the economy through the rise in government costs or due to the decrease of taxation. On the other hand, deficit spending is also seen as inefficiency of government spending.

    Monetary policy, fiscal policy:     The policy gave government control of the money supply and created a high economic rate to stabilized prices and wages. Fiscal policy is regulation of trade between domestic or foreign goods. Import duties are still possible, but fiscal policy makes an exception because its purpose is to raise revenue.

    New Deal: In light of the Great Depression, FDR proposed a series of relief and emergency measures known collectively as the New Deal. Through these measures, FDR intended to revive the lost prosperity of the economy by reforming other institutions and programs, by relieving the plight of the people, and thus recover the nation’s wealth.

    Hundred Days: Measures taken during Roosevelt’s first days in office, from Mar 9 to Jun 16, enabled FDR to pass acts critical to stabilizing the economy. The Hundred Days symbolized the beginning stages of the New Deal because the measures taken focused on relief, recovery and reform: key phrases from the New Deal itself.

    Relief, Recovery, and Reform: These three areas, relief, recovery, and reform, are the categories into which the New Deal was split. The Relief category was defined by the acts implemented in the area of aid to the unemployment. The Recovery category put forth measures that would help aid in the speedy recovery of areas hit hardest by the depression (i.e. agriculture and industry). Reform was a category in which the government tried to recreate areas that seemed faulty (i.e. banking system).

    "Bank Holiday":     Franklin Roosevelt in 1932 called for a "bank holiday" which permitted banks that were hurt from the depression to close down for a few days in order to regain stability. Further help to relieve the problem of the foreclosing of banks was the Emergency Banking Act which was passed during the holiday to help open more banks.

    Emergency Banking Relief Act, 1933: Implemented during the first hundred days of Franklin Roosevelt’s first term the Emergency Banking Relief Act allowed the reopening of healthy banks. The act provided healthy banks with a Treasury Department license and handled the affairs of the failed banks.

    Glass-Steagall Act, 1933:     In February of 1933 the Glass-Steagal Act was signed. The act itself made 750 million dollars that had once been kept in the governments gold reserves now able to be used in the creation of loans to private businesses and other major corporations.

    Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. (FDIC): This measure as the second of the banking acts enacted during Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, passed in Jun of 1933. The Federal Deposit Insurance Committee allowed all bank deposits up to 5,000 dollars; it separated deposit banking from investment banking.

    National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): Placed under the PWA, Jun 1933, the NIRA focused on the employment of the unemployed and the regulation of unfair business ethics. The NIRA pumped money into the economy to stimulate the job market and created codes that businesses were to follow to maintain the ideal of fair competition.

    National Industrial Recovery Administration (NRA): Promoting recovery, the National Industrial recovery Administration was designed to administer the codes of "fair competition" brought forth by the NIRA. Such codes established production limits, set wages and working conditions, and disallowed price cutting and unfair competitive practices. The main focus of the NRA was to break wage cuts and strikes, both which stifled the economy.

    Section 7a of the NRA: Developed by Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, section 7a allowed the workers to organize and enabled them to bargain collectively. In addition, Wagner helped organized labor by not allowing employers from discriminating against union members.

    "The Blue Eagle," Johnson, Hugh:     Hugh Johnson was the head of the National Recovery Administration who quickly created the organization and rallied support for the NRA by throwing parades in all of the main cities across the United States. "The Blue Eagle" was the symbol of the NRA.

    Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA), second AAA 1938: The first AAA was rendered unconstitutional years after the Act of 1938. It tried to help mend the ailing problems that had plagued agriculture since the ending of the First World War. In order to stop the problem of "dust bowls" created by the overuse of soil, the government, under the AAA, granted subsidies to farms who did not continually use the same plot of soil. The government also tried to restrict the production of certain commodities.

    Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC):     Created under Franklin Roosevelt, the CCC aimed at men particularly in the age group from 18-25. This program created jobs that would try to conserve the nation’s natural resources. The CCC would take these men out of the workforce and place them on jobs that would reforest certain areas, teach fire prevention and soil conservation, and help to stop soil erosion. Between 1933-1942
    3 million men were put to work under the CCC; each man would work for one year.

    Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA):     One of the most powerful social workers, Harry Hopkins, administered this program directed at local causes. Franklin D. Roosevelt created the FERA in May 1933 and as a part of the New Deal, this measure allocated $500 million to relieve cities and states.

    Civil Works Administration (CWA): In Nov 1933 relief administrator Harry Hopkins convinced Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the CWA. The CWA provided temporary public works that allocated a billion dollars for short-term projects for the jobless during the winter but was demolished when the spring arrived.

    Public Works Administration (PWA):     Harold Ickes: Headed by Harold Ickes, the Secretary of Interior, who was cautious and suspicious, the PWA was a governmental agency which spent $4 billion on 34,000 public works project which constructed dams, bridges, and public buildings.

    Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): Senator Norris: Pushed for by Senator George Norris, the TVA was a governmental agency which ruled several federal programs of building dams, the construction of hydroelectric dams, and controlling floods. Created in 1933, the TVA was eventually curtailed in 1980 when nuclear plants were introduced.

    National Youth Administration (NYA): As part of President Roosevelt’s New Deal plan, he set up the National Youth Administration to provide part time work for high school and college students. This agency served more than two million people and was set up because students were the most rebellious due to their exposure to new ideas.

    Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): The SEC, established in 1934, protected investors, listened to complaints, issued licenses and penalized fraud. The SEC required the registration of all companies and securities and required disclosure of company information and registration of all company securities exchanged.

    Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC): As part of the Hundred Days that understood the nation’s tragedy of foreclosed mortgages, the HOLC refinanced American home mortgages. This valiant effort allowed one-fifth of all U.S. mortgages to become refinanced which would prevent another Great Depression

    Farm Credit Administration: During Franklin Roosevelt’s first term in office, an important federal agency was established; it was named the Farm Credit Administration. It was designed to help rural Americans refinance their farmland; it also helped to restore the livelihood that was missing in agriculture.

    Federal Housing Authority (FHA): This agency forced small down payments and low-interest loans on home sales and thus stimulated the economy. This stimulation allowed a new market for private homes that accelerated the construction-industry through the utilization of technology to mass-produce homes.

    Gold Clause Act, 1935: The Gold Clause Act stated that private contracts dealing with certain railroad bonds were unable to interfere in the coining of money. The regulation in the value of money for those areas defined were specifically the areas given to Congress when the Constitution was written.

    Works Progress Administration (WPA), Hopkins, Harry, Federal Arts Project:     Directed by Harry Hopkins in 1935, the eight year program employed 8 million people and provided $11 billion dollars to the economy in which 650,000 miles of roads, 124,000 bridges, and 125,000 schools, hospitals, arts, and post offices were built. The Federal Arts Project created positions for artists by making positions for art teachers and decorated posts for offices and courthouses with murals.

    Rural Electrification Administration (REA):     The REA was an agency that provided low-interest loans to utility companies and farmers’ cooperatives to reach the 90% of rural farmers who lacked electrical power. This program was so successful that by 1941 40% of these farms had received electrical power.

    Wagner Act, 1935:     Supported by R. F. Wagner, the Wagner Act of 1935 established defined unjust labor practices, secured workers the right to bargain collectively, and established the National Labor Relations Board. As an integral part of the New Deal, it catalyzed the force of unionization. (Also known as the National Labor Relation Act)

    National Labor Relations Board (NLRB):     This agency was assembled by Congress in 1935 and oversaw the National Labor Relation Act (1935). As an independent agency, the NLRB controlled the secret ballot elections during collective bargaining and managed the complaints of unfairness by the employers or unions.

    Revenue Act, 1935: This act allowed the government to raise a spectrum of tariffs ranging from personal taxes at higher income levels to rises in corporate taxes to having heavier levies on gifts and estates. As an expression of the class spirit of the Second New Deal, there were many loopholes.

    Social Security Act: Created by the U.S. Congress on August 14,1935, this act supported old-age advantages by utilizing a pay roll tax on employers and employees. This originated from the Townsend clubs which pushed for a $200 pension. Soon the program was expanded to include dependents, the disabled, and adjusted with the inflation.

    Resettlement Administration:     As part of the New Deal and led by Rexford Tugwell, this agency created loans for small farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own farms. Even though the Resettlement Administration lasted two years, it satisfied the requirements of the governmental concern of sharecroppers.

    Emergency Relief Appropriation Act: As part of the Second New Deal in relation to the high unemployment rate in April 1935, Congress was forced into passing the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act in which Roosevelt was granted five billion dollars, part of which he used to set up the Works Progress Administration.

    Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, 1936: The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act was formulated to replace the Agricultural Adjustment Act. The act, by providing benefit payments to farmers who practiced soil conservation methods, helped to stem the overproduction in agriculture thus stabilizing farm prices.

    Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenancy Act: The act created the Farm Security Administration and replaced the Resettlement Administration. This agency created low-interest loans allowing farmers and sharecroppers to buy their own land. By 1941, they had loaned 1 billion dollars assisting thousands of farmers.

    Fair Labors Standards Act: maximum hours and minimum wage: This act was created by the Roosevelt administration of northerners to undermine the South’s competitive edge. It established a minimum wage for most workers while it concurrently created a forty-four hour work week and banned child labor.

    Results of the New Deal: Several accomplishments of the New Deal contributed to the nation’s economy. For the first time, the federal government assumed responsibility in reviving economic prosperity, vastly increasing the power of the president. The legislative measures brought reform and reinstated confidence in the people.

    Twentieth Amendment: Also known as the Lame-Duck Amendment the Twentieth Amendment in 1933 called for the ending of the "lame-duck" sessions of Congress from Dec of the even numbered years until the following Mar. The amendment also set the date of the President’s inauguration back to Jan 20.

    Wikersham Convention: Officially named the National Committee on Law Observation and Enforcement, the Wikersham Convention in May of 1929 discussed the probing problems of prohibition, the treatment of juvenile delinquents, the cost of law enforcement, and other similar problems that faced society during that era.

    Twenty-First Amendment: Ratified within the span of 10 months, the Twenty-First Amendment on Dec 5, 1933 repealed the eighteenth amendment which dealt with the passing of prohibition. The amendment also permitted states to levy a tax on alcoholic substances.

    Good Neighbor Policy: Stated in 1933 by Roosevelt in his inaugural address, the ideology was that the U.S. would respect the rights of other nations. This policy was used on various occasions of armed troops being sent to Latin America to maintain political stability. Ultimately this resulted in support from Latin America during World War II.

    Recognition of the USSR, 1933: The United States didn’t recognize Russia because of the betrayal when Russia withdrew from WWI due to the Russian Revolution in March of 1917. Also, at the treaty of Versailles, Wilson and the other Allies agreed to weaken Russia. Only until Roosevelt’s presidency did the U.S. recognize Russia.

    Indian Reorganization Act, 1934:     Authorized by the U.S. Congress, it allowed the Indians a form of self-government and thus willingly shrank the authority of the U.S. government. Enacted on Jun 18, 1934, it provided the Indians direct ownership of their land, credit, a constitution, and a charter in which Indians could manage their own affairs.

    Coalition of the Democratic Party: blacks, unions, intellectuals, big cities machines,

    South:     Franklin D. Roosevelt relied on state and local Democratic leaders who pushed beyond the traditional Democratic base. Because blacks, intellectuals, big city machines, and Southerners favored these relief programs, they merged with the Democratic Party.

    "conservative coalition" in Congress: Because of the combination of a majority in Congress and the agreeableness of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Congress was viewed as conservative. An example of this is that the Emergency Banking Act passed through Congress in one day.

    American Federation of Labor, AFL: The AFL was led by Samuel Gompers and was composed of craft unions that excluded unskilled and semiskilled workers. The size of the union grew as production in the 1900’s grew. By 1935, the dissidents formed the Committee for Industrial Organization.

    United Mine Workers, UMW: This union was created by militant leader John L. Lewis in 1890; its methods, based on his stands on increases in pay, safer working conditions, and political stands, reflect Lewis’ military style. In 1935 it had about 250,000 members out of which Lewis co-founded the CIO.

    Steel Workers Organization Committee, SWOC:     Led by Philip Murray, SWOC gained recognition by striking against U.S. Steel. By March 1937, U.S. Steel recognized the union, gave the workers a wage increase, and accepted a 40-hour week. Because of this action, many other companies began to do the same.

    Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), Lewis, John L.: John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers and Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers established the CIO in the November of 1935. This 2 million-member group welcomed all autoworkers, steelworkers, and electrical workers.

    sit down strikes: These strikes were characterized by employees occupying the work place yet doing nothing. This type of passive resistance allowed the employees to halt production, thus paralyzing the business. This tactic was utilized in the strike by the United Automobile Workers against General Motors in 1937.

    Liberty League: This group was made of conservative Democrats who were against the economic and fiscal policies of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal. It lasted for four years and was composed of famous members like Alfred E. Smith and John W. Davis. Ending in 1940, they supported the Republican candidate, Alf Landon.

    Long, Huey, Share the Wealth, Smith, Gerald L.K.: Both radical agitators, Long was known for his Share the Wealth program that painted a picture in which "every man [was] a king." Smith decried blacks, Catholics, Communists, and labor unions in the Union Party (1936), America First Party (1944), and the Christian National Crusade (1947).

    Coughlin, Father Charles:     Coughlin used his status as a U.S. Roman Catholic "radio priest" to announce his political and economic views. He asserted reactionary views and revolved around anti-New Deal and ant-Semitic views. In addition, he created the magazine Social Justice which attacked Communism, Wall Street, and Jews.

    Townsend, Dr. Francis: Townsend developed the Townsend Plan in 1933 which embraced 5 million supporters. It called for a pension for citizens over 60 years of age to receive $200 provided by the federal government. Although Congress rejected it, Townsend’s ideals were an early foundation of the Social Security Act.

    Hughes, Chief Justice Charles Evans: Hughes guided the Supreme Court in the attack against President Roosevelt in his plan to "pack" the Supreme Court in 1937. Also, he upheld the Wagner Act in which workers had the right of collective bargaining in the National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel.

    Schechter v. United States: This case took place in May 1935 when a New York company was charged with a violation of an NRA poultry code; these charges resulted in the Supreme Court declaring the NRA unconstitutional by stating that the NRA was regulating interstate commerce a violation of federal regulation.

    "court packing" proposal:     This proposal was announced by Franklin D. Roosevelt allowing the president to appoint new Supreme Court members for each one over 70 years of age, totaling six in all. After Chief Justice Evan Hughes’ leadership in expressing their disapproval in this plan, Congress and the American people disapproved of the action as well. This resulted in some New Dealers leaving the president’s side and humiliated President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

    New Members of the Supreme Court:     Black, Hugo, Reed, Stanley F., Frankfurter, Felix, Douglass, William O.: These four men were appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt between 1937 to 1939 to guarantee a foundation for a liberal majority and thus extending Roosevelt’s New Deal policies after leaving office.

    Election of 1936:     candidates, issues: The candidates included Franklin D. Roosevelt from the Democratic Party, Alfred M. Landon from the Republican party, and William Lemke from the Union Party. The principal issue was how to exploit the New Deal’s popularity. In the end, FDR won in a landslide victory.

    Literacy Digest Poll: The poll was initiated by Franklin D. Roosevelt during his presidency and involved in a court case: Literacy Digest poll v. Gallop Poll. There, they debated on the validity of each poll in relation to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.

    Second New Deal:     Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and expressed in his State of the Union Address in January 1935, the Second New Deal focused on and enlarged the federal program to incorporate the jobless, to help the unemployed receive jobs, to give assistance to the rural poor, organized labor, and social welfare. Roosevelt wanted to levy heavier taxes on the rich, create harder regulations on businesses, and to incorporate social-welfare benefits.

    Robinson-Patman Act, 1936: Originated from a Federal Trade Commission chain store investigation, this act was an amendment to the Clayton Act; it eliminated unfair business practices and destroyed monopolies. On Jun 19, 1936, this act was passed and applied to all buyers or sellers, and merchants large or small.

    Miller-Tydings Act, 1937: The purpose of this act was to amend the Sherman Anti-Trust Act by exempting any contract or agreement ("horizontal agreements") in which a product would be set at a significantly lower price. A violation of this would be an unfair method as stated in the Federal Trade Commission Act.

    "Roosevelt recession": Although the economy improved in 1936 and early 1937, it once again fell back in mid 1937, when industrial production and steel output declined, and unemployment statistics increased. Some of the major factors of this recession were federal policies that greatly reduced consumer income.

    Hatch Act, 1939: Supported by Senator Carl Hatch of New Mexico and passed by Congress on Aug 2, 1939, the Hatch Act tried to exterminate corruption during elections. It disallowed bribery of votes, restricted federal employees from political campaigning, and limited donations from individuals which were to be given to political campaigns.

    dust bowl, Okies, John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath: "Okies" were poor farmers who moved west to California and Arizona during the 1930s or moved to the crowded cities. This occurred because after two generations of a melange of drought and poor farming techniques these areas, also known as "dust bowls," once fertile land, became waste areas and unusable. The Grapes of Wrath written by Steinbeck in 1939 illustrates the plight of a dust bowl family.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Twenties Domestic Affairs

    Twenties Domestic Affairs
    America of the 1920s was a period of prosperity as well as industrial and technological growth. With the recent end of World War I, Americans yearned for a return to "normalcy" and political leaders that could provide it, thus turning to the leadership of Warren G. Harding.

    Election of 1920: candidates, issues, vice-presidential candidates: The democrats nominated James M. Cox and Franklin D. Roosevelt for his running mate. Republicans chose Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio and Governor Calvin Coolidge of Massachusetts. Harding sensed popular longing for calm and won in a landslide victory.

    Normalcy: Coined by Warren G. Harding in an address before the Home Market Club on May 14,1920 in Boston, this term came to symbolize, to powerful businessmen, the immediate abandonment of the foreign and domestic policies of Wilson. This meant a return to high protective tariffs and a reduction in taxes.

    Sheppard-Towner Act:     Lobbying for child-labor laws as well as worker protection for women and support for education by the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee resulted in the Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921. This act provided $1.2 million for prenatal and baby-care centers in rural areas.

    Esch-Cummins Transportation Act: Also known as the Transportation Act of 1920, this act allowed the government to take over the railroads from Dec 26, 1917 until Mar 1, 1920. They were forced to carry heavy traffic while ignoring maintenance. The result was the Act of Feb 28, 1920 and attempted to insure the operation of the railroads.

    Immigration Acts 1921, 1924, quota system: In 1921 Congress limited annual immigration to about 350,000 people annually. In 1924, they limited the number to 164,000 people annually. This also restricted immigration to 2% of the total number of people who lived in the U.S. from their respective country since 1890 and completely rejected the immigration of Asians. The intent of these provisions was to reduce the immigration of foreign people in the United States.

    KKK revival: A KKK was an organization founded in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1866. Nathan Bedford Forrest served as the first Grand Wizard for this organization. They aimed to destroy radical political power and establish white supremacy in the U.S. They were formally disbanded in 1869, but then it was revived in 1915, led by William J. Simmons.

    Harding scandals: Charles Forbes, Harry Daugherty, Sceretary of Interior Fall, Teapot Dome, Harry Sinclair: Forbes, director of the Veteran’s Bureau, in 1924, was exposed and convicted of stealing funds from it for personal economic growth. Daugherty, appointed attorney general, was forced from office in 1924 after receiving payments from violators of prohibition. Fall leased government oil reserves in 1921 to Sinclair, president of the Mammoth Oil Company. All suspects evaded prosecution.

    Harding, Warren G.:     Although Harding lacked the qualifications for presidency, his ordinary, friendly manner and advocacy of a return to "normalcy" resulted in a landslide vicotry in the election of 1920. Unfortunately, his administration was full of scandals and on Aug 2, 1923, Harding died in San Francisco of a heart attack.

    Coolidge, Calvin:     Harding’s death brought vice president Coolidge to the presidency, where his silences became legendary. As president, he held an antipathy to progressivism, believed the government had no obligation in protecting citizens against natural disasters, and warned of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation and control."

    Taft, Chief Justice William Howard: Taft was appointed by President Harding in 1921. Under his jurisdiction, the Supreme Court overturned many progressive reform measures that were opposed by popular business interests. An example of this was the 1919 federal law imposing taxes on the products of child labor that he overturned.

    Conference for Progressive Political Action, 1922 (CPPA):     A committee designed to revive the practices of the progressive era, the CPPA adopted policies of pro-labor, pro-farmer, and government ownership of railroads and utilities such as telephones and electricity. It helped defeat the conservative Republican candidates in 1924.

    Bureau of the Budget:     Created by the Budget and Accounting Act on June 10, 1921, this act provided for the Bureau to be located in the treasury department with the director appointed by the president. The Bureau provided for a more efficient management of the budget within the treasury department.

    Mellon, Secretary of Treasury tax cuts:     Mellon was the secretary of the treasury under Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover. Under his administration, Congress lowered the income tax rates for the wealthy. Mellon also succeeded in balancing the budget every year from 1921 to 1928.

    Norris, Senator George, Muscle Shoals:     Norris successfully prevented President Coolidge from selling a federal hydroelectric facility at Muscle Shoals, Alabama to auto-maker Henry Ford for only a portion of the value of the land. He also helped reject further tax cuts for the rich.

    election of 1924: candidates, Robert La Follette, Progressive Party: CPPA delegates revived the Progressive Party at the meeting in Cleveland in July of 1924 and nominated Robert La Follette for president; the Socialist party and AFL supported this nomination, also. The Democratic Party nominated John W. Davis, a compromise candidate. The Republicans nominated Coolidge, who won with 54% of the vote.

    McNary-Haugen Bill, vetoes:     The veto of the McNary-Haugen Bill by Coolidge reflected a fear of "the tyranny of bureaucratic regulation." He denounced the bill as an unconstitutional scheme because it would benefit American agriculture at the expense of the general public’s welfare.

    Federal Farm Board: This action was a result of Hoover’s response towards the problems faced by agriculture. He secured the passage of legislation that established the Board to Promote Cooperative Commodity Marketing. By doing so he was permitted to raise farm prices while still preserving the voluntarist principle.

    Election of 1928:     candidates, personalities, backgrounds: Candidates Al Smith and Herbert Hoover represented the social and cultural differences of the 1920s. Smith was the Democratic candidate with the experience of being the governor of NY. Hoover was an inexperienced candidate that had never sought a public office before, yet he won.

    Prohibition:     Prohibition was first an issue before World War I. Progressives saw it as a way to deal with the social problems associated with alcoholism. Congress submitted the 18th amendment prohibiting the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic liquors in 1917. However, closet manufacturing of alcoholic beverages and a rise in criminal activities within the cities due to illegal importation of alcohol led to its repeal with the 21st amendment in 1933.

    Volstead Act, Al Capone:     The Volstead Act of 1919 established the Prohibition Bureau within the Treasury Department, but it lacked financial stability and was ineffective. Capone was a mob king in Chicago who controlled a large network of speakeasies with enormous profits; his illegal activities convey the failure of prohibition in the twenties.

    Sacco and Vanzetti Case:     On Apr 15, 1920 two robbers killed a clerk and stole money from a shoe factory in South Briantree, Massachusetts. Nicola Sacco and Bartholomeo Vanzetti were arrested and both were charged with the robbery and the murder. The jury found them both guilty. Both men died in the electric chair on Aug 23, 1927.

    Leopold and Loeb Case:     The case in 1924 involved the murder of a young boy by two rich and intelligent college students. This case has been referred to for its moral lesson on human nature. It also shows that not only famous cases have been products of social developments; Americans responded to criminal cases also.

    fundamentalists, Billy Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson: During the twenties, Protestants who insisted on the divinity of the Bible, were angered by the theory of evolution. Fundamentalist legislatures even introduced bills to prohibit the teaching of evolution in schools. An evangelist, Billy Sunday’s most famous quote reads, "If you turn hell upside down you will find ‘Made in Germany’ stamped on the bottom." Evangelist McPherson used drama and theatrical talent in her sermons, winning many followers.

    Scopes Trial, Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan:     In 1925, the Tennessee legislature outlawed the teaching of evolution in public schools. The American Civil Liberties Union volunteered to defend any teacher willing to challenge this law. William Jennings Bryan agreed to assist prosecution. Darrow was the head of ACLU’s lawyers.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 09 - 1940-1960

    Below are the US History topics covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Civil Rights to 1960

    Civil Rights to 1960
    After the army became desegregated in 1948, the position of African-Americans in civilian society came under increasing scrutiny. There was widespread recognition that the integration of society had not progressed as it was supposed to and that it was time for the African-American citizens to take a stand. Landmark decisions in the Supreme Court as well as civil rights laws foreshadowed the changes and upheaval that would come in this and following decades.

    Randolph, A. Philip: President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters who worked to build his March-on-Washington Committee into an all-black protest movement. The Committee also engaged in civil disobedience to protest racial discrimination in all aspects of American life.

    Fair Employment Practices Committee: Roosevelt issued this committee in 1941 to enforce the policy of prohibiting employment-related discrimination practices by federal agencies, unions, and companies involved in war-related work for the purpose of enforcing an Executive Order and made possible the employment of 2 million blacks.

    Detroit race riots, 1966: Erupted because of constant conflict between black citizens and white cops, resulting in the bloodiest riot in this half-century. Forty-three were found dead, thousands were wounded, and over $50 million in property was destroyed.

    Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): The Congress of Racial Equality was formed in 1942 to help combat discrimination through nonviolent, direct action. Led by James Farmer, it organized Freedom Rides that rode throughout the south to try to force desegregation of public facilities.

    Drew, Dr. Charles: As an African-American physician, he developed techniques for the storing and processing of blood for transfusion in 1944. He also conducted research on the preservation of blood and during WWII, he developed blood-transfusion programs for the British and French.

    Myrdal, Gunnar, An American Dilemma: A Swedish economist, Gunnar wrote about anticipated changes in race relations, as well as the problems between the races in 1944. He specifically noted that Black veterans returned with very high expectations from civilian life due to war.

    rural and Southern to urban and Northern:     Eisenhower sought to give low income farmers increased training and trade as well as to improve industry and the health of citizens of the rural South . In the urban North, a great emphasis was put upon renovation and the rehabilitation of the cities opposed to clearance and reconstruction.

    To Secure These Rights:     The 1946 Committee on Civil Rights dramatized the inequities of life in the South and under the Jim Crow laws. It called for an end to racial discrimination and segregation, and was called "an American charter of human freedom," by President Truman.

    desegregation of the armed forces, 1948:     Truman ended segregation in the army to provide support during World War II to ensure victory. He was the first president to deal with the legislative civil rights since the implementation of Reconstruction and fought for many other civil rights acts but was denied.

    Korean War:     Seen as a Soviet-directed aggression to test American containment policy. On June 27, 1950, Truman ordered American troops to invade South Korea. General Douglas MacArthur sought total victory, and in 1953 a cease fire was issued after a truce agreement was signed by the U.N. and Communists.

    "separate but equal":     Enacted because of the inferiority complex given to blacks, it set forth an attempt to liberalize without losing control. The Supreme Court said that it had no place in schools, so it ordered the desegregation of schools, navy yards and veteran hospitals.

    Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka:     The Supreme Court reversed Plessy v. Ferguson in 1954 by ruling in favor of the desegregation of schools. The court held that "separate but equal" violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and was unconstitutional. Refusing to force the white south to accept the ruling, defiance toward the law sprang up. Many southerners saw it as "an abuse of judiciary power."

    Marshall, Thurgood:     1st African American justice of the Supreme Court, famous for his fight against discrimination, the death penalty, and his support of civil liberties and free speech. Previously a lawyer with such key victories as in Brown v. Board of Education, founder of the NAACP Legal Defense.

    Montgomery Bus Boycott, Rosa Parks: In December of 1955, Parks refused to get up from her seat on the bus to give it to a white man, and was therefore arrested. This led to massive bus boycotts in Montgomery, Alabama. Because of her actions she is known as the "mother" of civil rights. Resistance to desegregation of buses was finally overcome by the Supreme Court ruling that it was unconstitutional to segregate public transportation in November, 1956.

    King Jr., Rev. Martin Luther:     An African-American leader who was the voice of his people. His philosophy emphasized need for direct action by getting every African-American involved in the pursuit of equality and to build a community of brotherhood in his "I have a dream" speech. On April 4,1968 he was assassinated.

    Little Rock, Arkansas Crisis: Governor Orval E. Faubus sent the National Guard to bar nine black students from entering Central High School in Arkansas in 1957. Eisenhower then enforced a new court order that forced the men to withdraw, and a mob of whites reacted by preventing the students from entering the school. Then The National Guard was sent to protect the students from the violence for the rest of the school year. The school was then shut down in 1958-59.

    Civil Rights Act,1957: Eisenhower passed this bill to establish a permanent commission on civil rights with investigative powers but it did not guarantee a ballot for blacks. It was the first civil-rights bill to be enacted after Reconstruction which was supported by most non-southern whites.

    Civil Rights Act, 1960:     Eisenhower passed this bill to appease strong southern resistance and only slightly strengthened the first measures provisions. Neither act was able to empower federal officials to register the right to vote for African-Americans and was not effective.

    literacy tests, poll tax: Literacy tests were given to blacks with the idea that they would be denied the right to vote since most could not read. The poll tax prevented African-Americans from voting by requiring all voters to pay a tax, which blacks could not afford. In 1966, the poll tax was outlawed in all elections.

    grandfather clause, white primaries:     The grandfather clause was a provision used to exclude people who served in the war and their descendants from taking suffrage tests. It was declared unconstitutional in 1915. White primaries were used to control everything even with disenfranchisement and was declared unconstitutional in 1944.

    Jackie Robinson: He was the first African-American baseball player to play professionally in 1947. He was able to break the color barrier and seemed to successfully overcome the racism so prevalent in his sport. Robinson was also was able to contribute to the winning of the pennant and Rookie of the Year in his first year of playing.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Eisenhower and the 1950s

    Eisenhower and the 1950s
    Hailing Eisenhower as someone whom one might have as a regular neighbor, the country overwhelmingly elected the former and celebrated World War Two Allied forces commander. Although a former military leader, Eisenhower strongly believed in the ascendancy of civilian control over the military and condemned what he termed the "military-industrial complex." During Eisenhower’s administration, the USSR made several advances in the space race pushing the United States to catch up.

    1952 election: candidates, issues: Truman would not seek reelection. The Democrats drafted Adlai Stevenson, who was unsuccessful. The Republicans decided to back the war hero Dwight D. Eisenhower who chose Nixon as his running mate. The GOP controlled both houses.

    Ike and Modern Republicanism: He provided Americans with the stability they craved, and labeled his credo "Modern Republicanism." In general, he was conservative on monetary issues and liberal "when it came to human beings." During his term as president, he backed the most extensive public-works program in U.S. history: the Interstate Highway Act and also extended social security benefits and raised the minimum wage.

    "fiscal management":     Large scale labor organizations and social welfare were used to deal with powerful pressure groups. It rejected an extreme step to the right side of politics and a return to the pre-New Deal policies. Also, it abandoned the goal of a balanced budget in favor of increased spending to restore prosperity.

    Niebuhr, Reinhold, Rand, Ayn, The Fountainhead: Niebuhr was a theologian who expressed neo-Orthodox Protestant views and liberal social thoughts. Ayn Rand was a U.S. novelist who became a citizen in 1931 and wrote about the struggles of poverty. Her work was important in expressing life’s hardships and was published in 1928.

    McCarran-Walter Immigration Act, 1952:     Passed over the presidents’ veto, it validated the quota system firmly based on the idea that national origin restrained immigration from southern and Eastern Europe. This act also empowered the attorney general to exclude and deport aliens suspected of being communists.

    Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW): Eisenhower transformed the Federal Securities Agency into the H.E.W. and gave it cabinet rank in 1953. This agency allowed for the reorganization of government in order to achieve greater efficiency and a better economy.

    Interstate Highway Act: Passed by Eisenhower, this was the largest and most expensive public-works system in American history that allowed for the building of 41,000 miles of expressways in 1956. Allowed for suburban growth, the decay of central cities, and increased America’s reliance on cars.

    St. Lawrence Seaway: Approved by Eisenhower, this seaway linked the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean in 1954. It was built to accelerate suburban growth, expand trade to promote economic prosperity, and allowed boats greater access to transport goods. It connected Montreal and Lake Ontario promoting good relations with Canada.

    Landrum-Griffin Act: Passed in 1959 to regulate the government of unions, guarantee members’ rights, provisions for anti-corruption, and fair elections. Enacted due to the concern of financial misconduct on the part of union officials and connected to gangsters and organized crime.

    Hoffa, Jimmy: He became president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters in 1957. Jury tampering was found after he was sentenced to thirteen years in prison for the fraudulent use of the union pension fund. After losing his appeals, he was sentenced in 1967 but only served about four years and nine months in prison.

    AFL-CIO merger: In 1955, this brought 85% of all union members into a single administrative unit, which promised aggressive unionism under the leadership of AFL’s George Meany as president and CIO’s Walter Reuther as vice-president. However, the movement was unable to achieve its old level of success.

    Alaska, Hawaii: Congress approved Alaska as the forty-ninth state of the Union in June and Eisenhower signed the Alaska statehood bill on July 7, 1958 . Congress approved of giving Hawaii statehood in March of 1959 and it was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959.

    First Indochina War: After WWII, Ho Chi Minh of the Vietminh declared himself leader of the Republic of Vietnam and began a war to drive the France imperialists out of Vietnam in Dec of 1946. After a 55 day siege, the French surrendered at the fortress of Diem Bien Phu and July 21, 1954 a truce agreement was signed with France surrendering North Vietnam and granting independence to Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam.

    Bricker Amendment:     On January 7, 1954, Senator John W. Bricker proposed a constitutional amendment to limit the executive power of the president. His proposal called for a limit on the power of the president to negotiate treaties and executive agreements. Rejected February 26, 1954.

    Dulles, John Foster: Became Secretary of State under Eisenhower in 1953. Cold Warrior who supported "massive retaliation," brinksmanship, and preemptive strike. In 1951 he was author of Japanese peace treaty. Politically influential during WWII, from 1949-1959.

    "massive retaliation":     January, 1940s. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles signed the Strategic Air Command as the primary deterrent for Soviet attack. Great Britain, Turkey, and Italy stationed intermediate-range nuclear weapons in their countries to provide for a capacity for "massive retaliation."

    brinksmanship: This is another of the policies of John Foster Dulles that caused considerable controversy during the Cold War. Dulles declared that the United States must be prepared to "go to the brink" of war in order to attain its objectives. This stance was labeled brinksmanship.

    preemptive strike: A plan of acting first with nuclear or conventional weapons as a defensive action. A preemptive strike would solve the problem before it became an issue by acting first and swiftly. A preemptive strike is another Cold War term that generated fear for the beginning of a nuclear war.

    Khrushchev, 1955 Geneva Summit:     The meeting of "Four Powers," US, Great Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Also present was Khrushchev, the 1st Secretary of the Communist Party. Decided to reunify Germany, and on disarmament, and how to improve relations between east and west.

    Hungarian revolt, 1956:     Antigovernment demonstrations in Budapest on Oct. 23, 1956 as revolutionaries demanded the denunciation of the Warsaw Pact and liberation from Soviet troops. On Oct. 21, U.S. announced it wouldn’t give military aid to the revolutionaries. On Nov. 4, Soviets attacked Hungary.

    Nasser Suez Canal crisis:     Dec 17, 1955, the U.S. offered Egypt a loan to build the Aswan High Dam, withdrawing its offer after Egypt accepted Soviet Union aid and Pres. Nasser nationalized the Suez canal to use tolls to build the dam. On Oct 31, Israel invaded Egypt with French and British aircraft.

    Peaceful Coexistence: A term applied to the actions of the US under Eisenhower and USSR under Khrushchev for maintaining peace and reducing the possibility of war between the two nations. The implementation of the phrase is seen in the Geneva Summit where the "spirit of Geneva" was one of peace and collaboration to create a secure and peaceful world. March 1959 the USSR and the U.S agreed to suspend atomic testing.

    Eisenhower Doctrine:     January 5, 1957, Eisenhower made a speech to the joint House of Congress to limit communist expansion. Authorized March 7, the Eisenhower Doctrine allowed the president to extend economic and military aid to certain nations as well as use of $200 million mutual security funds.

    Common Market: Established 1958 by the Treaty of Rome to set up a wide customs union in 1968 and was joined by Great Britain in 1972. The EEC developed world wide trading relations between European nations providing for a more solidified Europe, another symbol of rearrangement of power after WWII.

    Organization of American States (OAS):     From the Charter of Bogotá regional association was established with US and Latin America states and formed a Inter-American conference, a Consultative Conference of Foreign Ministers, a Council with a delegate from each state, and a Secretariat and Commissions.

    U-2 incident: May 3, 1960, the USSR announced an American U-2 plane was shot down in Soviet territory. May 5, NASA released a cover story of a lost weather research plane. May 7, pilot Francis Gary Powers confessed to being a CIA spy. May 11 Eisenhower admitted to authorization of U-2 flights.

    ICBM: Intercontinental Ballistic missiles were developed in the 1950's in America. The ICBM's with one or two nuclear warheads had the potential to destroy the USSR and the US. ICBM's were one of the many factors that gave the American people the sense that war was imminent.

    Sputnik: The Soviet Union launched this first satellite into orbit on October 4, 1957. Humiliated at being upstaged by the Russians, the U.S. reshaped the educational system in efforts to produce the large numbers of scientists and engineers that Russia had. In addition, to better make scientific advancements, NASA was created in 1958. Created by Congress, it brought a national aeronautics agency to administer nonmilitary space research and exploration.

    National Defense Education Act (NDEA Act):     Passed in 1958 to provide $300 million in loans to students of undergraduate and graduate status, funds for training teachers, and for the development of new instructional material to ensure a higher level of national security.

    "military-industrial complex":     The demands of national security had produced the symbiotic relationship of immense military establishment and industry. These intertwined interests helped lead to leverage in government and threatened subordination of the military.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Gathering Storm 1940-1941

    Gathering Storm 1940-1941
    As World War Two began in Europe, the United States attempted to maintain a distance. However, as hostilities escalated in both the East and West, the United States was fenced in and forced to choose a side. Supporting the Allied forces, the United States, though not officially in the war, was considered a legitimate target by the Axis. After France fell to Germany, pressure increased on the United States. Finally, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor pulled the United States into the global conflict.

    Invasion of Poland, Blitzkrieg:     When Poland refused to restore the German city of Danzig lost after WWI, Hitler’s troops attacked Poland on Sept.1, 1939. April 1940, Hitler unleashed his Blitzkrieg, or "lightening war," and quickly occupied many western European nations.

    Axis Powers:     Group of countries opposed to the Allied powers. Originated in the Rome-Berlin Axis with the 1936 Hitler-Mussolini Accord and their alliance in 1939. In Sept. 1940, it was extended when Japan was incorporated into the Axis by the signing of the Tripartite pact. The Axis powers were Japan, Italy and Germany.

    "cash and carry":     A precautionary move by the U.S. to make sure they stayed isolationist. Nations who wanted to trade had to purchase the materials from the U.S. and carry them on their own vessels. This meant that the allied countries had to only pay for the goods and the United States would ship them.

    fall of France:     Hitler’s launched his blitzkrieg on France in 1938. The British were already being driven back when Hitler attacked Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. England evacuated 338,000 men from the English channel. Mussolini attacked from the South at the same time, and on Jun. 22 France capitulated.

    America First Committee: When FDR expressed a desire for American intervention in WWII, he was faced with stiff resistance by the America First Committee in 1940. The committee was compromised of many pro-isolationist who thought that the allied powers could do nothing to stop the war.

    Isolationism, Lindbergh, Charles:     Isolationism was the foreign policy practiced by America after WWI, as most citizens did not want to be involved in many international affairs. Charles Lindbergh was a big supporter of this policy, and even joined the America First Committee to demonstrate his antiwar sentiment.

    Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies:     Instituted by Roosevelt to oversee loans and other such financial activities occurring while Germany attacked Britain. The Committee, oversaw lend lease policy implemented by Roosevelt for purposes of protecting America and also to help stop Germany in Europe.

    Smith Act: The Smith Act was created in 1940 and outlawed any conspiracy to overthrow the government. It was largely used in the later years of communist hysteria, and imprisoned individuals not because of any acts of violence or espionage, but rather for their rhetoric and their views on the American government..

    Tojo: Japanese leader during WWII. An extreme militarist, advocated total war. Became Army Chief of Staff in 1937. Led the Japanese army against Manchuria, and in 1940 made Minister of War. In 1941, appointed Prime Minister, and controlled government and military operations during WWII. Resigned 1944.

    destroyers-for-bases deal: In exchange for fifty old WWI American destroyers which had in been recommissioned in 1939 and 1940 and were serving on neutrality patrol, Britain gave the United States 99 year leases to establish military bases on British possessions in the Western hemisphere.

    election of 1940: candidates, issues: Roosevelt was nominated by the Democrats for a third term, and the Republicans nominated Wendell L. Willkie. The major issues were WWII and military spending. Roosevelt endorsed the nation’s 1st peacetime draft and advocated a military spending increase.

    "Lend Lease," March 1941: Program set up to loan the Allied nations arms and other materials to wage war against the Axis powers. The Lend-lease bill was approved by Congress in 1941, which originally authorized $7 billion. Thirty-five other nations besides Great Britain, USSR, France, and China received loans from the lend lease. By August 1945, the amount totaled $48 billion, of which the United States received $6 billion in repayment by these nations.

    Tripartite Pact: The Tripartite Pact was a 10 year military and economic alliance also known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. Japan signed this alliance in September, 1940, with the previously allied Italy and Germany. Each of the signatories pledged to help the others in the event of an attack by the U. S.

    Atlantic Charter, August 1941:     FDR met Churchill to discuss joint military strategy. Their public statement expressed their ideas of a postwar world, and frowned upon aggression, affirmed national self-determination, and endorsed the principles of collective security and disarmament.

    Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941:     On the morning of December 7, scores of Japanese dive-bombers and torpedo planes flew across Oahu to bomb the ships that were anchored in Peal Harbor, and to strafe the planes parked side by side at nearby air bases. In less that 3 hours, over 300 aircraft were destroyed or damaged, and 8 battleships, 3 light cruisers, and 3 destroyers were sunk or crippled. Worst loss of U.S. arms in history.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Homefront

    Homefront
    Though World War Two was not fought on U.S. soil, the entire country pitched in to help the war effort. Housewives grew Liberty Gardens and went to work in place of the drafted men. The United States government established many wartime organizations to monitor supplies and food as well control propaganda. Families were encouraged to help fathers and brothers by not buying tin or rationing sugar or buying war bonds. Everyone on the homefront was expected to do his or her part in the war as well.

    Japanese Relocation:     Japanese-born Americans and immigrants from Japan were sent to concentration camps in the early 1940’s because of a fear that they would leak out information about the U.S. to Japan. Most of these people were suspected of being spies for the Japanese, though there was no solid evidence to support such accusations. The captured Japanese were released in 1942, and FDR apologized to them.

    Revenue Act of 1942: Because of the expenditure on the war, Roosevelt wanted to pay for as much as possible through taxes. Although Congress refused to grant him a progressive tax, in 1942, the Revenue Act raised the top income-tax rate from 60% to 90% and added middle class and lower income groups to the tax bracket as well.

    bond drives: In order to finance the war and give people a sense of involvement in the war effort, bond drives were held. The treasury department sold about $40 billion "E" bonds to investors, and nearly twice the amount in higher denomination. The bonds raised half the money for WWII.

    War Production Board: In 1942, FDR announced a plan for massive war production. In order to get the necessary amount of raw materials, FDR established the War Production Board. It allocated scarce materials, limited or stopped the production of civil goods, and distributed contracts among competing manufacturers.

    Office of Price Administration (OPA): Instituted in 1942, this agency was in charge of stabilizing prices and rents and preventing speculation, profiteering, hoarding and price administration. The OPA froze wages and prices and initiated a rationing program for items such as gas, oil, butter, meat, sugar, coffee and shoes.

    War Labor Board: Established in 1942, the War Labor Board was instituted to mediate disputes between management and labor, and sought to prevent strikes and out of control wage increases. The War Labor Board acted as the mediator to prevent massive strikes and wage increases that occurred with the demand for workers.

    War Refugee Board (WRB): FDR established the War Refugee Board in 1943 to help rescue and assist the many people who were condemned to death camps. It relocated many refugees in need, although it was late in inception. Although it saved 200,000 Jews and 20,000 non-Jews, 1 million still died.

    War Manpower Commission (WMC): FDR established the War Manpower Commission in 1942 to help supervise the mobilization of males and females in the military, and the war industry, and also to study how profit can be gained through the production of weapons and supplies.

    Office of Censorship, Office of War Information:     Roosevelt wanted public opinion to be positive during the war, and in 1941, he established the Office of Censorship. It examined all written documents, including works of publishers and broadcasters, as well as all letters going overseas, in order to maintain the positive public opinion in America.

    Office of Strategic Services: FDR and the Joint Chief of Staffs formed the Office of Strategic Services which served as an intelligence agency during WWII and was a predecessor of the CIA. It began on June 13,1942 to conduct espionage, gather intelligence information required for planning, and to analyze the enemy. Discontinued by Truman in 1945.

    Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD): Formed in 1941 to contract out the development of new medicines and ordinances. It spent $1 billion dollars to produce sonar, radar devices, rockets, tanks, advanced jets, and the development of DDT and other pesticides.

    African-Americans in World War II:     Many civil rights groups used the need of the government for the cooperation of all its citizens in the war effort to push a new militancy in redressing discrimination. Blacks moved into service in all areas of the military, although most in segregated units until 1948. A large migration of blacks from the South to Northern industrial areas made civil rights a national rather than regional concern and broadened the political effects of black votes.

    Women in World War II: Women served in significant numbers during World War II, both as civilian support personnel and in the uniformed services in the Woman’s Army Corps (WAC) and Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service in the Navy (WAVES). Women pilots ferried planes from station to station, freeing men for combat pilot positions. Women moved into the civilian workforce, including heavy industry, replacing those men who had entered the military.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    McCarthyism

    McCarthyism
    As a result of the recent escalation of the Cold War and the spread of communism throughout the world, domestic paranoia concerning communist infiltration increased. This laid the foundation for the investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Taking advantage of this "Red Scare" was Senator Joseph McCarthy who utilized the fear and panic of United States citizens to advance his own interests. Though many Americans believed the investigations were wrong, few said anything.

    National Securities Act of 1947, 1949:     The CIA was enacted to pursue and conduct espionage and analyze information and facts concerning the actions of foreign countries. It also became involved in undercover operations to destroy operations made to be hostile toward the U.S.

    House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC):     FDR established this organization to serve as a platform to the denunciation of the New Deal and communism growth in the U.S. Used to investigate and expose communist influence in America and blurred the line between dissent and disloyalty. It also brought about hysteria and caused blacklisting to occur so that people considered to be "communists" never found work.

    McCarthyism, McCarthy, Senator Joseph:     He started the hysteria that occurred after the second Red Scare and accused U.S. citizens of being communists. These accusations appealed to Midwestern Americans who found that anti-communism was to fight against liberals and internationalists. It took over the U.S. as a means of fighting communism without realizing that the U.S. was in danger of losing what it was fighting for, Freedom and the Constitution.

    McCarthy, Senator Joseph: Republicans support and political power was given to senator McCarthy to instill fear within the Democratic Party. He was supported by the GOP party and many resented that he accused many people of being Communists without having proof of their disloyalty. By accusing many of communism, McCarthyism arose.

    Hiss, Alger: Identified as a member of the communist party by and initially denied claims. Proof was given that Hiss was involved in espionage in the 1930s with the transmitting of information to the Soviet Union through microfilm. Indicted for perjury and sentenced to five years in prison, 1950

    McCarran Internal Security Act, 1950:     Required all organizations that were believed to be communist by the attorney general to submit a roster of the members and financial statements to the Department of Justice. It also excluded communists from working in defense plants, passports to communists and deported aliens suspected of subversion.

    Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: In March of 1951, based primarily on the testimony of their alleged accomplices, Henry Greengrass and Harry Gold, the Rosenbergs were found guilty of conspiring to commit espionage. Their electrocution in 1953 represented the anti-Communist fever that gripped the U.S.

    Hollywood 10: The 10 people from the entertainment industry called before the House Un-American Activities Committee as "unfriendly" witnesses in October 1947 became known as the Hollywood Ten. All refused to state whether they were communists, served prison sentences, and were blacklisted in the film industry.

    Fuchs, Klaus:     He was a German physicist who was a British citizen from 1942-1950 and an atomic scientist in the United Kingdom and the United States from 1942 on. He was sentenced to prison in England in 1950 for having given atomic secrets to the USSR. After he was freed in 1959, he went to East Germany.

    "Pink Lady": Douglas, Helen Gahagan: When Richard Nixon ran against the liberal Democratic Jerry Voorhis for a California congressional seat in 1946, he won easily by suggesting that Voorhis had left-wing tendencies. When Nixon ran for the Senate in 1950, he used similar charges to defeat the Democratic candidate, Congresswoman Douglas.

    Anti-Communist Vocabulary: Red, pink or pinko, left-wing, and commie were some of the slurs thrown around during the McCarthy years to brand people with a communist "taint." These campaigns were known as witch-hunts by those who opposed HUAC tactics, and like the Salem witch-hunts, accusations alone, without any proof of wrong-doing, could be enough to ruin someone and get them "blacklisted" and unable to find employment.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Origins of the Cold War

    Origins of the Cold War
    Although relations with the Soviet Union were already strained, Roosevelt’s death and the beginning of Truman’s presidency brought new tensions to the relationship. Russia’s traditional paranoia led to the establishment of a communist satellite buffer zone around the USSR. The spread of communism into Asian and South American countries exacerbated anticommunist feelings in the United States and contributed to the pressure for increased buildup of defensive forces.

    Yalta Conference: Conference of Russia, Great Britain and US in Feb.1945 with leaders FDR, Stalin and Churchill in Crimea. The result was statement of Soviet intent on entering the Pacific War two to three months after the end of the European war, Churchill and FDR promise for Soviet concessions in Manchurian and return of lost territories. Stalin recognized Chiang as China's ruler, agreed to drop demands for reparations from Germany, approved plans for a UN Conference and promised free elections in Poland.

    Potsdam Conference: Truman, Stalin and Churchill met in Potsdam Germany from July 16-Aug. 2 to decide on postwar arrangements begun at Yalta. A Council of Foreign Ministers was established to draft treaties concerning conquered European nations, and to make provisions for the trials of war criminals. The Soviet Union agreed to drop demands for reparations and Germany was decentralized into British, Russian, French and US zones.

    partitioning of Korea, Vietnam, Germany:     As decided by the Potsdam by the Council of Foreign minister, Germany, Vietnam and Korea were divided into zones to be held by US, France, Britain and the Soviet Union and then reorganized through self-determination.

    de Gaulle, Charles:     The French President during WWII, he was also active in several treaty conferences.

    Churchill, Winston, "Iron Curtain" speech:     Asked for Anglo-American cooperation to combat an "Iron Curtain" that cut across Europe from the Baltic to Adriatic. The iron curtain was the satellites and territories held by the communist Soviet Union. An early theory for Soviet containment.

    Stalin:     Ruler of Russia from 1929-1953. In 1935 Stalin endorsed a "Popular Front" to oppose fascism. Stalin also had considerable influence in the Yalta agreement as well as being a leader of one of the world's superpowers. After WWII, the primary focus of Amer. was to curb Stalin's and communist influence.

    Bretton Woods Conference: Meeting of Allied governments in 1944. From the Bretton Woods Agreement, foreign currencies would be valued in relation to the dollar and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and World Bank were created.

    Dumbarton Oaks Conference: An international conference held August-October 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks Washington D.C. to discuss plans for an international organization to be named the United Nations. 39 delegates from US, Great Britain and Russia gathered.

    San Francisco Conference, 1945, and UN Charter:     A meeting of world nations to establish a international organization for collective security. The conference established committees; General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat.

    UN: Security Council, General Assembly, Secretary-General:     January 10, 1946 was the first UN General Assembly, electing Trygve H. Lie of Norway as Secretary General. The UN represented a worldwide attempt for a peaceful world after the hidden treaties and chaos caused by WWII.

    Atomic Energy Commission:     To oversee the control and development of nuclear weapons. The "Barouch Plan" set up the International Atomic Development whose goal was for use of peaceful potentials for atomic energy and to provide nations with security against surprise attacks.

    superpowers: The world powers after WWII created a new balance of power. These superpowers consisting of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain began proceedings such as the Yalta and Potsdam. Conferences represented the superpowers and their importance in postwar reconstruction.

    socialism, communism: Two forms of governing, socialism and communism became fearful subjects after WWII as fears of war led to hatred against socialist and communist American troops. Fear and hatred against communism and Socialism continued throughout the Cold War.

    satellites:     The countries surrounding the Soviet Union created a buffer zone between Russia and the rest of Europe. These "satellites" were nations conquered by the Soviet Union during the counteroffensive attack of the Russians against the Germans during WWII.

    Nuremberg trials:     Thirteen trials held accusing leaders of Nazi Germany of crimes against international law from 1945-1949. Accusations included murder, enslavement, looting and atrocities against soldiers and citizens of occupied countries.

    Department of Defense created:     The Department of Defense was created in 1947 by the National Security Act. Reforming the Departments of War and Navy they became the Departments of Army, Navy and the new Department of the Air Force. Result of need for a consolidated department.

    Voice of America, CARE: A part of the US Information Agency, Voice of America was a US government radio station sent to Eastern Europe nations.

    Yugoslavia, Tito, Marshall:     Marshall Tito is the name used by Josip Bronz since 1934. Tito was the communist dictator of Yugoslavia until proclaiming himself president in January 1953. Through his rule he kept Yugoslavia independent of Soviet control and was recognized as the only lawful authority in Yugoslavia.

    Czechoslovakian coup: On February 25, 1948, a communist coup led by Klement Gottwald took control of the Czechoslovakian government after the October 5 announcement of Moscow's plan to block the Marshall Plan in Europe. Czechoslovakia became a communist satellite of the Soviet Union.

    Containment, Kennan, George F.: An advocate for tough foreign policy against the Soviets, Kennan was the American charge d'affaires in Moscow through WWII. He was also the anonymous Mr. X who wrote "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" in the magazine Foreign Affairs advising a policy of restricting Soviet expansion to protect western institutions. The theory of containment was accepted by the U.S. government and seen through the domino theory and US actions in Vietnam and Korea.

    Truman Doctrine: From Truman’s address to Congress on March 12, 1947, the president announced that the United States would assist free people resisting "armed minorities or...outside pressure." Meant as a offer for aid against communism the Truman Doctrine established the United States as a global policeman, a title proved by US actions in the UN, Vietnam, Korea and Egypt. The Truman Doctrine became a major portion of Cold War ideology, a feeling of personal responsibility for the containment of communism.

    Marshall Plan: Truman's secretary of state George C. Marshall proposed massive economic aid to Greece and Turkey on Feb. 27, 1947 after the British told the US they could not afford to continue assistance to the governments of Greece and Turkey against Soviet pressure for access to the Mediterranean. The Marshall Plan was expanded to mass economic aid to the nations of Europe for recovery from WWII. Aid was rejected by communist nations. The Marshall Plan also hope to minimize suffering to be exploited by communist nations.

    Point Four: A post-WWII foreign aid treaty devised from the fourth point of President Truman's inaugural address in 1950. Plan would make provisions to supply US investment capital and personnel to agricultural and industrial development as well as development in other national interests.

    Gandhi: Spiritual and political leader of India. 1920 led nonviolent disobedience movement for independence for India. During 1924 led another civil disobedience movement for India's freedom in exchange for India's help against Japan Assassinated.

    Israel created, 1948: From the UN General Assembly on April 28, 1947, the Palestine partition of Arab and Jewish states. On May 14, 1948 Israel proclaimed independence and US recognized the new state but the Arabs rejected the proclamation and declared war against Israel. Admitted in U.N in 1949.

    Berlin Blockade: On March 20, 1948 the Soviet withdrew representation from the Allied Control Council and refused to allow US, British, and France to gain access to Berlin. June 24, the Western Powers began Berlin Airlift to supply residents of Berlin. After 321 days in 1949 Russia agreed to end blockade if the Council of Foreign Ministers would agree to discuss Berlin. The airlift provided food and supplies to the blockaded people and intensified antagonism against Stalin.

    North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): Following the Vanderberg Resolutions on April 4, on October 1948, Denmark, Italy, Norway, and Portland joined the Canadian-US negotiations for mutual defense and mutual aid. The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The organization considered an attack against one member of the alliance, an attack on all.

    Warsaw Pact: Treaty unifying communist nations of Europe signed May 1955 by: Russia, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia. East Germany. Hungary, Poland, and Romania after the signing of the NATO treaty in 1949. Communist China dedicated support but did not sign the treaty.

    Southeast Asia Treaty organization (SEATO), Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) and the Australia, New Zealand US (ANZUS): All these treaties were formed post WWII as mutual defense pledges in an attempt to halt the spread of communism through Europe and Asia.

    NSC-68: In the 1950's President Truman called for a top secret investigation from the CIA to review national defense policy. The NSA-68 called for a massive military buildup and increase in defense spending through raising of taxes in fear of Soviet aggressive intentions and military strength. The NSC-68 became of major importance throughout the Cold War as it spoke of the need to remain a step ahead of the Soviet Union to protect its own security.

    fall of China, Tse-tung, Mao, "lost China": Mao Tse-tung, head of the Chinese Communists demanded US halt military aid and for US forces to leave China in January 1945. In 1949, the communists controlled major cities and to avoid a full scale war with China, and the U.S. complied with Communist demands.

    State Department "White Paper," 1949:     The United States Relations With China; With Special Reference to the Period 1944-1946 warned that the Nationalists were on the verge of collapse because of political, military, and economic deficiencies, and US interference would lead to outbreak of war.

    Chiang Kai-shek, Formosa: Chiang Kai-shek was the Nationalist leader in China whom the United States supported during the Chinese civil wars. After losing major cities, the Nationalist government moved their headquarters to the city of Formosa. Chiang Kai-shek was opposed by the communist leader Mao Tse-tung who opposed US involvement in the war.

    Quemoy, Matsu:     On September 3, the Communist army attacked the Nationalist held islands of Quemoy and Matsu. These attacks led to the Formosa Revolution which Eisenhower issued, giving the president power to defend Formosa without committing to defense of islands.

    Korean War, limited war: After Japan's defeat in 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel between Soviet troops to the north and the People's Democratic Republic and US troops to the south. June 24, 1950 North Korean troops attacked the Republic of Korea, provoking war. US gained UN approval to stop the considered communist domino. The "limited" war was to hold the 38th parallel without beginning WWIII. A cease fire was installed on July 26, 1953.

    Truman-MacArthur controversy: During WWII, MacArthur was general in the Pacific Wars. At the beginning of the Korean War, he became the United Nations Commander in Korea. He was recalled from duty after expressing unpopular opinions about the US policy in Korea.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The U.S. and the Second World War

    The U.S. and the Second World War
    The United States was involved in two major areas of conflict, the struggle in Europe and the battle in the Pacific Theater. Opting to first prevent the complete takeover of Europe, the United States hoped that after Germany was defeated, the Allies would concentrate on the Japanese threat. From bases in England and Africa, the Allied forces hammered at the Italian and German lines. Island hopping proved to be the only way the United States could retake the Pacific from the Japanese.

    Eisenhower, General; MacArthur, General:     Eisenhower led the D-Day invasion with great success, and was highly respected by his peers in the armed forces. General MacArthur was credited for the great successes that the Americans had in the Pacific wars. He was the strategist behind the Pacific Wars.

    Marshall, George Catlett:     An American military commander who was Army Chief of Staff during World War II. He became Secretary of State for President Truman, and as such played an important role in aiding the postwar economic recovery of Europe with the Marshall Plan, which provided assistance to war-torn Western Europe.

    Operation Torch: Undertaken in November 1942, it employed an allied army of more than 100,000 troops. Led by General Eisenhower, the troops landed in Morocco and Algeria and pressed eastward to entrap the German forces being pushed by British forces in Libya. Surrounded, the Germans surrendered in May 1943.

    Invasion of Sicily:     Stalin pleaded for a second front in Russia, but Churchill objected and Roosevelt agreed for a plan to invade Sicily in the summer on 1943. In roughly a month, allied forces seized control of Sicily. Italian military leaders surrendered to the allied forces on September 8 1943.

    Battle of Midway: In 1942, the Japanese were determined to wipe out any remaining ships of the decimated American fleet when they sailed toward Midway. But, Japanese codes were decoded and Admiral Nimitz knew the exact plans and location of the Japanese ships. In a clever move, he ordered dive-bombers to destroy the ships.

    Genocide, "Final solution": Hitler persecuted Jews in Germany and sought to rid Germany of them. During WWII, he set up many concentration camps, where Jews were methodically executed by means of poisonous gas or other forms. By the end, 6 million perished.

    second front: The plan that was going to be used to aid the Soviet Union in fighting the Germans. Roosevelt was convinced by Churchill to delay the second front from 1942 to a later date, when the allies were better equipped to fight, and have forces in Africa to protect English colonies since Germany was attacking Africa.

    D-Day, June 6, 1944: In the first 24 hours, 150,000 allied troops landed on the beach of Normandy. An additional million waded ashore in the following weeks, and allies reached inland in July, arriving in Paris by August. By summer’s end British secured Belgium and the Americans recovered France and Luxembourg.

    Stalingrad: The site of one of the bloodiest battles during WWII. Thousands of soldiers died at the hands of German and Russian armies during the battle of Stalingrad.. The Russians were victorious at the battle, and thus were able to launch a counter-offensive against Germany and drive the Nazis from Russia.

    Churchill, Winston: British Prime Minister during WWII, member of the Big Three. The Big Three was compromised of Stalin, FDR and him and were the major parties involved in allied conferences. When Germany first began attacking Britain, he asked for assistance from the U.S. in the form of equipment and arms.

    Casablanca Conference, 1943: In the middle of the North African campaign, Roosevelt and Churchill met at Casablanca and resolved to attack Italy before invading France. They also vowed to pursue the war until the unconditional surrender of the Axis power, and tried to reduce Soviet mistrust of the west.

    Cairo Conference, 1943:     FDR met with Churchill and Chiang Kai-shek, the head of the Chinese government. FDR promised Chiang that Manchuria and Taiwan would be returned to China and that Korea would be free with the hope that Chiang would fight until Japan surrendered unconditionally.

    Teheran Conference, 1943: FDR met with Stalin and Churchill and set the date for the invasion of France for May or June 1944, to coincide with the Russian offensive from the east. They agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones, to impose reparations on the Reich, and Stalin promised to fight Japan after Hitler’s defeat.

    "unconditional surrender":     Term used by the allied powers to describe what kind of surrender they wanted from Japan-one without negotiations. After the A-bomb fell on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan surrendered, but with the explosion of the A-bomb, the Cold War Era had just begun.

    Okinawa: The island of Okinawa was secured by the Americans after the battle of Iwo Jima. Okinawa was 350 miles from Japan and a key area for staging the invasion of Japan by the American troops. The assault forces suffered nearly fifty thousand casualties in the battle before being able to subdue Japanese resistance.

    Battle of the Bulge: As the allies prepared for an attack on Germany after penetrating up to Germany’s border, Hitler threw the last of his reserves to fight against the allied troops in December of 1944. On Dec. 25, the allies stopped the last German counter-attack and within a month, drove the Nazis back to Rhine.

    V-E day:     As Russia pushed the Germans back into Germany and reached the suburbs of Berlin, the new German government surrendered unconditionally on May 8, 1943, Americans celebrated this Victory in Europe day with ticker tape parades and dancing in the streets. Afterward, U.S. turned its full attention to the War in the Pacific

    Manhattan Project: Because Nazi scientists were seeking to use atomic physics in a harmful manner, in 1941 FDR launched a secret program to produce an A-bomb before the Germans. In 1943 and 1944, the Manhattan Engineering district worked to stockpile U-235 and in 1945 attempted to use it in a bomb.

    Oppenheimer, J. Robert:     The scientific director of the Manhattan project, which the U.S. had undertaken to build the atomic bomb before Germany, and did was by relying on Nazi scientists. Oppenheimer was later employed by Harry Truman to work on building a more destructive weapon known as the Hydrogen bomb.

    Atomic bomb:     The atomic bomb was successfully built in 1944 and was employed in bombing the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bomb unleashed terrible fury on the two cities, killing hundreds of thousands of people through the incinerating heat and radiation poisoning. There was also debate on whether such a potent and powerful weapon should have been unleashed before proper tests were conducted on the long-term effects.

    Hiroshima, Nagasaki:     The 1st A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima by the U.S. in 1945 after Japan refused unconditional surrender. Some 80,000 people died immediately and 1000s more died of radiation poisoning in later years. The next day a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing, which obliterated the city.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Truman and Domestic Issues

    Truman and Domestic Issues
    With the return of large amounts of soldiers from the Second World War, the population in the United States increased rapidly with the baby boom. Also, women were forced to return to their homes as former soldiers reclaimed the workplace. This exodus of working women promoted the idea that the proper place for the women was in the home, but laid the seeds for the later women’s movement. At this point in time, all the citizens in the United States wanted was a return to normalcy.

    G.I. Bill of Rights, 1944:     Congress enacted the bill to provide living allowances, tuition fees, supplies, medical treatment, and loans for homes and businesses. It was accepted June, 1944 and helped to stimulate economic growth and the accumulation of wartime profits, new factories and equipment.

    Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion:     A 1943 organization that controlled all aspects of the economy. Needed to facilitate cooperation in the war effort between the government and representatives of industry and the military, the O.W.M. increased war production 33% in May 1943.

    extension of the OPA vetoed:     Congress instituted a ration program to conserve materials and battle inflation. Because of opposition from food producers, manufacturers, and retailers, Truman vetoed Congress’ 1946 bill that would have extended O.P.A.’s life, and thus ended price controls.

    postwar inflation:     Two years after the war, consumer prices rose only 8% while the total cost of living rose 28% between 1940-1945. The National War Labor Board tried to contain restriction by limiting wage increases and Congress gave the president the power in 1942 to freeze wages to help combat inflation.

    baby boom:     The number of babies being born between 1950-1963 rose substantially and the mortality rate dramatically dropped allowing for a 19% increase in the population. This generation was able to fuel the economy and widen the realm of education.

    Employment Act of 1946:     Truman promised economic growth and established the Council of Economic Advisors to assist the president in maximizing employment, production, and purchasing power. Wary of federal deficit spending and increased presidential powers, Congress cut the goal of full employment.

    Taft-Hartley Act:     Congress modified the Wagner Act in 1947 to outlaw the practices of delaying a strike, closed shop, and permitting the president to call an eighty-day cooling period. Because it proved detrimental to certain unions, Truman vetoed the measure, although Congress overrode it.

    Taft, Sen. Robert A.: Representing a small group of Republican senators, he warned that entering into NATO would provoke an arms race with Russia and force the United States to provide military aid to Europe. He supported that tax measures favorable to the wealthy and no minimum wage increase.

    "right to work" laws: An area across TX and southern CA called the Sunbelt outlawed unionized shops which were to prevent non-unionized workers to benefit, low taxes and energy costs, plants moving their corporate headquarters here, transformed through technology, and brought green lawn and suburbs.

    1948 election; candidates, issues:     Truman ran against Dewey, a republican devoted to National unity and Strom Thurmond, who represented the Dixiecrats. representing states rights. Truman wins with 24 million votes and the platform of the some of the New Deal and bipartisan foreign policy.

    Dixiecrats, J. Strom Thurmond:     They helped Truman win by showing how the communists in the Wallace campaign forced liberals back into the mainstream Democratic Party. Strom Thurmond was able to collect 1.2 million votes and ran under the Democratic party symbol.

    Progressive Party, Henry Wallace:     He was nominated for President after being fired by Truman for questioning action taken towards Russia. Considered the true New Deal liberal, supported social-welfare programs and justice and equality for minorities. Wallace’s’ campaign forced liberals back into the Democratic party.

    Fair Deal: Truman proposed a social and economic program during his State of the Union message in 1949. It enlarged the New Deal by adding housing, conservation, economic security, health insurance, federal aid to education, agricultural subsidies, increased the minimum wage, expanded social securities, flood control, slum clearance, expanded public power, reclamation, soil conservation, building of low income housing units.

    Americans for Democratic Action (ADA): Founded in 1947 to initiate the development and promotion of a national liberal agenda of public policy. Citizen participation was essential through direct democracy which was equal in only one way : all can exercise the right to vote.

    Twenty-second Amendment:     adopted in 1951, this bill proclaims that "No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice." It resulted from the agitation following FDR’s running for and being elected to a third or fourth term of office of president.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Unit 10 - 1960-1990

    Below are the US History topics that are covered in this unit:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Bush and the Post Cold War Era

    Bush and the Post Cold War Era
    With the disintegration of the Soviet empire, the Cold War which shaped U.S. policy for nearly a half-century finally died. The threat of nuclear annihilation subsided and the American public breathed a sigh of relief.

    Black Monday, 1987, Stock Market crashes: The market had enjoyed incredible success for the past five years and had tripled in size. On October 19, 1987, it fell 508 points in the largest single day drop in history. Though it soon regained the loss and surged to new heights, the volatility and uncertainty remained.

    Jackson, Rev. Jesse, Rainbow Coalition: Jackson, once an associate of King, tried to build a "rainbow coalition" of blacks, Hispanics, displaced workers, and other political outsiders to try to gain nomination and election in 1984. Jackson ran several times for the presidency, but was not moderate enough to gain popular approval.

    Election of 1988--candidates, issues: Bush got the Republican nomination while Michael Dukakis won the Democratic nomination over Jesse Jackson. Bush chose Quayle as his running mate for his good looks. Taxes, crime, and personal appearance were the main issues in 1988. Bush won fairly decisively on a negative campaign.

    George Bush: Bush was Vice President under Reagan, and was president from 1989 to 1993. As president, Bush was successful in areas of foreign relations. He eased relations with Russia, resisted the Russian military’s attempted coup in 1991, and fought Saddam Hussein in the Persian gulf. He was not as successful in domestic affairs as the economy dwindled and the deficit rose; the effects of the era of Reaganomics. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton and Al Gore in the 1992 election.

    holes in the "Iron Curtain":     Due to Gorbachev’s more liberalized policies, Moscow began losing direct control over Eastern Europe. The USSR reduced its military force in its eastern satellites and allowed more freedom of expression. Non-Communist political movements soon developed in Poland, Hungary, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia.

    Berlin Wall falls, Germany reunited: The dismantling of the Berlin Wall began in 1989. Germany, having been divided into East and West Germany since World War II, unified in October 1990. The wall which separated the two countries fell, and citizens were once again permitted to travel between East and West Germany.

    Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act: Passed in 1986, the bill required the automatic unilateral slashing of many budget items. These included many domestic and defense programs. The goal of the bill was to reduce the enormous debt of the Reagan years and to have a balanced budget by the year 1991.

    national debt triples from 1980 to 1989, 908 billion to 2.9 trillion: In an effort to re-stimulate the economy, Reagan’s administration increased defense spending drastically while lowering taxes. The debt skyrocketed during his term. His philosophy of supply-side economics, or heavy spending in the corporate sector, was a contributing factor.

    Clean Air Act, 1990 (also one in 1970): President Bush sponsored the bill, which set stricter regulations on many airborne pollutants. The act was aimed at reducing the chemicals which cause acid rain, smog, ozone damage and many airborne carcinogens. The act was a cornerstone in pollution regulation legislation.

    Bennett, William J., "drug czar"--Office of National Drug Control Policy: Bennett was chosen as "drug czar" by Bush in response to national concerns about drugs. His job was to coordinate federal programs against drugs, and his first target was the violent drug lords of Washington, D.C.

    Tiananmen Square, Beijing:     400-800 students were massacred by government troops during a pro-democracy demonstration in Beijing’s central square. A wave of repression and executions followed. The U.S. responded with outrage and cut everything but diplomatic relations.

    Nicaragua, Pres. Ortega defeated in free election: President Daniel Ortega, the leader of the Sandinista regime, was defeated in 1990 by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in national elections. Chamorro’s election signaled a more moderate turn for the Nicaraguans, though the transition has met resistance. The U.S. supports Chamorro.

    August 1991, attempted coup in Moscow, Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin: In 1991, hard-line communists seized power from Gorbachev, who wished to give more power to the states. The coup failed, but the political turmoil led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union into independent states. Yeltsin, the president-elect, called for Russians to resist the coup.

    End of the Cold War, Commonwealth of Independent States, 1991: After the failed coup in August of 1991, the 15 Russian states declared independence. Fearful of centralized power but mindful of the economic pitfalls of independence, 12 of the states formed the Commonwealth of Independent States and severed all ties to the old Soviet regime. The Commonwealth was a loose economic union, though it is still considered a single country.

    difficulties between Russia and the new republics: The new republics were wary of losing power to Russia, by far the largest and most endowed state, which hampered political unity. Violence erupted in some states. The economy was in shambles after the lifting of economic restraints and a severe drought. The commonwealth was very weak.

    Hussein, Saddam, Iraq invades Kuwait: On August 2, 1990, Iraqi president Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait after oil negotiations between the two broke down. Iraq had complained that Kuwait was exceeding its oil production quota and flooding the world market, driving prices down. This was the direct cause of the Persian Gulf War.

    UN Security Council Resolution 661 (trade embargo on Iraq):     On Aug. 6, 1990, the resolution imposed an embargo on Iraqi trade effectively halting oil shipments from Iraq and Kuwait. Hussein responded by increasing his forces in Kuwait. The embargo had severe economic effects on surrounding countries who depended on Iraqi trade and oil.

    Desert Shield, Gen. Collin Powell: In August 1990, President Bush ordered a buildup of troops into Saudi Arabia called Desert Shield. It was led by General Collin Powell, who became so popular as to later contemplate a 1996 presidential run. Desert Shield became Desert Storm on January 17 with the beginning of the allied air assault.

    UN Security Council Resolution 678:     The allied operation shifted to a potentially offensive nature with this resolution, issued November 29, 1990. It authorized the use of force by the allies if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15. The resolution was evoked early on January 17 when Allied planes began the air offensive.

    Gulf War, Operation Desert Storm, Gen. Schwarzkopf:     Beginning with a bombing raid on January 17, 1991, Desert Storm was directed by Gen. Schwarzkopf. The air raid utilized the most advanced missile technology such as smart bombs and cruise missiles to weaken the Iraqi defenses. Iraqi forces, though more numerous than the Allied force, were far behind technologically. The short ground war began on February 24 and ended two days later. An estimated 110,000 Iraqi soldiers died with about 300 U.S. deaths.

    SCUD missiles, Patriot Missiles:     SCUD’s were Soviet-made surface to surface missiles used by Iraq to bomb Israel during Desert Shield and Desert Storm. They were aimed at provoking Israelite retaliation to fracture the Allied-Arab alliance but were countered effectively by the U.S. Patriots launched to destroy SCUD’s while still airborne.

    revolts in Iraq--Shi’ites in South, Kurds in North:     Postwar uprisings by Shi’ite Muslims in southern Iraq and Kurds in the North were crushed by Hussein’s army. The fighting claimed nearly 25,000 lives and created massive refuge problems for bordering nations. The U.S. used force to protect the Kurds. The UN created a safe zone for them.

    Family Support Act, 1988, "work fare":     This Act tried to reform the welfare system. It contained strict work and child support guidelines. Some of its provisions required women on welfare to work if they have no children under 3 years old, and parents without custody could have child support payments withheld from their paychecks.

    MTV: MTV was part of the "cable revolution." Cable TV became a fixture in many U.S. households, leading to the rise of smaller networks. Once was dominated by ABC, NBC, and CBS, now stations like CNN, FOX, and MTV were legitimate contenders. MTV specifically became an important marketing tool for music and politics.

    1991 Civil Rights Act:     The act allowed women, people with handicaps, and religious minorities to collect punitive damages for intentional on-the-job discrimination. Previously, only racial minorities could claim damages. It widened the definition of discrimination and forced businesses to respect citizens rights of equality.

    Thomas, Clarence, Supreme Court, Anita Hill: Thomas, the second black justice on the Court, was nominated and seated in 1991. His nomination was plagued with controversy due to sexual harassment allegations by Anita Hill, a former associate. The charges were dismissed in a series of highly public congressional hearings.

    baby-boom generation hits middle age: Once called the "Me Generation," people of the 1980s were interested with personal over public concerns. The "yuppie" was a person preoccupied with physical fitness, money, and materialism. TV’s, VCRs, and personal computers were common.

    gentrification:     Reversing the trend of the middle-class exodus from urban centers, yuppies bought run-down apartments and town houses in poorer districts and fixed them up. The process often came at the expense of poorer and older residents, including a great number of elderly citizens.

    increased Asian, Hispanic immigration: 45% of immigrants since 1960 have been from the Western Hemisphere, and 30% have come from Asia, signaling a new pattern of immigration. The issue of illegal immigration became a hot topic politically, especially in the south west and west. Many bills were passed in an attempt to limit immigration.

    "gridlock," Congress vs. the President: Because a Democratic President and a Republican Congress were elected in 1992, both had the power to obstruct the other. This "gridlock" occurred midway through Clinton’s term. Unable to resolve a dispute, many government projects and parks were closed down for several weeks.

    Election of 1992—candidates, issues, Ross Perot:     The election of 1992 was primarily between the Democrat Bill Clinton and the Republican incumbent George Bush. Ross Perot, of the Independent party, did well in early polls, dropped out of the running, then returned near November with much less support. The major issues were the state of the economy, which had taken a turn for the worse at the end of the Bush administration, the state of medical insurance, and Bush’s record of foreign diplomacy.

    bombing of World Trade Center: In 1993, a bomb in a parking structure of the World Trade Center Building in New York killed six and injured nearly 1000 people. Officials later arrested militant Muslim extremists who condemned American actions towards Israel and the U.S. involvement in the Persian Gulf War.

    European Economic Area, Jan. 1, 1993:     The 7 nations of the European Free Trade Association (except Switzerland) and the 12 European Community nations signed an accord to create an enlarged free-trade zone, the EEA. Some nations have loosened border and currency restrictions to make political unity easier.

    GATT, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: An international plan to reduce tariffs and establish laws governing trade of services, investments, and other economic issues, was approved by the 117 members of GATT. The plan also established an agency to deal with international trade disputes, called the World Trade Organization.

    North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): After a fierce political struggle, NAFTA was approved by Congress in 1993. It eliminated trade barriers between Canada, the U.S., and Mexico, making the flow of commerce more efficient. The NAFTA victory for free trade set the stage for the GATT treaty.

    disintegration of Yugoslavia: In 1991-1992, Yugoslavia split into Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina. Violence erupted in Bosnia as Serbs and Croatians fought, killing tens of thousands. Many of Bosnia’s Muslims were victims of "ethnic cleansing," mass expulsions to promote a Serbian ethnic partition of Bosnia.

    PLO-Israel Peace Treaty (1993), Arafat, Rabin: A historic treaty was signed between Yasir Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin which would allow Palestinian self-rule in parts of Israel, protect Israelis in Palestinian areas, and a recognition of Israel and the PLO as legitimate entities. Radical Israelis and Palestinians denounced the treaty and violence ensued.

    Somalia: A massive famine caused by warring factions of the government prompted George Bush to send troops (along with the UN) to protect relief efforts in December 1992. The effort succeeded in ending the famine, but not the violence. Soon, the U.S. was sustaining casualties, and by 1994 the U.S. left leaving the UN in charge.

    Whitewater: A scandal which has plagued Bill and Hillary Clinton while in the White House, the Whitewater affair revolves around the question if the Clinton’s benefitted improperly from their involvement in a real estate venture, the Whitewater Development Corp. Investigators began searching for incriminating evidence.

    Clinton’s health plan: Clinton’s dream of universal health care package died as the bill could not get approval by resistant Republicans. The bill would have required employers to pay 80% of their employees’ medical costs, among other major changes. Several compromises were attempted by Clinton, but the issue was dead by September 1994.

    "greenhouse effect":     The large amount of fossil fuels burned by cars, homes, and factories has led to a rise in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat near the surface of the planet, raising its temperature. The problem is made worse by tropical deforestation, and has become a major environmental concern.

    1994 Congressional election:     The Republican Party, capitalizing on Clinton’s perceived inactivity, gained a majority in Congress. More than 300 GOP candidates signed a "Contract with America" pledging support of several popular initiates. Gingrich authored the contract and became Speaker of the House. Dole became the Senate majority leader.

    intervention in Haiti: The term referred to Operation Restore Democracy. Supported by the Clinton administration, the plan was designed to restore President Jean-Bertrand Aristide to power. The mission was successful, but Aristide did little towards turning Haiti into a democracy. Clinton later withdrew his support.

    Oklahoma City bombing, 1995: On April 19, 1995 a 2½ ton bomb exploded in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. The blast destroyed the front section of the building, killing 68; of whom 19 were children. Officials Terry Nicoles and Timothy McVeigh were right wing militant extremists angry at the government.

    Million Man March, 1995, Farrakhan: Led by the radical Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, a major rally for African-Americans was held in Washington DC. Farrakhan preached the need for blacks to become active family and community members. Officials estimated 400,000-837,000 black men came. Women were discouraged from attending.

    Rabin assassinated, 1995: Israeli Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin was shot and killed by a Jewish settler just after speaking at a mass peace rally. The man who shot him was arrested on the scene. He acted in protest to the signing of the PLO-Israeli Peace Accord of 1993. The future is uncertain under newly elected P. Minister Netehayu.

    budget showdown between Congress and the President:     Negotiations between President Clinton and Congress regarding balancing the budget wrapped up in May 1997. Republicans had originally wanted a constitutional amendment specifying a balanced budget, but Clinton resisted. The agreed upon plan is a moderate compromise.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Civil Rights to 1965

    Civil Rights to 1965
    Frustrated by black disenfranchisement in the south and the blatant racism epitomized by segregated schools, black militancy grew. Sit-ins, freedom rides, and other signs of the explosive discontent ravaged the nation, especially in the south where such actions were met by fierce resistance. Destroying the public’s complacency, nonviolent protest met by vicious dogs, blasting water hoses, and sneering racists shocked the nation. Black Power and the cry that "Black is Beautiful" resounded in the hearts of many African Americans.

    Implementation of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka: The Warren court decided in 1954 that the separate but equal concept that legalized segregation was unconstitutional. Angered by the court decision, white southerners refused to comply; the president refused to enforce it and blacks continued to attend segregated schools.

    Montgomery bus boycott: After refusing to give up her seat for a white man in the front of a Montgomery bus in Dec. 1955, Rosa Park was arrested. Black leaders, including King, organized a massive boycott of the buses and took the case to a lower court where it was decided that bus seating would be based on a first-come-first-serve basis.

    King Jr. Rev. Martin Luther.: One of the most prominent black civil rights leaders, King called for black assertiveness and nonviolent resistance to oppression. He is famous for his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" which promotes the doctrine of civil disobedience, a method of protests that urges blacks to ignore all laws that they believe are unjust.

    Southern Christian Leadership Conference:     In protest to Jim Crow, King organized the SCLC in 1957. It was made up of a group of ministers that supported the Montgomery bus boycott. This organization coordinated future protests and preached the need for civil rights activists.

    National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): The NAACP was created in 1909 in New York to raise the quality of living for inner city blacks. It became a powerful legal force and argued cases in the Supreme Court which led to the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.

    Urban League:     Some southern blacks were not satisfied by the Brown v. Board of Education and formed the Urban League. Rejecting the courtroom strategy utilized by the NAACP, the League advocated more militant tactics. They sought direct confrontation and violence with local governments.

    Congress of Racial Equality (CORE):     CORE was a group of black rights protesters created in 1942. It organized freedom rides through the south to expose the violations of the 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on interstate buses and trains. CORE also registered blacks to vote throughout the South.

    Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Stokely Carmicheal, H. Rap Brown: SNCC was a organization of college students that utilized nonviolent forms of protest until Carmicheal and Brown rallied the members in favor of Black Power. The group became more militant, pushing for direct armed confrontation with the police.

    Sit-ins, Freedom Rides: Utilized in the spring of 1961, sit-ins and freedom rides were forms of protest organized by CORE and utilized in the spring of 1961. Protestors sat in a segregated section on a bus or restaurant until they were forced to move by racists. When this happened another protestor took the place that had just been vacated. This type of action was used to expose the violations of the court decision to outlaw segregation in public areas and transit.

    "I have a dream" speech:     King gave this speech during the historic civil rights March on Washington on August 28, 1963. The speech was said to be inspiring and reaffirmed the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protesting. The speech reiterated the American ideals of democracy and equality.

    March on Washington:     King organized this massive civil protest march in Washington in August of 1963 as a result of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The march reaffirmed the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protest. It was also the site where King made the "I have a dream" speech.

    Evers, Medgar: Evers was an American civil rights leader who conducted campaigns to register black voters and organized boycotts of firms that practiced racial discrimination. He also was one of the early recruiters for the NAACP and was the first field secretary for the state of Mississippi.

    Powell, Adam Clayton: Powell was a Black civil rights leader serving as a Democratic Congressman of New York and the Chairman of the House Committee on Education and Labor in 1960-1967. Under his direction the House Committee on Education and Labor passed the Minimum Wage Bill and Anti-Poverty Bill.

    Weaver, Robert: Weaver was the first black cabinet member appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. He served as the Secretary of Housing and Department of Urban Development, a new office created to address the needs of those living in the inner city areas.

    Marshall, Thurgood: Marshall was the first black residing under the Warren Court during the 1960s. Marshall was famous for pursuing cases that dealt with controversial issues of civil rights and the status of racism in America. His presence in Supreme Court drew more attention to the area of civil and individual rights.

    Malcolm X:     Malcolm X was an influential black leader who called for unity between blacks to combat oppressive forces in the United States. He was a part of the Nation of Islam, but broke with them to form a black nationalist group, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). He advocated Black Power.

    Black Panthers:     The Black Panthers was a black rights political organization created in Oakland, California in 1966 by Bobby G. Seale and Huey P. Newton. It was originally a small community action group for defense against racism but later it began to urge black armament and direct confrontation with the police.

    Black Muslims:     Formally called the Nation of Islam, the Black Muslims was a religious organization of the Islamic faith that was also called the American Muslim Mission, World Community of Al-Islam in the West. The group was known for its strict adherence to Islam, and was a root for black militancy in America.

    Davis, Angela: Angela Davis was an influential black leader and activist. In 1970, she went into hiding after being accused of aiding an attempted courtroom escape that killed four persons. Tried in 1972 and acquitted, she became the vice-presidential candidate of the Communist party in 1980.

    Black Power: Black power was a slogan created by Malcolm X and widely used by Stokely Carmichael, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality. The slogan called for all blacks to organize together and overthrow the oppressive forces of racism in America. Black power became the basis for black militancy in the civil rights movement. The slogan was used by a number of new civil rights activist groups such as the Black Panthers.

    Twenty-fourth Amendment: The 24th Amendment, adopted in 1964, gave voting rights to every American citizen, regardless of their race or religion. It also prohibited the use of the poll tax or any tax that denied the vote. The amendment gave Congress the power to enforce it with legislation.

    Watts, Detroit race riots: A confrontation between police and blacks in Watts and Detroit took place after the voting rights bill was passed in 1965. It sparked a huge riot that lasted six days. The National Guard was called to put down both riots. This violent growth of civil discontent was given the name "The Long Hot Summers."

    Kerner Commission on Civil Disorders:     Created to investigate reasons for the massive outbreaks of riots in 1965, the commission concluded that white racism caused mounting violence, poverty, poor education and police brutality and recommended creating 2 million jobs and 6 million housing units to lower tensions. The suggestion was ignored.

    de facto, de jure segregation: De facto referred to the use of power and authority in the absence of an actual government or legal authority. In the 1960s, this meant that segregation was accepted as long as it was not outlawed. De jure segregation referred to the system of segregation that was legal in the North such as New York and Chicago.

    White Backlash: White backlash referred to white reaction against the massive ghetto riots of thousands of young blacks across the nation. The reaction slowed the civil rights movement because whites in power feared passing legislation and creating civil discontent and riots.

    Civil Rights Act of 1964, public accommodations section of the act: Passed under the Johnson administration, this act outlawed segregation in public areas and granted the federal government power to fight black disfranchisement. The act also created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to prevent discrimination in the work place. This act was the strongest civil rights legislation since Reconstruction and invalidated the Southern Caste System.

    Voting Rights Act, 1965: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed as a Great Society program under the Johnson administration. It prohibited the use of literacy tests as a part of the voter registration process which were initially used as a method to control immigration to the United States during the 1920s. The act enabled federal examiners to register anyone who qualified in the South, giving the power of the vote to underrepresented minorities.

    Civil Rights Act, 1968: The Civil Rights Act of 1968 barred discrimination in housing sales or rentals. This act was a part of a series of new legislation that encouraged desegregation of blacks in America. The act was a key piece of legislation which ensured blacks more equal rights.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Great Society

    Great Society
    An idealistic call for improved environmental, conservation, racial, educational, and health programs, the Great Society was inspired by JFK and prompted by LBJ’s insecure need to win over the American people. Largely successful in the first two years of the Johnson administration, the idealism would later give way to virulent conservatism and a return to traditional values.

    Election of 1964: LBJ, Goldwater: In the election of 1964 Lyndon Johnson, the elected Democratic party majority leader, defeated Barry Goldwater, the elected Republican majority leader. Main issues of the election of 1964 included serious debates over the continuation of Johnson’s Great Society plan, future civil rights legislation and the status of the war in Vietnam. Lyndon Johnson attempted to continue his Great Society program after the election with small social legislation.

    Office of Economic Opportunity:     The Office of Economic Opportunity was created as a part of President Johnson’s Great Society. Established by the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, the office funded the Job Corps to train young people to work, VISTA, and Project Headstart.

    War on Poverty: The term, War on Poverty, referred to Lyndon Johnson’s statement describing his goal to create a better America. It was used to describe Johnson’s Great Society package that created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and the Economic Opportunity Office, which began the first funding for education.

    Elementary and Secondary Act: As a part of his Great Society vision, President Lyndon Johnson rallied for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 which gave federal aid to education. The law gave over one billion dollars to public and parochial schools for books and special education programs.

    Medicare: A program of national health insurance created by the Social Security Amendments of 1965, this program gave health insurance for persons who were over the age of 65 or seriously disabled. Although some states refused to administer the insurance the Kerr-Mills Act of 1960 provided federal support for state medical programs.

    Abolition of immigration quotas: President Lyndon Johnson’s program of liberalism, which included social legislation in 1965, led to the liberalization of immigration laws. These laws abolished the restrictions and the quota based system previously used by the U.S. to determine the amount of immigration from a certain area.

    Department of Housing and Urban Development:     Created in 1966 to give aid to needy families located in poor inner city areas, the Department of Housing and Urban Development passed bills allocating funds to housing development projects under the leadership of Robert Weaver.

    New Left: The New Left encompassed the liberalism of college students during the 1960s. They held idealistic views of civil rights movements, supported the election of John F. Kennedy, and heralded the campaign against nuclear testing that created the nuclear test ban treaty of 1963. It was also the root of protest over Vietnam.

    Kennedy, Robert: Kennedy was the attorney general of the U.S. in 1968 and senator from New York. He stressed that voting was the key to racial equality and pushed for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy gained the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968, but was assassinated in California during a campaign.

    Election of the 1968: Lyndon Johnson did not run for reelection in 1968 due to his dissatisfaction with the Vietnam War and public discontent. Richard Nixon captured the presidency for the Republican party after he defeated George C. Wallace, the American Independent and Hubert H. Humphrey, the Democratic candidate.

    Czechoslovakia invaded: In Aug. of 1968, with the installation of reformers Alexander Dubcek as party leader and Ludvik Svoboda as president, the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia, forcing the repeal of most of the reforms. The Soviet Union replaced Dubcek with the staunchly pro-Soviet Communist regime.

    Chicago, Democratic Party Convention riot: In August 1968, the Chicago convention was disrupted by violence due to the party split over the nomination of the majority leader. Tensions rose as young SDS protestors against the Vietnam war arrived to voice their discontent. The riot destroyed Democratic unity and resulted in a loss of support.

    Nixon, Richard’s Southern strategy: In 1965, Nixon began his attack on radicalism in America, focusing on the failure of southern white efforts to destroy racial equality. Nixon went on television to condemn the court that enforced bus desegregation. He also appointed W. Burger to counter liberalism in the Warren Court.

    Wallace, Governor: George Wallace was an American politician and three-time governor of Alabama. He first came to national attention as an outspoken segregationist. Wallace ran for the presidency in 1968 and 1972 and was shot and killed during a 1972 election campaign stop in Maryland.

    Moon Race, Armstrong, Neil: Frightened out of complacency by the Soviet launching of Sputnik, a satellite, Kennedy promised the American people to put a man on the moon before the end of the decade. Pouring vast amounts of money into the space program, Kennedy was determined not to allow Russia to win. On July 21, 1969, Neil Armstrong walked on the moon’s surface. Americans put fears of Soviet technological superiority to rest for the United States had been the first to launch a human out into space.

    Sunbelt verses Rustbelt: The leading work industries, the Rustbelt and Sunbelt, reeled under the triple blow of slumping exports, aggressive foreign competition, and technological obsolescence. About 11.5 million American workers lost jobs as a result of plant closings or lack of work.

    Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique: The Feminine Mystique elucidated to readers that they were not alone in their unhappiness. Friedan’s personal demand for "something more than my husband, my children, and my home" rang true to a growing number of middle class American women who found joys in motherhood.

    National Organization for Women (NOW): The National Organization for Women was formed in 1966. Defining themselves as a civil-rights group for women, NOW lobbied for equal opportunity; they filed lawsuits against gender discrimination and rallied public opinion "to bring American women to full participation."

    Equal Rights Amendment (ERA):     By 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution. This amendment stated that "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on the basis of sex."

    National Women’s Political Caucus:     The National Women’s Political Caucus (1971) endorsed candidates that promoted a feminist agenda in Washington and many other State capitals. By 1972, many states had liberalized their abortion laws and banned sex discrimination in job hiring.

    Nader, Ralph, Unsafe at Any Speed:     Ralph Nader, a graduate of Harvard Law School, exposed the danger of automobiles that were "unsafe at any speed"; he brought forth the movement of environmental concerns which would later launch major campaigns for federal regulations.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Heating and Cooling of the Cold War

    Heating and Cooling of the Cold War
    Ambiguous in his position towards the Soviet Union, Reagan verbally attacked the USSR as an "evil empire" yet his actions were friendly. Anti-Soviet rhetoric proved to be only rhetoric and the two nations resolved many of their differences. By the end of Reagan’s administration, the Cold War was unofficially over.

    Afghanistan, 1979-1989: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an effort to acquire more land for Russia’s use. In Moscow’s attempt to take over Afghanistan, Russia wanted to setup some sort of pro-Soviet Afghan regime. Not only did Russia try to take over Afghanistan, but they wanted them to change religiously.

    Olympic boycott, 1980: When Carter and Brezhnev could not agree on the rules and regulations of the SALT II agreement, the United States picked up an anti-Soviet relationship towards everything that had to do with Russia, which unfortunately included the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.

    Walesa, Lech, Solidarity: He became the leader of Poland’s government in 1980. Walesa’s negotiations with Poland’s government that year led to the government’s recognition of Solidarity. Solidarity was a organization composed of about 50 Polish trade unions.

    Falkland Island War:     In April 1982, Argentine troops invaded and occupied the islands. Britain also responded by sending troops, ships, and planes. Air, sea and land battles broke out between Argentina and Britain. Due to severe losses the Argentine forces surrendered in June 1982.

    Civil war in Lebanon, Israel moves into Southern Lebanon: President Reagan sent 2,000 Marines to Lebanon in 1982 in order to gain control over the crippled PLO, insure that they got out of Tunisia, and help restore order to the war damaged country. It proved difficult as fire broke out upon the U.S. Marine soldiers.

    Grenada, 1983:     On October 23, 1983, 2,000 U.S. Marine soldiers invaded the island of Grenada, and overthrew the disruptive radical government, and put in a U.S.-friendly regime. The new government that the United States had just installed was collaborating well with the local Grenadians.

    El Salvador, Duarte: Fear of Soviet expansion helped shape policy towards third world revolutions. In El Salvador, the U.S. backed the military rulers in suppressing insurgents (leftists backed by Cuba). The moderate Jose Napoleon Duarte was elected in 1984 with U.S. support, but his ineffective government was voted out in 1989.

    Nicaragua - Somoza Family, Sandinistas, Contras, Ortega:     First, Carter backed the Sandinista revolutionaries in overthrowing dictator Anastasio Somoza in 1979, who was replaced by Daniel Ortega. Reagan later reversed the policy thinking that the Sandinistas were procommunist. The CIA organized an army of "contras" to oppose the Sandinistas. Fear of another Vietnam-like war prompted Congress in 1982 to halt aid to the contras. Reagan secretly began sending illegal aid to the contras, but was never held accountable.

    Arias Peace Plan in Central America:     Oscar Arias Sánchez, the president of Costa Rica, was very influential in pushing for peace in Central America which was stalled because of civil wars in the region and the tensions between Nicaragua’s Sandinista government and the U.S. In 1986, the warring nations signed a peace agreement.

    SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), "Star Wars":     SDI was a proposed system of space based lasers and other high-tech defenses against nuclear attack, popularly dubbed "Star Wars." It was proposed by Reagan in 1983 in an effort to ward off the perceived threat of a Soviet strike as U.S.-Soviet relations worsened. Many argued it would escalate the conflict. The system carried a huge price tag, and was fiercely debated until the end of the Reagan administration. The system was never used.

    nuclear freeze movement    : The movement was a popular reaction to the military and nuclear buildup under Reagan. Protests, rallies, and resolutions against nukes were passed. It was the first popular challenge to Reaganism. Responding to pressure, the U.S. began talks on strategic-arms reductions with the Soviets.

    Iranian crisis, the Shah, Ayatollah Khomeini: The Iranian crisis started when a Beirut newspaper reported that in 1985 the United States shipped 508 antitank missiles to the government of Iran. This exposure of U.S. intervention led to the American hostage situation held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian radical groups.

    Iran-Iraq War: The war began in 1980 over territorial disputes. Fighting spread throughout the gulf region and the U.S. was dragged into the conflict several times, either being attacked or attacking hostile targets. The war ended in 1988, as Iraq began preparing to invade Kuwait. The area remained a volatile region.

    Iran-Contra Affair (Irangate): Caught selling arms to the anti-American government of Iran, Reagan admitted it and stated his aim had been to encourage "moderate elements" in Tehran and gain the release of American hostages. Key players included Oliver North, who sent millions of dollars from these sales to contras in Nicaragua when Congress had forbidden such aid, and John Poindexter, who hid the affair from the president. Criminal charges were filed against only North.

    Panama, Gen. Noriega, drug-trafficking indictment, conviction: In 1987 the U.S. realized that the U.S.-supported ruler of Panama, Manuel Noriega, was profiting on the flow of drugs through his country. A U.S. grand jury indicted Noriega on various drug charges. He ignored the actions. Marines were sent in and he was caught and convicted.

    South Africa, apartheid, Nelson Mandela, F.W. De Klerk: When opposition to South Africa’s racist government grew in the U.S., Congress voted to boycott South Africa in 1986. President De Klerk worked with Mandela, who had been jailed for 27 years, to end apartheid. Free elections were held in 1994 and Mandela became president.

    Marcos, Philippines, Corazon Aquino: Resistance to the corrupt government of Pres. Ferdinand Marcos intensified after the 1983 assassination of opposition leader Benito Aquino. His wife, Corazon led the surge after Marco’s fraudulent 1986 reelection and took control. She was backed by the U.S. and the country was to face turbulent times.

    Duvalier, Haiti: Jean-Claude Duvalier, dictator of Haiti from 1971-1986, used oppressive measures and a violent secret police force to control Haitian citizens. Many sought refuge in the United States. In 1986, Haitians staged a revolt against Duvalier and he fled the country. This was followed by years of violent political turmoil in Haiti.

    Gorbachev, glasnost, perestroika:     Mikhail Gorbachev welded influence in transforming the Soviet Union into a less rigidly communist regime. His program of economic and political reform was called perestroika or restructuring. Gorbachev’s call for more openness in government was given the name glasnost. Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union continued to improve which furthered the thaw in the Cold War.

    Col. Qaddafi, Libya:     Colonel Muammar Qaddafi was a pro-terrorist and anti-American leader of Libya. In 1986, Libya fired missiles at U.S. military planes and after an explosion at a German nightclub popular with American GI’s, U.S. planes bombed five Libyan sites. Hostilities continue in the region.

    INF Treaty, 1987 (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty): The treaty was a 1987 agreement between Reagan and Gorbachev which banned INF’s but did little to end the nuclear threat as 95% of the world’s nuclear arsenal remained. It is an example of the warming Soviet-American relations and renewed the arms control process.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    New Frontier

    New Frontier
    Innovative, charming, self-confident, and energetic, JFK vigorously called on the American people to support his programs of domestic reform and foreign policy. He hoped for "more sacrifice instead of more security" in a nation on "the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils."

    election of 1960: candidates, "missile gap": The election of 1960 was a race between Kennedy, who promised a new and better future for the nation, and the "middle way" Republican candidate, Richard M. Nixon. The issues included which path of action to take against Russia to ensure an advantage of arms, thus closing the missile gap.

    "Impeach Earl Warren": The ultra-reactionary John Birch Society created the phrase, "impeach Earl Warren" in 1954 as a result of Chief Justice Earl Warren’s rulings which affirmed the rights of alleged communists and the desegregation of schools and public areas. Warren was branded a communist sympathizer by his enemies. As a result, he lost the respect and admiration of the American public, his political friends in congress, and the government.

    Miranda Decision, Escobedo decision: The Miranda Decision referred to the 1966 case of Miranda v. Arizona which required police to read a suspect their constitutional right which included remaining silent and having legal council present during police questioning. The Escobedo decision labeled the Warren Court as an intrusive presence.

    Gideon v. Wainwright: The Warren Court ruled in the case of Gideon v. Wainwright that the state was required to provide attorneys for defendants in felony cases at the public’s expense. This ruling was a part of the effort to reform the criminal justice system and enable poor people legal council.

    Baker v. Carr:     In 1962, the Warren court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be maintained in all elections. The ruling reaffirmed the requirement that representation in legislative bodies would be based on the people’s vote. Also, this decision would prevent later voting frauds.

    Kennedy and the steel price rollback:     In his attempt to lower business taxes and solve wage problems, JFK was faced with a crisis when U.S. Steel raised their prices to $6 after JFK worked with the steel union for noninflationary contracts and minimal wage increases for workers. He threatened to file antitrust suits and the prices fell.

    Peacecorps, VISTA: The Peacecorps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) were created by the Office of Economic Opportunity to work in poverty areas. This was a part of President Johnson’s training programs and support services created during the 1960s.

    Berlin Wall:     The Berlin Wall was a concrete wire wall which divided East and West Germany after World War II. It was erected by the government of East Germany in order to prevent a brain drain, in which the skilled artisans of the population immigrated to West Germany. The wall was dismantled in August of 1989.

    Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963: The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was negotiated by Harriman Averell, a diplomat to the Soviet Union after World War II. The treaty was the first treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union that called for a ban on atmospheric testing of nuclear devices.

    Castro Revolution: Fidel Castro led a nationalist uprising against the former despotic Cuban government. He initially asked for U.S. assistance, but American businesses feared the nationalization of their industries. When the U.S. refused to help, he turned to Soviet communism.

    "flexible response":     JFK’s policy of "flexible response" called for the preparation of more conventional weapons versus atomic weapons. Kennedy felt that U.S, needed both a strong military program and atomic weapons to combat the forces of communism. He reasoned conventional weapons were essential, for atomic weapons were never used.

    Bay of Pigs:     On Apr. 17, 1961, a group of Cuban exiles invaded the Bay of Pigs, in an attempt to overthrow the Communist government and capture Fidel Castro. The Cuban soldiers were secretly trained by the CIA and supplied by the U.S. government. The Cuban exiles were captured and traded back to the U.S. for food. Their return embarrassed the United States and the nation acquired a reputation as a belligerent imperial country.

    UN in the Congo: During the 1950s the United Nations was called upon to act as a peace keeping force throughout the world such as in Kuwait and the Middle East. In the 1950s the United Nations sent a peace keeping force to the Congo, which is located in Africa.

    Cuban missile crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation between the U.S and Russia in 1962 following the discovery of nuclear missile sites in Cuba. Kennedy placed a blockade on the island and Russia agreed to remove the missiles rather than provoke a nuclear war. It was the most imminent threat of nuclear annihilation and thereafter, a hot line was established between the White House and the Kremlin to prevent accidental missile launches. The U.S. removed nuclear weapons from Turkey.

    Alliance for Progress:     This was an economic assistance program proposed by President Kennedy in 1961. It was to settle disputes between member nations and discourage foreign intervention in their internal affairs. The program to give Latin America $20 million in aid was protested after the fall of the democratic government in Haiti.

    Dominican Republic, 1965: A civil war broke out in the Dominican Republic between the Bosch forces, the current government regime, and the people. The United States intervened with military forces and the Organization of American States restored peace by conducting elections where Joaquín Balaguer defeated Bosch.

    Allende, Salvador: In 1933, Allende founded the Chilean Socialist party and was elected president of Chile in 1970. He became the first elected Marxist leader in the Americas. His socialist program led to inflation and strikes which resulted a military coup that overthrew his regime in 1973.

    Panama Canal treaties:     After gaining its independence in 1903, Panama gave the rights to use the Panama Canal to the United States. Another treaty was signed between the United States and Panama stating that control over the canal was to be returned to the Panamanian government on December 31, 1999.

    Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): As frustrations concerning government policies grew, this organization was created in 1962. The SDS became a focal point for activist students. The SDS organized massive Vietnam Protests. They issued the Port Huron Statement which called for support of liberalism.

    Flower children:     Flower children referred to the counterculture of the 1960s. This social category consisted mainly of student protestors who envisioned a life of freedom and harmony. They led pilgrimages to San Francisco and New York, but the counterculture rise was stemmed as the idealism turned into thievery, rape, and drugs.

    Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring:     Rachel Carson was a marine biologist that wrote and published Silent Spring. It addressed her concerns on the environmental hazards of pesticides. Her writings coincided with many other novels which brought social issues to the surface such as Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique.

    Reich, Charles, The Greening of America:     In his critical novel of the New Deal, Reich expressed his desire for courts to expand individual rights to protect nonconformists from social standards in 1971. He stated that it was impossible to mix individual interests in large general tax bills.

    Oswald, Lee Harvey, Warren Commission:     On Nov. 22, 1963 in Texas, John F. Kennedy was shot and killed by Lee Havery Oswald. As a result, the Warren Commission was created to investigate the controversial issues concerning a possible conspiracy. Oswald was later killed by Jack Ruby on his way to a court hearing.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Nixon to Watergate

    Nixon to Watergate
    Basing his support on the conservative New Right coalition, Nixon actually broke from Republican tradition in environmental protection, welfare reform, and finding solutions to economic problems such as the severe inflation. Yet Nixon’s insecurity as president and his abuse of executive power led to his downfall.

    Nixon, "New Federalism," The Imperial Presidency: Nixon’s "New Federalism" promised to bring back law and order to the United States by promoting conservatism and executive authority. The term Imperial Presidency referred to Nixon’s efforts to acquire absolute control over his Presidency.

    Agnew, Spiro T., his resignation: Vice President Agnew was charged with income-tax evasion and accepting bribes. He pleaded no contest which was "the full equivalent to a plea of guilty," according to the trial judge. Dishonored and distrusted, Agnew left the government service with a three-year suspended sentence.

    "revenue sharing": As part of Nixon’s "New Federalism," "revenue sharing" was a five year plan to distribute $30 billion of federal revenues to the states. Congress passed it in 1972 in response to the failing economy caused by the inflation, trade deficit, and massive spending during the 1960s.

    wage and price controls:     In response to the troubled American economy, Nixon declared a ninety-day freeze on wages, prices, and rents which would be followed by federally imposed controls setting maximum annual increases of 5.5% for wages and 2.5% for prices and rents.

    Nixon verses Congress:     On July 27th, the House Judiciary Committee took in the first article of impeachment. 6 out of 17 Republicans voted with the 21 Democrats to charge Nixon with interruption of justice for controlling the Watergate investigation. The president had abused his power.

    Committee for the Reelection of the President (CREEP):     Nixon created CREEP to ensure every vote for the election of 1972. Appointing attorney general John Mitchell as the head, CREEP financed many "dirty tricks" to spread dissension within Democratic ranks and paid for a special internal espionage unit to spy on the opposition.

    Watergate:     The scandal exposed the connection between the White House and the accused Watergate burglars who had raided the Democrats’ headquarters during the 1972 campaign. The election federal judge, Sirica, refused to accept the claim of those on trial that they had behaved on their own terms.

    election of 1972: Nixon’s reelection was assured. He relied on his diplomatic successes with China and Russia and his strategy towards the winding down of the war in Vietnam to attract moderate voters. He expected his southern strategy and law-and-order posture to attract the conservative Democrats.

    White House "plumbers":     Led by Liddy and Hunt, this Republican undercover team obtained approval by Mitchell to wire telephones at the Democractic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate apartment/office complex. The operation was thwarted on June 17, 1992 by a security guard; it would bring about the downfall of Nixon.

    Watergate Tapes:     Another Presidential rumor shocked the committee and the nation by revealing that Nixon had put in a secret taping system in the White House that recorded all the conversations between his enemies in the Oval Office. Both the Ervin committee and prosecutor Cox insisted to hear the tapes, but Nixon refused.

    McGovern, Sen. George: George McGovern of South Dakota rose to fame on the energetic support of antiwar activists rushing to the Democratic primaries. He was seen as inept and radical, but Nixon was insecure about McGovern’s popularity; the senator contributed to Nixon’s downfall.

    Muskie, Sen. Edmund:     The campaign of Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine collapsed when he started to cry in public while trying to respond to an accusation of prejudice against Canadian-Americans. Muskie’s campaign was never a threat to Nixon’s reelection, but Nixon still feared him.

    Haldeman, H.R., Ehrlichman, John, John Dean, John Mitchell:     All were involved in the Watergate scandal. Dean refused to cover up Nixon’s involvement in Watergate. Nixon fired Dean and Haldeman and Erlichman who headed the White House Staff resigned. All three and former Attorney General Mitchell were indicted on March 1974.

    Impeachment proceeding: The most damaging to the President was when the hearings exposed the White House’s active involvement in the Watergate cover-up. But the Senate still lacked concrete evidence on the president’s criminality. Thus they could not impeach Nixon.

    Twenty-fifth Amendment: Ratified in 1967, this amendment detailed the procedure by which the vice president was to take over the presidency if the current president could not uphold his status in office. It also limited the power given to the vice president from the incapacitated president.

    Twenty-sixth Amendment: This amendment guaranteed the rights of those who were 18 years of age or older to vote as citizens of the United States. It gave the power to Congress to enforce and protect by appropriate legislation. The amendment allowed the politicians to listen to the voices of younger people as voters.

    Chicanos:     Chicanos were segregated Mexican-Americans and also included Puerto Ricans. Assumed as inferiors, they lacked all the civil liberties of citizenship. They typically worked in the agricultural field as menial laborers and were unpaid and overcharged.

    Cesar Chavez: As a Roman Catholic and a follower of King, Chavez worked to win rights for migrant farmers. He is famous for a strike he organized with the help of grape pickers in California in 1965. Chavez’s leadership brought guarantees of rights for the farmers. He was an important figure in the Brown Power movement.

    Burger, William appointed, 1969:     Appointed in 1969, Warren Burger was to replace the old and retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He was young and a new addition to the Nixon court; Nixon appointed him to moderate the liberalism of the Warren court and its controversial decisions.

    American Indian Movement (AIM), Wounded Knee:     Native-Americans occupied Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay in 1969, and Wounded Knee was their trading post site. The reason they defiantly occupied Alcatraz Island was to protest their low status in America. They advocated Red Power and demanded justice for past wrongs.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Reagan Revolution

    Reagan Revolution
    Reagan promulgated a program to restore U.S. prominence and honor globally, and fight economic problems. He advocated a more laissez faire policy through a lessening of government activism, taxes, spending, and restrictions on business.

    Election of 1980: The election of 1980 included candidates such as Republican Ronald Reagan, Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter, and John B. Anderson as the Independent candidate. The biggest issue at the time was American foreign policy, and Ronald Reagan had a greater hand in that issue. Ronald Reagan became the President of the United States in 1980 with the promise of ameliorating the American economy against the forces of "stagflation."

    Anderson, John: He was a Republican congressman from Illinois, and his running mate was Patrick J. Lucey from Wisconsin. When he announced his candidacy, he was serving his 10th term in the U.S. House of Representatives. He was known for his strong liberal statements and spoke well on complex issues.

    Economy Recovery Tax Act, 1981:     Following his promise of bettering the U.S. economy, Reagan proposed a 30% tax cut allowing the money supply to circulate. He liberalized business taxes and decreased capital gains, gifts, inheritance taxes to encourage investments in a plunging economy.

    Reaganomics: Also known as voodoo economics, George Bush named this new economic strategy Reaganomics in the 1980 primary campaign. President Reagan believed that the government should leave the economy alone. He hoped that it would run by itself. It was a return to the laissez faire theory of Adam Smith, yet Reagan expanded his theory by advocating supply-side economics as a method to solve the economic hardships.

    Supply side economics: In contrast to Adam Smith’s belief in supply-and-demand, Reagan assumed that if the economy provided the products and services, the public would purchase them. Consequently, Reagan lowered income taxes to stimulate the economy by expanding the money supply.

    O’Connor, Sandra Day:     She was a feminist who generally deplored Reagan’s programs. However, she was delighted when he nominated her as the first woman justice on the U.S. Supreme Court. Many people supported Reagan’s decisions in favor of women’s rights.

    Three Mile Island:     In 1979, a near catastrophe occurred at Three Mile Island when there was an accident involving a nuclear power plant. Safety measures were taken so that a future incident would not occur. The plants were placed far away to reduce the hazards of near fatal accidents.

    Watt, James Secretary of Interior: James Watt received more than $400,000 for making several calls to the Department of Housing and Urban Development officials. The people who had interceded with the Department of Housing and Urban Development were paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for federal subsides.

    Love Canal, Niagara Falls, NY: In the 1970s and early 1980s, chemical wastes that had leaked from a former disposal site threatened the health of residents in that area. Both the New York state government and the federal government provided financial aid to help move families from the Love Canal to other areas.

    EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, OHSA: It was created in 1969 by President Nixon to enforce government standards for water and the air quality for work safety. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was also created to enforce the hygiene.

    "New Federalism" proposals, 1982: New Federalism proposed to reverse the flow of power and resources from the states and communities to the state capital. The president proposed a revenue sharing bill that transferred some federal revenues to the states and prominent cities.

    Deregulation-AT&T, airlines, trucking: To reverse the flow of federal power, Reagan began to deregulate governmental controls over such companies as AT&T, airlines, and trucking companies. He reasoned government must take its "hands off" from the economy to encourage investments and free enterprise.

    NEH, National Endowment for Humanities:     The National Endowment for Humanities was created to further promote artistic and cultural development in the United States. This was targeted to foreigners. The project revealed the full cultural spectrum of America.

    Friedan, Betty The Second Stage, 1981:     In her novel The Second Stage, Friedan stresses the need to add family matters to the cause of women’s rights. She reasons no person should ignore such a significant issue while focusing on female independence and advancement in society.

    Defeat of the ERA:     As the argument over the ERA and abortion went on more women got jobs in the working industry. In the 1960s, 35% of women held jobs, but in 1988, 60% of women worked. Even though women had children, 51% of them were working from day to day.

    Election of 1984:     Former Vice President Walter Mondale got the Democratic nomination over Jesse Jackson, backed by minority groups, and Gary Hart, who appealed to the young. Reagan’s campaign revolved around the optimistic slogan "It’s Morning in America" and he rode the tide of prosperity to a decisive victory.

    Ferraro, Geraldine: The first woman ever to be on the ticket of a major party, Ferraro was chosen by Walter Mondale to be his Vice-Presidential candidate in 1984. However, her presence failed to win Mondale the election, as a higher percentage of women voted republican in 1984 than in 1980.

    AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome):     First diagnosed in 1981, 97,000 cases were reported in 1989. Originally concentrated among homosexual men, needle-sharing drug users, and sex partners of high risk groups, the disease soon spread. AIDS prompted a change from the "free love" attitude of the 1970s, to a "safe sex" attitude of the 1990s.

    "Moral Majority": The Moral Majority was Jerry Falwell’s pro-Reagan followers who embraced the new evangelical revival of the late seventies. The Moral Majority was politically active in targeting such issues as abortion, homosexuality, pornography, and school prayer. They was strongly conservative, anticommunist, and influential. The Moral Majority was started in 1979 as a secular political group, and were finished as a political force by the late 1980s.

    Vietnam Veterans’s Memorial, 1982: Constructed in 1982, the memorial is a black marble wall sunken below ground level in Washington D.C.’s National Mall. On it are inscribed the names of all Americans who died or were missing in action. It also includes a statue of three soldiers, located nearby.

    Agent Orange: Agent Orange was a chemical sprayed by U.S. planes on the jungles of Vietnam during the war which caused the defoliation of trees and shrubs and made enemy positions more visible. In the 1970s it was found that Agent Orange was harmful to humans. In 1984, manufacturers agreed to pay veterans injured by the chemical.

    The Challenger Disaster, 1986: The space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds into flight, killing all aboard. The explosion was caused by a faulty seal in the fuel tank. The shuttle program was halted while investigators and officials drew up new safety regulations, but was resumed in 1988 with the flight of the Discovery.

    Tax Reform Act, 1986: In 1986, with the federal deficit exceeding $200 billion, Reagan proposed a new, simplified tax system that lowered the taxes of individuals and corporate incomes. The tax reform helped reduce the deficit by 1987, but the stock market crash in October 1987 made higher taxes a necessity.

    The "Teflon Presidency":     Ronald Reagan’s popularity never seemed to change much despite the scandals and failures of his presidency. He was called the Teflon president by some because nothing would stick to him. Even with all the criticism, Reagan remained very popular and charismatic.

    HUD scandals: In 1989, revelations surfaced that during Reagan’s administration, prominent Republicans had been paid hundreds of thousands of dollars for interceding with the Department of Housing and Development on behalf of developers seeking federal subsidies. Once again, Reagan’s popularity was unaffected.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Energy Crisis and Carter

    The Energy Crisis and Carter
    Trying desperately to cope with the economic predicament spawned by OPEC, both Ford and Carter dismally failed. In foreign affairs, Cold War tensions mounted as the Soviet Union became increasingly annoyed with Carter’s rigorous standard of human rights.

    Balance of trade, trade deficits: A U.S. economic report during the 1970s revealed that the nation imported more than it exported; the balance of trade was thrown off and the economic experts worried that the U.S. economy would not survive. As a result, Nixon began such programs as "revenue sharing" and wage and price controls for regulation.

    Ford, Gerald, Nixon Pardon: On Aug. 9, 1974, Ford became the first vice president to inherit leadership of the nation after the president resigned. To put the nation forward, General Ford granted pardon for ex-President Nixon. As a result, many people were angry that the government could easily forgive corruption and dishonesty.

    "Stagflation": As a combination of business stagnation and inflation, "stagflation" severely worsened the American economy. When the government borrowed money to offset the drastic loss of tax revenue, interest rates still increased. The federal government could not repay the loan, and it was forced to find other methods to collect revenue. There was no simple solution to "stagflation;" to lower interest rates to prevent stagnation would worsen the ongoing inflation.

    SALT II:     In June 1979, Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev agreed and signed the SALT II treaty. Carter presented it to the Senate and they ratified it. Due to the invasion of Afghanistan by Russia, the Cold War thaw slowed. The U.S.-Soviet relationship grew sour, and the U.S. boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.

    Election of 1976: Jimmy Carter was elected President of the United States in 1976. Climaxing a remarkable rise to national fame, Carter had been governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975 and was little known elsewhere at the beginning of 1976. Carter defeated Gerald Ford in the 1976 election.

    Carter, Jimmy, Amnesty: Elected to the Presidency in 1976, Carter was an advocate of human rights. He granted amnesty to countries who followed his foreign policy. They excluded nations which violated Carter’s humane standards through cruel business practices.

    Panama Canal Treaty:     The Carter administration put together bargains on a number of treaties to transfer the Panama Canal and the Canal Zone to the Panamanians by 1999. This treaty was met with staunch opposition by Republicans who felt that they "stole it fair and square."

    Camp David Accords:     Camp David was a place where the Egyptian leader Anwar el-Sadat and the Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin came together with Jimmy Carter. They discussed certain negotiations and tried to hammer out a framework for a peace treaty for the Middle East. It represented peace and harmony in the modern world.

    WIN: To compensate for the economic predicament caused by OPEC and the crisis of energy conservation, Jimmy Carter proposed a innovative economic program. WIN was to provide methods for conserving energy by creating the Department of Energy and regulating consumption of gas by automobiles.

    Department of Energy:     Carter created the Department of Energy and created an energy bill including taxation on oil and gasoline, tax credits for those who found methods on saving money and alternative-energy resources. It went well and the bill for energy consumption came down in 1978.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    The Middle East Crisis

    The Middle East Crisis
    With a virtual monopoly on petroleum, OPEC drove up oil prices which caused severe economic problems for the United States. Yet more turbulent conflicts existed in the Middle East: religious issues and territorial disputes inflamed tensions between Israel and the Palestinians.

    Multinational Corporations: In the modern era, where transportation allows rapid communication and exportation of products, corporations could span several nations. Many took advantage of inexpensive labor in one country and depreciated taxes in another.

    Arab oil embargo:     Furious at American intervention in the Middle Eastern conflicts, the Arab nations began to downsize the exportation of petroleum products to western nations. Consequently, the western world which relied heavily on petroleum was forced to seek other resources of fuel and energy.

    Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)    : In the 1970s, Middle Eastern petroleum exporting countries formed a monopoly and agreed to raise the price of oil. As a result, the economy in the western world fell into inflation and unemployment; a nation-wide recession resulted which forced Jimmy Carter to seek new economic programs at the end of his term in office. However, he could only do little to dispel the effects of the rising prices of oil.

    Palestinian Liberation Front, (PLO), Yasser Arafat:     In June 1982, there was great violence in the Middle East when Israel invaded Lebanon to extinguish the Palestinian Liberation Front from its headquarters. The chaos and confusion escalated in Lebanon which was already plagued by its own Civil War.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Vietnam to 1968

    Vietnam to 1968
    As the French pulled out of an increasingly helpless situation, the United States became more involved to fill the power vacuum. Though many liberal college students mounted large protests against the conflict, the majority of the nation supported the war. Not until the Têt offensive did massive opposition arise.

    Gulf of Tonkin: The Gulf of Tonkin is the northwestern arm of the South China Sea. China and the island of Hainan border it on the west by Vietnam. It is the site for the famous battle that led to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which committed the U.S. in Vietnam.

    North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia:     The French empire condensed North and South Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia into one colony called Indochina. The separate regions resented this and nationalist stirrings caused widespread discontent among the people of each nation.

    Ho Chi Minh: Ho was the Vietnamese Communist leader and the principal force behind the Vietnamese struggle against French colonial rule. Hoping for U.S. assistance in Vietnam’s struggle for independence, Ho later turned to the Soviet Union when the U.S. aided the French. He was a nationalist at heart and wanted Vietnamese independence far more than a communist government. He led the Vietminh, a group of guerrillas. In 1954, they defeated the French garrison at the battle of Dien Bien Phu.

    First Indochina War: The French wanted Indochina back after losing control over the colony during the Vichy era of the Second World War. Ho Chi Minh refused to give up sovereignty which resulted in the First Indochina War; it drew the U.S. into the fight against communism, but Vietnam became more staunchly communist after the war.

    Domino theory:     Eisenhower’s domino theory claimed that once one nation fell to communism, bordering countries would follow like falling dominoes. The theory was used in context of the monolithic view of communism, which claimed that all communist countries were in a conspiracy to destroy democracy in the world. Applied to Asia, the U.S. could not let Vietnam fall after "losing" China to communism. Fearful of Soviet expansion, Eisenhower increased American involvement in Vietnam.

    Dien Bien Phu:     On May 7, 1954, the Vietminh surrounded and laid siege to the French garrison, forcing them to surrender. The U.S. refused to give aid to the French for fear of condoning imperialism. Facing this humiliating defeat, the French decided to give up their futile attempt to fight nationalist stirrings in Vietnam.

    Geneva Conference, 1954: After the fall of the French garrison at Dien Bien Phu, an international conference was called in Geneva in 1954 to discuss the status of the war in Vietnam. The delegates of the conference decided that Vietnam should be divided into North and South at the seventeenth parallel until national elections took place in 1954. The elections were never held. The conference also created an area known as the demilitarized zone.

    Viet Cong, National Liberation Front:     The Viet Cong was the name given to the Vietnamese communist army; the National Liberation Front was a part of this group. In support of Ho Chi Minh, the group pushed to overthrow the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem. The National Liberation Front was partly responsible for the fall of Dinh Bien Phu and organization of the Têt Offensive. The National Liberation Front consisted mainly of guerilla fighters.

    Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 1964: After North Vietnamese gun boats assaulted American ships that were organizing air strikes and military moves, Johnson and his advisers drafted the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that committed the United States in Vietnam. It was passed by Congress and gave Johnson a "blank check," granting him full authority against North Vietnamese forces. This led to the increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

    Demilitarized zone: A demilitarized zone (DMZ) refers to areas in which military weapons and other installations are prohibited. The demilitarized zone during the Vietnam War was surrounded the seventeenth parallel. The parallel and the DMZ were created as a result of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions.

    Têt Offensive: The NLF and the North Vietnamese arm mounted a massive offensive against the South Vietnamese and American armies on January 31, 1968, which was also the first day of the Vietnamese New Year known as Têt. The nationalists successfully penetrated Saigon and took the United States embassy. After being told that the enemy was virtually defeated, the offensive showed that the nationalists were still capable of fighting and that the government had lied. Popularity for the war vastly declined.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Vietnamization and Détente

    Vietnamization and Détente
    Skilled in foreign politics, Nixon gracefully pulled the United States out of Vietnam by turning over the conflict to the South Vietnamese. With a major Cold War conflict over, the president proceeded to lessen American-Soviet tensions through a call for "peaceful coexistence."

    Bombing of Laos and Cambodia: As Nixon began to withdraw American forces in Vietnam in 1972, he sent Henry Kissinger to negotiate with the communists’ foreign minister, Le Duc Tho. In order to force a compromise, the president ordered massive bombings of Cambodia and Laos, the locations of communist supply lines.

    Kent State and Jackson State incidents: In 1972, the invasion of Cambodia spread the war throughout Indochina which sparked massive American protests on college campuses. The Kent and Jackson State universities were sites of protest in which student protesters were killed.

    Daniel Ellsberg, Pentagon Papers: Daniel Ellsberg was a analyst for the Department of Defense, who in 1971 released to the press the Pentagon Papers, an account of American involvement in Vietnam created by the department during the Johnson administration. The papers revealed government lies to Congress and the American people.

    My Lai, Lt. Calley: Lt. Calley was an inexperienced commander of an American army unit massacred 347 defenseless women, children, and old men in 1968. The horrors of the massacre were revealed to the public and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, an organization of returning soldiers that renounced their war medals as a result.

    Hanoi, Haipong: Hanoi was the capital of Vietnam before the war. It was located in the northern part of the country. During the war it was heavily bombed in an attempt to force the North Vietnamese to negotiate a peace treaty. Haiphong was located 10 miles from the Gulf of Tonkin. It was the largest port in Southeast Asia and site of the Indochina naval base.

    Fulbright, Senator: Senator Fulbright was an American senator of Arkansas, who proposed the Fulbright Act of 1964. This act established the exchange program for American and foreign educators and students. Senator Fulbright also served as the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He opposed the war.

    Vietnamization: Popular discontent forced Nixon to pull out of the Vietnam war, but he could not allow the United States to lose face. Leaving Vietnam without honor would endanger U.S. global dominance and give a considerable advantage the Soviet Union. Vietnamization, the process of replacing the American armed forces with South Vietnamese troops trained by American advisors, allowed the U.S. to save its reputation and satisfy an American public weary with a futile struggle.

    Paris Accords, 1973: In 1973, after Lyndon Johnson died of a heart attack, Nixon declared that a peace had been reached in Vietnam. The Paris Accords ended the war between the North Vietnamese government and Thieu government of South Vietnam. It was also agreed that the future of North Vietnam would not be determined by war.

    SALT I Agreement: At a meeting in Vladivostok, Siberia, in 1974, the SALT I agreement allowed Ford and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to make enormous progress towards the new arms-control treaty. This agreement was to limit each side to 2,400 nuclear missiles which would reduce the rate of war to a mere fraction.

    Détente: The evacuation of American troops from Vietnam helped Nixon and Kissinger reduce Chinese-American tensions and achieve détente with the communist superpowers. This dramatic development marked a significant change in American foreign policy by developing a cordial attitude towards the communists.

    China visit, 1972; recognition of China: On February 22, 1972, the President’s plane landed in China. Part of his policy of détente, Nixon took advantage of the Sino-Soviet split to pit the former allies against each other by recognizing China. The China visit sealed the new Chinese-American friendship, leaving Russia more isolated.

    War Powers Act, 1973: As an act passed by Congress, the president was given unprecedented authority. Thousands of special wartime agencies suddenly regulated almost every of American life. After the war, 15 million men had been trained and equipped with armed forces ready for battle.

    Six Day War, 1967: Israel’s decisive triumph in the Six Day War had left the Arabs humiliated and eager to reclaim the militarily strategic Golan Heights which was taken from Syria. Aided by massive U.S. shipments of highly sophisticated weaponry, the Israelis stopped the assault and counterattacked.

    Yom Kippur War:     Syria and Egypt, backed by Russia, led an all out attack on Israel in 1973 on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. This war between the Israelis and their neighboring countries spanned several years. There were frequent bombings and raids amongst the countries for oil.

    Kissinger, Henry, "shuttle diplomacy":     Henry Kissinger flew from capital to capital and bargained with the Israelis and the Egyptian people. He organized a cease-fire in November of 1973. Kissinger negotiated the peace agreement with the aid of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to end the Yom Kippur war. His "shuttle diplomacy" ameliorated the hostility between the Middle Eastern countries and the United States.

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Political Timelines

    A timeline of the Unites States' political history. These political timelines, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1800-1809 - The Jeffersonian Revolution

    Date Event
    January 1, 1800

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteThomas Jefferson (D-Republican) 73
    Aaron Burr (D-Republican) 73
    John Adams (Federalist) 65
    Charles C. Pinckney (Federalist) 64
    John Jay (Federalist) 1
    January 1, 1800

    Adams negotiated peace treaty,splitting Federalists
    November 21, 1800

    Senate moved to location in Washington
    October 1, 1801

    Democrat-Republican majority of 71-34 in House
    November 21, 1801

    Senate moved to new location in Washington
    January 1, 1802

    Vice President Arron Burr voted with Federalists,ending Republican alleigance
    January 1, 1802

    Repub. editor Samuel Harrison Smith petitioned to permit reporters access to floor
    January 1, 1803

    Treaty drawn to purchase Louisiana Territory
    January 1, 1804

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteThomas Jefferson (D-Republican) 162
    Charles C. Pinckney (Federalist) 14
    January 1, 1804

    House impeaches Samuel Chase
    March 12, 1804

    US Dist. Court Judge John Pickering guilty of decisions contrary to law and insanity
    February 5, 1805

    trial began for impeachment of Samuel Chase
    March 1, 1805

    failure to convict Chase in impeachment
    January 1, 1806

    Henry Clay enters Senate
    January 1, 1806

    seizure of Burr's boats in the Ohio and apprehension in Mississipi
    January 1, 1807

    Jefferson sends Senate message of Burr's conspiracy
    January 1, 1807

    Embargo Act pushed by Thomas Jefferson
    January 1, 1807

    Macon defeated as Speaker
    January 1, 1808

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames Madison (D-Republican) 122
    Charles C. Pinckney (Federalist) 47
    George Clinton (D-Republican) 6
    January 1, 1809

    Senate approved legality of taking West Florida from spain
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1810-1819 - Formative Years

    Date Event
    January 1, 1810

    Henry Clay enters House of Representatives
    January 1, 1811

    Bill drafted to raise army of 25,000 men
    January 1, 1811

    Henry Clay becomes Speaker of the House on first day
    January 1, 1812

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames Madison (D-Republican) 128
    DeWitt Clinton (Federalist) 89
    June 17, 1812

    Senate approves Madison's declaration of war against Britain
    January 1, 1813

    Madison gains nearly fatal illness,as victories prevail overseas
    January 1, 1814

    Delegation of commissioners dispatched to Britain for negotiations
    January 1, 1815

    Committees created in Senate to examine sections of presidents message
    January 1, 1815

    President Madison proposes domestic program,including tariffs and a bank recharter
    January 8, 1815

    Treaty of Ghent approved after Jackson's victory
    January 1, 1816

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames Madison (D-Republican) 183
    Rufus King (Federalist) 34
    January 1, 1816

    ""standing committees" approved in Senate "
    December 2, 1816

    Rep. Calhoun (SC) introduced bill for canals and roads on Clay's "American System"
    January 1, 1817

    Benjamin Crowninshield of Massachusetts becomes head of Navy
    January 1, 1818

    Smith Thompson of New York becomes head of Navy
    January 1, 1819

    Treaty ceding Florida to United States
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1820-1829 - The Era of Good Feelings

    Date Event
    January 1, 1820

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames Monroe (D-Republican) 231
    John Q. Adams (Ind. Republican) 1
    January 1, 1820

    Missouri Compromise of 1820
    February 22, 1821

    Treaty ceding Florida to United States ratified
    January 1, 1822

    Monroe recognizes South American colonies as independent states
    January 1, 1822

    Daniel Webster enters Senate
    December 2, 1823

    Monroe Doctrine declared
    January 1, 1824

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJohn Q. Adams (Ind. Republican) 30.5 84
    Andrew Jackson (D-Republican) 43.1 99
    Henry Clay (D-Republican) 13.2 37
    William H. Crawford (D-Republican) 13.1 41
    February 1, 1825

    Clay becomes Secretary of State through "corrupt bargain",giving Adams support
    January 1, 1828

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJohn Q. Adams (Nat. Republican) 56 178
    Andrew Jackson (D-Republican) 44 83
    November 21, 1828

    Senate moved to location in Washington
    January 1, 1829

    Senate rejects Andrew Jackson's appointees
    December 1, 1829

    Senate rejects Andrew Jackson's appointees
    December 20, 1829

    Foot resolution to limit lands acquired
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1840-1849 - Seeds of Secession

    Date Event
    January 1, 1840

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWilliam H. Harrison (Whig) 53.1 234
    Martin Van Buren (Democratic) 46.9 60
    January 1, 1840

    Liberty party founded,runs James G. Birney
    January 1, 1840

    American Republican Party endorses Clay and Frelignhysen
    May 1, 1840

    Democratic National convention
    October 1, 1840

    Birney accepted democratic nom. For Michigan legislature
    January 1, 1841

    bank bill passed in Senate
    June 21, 1841

    extended fillibuster over bank recharter bill
    January 1, 1842

    Webster-Ashburton Treaty signed
    March 1, 1843

    Cushing becomes Secretary of State
    January 1, 1844

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames K. Polk (Democratic) 49.6 170
    Henry Clay (Whig) 48.1 105
    James G. Birney (Liberty) 2.3
    April 1, 1844

    treaty of Texas annexation considered
    December 1, 1844

    Adams launches effort to eliminate gag rule on slavery
    January 1, 1845

    admission of Republic of Texas
    December 4, 1845

    defeated motion of Vice Presidential appointments
    August 1, 1846

    Wilmot Proviso fillibustered in Senate
    January 1, 1848

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteZachary Taylor (Whig) 47.4 163
    Lewis Cass (Democratic) 42.5 127
    Marten Van Buren (Free Soil) 10.1
    January 1, 1848

    Wilmot Proviso attatched to Oregon treaty
    January 1, 1848

    Free Soil party founded
    March 10, 1848

    ratification of treaty with Mexico
    May 22, 1848

    Convention/Democrats split into Barnburners and Hunkers
    June 7, 1848

    Whig Convention in Philidelphia
    January 1, 1849

    Free soilers refuse to support caucuses in House
    January 1, 1849

    Plurality used to elect speaker
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1850-1859 - Sectionalism and Secession

    Date Event
    January 1, 1850

    Compromise of 1850
    March 1, 1850

    Calhoun addresses Senate on Clay's proposals
    March 7, 1850

    Webster reply to Calhoun
    March 31, 1850

    Benton-Foote confrontation in Senate
    April 18, 1850

    Committee of thirteen selected
    January 1, 1852

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteFranklin Pierce (Democratic) 50.9 254
    Winfield Scott (Whig) 44.1 42
    John P. Hale (Free Soil) 5
    June 1, 1852

    Baltimore Democratic Party convention
    June 16, 1852

    Whig convention in Baltimore,put in Compromise measures
    January 1, 1853

    civil service reform requiring clerks to pass an examination
    January 1, 1854

    Illinois elects Republican Lyman Trumbull
    January 1, 1854

    Steven Douglas introduces Kansas-Nebraska act
    January 1, 1854

    Douglas moves to exempt Nebraska
    March 1, 1854

    Alvan E. Bovay founds Republican party
    January 1, 1855

    Republicans outdistance Know-Nothings,absorbing voters
    January 1, 1856

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames Buchanan (Democratic) 45.3 174
    John C. Fr
    January 1, 1856

    rule of debate considered after philibuster
    February 1, 1856

    Know-Nothings (American Party) holds national council meeting
    February 22, 1856

    Republicans national organizing convention in Pittsburg
    May 14, 1856

    Sumner denunciates Douglas' views
    May 22, 1856

    Brooks beats Sumner with cane on Senate floor
    June 2, 1856

    Democratic National convention in Cincinnati
    January 1, 1857

    U.S. Supreme Court beings Dred Scott v. Sanford case
    January 1, 1858

    approval of a proslavery Constitution
    January 1, 1858

    Lincoln-Douglas debates
    January 1, 1858

    success of People's Party in Pennsylvania
    December 1, 1858

    Douglas removed from Committee on Territories
    January 1, 1859

    Vice President Arron Burr voted with Federalists,ending Republican alleigance
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1860-1869 - Radical Reconstruction

    Date Event
    January 1, 1860

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteAbraham Lincoln (Republican) 39.8 180
    John Bell (Constitutional Union 29.5 12
    John C. Breckinridge (Democratic) 18.1 72
    John Bell (Constitutional Union) 12.6 39
    April 23, 1860

    Democratic national convention in Charleston,SC
    May 16, 1860

    Republican national convention in Chicago,surrounded by "Wigwams"
    June 18, 1860

    Democrats re-assemble in Baltimore
    December 4, 1860

    South Carolina leaves the Union
    January 9, 1861

    Mississippi leaves the union
    July 21, 1861

    Select Committee on the Loyalty of Government Employees started
    December 4, 1861

    Breckinridge expelled from Senate as a traitor
    December 10, 1861

    Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War in House,investigations into General Stone
    February 1, 1862

    Indiana's Jesse Bright expelled from Senate
    September 22, 1862

    Emancipation Proclamation issued by Lincoln
    January 1, 1863

    Lincoln offers extension of recognition to South with 10% taking oath
    May 1, 1863

    Vallandigham peace campaign ends,tried in court for resisting draft
    January 1, 1864

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteAbraham Lincoln (Republican) 55 212
    George McClellan 45 21
    April 8, 1864

    abolishing of slavery in House
    June 7, 1864

    Union Party first convention in Baltimore
    July 5, 1864

    Wade-Davis bill vetoed
    September 1, 1864

    Sherman captures Atlanta,Lincoln gains popularity
    January 1, 1865

    Joint Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction established
    April 14, 1865

    Lincoln assassinated
    January 1, 1866

    ranks of Republicans in congress expanded after war
    January 1, 1866

    Johnson vetoes Civil Rights Bill and extension of Freedmen's Bureau
    June 13, 1866

    Fourteenth Amendment passes
    January 7, 1867

    James M. Ashley introduced legislation to impeach president
    January 13, 1867

    First reconstruction Act introduced by Stevens
    January 22, 1867

    House voted to have 40th Congress begin the day after 39th Congress and authority to call special sessions
    March 1, 1867

    Tenure of Office Act passed
    March 2, 1867

    Reconstruction Act vetoed and overridden
    March 23, 1867

    Supplementary Reconstruction Act
    July 19, 1867

    Third Reconstruction Act
    August 2, 1867

    Johnson fires Secretary of War Stanton,impeachment given
    January 1, 1868

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteUlysses S. Grant (Republican) 52.7 286
    Horatio Seymour (Democratic) 47.3
    March 4, 1868

    Johnson impeachment trial begins
    March 11, 1868

    Third Reconstruction Act
    May 16, 1868

    vote on removal of Johnson fails
    May 20, 1868

    National Union Republican" party convention at Chicago
    July 4, 1868

    Democrats hold convention in new Tammany Hall
    September 24, 1868

    Black Friday caused by corrective action by Secretary of Treasury Boutwell
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1870-1879 - The Gilded Age

    Date Event
    January 1, 1870

    Presedential Elections:Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican)
    Samuel J. Tilden (Democratic)
    January 1, 1870

    Hiram Revels elected as first black senator
    January 1, 1870

    Presedential Elections:Ulysses S. Grant (Republican)
    Horace Greeley (Democratic)
    January 1, 1870

    Republican party convention in Philadelphia
    February 21, 1870

    Labor Reform Party founded and holds convention in Columbus,Ohio
    July 9, 1870

    Democratic convention in Baltimore
    January 1, 1874

    Samuel Tilden elected to governor of New York
    January 1, 1875

    Ohio Democrats take inflationist stand as Governor Allen embraces greenbackism
    June 14, 1875

    Republican convention in Cincinnati
    January 1, 1876

    ""Greenback" Independent Party launched "
    June 22, 1876

    Hayes executive order that government officials take no part in politics
    January 1, 1878

    Bland-Allison Act allows limited coinage of silver dollars
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1880-1889 - Status Quo Politics

    Date Event
    January 1, 1880

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJames A. Garfield (Republican) 48.5 214
    Winfield S. Hancock (Democratic) 48.1 155
    James B. Weaver (Greenback) 3.4
    January 1, 1880

    Rules made a standing committee by Speaker Randall
    May 1, 1880

    ""no third term" opposition holds convention in St. Louis "
    June 2, 1880

    Republican convention in Chicago,split into "Stalwarts" and "Halfbreeds"
    June 7, 1880

    Mugwumps at Massachusetts Reform Club appeal to aiding of a Democratic nomination
    June 9, 1880

    Greenback convention torn between radicals and fusionists
    June 22, 1880

    Democratic convention in Cincinnati
    October 20, 1880

    Garfield learns of forged Morey letter
    March 1, 1881

    Senate convenes for
    May 16, 1881

    Conkling and Platt resign from Senate
    June 22, 1881

    Garfield shot by crazed office seeker
    September 9, 1881

    President Garfield dies in bed
    January 1, 1882

    Republicans regain Senate control
    January 1, 1883

    tariff measure to bring in extra revenue passes
    January 1, 1883

    Pendleton Act to reform civil service passes
    January 1, 1884

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteClover Winfield (Democratic) 48.5 219
    James G. Gland (Democratic 48.2 182
    January 1, 1884

    debates on how to eliminate $150 million surplus go on in Senate
    January 1, 1884

    information Blaine's renewal of land grant scandal goes in print
    May 12, 1884

    Anti-Monopoly Party holds national convention
    May 28, 1884

    Greenback convention in Indianapolis nominated General Butler
    June 4, 1884

    Republican convention held in Chicago,Mugwumps leave party
    June 28, 1884

    meeting of Blaine Irish-Americans convenes as Irish newspapers endorse Blaine
    July 18, 1884

    Democratic convention held in Chicago
    October 29, 1884

    Blaine's "rum,Romanism,and rebellion" speech made
    January 1, 1885

    Woodrow Wilson completes his dissertation,"Congressional Government"
    January 1, 1886

    bill defeated in House for tariff reductions
    January 1, 1886

    Cleveland marries,stories circulate about him beating his wife
    January 1, 1887

    Dawes Act and Interstate Commerce Act pass
    January 1, 1887

    Electoral Count act passes
    January 1, 1888

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteBenjamin Harrison (Republican) 47.9 233
    Glover Cleveland (Democratic) 48.6 168
    May 15, 1888

    Union Labor Party convention at Cincinnati
    June 1, 1888

    Democratic convention in St. Louis
    June 19, 1888

    Republican convention held in Chicago
    August 10, 1888

    Blaire parades in New York streets for Harrison's campaign
    January 1, 1889

    Thomas B. Reed (ME) elected as speaker
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1890-1899 - The Agrarian Revolt

    Date Event
    January 1, 1890

    McKinley Tariff passes in Congress
    June 7, 1890

    Republican convention in Minneapolis reaffirmed tariff position
    January 1, 1891

    New York Governor Hill elected to Senate,sets hopes for Presidency
    January 1, 1891

    McKinley elected as Ohio governor
    February 22, 1891

    ""snap" Republican convention called to secure a Hill delegation "
    May 1, 1891

    People's Party formed
    January 1, 1892

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteGlover Cleveland (Democratic) 46.1 277
    Benjamin Harrison (Republican) 43 145
    James B. Weaver (People's) 8.5 22
    January 1, 1892

    law that president pro tempore succeed the presidency passes
    February 22, 1892

    St. Louis Populist conference adopting platform
    June 7, 1892

    Republicans hold convention in Minneapolis
    July 2, 1892

    Omaha Populist conference meets
    January 1, 1893

    McKinley faced with bankruptcy,reimbursed by Hanna
    January 1, 1894

    Republicans gain House control,Populists hold balance of power in Senate
    January 1, 1894

    Supreme Court declares Wilson-Gorman Act unconstitutional
    January 1, 1894

    Coin's Financial School published
    August 1, 1894

    silver Democrats set up national committee
    January 1, 1895

    Hanna begins campaign to get McKinley the presidential nomination
    January 1, 1896

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWilliam M. McKinley (Republican) 51.1 271
    William J. Bryan (Democratic) 47.7 176
    January 1, 1896

    conference of Platt,Quay,Clarkson,Manley,and Filley encourage "favorite son" candidacies
    June 16, 1896

    Republican convention in St. Louis
    July 7, 1896

    Democratic national convention in Chicago opposes silver men
    July 22, 1896

    Populist convention at St. Louis endorses W. J. Bryan
    January 1, 1897

    William Allison becomes chairman of the Republican caucus
    January 1, 1898

    Theodore Roosevelt elected as governor of New York
    April 1, 1898

    Sherman resigns from state department
    January 1, 1899

    Secretary Hay secures open-door policy in China
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1900-1909 - The Modern State

    Date Event
    January 1, 1900

    Bryan declares government ownership a non-issue
    January 1, 1900

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWilliam M. McKinley (Republican) 51.7 292
    William J. Bryan (Democratic) 45.5 155
    June 19, 1900

    Republican national convention at Philadelphia
    July 4, 1900

    Admiral George Dewey announces candidacy for President
    July 4, 1900

    Democratic convention in Kansas City nominates Bryan and Silver Republican
    September 6, 1901

    McKinley shot by anarchist at Pan-American Exposition
    January 1, 1902

    Roosevelt intervenes in the anthracite coal strike
    January 1, 1903

    ""Uncle Joe" Cannon elected as Speaker of the House "
    January 1, 1904

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteTheodore Roosevelt (Republican) 57.4 336
    Alton B. Parker (Democratic) 37.6 140
    Eugene V. Debs (Socialist) 3
    June 21, 1904

    Republican national convention in Chicago
    July 6, 1904

    Democratic convention in St. Louis
    January 1, 1906

    W. J. Bryan makes speech in Madison Square Garden advocating government ownership of railroads
    January 1, 1906

    two senators convicted on fraud and corruption charges,campaign for direct election begins
    January 1, 1906

    Hepburn Act drawn up by William Peters
    March 1, 1906

    ""Treason of the Senate" articles appear through print "
    January 1, 1907

    Panic 1907 asserts fundamental conservatism of Republican majority
    January 1, 1907

    Harriman letter appears in New York World
    January 1, 1908

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWilliam H. Taft (Republican) 51.6 321
    Alton B. Parker (Democratic) 43.1 162
    Eugene V. Debs (Socialist) 2.8
    June 16, 1908

    Republican national convention in Chicago
    July 1, 1908

    Democratic convention in Denver re-nominates Bryan
    March 1, 1909

    progressive Republicans break ranks and vote for James Beauchamp Clark for Speaker
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1910-1919 - The Progressive Era

    Date Event
    January 1, 1910

    Ballinger-Pinchot controversy; Pinchot writes letter to Senator Dolliver
    March 1, 1910

    bipartisan uprising against "Uncle Joe" Cannon
    March 17, 1910

    Norris proposes Rules Committee in which the Speaker is excluded
    January 1, 1911

    House passes direct election amendment by 296-11 margin
    January 1, 1911

    National Progressive Republican League founded
    February 2, 1911

    La Follette speaks at Publishers Association and is reported to have a breakdown; support switches to Roosevelt
    January 1, 1912

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteTheodore Roosevelt (Progressive) 41.9 435
    William H. Taft (Republican) 27.4 88
    Eugene V. Debs (Socialist) 23.2 8
    May 1, 1912

    William Borah (ID) guides direct election measure to enactment
    August 5, 1912

    Progressive Party convention n Chicago
    October 1, 1912

    Roosevelt criticizes treaties by Taft as suit brought against dissolution of U.S. Steel
    October 14, 1912

    insane man attempts to assassinate Roosevelt in Milwaukee
    January 1, 1913

    Underwood tariff passes in House
    April 3, 1913

    Wilson appears before special session of congress calling for elimnation of tariffs
    January 1, 1914

    Federal Trade Commission Act and Clayton Antitrust Act approved by Senate
    January 29, 1914

    Maryland's Blair Lee becomes first directly elected senator
    April 1, 1914

    onset of the world war,Senate's attention shifted to foreign policy
    January 1, 1915
    January 1, 1916

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWoodrow Wilson (Democratic) 49.4 277
    Charles E. Hughes (Republican) 46.2 254
    A. L. Benson (Socialist) 3.2
    March 2, 1917

    Progressives hold filibuster of arming ships on noninterventionist policies
    March 5, 1917

    cloture' measure (Rule 22) passes at Wilson's demand
    January 1, 1918

    Wilson calls for establishment of Democratic congress to see the victory
    January 1, 1918

    Truman Newberry defeats Henry Ford in Michigan Senate race
    January 1, 1918

    Wilson sets forth "Fourteen Points" to Congress
    May 16, 1918

    Sedition Act proposed to punish anyone who spoke out against the government
    August 1, 1918

    H. Cabot Lodge becomes Senate's floor leader and senior member
    March 1, 1919

    Lodge presents resolution signed by 29 senators urging the separation of the treaty from the League of Nations covenant
    July 10, 1919

    peace treaty sent to Senate; voted down amendments
    October 22, 1919

    Wilson suffers a stroke,and returns to capital from peace campaign
    November 29, 1919

    Newberry indicted on charges of conspiracy
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1920-1929 - A Return to Normalcy

    Date Event
    January 1, 1920

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteWarren G. Harding (Republican) 60.4 404
    James M. Cox (Democratic) 34.2 127
    Eugene V. Debs (Socialist) 3.4
    January 1, 1920

    due to census anomalies,House Census Committee recommends extending membership to 483
    January 1, 1920

    Alfred Smith defeated for reelection in New York
    January 1, 1920

    Senate agrees to abolish forty-one standing committees
    March 20, 1920

    Peace treaty struck down again as it fails the vote
    May 1, 1920

    Socialist convention at New York,Debs nominated from prison
    June 8, 1920

    Republicans hold gathering in Chicago
    June 28, 1920

    Democrats hold convention in Chicago,pass Wilsonian platform
    November 19, 1920

    Senate rejects peace treaty after Wilson refuses modifications
    January 1, 1921

    Budget and Accounting Act passed
    May 1, 1921

    Supreme Court overturns Newberry's conviction
    January 1, 1922

    House elections reduce Republican margin to fifteen
    January 1, 1922

    House Rules Committee Chairman Campbell defeated
    January 1, 1922

    Newberry resigns from Senate
    January 1, 1922

    bonus bill passes in Congress and is vetoed
    January 1, 1922

    Conference for Progressive Political Action founded
    November 21, 1922

    Rebecca Latimer Felton elected governor of Georgia
    January 1, 1923

    magazine article states that Harding never had intentions of joining League of Nations
    June 1, 1923

    President Harding sets out on transcontinental trip
    August 2, 1923

    President Harding dies
    November 21, 1923

    Rebecca Latimer Felton elected governor of Georgia
    January 1, 1924

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteCalvin Coolidge (Republican) 54 382
    John W. Davis (Democratic) 28.8 136
    Robert M. La Follette (Progressive) 16.6 13
    January 1, 1924

    Longworth pushes through a change in rules governing petitions
    January 1, 1924

    Rep. Haugen and Sen. McNary promote purchasing and selling of agricultural products
    June 24, 1924

    Democratic national convention at Madison Square Gardens
    July 4, 1924

    La Follette named for nomination by gathering of progressive groups
    January 1, 1925

    Senate agrees to revise the Federal Corrupt Practices Act
    June 1, 1925

    Robert La Follette dies
    January 1, 1926

    Smith and Vare campaigns spurs Senate investigations
    January 1, 1927

    McNary-Haugen bill passes,and is vetoed
    January 1, 1927

    Supreme Court strengthens investigations with McGrain v. Daugherty
    August 3, 1927

    Coolidge announces he will not run again
    January 1, 1928

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteHerbert C. Hoover (Republican) 58.2 444
    Alfred E. Smith (Democratic) 40.9 87
    June 12, 1928

    Republican convention held in Kansas City
    June 26, 1928

    Democratic convention held in Houston
    January 1, 1929

    Agricultural Marketing Act fails
    January 1, 1929

    Senate launches investigation related to maintenance of prerogatives
    January 1, 1929

    Congress passes bill to establish an automatic reapportionment
    January 1, 1929

    Senate censures Connecticut's Hiram Bingham for placing a lobbyist on payroll
    October 1, 1929

    Stock market crash
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1930-1939 - The New Deal Landslide

    Date Event
    January 1, 1930

    Republican majority in House reduced to one seat
    June 1, 1930

    Smoot-Hawley Tariff carries by two votes
    January 1, 1931

    Congress passes servicemen loan bill over Hoover's veto
    January 1, 1931

    Democrats lowers amount of signatures required for discharge petition
    December 1, 1931

    Hoover waits to address the economic crisis
    January 1, 1932

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteFranklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic) 57.4 472
    Herbert C. Hoover (Republican) 39.7 59
    January 1, 1932

    Hattie Caraway becomes first woman in Senate
    January 1, 1932

    Bonus March on Washington
    February 16, 1932

    Lame Duck' amendment passes
    June 14, 1932

    Republican convention in Chicago
    June 27, 1932

    Barkley speaks at Democratic convention in Chicago
    January 1, 1933

    73rd Congress convenes its first 100 days
    March 9, 1933

    Roosevelt calls Congress into special session
    May 1, 1933

    National Labor Relations Act passes in Senate under Wagner
    January 1, 1934

    Democratic majority in Congress increases
    January 1, 1934

    Borah leads efforts to investigate munitions industry
    January 1, 1934

    Liberty League appears,backed by wealthy
    January 1, 1934

    Rules Committee proposed that there would be no appropriation bill amendments,sparks furor
    January 1, 1935

    Harry S. Truman begins Senate service
    January 1, 1935

    Congress passes Neutrality Act t
    January 1, 1936

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteFranklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic) 60.8 523
    Alfred M. Landon (Republican) 36.5 8
    January 8, 1936

    Democrats begin practice of Jackson Day dinners
    June 9, 1936

    Republican national convention in Cleveland
    June 19, 1936

    Lemke and O'Brien announce candidacy for "Union Party"
    June 23, 1936

    Democratic convention gathers in Philadelphia
    September 11, 1936

    national conference of liberals endorse Roosevelt
    July 6, 1937

    Senate debates begin over court-packing scheme
    July 14, 1937

    Majority Leader Robinson found dead,Barkley succeeds
    November 1, 1937

    Roosevelt calls special session
    January 1, 1938

    Roosevelt attempts to "purge" party of conservative leaders
    January 1, 1938

    Republican revival in Congress
    January 1, 1939

    Hatch Act passed prohibiting officials from politics
    January 1, 1939

    Felix Frankfurter elevated to Supreme Court
    January 1, 1939

    Roosevelt asks for large defense appropriation
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1940-1949 - Rise of Money Politics

    Date Event
    January 1, 1940

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteFranklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic) 54.8 499
    Wendel L. Willkie (Republican) 44.8 82
    January 1, 1940

    stringent campaign finance act passed
    March 8, 1940

    Senate approves president's "Lend-Lease" plan
    July 15, 1940

    Democratic convention at Chicago
    August 17, 1940

    Wilkie accepts Republican nomination
    September 16, 1940

    Congress enacts first peacetime draft
    October 25, 1940

    John Lewis urges labor to vote for Willkie
    January 1, 1941

    Senator Chandler proposes hiring 'research experts'
    March 1, 1941

    Senate creates Special Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program
    August 1, 1941

    opposition arises in renewal of the draft
    December 8, 1941

    Sen. Arthur Vandeer reverses isolationist position,nation goes to war
    January 1, 1942

    Republicans gain seats in Congress as there is a swing to the right
    September 1, 1942

    Roosevelt threats Congress with action
    January 1, 1943

    conservative coalition repeals many New Deal agencies
    July 1, 1943

    C.I.O. forms first Political Action Committee
    January 1, 1944

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteFranklin D. Roosevelt (Democratic) 53.5 432
    Thomas E. Dewey (Republican) 46 99
    January 1, 1944

    Henry Wallace replaced by Truman as vice presidential nominee
    February 23, 1944

    Roosevelt vetoes Barkley's tax bill
    May 1, 1944

    Communist Party dissolves,forms Communist Political Association
    July 19, 1944

    Democratic convention in Chicago
    August 4, 1944

    soldier voting act amended
    August 30, 1944

    America First party holds convention in Detriot,nominates Smith
    January 1, 1945

    Joint Committee on the Organization of Congress established
    January 1, 1945

    Senate agrees to the United Nations Charter
    April 12, 1945

    President Roosevelt dies,replaced by Truman
    January 1, 1946

    number of Republicans increase in Senate to majority,pass Taft-Hartley Act
    January 1, 1946

    Henry Wallace resigns
    May 1, 1946

    Truman proposes law to draft strikers,labor relations hurt
    January 1, 1947

    ""Vandenburg Resolution" adopted "
    January 1, 1947

    Senate approves "Truman Doctrine"
    January 1, 1948

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteHarry S. Truman (Democratic) 54.8 499
    Thomas E. Dewey (Republican) 44.8 82
    January 1, 1948

    Lyndon Johnson,Hubert Humphrey elected to Senate
    January 1, 1948

    Democrats return to majority status in house
    January 1, 1948

    Eisenhower refuses to run
    March 1, 1948

    General MacArthur announces possible candidacy
    July 12, 1948

    Democratic convention held in Philadelphia
    July 17, 1948

    Dixiecrats hold convention,nominate Strom Thurmond
    July 22, 1948

    Progressive Party convention in Philadelphia nominates Wallace
    August 1, 1948

    Communist Party endorses Wallace
    January 1, 1949
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1950-1959 - Cold War Politics

    Date Event
    January 1, 1950

    Internal Security Act enacted over Truman's veto
    February 9, 1950

    Sen. McCarthy begins anti-Comunist accusations
    February 20, 1950

    McCarthy details '81 loyalty risks'
    January 1, 1951

    Bricker on campaign for amendment allowing Congressional treaty regulation
    July 14, 1951

    McCarthy accuses Gen. Marshall of 'whimpering appeasement'
    September 1, 1951

    Senator Taft announces intentions to run for President
    January 1, 1952

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteDwight D. Eisenhower (Republican) 55.1 442
    Adlai E. Stevenson (Democratic) 44.4 89
    July 2, 1952

    Republican convention at Chicago
    January 1, 1953

    Bricker obtains sixty-two Senate cosponsors
    July 31, 1953

    Taft dies; Knowland becomes majority leader
    January 1, 1954

    Averell Harriman elected governor of New York
    February 1, 1954

    Johnson substitute for Bricker amendment fails by one vote
    March 1, 1954

    Puerto Rican Nationalists open fire on the House of Representatives
    April 1, 1954

    televised hearings of McCarthy trials air
    December 2, 1954

    Senate censures McCarthy
    January 1, 1955

    Howard Smith becomes the House Rules Committee chair
    January 1, 1955

    House resolution to aid Formosa
    July 1, 1955

    President goes to Big Four summit,popularity booms
    January 1, 1956

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteDwight D. Eisenhower (Republican) 57.6 457
    Adlai E. Stevenson (Democratic) 42.1 73
    January 1, 1956

    Senate kills Eisenhower's Dixon-Yates contract
    August 13, 1956

    Democratic convention held in Chicago
    August 20, 1956

    Republican national convention at San Fransisco's Cow Palace
    January 1, 1957

    passage of civil rights act forwarded by Johnson
    January 1, 1957

    Kennedy writes Profiles in Courage
    January 1, 1957

    Eisenhower uses troops to enforce segregation by Governor Faubus
    January 1, 1958

    Democrats gain majority in House of Representatives
    January 1, 1959

    Senate rejects Lewis Strauss as Secretary of Commerce
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1960-1969 - The Era of Civil Revolt

    Date Event
    January 1, 1960

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJohn F. Kennedy (Democratic) 49.7 303
    Richard M. Nixon (Republican) 49.5 219
    July 25, 1960

    Democratic national convention held in Chicago
    September 26, 1960

    first televised debate held
    October 7, 1960

    further televised debates held
    January 1, 1961

    Democrats caucus and elect Mike Mansfield as floor leader
    April 1, 1961

    Kennedy attempts invasion of Cuba,lacks support
    January 1, 1962

    Military Assistance Command-Vietnam formed
    January 1, 1962

    Republicans loose four Senate seats
    January 1, 1962

    segregationist Democrats attempt amendments to limit federal powers
    April 1, 1962

    business leaders denunciate Kennedy's economic policies,stop proposed increase in steel prices
    January 1, 1963

    Sen. Jacob Javits declares the need for a binding code of conduct
    January 1, 1963

    South asked to achieve "first step compliance" in desegregation
    September 25, 1963

    Kennedy and Mansfield push through Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
    November 22, 1963

    John F. Kennedy shot,Mansfield does not deliver speech
    January 1, 1964

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteLyndon B. Johnson (Democratic) 61.1 486
    Barry M. Goldwater (Republican) 38.5 52
    January 1, 1964

    Senate cooperates with Johnson to start "Great Society"
    January 1, 1964

    National Election Service set up to provide quick election returns
    June 10, 1964

    Senate invokes cloture for the first time on civil rights
    June 19, 1964

    Senate passes strong Civil Rights Act and tax deduction measure
    July 1, 1964

    bipartisan Select Committee on Standards and Conduct formed
    August 7, 1964

    Senate passes "Gulf of Tonkin Resolution" by 88-2
    August 24, 1964

    Democratic national convention held in Atlantic City
    January 1, 1965

    twenty five House liberals plea for hearings on Vietnam policy
    January 1, 1966

    Democratic majorities reduced in Congress
    January 1, 1967

    Sen. Thomas Dodd censured for using campaign funds
    October 1, 1967

    left-wing anti-war groups require military to protect Pentagon
    November 18, 1967

    Governor Romney announces Republican candidacy for President
    January 1, 1968

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteRichard M. Nixon (Republican) 43.3 301
    Hubert H. Humphrey (Democratic) 42.7 191
    George Wallace (A. Independent) 13.5 46
    February 1, 1968

    Nixon declares candidacy
    March 2, 1968

    Johnson appoints advisory commission on civil disorders
    March 16, 1968

    Robert Kennedy announces candidacy in Senate Caucus Room
    March 31, 1968

    Johnson ends bombing raids,silences political opposition
    April 27, 1968

    Hubert Humphrey declares candidacy
    April 30, 1968

    Nelson Rockefeller announces Republican liberal candidacy
    August 5, 1968

    Republican national convention at Miami
    August 26, 1968

    Democratic National Convention,plagued by demonstrations
    September 30, 1968

    Humphrey promised to end bombing if demilitarized zone restored
    January 1, 1969
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1970-1979 - Seeds of Corruption

    Date Event
    January 1, 1970

    Cooper and Church reassert prerogatives by restricting ground forces in Cambodia
    December 31, 1970

    Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repealed
    January 1, 1971

    Speaker McCormack retires,succeeded by Carl Albert
    January 1, 1971

    McGovern announces candidacy and outlines twin campaign themes
    January 1, 1971

    Edward Kennedy quiets scandalmongers and announces he would not run
    January 1, 1972

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteRichard M. Nixon (Republican) 60.7 520
    George S. McGovern (Democratic) 37.5 17
    May 15, 1972

    Bremer wounds Governor George Wallace
    June 6, 1972

    Humphrey attacks McGovern at California primary
    July 10, 1972

    Democrats hold national convention in Chicago
    July 11, 1972

    Governor Askew calls for "coalition of protest"
    August 21, 1972

    Republicans hold national convention
    November 4, 1972

    Virginian elector votes for Libertarian candidate
    January 1, 1973

    Senate begins examinations of ethical misconduct in 1972 campaign
    July 23, 1973

    committee learns of existence of Nixon tape recordings
    October 4, 1973

    conferees agree on bill setting restrictions on presidential military powers
    October 7, 1973

    Nixon ordered firing of Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox
    October 24, 1973

    President vetoes War Powers Act
    November 7, 1973

    Congress passes War Powers Resolution
    January 1, 1974

    Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act curtails presidents ability in the matter
    January 1, 1974

    Federal Elections Act established public financing for campaigns
    February 6, 1974

    House authorizes Judiciary Committee to begin Nixon investigation
    July 27, 1974

    bipartisan majority voted in favor of Nixon impeachment
    August 28, 1974

    President Richard Nixon resigns
    December 1, 1974

    Carter declares presidential candidacy
    January 1, 1975

    Senate adopts reform requiring open hearings and business meetings
    January 1, 1975

    Senate adopts rules change reducing cloture vote
    November 1, 1975

    Ronald Reagan announces candidacy for presidency
    January 1, 1976

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteJimmy Carter (Democratic) 50.1 297
    Gerald R. Ford (Republican) 48 240
    January 1, 1976

    Legislative Reorganization Act passed
    January 1, 1976

    Rep. Wayne Hays found to have abused authority on committee
    January 1, 1976

    Supreme Court strikes down public financing statute
    July 12, 1976

    Democratic National Convention in Madison Square Garden
    August 16, 1976

    Republican convention in Kemper Arena
    September 23, 1976

    presidential debates in Philadelphia
    October 15, 1976

    vice-presidential and presidential debates
    January 1, 1977

    Senate acknowledges right of the minority to hire one third of the committee staff
    January 1, 1977

    Speaker Albert retires,succeeded by Top O'Neill
    January 1, 1977

    Robert C. Byrd elected as Democrat majority leader
    January 1, 1977

    Congress toughens codes of conduct
    January 1, 1979

    Senate "denounces" Sen. Talmadge for financial misconduct
    January 1, 1979

    Byrd limits "post-cloture" fillibuster
    January 1, 1979

    House votes to allow television coverage by C-SPAN
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1980-1989 - The Reagan Revolution

    Date Event
    January 1, 1980

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteRonald W. Reagan (Republican) 50.7 489
    Jimmy Carter (Democratic) 41 19
    John B. Anderson (Independent) 6.6 0
    July 5, 1980

    Republicans hold their convention in Detroit,MI
    August 11, 1980

    Democrats hold their convention in New York,NY
    January 1, 1981

    Republicans win control of the Senate
    March 10, 1981

    assasination attempt of Ronald Reagan
    January 1, 1982

    Richard Kelley's corruption conviction overturned by court
    January 1, 1982

    Democrats gain strength in Congressional elections
    January 1, 1982

    Senate moves to expel Sen. Wiliams for corrupt bargain
    January 1, 1982

    budget passes that cut $35 billion from social programs and added $18 billion to defense
    January 1, 1983

    Supreme Court reaffirms Roe vs. Wade abortion decision
    March 1, 1983

    Reagan announces his Strategic Defense Initiative
    January 1, 1984

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteRonald W. Reagan (Republican) 58.4 525
    Walter Mondale (Democratic) 41.6 13
    January 1, 1984

    House insists on $24 million limit on covert war in Nicaragua
    January 1, 1984

    Sen. Jesse Helms spends record $15 million on reelection campaign
    July 16, 1984

    Democrats hold their convention in San Francisco,CA
    August 20, 1984

    Republicans hold their convention in Dallas,TX
    January 1, 1985

    Howard Baker retires
    March 1, 1985

    House accepts provision to cut off all aid to contras
    July 13, 1985

    Reagan undergoes intestinal surgery,hands temporary power to Bush
    January 1, 1986

    after extended debate,the Senate's proceedings become televised
    January 1, 1986

    Senate returns to Democratic hands
    October 9, 1986

    Senate removes Federal District Judge Harry Clairborne from office
    November 1, 1986

    Middle Eastern newspaper reveals secret armaments shipped to Iran
    November 25, 1986

    Attorney General Meese announces that NSC had diverted profits to support contras
    January 1, 1987

    Democrats return to power in Congress,Byrd reassumes role
    January 1, 1987

    Senate hearings on Iran-contra scandal begin
    January 7, 1987

    House establishes committee to investigate arms deal and diversion
    January 1, 1988

    Presedential Elections: Popular Vote Electoral VoteGeorge W. Bush (Republican) 53.4 426
    Michael Dukakis (Democratic) 45.6 111
    July 18, 1988

    Republicans hold their convention in New Orleans,LA
    August 15, 1988

    Republicans hold their convention in New Orleans,LA
    January 1, 1989

    Supreme Court upholds public flag burning as expression of free speech
    January 1, 1989

    Oliver North indicted on Iran-contra charges
    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Political Parties

    Throughout the history of the United States, there have been a lot of different political parties that have formed. These political party notes, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, important documents, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American Independent Party

    Timeframe: 1968-2008

    George Wallace announced on February 8, 1968 that he would run for president as the candidate of the American Independent Party; shortly afterward, he found a running mate, General Curtis E. LeMay, former Air Force chief of staff. His appeal was to racist Democrats in the South where many democratic candidates supported him. Outside the South various rightist groups helps, but it was his appeal to the dissatisfied that threatened to make serious inroads to the old party strength.

    He offered an antifederal government, pro-state rights and a law-and-order platform with racism inside the wrapper. He derided intellectuals who he called "pointed heads," beatniks, the Supreme Court, bureaucrats, school busing, "national lbieral parties," pollsters, and the national news media. The party polled 10 million votes, or 13.5% of the total national vote, the highest percentage for a third party since 1924.

    In 1972, with Rep. John Schmitz (R-Calif.) heading the ticket, the party received 1,080,670 votes. The remnants of the Wallace movement split in 1976; Lester Maddox (American Independent) and Thomas Anderson (American) polled 170,000 and 160,000 votes. At the present, the American Independent party still exists in some states, as California, where it is under the coalition of the U. S. Taxpayers Party at the present day.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    American Party

    Timeframe: 1849 - 1924

    The Free soil party, a political party organized in 1848 on a platform opposing the extension of slavery, was rooted in the growing conflict between proslavery and antislavery forces in the United States. The conflict was intensified by the acquisition of new territories from Mexico and the ensuing argument whether or not slavery would be permitted into those territories. The party evolved from antislavery and otherwise discontented elements in the Democratic and Whig parties. It was eclipsed in the early 1850's by the new Republican Party, which incorporated free soil goals.

    American Party is the name of several political in United States history. The first established American party—also called the Know-Nothing party was founded in New York City in 1849 as a secret patriotic organization under the name of the Order of the Star Spangled Banner.

    Know-Nothing Movement, a nativist political movement in the United States in the 1850's. It was organized to oppose the great wave of immigrants who entered the United States after 1846. Know-Nothings claimed that the immigrants—who were principally Irish and Roman Catholic threatened to destroy the American experiment. The Roman Catholic church, they charged, was subservient to a foreign prince (the pope), it was growing in power, and it potentially could exert political control over a large group of people. Such nativist sentiments had long existed among many Americans, but they had never before been expressed in such powerful form.

    In several Northern states as early as the 1840's there were local nativist parties that drew support from the Democratic and Whig parties. By the early 1850's there was a trend to organize nationally against the presumed immigrant threat. The old parties, the nativists said, had not confronted the danger. The Democrats, it was charged, were supported by the aliens; the party needed their votes and catered to their whims. The Whigs appeared helpless before them.

    Originally, nativist party members had worked through a number of secret societies, clandestinely throwing their support on election day with powerful effect to sympathetic candidates. Saying that they knew nothing about such activities, the nativists wreaked havoc with their votes in 1854 in the existing party system. They won sweeping victories at the state and congressional levels. They attracted many Northern Whigs to their point of view along with an important number of Democrats. Southern Whigs also joined because of growing sectional tensions caused by the reintroduction of the slavery issue into national politics in 1854. For a time it seemed as if the Know-Nothings would be the main opposition party in the United States. Publicly backing Millard Fillmore as a presidential candidate in 1856, they won more than 21% of the popular vote and eight electoral votes.

    Their platform was inspired by the fear and resentment of native Protestants at the flood of the Roman Catholic immigrants from Europe, and chiefly Ireland, who, on obtaining naturalization, voted themselves into political office in large cities. Their state and national platforms demanded that immigration be limited, that politics be "purified" by limiting officeholding to native-born Americans, and that a 21-year wait be imposed before an immigrant could become a citizen and vote. They also sought to limit the sale of liquor, to restrict public-school teaching to Protestants, and to have the Protestant version of the Bible read daily in classrooms.

    Despite their strength and appeal, the Know-Nothings were already in decline as a national party by 1856. Beset by differences over the slavery issue, many members joined the Republican Party, which seemed sympathetic to much of their nativism and offered additional appeals on other important issues. Know-Nothing parties remained strong in a number of Northern states in the late 1850's, but the party was spent as a national force before the election of 1860.

    Essentially, the party’s tenets were those of the American Republican Party founded a few years earlier which had subsequently changed its name to the Native American Party. Among other parties so named was one organized in Philadelphia in 1887. At the convention held in Washington, D.C., on August 14, 1888 it nominated presidential candidates. The party platform advocated 14-year residence for naturalization, exclusion of socialists, anarchists and other supposedly dangerous persons, free schools, a strong navy and coastal defense, continued separation of church and state, and enforcement of the Monroe doctrine. Its candidate, James L. Curtis of New York, recieved only 1,591 votes at the November election. In the 1924 elections a similarly named party sought Ku Klux Klan support for its candidates, Gilbert O. Nations for president and C.H. Randall for vice president, nominated at Columbus, Ohio on June 3. This party also gained a negligible fraction of the vote.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Anti-Masonic Party

    Timeframe: 1827 - 1836

    The Anti-Masonic party was founded in 1827-28, chiefly as a result of the mysterious disappearance of Willam Morgan of Batavia, New York, a Freemason, who was planning to publish a book which revealed the secrets of the order. Morgan, an iternant worker, was arrested in 1826 and charged with stealing and indebtedness, apparently as pretext for seizing him. He was convicted and jailed, reportedly kidnapped shortly afterward. This incident touched off an Anti-masonic movement.

    Although secret societies in general were frowned upon by early 19th century Americans, the Freemasons long continued exempt from criticism, perhaps because George Washington and other statesmen and soldiers of the Revolutionary period had been Masons. Indeed, in the first quarter of the 19th century membership is a Masonic lodge was almost a necessity for political preferment. In 1826, general approval of Masonry suffered a sudden, dramatic reversal as the Morgan incidend came to an end.

    It was popularly believed, although never proved, that fellow Masons had murdered Morgan. Masonry in New York received a nearly mortal blow, membership dwindling in the decade 1826-1836 from 20,000 to 3,000.

    Opponents of Freemasonry, including sections of the press, churches, and antislavery elements, joined together in the condemnation of the order. Thurlow Weed, publisher of the Rochester Telegraph and the Anti-Masonic Inquirer, led the press attack on Free-masonry and endorsed anti-Masonic candidates for New York State offices in the election of 1827. When fifteen of these candidates were elected to the state Assembly, an anti-Masonic party formed in 1828 and held its first convention.

    The Anti-Masonic Party, formed in New York in 1828, reflected the widespread hostility toward Masons holding public office. Thurlow Weed in 1828 established in Rochester, N.Y., his Anti-Masonic Enquirer and two years later obtained financial backing for his Albany Evening Journal, which became the chief party organ. There was a rapid proliferation of anti-Masonic papers, especially in the Eastern states. By 1832 there were 46 in New York and 55 in Pennsylvania.

    The Anti-Masonic Party was the first party to hold a nominating convention and the first to announce a platform. On Sept. 26, 1831, convening in Baltimore, it nominated William Wirt of Maryland for the presidency and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania for the vice presidency. The political effect of the entrance, for the first time, of a third party into a United States presidential election was to draw support from Henry Clay and to help President Andrew Jackson (who was a Mason) win reelection by a wide margin. Vermont gave the party seven electoral votes and elected an Anti-Masonic governor, William A. Palmer. The party also gained members in Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Ohio.

    After the elections of 1836, however, the Anti-Masonic party declined. Together with the National Republican Party, it eventually was absorbed into the new Whig Party. It did win a considerable amount of seats in the 23rd congress and survived until 1834 when several prominent leaders founded the Whig Party or switched to the Democratic Party.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitutional Union Party

    Timeframe: 1860 - 1860

    The Free soil party, a political party organized in 1848 on a platform opposing the extension of slavery, was rooted in the growing conflict between proslavery and antislavery forces in the United States. The conflict was intensified by the acquisition of new territories from Mexico and the ensuing argument whether or not slavery would be permitted into those territories. The party evolved from antislavery and otherwise discontented elements in the Democratic and Whig parties. It was eclipsed in the early 1850's by the new Republican Party, which incorporated free soil goals.

    The Constitutional Union Party was a short lived political party formed chiefly of the remnants of the American Party and the old-line southern wing of the Whig Party, organized for the election of 1860. Persuaded that the agitation over the slavery question could lead only to the disruption of the Union, its founders presented no platform other than a vague appeal for adherence to the Constitution, the Union, and the laws of the United States.

    Meeting in Baltimore in May 1860, the party had its founding convention, and nominated John Bell of Tennessee for president and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for vice president. The formation of the party was prompted by the desire to muster popular sentiment in favor of the Union and against southern secession. The platform adopted by the party advocated support for "the Constitution of the country, the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws," but took no stand on the slavery issue.

    At the convention, where it was called "National Union" in the invitations, John Bell was selected over Sam Houston of Texas, who was the favorite of the American contingent, and Edward Everett was selected for the vice presidential nomination, which he did not want

    In the North the Bell movement attracted remnants of the "Americans" and old Whigs. The failure of Fillmore in 1856 and the new-found conservatism of the Republicans caused many former Whigs such as Thomas Ewing of Ohio to support "Lincoln, the Whig" and the Whig policies in the Republican platform.

    In the November election the Constitutional Union party found its greatest strength among conservatives in the border states, where the effects of civil conflict were especially feared, although the ticket was supported throughout the nation. The party carried Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

    Bell trailed the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln, and the two Democratic nominees, Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckinridge, receiving 591,658 popular votes (only 12.6% of the total). He carried the states of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee with 39 electoral votes. Leaders of the party, in the ensuing months, called for reconciliation of the sections through a compromise of the slavery issue, but without success.

    With the coming of the Civil War the Constitutional Union Party disappeared from the political scene, as the party was dissolved.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Democratic Party

    Timeframe: 1834 - 1834

    In the 1830s, under the starkly new leadership of Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, the Democratic party developed the characteristics it retained until the end of the century. It was willing to use national power in foreign affairs when American interests were threatened, but in economic and social policy it stressed the responsibility to act cautiously. Democrats argued that the federal government should do nothing the states could do for themselves, leaving everything in control to the smallest denominator. Jackson, when president, acted to reinforce a coalition, and built the foundations of the party.

    In the presidential elections of 1824, the former war hero Andrew Jackson, despite receiving the largest number of popular votes, had lost the election to the House of Representatives. Rejecting "King Caucus" the Jacksonians were soon joined by Senator Martin Van Buren leader of New York’s political machine. Thus the Jacksonians built an alliance between those on the West and Eastern city organizations.

    Thus the major source of the party’s cohesion was its strong organization, which enabled it to fight in elections effectively and shape government decisions. The Democratic organization, with its local, district, and statewide committees, conventions, and rallies, spread everywhere to promote the party and principles, drawing up lists of voters. Jackson had to stradle Western demands for internal improvements and Northeastern objections to large federal expenditures, Northeastern demands for the protective tariff and Southern demands for tariff reduction, and Calhoun’s view that any state could nullify a national law.

    Calhouns followers, not intent to drop the issue, called a special state nullification convention to proclaim the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within the jurisdiction of South Carolina. However, Jackson responded with a proclamation declaring the federal government sovereign and indivisible, thus denying that a state could refuse to obey the law. He received from Congress a force bill that empowered him to use armed forces. Southern Democrats began to split between pro-Calhoun nullifiers and pro-Jackson unionists. Problems erupted with the slavery issue when it came to the annexation of Texas.

    Van Buren’s administration hedged on Jackson’s unionist view by agreeing in part to a Calhoun sponsored resolution which said that a state had jurisdiction over slavery within its borders. However, slavery still remained an issue. Democrats spillet into two camps, the "barnburners" and the "hunkers." The issue divided local as well as national Democrats; party leaders as Lewis Cass and Stephen A. Douglas supported "squatter sovereignty". However, this did not please Southern Democrats. The result was electoral disaster, as many northern Democrats, seeking to punish their leaders, joined the emerging Republicans. These defections cost the party northern support.

    After the Southern Democrats seceded from the party and the nation, new factional groupings emerged along East-West, war-peace, and mercantile-agrarian lines. National chairman August Belmont of New York led the "War Democrats" in support of Lincoln’s conduct of the war and "sound money programs." Representative Clement L. Vallandigham of Ohio became the spokesman for the "Peace Democrats" who criticized Lincoln’s conduct of the war. The Democrats, in 1864 succeeded to nominating George B. McClellan, a Civil War general, for president and giving him a peace platform to run on. President Lincoln in the mean time recruited Governor Andrew Johnson of Tenesee, a war Democrat, for his vice-presidential nominee.

    The Republicans charged the Democrats for disloyalty, as they opposed the draft, social changes and government encroachment, and made it an effective campaign slogan for the rest of the century. The tactic, known as "waving the bloody shirt" always hurt the Democrats in close elections until powerful emotional memories faded. They did not regain control of either house of Congress until 1874, and the Presidency until 1884. As the minority party, Democrats became absorbed in the problems of postwar inflation and agricultural depression. Factional interests debated "hard" versus "soft" currency and credit policies. After a stalemate, Horatio Symour agreed to a "soft money" platform while he was a "hard money" leader. From this election emerged Samuel J. Tilden.

    Without a leader, the Democrats turned to endorse the 1872 Liberal Republican nominee, who had defected from Grant’s administration. The nominee turned out to be Horace Greeley. Within two years, Tilden became the governor, and in the next election ran as the Democratic nominee. Though he lost, Tilden was an instrumental factor in the winning candidacy of Grover Cleveland.

    Cleveland returned the Democrats to control of the White House after twenty-four years of Republican rules. He oversized federal patronage to distribute. Around this time, party fationalism got out of hand, as three groups fought for control in an increasingly harsh atmosphere. One bloc comprised the traditional Democrats behind New York’s Grover Cleveland; they still espoused the conventional policies of limited government activities. A second group consisted of the urban political machines, which won the support of immigrants by helping them adjust to conditions in the country. The third faction was made up of the groups in the South and the West reacting against the industrial economy. Currency and tariff policies became the major issues of the Cleveland era, complicated by a rising output of silver mines, and the need to establish a balance between silver and gold currencies.

    Cleveland struck hard for tariff reduction, but was opposed by Democratic protectionists. Angry farmers wanted a shift of government intervention towards there behalf, but were strongly resisted by traditionalists. They provoked a revolt and found William Jennings Bryan a presidential candidate who overthrew Cleveland. William Jennings Bryan led the free silver cause and was supported as well by the Peoples’ Party. The silverites dominated the national convention, and the gold delegates refrained from voting. Bryan endeavored to forge an alliance out of agrarian discontent in the South and Midwest.

    At the beginning of the 20th century the Democrats’ minority among voters remained central to their interest. However, a Progressive split in the Republican party helped elect Woodrow Wilson twice. Wilson conceived his party leadership as a parliamentary role, shaping his approach to his legislative program, which he promoted vigorously and successfully, and his patronage and other organizational needs of his party. The Great War, popular at first, backfired against the Wilson administration when large numbers of German-Americans and Irish-Americans protested with their votes against involvement on the English side. The national convention in 1924 was stalemated between the urban-ethnic wing and the older Bryanite-southern groups.

    Problems generated in the 18th Amendment set the "wets" against "drys." The South closed ranks to deatlock the national convention of 1920. By 1924, "dry" Wilson, and "wet" Al Smith were the leaders of two factions in the party. In 1928, the nomination of Irish Catholic Al Smith broke the solid South, part of which went Republican for the first time ever in reaction to the social and cultural values represented by Smith. Nevertheless, the first Catholic to be nominated, he raised the Democratic turnout by a substantial percentage, particularly in large cities.

    In the mid-20th century, the basic character of the Democratic appeal began to change in a gradual and then rapid manner. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Democrats became a party of vigorous government intervention in the economy and on social issues, willing to regulate and redistribute wealth to protect those least able to help themselves. Urban political machines brought to the party a commitment to social welfare legislation to help immigrant constituents.

    The election came at a time of a grave national economic crisis; a disenfranchised public looked to the Republicans as abandoning their interests while the Hoover presidency spent money on private interests. Franklin D. Roosevelt brought the Democratic message to the White House and solidified and expanded the new Democratic commitment to the poor ethnic constituencies in city districts. Increasingly, under Democratic leadership, the government expanded its role in social welfare and economic regulation. Traditional Democrats surged at the polls and the party won over new groups, such as the blacks who had previously gone Republican. The Result was a New Deal coalition which lasted in a dominant role for more than 30 years.

    World War II witnessed a new factionalism, as the South prepared to reassert itself. Labor unions now had potent vote getting capacity and urban Democratic machines were attempting to modernize themselves. Roosevelt acquiesced to Southern pressures by withholding support for Vice President Wallace, and instead giving the nomination to Harry S. Truman, who had gained credibility and prominence through investigations of defense spending.

    Truman had become president within a year, upon Roosevelt’s death. The reawakening of memories of the New Deal and the depression President Truman’s campaign helped bring him back for a second term. The Republican Congress, seeking to limit union activity, passed the Taft-Hartley Act over Truman’s veto, gaining Truman support of union members. Truman also appointed the Committee on Civil Rights to develop race-relations, but it so inflamed the South that Democratic regulars in Southern states supported a Dixiecrat ticked led by Wallace.

    At the next national convention, ideological New Dealers fought to establish a loyalty pledge that would bind delegates to the convention’s choices. Despite efforts to avoid a candidacy, Governor Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois was the compromise choice over the sectional candidacy of Richard B. Russel of Georgia and Sen. Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. The Republicans were victorious with their election of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Stevenson however made efforts to improve party organization and serve as an active spokesman. At the grassroots level, urban machines were working to incorporate new constituents into the party.

    The Democrats regained power with the election of John F. Kennedy in 1960 and were able to pass much vigorous legislation. Kennedy’s victory demonstrated that Catholicism need not be the handicap that it was for Al Smith. The Kennedy-Johnson campaign conducted a thoroughly united campaign that brought a narrow victory.

    The 1960 election also brought a further breakup of the one-party solid South, as Kennedy’s New Frontier program included new protections for civil rights in the South and for bringing blacks into the ranks of the Democratic party. Robert F. Kennedy had a major responsibility for the implementation of civil rights legislation and registration. Overseas, the Castro regime of Cuba defeated an American-sponsored invasion by anti-Castro exiles at the Bay of Pigs. Kennedy also increased Communist pressure on South Vietnam by sending military aid.

    The Vietnam War provoked many to challenge it on its anti-Communist foreign policy. At the same time, the revolt of the youth against the draft and on matters of personal behavior and discipline contributed a strong challenge; at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968, the police culminated in street battles with groups of protesters.

    Many anti-war Democrats turned to the candidacy of Eugene McCarthy and Robert Kennedy, as Lyndon Johnson announced that he would not seek renomination. New nominating rules, inspired by the restlessness in the party, led to the nomination of George McGovern. His campaign ended in overwhelming defeat, but the party bounced back after the excesses of Watergate and the tapering off of the war induced fervor.

    Former governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia swept the primaries and succeeded in unseating President Gerald Ford in a close contest in which labor, blacks, and the South joined to bring a Southerner to the presidency. The clash of social values, and changing economic issues shifted the center of gravity within the party and continued to drive many away. Issues such as inflation gravely hurt the party. Political parties at this time were in general decline, as fewer voters remained loyal to them.

    The Democrats, with a ticket of the former vice president Walter Mondale were defeated in the 1984 elections by a greater margin than in 1980, where Carter ran for reelection. The Democrats lost more than a dozen seats in the House, and the Republicans maintained control of the Senate. In the midterm elections of 1986, the Democrats won control of the Senate and gained modestly in the House.

    Although in 1988, the Democratic nominee for president, Governor Dukakis of Massachusetts had chosen Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas as his running mate, the South and West carried the Republicans to victory. However, the Democrats strengthened their hold in the House and Senate.

    In 1992, after twelve years of Presidential rule by the Republican parties, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas was able to regain the Presidency for the party after winning over President George Bush, blamed for an economic downturn, and Ross Perot. With the country in a recession, the Democrats succeeded in rallying the public around a call for change and a commitment to domestic jobs programs. Bill Clinton was able to pull off a reelection in 1996, though his presidency was plagued with scandals and campaign finance problems. Apathetic voters failed to pay attention to campaign, and missing the major issues, they handed the President reelection. However, the 1994 midterm elections brought a stunning defeat to the Democrats as the Republicans gained control over both hoses of Congress. Democratic support in the South had eroded, but it showed dissatisfaction with Democratic rule nationwide.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Democratic-Republican Party

    Timeframe: 1794 - 1826

    During the 1780s, sharp conflicts marked American politics. Since the establishment of the Constitution in 1789, the unanimous election of George Washington, and recommendation for a Bill of Rights, there was a shaper national consensus and conflicts soon developed over the new policies to be developed in the government. In 1790 through 1791, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury proposed a sweeping fiscal program which included funding and "assumption" by the Federal government of the Revolutionary War debts of the old Confederation and of the states, incorporation of a central national bank, tariffs to promote manufactures, and internal excise taxes. The purpose was to establish the new government, allying itself with powerful mercantile and financial interests.

    Adherents to these policies became known as federalists. An opposition to Federalist policies began to emerge by 1791 and became the Republican Party. It found a power base among small farmers, producers, and traders, many Southern plantation owners and some urban artisans. Weak in New England, the party showed some strength in the Middle Atlantic States and in the South. The chief leaders, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, were supported by the poet-journalist Philip Freneau in his National Gazette. It was a propaganda instrument which served as an important organizing agency. Other leaders included Albert Gallatin and James Monroe. Though the Jeffersonian party sought mass support it developed as a "cadre" party.

    Initial policy orientations reflected the perspectives of the party’s followers, including opposition to Hamilton’s economic proposals, demands for the government responsible to popular majorities, demands for the federal government to operate with a narrow construction of the Constitution, and the denial of the national bank, emphasis on states rights as opposed to centralized government, and emphasis on personal and political liberties, shown in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions which condemned the Alien and Sedition Acts.

    The party held the support of the agrarian freeholding rural America with industry and merchandising as partners. However, there was no consensus on republican constitutional government and property rights. In foreign policy, they favored France over Britain and sharply criticized Jay’s Treaty.

    When Aaron Burr and Jefferson led in electoral votes, the Democratic-Republicans came into power, leading what is called the Revolution of 1800. The electoral system made no provision for separate votes for president and vice president and a contest in the House resulted in Jefferson’s eventual succession to presidency. The Democratic-Republicans won a clear Senate majority and a two-to-one majority in the House.

    The increasing acceptance of the principles of the party over Federalist principles brought into tradition the notion of a democratic republic where the elimination of property and taxpaying limits of voting led to universal suffrage. The Jefferson coalition was soon enlarged leading to easy victories for the Virginian presidents Jefferson, Madison and Monroe. The party always had a congressional majority, sometimes overwhelming, and there were more Democratic-republican judges. In 1820, Monroe came within one vote of unanimous election in the electoral college, and thus the nation entered into what was called "The Era of Good Feelings."

    Important leaders during this period were Albert Gallatin, John Quincy Adams, and John Taylor, who distributed treatises for the party. The party was also growing with prominent figures like Henry Clay. The policies of the party began in a Jeffersonian direction, but in the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson was forced to diverge from strict constitutional construction, and was faced by John Marshall in the Supreme Court.

    The Democratic-Republican party, during the Era of Good Feelings, became a mere label, as partisanship died down. When it reemerged, Andrew Jackson led the Democratic party which split off, leaving the rest in the National Republican Party.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Federalist Party

    Timeframe: 1794 - 1823

    The Federalist Party was born out of the controversy over adoption of the proposed Federal Constitution in 1787-1788, before the American party system itself had been conceived. A well-defined Federalist party did not exist before 1794. After Washington's inauguration in 1789, debate arose in Congress and the cabinet over the proposals of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, subsequently enacted into law, that the national government assume state debts, fund the national debt at par value, and charter a national bank. The opposition to Hamilton rallied around Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Congressman James Madison.

    Hamilton pushed through schemes for paying the foreign debt, restoring national credit, and assuming state debts. A United States bank and postal system soon followed, as well as a protective tariff and bounty system to develop manufactures and agriculture. The effortless crushing of the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 gave ample evidence of the new national strength.

    In the meantime, the refusal of the Federalists to form an alliance with France had fused the Democrats and the Republicans, the two opposition groups to which most of the Anti-federalists belonged. Thomas Jefferson organized and James Madison joined the new Democratic-Republican Party. Not until these congressional debates over Jay's Treaty of 1794 did two parties emerge clearly: the Federalist party led by Hamilton and the Democratic-Republican party of Madison and Jefferson From then on, the Federalists championed commercial and diplomatic harmony with Britain, domestic stability and order, and strong national government under powerful executive and judicial branches.

    The most influential of the Federalists besides Hamilton were John Adams and John Jay, and Fisher Ames, Roger Sherman, Jonathan Trumbull, Rufus King, John Marshall, and the members of the "Essex Junto".

    By the end of his second term Washington had become closely identified with the Federalists. Washington's Farewell Address of 1796, prepared in association with Hamilton, may be read as a basic text of Federalism. Washington's vice president, John Adams, was elected president as a Federalist in 1796. Adams retained Washington's cabinet officers and sought to continue his predecessor's policies. He prosecuted an undeclared naval war with France, and after the Federalists had gained control of Congress, he supported the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798. But Adams met increasing opposition within his own party from the Hamilton faction, especially over his military priorities.

    When, as much to undercut mounting Democratic-Republican opposition as to end the war, Adams opened negotiations with France in 1799 and reorganized the cabinet under his own control, the Hamiltonians broke with him. His actions probably enhanced the Federalist party's position in the presidential election of 1800 but not enough to defeat Jefferson.

    The party was irreparably split. In the waning days of his presidency Adams was able to conclude a peace with France and to appoint moderate Federalist John Marshall as chief justice. Long after the party was dead, Marshall preserved its principles from the bench.

    Finding themselves in the opposition, the Federalists at last created a well-disciplined system of state party organizations and adopted the trappings of democracy in order to lure the voters. Concentrated primarily in the Northeast, they also assumed more of the aspect of a sectional minority. Neglecting ideological consistency and turning against their previous commitment to strong national power, they opposed Jefferson's popular Louisiana Purchase of 1803 as too costly and destructive of Northern influence. As a result, they continued to lose power at the national level, carrying only Connecticut, Delaware, and part of Maryland against Jefferson in 1804.

    Strong opposition of Jefferson’s Embargo Act, however, reinforced the Federalists. In 1808 they carried every New England state except Vermont, and also won in Delaware, in parts of Maryland, and in North Carolina. Moreover, the War of 1812 proved so unpopular in the North that in the elections that year, New York and New Jersey also voted Federalist, along with the remainder of Maryland. This resurgence was only temporary, however, for when the war ended, the northern commercial sections withdrew their support.

    Meanwhile, many of the party’s old leaders were gone, leaving Rufus King and Charles C. Pinckney leading the party. Other Federalist leaders, as a result of the Hartford Convention of 1814 had been driven from public life.

    In 1816, the Federalists carried only Massachusetts, Connecticut and Delaware, and by 1820 when they failed to have a national candidate, they ceased as a national party. Locally, Federalists managed to retain control in Connecticut and Delaware until after 1820 and in Massachusetts until 1823. The party also lingered for some time in Maryland and North Carolina.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Free-Soil Party

    Timeframe: 1848 - 1854

    The Free soil party, a political party organized in 1848 on a platform opposing the extension of slavery, was rooted in the growing conflict between proslavery and antislavery forces in the United States. The conflict was intensified by the acquisition of new territories from Mexico and the ensuing argument whether or not slavery would be permitted into those territories. The party evolved from antislavery and otherwise discontented elements in the Democratic and Whig parties. It was eclipsed in the early 1850's by the new Republican Party, which incorporated free soil goals.

    Free soil became a political movement and slogan in the 1840's. Abolitionists in the North had already stirred antislavery sentiment, and government plans for annexing Texas created fears that this territory might enter the Union cut up into as many as six slave states. These fears were reflected in the Wilmot Proviso of 1846. The achievement of the small abolitionist Liberty party in defeating Henry Clay's presidential aspirations in 1844 demonstrated that political abolitionism could be effective.

    The refusal of the two parties, Whig and Democrat, to endorse principles of the provio convinced the opposition groups of the need for a new party. The major groups involved in the organization of the Free Soil party at a convention in Buffalo, New York, were the abolitionist Liberty Party, the antislavery Whigs, and a radical faction of the New York Democrats, the Barnburners, who had broken with the state party when it came under control of the conservative Hunkers.

    Led by Salmon P. Chase and John P. Hale, free-soilers, abolitionists, and others convened in Buffalo, N.Y., in August 1848 to set up a broadly based party. Among those present were discontented New York Democrats known as Barnburners," headed by former President Martin van Buren, who became the convention's presidential nominee.

    The Free soil convention nominated Martin van Buren and Charles Francis Adams as candidates for president and vice-president, respectively, adopting a platform opposed to the extension of slavery and calling for a homestead law and a tariff for revenue only. The slogan of the party ws "free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men." Van Buren polled 291,616 votes in November; more important, the Free Soil party elected fourteen congressmen and two senators. The Compromise of 1850 created more ardent free-soilers, who were outraged by its fugitive slave provision and were generally fearful of the expansion of slavery westward. Such increasing partisanship, however, did not help the Free Soil party itself. Hale, its presidential candidate in 1852, polled only 156,297 votes.

    By 1854 the crisis over slavery in the territories had reached proportions beyond the resources of the party, and free-soilers flocked to the Republican party. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the duel over whether Kansas was to be a free or a slave state turned the North irrevocably toward free soil. Finally, the Dred Scott Case of 1857, in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled, in effect, that slavery could not be constitutionally restricted to the Southern states, made abolitionists out of most free-soilers and laid the ground for a final confrontation with the slaveholders. Louis Filler Antioch College

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Greenback-Labor Party

    Timeframe: 1878 - 1884

    The greenback idea came up again in March, 1875, when a national convention met at Cleveland to organize a new party. This was soon followed by a nominating convention at Indianapolis in May, 1876, which named Peter Cooper President. Its platform included the repeal of the Resumption Act of 1875 and issuance of legal tender notes convertible into government bonds with an interest rate not to exceed one cent a day per hundred dollars. Peter Cooper was a well known philanthropist and did not lead much of a campaign.

    In the next two years, the party grew rapidly and Labor Reformers had greatly aided the cause and a conference at Toledo in February, 1878, arranged a farmer-labor partnership under the name "National" party, but it became better known as the Greenback Labor Party. In fall elections the third party won a million votes and fifteen members of Congress. The Greenbacks sought labor support which called for an issuance of the greenback and a bimetallistic money policy. The labor groups desired Greenback support for a reduction of working hours, establishment of a labor bureau and a curtailment of Chinese immigration.

    In the following year, economic conditions in the nation improved and interest in politics among farmers and workers decreased. At the national convention in Chicago on June 9, 1889 agrarian and labor delegates, including members of a Socialist Labor party composed their differences and adopted a platform.

    The convention named for President General James B. Weaver of Iowa, who was a Civil War veteran and a former Republican, elected to Congress in the Greenback wave of 1878. B.J. Chambers of Texas was named for Vice President. Weaver made an active campaign, speaking in all parts of the country and giving a leadership that it needed to dispel the impression it was a refuge for radicals. The return of prosperity and the success of the Resumption Act however removed agrarian and labor discontent. In the election they received only 308,578 votes, but eight Greenback Labor candidates were elected to Congress. In the ensuing years the party continued to decline. Its last national campaign was for the 1884 elections where it ran Civil War general Benjamin Butler, winning 175,370 votes.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Libertarian Party

    Timeframe: 1971 - 1971

    The Libertarian Party was founded in 1971, on December 11th, in the home of David Nolan. Dissillusioned Republicans, Democrats, and political newcomers hoped to create an alternative to the old parties, standing on firm principles of individual freedoms and a commitment to government non-intervention. The first national convention was later held in Denver, Colorado. John Hospers, a philosophy professor at the University of Southern California, was nominated as the presidential candidate, and the vice presidential candidate was Tonie Nathan. She became the first woman in United States history to recieve an electoral vote.

    The next national convention, in New York city, nominated Roger MacBride and David Bergland on the presidential ticket; they were able to recieve ballot status in 32 states but still only recieved a little amount of popular vote--common for third parties facing the system set up in laws by the two established political parties. Two years later, Ed Clark, a Libertarian candidate for Governor of California, recieved 5% of the vote, and Randolph of Alaska became the first Libertarian legislator.

    By 1980, the Libertarian party had recieved ballot status in all 50 states, and the party made their most impressive showing, and were at this time first considered as a political force, albeit one through ideology rather than political presence. The campaign by Ed Clark ran extensive television advertisements, offering the public a look at what the libertarian party had to offer. The next election, the Libertarian party made significant headway; the Louisiana congressional candidate James Agnew recieved 23% of the vote, and the Alaskan gubernatorial candidate Randolph recieved 13% of the vote. The Libertarian party continued to grow in a slow, painful process. Former Congressman Ron Paul of the Republican Party left to join the Libertarian party.

    A decade later, in 1990, Libertarian congressional candidates were able to recieve up to about twenty percent of the vote, but would still not be able to win. Yet, the Libertarian party was proud that the Libertarian candidates for Senate recieved over one million votes, the highest total for a nationally organized party since 1914. However, this was greatly dwarfed in 1996, when in every race, candidates of the newly formed Reform Party came in third place, ahead of every Libertarian candidate in the race.

    In 1996, the Libertarian party ran Harry Browne as their presidential candidate, with running mate Jo Jorgeson. This year, the Libertarian party recieved the most press coverage, as did all third political parties, who gained significantly higher visibility since the founding of the Reform Party by Ross Perot. The Libertarian candidate, along with other third party candidates were allowed to speak on Larry King Live and in third party debates, being shut out from the televised presidential debates. Yet, this increased visibility was not enough, and the Libertarians still recieved less than one percent of the presidential vote nationwide. Libertarians at this time were dissilusioned by the fact that they were overshadowed by the new Reform Party, and many people with Libertarianistic positions joined the Reform Party instead of them, who were increasingly called by the media, a "fringe group."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Liberty Party

    Timeframe: 1840 - 1848

    The Liberty Party was the first antislavery party, grown out of a split in the ranks of the American Anti-Slavery Society between followers of William Lloyd Garrison’s radical program and a conservative group which held that abolitionist aims could be best obtained by orthodox political means.

    The leading initiators of the anti-Garrison movement and the new party were the New York philanthropists Gerrit Smith, Arthur Tappan, and Judge William Jay, and the Ohio antislavery stalwart, Salmon P. Chase. At a state convention in Warsaw, New York on November 13, 1839, James G. Birney, an abolitionist crusader and one-time Alabama slave-holder, was tentatively nominated the Liberty Party’s candidacy for president, with Francis J. Lemoyne for vice president.

    At a national convention in Albany, New York, on April 1, 1840, delegates from six states confirmed the nominations, officially adopted the party name, and declared abolition of slavery to be the single plank in its platform.

    In the ensuing 1840 national elections, the Liberty party candidates polled only around seven thousand votes, but thereafter the party nominated candidates for local elections and gained strength. Since 1840 the Liberty party had gained recruits and newspaper support and was becoming a threat to the two major parties in close northern states, where it aimed to swing the balance of power. Birney was nominated again in November 1844 and ran with Thomas Morris, this time polling 62,300 votes, which could have secured the election of Henry Clay, but tipped it in favor of James K. Polk. When Texas became a major issue, the Liberty party was in a difficult position; a heavy third party vote might reduce the Whig vote and elect Polk over Clay, committed against Texas. Birney had accepted a Democratic nomination for the Michigan legislature, making it seem as if there was a Liberty-Democratic bargain to defeat Clay. Birney attempted to explain it in terms of local issues, but that hurt his candidacy. The party was also hurt by a forged letter, appearing in Whig newspapers, where Birney promised not to agitate the slavery issue.

    In 1848, although the Liberty party had nominated John P. Hale and Leicester King, the party leaders urged the members to vote for candidates of the newly organized Free Soil party instead. Chase presided over Buffalo, New York for the convention of the Free Soil Party on August 9, 1848, which led to the demise of the short lived Liberty party. As such, Hale withdrew his candidacy.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    National Republican Party

    Timeframe: 1828 - 1836

    While Jackson was establishing control over the Democratic Party, the opposition, assuming the name National Republican began to form. In the campaign of 1828, these opposing groups had no official names. Both were Democratic-Republicans and were distinguished by such designations as "administration" and "opposition" or Adams men and Jackson men. About 1830 the term "National Republican" began to be used by the Clay following thus combining the old party name with the adjective which suggested its policies.

    The new National Republican group was having its troubles; the Adams-Clay group had never been effectively organized into a party, and after the defeat in 1828 it lapsed into the status of a discredited minority with little strength outside of New England, and only portions of the mid Atlantic states and the Ohio valley could be regarded as fighting ground. National leadership was supplied by the Senate, where Clay joined Webster in 1831. The National Intelligencer was at the center of the opposition, edited by Joseph Gales and William W. Seaton. Soon after Henry Clay had seized upon the Maysville veto, his presidential campaign was underway.

    Public meeting halls were filled with his speeches where he reiterated his devotion to the "American System" and criticized the administration and was ready to go before the country with the same policies Adams had favored and the same economic appeal.

    The National Republicans took issue with the leading policies and acts of Jackson, as they remained committed to the protective tariff, federal support for internal improvements, the recognition of the Supreme Court on Constitutional questions and the importance of the balance of power given by the Senate. They vigorously attacked Jackson for his spoils system and for his handling of relations with Great Britain with regard to the Maine boundary and West India trade. But the campaign did not turn on these points as other movements such as the Antimasons sprung up. Wirt, the Antimason nominee, probably would have withdrawn had the National Republicans and Antimasons been able to unite later on one man.

    The leaders of the National Republican party, such as Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, would later united in the next elections of 1836 to form an opposition Whig party to attack Jackson’s presidency.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    People's Party

    Timeframe: 1891 - 1908

    A product of the Populist movement, which had ignited the Agrarian west for decades previously, the People’s Party was the successor of the Greenback-Labor party which was formed in the 1880s. One of its chief organizers was the journalist Ignatius Donnelly who was the leader of the Farmer’s Alliance. Aggrieved farmers furnished the driving force and most of the votes; labor’s role was significant but only secondary.

    A small group in the Southern Alliance called a convention, which met at Cincinnati on May 19, 1891, with fourteen hundred delegates present including labor representatives. Few Southerners came, for sentiment that the South was against a third party because of successes with the Democratic party. The convention formed the People’s party, but called a conference at St. Louis to secure the cooperation of farmer, labor, and other liberal groups. The conference in St. Louis adopted a platform, the nominating convention set for Omaha in July.

    The platform that was adopted called for the free coinage of silver and the issuance of large amounts of paper currency as inflationary measures that it hoped would ease the financial burdens of the nation’s debt-ridden farmers. Its other demands included abolishing the national banking system, nationalizing the railroads, instituting a graduated income tax, electing senators by popular vote, and people participating in the government by means of a referendum. Two thirds of the platform was a bitter indictment of the American economic system and a condemnation of the two parties. Supplementary resolutions, not regarded as part of the platform, declared for the Australian ballot, further restriction of undesirable immigration and contract labor, rigid enforcement of the eight-hour law, abolition of the Pinkerton detective system, adoption of initiative, referendum, and recall, limitation of the Presidency to one term, and an end to subsidies.

    In 1892, the party nominated James Baird Weaver for the presidency, over a choice of Colonel Polk, Walter Gresham, and Senator James Kyle. The spirit of the convention carried into the West, but not so much in the South, as Southern Alliance men refused to leave the Democratic party. With the Democrats taking a lot of their issues, Weaver lost but received more than a million votes and 22 electoral ones, and several Populist candidates made it to Congress. In the West, a coalition with the Democrats on electoral tickets resulted in a victory of five and a number of state and Congressional successes.

    However, the next election gave the Populists a hard choice, as the Democrats under William Jennings Bryan stole much of their thunder. They managed to win control of the Democratic convention in St. Louis and secured Bryan’s nomination, who they supported and endorsed for the presidency, becoming "Popocrats." After Bryan was defeated, the People’s party split over the issue of continued alliance with the Democrats. In 1900 the Democrats renominated Bryan and the anti-Democrats nominated Wharton Barker. They reunited in 1904, but then its influence was declining and ceased to exist by 1908.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Progressive Party

    Timeframe: 1912 - 1952

    The Progressive Party was the name used to designate several political organizations in the United States, associating with the presidential campaigns of Theodore Roosevelt, Robert La Follette, and Henry Wallace.

    The Progressive Party, first known colloquially as the Bull Moose party, was founded after a bitter fight for the Republican presidential nomination between William H. Taft, Robert La Follette and Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt, a dynamic leader of the Progressive Movement, soon grew impatient with Taft’s relatively cautious approaches to reform. Taft’s dismissal of Gifford Pinchot as chief forester angered Roosevelt, who was an ardent conservationist. At the Republican convention in June 1912, most La Follette supporters switched to Roosevelt, but the nomination went to Taft because Taft controlled the party machinery.

    Roosevelt, incensed at Taft’s conservative bent, formed the Progressive party, saying he was as fit as a bull moose. His platform called for tariff reform, stricter regulation of industrial combinations, women’s suffrage, prohibition of child labor, and other reforms. Many liberal Republicans went to the new party which nominated Roosevelt for president and Hiram W. Johnson for vice president. Although the Progressives greatly outpolled Republicans in the election the net result was a victory for the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson. Progressive candidates for state and local offices did poorly, and the party dissapeared in 1916 when Roosevelt returned to the Republican Party.

    In 1924, a liberal coalition, frustrated by conservative domination of both parties, formed the League of Progressive Political Action, popularly called the Progressive party. Robert La Follette, nominally a Republican, decided to run for president on his own. Fearing that a formal party organization would be infiltrated by Communists, he ran as an independent, but later accepted the nomination of the Progressive party. Senator Burton K. Wheeler was nominated for vice-president. The party advocated government ownership of public utilities and labor reforms such as collective bargaining. It also supported farm-relief measures, lower taxes for persons with moderate incomes, and other such laws. His candidacy was thus supported by the Socialist Party.

    LaFollette received 17% of the popular vote but only carried Wisconsin. In 1934, LaFollette’s sons organized a Progressive Party in Wisconsin, after being defeated for nomination as a Republican. Under the Progressive ticket, the LaFollettes scored many victories, but disappeared in 1946.

    A third Progressive party was formed in 1948 by dissident Democrats, most of whom had been prominent in developing the New Deal program. With former vice-president Henry Wallace and Tugwell among their leaders, Wallace was nominated for the party’s presidential nominee. Charging that both major parties advocated policies that would lead to economic crisis and a war with the Soviet Union, they favored high-level international conferences. They advocated rights for all minority and political groups, curbs on the power of monopolies, and anti-inflation measures such as price and rent controls, and the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Law.

    He expected support from blacks, intellectuals and other groups that admired his militant liberalism. However, the support of the Communist Party damaged the Progressives, as the Democrats and Republicans attacked them as Communist-dominated. The progressives maintained their right to accept support from any group backing their program. Wallace only received 2.4% of the vote. In 1950 the party was further weakened when it denounced U.S. entry into the Korean War, and Wallace left the party. They disappeared after the 1952 election.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Reform Party

    Timeframe: 1995 - 1995

    The previous election year, in 1992, Ross Perot ran on an independent ticket, where he discovered overwhelming pockets of potential support from those disenchanted by the two established political parties. On September 25, 1995 Ross Perot announced on Larry King Live that he was determined to help form a new political party, in order to give those who supported him in 1992 a voice in future elections. Polls showed that nearly two out of every three voters wanted a new political party, including half of all Republicans and Democrats.

    Soon thousands of concerned Americans began petitioning their state governments. Depending on state laws, the goal was to either form a new political party in each state or to place candidates on the November 5th ballot. The response from the public was unexpectedly in favor of starting the Reform Party. For example, in California, which had the earliest deadline in the nation, the requirement to put the Reform Party on the ballot was to get 89,007 voters to switch their party affiliation and join the Reform Party. It was not believed that the Reform Party could accomplish this goal, as it had never been done before. In only twenty days, more than 124,000 California voters joined the Reform Party. In North Carolina, more than 166,000 voters signed petitions. This was 100,000 signatures more than the 51,904 signatures the state required. In Texas, where 61,540 signatures were required, more than 161,000 voters signed on. In Florida, more than 110,000 voters signed Reform Party petitions even though only 65,596 signatures were required.

    However, in trying to get ballot status in many states, the Reform Party had found need to challenge state laws to ensure the process is open and fair to all Reform Party candidates. For example, in Arkansas the Reform Party won an historic legal battle, becoming the first new party to be recognized by the state in more than twenty years. After the Arkansas Supreme Court denied the Reform Party ballot access for the election of officials at all levels of government, U.S. Federal District Court Judge George Howard ruled from the bench that Arkansas’ conflicting state laws were unconstitutional. Judge Howard granted the Arkansas Reform Party full ballot access and ordered the state to pay all costs for blocking the voters’ right of freedom of association.

    Following the 1992 elections, candidates from both established political parties looked for ways to attract the "Perot voters"—now the "Reform Party voters." In the coming elections, there was much speculation about whom would make a try for the Reform Party presidential ticket in 1996. Richard Lamm, a former governor of Colorado, and party of a group of independents dubbed by the media as the "secret seven" who intended to try to make runs for independent candidacies, was first to declare his intent of running with his running mate, Ed Zschau. Richard Lamm had first shown interest in the party when he made a keynote speech at the party’s California convention earlier.

    Ross Perot soon after entered the race as well, while Richard Lamm appealed to Reform Party voters to "pass the torch." Ross Perot easily won in a landslide, but Richard Lamm continued to press claims of unfair treatment in the primary process. Ross Perot chose Pat Choate, a prominent economist and protectionist, as his running mate. This time around, many more liberal voters stayed away from the Reform Party, calling its anti-NAFTA stance "right-wing." In all, Ross Perot lost support, as voters figured that he would not win the election. During this time, Pat Buchanan, a prominent Republican candidate, called Ross Perot and the Reform Party a "mortal threat the Republican Party."

    During the election and in the aftermath, leaders of the Reform Party fought against an internal splinter group, called the "Shaumberg Group," after the city where they had a convention, who tried to wrest control of the party away by petitioning the FEC. However, the FEC decided that the Shaumberg group was only a small minority in the Reform Party, and refused. The Shaumberg group did succeed in alienating more voters from the Reform Party, who did not know what to make of the internal brawls in the party.

    Reform Party grassroots efforts continued to mount in the fifty states in which the party established itself. However, attempts to reach voters by the media were quickly blocked by others. When Ross Perot, in 1997, attempted to buy air time for an infocommercial regarding campaign finance reform, the networks rejected him. During the previous campaign, Ross Perot was also shut out from the presidential debates, unlike the election before that when he did not have a party ticket.

    The same year, many prominent members of the established political parties, fed up with the corruption and irresponsibility already imbued in the political system, stated potential support for the Reform Party. Representative James Traficant, a Democrat, stated on Washington Journal on the C-SPAN network that Ross Perot was right all along, and that since the two parties were alike, a third political party was needed. Traficant later released a press release that he would be the keynote speaker at the Reform Party of California convention. Others, such as former congressman David Boren, who had refused the offer of being Ross Perot’s running mate during the election to preserve his position at the university at which he worked, showed interest in the Reform Party.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Republican Party

    Timeframe: 1884 - 1884

    The Republican Party had been created, seizing the opening given to them by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which invalidated the Missouri Compromise by splitting the Missouri territory into free-soil and slave states. Many northern Whigs, who had no power or national party began to cooperate with the "Anti-Nebraska" Democrats to form the Free-Soil Party. They began to organize a new party in 1854, building on the name Republican, reviving the old term employed by the Jeffersionians. They emphasized absolute opposition to the expansion of slavery into any new territory. In the coming elections, they cooperated with the northern Know-Nothings, most of whom were former Whigs, as the anti-Catholic nativism would add to an appealing platform of the new party.

    Together, the Republicans and Know-Nothings won a majority of seats in the House of Representatives in 1854, and became a threat to the ideas put out by the Democrats. In 1856, they nominated John C. Freemont for the Presidency, with the slogan "Free soil, free labor, free speech, free men, Frémont." He won about a third of the popular vote, and the Republican party began to grow, although alienating potential supporters by his failure to oppose immigration.

    As tensions mounted over the slavery issue, more anti-slavery Republicans began to run for office and be elected, even with the risks involved with taking this stance. Republican Sen. Charles Sumner of Massachusetts experienced this danger firsthand. In May 1856, he delivered a passionate anti-slavery speech in which he made critical remarks about several pro-slavery senators, including Andrew F. Butler of South Carolina. Sumner infuriated Rep. Preston S. Brooks, the son of one of Butler's cousins, who felt his family honor had been insulted. Two days later, Brooks walked into the Senate and beat Sumner unconscious with a cane. This incident electrified the nation and helped to galvanize Northern opinion against the South; Southern opinion hailed Brooks as a hero. But Sumner stood by his principles, and after a three-year, painful convalescence, he returned to the Senate to continue his struggle against slavery.

    In 1860, their candidate, Lincoln, was elected to the presidency; the southern states reacting by seceding from the Union, and the country was plunged into a civil war. The Civil War and the Reconstruction period following the war gave the Republican Party a solid core of strength and permanence. Because of connections of the Democrats to the south, fully exploited and created by the Republican Party’s propaganda, Republicans controlled most elective offices in the northern states during the war, and for a generation afterward the used this patriotic fervor to denounce Democrats as traitors. This was an effective campaign tactic; in "waving the bloody shirt" against the South and the Democrats, Republicans were united being the crusade of the Civil War.

    Although this was true, the Republican party was also troubled by internal dissension. In the 1860s, moderate and radical Republicans debated bitterly over war aims, and the aims of the Reconstruction period. The moderates agreed with the radicals on the abolition of slavery, but rejected the attempt to reshape the South’s social and economic structure and imposing racial equality. President Lincoln was able to play one faction against another, and after his death the party continued until the radicals’ failure to oust President Johnson from office. Then, the party began to nominate increasingly moderate candidates.

    Republicans tried to appeal to the South by appealing to Whig groups there to join with newly enfranchised blacks; arguing that they had a common belief in the need for a strong government action in society. Their efforts were ineffective due to massive racist campaigns by the southern Democrats, intimidating all voters in the South. The Republican support for black rights waned when those in the party percieved that this issue was costing the party the needed votes, but this did not help gain support in the South.

    Meanwhile, Republicans continued being elected to the White House. In 1868, Civil War hero Ulysses S. Grant won the presidency easily and was re-elected in 1872. Although he seemed a bit bewildered by the transition from the military life of a general to being president, under Grant the Republican commitment to sound money policies continued, and the Department of Justice and the Weather Bureau were established.

    But, embracing a tradition established by George Washington, which had gone on record opposing a third term for any president, and being plagued by scandals in his administration, President Grant did not run for re-election in 1876. Factionalism continued to divide the party. Prohibitionists and those who wished to exclude foreigners, demanded heavy emphasis on their concerns and were not enthusiastic about the party’s other commitments. At the same time, another group, the Liberal Republicans, disgusted by corruption in the Grant administration, fought against the party’s unwillingness to do anything about it. The party bosses, needing money to run the campaigns, resisted the reformers.

    Instead, in one of the most bitterly disputed elections in American history, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes won the presidency by the margin of one electoral vote. After the election, cooperation between the White House and the Democratic-controlled House of Representatives was nearly impossible. Nevertheless, Hayes managed to keep his campaign promises. He cautiously withdrew federal troops from the South to allow them to shake off the psychological yoke of being a conquered land, took measures to reverse the myriad inequalities suffered by women in that period and adopted the merit system within the civil service.

    The Republicans won five of seven elections between 1868 and 1892, but had popular majorities in only three of them. The Republicans’ ability to draw on rural, small-town, and western voters was counterbalanced by the Democrats’ solid core in the South and among urban immigrants. The defection of the mugwumps, a reform faction that refused to back James G. Blaine, the presidential candidate in 1884, helped the Democrats win the presidency for the first time in thirty years. At the 1880 convention, an intense political battle split Republicans into three hostile camps, which included administration supporters, Conkling's "Stalwarts" and the "Half-breeds" which stood between them.

    The party’s platform, despite resistance from some Republican leaders, increasingly emphasized the promotion of industrial values, and Republican policy aided the emerging, highly sophisticated economy. At the same time, Republicans were often openly hostile to the new waves of eastern European and Irish immigrants that were transforming the nation’s cities. Republican state platforms advocated government intervention to prohibit or limit liquor consumption and to shape school curricula in order to promote certain Protestant and American values posed by the immigrants who were tied to the Democratic party.

    During the 1890s, both major parties were hurt by the rise of agrarian protest, but infighting proved most divisive among the Democrats, their collapse at the polls following in 1896. Increased voter strength made the Republicans a majority party in the country for a generation. However, party factionalism continued, and beginning in the 1890s, a group of Republicans known as the progressives sought to balance the party’s commitment to the industrial elite with the use of federal power to correct some of the worst excesses of the monopolies and rusts that dominated the Republican Party.

    Theodore Roosevelt, who had promoted progressive measures when in office, later became the presidential candidate of the Progressive Party. Roosevelt selected Taft as his successor, who, once elected, angered both liberals and conservatives within his party.

    The entry into World War I raised some new issues that once again led to divide the Republican Party. Though most Republicans in Congress supported the ongoing war measures, they eventually split over plans for signing the charter of the League of Nations, incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles. Many Republicans were also upset because President Wilson excluded Republicans from negotiating the treaty and said that only Democrats in the Congress would allow victory in war. As progressivism and war waned, Republicans were able to reunite and thus once again become a majority party. The 1920 platform pledged the party to serve as the guardian of prosperity by such measures as raising tariffs, restricting immigration, and aiding farmers. The presidential nomination went to Warren G. Harding, and he swept every region outside the South. The Harding administration was swept by corruption, and his successor was Calvin Coolidge, pledged to Puritanical ideals.

    The Great Depression, which began during the administration of Herbert Hoover, led to destroy America’s belief in the dream of unlimited prosperity, and thus lost its faith in the Republican Party, who had led them into the depression. The disastrous economic collapse and extraordinary high employment following the crash made a mockery of Republican claims. The Hoover administration had a slow and limited response to the problems, making it ineffective and seemed to be indifferent to the people.

    At the loss of the Republicans next election, one faction of the Republican party was behind Hoover, who issued blanket indictments of the New Deal, supported by Eastern businessmen, Recognizing the New Deal’s popularity, Republicans in Congress sought new leaders and principles, nominating Landon for President. The new Republican platform endorsed New Deal objectives but condemned some of its methods, including deficit spending. At the next election, they nominated Wendell Willkie, an internationalist who was even closer to the values expressed by the New Deal; in fact, the C.I.O supported him and Lewis said that if Willkie did not win, he would resign as head.

    In response to their losses, the Republicans sought a way to build their national following, first turning to condemning deficit spending techniques and New Deal policy. Republicans, isolationist, now began to take a stricter anti-Communist line in their rhetoric. Party leaders argued that they represented a family oriented America, and this played a part in the popularity of Republican senator Joseph McCarthy’s crusade against Communist subversion in the 1850s. In 1950, Senator McCarthy charged that the State department was infested with Communists, and this gave the Republicans their best issue since the Depression. However, when he attacked the Army, this issue died down and be became disgraced.

    A split still remained between conservative and moderate republicans; the former led by Taft continued to oppose the New Deal, while the others did not play on the issue. The moderates looked towards General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had helped win the passing war, to carry their standard in the 1952 elections. Eisenhower won twice with smashing victories; his popularity intensified when he attended a conference in Geneva. Disliking political management, Eisenhower did little to build the party, and continued Democratic policies.

    Yet another split between conservatives and liberals weakened the Republican party during the course of the next decade. Nelson A. Rockefeller, governor of New York, emerged as a spokesman for the party liberals. Senator Barry Goldwater, on the other hand, was a representative of the conservatives. The conservatives thereafter controlled the party machinery and increasingly impressed their stamp on the party’s principles and actions, working hard to recruit influence in the South and among urban, ethnic groups.

    When new leaders failed to bridge the gulf between conservatives and liberals in the GOP, Richard Nixon helped lead a unified party to a narrow victory in the 1968 race against Hubert Humphrey and George Wallace. Nixon was the first President since 1848 to take office with both houses of Congress controlled by the opposition; he later won re-election. His administration, which started out as a strong reaction against radicalism, became identified after 1972 with the Watergate scandal, which eventually led Nixon to his resignation under the threat of impeachment, leaving Gerald Ford in power.

    A temporary Democratic resurgence followed with the election of Jimmy Carter in 1976, but the conservative tide returned when the Republican candidate Ronald Reagan won an overwhelming victory in the next elections. The Republicans regained control of the Senate but did not achieve to gain a majority in the House. In the midterm elections of 1986, Republicans lost control of the Senate and more ground in the House as well; this pattern repeated in 1986. As president, Reagan wasa backed by a coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats in Congress, and embarked on a program which sought to increase the nation’s military strength and curtail many of the social welfare programs in the previous administration.

    Although Vice president Bush won the presidential election for the Republicans, the party lost ground in both houses of Congress. President Bush laid a solid groundwork for U.S. policy in such critical areas as nuclear disarmament, free trade, the Middle East peace process and the future of NATO. Relying on his illustrious military experience, he brought together an unprecedented coalition to maintain the forces of law in the Persian Gulf region. In the wake of Operation Desert Storm, President Bush's popularity soared to record levels. As a result of his leadership after the war, a delegation from Israel sat face to face with Palestinians for the first time in thousands of years.

    The gradual erosion in Republican party strength in Congress was matched by a loss at the head of the ticket, and for the first time in 12 years, Democrats controlled both branches of government. The Republicans retained the same number of seats in the Senate and gained nine seats in the House. However, the 1994 election brought a dramatic reversal as the Republican Party gained control over both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954. The Republicans stormed in, in what was termed as the "Republican Revolution," as Representative Newt Gingrich laid forth their new "Contract with America", a list of conservative proposals which helped shape the agenda.

    However, 1996 marked defeat again as Senator Bob Dole embarked on a failed Presidential campaign. The Democrats painted the Republican party as maligned, trying to destroy social security and other entitlement programs, often referring to the enemy as "Dole-Gingrich." After the election, Republicans in the party began to split, disappointed at a turn in Gingrich’s leadership to one which held more appeasement to Democratic proposals.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Socialist Party

    Timeframe: 1901 - 1901

    The industrial conditions in the United States, the constantly changing frontier, and the lack of class stratification had prevented the development of a strong socialist movement in the United States. However, in the late 1860’s and early 1790s, a number of branches of the First International were formed in the East, and on July 4, 1874, a Social Democratic Workingmen’s Party of North America was organized with a rather indefinite Socialist platform, becoming in 1877 the Socialist Labor Party.

    The Socialist Labor Party showed much activity during the next two decades, but the attempt of its leader, Daniel De Leon, to impose too rigid a discipline upon its membership and his bitter opposition to leaders of organized labor led to a split in the party. The dissident group, under Morris Hillquit and others, joined in 1900 with the midwestern Socialists in nominating Eugene Victor Debs for president.

    This was followed by a Unity Conference in 1901 at a convention in Indianapolis in 1901. The two merging groups were the Social Democratic Party of Eugene Victor Debs and the "Kangaroo" wing of the older Socialist Labor Party. The Socialist Democratic had been organized in 1898 by veterans of the Pullman strike of the American Railway Union, led by Debs, and was largely composed of American-born workers.

    From the beginning the Socialist Party was the ecumenical organization for American radicals, including Marxists of various kinds, Christian socialists, Zionist and anti-Zionist Jewish socialists, foreign-language speaking sections, single-taxers and virtually every variety of American radical. On the divisive issue of "reform vs. revolution" the Socialist Party from the beginning adopted a compromise formula, producing platforms calling for revolutionary change but also making "immediate demands" of a reformist nature. A perennially unresolved issue was whether revolutionary change could come about without violence; there were always pacifists and evolutionists in the Party as well as those opposed to both those views. The Socialist Party historically stressed cooperatives as much as labor unions, and included the concepts of revolution by education and of "building the new society within the shell of the old."

    The Socialist Party aimed to become a major party; in the years prior to World War I it elected two Members of Congress, over 70 mayors, innumerable state legislators and city councilors. Its membership topped 100,000, and its Presidential candidate, Eugene Debs, received close to a million votes in 1912 and again in 1920. But as with any ideologically mixed organization, it was forever in internal disputes.

    An early disagreement was over the Industrial Workers of the World, which Debs and De Leon had helped create as a competitor to the American Federation of Labor. Some Socialists supported the IWW, while others considered "dual unionism" to be fatal to the solidarity of the labor movement and supported the Socialist faction in the AFL led by Max Hayes. In 1916, Eugene Debs refused to run again for a candidacy, so by referendum, Allan L. Benson was chosen as the Socialist nominee for presidency.

    During the First World War the American Socialist Party was one of the very few parties in the international socialist movement to maintain its opposition to the war, and many Socialists were imprisoned, including Debs himself. In 1919 there was a major split in the Party, when those who accepted Lenin's demand for unconditional allegiance to the Third International left, to form the Communist Party and the Communist Labor Party. However, the two parties later merged.

    The Socialist Party did not run a Presidential candidate in 1924, but joined the American Federation of Labor in support of the independent campaign of the progressive Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin, hoping to build a permanent Farmer-Labor Party. In 1928 the Socialist Party revived as an independent electoral entity under the leadership of Norman Thomas, an opponent of World War I and a founder of the American Civil Liberties Union.

    In 1932 the impact of the Great Depression resulted in revived support for the Socialist Party, and 896,000 votes were cast for the Party's Presidential candidate, Norman Thomas. But by 1936 the left-liberal policies of the New Deal took a severe toll. In that year David Dubinsky and other socialist union leaders in New York called on their membership to vote for Roosevelt, and formed the Social Democratic Federation to promote socialism within the ranks of the liberal/labor wing of the Democratic Party. The Socialist Party's vote in 1936 dropped to 185,000, little more than 20% of that of 1932. The outbreak of the war against Fascism and the wartime prosperity further weakened all parties on the left.

    The Socialist Party was down to about 2,000 members after the war, and had more or less withdrawn from electoral action in the face of the increasingly restrictive ballot-access laws passed by state legislatures around the country. In 1956 the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Federation reunited, under pressure from the Socialist International. A right-wing group in the SDF opposed the merger, and established the Democratic Socialist Federation.

    As of 1957 the SP-SDF was pervaded by a strong sense that the time had arrived to start over and rebuild a major radical party in America. The Independent Socialist League was a Trotskyite splinter group founded and led by Max Shachtman, with about 400 members. In 1958 the ISL dissolved, and its members joined the SP-SDF. This ended any hope of further mergers, since Shachtman's intention was to attain control of the Socialist Party. Almost at once a faction fight erupted over the concept of "realignment." Shachtman and his lieutenant, Michael Harrington, argued that what America needed wasn't a third party, but a meaningful second party.

    The realignment supporters said that in sixty years the Socialist Party had failed to bring labor into the Party, and in fact kept losing their labor sympathizers (such as the Reuther brothers) because they saw they could do more within the Democratic Party. It was also argued that in view of restricted ballot access the Democratic primaries were a better forum for electoral activity than Socialist candidacies. But the basic argument was an appeal to traditional Marxism: Labor is the motor for social change, labor will not come to the Socialist Party, therefore the Socialist Party must go to labor - which means going into the Democratic Party.

    There is no doubt that the realignment strategy was successful within its own terms. Former SP labor people like A. Philip Randolph rejoined the Party, and many new people of this type were recruited during this period. But to many Socialists, realignment in practice turned out to be something they could not stomach. The realignment strategy focused on getting hold of power, and Socialist politics is concerned not only with winning power within the status quo but also with redistributing it to build a new society. Furthermore, the result of the strategy was often to tone down everything that distinguished Socialists from liberals, and "where labor is" turned out to be not at the left of the Democratic Party but at the center, in alliance with the big city machines.

    At the 1968 Socialist Party Convention the Shachtman-Harrington Caucus held a clear majority, though a slim one, and voted down resolutions demanding American withdrawal from Vietnam and urging independent political action. They passed a resolution endorsing Hubert Humphrey - a resolution which Norman Thomas, who had less than six months to live, opposed as best he could from his hospital bed, pleading in vain with the membership to reject it. They elected a clear majority of the Party's National Committee, and installed their own supporters as National Secretary and Editor of the Party paper.

    At the riotous Democratic Party Convention in Chicago in 1968, Realignment Socialists were present as delegates, and Bayard Rustin, having lost his old pacifist and radical orientation, served in effect as a black floor manager for Humphrey. At the same time, many Debs Caucus members were in the streets with the demonstrators.

    By 1970, with Michael Harrington as National Chairman under Max Shachtman's leadership, the Socialist Party was showing a growing tendency toward democratic centralism in practice. Nevertheless, Harrington maintained contacts with the liberal wing of the peace movement and he and his personal followers formed yet a third caucus, the Coalition Caucus, to pursue the realignment strategy within the more liberal sectors of the Democratic Party and the labor leadership.

    In March of 1972 a Unity Convention was held, to finalize the merger of the Socialist Party with the Democratic Socialist Federation. The tightly disciplined Unity Caucus, as the Shachtmanite wing now styled themselves, were by now suspicious of Harrington, and succeeded in pushing through the Convention a constitutional amendment providing for a "troika" in the Chairmanship. The "troika" was made up of Harrington, Charles Zimmerman of the DSF, and the aging former civil rights leader Bayard Rustin. A resolution opposing the Vietnam war, which was supported by six Party Locals and by both the Debs Caucus and the Coalition Caucus, failed.

    At the end of 1972 the Socialist Party, now completely under control of the right wing, changed its name to Social Democrats USA. This lit the fuse for the disaffiliation of many of the states and locals within the Debs Caucus, and for many resignations. Early in 1973 the Socialist Party of Wisconsin, with the support of the California and Illinois Parties, called a "National Convention of the Socialist Party," to be held Memorial Day weekend in Milwaukee The Debs Caucus had recently organized a Union for Democratic Socialism, as an "umbrella" organization of both members and non-members of the Socialist Party, and the UDS now made plans for a major conference on "The Future of Democratic Socialism in America" to be held at the same time. The resulting body voted to reconstitute the Socialist

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Whig Party

    Timeframe: 1836 - 1852

    The Whig Party formed in the opposition of President Andrew Jackson and constituencies in the Democratic Party, united only by this opposition. The anti-Jackson groups drew upon the political history of two revolutions, the American and 17th century English, for their name. In both cases, the opposition had called themselves Whigs; this time they united against "King Andrew."

    The National Republican party was the precursor to the Whigs, and Jackson’s inauguration in 1829 began the period of opposition and prepared the ground for a coalition of political forces which formed the Whig Party. Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts because the party’s leading figures. The different leaders of the party clashed in their views; Webster was more of a nationalist than Clay. However, both men encouraged a program of tariff protection, federally sponsored communication projects and other internal improvements, continuation of the national bank, and a conservative public land sales policy. This was fully described in Clay’s "American System." The program had strong appeal to merchants and manufacturers practicing interstate commerce. Clay made the President’s veto of a bank recharter a key issue, but Jackson handily won reelection.

    John C. Calhoun broke his alliance with Jackson and joined the Whigs when he realized that he would not be the next Democratic president. Calhoun’s supporters, widened with the nullification crisis, were lead to the Whig party. Another source of recruits was the Anti-Masonic party, strong in New York and Pennsylvania, leading many influencing politicians as William Seward and Thaddeus Stevens into the party.

    In 1840, The Whig ticket consisted of William H. Harrison for president and John Tyler for vice-president. They ran a "Log Cabin" campaign which was the first to use major political propaganda and electioneering. The Whigs won, but Harrison died one month in office, and with him the future of the Whig cohesion. John Tyler, who had been a Jacksonian Democrat, acceded to the presidency, and embittered the Whigs by vetoing the bills which they had meant to restore the rechartering of the Bank of the United States. Most of Tyler’s cabinet resigned in protest, and his membership in the party was withdrawn.

    In 1844, the Whig Party nominated Clay for president. Clay refused to take a definite stand on the Texas annexation issue, provoking northern abolitionists, who opposed its admission as a slave state, to support the Liberty party candidate. The Whig split ensured a victory for the Democrat Polk. Once the Mexican War had been declared, controversy over admitting or excluding slavery from territory gained in the war further splintered the party. Antislavery Whigs, known as Conscience Whigs opposed the Cotton Whigs in the pro-slavery states.

    Despite this dissension, the Whigs won the presidency in 1848 under Zachary Taylor. With disunion threatening, Clay and Webster tried to compromise the main points of sectional friciton. President Taylor blocked their moves, and his death on July 9 made Millard Fillmore the president. Webster, now Fillmore’s secretary of state, wanted to capture the presidency in 1852 on the Union movement. However, both major paries accepted the Compromise of 1850 and the Whigs reverted to nominate Winfield Scott. Later that year, Clay and Webster died. The Whig Party never recovered from the death of their two great figures.

    Its call for moderation and Union became more ineffective as the Civil war neared. Southern Whigs thought the Democrats more receptive to their interests, concerned with slaveholding rights. Northern Whigs had already moved to the Free Soil Party, which had been formed earlier. The rise of the Republican and the American parties furthered the Whig downfall, as they defected to those parties. The former Whig president, Fillmore, accepted the American nomination, and the Whigs endorsed him.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Practice Quizzes

    Here you will find US History practice quizzes. These practice quizzes, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, political timelines, important documents, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

     

    Pages

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Biographies

    Here you will find biographies for many of the important people in US History. These biographies, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Pages

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Important Documents

    Here you find historical documents from US History. These important documents, along with the US History outlines, unit notes, practice quizzes, vocabulary terms, topic outlines, court cases, political parties, political timelines, and case briefs will help you prepare for the AP US History exam.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1629 Charter Of Massachusetts Bay

    And further, That the said Governour and Companye, and their Successors, maie have forever one comon Seale, to be used in all Causes and Occasions of the said Company, and the same Seale may alter, chaunge, breake, and newe make, from tyme to tyme, at their pleasures. And our Will and Pleasure is, and Wee doe hereby for Us, our Heires and Successors, ordeyne and graunte, That from henceforth for ever, there shalbe one Governor, one Deputy Governor, and eighteene Assistants of the same Company, to be from tyme to tyme constituted, elected and chosen out of the Freemen of the saide Company, for the twyme being, in such Manner and Forme as hereafter in theis Presents is expressed, which said Officers shall applie themselves to take Care for the best disposeing and ordering of the generall buysines and Affaires of, for, and concerning the said Landes and Premisses hereby mentioned, to be graunted, and the Plantation thereof, and the Government of the People there. And for the better Execution of our Royall Pleasure and Graunte in this Behalf, Wee doe, by theis presents, for Us, our Heires and Successors, nominate, ordeyne, make, and constitute; our welbeloved the saide Mathewe Cradocke, to be the first and present Governor of the said Company, and the saide Thomas Goffe, to be Deputy Governor of the saide Company, and the saide Sir Richard Saltonstall, Isaack Johnson, Samuell Aldersey, John Ven, John Humfrey, John Endecott, Simon Whetcombe, Increase Noell, Richard Pery, Nathaniell Wright, Samuell Vassall, Theophilus Eaton, Thomas Adams, Thomas Hutchins, John Browne, George Foxcrofte, William Vassall, and William Pinchion, to be the present Assistants of the saide Company, to continue in the saide several Offices respectivelie for such tyme, and in such manner, as in and by theis Presents is hereafter declared and appointed.

    And further, Wee will, and by theis Presents, for Us, our Heires and Successors, doe ordeyne and graunte, That the Governor of the saide Company for the tyme being, or in his Absence by Occasion of Sicknes or otherwise, the Deputie Governor for the tyme being, shall have Authoritie from tyme to tyme upon all Occasions, to give order for the assembling of the saide Company, and calling them together to consult and advise of the Bussinesses and Affaires of the saide Company, and that the said Governor, Deputie Governor, and Assistants of the saide Company, for the tyme being, shall or maie once every Moneth, or oftener at their Pleasures, assemble and houlde and keepe a Courte or Assemblie of themselves, for the better ordering and directing of their Affaires, and that any seaven or more persons of the Assistants, togither with the Governor, or Deputie Governor soe assembled, shalbe saide, taken, held, and reputed to be, and shalbe a full and sufficient Courte or Assemblie of the said Company, for the handling, ordering, and dispatching of all such Buysinesses and Occurrents as shall from tyme to tyme happen, touching or concerning the. said Company or Plantation; and that there shall or maie be held and kept by the Governor, or Deputie Governor of the said Company, and seaven or more of the said Assistants for the tyme being, upon every last Wednesday in Hillary, Easter, Trinity, and Michas Termes respectivelie forever, one greate generall and solemne assemblie, which foure generall assemblies shalbe stiled and called the foure greate and generall Courts of the saide Company.

    In all and every, or any of which saide greate and generall Courts soe assembled, Wee doe for Us, our Heires and Successors, give and graunte to the said Governor and Company, and their Successors, That the Governor, or in his absence, the Deputie Governor of the saide Company for the tyme being, and such of the Assistants and Freeman of the saide Company as shalbe present, or the greater nomber of them so assembled, whereof the Governor or Deputie Governor and six of the Assistants at the least to be seaven, shall have full Power and authoritie to choose, nominate, and appointe, such and soe many others as they shall thinke fitt, and that shall be willing to accept the same, to be free of the said Company and Body, and them into the same to admitt; and to elect and constitute such officers as they shall thinke fill and requisite, for the ordering, mannaging, and dispatching of the Affaires of the saide Governor and Company, and their Successors; And to make Lawes and Ordinances for the Good and Welfare of the saide Company, and for the Government and ordering of the saide Landes and Plantation, and the People inhabiting and to inhabite the same, as to them from tyme to tyme shalbe thought meete, soe as such Lawes and Ordinances be not contrarie or repugnant to the Lawes and Statuts of this our Realme of England.

    And, our Will and Pleasure is, and Wee doe hereby for Us, our Heires and Successors, establish and ordeyne, That yearely once in the yeare, for ever hereafter, namely, the last Wednesday in Easter Tearme, yearely, the Governor, Deputy-Governor, and Assistants of the saide Company and all other officers of the saide Company shalbe in the Generall Court or Assembly to be held for that Day or Tyme, newly chosen for the Yeare ensueing by such greater parte of the said Company, for the Tyme being, then and there present, as is aforesaide. And, if it shall happen the present governor, Deputy Governor, and assistants, by theis presents appointed, or such as shall hereafter be newly chosen into their Roomes, or any of them, or any other of the officers to be appointed for the said Company, to dye, or to be removed from his or their severall Offices or Places before the saide generall Day of Election (whome Wee doe hereby declare for any Misdemeanor or Defect to be removeable by the Governor, Deputie Governor, Assistants, and Company, or such greater Parte of them in any of the publique Courts to be assembled as is aforesaid) That then, and in every such Case, it shall and maie be lawfull, to and for the Governor, Deputie Governor, Assistants, and Company aforesaide, or such greater Parte of them soe to be assembled as is aforesaide, in any of their Assemblies, to proceade to a new Election of one or more others of their Company in the Roome or Place, Roomes or Places of such Officer or Officers soe dyeing or removed according to their Discretions, And, immediately upon and after such Election and Elections made of such Governor, Deputie Governor, Assistant or Assistants, or any other officer of the saide Company, in Manner and Forme aforesaid, the Authoritie, Office, and Power, before given to the former Governor, Deputie Governor, or other Officer and Officers soe removed, in whose Steade and Place newe shalbe soe chosen, shall as to him and them, and everie of them, cease and determine

    Provided alsoe, and our Will and Pleasure is, That aswell such as are by theis Presents appointed to be the present Governor, Deputie Governor, and Assistants of the said Company, as those that shall succeed them, and all other Officers to be appointed and chosen as aforesaid, shall, before they undertake the Execution of their saide Offices and Places respectivelie, take their Corporal Oathes for the due and faithfull Performance of their Duties in their severall Offices and Places, before such Person or Persons as are by theis Presents hereunder appointed to take and receive the same. . . .

    And, further our Will and Pleasure is, and Wee doe hereby for Us, our Heires and Successors, ordeyne and declare, and graunte to the saide Governor and Company and their Successors, That all and every the Subjects of Us, our Heires or Successors, which shall goe to and inhabite within the saide Landes and Premisses hereby mentioned to be graunted, and every of their Children which shall happen to be borne there, or on the Seas in goeing thither, or retorning from thence, shall have and enjoy all liberties and Immunities of free and naturall Subjects within any of the Domynions of Us, our Heires or Successors, to all Intents, Constructions, and Purposes whatsoever, as if they and everie of them were borne within the Realme of England. And that the Governor and Deputie Governor of the said Company for the Tyme being, or either of them, and any two or more of such of the saide Assistants as shalbe thereunto appointed by the saide Governor and Company at any of their Courts or Assemblies to be held as aforesaide, shall and maie at all Tymes, and from tyme to tyme hereafter, have full Power and Authoritie to minister and give the Oathe and Oathes of Supremacie and Allegiance, or either of them, to all and everie Person and Persons, which shall at any Tyme or Tymes hereafter goe or passe to the Landes and Premisses hereby mentioned to be graunted to inhabite in the same.

    And, Wee doe of our further Grace, certen Knowledg and meere Motion, give and graunte to the saide Governor and Company, and their Successors, That it shall and maie be lawfull, to and for the Governor or Deputie Governor, and such of the Assistants and Freemen of the said Company for the Tyme being as shalbe assembled in any of their generall Courts aforesaide, or in any other Courtes to be specially sumoned and assembled for that Purpose, or the greater Parte of them (whereof the Governor or Deputie Governor, and six of the Assistants to be alwaies seaven) from tyme to tyme, to make, ordeine, and establishe all Manner of wholesome and reasonable Orders, Lawes, Statutes, and Ordinances, Directions, and Instructions, not contrairie to the Lawes of this our Realme of England, aswell for setling of the Formes and Ceremonies of Government and Magistracy, fitt and necessary for the said Plantation, and the Inhabitants there, and for nameing and setting of all sorts of Officers, both superior and inferior, which they shall finde needefull for that Governement and Plantation, and the distinguishing and setting forth of the severall duties, Powers, and Lymytts of every such Office and Place, and the Formes of such Oathes warrantable by the Lawes and Statutes of this our Realme of England, as shalbe respectivelie ministred unto them for the Execution of the said severall Offices and Places; as also, for the disposing and ordering of the Elections of such of the said Officers as shalbe annuall, and of such others as shalbe to succeede in Case of Death or Removeall, and ministring the said Oathes to the newe elected Officers, and for Impositions of lawfull Fynes, Mulcts, Imprisonment, or other lawfull Correction, according to the Course of other Corporations in this our Realme of England, and for the directing, ruling, and disposeing of all other Matters and Thinges, whereby our said People, Inhabitants there, may be soe religiously, peaceablie, and civilly governed, as their good Life and orderlie Conversation, maie wynn and incite the Natives of Country, to the Knowledg and Obedience of the onlie true God and Savior of Mankinde, and the Christian Fayth, which in our Royall Intention, and the Adventurers free Profession, is the principall Ende of this Plantation.

    Willing, commaunding, and requiring, and by theis Presents for Us, our Heires, and Successors, ordeyning and appointing, that all such Orders, Lawes, Statuts and Ordinances, Instructions and Directions, as shalbe soe made by the Governor, or Deputie Governor of the said Company, and such of the Assistants and Freemen as aforesaide, and published in Writing, under their common Seale, shalbe carefullie and dulie observed, kept, performed, and putt in Execution, according to the true Intent and Meaning of the same; and theis our Letters- patents, or the Duplicate or exemplification thereof, shalbe to all and everie such Officers, superior and inferior, from Tyme to Tyme, for the putting of the same Orders, Lawes, Statutes, and Ordinances, Instructions, and Directions, in due Execution against Us, our Heires and Successors, a sufficient Warrant and Discharge.

    And Wee doe further, for Us, our Heires and Successors, give and graunt to the said Governor and Company, and their Successors by theis Presents, that all and everie such Chiefe Comaunders, Captaines, Governors, and other Officers and Ministers, as by the said Orders, Lawes, Statuts, Ordinances, Instructions, or Directions of the said Governor and Company for the Tyme being, shalbe from Tyme to Tyme hereafter imploied either in the Government of the saide Inhabitants and Plantation, or in the Waye by Sea thither, or from thence, according to the Natures and Lymitts of their Offices and Places respectively, shall from Tyme to Tyme hereafter for ever, within the Precincts and Partes of Newe England hereby mentioned to be graunted and confirmed, or in the Waie by Sea thither, or from thence, have full and Absolute Power and Authoritie to correct, punishe, pardon, governe, and rule all such the Subjects of Us, our Heires and Successors, as shall from Tyme to Tyme adventure themselves in any Voyadge thither or from thence, or that shall at any Tyme hereafter, inhabite within the Precincts and Partes of Newe England aforasaid, according to the Orders, Lawes, Ordinances, Instructions, and Directions aforesaid, not being repugnant to the Lawes and Statutes of our Realme of England as aforesaid. . . .

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    1754 Albany Plan of Union

    It is proposed that humble application be made for an act of Parliament of Great Britain, by virtue of which one general government may be formed in America, including all the said colonies, within and under which government each colony may retain its present constitution, except in the particulars wherein a change may be directed by the said act, as hereafter follows.
    That the said general government be administered by a President-General, to be appointed and supported by the crown; and a Grand Council, to be chosen by the representatives of the people of the several Colonies met in their respective assemblies.
    That within ___ months after the passing such act, the House of Representatives that happen to be sitting within that time, or that shall be especially for that purpose convened, may and shall choose members for the Grand Council, in the following proportion, that is to say,
    -----who shall meet for the first time at the city of Philadelphia, being called by the President-General as soon as conveniently may be after his appointment.
    That there shall be a new election of the members of the Grand Council every three years; and, on the death or resignation of any member, his place should be supplied by a new choice at the next sitting of the Assembly of the Colony he represented.
    That after the first three years, when the proportion of money arising out of each Colony to the general treasury can be known, the number of members to be chosen for each Colony shall, from time to time, in all ensuing elections, be regulated by that proportion, yet so as that the number to be chosen by any one Province be not more than seven, nor less than two.
    That the Grand Council shall meet once in every year, and oftener if occasion require, at such time and place as they shall adjourn to at the last preceding meeting, or as they shall be called to meet at by the President-General on any emergency; he having first obtained in writing the consent of seven of the members to such call, and sent duly and timely notice to the whole.
    That the Grand Council have power to choose their speaker; and shall neither be dissolved, prorogued, nor continued sitting longer than six weeks at one time, without their own consent or the special command of the crown.
    That the members of the Grand Council shall be allowed for their service ten shillings sterling per diem, during their session and journey to and from the place of meeting; twenty miles to be reckoned a day's journey.
    That the assent of the President-General be requisite to all acts of the Grand Council, and that it be his office and duty to cause them to be carried into execution.
    That the President-General, with the advice of the Grand Council, hold or direct all Indian treaties, in which the general interest of the Colonies may be concerned; and make peace or declare war with Indian nations.
    That they make all purchases from Indians, for the crown, of lands not now within the bounds of particular Colonies, or that shall not be within their bounds when some of them are reduced to more convenient dimensions.
    That they make new settlements on such purchases, by granting lands in the King's name, reserving a quitrent to the crown for the use of the general treasury.
    That they make laws for regulating and governing such new settlements, till the crown shall think fit to form them into particular governments.
    That they raise and pay soldiers and build forts for the defence of any of the Colonies, and equip vessels of force to guard the coasts and protect the trade on the ocean, lakes, or great rivers; but they shall not impress men in any Colony, without the consent of the Legislature.
    That for these purposes they have power to make laws, and lay and levy such general duties, imposts, or taxes, as to them shall appear most equal and just (considering the ability and other circumstances of the inhabitants in the several Colonies), and such as may be collected with the least inconvenience to the people; rather discouraging luxury, than loading industry with unnecessary burdens.
    That they may appoint a General Treasurer and Particular Treasurer in each government when necessary; and, from time to time, may order the sums in the treasuries of each government into the general treasury; or draw on them for special payments, as they find most convenient.
    Yet no money to issue but by joint orders of the President-General and Grand Council; except where sums have been appropriated to particular purposes, and the President-General is previously empowered by an act to draw such sums.
    That the general accounts shall be yearly settled and reported to the several Assemblies.
    That a quorum of the Grand Council, empowered to act with the President-General, do consist of twenty-five members; among whom there shall be one or more from a majority of the Colonies.
    That the laws made by them for the purposes aforesaid shall not be repugnant, but, as near as may be, agreeable to the laws of England, and shall be transmitted to the King in Council for approbation, as soon as may be after their passing; and if not disapproved within three years after presentation, to remain in force.
    That, in case of the death of the President-General, the Speaker of the Grand Council for the time being shall succeed, and be vested with the same powers and authorities, to continue till the King's pleasure be known.
    That all military commission officers, whether for land or sea service, to act under this general constitution, shall be nominated by the President-General; but the approbation of the Grand Council is to be obtained, before they receive their commissions. And all civil officers are to be nominated by the Grand Council, and to receive the President-General's approbation before they officiate.
    But, in case of vacancy by death or removal of any officer, civil or military, under this constitution, the Governor of the Province in which such vacancy happens may appoint, till the pleasure of the President-General and Grand Council can be known.
    That the particular military as well as civil establishments in each Colony remain in their present state, the general constitution notwithstanding; and that on sudden emergencies any Colony may defend itself, and lay the accounts of expense thence arising before the President-General and General Council, who may allow and order payment of the same, as far as they judge such accounts just and reasonable.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Address of President Bush to Nation (11 September, 2001)

    Address of President Bush to Nation (11 September, 2001)
    View SEO Info Edit Outline

    8:30 P.M. EDT

    THE PRESIDENT: Good evening. Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of deliberate and deadly terrorist acts. The victims were in airplanes, or in their offices; secretaries, businessmen and women, military and federal workers; moms and dads, friends and neighbors. Thousands of lives were suddenly ended by evil, despicable acts of terror.

    The pictures of airplanes flying into buildings, fires burning, huge structures collapsing, have filled us with disbelief, terrible sadness, and a quiet, unyielding anger. These acts of mass murder were intended to frighten our nation into chaos and retreat. But they have failed; our country is strong.

    A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shattered steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve.

    America was targeted for attack because we're the brightest beacon for freedom and opportunity in the world. And no one will keep that light from shining.

    Today, our nation saw evil, the very worst of human nature. And we responded with the best of America -- with the daring of our rescue workers, with the caring for strangers and neighbors who came to give blood and help in any way they could.

    Immediately following the first attack, I implemented our government's emergency response plans. Our military is powerful, and it's prepared. Our emergency teams are working in New York City and Washington, D.C. to help with local rescue efforts.

    Our first priority is to get help to those who have been injured, and to take every precaution to protect our citizens at home and around the world from further attacks.

    The functions of our government continue without interruption. Federal agencies in Washington which had to be evacuated today are reopening for essential personnel tonight, and will be open for business tomorrow. Our financial institutions remain strong, and the American economy will be open for business, as well.

    The search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts. I've directed the full resources of our intelligence and law enforcement communities to find those responsible and to bring them to justice. We will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them.

    I appreciate so very much the members of Congress who have joined me in strongly condemning these attacks. And on behalf of the American people, I thank the many world leaders who have called to offer their condolences and assistance.

    America and our friends and allies join with all those who want peace and security in the world, and we stand together to win the war against terrorism. Tonight, I ask for your prayers for all those who grieve, for the children whose worlds have been shattered, for all whose sense of safety and security has been threatened. And I pray they will be comforted by a power greater than any of us, spoken through the ages in Psalm 23: "Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil, for You are with me."

    This is a day when all Americans from every walk of life unite in our resolve for justice and peace. America has stood down enemies before, and we will do so this time. None of us will ever forget this day. Yet, we go forward to defend freedom and all that is good and just in our world.

    Thank you. Good night, and God bless America.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People

    United States Capitol
    Washington, D.C.

    9:00 P.M. EDT

    THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Speaker, Mr. President Pro Tempore, members of Congress, and fellow Americans:

    In the normal course of events, Presidents come to this chamber to report on the state of the Union. Tonight, no such report is needed. It has already been delivered by the American people.

    We have seen it in the courage of passengers, who rushed terrorists to save others on the ground -- passengers like an exceptional man named Todd Beamer. And would you please help me to welcome his wife, Lisa Beamer, here tonight. (Applause.)

    We have seen the state of our Union in the endurance of rescuers, working past exhaustion. We have seen the unfurling of flags, the lighting of candles, the giving of blood, the saying of prayers -- in English, Hebrew, and Arabic. We have seen the decency of a loving and giving people who have made the grief of strangers their own.

    My fellow citizens, for the last nine days, the entire world has seen for itself the state of our Union -- and it is strong. (Applause.)

    Tonight we are a country awakened to danger and called to defend freedom. Our grief has turned to anger, and anger to resolution. Whether we bring our enemies to justice, or bring justice to our enemies, justice will be done. (Applause.)

    I thank the Congress for its leadership at such an important time. All of America was touched on the evening of the tragedy to see Republicans and Democrats joined together on the steps of this Capitol, singing "God Bless America." And you did more than sing; you acted, by delivering $40 billion to rebuild our communities and meet the needs of our military.

    Speaker Hastert, Minority Leader Gephardt, Majority Leader Daschle and Senator Lott, I thank you for your friendship, for your leadership and for your service to our country. (Applause.)

    And on behalf of the American people, I thank the world for its outpouring of support. America will never forget the sounds of our National Anthem playing at Buckingham Palace, on the streets of Paris, and at Berlin's Brandenburg Gate.

    We will not forget South Korean children gathering to pray outside our embassy in Seoul, or the prayers of sympathy offered at a mosque in Cairo. We will not forget moments of silence and days of mourning in Australia and Africa and Latin America.

    Nor will we forget the citizens of 80 other nations who died with our own: dozens of Pakistanis; more than 130 Israelis; more than 250 citizens of India; men and women from El Salvador, Iran, Mexico and Japan; and hundreds of British citizens. America has no truer friend than Great Britain. (Applause.) Once again, we are joined together in a great cause -- so honored the British Prime Minister has crossed an ocean to show his unity of purpose with America. Thank you for coming, friend. (Applause.)

    On September the 11th, enemies of freedom committed an act of war against our country. Americans have known wars -- but for the past 136 years, they have been wars on foreign soil, except for one Sunday in 1941. Americans have known the casualties of war -- but not at the center of a great city on a peaceful morning. Americans have known surprise attacks -- but never before on thousands of civilians. All of this was brought upon us in a single day -- and night fell on a different world, a world where freedom itself is under attack.

    Americans have many questions tonight. Americans are asking: Who attacked our country? The evidence we have gathered all points to a collection of loosely affiliated terrorist organizations known as al Qaeda. They are the same murderers indicted for bombing American embassies in Tanzania and Kenya, and responsible for bombing the USS Cole.

    Al Qaeda is to terror what the mafia is to crime. But its goal is not making money; its goal is remaking the world -- and imposing its radical beliefs on people everywhere.

    The terrorists practice a fringe form of Islamic extremism that has been rejected by Muslim scholars and the vast majority of Muslim clerics -- a fringe movement that perverts the peaceful teachings of Islam. The terrorists' directive commands them to kill Christians and Jews, to kill all Americans, and make no distinction among military and civilians, including women and children.

    This group and its leader -- a person named Osama bin Laden -- are linked to many other organizations in different countries, including the Egyptian Islamic Jihad and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries. They are recruited from their own nations and neighborhoods and brought to camps in places like Afghanistan, where they are trained in the tactics of terror. They are sent back to their homes or sent to hide in countries around the world to plot evil and destruction.

    The leadership of al Qaeda has great influence in Afghanistan and supports the Taliban regime in controlling most of that country. In Afghanistan, we see al Qaeda's vision for the world.

    Afghanistan's people have been brutalized -- many are starving and many have fled. Women are not allowed to attend school. You can be jailed for owning a television. Religion can be practiced only as their leaders dictate. A man can be jailed in Afghanistan if his beard is not long enough.

    The United States respects the people of Afghanistan -- after all, we are currently its largest source of humanitarian aid -- but we condemn the Taliban regime. (Applause.) It is not only repressing its own people, it is threatening people everywhere by sponsoring and sheltering and supplying terrorists. By aiding and abetting murder, the Taliban regime is committing murder.

    And tonight, the United States of America makes the following demands on the Taliban: Deliver to United States authorities all the leaders of al Qaeda who hide in your land. (Applause.) Release all foreign nationals, including American citizens, you have unjustly imprisoned. Protect foreign journalists, diplomats and aid workers in your country. Close immediately and permanently every terrorist training camp in Afghanistan, and hand over every terrorist, and every person in their support structure, to appropriate authorities. (Applause.) Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps, so we can make sure they are no longer operating.

    These demands are not open to negotiation or discussion. (Applause.) The Taliban must act, and act immediately. They will hand over the terrorists, or they will share in their fate.

    I also want to speak tonight directly to Muslims throughout the world. We respect your faith. It's practiced freely by many millions of Americans, and by millions more in countries that America counts as friends. Its teachings are good and peaceful, and those who commit evil in the name of Allah blaspheme the name of Allah. (Applause.) The terrorists are traitors to their own faith, trying, in effect, to hijack Islam itself. The enemy of America is not our many Muslim friends; it is not our many Arab friends. Our enemy is a radical network of terrorists, and every government that supports them. (Applause.)

    Our war on terror begins with al Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated. (Applause.)

    Americans are asking, why do they hate us? They hate what we see right here in this chamber -- a democratically elected government. Their leaders are self-appointed. They hate our freedoms -- our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other.

    They want to overthrow existing governments in many Muslim countries, such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. They want to drive Israel out of the Middle East. They want to drive Christians and Jews out of vast regions of Asia and Africa.

    These terrorists kill not merely to end lives, but to disrupt and end a way of life. With every atrocity, they hope that America grows fearful, retreating from the world and forsaking our friends. They stand against us, because we stand in their way.

    We are not deceived by their pretenses to piety. We have seen their kind before. They are the heirs of all the murderous ideologies of the 20th century. By sacrificing human life to serve their radical visions -- by abandoning every value except the will to power -- they follow in the path of fascism, and Nazism, and totalitarianism. And they will follow that path all the way, to where it ends: in history's unmarked grave of discarded lies. (Applause.)

    Americans are asking: How will we fight and win this war? We will direct every resource at our command -- every means of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, every financial influence, and every necessary weapon of war -- to the disruption and to the defeat of the global terror network.

    This war will not be like the war against Iraq a decade ago, with a decisive liberation of territory and a swift conclusion. It will not look like the air war above Kosovo two years ago, where no ground troops were used and not a single American was lost in combat.

    Our response involves far more than instant retaliation and isolated strikes. Americans should not expect one battle, but a lengthy campaign, unlike any other we have ever seen. It may include dramatic strikes, visible on TV, and covert operations, secret even in success. We will starve terrorists of funding, turn them one against another, drive them from place to place, until there is no refuge or no rest. And we will pursue nations that provide aid or safe haven to terrorism. Every nation, in every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists. (Applause.) From this day forward, any nation that continues to harbor or support terrorism will be regarded by the United States as a hostile regime.

    Our nation has been put on notice: We are not immune from attack. We will take defensive measures against terrorism to protect Americans. Today, dozens of federal departments and agencies, as well as state and local governments, have responsibilities affecting homeland security. These efforts must be coordinated at the highest level. So tonight I announce the creation of a Cabinet-level position reporting directly to me -- the Office of Homeland Security.

    And tonight I also announce a distinguished American to lead this effort, to strengthen American security: a military veteran, an effective governor, a true patriot, a trusted friend -- Pennsylvania's Tom Ridge. (Applause.) He will lead, oversee and coordinate a comprehensive national strategy to safeguard our country against terrorism, and respond to any attacks that may come.

    These measures are essential. But the only way to defeat terrorism as a threat to our way of life is to stop it, eliminate it, and destroy it where it grows. (Applause.)

    Many will be involved in this effort, from FBI agents to intelligence operatives to the reservists we have called to active duty. All deserve our thanks, and all have our prayers. And tonight, a few miles from the damaged Pentagon, I have a message for our military: Be ready. I've called the Armed Forces to alert, and there is a reason. The hour is coming when America will act, and you will make us proud. (Applause.)

    This is not, however, just America's fight. And what is at stake is not just America's freedom. This is the world's fight. This is civilization's fight. This is the fight of all who believe in progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom.

    We ask every nation to join us. We will ask, and we will need, the help of police forces, intelligence services, and banking systems around the world. The United States is grateful that many nations and many international organizations have already responded -- with sympathy and with support. Nations from Latin America, to Asia, to Africa, to Europe, to the Islamic world. Perhaps the NATO Charter reflects best the attitude of the world: An attack on one is an attack on all.

    The civilized world is rallying to America's side. They understand that if this terror goes unpunished, their own cities, their own citizens may be next. Terror, unanswered, can not only bring down buildings, it can threaten the stability of legitimate governments. And you know what -- we're not going to allow it. (Applause.)

    Americans are asking: What is expected of us? I ask you to live your lives, and hug your children. I know many citizens have fears tonight, and I ask you to be calm and resolute, even in the face of a continuing threat.

    I ask you to uphold the values of America, and remember why so many have come here. We are in a fight for our principles, and our first responsibility is to live by them. No one should be singled out for unfair treatment or unkind words because of their ethnic background or religious faith. (Applause.)

    I ask you to continue to support the victims of this tragedy with your contributions. Those who want to give can go to a central source of information, libertyunites.org, to find the names of groups providing direct help in New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.

    The thousands of FBI agents who are now at work in this investigation may need your cooperation, and I ask you to give it.

    I ask for your patience, with the delays and inconveniences that may accompany tighter security; and for your patience in what will be a long struggle.

    I ask your continued participation and confidence in the American economy. Terrorists attacked a symbol of American prosperity. They did not touch its source. America is successful because of the hard work, and creativity, and enterprise of our people. These were the true strengths of our economy before September 11th, and they are our strengths today. (Applause.)

    And, finally, please continue praying for the victims of terror and their families, for those in uniform, and for our great country. Prayer has comforted us in sorrow, and will help strengthen us for the journey ahead.

    Tonight I thank my fellow Americans for what you have already done and for what you will do. And ladies and gentlemen of the Congress, I thank you, their representatives, for what you have already done and for what we will do together.

    Tonight, we face new and sudden national challenges. We will come together to improve air safety, to dramatically expand the number of air marshals on domestic flights, and take new measures to prevent hijacking. We will come together to promote stability and keep our airlines flying, with direct assistance during this emergency. (Applause.)

    We will come together to give law enforcement the additional tools it needs to track down terror here at home. (Applause.) We will come together to strengthen our intelligence capabilities to know the plans of terrorists before they act, and find them before they strike. (Applause.)

    We will come together to take active steps that strengthen America's economy, and put our people back to work.

    Tonight we welcome two leaders who embody the extraordinary spirit of all New Yorkers: Governor George Pataki, and Mayor Rudolph Giuliani. (Applause.) As a symbol of America's resolve, my administration will work with Congress, and these two leaders, to show the world that we will rebuild New York City. (Applause.)

    After all that has just passed -- all the lives taken, and all the possibilities and hopes that died with them -- it is natural to wonder if America's future is one of fear. Some speak of an age of terror. I know there are struggles ahead, and dangers to face. But this country will define our times, not be defined by them. As long as the United States of America is determined and strong, this will not be an age of terror; this will be an age of liberty, here and across the world. (Applause.)

    Great harm has been done to us. We have suffered great loss. And in our grief and anger we have found our mission and our moment. Freedom and fear are at war. The advance of human freedom -- the great achievement of our time, and the great hope of every time -- now depends on us. Our nation -- this generation -- will lift a dark threat of violence from our people and our future. We will rally the world to this cause by our efforts, by our courage. We will not tire, we will not falter, and we will not fail. (Applause.)

    It is my hope that in the months and years ahead, life will return almost to normal. We'll go back to our lives and routines, and that is good. Even grief recedes with time and grace. But our resolve must not pass. Each of us will remember what happened that day, and to whom it happened. We'll remember the moment the news came -- where we were and what we were doing. Some will remember an image of a fire, or a story of rescue. Some will carry memories of a face and a voice gone forever.

    And I will carry this: It is the police shield of a man named George Howard, who died at the World Trade Center trying to save others. It was given to me by his mom, Arlene, as a proud memorial to her son. This is my reminder of lives that ended, and a task that does not end. (Applause.)

    I will not forget this wound to our country or those who inflicted it. I will not yield; I will not rest; I will not relent in waging this struggle for freedom and security for the American people.

    The course of this conflict is not known, yet its outcome is certain. Freedom and fear, justice and cruelty, have always been at war, and we know that God is not neutral between them. (Applause.)

    Fellow citizens, we'll meet violence with patient justice -- assured of the rightness of our cause, and confident of the victories to come. In all that lies before us, may God grant us wisdom, and may He watch over the United States of America.

    Thank you.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Annapolis Convention

    Sept. 14, 1786
    Proceedings of the Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government, Annapolis in the State of Maryland. September 14, 1786.

    To the Honorable, The Legislatures of Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York - assembled at Annapolis, humbly beg leave to report.

    That, pursuant to their several appointments, they met, at Annapolis in the State of Maryland on the eleventh day of September Instant, and having proceeded to a Communication of their Powers; they found that the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, had, in substance, and nearly in the same terms, authorized their respective Commissions "to meet such other Commissioners as were, or might be, appointed by the other States in the Union, at such time and place as should be agreed upon by the said Commissions to take into consideration the trade and commerce of the United States, to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial intercourse and regulations might be necessary to their common interest and permanent harmony, and to report to the several States such an Act, relative to this great object, as when unanimously by them would enable the United States in Congress assembled effectually to proved for the same."...

    That the State of New Jersey had enlarged the object of their appointment, empowering their Commissioners, "to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations and other important matters, mighty be necessary to the common interest and permanent harmony of the several States," and to report such an Act on the subject, as when ratified by them, "would enable the United States in Congress assembled, effectually to provide for the exigencies of the Union."

    That appointments of Commissioners have also been made by the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and North Carolina, none of whom, however, have attended; but that no information has been received by your Commissioners, of any appointment having been made by the States of Connecticut, Maryland, South Carolina or Georgia.

    That the express terms of the powers of your Commissioners supposing a deputation from all the States, and having for object the Trade and Commerce of the United States, Your Commissioners did not conceive it advisable to proceed on the business of their mission, under the Circumstances of so partial and defective a representation.

    Deeply impressed, however, with the magnitude and importance of the object confided to them on this occasion, your Commissioners cannot forbear to indulge an expression of their earnest and unanimous wish, that speedy measures be taken, to effect a general meeting, of the States, in a future Convention, for the same, and such other purposes, as the situation of public affairs may be found to require.

    If in expressing this wish, or in intimating any other sentiment, your Commissioners should seem to exceed the strict bounds of their appointment, they entertain a full confidence, that a conduct, dictated by an anxiety for the welfare of the United States, will not fail to receive an indulgent construction.

    In this persuasion, your Commissioners submit an opinion, that the Idea of extending the powers of their Deputies, to other objects, than those of Commerce, which has been adopted by the State of New Jersey, was an improvement on the original plan, and will deserve to be incorporated into that of a future Convention; they are the more naturally led to this conclusion, as in the course of their reflections on the subject, they have been induced to think, that the power of regulating trade is of such comprehensive extent, and will enter so far into the general System of the federal government, that to give it efficacy, and to obviate questions and doubts concerning its precise nature and limits, may require a correspondent adjustment of other parts of the Federal System.

    That there are important defects in the system of the Federal Government is acknowledged by the Acts of all those States, which have concurred in the present Meeting; That the defects, upon a closer examination, may be found greater and more numerous, than even these acts imply, is at least so far probably, from the embarrassments which characterize the present State of our national affairs, foreign and domestic, as may reasonably be supposed to merit a deliberate and candid discussion, in some mode, which will unite the Sentiments and Councils of all the States. In the choice of the mode, your Commissioners are of opinion, that a Convention of Deputies from the different States, for the special and sole purpose of entering into this investigation, and digesting a plan for supplying such defects as may be discovered to exist, will be entitled to a preference from considerations, which will occur without being particularized.

    Your Commissioners decline an enumeration of those national circumstances on which their opinion respecting the propriety of a future Convention, with more enlarged powers, is founded; as it would be a useless intrusion of facts and observations, most of which have been frequently the subject of public discussion, and none of which can have escaped the penetration of those to whom they would in this instance be addressed. They are, however, of a nature so serious, as, in the view of your Commissioners, to render the situation of the United States delicate and critical, calling for an exertion of the untied virtue and wisdom of all the members of the Confederacy.

    Under this impression, Your Commissioners, with the most respectful deference, beg leave to suggest their unanimous conviction that it may essentially tend to advance the interests of the union if the States, by whom they have been respectively delegated, would themselves concur, and use their endeavors to procure the concurrence of the other States, in the appointment of Commissioners, to meet at Philadelphia on the second Monday in May next, to take into consideration the situation of the United States, to devise such further provisions as shall appear to them necessary to render the constitution of the Federal Government adequate to the exigencies of the Union; and to report such an Act for that purpose to the United States in Congress assembled, as when agreed to, by them, and afterwards confirmed by the Legislatures of every State, will effectually provide for the same.

    Though your Commissioners could not with propriety address these observations and sentiments to any but the States they have the honor to represent, they have nevertheless concluded from motives of respect, to transmit copies of the Report to the United States in Congress assembled, and to the executives of the other States.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Articles of Confederation

    To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting.
    Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

    I. The Stile of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of America".

    II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

    III. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

    IV. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them.
    If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense.
    Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State.

    V. For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a powerreserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year.
    No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind.
    Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States.
    In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote.
    Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace.

    VI. No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility.
    No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.
    No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain.
    No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.
    No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise.

    VII. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

    VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint.
    The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled.

    IX. The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article -- of sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace -- appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies commited on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.
    The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.
    All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States.
    The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers -- appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.
    The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction

    -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted
    -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judeg can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled.

    The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled.
    The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States.

    X. The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite.

    XI. Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States.

    XII. All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pleged.

    XIII. Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
    And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual.

    In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America.

    Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777
    In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Congressional Declaration of War

    JOINT RESOLUTION Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial Government of Japan and the Government and the people of the United States and making provisions to prosecute the same.

    Whereas the Imperial Government of Japan has committed unprovoked acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America: Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial Government of Japan which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and the President is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termination, all of the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States.

    Approved, December 8, 1941, 4:10 p.m. E.S.T.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Connecticut Colony Charter of 1662

    CHARLES THE SECOND, BY THE GRACE OF GOD, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, defender of the Faith, &c.; To all to whome theis presents shall come Greetinge:

    WHEREAS, by the severall Navigacons, discoveryes and susccessfull Plantacons of diverse of our loving Subjects of this our Realme of England, Severall Lands, Islands,Places, Colonies and Plantacons have byn obtayned and setled in that parte of the Continent of America called New England, and thereby the Trade and Comerce there hath byn of late yeares much increased,

    AND WHEREAS, wee have byn informed by the humble Peticon of our Trusty and welbeloved John Winthrop, John Mason, Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woolicott, John Talcott, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden, Thomas Wells, Obedias Brewen, John Clerke, Anthony Haukins, John Deming and Mathew Camfeild, being Persons Principally interested in our Colony or Plantacon of Connecticut in New England, that the same Colony or the greatest parte thereof was purchased and obteyned for greate and valuable Consideracons, And some other part thereof gained by Conquest and with much difficulty, and att the onely endeavours, expence and Charge of them and their Associates, and those vnder whome they Clayme, Subdued and improved, and thereby become a considerable enlargement and addicon of our Dominions and interest there.

    --NOW KNOW YEA, that in consideracion thereof, and in regard the said Colony is remote from other the English Plantacons in the Places aforesaid, And to the end the Affaires and Business which shall from tyme to tyme happen or arise concerning the same may be duely Ordered and managed.

    WEE HAVE thought fitt, and att the humble Peticon of the Persons aforesaid, and are graciously pleased to Create and Make them a Body Pollitique and Corporate, with the powers and Priviliges herein after menconed; And Accordingly Our will and pleasure is, and of our especiall grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon wee have Ordeyned, Constituted and Declared, And by theis presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, Doe Ordeine, Constitute and Declare That they, the said John Winthrop, John Mason, Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woollcot, John Talcot, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden, Thomas Wells, Obadiah Brewen, John Clerke, Anthony Hawkins, John Deming and Mathew Camfeild, and all such others as now are or hereafter shall bee Admitted and made free of the Company and Society of our Collony of Connecticut in America, shall from tyme to tyme and forever hereafter, bee one Body Corporate and Pollitique in fact and name, by the Name of Governour and Company of the English Collony of Connecticut in New England in America; And that by the same name they and their Successors shall and may have perpetuall Succession, and shall and mey bee Persons able and Capable in the law to Plead and bee Impleaded, to Answere and to be Answered vnto, to Defend and bee Defended in all and Singular, Suits, Causes, quarrelles, Matters, Accons and things of what kind or nature soever, And alsoe to have, take, possesse, acquire and purchase lands Tenements or hereditaments, or any goods or Chattells, and the same to, Lease, Graunt, Demise, Alien, bargaine, Sell and dispose of, as other our leige People of this our Realme of England, or any other Corporacon or Body Politique within the same may lawfully doe.

    AND FURTHER, that the said Governour and Company, and their Successors shall and may for ever hereafter have a Comon Seale to serve and vse for all Causes, matters, things and affaires, whatsoever of them and their Successors, and the same Seale to alter, change, breake and make new from tyme to tyme att their wills and pleasures, as they shall thinke fitt. And further, wee will and Ordeine, and by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors Doe Declare and appoint, that for the better ordering and manageing of the affaires and businesse of the said Company and their Successors, there shall be one Governour, one Deputy Governour and Twelve Assistants to bee from tyme to tyme Constituted, Elected and Chosen out of the Freemen of the said Company for the tyme being, in such manner and forme as hereafter in these presents is expressed; which said Officers shall apply themselves to take care for the best disposeing and Ordering of the Generall business and affaires of and concerning the lands and hereditaments herein after menconed to bee graunted, and the Plantacon thereof and the Government of the People thereof. And for the better execucon of our Royall Pleasure herein, WEE DOE for vs, our heires and Successors, Assigne, name, Constitute and appoint the aforesaid John Winthrop to bee the first and present Governour of the said Company; And the said John Mason to bee the Deputy Governour; And the said Samuell Willis, Mathew Allen, Nathan Gold, Henry Clerke, Richard Treat, John Ogden, Thomas Tappen, John Talcott, Thomas Wells, Henry Woolcot, Richard Lord and Daniell Clerke to bee the Twelve present Assistants of the said Company; to contynue in the said severall Offices respectively, vntill the second Thursday which shall bee in the moneth of October now next comeing.

    AND FURTHER, wee will, and by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors DOE Ordaine and Graunt that the Governour of the said Company for the tyme being, or, in his absence by occasion of sicknes, or otherwise by his leave or permission, the Deputy Governour for the tyme being, shall and may from tyme to tyme vpon all occasions give Order for the assembling of the said Company and calling them together to Consult and advise of the businesse and Affairs of the said Company, And that for ever hereafter Twice in every yeare, (That is to say,) on every Second Thursday in October and on every Second Thursday in May, or oftener, in Case it shall bee requisite, The Assistants and freemen of the said Company, or such of them, (not exceeding twoe Persons from each Place, Towne or Citty) whoe, shall bee from tyme to tyme therevnto Elected or deputed by the major parte of the freemen of the respective Townes, Cittyes and Places for which they shall bee soe elected or Deputed, shall have a generall meeting or Assembly, then and their to Consult and advise in and about the Affaires And businesse of the said Company; And that the Governour, or in his absence the Deputy Governour of the said Company for the tyme being, and such of the Assistants and freemen of the said Company as shall be soe Elected or Deputed and bee present att such meeting or Assembly, or the greatest number of them, whereof the Governour or Deputy Governour and Six of the Assistants, at least, to bee Seaven, shall be called the Generall Assembly, and shall have full power and authority to alter and change their dayes and tymes of meeting or Generall Assemblies for Electing the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants or other Officers or any other Courts, Assemblies or meetings, and to Choose, Nominate and appoint such and soe many other Persons as they shall thinke fitt and shall bee willing to accept the same, to bee free of the said Company and Body Politique, and them into the same to Admitt and to Elect, and Constitute such Officers as they shall thinke fitt and requisite for the Ordering, Manageing and disposeing of the Affaires of the said Governour and Company and their Successors. AND WEE DOE hereby for vs, our heires and Successors, Establish and Ordeine, that once in the yeare for ever hereafter, namely, the said Second Thursday in May, the Governour, Deputy Governour, and Assistants of the said Company and other Officers of the said Company, or such of them as the said Generall Assembly shall thinke fitt, shall bee in the said Generall Court and Assembly to be held from that day or tyme, newly Chosen for the yeare ensuing, by such greater parte of the said Company for the tyme being then and there present. And if the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants by these presents appointed, or such as hereafter bee newly Chosen into their Roomes, or any of them, or any other the Officers to bee appointed for the said Company shall dye or bee removed from his or their severall Offices or Places before the said Generall day of Eleccon, whome wee doe hereby Declare for any misdemeanour or default to bee removeable by the Governour, Assistants and Company, or such greater part of them in any of the said publique Courts to be Assembled as is aforesaid, That then and in every such Case itt shall and may bee lawfull to and for the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants and Company aforesaid, or such greater parte of them soe to bee Assembled as is aforesaid in any of their Assemblies, to proceede to a New Eleccon of one or more of their Company in the Roome or place, Roomes or Places of such Governour, Deputy Governour, Assistant or other Officer or Officers soe dyeing or removed, according to their discretions; and immediately vpon and after such Eleccon or Eleccons made of such Governour, Deputy Governour, Assistant or Assistants, or any other Officer of the said Company in manner and forme, Aforesaid, The Authority Office and Power before given to the former Governour, Deputy Governour or other Officer and Officers soe removed, in whose stead and Place new shall be chosen, shall as to him and them and every of them respectively cease and determine.

    PULMVIDED, alsoe, and our will and pleasure is, That as well such as are by theis presents appointed to bee the present Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants of the said Company as those that shall succeed them, and all other Officers to bee appointed and Chosen as aforesaid, shall, before they vndertake the Execucon of their said Offices and places respectively, take their severall and respective Corporall Oathes for the due and faithfull performance of their dutyes in their severall Offices and Places, before such Person or Persons as are by these Presents hereafter appoynted to take and receive the same; That is to say, the said John Winthrop, whoe is herein before nominated and appointed the present Governour of the said Company, shall take the said Oath before one or more of the Masters of our Court of Chancery for the tyme being, vnto which Master of Chancery WEE DOE, by theis presents, give full power and authority to administer the said Oath to the said John Winthrop accordingly. And the said John Mason, whoe is herein before nominated and appointed the present Deputy Governour of the said Company, shall take the said Oath before the said John Winthrop, or any twoe of the Assistants of the said Company, vnto whome WEE DOE by these presents, give full power and authority to Administer the said Oath to the said John Mason accordingly. And the said Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woolcott, John Talcott, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden and Thomas Welles, whoe are herein before Nominated and appointed the present Assistants of the said Company, shall take the Oath before the said John Winthrop and John Mason, or one of them, to whome WEE DOE hereby give full power and authority to Administer the same accordingly. And our further will and pleasure, is that all and every Governour or Deputy Governour to bee Elected and Chosen by vertue of theis presents, shall take the said Oath before two or more of the Assistants of the said Company for the tyme being, vnto whom wee doe, by theis presents, give full power and authority to give and Administer the said Oath accordingly. And the said Assistants and every of them, and all and every other Officer or Officers to bee hereafter Chosen from tyme to tyme, to take the said Oath before the Governour or Deputy Governour for the tyme being, vnto which said Governour or Deputy Governour wee doe, by theis presents, give full power and authority to Administer the same accordingly.

    AND FURTHER, of our more ample grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon WEE HAVE given and Graunted, and by theis presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, ULME give and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company of the English Colony of Connecticut in New England in America, and to every Inhabitant there, and to every Person and Persons Trading thither, And to every such Person and Persons as are or shall bee free of the said Collony, full power and authority from tyme to tyme and att all tymes hereafter, to take, Ship, Transport and Carry away, for and towards the Plantacon and defence of the said Collony such of our loveing Subjects and Strangers as shall or will willingly accompany them in and to their said Collony and Plantacon: (Except such Person and Persons as are or shall bee therein restrayned by vs, our heires and Successors:) And alsoe to Ship and Transport all and all manner of goods, Chattells, Merchandizes and other things whatsoever that are or shall be vsefull or necessary for the Inhabitants of the said Collony and may lawfully bee Transported thither; Neverthe lesse, not to bee discharged of payment to vs, our heires and Successors, of the Dutyes, Customes and Subsidies which are or ought to bee paid or payable for the same.

    AND FURTHER, Our will and pleasure is, and WEE DOE for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordeyne, Declare and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company and their Successors, That all and every the Subjects of vs, our heires or Successors which shall goe to Inhabite within the said Colony, and every of their Children which shall happen to bee borne there or on the Sea in goeing thither or returneing from thence, shall have and enjoye all liberties and immunities of free and naturall Subjects within any the Dominions of vs, our heires or Successors, to all intents, Construccons and purposes whatsoever, as if they and every of them were borne within the Realme of England,

    AND WEE DOE authorize and impower the Governour, or in his absence the Deputy Governour for the tyme being, to appointe two or more of the said assistants att any of their Courts or Assemblyes to bee held as aforesaid, to have power and authority to Administer the Oath of Supremacy and obedience to all and every Person and Persons which shall att any tyme or tymes hereafter goe or passe into the said Colony of Connecticutt, vnto which said Assistants soe to bee appointed as aforesaid, WEE DOE, by these presents, give full power and authority to Administer the said Oath accordingly.

    AND WEE DOE FURTHER, of our especiall grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon, give and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company of the English Colony of Connecticutt in New England in America, and their Successors, that itt shall and may bee lawful to and for the Governour or Deputy Governour and such of the Assistants of the said Company for the tyme being as shall bee Assembled in any of the Generall Courts aforesaid, or in any Courts to be especially Sumoned or Assembled for that purpose, or the greater parte of them, whereof the Governour or Deputy Governour and Six of the Assistants, to be all wayes Seaven, to Erect and make such Judicatories for the heareing and Determining of all Accons, Causes, matters and things happening within the said Colony or Plantacon and which shall bee in dispute and depending there, as they shall thinke fitt and convenient; And alsoe from tyme to tyme to Make, Ordaine and Establish All manner of wholesome and reasonable Lawes, Statutes, Ordinances, Direccons and Instruccons, not contrary to the laws of this Realme of England, as well for setling the formes and Ceremonies of Government and Magestracy fitt and necessary for the said Plantacon and the Inhabitants there as for naming and Stileing all sorts of Officers, both superior and inferior, which they shall find needfull for the Government and Plantacon of the said Colony, and the distinguishing and setting forth of the severall Dutyes, Powers and Lymitts of every such Office and Place, and the formes of such Oaths, not being contrary to the Laws and Statutes of this our Realme of England, to bee administered for the Execucon of the said severall Offices and Places; As alsoe for the disposeing and Ordering of the Eleccon of such of the said Officers as are to bee Annually Chosen, and of such others as shall succeed in case of death or removall, and Administering the said Oath to the new Elected Officers, and Graunting necessary Comissions, and for imposicon of lawfull Fines, Mulcts, Imprisonment or other Punishment vpon Offenders and Delinquents, according to the Course of other Corporacons within this our Kingdome of England, and the same Lawes, fines, Mulcts and Execucons to alter, change, revoke, adnull, release or Pardon, vnder their Comon Seale, As by the said Generall Assembly or the major part of them shall be thought fitt; And for the directing, ruleing and disposing of all other matters and things whereby our said people, Inhabitants there, may bee soe religiously, peaceably and civilly Governed as their good life and orderly Conversacon may wynn and invite the Natives of the Country to the knowledge and obedience of the onely true God and Saviour of mankind, and the Christian faith, which in our Royall intencons and the Adventurers free profession is the onely and principall end of this Plantacon; WILLING, Commanding and requireing, and by these presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordaineing and appointeing. That all such Lawes, Statutes and Ordinances, Instruccons, Imposicons, and Direccons as shall bee soe made by the Governour, Deputy Governour, and Assistants, as aforesaid, and published in writeing vnder their Comon Seale, shall carefully and duely bee observed, kept, performed and putt in execucion, according to the true intent and meaning of the same.

    AND these our letters Patents, or the Duplicate or Exemplification thereof, shall bee to all and every such Officers, Superiors and inferiors, from tyme to tyme, for the Putting of the same Orders, Lawes, Statutes, Ordinances, Instruccons and Direccons in due Execucon, against vs, our heires and Successors, a sufficient warrant and discharge.

    AND WEE DOE FURTHER, for vs, our heires and Successors, give and Graunt vnto the said Governor and Company and their Successors, by these presents, That itt shall and may bee lawfull to and for the chiefe Commanders, Governours and Officers of the said Company for the tyme being whoe shall bee resident in the parts of New England hereafter menconed, and others inhabitating there by their leave, admittance, appointment or direccon, from tyme to tyme and att all tymes hereafter, for their speciall defence and safety, to Assemble, Martiall, Array, and putt in Warlike posture the Inhabitants of the said Colony, and to; Commissionate, Impower and authorize such Person or Persons as they shall thinke fitt to lead and Conduct the said Inhabitants, and to encounter, expulse, repell and resist by force of Armes, as well by Sea as by land, And alsoe to kill, Slay and destroy, by all fitting wayes, enterprizes and meanes whatsoever, all and every such Person or Persons as shall at any tyme hereafter Attempt or enterprize the destruccon, Invasion, detriment or annoyance of the said Inhabitants or Plantacon, And to vse and exercise the law Martiall, in such Cases onely as occasion shall require, And to take or surprize by all wayes and meanes whatsoever, all and every such Person and Persons, with their Shipps, Armour, Ammunicon, and other goods of such as shall in such hostile manner invade or attempt the defeating of the said Plantacon or the hurt of the said Company and Inhabitants; and vpon just Causes to invade and destroy the Natives or other Enemyes of the said Colony.

    NEVERTHELESSE, Our Will and pleasure is, AND WEE DOE hereby Declare vnto all Christian Kings, Princes and States, That if any Persons which shall hereafter Bee of the said Company or Plantacon, or any other, by appointment of the said Governor and Company for the tyme being, shall at any tyme or tymes hereafter Robb or Spoile by Sea or by land, and doe any hurt, violence or unlawful hostility to any of the Subjects of vs, our heires or Successors, or any of the Subjects of any Prince or State beinge then in league with vs, our heires or Successors, vpon Complaint of such injury done to any such Prince or State, or their Subjects WEE, our heires and Successors, will make open Proclamacon within any parts of our Realme of England fitt for that purpose, That the Person or Persons committinge any such Robbery or Spoile, shall within the tyme lymitted by such Proclamacon, make full restitucon or satisfaccon of all such injuries done or committed, Soe as the said Prince or others soe complayneing may bee fully satisfied and contented. And if the said Person or Persons whoe shall committ any such Robbery or Spoile shall not make satisfaccon accordingly, within such tyme soe to bee limited, That then itt shall and may bee lawful for vs, our heires and Successors, to put such Person or Persons out of our Allegiance and Proteccon: And that it shall and may bee lawfull and free for all Princes or others to Prosecute with hostility such Offenders and every of them, their and every of their Procurers, ayders, Abettors and Councellors in that behalfe. PULMVIDED, alsoe, and our expresse will and pleasure is, AND WEE DOE by these presents for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordeyne and appointe that these presents shall not in any manner hinder any of our loveing Subjects whatsoever to vse and exercise the Trade of Fishinge vpon the coast of New England in America, but they and every or any of them shall have full and free power and liberty to contynue and vse the said Trade of Fishing upon the said Coast, in any of the Seas therevnto adioyning, or any Armes of the Seas or Salt Water Rivers where they have byn accustomed to Fish, and to build and sett vpon the wast land belonging to the said Colony of Connecticutt, such Wharfes, Stages and workehouses as shall bee necessary for the Salting, dryeing and keeping of their Fish to bee taken or gotten vpon that Coast, any thinge in these presents conteyened to the contrary notwithstanding.

    AND KNOWE YEE FURTHER, That Wee, of our more abundant grace, certaine knowledge and meere mocon HAVE given, Graunted and Confirmed, And by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors, DOE give, Graunt and Confirme vnto the said Governor and Company and their Successors, AULM that parte of our Dominions in Newe England in America bounded on the East by Norrogancett River, commonly called Norrogancett Bay, where the said River falleth into the Sea, and on the North by the lyne of the Massachusetts Plantacon, and on the South by the Sea, and in longitude as the lyne of the Massachusetts Colony, runinge from East to West, (that is to say,) from the Said Norrogancett Bay on the East to the South Sea on the West parte, with the Islands thervnto adioyneinge, Together with all firme lands, Soyles, Grounds, Havens, Ports, Rivers, Waters, Fishings, Mynes, Mynerals, Precious Stones, Quarries, and all and singular other Comodities, Iurisdiccons, Royalties, Priviledges, Francheses, Preheminences, and hereditaments whatsoever within the said Tract, Bounds, lands and Islands aforesaid, or to them or any of them belonging.

    TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the same vnto the said Governor and Company, their Successors and Assignes, for ever vpon Trust and for the vse and benefitt of themselves and their Associates, freemen of the said Colony, their heires and Assignes, TO BEE HOLDEN of vs, our heires and Successors, as of our Mannor of East Greenewich, in Free and Common Soccage, and not in Capite nor by Knights Service, YULMLDING AND PAYINGE therefore to vs, our heires and Successors, onely the Fifth parte of all the Oare of Gold and Silver which from tyme to tyme and at all tymes hereafter shall bee there gotten, had or obteyned, in liew of all Services, Dutyes and Demaunds whatsoever, to bee to vs, our heires or Successors, therefore or thereout rendered, made or paid.

    AND LASTLY, Wee doe for vs, our heires, and Successors, Graunt to the said Governor and Company and their Successors, by these presents, that these our Letters Patent shall bee firme, good and effectuall in the lawe to all intents, Construccons and purposes whatsoever, accordinge to our true intent and meaneing herein before Declared, as shall be Construed, reputed and adiudged most favourable on the behalfe and for the best benefitt and behoofe of the said Governor and Company and their Successors, ALTHOUGH EXPRESSE MENCON of the true yearely value or certeinty of the premises, or of any of them, or of any other Guifts or Graunts by vs or by any of our Progenitors or Predecessors heretofore made to the said Governor and Company of the English Colony of Connecticut in New England in America aforesaid in theis presents is not made, or any Statute, Act, Ordinance, Provision, Proclamacon or Restriccon heretofore had, made. Enacted, Ordeyned or Provided, or any other matter, Cause or thinge whatsoever to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding.

    IN WITNES whereof, we have caused these our Letters to be made Patent; WITNES our Selfe, att Westminister, the three and Twentieth day of Aprill, in the Fowerteenth yeare of our Reigne.

    By writt of Privy Seale

    HOWARD

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Amendments

    [Article XI.]

    The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The eleventh amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Third Congress, on the 4th of March 1794; and was declared in a message from the President to Congress, dated the 8th of January, 1798, to have been ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the States. The dates of ratification were: New York, March 27, 1794; Rhode Island, March 31, 1794; Connecticut, May 8, 1794; New Hampshire, June 16, 1794; Massachusetts, June 26, 1794; Vermont, between October 9, 1794 and November 9, 1794; Virginia, November 18, 1794; Georgia, November 29, 1794; Kentucky, December 7, 1794; Maryland, December 26, 1794; Delaware, January 23, 1795; North Carolina, February 7, 1795.

    Ratification was completed on February 7, 1795.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by South Carolina on December 4, 1797. New Jersey and Pennsylvania did not take action on the amendment.

    [Article XII.]

    The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. (See Note 14)--The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

    Proposal and Ratification The twelfth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Eighth Congress, on the 9th of December, 1803, in lieu of the original third paragraph of the first section of the second article; and was declared in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 25th of September, 1804, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 13 of the 17 States. The dates of ratification were: North Carolina, December 21, 1803; Maryland, December 24, 1803; Kentucky, December 27, 1803; Ohio, December 30, 1803; Pennsylvania, January 5, 1804; Vermont, January 30, 1804; Virginia, February 3, 1804; New York, February 10, 1804; New Jersey, February 22, 1804; Rhode Island, March 12, 1804; South Carolina, May 15, 1804; Georgia, May 19, 1804; New Hampshire, June 15, 1804.

    Ratification was completed on June 15, 1804.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Tennessee, July 27, 1804.

    The amendment was rejected by Delaware, January 18, 1804; Massachusetts, February 3, 1804; Connecticut, at its session begun May 10, 1804.

    Article XIII.

    Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

    Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The thirteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Thirty-eighth Congress, on the 31st day of January, 1865, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 18th of December, 1865, to have been ratified by the legislatures of twenty-seven of the thirty-six States. The dates of ratification were: Illinois, February 1, 1865; Rhode Island, February 2, 1865; Michigan, February 2, 1865; Maryland, February 3, 1865; New York, February 3, 1865; Pennsylvania, February 3, 1865; West Virginia, February 3, 1865; Missouri, February 6, 1865; Maine, February 7, 1865; Kansas, February 7, 1865; Massachusetts, February 7, 1865; Virginia, February 9, 1865; Ohio, February 10, 1865; Indiana, February 13, 1865; Nevada, February 16, 1865; Louisiana, February 17, 1865; Minnesota, February 23, 1865; Wisconsin, February 24, 1865; Vermont, March 9, 1865; Tennessee, April 7, 1865; Arkansas, April 14, 1865; Connecticut, May 4, 1865; New Hampshire, July 1, 1865; South Carolina, November 13, 1865; Alabama, December 2, 1865; North Carolina, December 4, 1865; Georgia, December 6, 1865.

    Ratification was completed on December 6, 1865.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Oregon, December 8, 1865; California, December 19, 1865; Florida, December 28, 1865 (Florida again ratified on June 9, 1868, upon its adoption of a new constitution); Iowa, January 15, 1866; New Jersey, January 23, 1866 (after having rejected the amendment on March 16, 1865); Texas, February 18, 1870; Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected the amendment on February 8, 1865); Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on February 24, 1865).

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Mississippi, December 4, 1865.

    Article XIV.

    Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

    Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age,(See Note 15) and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

    Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

    Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

    Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Thirty-ninth Congress, on the 13th of June, 1866. It was declared, in a certificate of the Secretary of State dated July 28, 1868 to have been ratified by the legislatures of 28 of the 37 States. The dates of ratification were: Connecticut, June 25, 1866; New Hampshire, July 6, 1866; Tennessee, July 19, 1866; New Jersey, September 11, 1866 (subsequently the legislature rescinded its ratification, and on March 24, 1868, readopted its resolution of rescission over the Governor's veto, and on Nov. 12, 1980, expressed support for the amendment); Oregon, September 19, 1866 (and rescinded its ratification on October 15, 1868); Vermont, October 30, 1866; Ohio, January 4, 1867 (and rescinded its ratification on January 15, 1868); New York, January 10, 1867; Kansas, January 11, 1867; Illinois, January 15, 1867; West Virginia, January 16, 1867; Michigan, January 16, 1867; Minnesota, January 16, 1867; Maine, January 19, 1867; Nevada, January 22, 1867; Indiana, January 23, 1867; Missouri, January 25, 1867; Rhode Island, February 7, 1867; Wisconsin, February 7, 1867; Pennsylvania, February 12, 1867; Massachusetts, March 20, 1867; Nebraska, June 15, 1867; Iowa, March 16, 1868; Arkansas, April 6, 1868; Florida, June 9, 1868; North Carolina, July 4, 1868 (after having rejected it on December 14, 1866); Louisiana, July 9, 1868 (after having rejected it on February 6, 1867); South Carolina, July 9, 1868 (after having rejected it on December 20, 1866).

    Ratification was completed on July 9, 1868.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Alabama, July 13, 1868; Georgia, July 21, 1868 (after having rejected it on November 9, 1866); Virginia, October 8, 1869 (after having rejected it on January 9, 1867); Mississippi, January 17, 1870; Texas, February 18, 1870 (after having rejected it on October 27, 1866); Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected it on February 8, 1867); Maryland, April 4, 1959 (after having rejected it on March 23, 1867); California, May 6, 1959; Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on January 8, 1867).

    Article XV.

    Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

    Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The fifteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Fortieth Congress, on the 26th of February, 1869, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated March 30, 1870, to have been ratified by the legislatures of twenty-nine of the thirty-seven States. The dates of ratification were: Nevada, March 1, 1869; West Virginia, March 3, 1869; Illinois, March 5, 1869; Louisiana, March 5, 1869; North Carolina, March 5, 1869; Michigan, March 8, 1869; Wisconsin, March 9, 1869; Maine, March 11, 1869; Massachusetts, March 12, 1869; Arkansas, March 15, 1869; South Carolina, March 15, 1869; Pennsylvania, March 25, 1869; New York, April 14, 1869 (and the legislature of the same State passed a resolution January 5, 1870, to withdraw its consent to it, which action it rescinded on March 30, 1970); Indiana, May 14, 1869; Connecticut, May 19, 1869; Florida, June 14, 1869; New Hampshire, July 1, 1869; Virginia, October 8, 1869; Vermont, October 20, 1869; Missouri, January 7, 1870; Minnesota, January 13, 1870; Mississippi, January 17, 1870; Rhode Island, January 18, 1870; Kansas, January 19, 1870; Ohio, January 27, 1870 (after having rejected it on April 30, 1869); Georgia, February 2, 1870; Iowa, February 3, 1870.

    Ratification was completed on February 3, 1870, unless the withdrawal of ratification by New York was effective; in which event ratification was completed on February 17, 1870, when Nebraska ratified.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Texas, February 18, 1870; New Jersey, February 15, 1871 (after having rejected it on February 7, 1870); Delaware, February 12, 1901 (after having rejected it on March 18, 1869); Oregon, February 24, 1959; California, April 3, 1962 (after having rejected it on January 28, 1870); Kentucky, March 18, 1976 (after having rejected it on March 12, 1869).

    The amendment was approved by the Governor of Maryland, May 7, 1973; Maryland having previously rejected it on February 26, 1870.

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Tennessee, November 16, 1869.

    Article XVI.

    The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-first Congress on the 12th of July, 1909, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 25th of February, 1913, to have been ratified by 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Alabama, August 10, 1909; Kentucky, February 8, 1910; South Carolina, February 19, 1910; Illinois, March 1, 1910; Mississippi, March 7, 1910; Oklahoma, March 10, 1910; Maryland, April 8, 1910; Georgia, August 3, 1910; Texas, August 16, 1910; Ohio, January 19, 1911; Idaho, January 20, 1911; Oregon, January 23, 1911; Washington, January 26, 1911; Montana, January 30, 1911; Indiana, January 30, 1911; California, January 31, 1911; Nevada, January 31, 1911; South Dakota, February 3, 1911; Nebraska, February 9, 1911; North Carolina, February 11, 1911; Colorado, February 15, 1911; North Dakota, February 17, 1911; Kansas, February 18, 1911; Michigan, February 23, 1911; Iowa, February 24, 1911; Missouri, March 16, 1911; Maine, March 31, 1911; Tennessee, April 7, 1911; Arkansas, April 22, 1911 (after having rejected it earlier); Wisconsin, May 26, 1911; New York, July 12, 1911; Arizona, April 6, 1912; Minnesota, June 11, 1912; Louisiana, June 28, 1912; West Virginia, January 31, 1913; New Mexico, February 3, 1913.

    Ratification was completed on February 3, 1913.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Massachusetts, March 4, 1913; New Hampshire, March 7, 1913 (after having rejected it on March 2, 1911).

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Utah.

    [Article XVII.]

    The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

    When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

    This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The seventeenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-second Congress on the 13th of May, 1912, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 31st of May, 1913, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Massachusetts, May 22, 1912; Arizona, June 3, 1912; Minnesota, June 10, 1912; New York, January 15, 1913; Kansas, January 17, 1913; Oregon, January 23, 1913; North Carolina, January 25, 1913; California, January 28, 1913; Michigan, January 28, 1913; Iowa, January 30, 1913; Montana, January 30, 1913; Idaho, January 31, 1913; West Virginia, February 4, 1913; Colorado, February 5, 1913; Nevada, February 6, 1913; Texas, February 7, 1913; Washington, February 7, 1913; Wyoming, February 8, 1913; Arkansas, February 11, 1913; Maine, February 11, 1913; Illinois, February 13, 1913; North Dakota, February 14, 1913; Wisconsin, February 18, 1913; Indiana, February 19, 1913; New Hampshire, February 19, 1913; Vermont, February 19, 1913; South Dakota, February 19, 1913; Oklahoma, February 24, 1913; Ohio, February 25, 1913; Missouri, March 7, 1913; New Mexico, March 13, 1913; Nebraska, March 14, 1913; New Jersey, March 17, 1913; Tennessee, April 1, 1913; Pennsylvania, April 2, 1913; Connecticut, April 8, 1913.

    Ratification was completed on April 8, 1913.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Louisiana, June 11, 1914.

    The amendment was rejected by Utah (and not subsequently ratified) on February 26, 1913.

    Article [XVIII].

    (See Note 16)
    Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

    Section. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Section. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The eighteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-fifth Congress, on the 18th of December, 1917, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 29th of January, 1919, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Mississippi, January 8, 1918; Virginia, January 11, 1918; Kentucky, January 14, 1918; North Dakota, January 25, 1918; South Carolina, January 29, 1918; Maryland, February 13, 1918; Montana, February 19, 1918; Texas, March 4, 1918; Delaware, March 18, 1918; South Dakota, March 20, 1918; Massachusetts, April 2, 1918; Arizona, May 24, 1918; Georgia, June 26, 1918; Louisiana, August 3, 1918; Florida, December 3, 1918; Michigan, January 2, 1919; Ohio, January 7, 1919; Oklahoma, January 7, 1919; Idaho, January 8, 1919; Maine, January 8, 1919; West Virginia, January 9, 1919; California, January 13, 1919; Tennessee, January 13, 1919; Washington, January 13, 1919; Arkansas, January 14, 1919; Kansas, January 14, 1919; Alabama, January 15, 1919; Colorado, January 15, 1919; Iowa, January 15, 1919; New Hampshire, January 15, 1919; Oregon, January 15, 1919; Nebraska, January 16, 1919; North Carolina, January 16, 1919; Utah, January 16, 1919; Missouri, January 16, 1919; Wyoming, January 16, 1919.

    Ratification was completed on January 16, 1919. See Dillon v. Gloss, 256 U.S. 368, 376 (1921).

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Minnesota on January 17, 1919; Wisconsin, January 17, 1919; New Mexico, January 20, 1919; Nevada, January 21, 1919; New York, January 29, 1919; Vermont, January 29, 1919; Pennsylvania, February 25, 1919; Connecticut, May 6, 1919; and New Jersey, March 9, 1922.

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Rhode Island.

    Article [XIX].

    The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

    Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The nineteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Sixty-sixth Congress, on the 4th of June, 1919, and was declared, in a proclamation of the Secretary of State, dated the 26th of August, 1920, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Illinois, June 10, 1919 (and that State readopted its resolution of ratification June 17, 1919); Michigan, June 10, 1919; Wisconsin, June 10, 1919; Kansas, June 16, 1919; New York, June 16, 1919; Ohio, June 16, 1919; Pennsylvania, June 24, 1919; Massachusetts, June 25, 1919; Texas, June 28, 1919; Iowa, July 2, 1919; Missouri, July 3, 1919; Arkansas, July 28, 1919; Montana, August 2, 1919; Nebraska, August 2, 1919; Minnesota, September 8, 1919; New Hampshire, September 10, 1919; Utah, October 2, 1919; California, November 1, 1919; Maine, November 5, 1919; North Dakota, December 1, 1919; South Dakota, December 4, 1919; Colorado, December 15, 1919; Kentucky, January 6, 1920; Rhode Island, January 6, 1920; Oregon, January 13, 1920; Indiana, January 16, 1920; Wyoming, January 27, 1920; Nevada, February 7, 1920; New Jersey, February 9, 1920; Idaho, February 11, 1920; Arizona, February 12, 1920; New Mexico, February 21, 1920; Oklahoma, February 28, 1920; West Virginia, March 10, 1920; Washington, March 22, 1920; Tennessee, August 18, 1920.

    Ratification was completed on August 18, 1920.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Connecticut on September 14, 1920 (and that State reaffirmed on September 21, 1920); Vermont, February 8, 1921; Delaware, March 6, 1923 (after having rejected it on June 2, 1920); Maryland, March 29, 1941 (after having rejected it on February 24, 1920, ratification certified on February 25, 1958); Virginia, February 21, 1952 (after having rejected it on February 12, 1920); Alabama, September 8, 1953 (after having rejected it on September 22, 1919); Florida, May 13, 1969; South Carolina, July 1, 1969 (after having rejected it on January 28, 1920, ratification certified on August 22, 1973); Georgia, February 20, 1970 (after having rejected it on July 24, 1919); Louisiana, June 11, 1970 (after having rejected it on July 1, 1920); North Carolina, May 6, 1971; Mississippi, March 22, 1984 (after having rejected it on March 29, 1920).

    Article [XX.]

    Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

    Section. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

    Section. 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

    Section. 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

    Section. 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

    Section. 6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The twentieth amendment to the Constitution was proposed to the legislatures of the several states by the Seventy-Second Congress, on the 2d day of March, 1932, and was declared, in a proclamation by the Secretary of State, dated on the 6th day of February, 1933, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Virginia, March 4, 1932; New York, March 11, 1932; Mississippi, March 16, 1932; Arkansas, March 17, 1932; Kentucky, March 17, 1932; New Jersey, March 21, 1932; South Carolina, March 25, 1932; Michigan, March 31, 1932; Maine, April 1, 1932; Rhode Island, April 14, 1932; Illinois, April 21, 1932; Louisiana, June 22, 1932; West Virginia, July 30, 1932; Pennsylvania, August 11, 1932; Indiana, August 15, 1932; Texas, September 7, 1932; Alabama, September 13, 1932; California, January 4, 1933; North Carolina, January 5, 1933; North Dakota, January 9, 1933; Minnesota, January 12, 1933; Arizona, January 13, 1933; Montana, January 13, 1933; Nebraska, January 13, 1933; Oklahoma, January 13, 1933; Kansas, January 16, 1933; Oregon, January 16, 1933; Delaware, January 19, 1933; Washington, January 19, 1933; Wyoming, January 19, 1933; Iowa, January 20, 1933; South Dakota, January 20, 1933; Tennessee, January 20, 1933; Idaho, January 21, 1933; New Mexico, January 21, 1933; Georgia, January 23, 1933; Missouri, January 23, 1933; Ohio, January 23, 1933; Utah, January 23, 1933.

    Ratification was completed on January 23, 1933.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Massachusetts on January 24, 1933; Wisconsin, January 24, 1933; Colorado, January 24, 1933; Nevada, January 26, 1933; Connecticut, January 27, 1933; New Hampshire, January 31, 1933; Vermont, February 2, 1933; Maryland, March 24, 1933; Florida, April 26, 1933.

    Article [XXI.]

    Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

    Section 2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

    Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

    Proposal and Ratification

    The twenty-first amendment to the Constitution was proposed to the several states by the Seventy-Second Congress, on the 20th day of February, 1933, and was declared, in a proclamation by the Secretary of State, dated on the 5th day of December, 1933, to have been ratified by 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Michigan, April 10, 1933; Wisconsin, April 25, 1933; Rhode Island, May 8, 1933; Wyoming, May 25, 1933; New Jersey, June 1, 1933; Delaware, June 24, 1933; Indiana, June 26, 1933; Massachusetts, June 26, 1933; New York, June 27, 1933; Illinois, July 10, 1933; Iowa, July 10, 1933; Connecticut, July 11, 1933; New Hampshire, July 11, 1933; California, July 24, 1933; West Virginia, July 25, 1933; Arkansas, August 1, 1933; Oregon, August 7, 1933; Alabama, August 8, 1933; Tennessee, August 11, 1933; Missouri, August 29, 1933; Arizona, September 5, 1933; Nevada, September 5, 1933; Vermont, September 23, 1933; Colorado, September 26, 1933; Washington, October 3, 1933; Minnesota, October 10, 1933; Idaho, October 17, 1933; Maryland, October 18, 1933; Virginia, October 25, 1933; New Mexico, November 2, 1933; Florida, November 14, 1933; Texas, November 24, 1933; Kentucky, November 27, 1933; Ohio, December 5, 1933; Pennsylvania, December 5, 1933; Utah, December 5, 1933.

    Ratification was completed on December 5, 1933.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Maine, on December 6, 1933, and by Montana, on August 6, 1934.

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by South Carolina, on December 4, 1933.

    Article [XXII.]

    Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

    Section. 2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment was proposed to the legislatures of the several States by the Eightieth Congress on Mar. 21, 1947 by House Joint Res. No. 27, and was declared by the Administrator of General Services, on Mar. 1, 1951, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 36 of the 48 States. The dates of ratification were: Maine, March 31, 1947; Michigan, March 31, 1947; Iowa, April 1, 1947; Kansas, April 1, 1947; New Hampshire, April 1, 1947; Delaware, April 2, 1947; Illinois, April 3, 1947; Oregon, April 3, 1947; Colorado, April 12, 1947; California, April 15, 1947; New Jersey, April 15, 1947; Vermont, April 15, 1947; Ohio, April 16, 1947; Wisconsin, April 16, 1947; Pennsylvania, April 29, 1947; Connecticut, May 21, 1947; Missouri, May 22, 1947; Nebraska, May 23, 1947; Virginia, January 28, 1948; Mississippi, February 12, 1948; New York, March 9, 1948; South Dakota, January 21, 1949; North Dakota, February 25, 1949; Louisiana, May 17, 1950; Montana, January 25, 1951; Indiana, January 29, 1951; Idaho, January 30, 1951; New Mexico, February 12, 1951; Wyoming, February 12, 1951; Arkansas, February 15, 1951; Georgia, February 17, 1951; Tennessee, February 20, 1951; Texas, February 22, 1951; Nevada, February 26, 1951; Utah, February 26, 1951; Minnesota, February 27, 1951.

    Ratification was completed on February 27, 1951.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by North Carolina on February 28, 1951; South Carolina, March 13, 1951; Maryland, March 14, 1951; Florida, April 16, 1951; Alabama, May 4, 1951.

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Oklahoma in June 1947, and Massachusetts on June 9, 1949.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Administrator of General Services that the amendment had become valid was made on Mar. 1, 1951, F.R. Doc. 51 092940, 16 F.R. 2019.

    Article [XXIII.]

    Section 1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:

    A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

    Section. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment was proposed by the Eighty-sixth Congress on June 17, 1960 and was declared by the Administrator of General Services on Apr. 3, 1961, to have been ratified by 38 of the 50 States. The dates of ratification were: Hawaii, June 23, 1960 (and that State made a technical correction to its resolution on June 30, 1960); Massachusetts, August 22, 1960; New Jersey, December 19, 1960; New York, January 17, 1961; California, January 19, 1961; Oregon, January 27, 1961; Maryland, January 30, 1961; Idaho, January 31, 1961; Maine, January 31, 1961; Minnesota, January 31, 1961; New Mexico, February 1, 1961; Nevada, February 2, 1961; Montana, February 6, 1961; South Dakota, February 6, 1961; Colorado, February 8, 1961; Washington, February 9, 1961; West Virginia, February 9, 1961; Alaska, February 10, 1961; Wyoming, February 13, 1961; Delaware, February 20, 1961; Utah, February 21, 1961; Wisconsin, February 21, 1961; Pennsylvania, February 28, 1961; Indiana, March 3, 1961; North Dakota, March 3, 1961; Tennessee, March 6, 1961; Michigan, March 8, 1961; Connecticut, March 9, 1961; Arizona, March 10, 1961; Illinois, March 14, 1961; Nebraska, March 15, 1961; Vermont, March 15, 1961; Iowa, March 16, 1961; Missouri, March 20, 1961; Oklahoma, March 21, 1961; Rhode Island, March 22, 1961; Kansas, March 29, 1961; Ohio, March 29, 1961.

    Ratification was completed on March 29, 1961.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by New Hampshire on March 30, 1961 (when that State annulled and then repeated its ratification of March 29, 1961).

    The amendment was rejected (and not subsequently ratified) by Arkansas on January 24, 1961.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Administrator of General Services that the amendment had become valid was made on Apr. 3, 1961, F.R. Doc. 61 093017, 26 F.R. 2808.

    Article [XXIV.]

    Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

    Section. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment was proposed by the Eighty-seventh Congress by Senate Joint Resolution No. 29, which was approved by the Senate on Mar. 27, 1962, and by the House of Representatives on Aug. 27, 1962. It was declared by the Administrator of General Services on Feb. 4, 1964, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 38 of the 50 States.

    This amendment was ratified by the following States:

    Illinois, November 14, 1962; New Jersey, December 3, 1962; Oregon, January 25, 1963; Montana, January 28, 1963; West Virginia, February 1, 1963; New York, February 4, 1963; Maryland, February 6, 1963; California, February 7, 1963; Alaska, February 11, 1963; Rhode Island, February 14, 1963; Indiana, February 19, 1963; Utah, February 20, 1963; Michigan, February 20, 1963; Colorado, February 21, 1963; Ohio, February 27, 1963; Minnesota, February 27, 1963; New Mexico, March 5, 1963; Hawaii, March 6, 1963; North Dakota, March 7, 1963; Idaho, March 8, 1963; Washington, March 14, 1963; Vermont, March 15, 1963; Nevada, March 19, 1963; Connecticut, March 20, 1963; Tennessee, March 21, 1963; Pennsylvania, March 25, 1963; Wisconsin, March 26, 1963; Kansas, March 28, 1963; Massachusetts, March 28, 1963; Nebraska, April 4, 1963; Florida, April 18, 1963; Iowa, April 24, 1963; Delaware, May 1, 1963; Missouri, May 13, 1963; New Hampshire, June 12, 1963; Kentucky, June 27, 1963; Maine, January 16, 1964; South Dakota, January 23, 1964; Virginia, February 25, 1977.

    Ratification was completed on January 23, 1964.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by North Carolina on May 3, 1989.

    The amendment was rejected by Mississippi (and not subsequently ratified) on December 20, 1962.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Administrator of General Services that the amendment had become valid was made on Feb. 5, 1964, F.R. Doc. 64 091229, 29 F.R. 1715.

    Article [XXV.]

    Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

    Section. 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

    Section. 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

    Section. 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

    Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department (See Note 17) or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment was proposed by the Eighty-ninth Congress by Senate Joint Resolution No. 1, which was approved by the Senate on Feb. 19, 1965, and by the House of Representatives, in amended form, on Apr. 13, 1965. The House of Representatives agreed to a Conference Report on June 30, 1965, and the Senate agreed to the Conference Report on July 6, 1965. It was declared by the Administrator of General Services, on Feb. 23, 1967, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 39 of the 50 States.

    This amendment was ratified by the following States:

    Nebraska, July 12, 1965; Wisconsin, July 13, 1965; Oklahoma, July 16, 1965; Massachusetts, August 9, 1965; Pennsylvania, August 18, 1965; Kentucky, September 15, 1965; Arizona, September 22, 1965; Michigan, October 5, 1965; Indiana, October 20, 1965; California, October 21, 1965; Arkansas, November 4, 1965; New Jersey, November 29, 1965; Delaware, December 7, 1965; Utah, January 17, 1966; West Virginia, January 20, 1966; Maine, January 24, 1966; Rhode Island, January 28, 1966; Colorado, February 3, 1966; New Mexico, February 3, 1966; Kansas, February 8, 1966; Vermont, February 10, 1966; Alaska, February 18, 1966; Idaho, March 2, 1966; Hawaii, March 3, 1966; Virginia, March 8, 1966; Mississippi, March 10, 1966; New York, March 14, 1966; Maryland, March 23, 1966; Missouri, March 30, 1966; New Hampshire, June 13, 1966; Louisiana, July 5, 1966; Tennessee, January 12, 1967; Wyoming, January 25, 1967; Washington, January 26, 1967; Iowa, January 26, 1967; Oregon, February 2, 1967; Minnesota, February 10, 1967; Nevada, February 10, 1967.

    Ratification was completed on February 10, 1967.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Connecticut, February 14, 1967; Montana, February 15, 1967; South Dakota, March 6, 1967; Ohio, March 7, 1967; Alabama, March 14, 1967; North Carolina, March 22, 1967; Illinois, March 22, 1967; Texas, April 25, 1967; Florida, May 25, 1967.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Administrator of General Services that the amendment had become valid was made on Feb. 25, 1967, F.R. Doc. 67 092208, 32 F.R. 3287.

    Article [XXVI.]

    Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.

    Section. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment was proposed by the Ninety-second Congress by Senate Joint Resolution No. 7, which was approved by the Senate on Mar. 10, 1971, and by the House of Representatives on Mar. 23, 1971. It was declared by the Administrator of General Services on July 5, 1971, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 39 of the 50 States.

    This amendment was ratified by the following States: Connecticut, March 23, 1971; Delaware, March 23, 1971; Minnesota, March 23, 1971; Tennessee, March 23, 1971; Washington, March 23, 1971; Hawaii, March 24, 1971; Massachusetts, March 24, 1971; Montana, March 29, 1971; Arkansas, March 30, 1971; Idaho, March 30, 1971; Iowa, March 30, 1971; Nebraska, April 2, 1971; New Jersey, April 3, 1971; Kansas, April 7, 1971; Michigan, April 7, 1971; Alaska, April 8, 1971; Maryland, April 8, 1971; Indiana, April 8, 1971; Maine, April 9, 1971; Vermont, April 16, 1971; Louisiana, April 17, 1971; California, April 19, 1971; Colorado, April 27, 1971; Pennsylvania, April 27, 1971; Texas, April 27, 1971; South Carolina, April 28, 1971; West Virginia, April 28, 1971; New Hampshire, May 13, 1971; Arizona, May 14, 1971; Rhode Island, May 27, 1971; New York, June 2, 1971; Oregon, June 4, 1971; Missouri, June 14, 1971; Wisconsin, June 22, 1971; Illinois, June 29, 1971; Alabama, June 30, 1971; Ohio, June 30, 1971; North Carolina, July 1, 1971; Oklahoma, July 1, 1971.

    Ratification was completed on July 1, 1971.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Virginia, July 8, 1971; Wyoming, July 8, 1971; Georgia, October 4, 1971.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Administrator of General Services that the amendment had become valid was made on July 7, 1971, F.R. Doc. 71 099691, 36 F.R. 12725.

    Article [XXVII.]

    No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

    Proposal and Ratification

    This amendment, being the second of twelve articles proposed by the First Congress on Sept. 25, 1789, was declared by the Archivist of the United States on May 18, 1992, to have been ratified by the legislatures of 40 of the 50 States.

    This amendment was ratified by the following States: Maryland, December 19, 1789; North Carolina, December 22, 1789; South Carolina, January 19, 1790; Delaware, January 28, 1790; Vermont, November 3, 1791; Virginia, December 15, 1791; Ohio, May 6, 1873; Wyoming, March 6, 1978; Maine, April 27, 1983; Colorado, April 22, 1984; South Dakota, February 21, 1985; New Hampshire, March 7, 1985; Arizona, April 3, 1985; Tennessee, May 23, 1985; Oklahoma, July 10, 1985; New Mexico, February 14, 1986; Indiana, February 24, 1986; Utah, February 25, 1986; Arkansas, March 6, 1987; Montana, March 17, 1987; Connecticut, May 13, 1987; Wisconsin, July 15, 1987; Georgia, February 2, 1988; West Virginia, March 10, 1988; Louisiana, July 7, 1988; Iowa, February 9, 1989; Idaho, March 23, 1989; Nevada, April 26, 1989; Alaska, May 6, 1989; Oregon, May 19, 1989; Minnesota, May 22, 1989; Texas, May 25, 1989; Kansas, April 5, 1990; Florida, May 31, 1990; North Dakota, March 25, 1991; Alabama, May 5, 1992; Missouri, May 5, 1992; Michigan, May 7, 1992; New Jersey, May 7, 1992.

    Ratification was completed on May 7, 1992.

    The amendment was subsequently ratified by Illinois on May 12, 1992.

    Certification of Validity

    Publication of the certifying statement of the Archivist of the United States that the amendment had become valid was made on May 18, 1992, F.R. Doc. 92 0911951, 57 F.R. 21187.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article I

    Section 1.

    All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

    Section 2.

    Clause 1: The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

    Clause 2: No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

    Clause 3: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. (See Note 2) The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

    Clause 4: When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

    Clause 5: The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

    Section 3.

    Clause 1: The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, (See Note 3) for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

    Clause 2: Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. (See Note 4)

    Clause 3: No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

    Clause 4: The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

    Clause 5: The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

    Clause 6: The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

    Clause 7: Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

    Section 4.

    Clause 1: The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

    Clause 2: The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, (See Note 5) unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

    Section 5.

    Clause 1: Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

    Clause 2: Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

    Clause 3: Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

    Clause 4: Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

    Section 6.

    Clause 1: The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. (See Note 6) They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, beprivileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

    Clause 2: No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

    Section 7.

    Clause 1: All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

    Clause 2: Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

    Clause 3: Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

    Section 8.

    Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

    Clause 2: To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

    Clause 3: To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

    Clause 4: To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

    Clause 5: To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

    Clause 6: To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

    Clause 7: To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

    Clause 8: To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

    Clause 9: To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

    Clause 10: To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

    Clause 11: To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

    Clause 12: To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

    Clause 13: To provide and maintain a Navy;

    Clause 14: To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

    Clause 15: To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

    Clause 16: To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

    Clause 17: To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, byCession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And

    Clause 18: To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

    Section 9.

    Clause 1: The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

    Clause 2: The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

    Clause 3: No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

    Clause 4: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. (See Note 7)

    Clause 5: No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

    Clause 6: No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

    Clause 7: No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

    Clause 8: No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.

    Section 10.

    Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

    Clause 2: No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

    Clause 3: No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article II

    Section 1.

    Clause 1: The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows

    Clause 2: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

    Clause 3: The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. (See Note 8)

    Clause 4: The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

    Clause 5: No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

    Clause 6: In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, (See Note 9) the Same shall devolve on the VicePresident, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

    Clause 7: The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

    Clause 8: Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

    Section 2.

    Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

    Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

    Clause 3: The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

    Section 3.

    He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

    Section 4.

    The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article III

    Section 1.

    The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

    Section 2.

    Clause 1: The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;--between a State and Citizens of another State; --between Citizens of different States, --between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

    Clause 2: In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

    Clause 3: The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

    Section 3.

    Clause 1: Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

    Clause 2: The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article IV

    Section 1.

    Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

    Section 2.

    Clause 1: The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

    Clause 2: A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

    Clause 3: No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

    Section 3.

    Clause 1: New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

    Clause 2: The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

    Section 4.

    The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article V

    The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article VI

    Clause 1: All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

    Clause 2: This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

    Clause 3: The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Article VII

    The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
    done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names,

    GO WASHINGTON--Presidt. and deputy from Virginia

    [Signed also by the deputies of twelve States.]

    Delaware

    Geo: Read
    Gunning Bedford jun
    John Dickinson
    Richard Bassett
    Jaco: Broom

    Maryland

    James MCHenry
    Dan of ST ThoS. Jenifer
    DanL Carroll.

    Virginia

    John Blair--
    James Madison Jr.

    North Carolina

    WM Blount
    RichD. Dobbs Spaight.
    Hu Williamson

    South Carolina

    J. Rutledge
    Charles 1ACotesworth Pinckney
    Charles Pinckney
    Pierce Butler.

    Georgia

    William Few
    Abr Baldwin

    New Hampshire

    John Langdon
    Nicholas Gilman

    Massachusetts

    Nathaniel Gorham
    Rufus King

    Connecticut
    WM. SamL. Johnson
    Roger Sherman

    New York

    Alexander Hamilton

    New Jersey

    Wil: Livingston
    David Brearley.
    WM. Paterson.
    Jona: Dayton

    Pennsylvania

    B Franklin
    Thomas Mifflin
    RobT Morris
    Geo. Clymer
    ThoS. FitzSimons
    Jared Ingersoll
    James Wilson.
    Gouv Morris

    Attest William Jackson Secretary

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Bill of Rights

    ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENTS OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION

    Article [I.]

    Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

    Article [II.]

    A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

    Article [III.]

    No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

    Article [IV.]

    The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

    Article [V.]

    No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

    Article [VI.]

    In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

    Article [VII.]

    In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

    Article [VIII.]

    Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

    Article [IX.]

    The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

    Article [X.]

    The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution - Preamble

    We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Constitution of the Confederate States

    We, the people of the Confederate States, each State acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a permanent federal government, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity--invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God--do ordain and establish this Constitution for the Confederate States of America.

    ARTICLE I.

    Section I.

    All legislative powers herein delegated shall be vested in a Congress of the Confederate States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

    Section II.

    The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States; and the electors in each State shall be citizens of the Confederate States, and have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature; but no person of foreign birth, not a citizen of the Confederate States, shall be allowed to vote for any officer, civil or political, State or Federal.
    No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and be a citizen of the Confederate States, and who shall not when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

    Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States, which may be included within this Confederacy, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all slaves. ,The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the Confederate States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every fifty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of South Carolina shall be entitled to choose six; the State of Georgia ten; the State of Alabama nine; the State of Florida two; the State of Mississippi seven; the State of Louisiana six; and the State of Texas six.

    When vacancies happen in the representation from any State the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.
    The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment; except that any judicial or other Federal officer, resident and acting solely within the limits of any State, may be impeached by a vote of two-thirds of both branches of the Legislature thereof.

    Section III.

    The Senate of the Confederate States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen for six years by the Legislature thereof, at the regular session next immediately preceding the commencement of the term of service; and each Senator shall have one vote.
    Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.
    No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and be a citizen of the Confederate States; and who shall not, then elected, be an inhabitant of the State for which he shall be chosen.

    The Vice President of the Confederate States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.
    The Senate shall choose their other officers; and also a president pro tempore in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the Confederate states.
    The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the Confederate States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.
    Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold any office of honor, trust, or profit under the Confederate States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law.

    Section IV.

    The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof, subject to the provisions of this Constitution; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the times and places of choosing Senators.
    The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day.
    Section V.
    Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide.
    Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds of the whole number, expel a member.
    Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal.
    Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

    Section VI.

    The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the Confederate States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 'o Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the Confederate States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the Confederate States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. But Congress may, by law, grant to the principal officer in each of the Executive Departments a seat upon the floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing any measures appertaining to his department.

    Section VII.

    All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills.
    Every bill which shall have passed both Houses, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the Confederate States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respective}y. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a E law. The President may approve any appropriation and disapprove any other appropriation in the same bill. In such case he shall, in signing the bill, designate the appropriations disapproved; and shall return a copy of such appropriations, with his objections, to the House in which the bill shall have originated; and the same proceedings shall then be had as in case of other bills disapproved by the President.
    Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of both Houses may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the Confederate States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him; or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of both Houses, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in case of a bill.

    Section VIII.

    The Congress shall have power-

    To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises for revenue, necessary to pay the debts, provide for the common defense, and carry on the Government of the Confederate States; but no bounties shall be granted from the Treasury; nor shall any duties or taxes on importations from foreign nations be laid to promote or foster any branch of industry; and all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the Confederate States.
    To borrow money on the credit of the Confederate States.
    To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; but neither this, nor any other clause contained in the Constitution, shall ever be construed to delegate the power to Congress to appropriate money for any internal improvement intended to facilitate commerce; except for the purpose of furnishing lights, beacons, and buoys, and other aids to navigation upon the coasts, and the improvement of harbors and the removing of obstructions in river navigation; in all which cases such duties shall be laid on the navigation facilitated thereby as may be necessary to pay the costs and expenses thereof.
    To establish uniform laws of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the Confederate States; but no law of Congress shall discharge any debt contracted before the passage of the same.
    To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.
    To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the Confederate States.
    To establish post offices and post routes; but the expenses of the Post Office Department, after the Ist day of March in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and sixty-three, shall be paid out of its own revenues.
    To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.
    To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court.
    To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.
    To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water.
    To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years.
    To provide and maintain a navy.
    To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces.
    To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Confederate States, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.
    To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the Confederate States; reserving to the States, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.
    To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of one or more States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the Confederate States; and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the . erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and
    To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the Confederate States, or in any department or officer thereof.

    Section IX.

    The importation of negroes of the African race from any foreign country other than the slaveholding States or Territories of the United States of America, is hereby forbidden; and Congress is required to pass such laws as shall effectually prevent the same.
    Congress shall also have power to prohibit the introduction of slaves from any State not a member of, or Territory not belonging to, this Confederacy.
    The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it.
    No bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves shall be passed.
    No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.
    No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State, except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses.
    No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another.
    No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.
    Congress shall appropriate no money from the Treasury except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked and estimated for by some one of the heads of departments and submitted to Congress by the President; or for the purpose of paying its own expenses and contingencies; or for the payment of claims against the Confederate States, the justice of which shall have been judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation of claims against the Government, which it is hereby made the duty of Congress to establish.
    All bills appropriating money shall specify in Federal currency the exact amount of each appropriation and the purposes for which it is made; and Congress shall grant no extra compensation to any public contractor, officer, agent, or servant, after such contract shall have been made or such service rendered.
    No title of nobility shall be granted by the Confederate States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.
    Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
    A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.
    No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
    The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.
    No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
    In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.
    In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact so tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the Confederacy, than according to the rules of common law.
    Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
    Every law, or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall be expressed in the title.

    Section X.

    No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility.
    No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports, or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the Confederate States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of Congress.
    No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, except on seagoing vessels, for the improvement of its rivers and harbors navigated by the said vessels; but such duties shall not conflict with any treaties of the Confederate States with foreign nations; and any surplus revenue thus derived shall, after making such improvement, be paid into the common treasury. Nor shall any State keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. But when any river divides or flows through two or more States they may enter into compacts with each other to improve the navigation thereof.

    ARTICLE II.

    Section I.

    The executive power shall be vested in a President of the Confederate States of America. He and the Vice President shall hold their offices for the term of six years; but the President shall not be reeligible. The President and Vice President shall be elected as follows:
    Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative or person holding an office of trust or profit under the Confederate States shall be appointed an elector.
    The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the Government of. the Confederate States, directed to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall,in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States~the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 4th day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in case of the death, or other constitutional disability of the President.
    The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then, from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice.
    But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the Confederate States.
    The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the Confederate States.
    No person except a natural-born citizen of the Confederate; States, or a citizen thereof at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, or a citizen thereof born in the United States prior to the 20th of December, 1860, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the limits of the Confederate States, as they may exist at the time of his election.
    In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President; and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected.
    The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the Confederate States, or any of them.
    Before he enters on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation:
    "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Confederate States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution thereof."
    Section II.
    The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the Confederate States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the Confederate States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the Executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States, except in cases of impeachment.
    He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties; provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the Confederate States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
    The principal officer in each of the Executive Departments, and all persons connected with the diplomatic service, may be removed from office at the pleasure of the President. All other civil officers of the Executive Departments may be removed at any time by the President, or other appointing power, when their services are unnecessary, or for dishonesty, incapacity. inefficiency, misconduct, or neglect of duty; and when so removed, the removal shall be reported to the Senate, together with the reasons therefor.
    The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session; but no person rejected by the Senate shall be reappointed to the same office during their ensuing recess.

    Section III.

    The President shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Confederacy, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them; and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the Confederate States.

    Section IV.

    The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the Confederate States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

    ARTICLE III.

    Section I.

    The judicial power of the Confederate States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
    Section II.
    The judicial power shall extend to all cases arising under this Constitution, the laws of the Confederate States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the Confederate States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State, where the State is plaintiff; between citizens claiming lands under grants of different States; and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects; but no State shall be sued by a citizen or subject of any foreign state.
    In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.
    The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

    Section III.

    Treason against the Confederate States shall consist only in levying war against.them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
    The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.

    ARTICLE IV.

    Section I.

    Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

    Section II.

    The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States; and shall have the right of transit and sojourn in any State of this Confederacy, with their slaves and other property; and the right of property in said slaves shall not be thereby impaired.
    A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime against the laws of such State, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.
    No slave or other person held to service or labor in any State or Territory of the Confederate States, under the laws thereof, escaping or lawfully carried into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor; but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such slave belongs; or to whom such service or labor may be due.

    Section III.

    Other States may be admitted into this Confederacy by a vote of two-thirds of the whole House of Representatives and two-thirds of the Senate, the Senate voting by States; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress.
    The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations concerning the property of the Confederate States, including the lands thereof.
    The Confederate States may acquire new territory; and Congress shall have power to legislate and provide governments for the inhabitants of all territory belonging to the Confederate States, lying without the limits of the several Sates; and may permit them, at such times, and in such manner as it may by law provide, to form States to be admitted into the Confederacy. In all such territory the institution of negro slavery, as it now exists in the Confederate States, shall be recognized and protected by Congress and by the Territorial government; and the inhabitants of the several Confederate States and Territories shall have the right to take to such Territory any slaves lawfully held by them in any of the States or Territories of the Confederate States.
    The Confederate States shall guarantee to every State that now is, or hereafter may become, a member of this Confederacy, a republican form of government; and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the Legislature or of the Executive when the Legislature is not in session) against domestic violence.

    ARTICLE V.

    Section I.

    Upon the demand of any three States, legally assembled in their several conventions, the Congress shall summon a convention of all the States, to take into consideration such amendments to the Constitution as the said States shall concur in suggesting at the time when the said demand is made; and should any of the proposed amendments to the Constitution be agreed on by the said convention~voting by States~and the same be ratified by the Legislatures of two- thirds of the several States, or by conventions in two-thirds thereof~as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the general convention~they shall thenceforward form a part of this Constitution. But no State shall, without its consent, be deprived of its equal representation in the Senate.

    ARTICLE VI.

    Section I.

    The Government established by this Constitution is the successor of the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America, and all the laws passed by the latter shall continue in force until the same shall be repealed or modified; and all the officers appointed by the same shall remain in office until their successors are appointed and qualified, or the offices abolished.
    All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the Confederate States under this Constitution, as under the Provisional Government.
    This Constitution, and the laws of the Confederate States made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the Confederate States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.
    The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the Confederate States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the Confederate States.
    The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people of the several States.
    The powers not delegated to the Confederate States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people thereof.

    Section VI.

    Section V.

    Section IV.

    Section III.

    Section II.

    ARTICLE VII.

    The ratification of the conventions of five States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same.
    When five States shall have ratified this Constitution, in the manner before specified, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution shall prescribe the time for holding the election of President and Vice President; and for the meeting of the Electoral College; and for counting the votes, and inaugurating the President. They shall, also, prescribe the time for holding the first election of members of Congress under this Constitution, and the time for assembling the same. Until the assembling of such Congress, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution shall continue to exercise the legislative powers granted them; not extending beyond the time limited by the Constitution of the Provisional Government.
    Adopted unanimously by the Congress of the Confederate States of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, sitting in convention at the capitol, in the city of Montgomery, Ala., on the eleventh day of March, in the year eighteen hundred and sixty-one.

    HOWELL COBB,
    President of the Congress.

    South Carolina: R. Barnwell Rhett, C. G. Memminger, Wm. Porcher Miles, James Chesnut, Jr., R. W. Barnwell, William W. Boyce, Lawrence M. Keitt, T. J. Withers.
    Georgia: Francis S. Bartow, Martin J. Crawford, Benjamin H. Hill, Thos. R. R. Cobb.
    Florida: Jackson Morton, J. Patton Anderson, Jas. B. Owens.
    Alabama: Richard W. Walker, Robt. H. Smith, Colin J. McRae, William P. Chilton, Stephen F. Hale, David P. L,ewis, Tho. Fearn, Jno. Gill Shorter, J. L. M. Curry. Mississippi: Alex. M. Clayton, James T. Harrison, William S. Barry, W. S. Wilson, Walker Brooke, W. P. Harris, J. A. P. Campbell.
    Louisiana: Alex. de Clouet, C. M. Conrad, Duncan F. Kenner, Henry Marshall.
    Texas: John Hemphill, Thomas N. Waul, John H. Reagan, Williamson S. Oldham, Louis T. Wigfall, John Gregg, William Beck Ochiltree

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Declaration of Independence

    July 4, 1776
    The Unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America.

    When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the Political Bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the Earth, the separate and equal Station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent Respect to the Opinions of Mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the Separation.

    We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness -- That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the Consent of the Governed, that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive to these Ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its Foundation on such Principles and organizing its Powers in such Form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient Causes; and accordingly all Experience hath shown that Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while Evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the Forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long Train of Abuses and Usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a Design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their Right, it is their Duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future Security. Such has been the patient Sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the Necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The History of the present King of Great- Britain is a History of repeated Injuries and Usurpations, all having in direct Object the Establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid World.

    HE has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public Good.

    HE has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing Importance, unless suspended in their Operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

    HE has refused to pass other Laws for the Accommodation of large Districts of People, unless those People would relinquish the Right of Representation in the Legislature, a Right inestimable to them and formidable to Tyrants only.

    HE has called together Legislative Bodies at Places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the Depository of their public Records, for the sole Purpose of fatiguing them into Compliance with his Measures.

    HE has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly Firmness his Invasions on the Rights of the People.

    HE has refused for a long Time, after such Dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the Dangers of Invasion from without, and the Convulsions within.

    HE has endeavored to prevent the Population of these States; for that Purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their Migration hither, and raising the Conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

    HE has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.

    HE has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the Tenure of their Offices, and the Amount and Payment of their Salaries.

    HE has erected a Multitude of new Offices, and sent hither Swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their Substance.

    HE has kept among us, in Times of Peace, Standing Armies without the consent of our Legislature.

    HE has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to Civil Power.

    HE has combined with others to subject us to a Jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our Laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

    FOR quartering large Bodies of Armed Troops among us:

    FOR protecting them, by mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

    FOR cutting off our Trade with all Parts of the World:

    FOR imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

    FOR depriving us in many Cases, of the Benefits of Trial by Jury:

    FOR transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended Offences:

    FOR abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an arbitrary Government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an Example and fit Instrument for introducing the same absolute Rule into these Colonies:

    FOR taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

    FOR suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with Power to legislate for us in all Cases whatsoever.

    HE has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

    HE has plundered our Seas, ravaged our Coasts, burned our Towns, and destroyed the Lives of our People.

    HE is, at this Time, transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the Works of Death, Desolation, and Tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and Perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous Ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized Nation.

    HE has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the Executioners of their Friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

    HE has excited domestic Insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the Inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known Rule of Warfare, is undistinguished Destruction of all Ages, Sexes and Conditions.

    IN every stage of these Oppressions we have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble Terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated Injury. A Prince, whose Character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the Ruler of a free People.

    NOR have we been wanting in Attentions to our British Brethren. We have warned them from Time to Time of attempts by their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable Jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the Circumstances of our Emigration and Settlement here. We have appealed to their native Justice and Magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the Ties of our common Kindred to disavow these Usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our Connections and Correspondence. They too have been deaf to the Voice of Justice and Consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the Necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of Mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends.

    WE, therefore, the Representatives of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the Rectitude of our Intentions, do, in the Name, and by the Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly Publish and Declare, that these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political Connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

    New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
    Massachusetts: John Hancock, Samual Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry
    Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
    Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
    New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
    New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
    Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
    Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean
    Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
    Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
    North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
    South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton
    Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Declaration of the Causes and Necessity

    July 6, 1775

    A declaration by the representatives of the united colonies of North America, now met in Congress at Philadelphia, setting forth the causes and necessity of their taking up arms.

    If it was possible for men, who exercise their reason to believe, that the divine Author of our existence intended a part of the human race to hold an absolute property in, and an unbounded power over others, marked out by his infinite goodness and wisdom, as the objects of a legal domination never rightfully resistible, however severe and oppressive, the inhabitants of these colonies might at least require from the parliament of Great-Britain some evidence, that this dreadful authority over them, has been granted to that body. But a reverance for our Creator, principles of humanity, and the dictates of common sense, must convince all those who reflect upon the subject, that government was instituted to promote the welfare of mankind, and ought to be administered for the attainment of that end. The legislature of Great-Britain, however, stimulated by an inordinate passion for a power not only unjustifiable, but which they know to be peculiarly reprobated by the very constitution of that kingdom, and desparate of success in any mode of contest, where regard should be had to truth, law, or right, have at length, deserting those, attempted to effect their cruel and impolitic purpose of enslaving these colonies by violence, and have thereby rendered it necessary for us to close with their last appeal from reason to arms. Yet, however blinded that assembly may be, by their intemperate rage for unlimited domination, so to sight justice and the opinion of mankind, we esteem ourselves bound by obligations of respect to the rest of the world, to make known the justice of our cause. Our forefathers, inhabitants of the island of Great-Britain, left their native land, to seek on these shores a residence for civil and religious freedom. At the expense of their blood, at the hazard of their fortunes, without the least charge to the country from which they removed, by unceasing labour, and an unconquerable spirit, they effected settlements in the distant and unhospitable wilds of America, then filled with numerous and warlike barbarians. -- Societies or governments, vested with perfect legislatures, were formed under charters from the crown, and an harmonious intercourse was established between the colonies and the kingdom from which they derived their origin. The mutual benefits of this union became in a short time so extraordinary, as to excite astonishment. It is universally confessed, that the amazing increase of the wealth, strength, and navigation of the realm, arose from this source; and the minister, who so wisely and successfully directed the measures of Great-Britain in the late war, publicly declared, that these colonies enabled her to triumph over her enemies. --Towards the conclusion of that war, it pleased our sovereign to make a change in his counsels. -- From that fatal movement, the affairs of the British empire began to fall into confusion, and gradually sliding from the summit of glorious prosperity, to which they had been advanced by the virtues and abilities of one man, are at length distracted by the convulsions, that now shake it to its deepest foundations. -- The new ministry finding the brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeated, yet still contending, took up the unfortunate idea of granting them a hasty peace, and then subduing her faithful friends.

    These colonies were judged to be in such a state, as to present victories without bloodshed, and all the easy emoluments of statuteable plunder. -- The uninterrupted tenor of their peaceable and respectful behaviour from the beginning of colonization, their dutiful, zealous, and useful services during the war, though so recently and amply acknowledged in the most honourable manner by his majesty, by the late king, and by parliament, could not save them from the meditated innovations. -- Parliament was influenced to adopt the pernicious project, and assuming a new power over them, have in the course of eleven years, given such decisive specimens of the spirit and consequences attending this power, as to leave no doubt concerning the effects of acquiescence under it. They have undertaken to give and grant our money without our consent, though we have ever exercised an exclusive right to dispose of our own property; statutes have been passed for extending the jurisdiction of courts of admiralty and vice-admiralty beyond their ancient limits; for depriving us of the accustomed and inestimable privilege of trial by jury, in cases affecting both life and property; for suspending the legislature of one of the colonies; for interdicting all commerce to the capital of another; and for altering fundamentally the form of government established by charter, and secured by acts of its own legislature solemnly confirmed by the crown; for exempting the "murderers" of colonists from legal trial, and in effect, from punishment; for erecting in a neighbouring province, acquired by the joint arms of Great-Britain and America, a despotism dangerous to our very existence; and for quartering soldiers upon the colonists in time of profound peace. It has also been resolved in parliament, that colonists charged with committing certain offences, shall be transported to England to be tried. But why should we enumerate our injuries in detail? By one statute it is declared, that parliament can "of right make laws to bind us in all cases whatsoever." What is to defend us against so enormous, so unlimited a power? Not a single man of those who assume it, is chosen by us; or is subject to our control or influence; but, on the contrary, they are all of them exempt from the operation of such laws, and an American revenue, if not diverted from the ostensible purposes for which it is raised, would actually lighten their own burdens in proportion, as they increase ours. We saw the misery to which such despotism would reduce us. We for ten years incessantly and ineffectually besieged the throne as supplicants; we reasoned, we remonstrated with parliament, in the most mild and decent language.

    Administration sensible that we should regard these oppressive measures as freemen ought to do, sent over fleets and armies to enforce them. The indignation of the Americans was roused, it is true; but it was the indignation of a virtuous, loyal, and affectionate people. A Congress of delegates from the United Colonies was assembled at Philadelphia, on the fifth day of last September. We resolved again to offer an humble and dutiful petition to the King, and also addressed our fellow-subjects of Great-Britain. We have pursued every temperate, every respectful measure; we have even proceeded to break off our commercial intercourse with our fellow-subjects, as the last peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no nation upon earth should supplant our attachment to liberty. -- This, we flattered ourselves, was the ultimate step of the controversy: but subsequent events have shewn, how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our enemies.

    Several threatening expressions against the colonies were inserted in his majesty's speech; our petition, tho' we were told it was a decent one, and that his majesty had been pleased to receive it graciously, and to promise laying it before his parliament, was huddled into both houses among a bundle of American papers, and there neglected. The lords and commons in their address, in the month of February, said, that "a rebellion at that time actually existed within the province of Massachusetts- Bay; and that those concerned with it, had been countenanced and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engagements, entered into by his majesty's subjects in several of the other colonies; and therefore they besought his majesty, that he would take the most effectual measures to inforce due obediance to the laws and authority of the supreme legislature." -- Soon after, the commercial intercourse of whole colonies, with foreign countries, and with each other, was cut off by an act of parliament; by another several of them were intirely prohibited from the fisheries in the seas near their coasts, on which they always depended for their sustenance; and large reinforcements of ships and troops were immediately sent over to general Gage.

    Fruitless were all the entreaties, arguments, and eloquence of an illustrious band of the most distinguished peers, and commoners, who nobly and strenuously asserted the justice of our cause, to stay, or even to mitigate the heedless fury with which these accumulated and unexampled outrages were hurried on. -- equally fruitless was the interference of the city of London, of Bristol, and many other respectable towns in our favor. Parliament adopted an insidious manoeuvre calculated to divide us, to establish a perpetual auction of taxations where colony should bid against colony, all of them uninformed what ransom would redeem their lives; and thus to extort from us, at the point of the bayonet, the unknown sums that should be sufficient to gratify, if possible to gratify, ministerial rapacity, with the miserable indulgence left to us of raising, in our own mode, the prescribed tribute. What terms more rigid and humiliating could have been dictated by remorseless victors to conquered enemies? in our circumstances to accept them, would be to deserve them.

    Soon after the intelligence of these proceedings arrived on this continent, general Gage, who in the course of the last year had taken possession of the town of Boston, in the province of Massachusetts-Bay, and still occupied it a garrison, on the 19th day of April, sent out from that place a large detachment of his army, who made an unprovoked assault on the inhabitants of the said province, at the town of Lexington, as appears by the affidavits of a great number of persons, some of whom were officers and soldiers of that detachment, murdered eight of the inhabitants, and wounded many others. From thence the troops proceeded in warlike array to the town of Concord, where they set upon another party of the inhabitants of the same province, killing several and wounding more, until compelled to retreat by the country people suddenly assembled to repel this cruel aggression. Hostilities, thus commenced by the British troops, have been since prosecuted by them without regard to faith or reputation. -- The inhabitants of Boston being confined within that town by the general their governor, and having, in order to procure their dismission, entered into a treaty with him, it was stipulated that the said inhabitants having deposited their arms with their own magistrate, should have liberty to depart, taking with them their other effects. They accordingly delivered up their arms, but in open violation of honour, in defiance of the obligation of treaties, which even savage nations esteemed sacred, the governor ordered the arms deposited as aforesaid, that they might be preserved for their owners, to be seized by a body of soldiers; detained the greatest part of the inhabitants in the town, and compelled the few who were permitted to retire, to leave their most valuable effects behind.

    By this perfidy wives are separated from their husbands, children from their parents, the aged and the sick from their relations and friends, who wish to attend and comfort them; and those who have been used to live in plenty and even elegance, are reduced to deplorable distress.

    The general, further emulating his ministerial masters, by a proclamation bearing date on the 12th day of June, after venting the grossest falsehoods and calumnies against the good people of these colonies, proceeds to "declare them all, either by name or description, to be rebels and traitors, to supercede the course of the common law, and instead thereof to publish and order the use and exercise of the law martial." -- His troops have butchered our countrymen, have wantonly burnt Charlestown, besides a considerable number of houses in other places; our ships and vessels are seized; the necessary supplies of provisions are intercepted, and he is exerting his utmost power to spread destruction and devastation around him.

    We have rceived certain intelligence, that general Carleton, the governor of Canada, is instigating the people of that province and the Indians to fall upon us; and we have but too much reason to apprehend, that schemes have been formed to excite domestic enemies against us. In brief, a part of these colonies now feel, and all of them are sure of feeling, as far as the vengeance of administration can inflict them, the complicated calamities of fire, sword and famine. [1] We are reduced to the alternative of chusing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated ministers, or resistance by force. -- The latter is our choice. -- We have counted the cost of this contest, and find nothing so dreadful as voluntary slavery. -- Honour, justice, and humanity, forbid us tamely to surrender that freedom which we received from our gallant ancestors, and which our innocent posterity have a right to receive from us. We cannot endure the infamy and guilt of resigning succeeding generations to that wretchedness which inevitably awaits them, if we basely entail hereditary bondage upon them.

    Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our internal resources are great, and, if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedly attainable. -- We gratefully acknowledge, as signal instances of the Divine favour towards us, that his Providence would not permit us to be called into this severe controversy, until we were grown up to our present strength, had been previously exercised in warlike operation, and possessed of the means of defending ourselves. With hearts fortified with these animating reflections, we most solemnly, before God and the world, declare, that, exerting the utmost energy of those powers, which our beneficent Creator hath graciously bestowed upon us, the arms we have been compelled by our enemies to assume, we will, in defiance of every hazard, with unabating firmness and perseverence, employ for the preservation of our liberties; being with one mind resolved to die freemen rather than to live slaves.

    Lest this declaration should disquiet the minds of our friends and fellow-subjects in any part of the empire, we assure them that we mean not to dissolve that union which has so long and so happily subsisted between us, and which we sincerely wish to see restored. -- Necessity has not yet driven us into that desperate measure, or induced us to excite any other nation to war against them. -- We have not raised armies with ambitious designs of separating from Great-Britain, and establishing independent states. We fight not for glory or for conquest. We exhibit to mankind the remarkable spectacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies, without any imputation or even suspicion of offence. They boast of their privileges and civilization, and yet proffer no milder conditions than servitude or death.

    In our own native land, in defence of the freedom that is our birthright, and which we ever enjoyed till the late violation of it -- for the protection of our property, acquired solely by the honest industry of our fore-fathers and ourselves, against violence actually offered, we have taken up arms. We shall lay them down when hostilities shall cease on the part of the aggressors, and all danger of their being renewed shall be removed, and not before.

    With an humble confidence in the mercies of the supreme and impartial Judge and Ruler of the Universe, we most devoutly implore his divine goodness to protect us happily through this great conflict, to dispose our adversaries to reconciliation on reasonable terms, and thereby to relieve the empire from the calamities of civil war.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Emancipation Proclamation

    1864
    By the President of the United States of America:

    A PROCLAMATION

    Whereas on the 22nd day of September, A.D. 1862, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, to wit:

    "That on the 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.

    "That the executive will on the 1st day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof, respectively, shall then be in rebellion against the United States; and the fact that any State or the people thereof shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such States shall have participated shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States."

    Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-In-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for supressing said rebellion, do, on this 1st day of January, A.D. 1863, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days from the first day above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof, respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States the following, to wit:

    Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Palquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terrebone, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Morthhampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are for the present left precisely as if this proclamation were not issued.

    And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be, free; and that the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons.

    And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and I recommend to them that, in all case when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages.

    And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable condition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service.

    And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Espionage Act of May 16, 1918

    Be it enacted, That section three of the Act . . . approved June I5, 1917, be . . amended so as to read as follows:

    SEC. 3. Whoever, when the United States is at war, shall wilfully make or convey false reports or false statements with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the military or naval forces of the United States, or to promote the success of its enemies, or shall wilfully make or convey false reports, or false statements, or say or do anything except by way of bona fide and not disloyal advice to an investor . . . with intent to obstruct the sale by the United States of bonds . . . or the making of loans by or to the United States, or whoever, when the United States is at war, shall wilfully cause . . . or incite . . . insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces of the United States, or shall wilfully obstruct . . . the recruiting or enlistment service of the United States, and whoever, when the United States is at war, shall wilfully utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States, or the Constitution of the United States, or the military or naval forces of the United States, or the flag . . . or the uniform of the Army or Navy of the United States, or any language intended to bring the form of government . . . or the Constitution . . . or the military or naval forces . . . or the flag . . . of the United States into contempt, scorn, contumely, or disrepute . . . or shall wilfully display the flag of any foreign enemy, or shall wilfully . . . urge, incite, or advocate any curtailment of production in this country of any thing or things . . . necessary or essential to the prosecution of the war . . . and whoever shall wilfully advocate, teach, defend, or suggest the doing of any of the acts or things in this section enumerated and whoever shall by word or act support or favor the cause of any coun try with which the United States is at war or by word or act oppose the cause of the United States therein, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $10,000 or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both....

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First Inaugural Address of President George Washington

    April 30, 1789
    Fellow-Citizens of the Senate and of the House of Representatives:

    Among the vicissitudes incident to life no event could have filled me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was transmitted by your order, and received on the 14th day of the present month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice I can never hear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I had chosen with the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes, with an immutable decision, as the asylum of my declining years -- a retreat which was rendered every day more necessary as well as more dear to me by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent interruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by t ime. On the other hand, the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to which the voice of my country called me, being sufficient to awaken in the wisest and most experienced of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence one who (inheriting inferior endowments from nature and unpracticed in the duties of civil administration) ought to be peculiarly conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of emotions all I dare aver is that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be affected. All I dare hope is that if, in executing this task, I have been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances, or by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent pr oof of the confidence of my fellow-citizens, and have thence too little consulted my incapacity as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried cares before me, my error will be palliated by the motives which mislead me, and its consequences be judg ed by my country with some share of the partiality in which they originated.

    Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the public summons, repaired to the present station, it would be peculiarly improper to omit in this first official act my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations, and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, that His benediction may consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States a Government instituted by t hemselves for these essential purposes, and may enable every instrument employed in its administration to execute with success the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the Great Author of every public and private good, I assure my self that it expresses your sentiments not less than my own, nor those of my fellow-citizens at large less than either. No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the Invisible Hand which conducts the affairs of men more than those of the United Stat es. Every step by which they have advanced to the character of an independent nation seems to have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their united government the tran quil deliberations and voluntary consent of so many distinct communities from which the event has resulted can not be compared with the means by which most governments have been established without some return of pious gratitude, along with an humble anti cipation of the future blessings which the past seem to presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none under t he influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can more auspiciously commence.

    By the article establishing the executive department it is made the duty of the President "to recommend to your consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." The circumstances under which I now meet you will a cquit me from entering into that subject further than to refer to the great constitutional charter under which you are assembled, and which, in defining your powers, designates the objects to which your attention is to be given. It will be more consistent with those circumstances, and far more congenial with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute, in place of a recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism which adorn the characters selected to devise and adopt them. In these honorable qualifications I behold the surest pledges that as on one side no local prejudices or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, will misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over this great assemblage of communities and interests, so, on another, that the foundation of our national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable principles of private morality, and the preeminence of free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the affections of its citizens and command the respect of the world. I dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love for my country can inspire, since there is no truth more thoroughly established than th at there exists in the economy and course of nature an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness; between duty and advantage; between the genuine maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy and the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity; sin ce we ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious smiles of Heaven can never be expected on a nation that disregards the eternal rules of order and right which Heaven itself has ordained; and since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered, perhaps, as deeply, as finally, staked on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people.

    Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain with your judgment to decide how far an exercise of the occasional power delegated by the fifth article of the Constitution is rendered expedient at the present junctu re by the nature of objections which have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude which has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular recommendations on this subject, in which I could be guided by no lights derived from official opportunities, I shall again give way to my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public good; for I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective go vernment, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience, a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen and a regard for the public harmony will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question how far the former can be impregnab ly fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.

    To the foregoing observations I have one to add, which will be most properly addressed to the House of Representatives. It concerns myself, and will therefore be as brief as possible. When I was first honored with a call into the servi ce of my country, then on the eve of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I contemplated my duty required that I should renounce every pecuniary compensation. From this resolution I have in no instance departed; and being still under the impressions which produced it, I must decline as inapplicable to myself any share in the personal emoluments which may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the executive department, and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary estima tes for the station in which I am placed may during my continuance in it be limited to such actual expenditures as the public good may be thought to require.

    Having thus imparted to you my sentiments as they have been awakened by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the Human Race in humble supplica tion that, since He has been pleased to favor the American people with opportunities for deliberating in perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled unanimity on a form of government for the security of their union and the advanc ement of their happiness, so His divine blessing may be equally conspicuous in the enlarged views, the temperate consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this Government must depend.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First State of the Union Address

    President George Washington
    Friday, January 8, 1790

    FELLOW CITIZENS Of the SENATE, and HOUSE of REPRESENTATIVES,

    I EMBRACE with great satisfaction the opportunity, which now presents itself, of congratulating you on the present favourable prospects of our public affairs. The recent accession of the important state of Northcarolina to the Constitution of the United States (of which official information has been received)--- the ruling credit and respectability of our country--- the general and increasing good will towards the government of the union, and the concord, peace and plenty, with which we are blessed, are circumstances auspicious, in an excellent degree, to our national prosperity.

    n reforming your consultations for the general good, you cannot but derive encouragement from the reflection, the measures of the last session have been as satisfactory to your constituents as the novelty and difficulty of the work allowed you to hope.-- Still further to realize their expectations, and to secure the blessings which a gracious Providence has placed within our reach, will in the course of the present important session, call for the cool and deliberate exertion of your patriotism, firmness and wisdom.

    Among the many interesting objects which will engage your attention, that of providing for the common defence will merit particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace.

    A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well digested plan is requisite: And their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories, as tend to render them independent on others, for essential, particularly for military supplies.

    The proper establishment of the troops which may be deemed indispensable, will be entitled to mature consideration. In the arrangement which will be made respecting it, it will be of importance to conciliate the comfortable support of the officers and soldiers with a due regard to economy.

    There was reason to hope, the pacifick measures adopted with regard to certain hostile tribes of Indians, would have relieved the inhabitants of our southern and western frontiers from their depredations. But you will perceive, from the information contained in the papers, which I shall direct to be laid before you, (comprehending a communication from the Commonwealth of Virginia) that we ought to be prepared to afford protection to those parts of the Union; and, if necessary, to punish aggressors.

    The interests of the United States require, that our intercourse with other nations should be facilitated by such provisions as will enable me to fulfill my duty, in that respect, in the manner which circumstances may render most conducive to the publick good: And to this end, that the compensations to be made to the persons who may be employed, should, according to the nature of their appointments, be defined by law; and a competent fund designated for defraying the expenses incident to the conduct of our foreign affairs.

    Various considerations also render it expedient, that the terms on which foreigners may be admitted to the rights of Citizens, should be speedily ascertained by a uniform rule of naturalization.

    Uniformity in the currency, weights and measures of the United States, is an object of great importance, and will, I am persuaded, be duly attended to.

    The advancement of agriculture, commerce and manufactures, by all proper means, will not, I trust, need recommendation. But I cannot forbear intimating to you the expediency of giving effectual encouragement as well to the introduction of new and useful inventions from abroad, as to the exertions of skill and genius in producing them at home; and of facilitating the intercourse between the distant parts of our country by a due attention to the Post Office and Post Roads.

    Nor am I less persuaded, that you will agree with me in opinion, that there is nothing which can better deserve your patronage, than the promotion of Science and Literature. Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of publick happiness. In one, in which the measures of government receive their impression so immediately from the sense of the community, as in our's, it is proportionately essential. To the security of a free Constitution it contributes in various ways: By convincing those who are entrusted with the publick administration, that every valuable end of government is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people: And by teaching the people themselves to know, and to value their own rights; to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority; between burthens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and those resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to discriminate the spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness, cherishing the first, avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy, but temperate vigilance against encroachments, with an inviolable respect to the laws.

    Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy of a place in the deliberations of the Legislature.

    Gentlemen of the House of Representatives,

    I SAW with peculiar pleasure, at the close of the last session, the resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion, that an adequate provision for the support of the publick credit, is a matter of high importance to the national honour and prosperity.-- In this sentiment, I entirely concur.-- And to a perfect confidence in your best endeavors to devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with the end, I add an equal reliance on the cheerful cooperation of the other branch of the Legislature.-- It would be superfluous to specify inducements to a measure in which the character and permanent interests of the United States so obviously and so deeply concerned; and which has received so explicit a sanction from your declaration.

    Gentlemen of the Senate, and House of Representatives,

    I HAVE directed the proper officers to lay before you respectively such papers and estimates as regards the affairs particularly recommended to your consideration, and necessary to convey to you that information of the state of the union, which it is my duty to afford.

    The welfare of our country is the great object to which our cares and efforts ought to be directed.-- And I shall derive great satisfaction from a cooperation with you, in the pleasing though arduous task of ensuring to our fellow citizens the blessings which they have a right to expect, from a free and equal government.

    George Washington, January 8, 1790

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First State of the Union Address

    President George Washington
    Friday, January 8, 1790
    FELLOW CITIZENS Of the SENATE, and HOUSE of REPRESENTATIVES,

    I EMBRACE with great satisfaction the opportunity, which now presents itself, of congratulating you on the present favourable prospects of our public affairs. The recent accession of the important state of Northcarolina to the Constitution of the United States (of which official information has been received)--- the ruling credit and respectability of our country--- the general and increasing good will towards the government of the union, and the concord, peace and plenty, with which we are blessed, are circumstances auspicious, in an excellent degree, to our national prosperity.

    n reforming your consultations for the general good, you cannot but derive encouragement from the reflection, the measures of the last session have been as satisfactory to your constituents as the novelty and difficulty of the work allowed you to hope.-- Still further to realize their expectations, and to secure the blessings which a gracious Providence has placed within our reach, will in the course of the present important session, call for the cool and deliberate exertion of your patriotism, firmness and wisdom.

    Among the many interesting objects which will engage your attention, that of providing for the common defence will merit particular regard. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace.

    A free people ought not only to be armed but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well digested plan is requisite: And their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories, as tend to render them independent on others, for essential, particularly for military supplies.

    The proper establishment of the troops which may be deemed indispensable, will be entitled to mature consideration. In the arrangement which will be made respecting it, it will be of importance to conciliate the comfortable support of the officers and soldiers with a due regard to economy.

    There was reason to hope, the pacifick measures adopted with regard to certain hostile tribes of Indians, would have relieved the inhabitants of our southern and western frontiers from their depredations. But you will perceive, from the information contained in the papers, which I shall direct to be laid before you, (comprehending a communication from the Commonwealth of Virginia) that we ought to be prepared to afford protection to those parts of the Union; and, if necessary, to punish aggressors.

    The interests of the United States require, that our intercourse with other nations should be facilitated by such provisions as will enable me to fulfill my duty, in that respect, in the manner which circumstances may render most conducive to the publick good: And to this end, that the compensations to be made to the persons who may be employed, should, according to the nature of their appointments, be defined by law; and a competent fund designated for defraying the expenses incident to the conduct of our foreign affairs.

    Various considerations also render it expedient, that the terms on which foreigners may be admitted to the rights of Citizens, should be speedily ascertained by a uniform rule of naturalization.

    Uniformity in the currency, weights and measures of the United States, is an object of great importance, and will, I am persuaded, be duly attended to.

    The advancement of agriculture, commerce and manufactures, by all proper means, will not, I trust, need recommendation. But I cannot forbear intimating to you the expediency of giving effectual encouragement as well to the introduction of new and useful inventions from abroad, as to the exertions of skill and genius in producing them at home; and of facilitating the intercourse between the distant parts of our country by a due attention to the Post Office and Post Roads.

    Nor am I less persuaded, that you will agree with me in opinion, that there is nothing which can better deserve your patronage, than the promotion of Science and Literature. Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of publick happiness. In one, in which the measures of government receive their impression so immediately from the sense of the community, as in our's, it is proportionately essential. To the security of a free Constitution it contributes in various ways: By convincing those who are entrusted with the publick administration, that every valuable end of government is best answered by the enlightened confidence of the people: And by teaching the people themselves to know, and to value their own rights; to discern and provide against invasions of them; to distinguish between oppression and the necessary exercise of lawful authority; between burthens proceeding from a disregard to their convenience, and those resulting from the inevitable exigencies of society; to discriminate the spirit of liberty from that of licentiousness, cherishing the first, avoiding the last, and uniting a speedy, but temperate vigilance against encroachments, with an inviolable respect to the laws.

    Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids to seminaries of learning already established, by the institution of a national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy of a place in the deliberations of the Legislature.

    Gentlemen of the House of Representatives,

    I SAW with peculiar pleasure, at the close of the last session, the resolution entered into by you, expressive of your opinion, that an adequate provision for the support of the publick credit, is a matter of high importance to the national honour and prosperity.-- In this sentiment, I entirely concur.-- And to a perfect confidence in your best endeavors to devise such a provision as will be truly consistent with the end, I add an equal reliance on the cheerful cooperation of the other branch of the Legislature.-- It would be superfluous to specify inducements to a measure in which the character and permanent interests of the United States so obviously and so deeply concerned; and which has received so explicit a sanction from your declaration.

    Gentlemen of the Senate, and House of Representatives,

    I HAVE directed the proper officers to lay before you respectively such papers and estimates as regards the affairs particularly recommended to your consideration, and necessary to convey to you that information of the state of the union, which it is my duty to afford.

    The welfare of our country is the great object to which our cares and efforts ought to be directed.-- And I shall derive great satisfaction from a cooperation with you, in the pleasing though arduous task of ensuring to our fellow citizens the blessings which they have a right to expect, from a free and equal government.

    George Washington, January 8, 1790

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First Thanksgiving Proclamation

    June 20, 1676

    "The Holy God having by a long and Continual Series of his Afflictive dispensations in and by the present Warr with the Heathen Natives of this land, written and brought to pass bitter things against his own Covenant people in this wilderness, yet so that we evidently discern that in the midst of his judgements he hath remembered mercy, having remembered his Footstool in the day of his sore displeasure against us for our sins, with many singular Intimations of his Fatherly Compassion, and regard; reserving many of our Towns from Desolation Threatened, and attempted by the Enemy, and giving us especially of late with many of our Confederates many signal Advantages against them, without such Disadvantage to ourselves as formerly we have been sensible of, if it be the Lord's mercy that we are not consumed, It certainly bespeaks our positive Thankfulness, when our Enemies are in any measure disappointed or destroyed; and fearing the Lord should take notice under so many Intimations of his returning mercy, we should be found an Insensible people, as not standing before Him with Thanksgiving, as well as lading him with our Complaints in the time of pressing Afflictions:

    The Council has thought meet to appoint and set apart the 29th day of this instant June, as a day of Solemn Thanksgiving and praise to God for such his Goodness and Favour, many Particulars of which mercy might be Instanced, but we doubt not those who are sensible of God's Afflictions, have been as diligent to espy him returning to us; and that the Lord may behold us as a People offering Praise and thereby glorifying Him; the Council doth commend it to the Respective Ministers, Elders and people of this Jurisdiction; Solemnly and seriously to keep the same Beseeching that being perswaded by the mercies of God we may all, even this whole people offer up our bodies and soulds as a living and acceptable Service unto God by Jesus Christ."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    First Virginia Charter

    James, by the grace of God [King of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith], etc. Whereas our loving and weldisposed subjects, Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, Knightes; Richarde Hackluit, Clarke, Prebendarie of Westminster; and Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, Thomas Hannam and Raleighe Gilberde, Esquiers; William Parker and George Popham, Gentlemen; and divers others of our loving subjects, have been humble sutors unto us that wee woulde vouchsafe unto them our licence to make habitacion, plantacion and to deduce a colonie of sondrie of our people into that parte of America commonly called Virginia, and other parts and territories in America either appartaining unto us or which are not nowe actuallie possessed by anie Christian prince or people, scituate, lying and being all along the sea coastes between fower and thirtie degrees of northerly latitude from the equinoctiall line and five and fortie degrees of the same latitude and in the maine lande betweene the same fower and thirtie and five and fourtie degrees, and the ilandes thereunto adjacente or within one hundred miles of the coaste thereof;

    And to that ende, and for the more speedy accomplishemente of theire saide intended plantacion and habitacion there, are desirous to devide themselves into two severall colonies and companies, the one consisting of certaine Knightes, gentlemen, marchanntes and other adventurers of our cittie of London, and elsewhere, which are and from time to time shalbe joined unto them which doe desire to begin theire plantacions and habitacions in some fitt and conveniente place between fower and thirtie and one and fortie degrees of the said latitude all alongest the coaste of Virginia and coastes of America aforesaid and the other consisting of sondrie Knightes, gentlemen, merchanntes, and other adventurers of our citties of Bristoll and Exeter, and of our towne of Plymouthe, and of other places which doe joine themselves unto that colonie which doe desire to beginn theire plantacions and habitacions in some fitt and convenient place betweene eighte and thirtie degrees and five and fortie degrees of the saide latitude all alongst the saide coaste of Virginia and America as that coaste lieth;

    Wee, greately commending and graciously accepting of theire desires to the furtherance of soe noble a worke which may, by the providence of Almightie God, hereafter tende to the glorie of His Divine Majestie in propagating of Christian religion to suche people as yet live in darkenesse and miserable ignorance of the true knoweledge and worshippe of God and may in tyme bring the infidels and salvages living in those parts to humane civilitie and to a setled and quiet govermente, doe by theise our lettres patents graciously accepte of and agree to theire humble and well intended desires;

    And doe, therefore, for us, our heires and successors, grannte and agree that the saide Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sumers, Richarde Hackluit and Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, adventurers of and for our cittie of London, and all suche others as are or shalbe joined unto them of that Colonie, shalbe called the Firste Colonie, and they shall and may beginne theire saide firste plantacion and seate of theire firste aboade and habitacion at anie place upon the saide coaste of Virginia or America where they shall thincke fitt and conveniente betweene the saide fower and thirtie and one and fortie degrees of the saide latitude; and that they shall have all the landes, woods, soile, groundes, havens, ports, rivers, mines, mineralls, marshes, waters, fishinges, commodities and hereditamentes whatsoever, from the said first seate of theire plantacion and habitacion by the space of fiftie miles of Englishe statute measure all alongest the saide coaste of Virginia and America towardes the weste and southe weste as the coaste lieth, with all the islandes within one hundred miles directlie over againste the same sea coaste; and alsoe all the landes, soile, groundes havens, ports, rivers, mines, mineralls, woods, marrishes [marshes], waters, fishinges, commodities and hereditamentes whatsoever, from the saide place of theire firste plantacion and habitacion for the space of fiftie like Englishe miles, all alongest the saide coaste of Virginia and America towardes the easte and northeaste [or toward the north] as the coaste lieth, together with all the islandes within one hundred miles directlie over againste the same sea coaste; and alsoe all the landes, woodes, soile, groundes, havens, portes, rivers, mines, mineralls, marrishes, waters, fishinges, commodities and hereditamentes whatsoever, from the same fiftie miles everie waie on the sea coaste directly into the maine lande by the space of one hundred like Englishe miles; and shall and may inhabit and remaine there; and shall and may alsoe builde and fortifie within anie the same for theire better safegarde and defence, according to theire best discrecions and the direction of the Counsell of that Colonie; and that noe other of our subjectes shalbe permitted or suffered to plante or inhabit behinde or on the backside of them towardes the maine lande, without the expresse licence or consente of the Counsell of that Colonie thereunto in writing firste had or obtained.

    And wee doe likewise for us, our heires and successors, by theise presentes grannte and agree that the saide Thomas Hannam and Raleighe Gilberde, William Parker and George Popham, and all others of the towne of Plymouthe in the countie of Devon, or elsewhere, which are or shalbe joined unto them of that Colonie, shalbe called the Seconde Colonie; and that they shall and may beginne theire saide firste plantacion and seate of theire first aboade and habitacion at anie place upon the saide coaste of Virginia and America, where they shall thincke fitt and conveniente, betweene eighte and thirtie degrees of the saide latitude and five and fortie degrees of the same latitude; and that they shall have all the landes, soile, groundes, havens, ports, rivers, mines, mineralls, woods, marishes, waters, fishinges, commodities and hereditaments whatsoever, from the firste seate of theire plantacion and habitacion by the space of fiftie like Englishe miles, as is aforesaide, all alongeste the saide coaste of Virginia and America towardes the weste and southwest, or towardes the southe, as the coaste lieth, and all the islandes within one hundred miles directlie over againste the saide sea coaste; and alsoe all the landes, soile, groundes, havens, portes, rivers, mines, mineralls, woods, marishes, waters, fishinges, commodities and hereditamentes whatsoever, from the saide place of theire firste plantacion and habitacion for the space of fiftie like miles all alongest the saide coaste of Virginia and America towardes the easte and northeaste or towardes the northe, as the coaste liethe, and all the islandes alsoe within one hundred miles directly over againste the same sea coaste; and alsoe all the landes, soile, groundes, havens, ports, rivers, woodes, mines, mineralls, marishes, waters, fishings, commodities and hereditaments whatsoever, from the same fiftie miles everie waie on the sea coaste, directlie into the maine lande by the space of one hundred like Englishe miles; and shall and may inhabit and remaine there; and shall and may alsoe builde and fortifie within anie the same for theire better saufegarde according to theire beste discrecions and the direction of the Counsell of that Colonie; and that none of our subjectes shalbe permitted or suffered to plante or inhabit behinde or on the backe of them towardes the maine lande without the expresse licence or consente of the Counsell of that Colonie, in writing thereunto, firste had and obtained.

    Provided alwaies, and our will and pleasure herein is, that the plantacion and habitacion of suche of the saide Colonies as shall laste plante themselves, as aforesaid, shall not be made within one hundred like Englishe miles of the other of them that firste beganne to make theire plantacion, as aforesaide.

    And wee doe alsoe ordaine, establishe and agree for [us], our heires and successors, that eache of the saide Colonies shall have a Counsell which shall governe and order all matters and causes which shall arise, growe, or happen to or within the same severall Colonies, according to such lawes, ordinannces and instructions as shalbe in that behalfe, given and signed with our hande or signe manuell and passe under the Privie Seale of our realme of Englande; eache of which Counsells shall consist of thirteene parsons and to be ordained, made and removed from time to time according as shalbe directed and comprised in the same instructions; and shall have a severall seale for all matters that shall passe or concerne the same severall Counsells, eache of which seales shall have the Kinges armes engraven on the one side there of and his pourtraiture on the other; and that the seale for the Counsell of the saide Firste Colonie shall have engraven rounde about on the one side theise wordes: Sigillum Regis Magne Britanie, Francie [et] Hibernie; on the other side this inscripture rounde about: Pro Consillio Prime Colonie Virginie. And the seale for the Counsell of the saide Seconde Colonie shall alsoe have engraven rounde about the one side thereof the foresaide wordes: Sigillum Regis Magne Britanie, Francie [et] Hibernie; and on the other side: Pro Consilio Secunde Colonie Virginie.

    And that alsoe ther shalbe a Counsell established here in Englande which shall in like manner consist of thirteen parsons to be, for that purpose, appointed by us, our heires and successors, which shalbe called our Counsell of Virginia; and shall from time to time have the superior managing and direction onelie of and for all matters that shall or may concerne the govermente, as well of the said severall Colonies as of and for anie other parte or place within the aforesaide precinctes of fower and thirtie and five and fortie degrees abovementioned; which Counsell shal in like manner have a seale for matters concerning the Counsell [or Colonies] with the like armes and purtraiture as aforesaide, with this inscription engraven rounde about the one side: Sigillum Regis Magne Britanie, Francie [et] Hibernie; and rounde about the other side: Pro Consilio Suo Virginie.

    And more over wee doe grannte and agree for us, our heires and successors, that the saide severall Counsells of and for the saide severall Colonies shall and lawfully may by vertue hereof, from time to time, without interuption of us, our heires or successors, give and take order to digg, mine and searche for all manner of mines of goulde, silver and copper, as well within anie parte of theire saide severall Colonies as of the saide maine landes on the backside of the same Colonies; and to have and enjoy the goulde, silver and copper to be gotten there of to the use and behoofe of the same Colonies and the plantacions thereof; yeilding therefore yerelie to us, our heires and successors, the fifte parte onelie of all the same goulde and silver and the fifteenth parte of all the same copper soe to be gotten or had, as is aforesaid, and without anie other manner of profitt or accompte to be given or yeilded to us, our heires or successors, for or in respecte of the same.

    And that they shall or lawfullie may establishe and cawse to be made a coine, to passe currant there betwene the people of those severall Colonies for the more ease of trafiique and bargaining betweene and amongest them and the natives there, of such mettall and in such manner and forme as the same severall Counsells there shall limitt and appointe. And wee doe likewise for us, our heires and successors, by theise presents give full power and auctoritie to the said Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sumers, Richarde Hackluit, Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, Thomas Hannam, Raleighe Gilberde, William Parker and George Popham, and to everie of them, and to the saide severall Companies, plantacions and Colonies, that they and everie of them shall and may at all and everie time and times hereafter have, take and leade in the saide voyage, and for and towardes the saide severall plantacions and Colonies, and to travell thitherwarde and to abide and inhabit there in everie of the saide Colonies and plantacions, such and somanie of our subjectes as shall willinglie accompanie them, or anie of them, in the saide voyages and plantacions, with sufficiente shipping and furniture of armour, weapon, ordonnance, powder, victall, and all other thinges necessarie for the saide plantacions and for theire use and defence there: provided alwaies that none of the said parsons be such as hereafter shalbe speciallie restrained by us, our heires or successors.

    Moreover, wee doe by theise presents, for us, our heires and successors, give and grannte licence unto the said Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sumers, Richarde Hackluite, Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, Thomas Hannam, Raleighe Gilberde, William Parker and George Popham, and to everie of the said Colinies, that they and everie of them shall and may, from time to time and at all times for ever hereafter, for theire severall defences, incounter or expulse, repell and resist, aswell by sea as by lande, by all waies and meanes whatsoever, all and everie suche parson and parsons as without espiciall licence of the said severall Colonies and plantacions shall attempte to inhabit within the saide severall precincts and limitts of the saide severall Colonies and plantacions, or anie of them, or that shall enterprise or attempt at anie time hereafter the hurte, detrimente or annoyance of the saide severall Colonies or plantacions.

    Giving and grannting by theise presents unto the saide Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers, Richarde Hackluite, and Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, and theire associates of the said Firste Colonie, and unto the said Thomas Hannam, Raleighe Gilberde, William Parker and George Popham, and theire associates of the saide Second Colonie, and to everie of them from time to time and at all times for ever hereafter, power and auctoritie to take and surprize by all waies and meanes whatsoever all and everie parson and parsons with theire shipps, vessels, goods and other furniture, which shalbe founde traffiqueing into anie harbor or harbors, creeke, creekes or place within the limitts or precincts of the saide severall Colonies and plantacions, not being of the same Colonie, untill such time as they, being of anie realmes or dominions under our obedience, shall paie or agree to paie to the handes of the Tresorer of the Colonie, within whose limitts and precincts theie shall soe traffique, twoe and a halfe upon anie hundred of anie thing soe by them traffiqued, boughte or soulde; and being stranngers and not subjects under our obeysannce, untill they shall paie five upon everie hundred of suche wares and commoditie as theie shall traffique, buy or sell within the precincts of the saide severall Colonies wherein theie shall soe traffique, buy or sell, as aforesaide; which sommes of money or benefitt, as aforesaide, for and during the space of one and twentie yeres nexte ensuing the date hereof shalbe whollie imploied to the use, benefitt and behoofe of the saide severall plantacions where such trafficque shalbe made; and after the saide one and twentie yeres ended the same shalbe taken to the use of us, our heires and successors by such officer and minister as by us, our heires and successors shalbe thereunto assigned or appointed.

    And wee doe further, by theise presentes, for us, our heires and successors, give and grannte unto the saide Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sumers, Richarde Hackluit, and Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, and to theire associates of the saide Firste Colonie and plantacion, and to the saide Thomas Hannam, Raleighe Gilberde, William Parker and George Popham, and theire associates of the saide Seconde Colonie and plantacion, that theie and everie of them by theire deputies, ministers and factors may transport the goods, chattells, armor, munition and furniture, needfull to be used by them for theire saide apparrell, defence or otherwise in respecte of the saide plantacions, out of our realmes of Englande and Irelande and all other our dominions from time to time, for and during the time of seaven yeres nexte ensuing the date hereof for the better releife of the said severall Colonies and plantacions, without anie custome, subsidie or other dutie unto us, our heires or successors to be yeilded or paide for the same.

    Alsoe wee doe, for us, our heires and successors, declare by theise presentes that all and everie the parsons being our subjects which shall dwell and inhabit within everie or anie of the saide severall Colonies and plantacions and everie of theire children which shall happen to be borne within the limitts and precincts of the said severall Colonies and plantacions shall have and enjoy all liberties, franchises and immunites within anie of our other dominions to all intents and purposes as if they had been abiding and borne within this our realme of Englande or anie other of our saide dominions.

    Moreover our gracious will and pleasure is, and wee doe by theise presents, for us, our heires and successors, declare and sett forthe, that if anie parson or parsons which shalbe of anie of the said Colonies and plantacions or anie other, which shall trafficque to the saide Colonies and plantacions or anie of them, shall at anie time or times hereafter transporte anie wares, marchandize or commodities out of [any] our dominions with a pretence and purpose to lande, sell or otherwise dispose the same within anie the limitts and precincts of anie of the saide Colonies and plantacions, and yet nevertheles being at the sea or after he hath landed the same within anie of the said Colonies and plantacions, shall carrie the same into any other forraine countrie with a purpose there to sell or dispose of the same without the licence of us, our heires or successors in that behalfe first had or obtained, that then all the goods and chattels of the saide parson or parsons soe offending and transporting, together with the said shippe or vessell wherein suche transportacion was made, shall be forfeited to us, our heires and successors.

    Provided alwaies, and our will and pleasure is and wee doe hereby declare to all Christian kinges, princes and estates, that if anie parson or parsons which shall hereafter be of anie of the said severall Colonies and plantacions, or anie other, by his, theire, or anie of theire licence or appointment, shall at anie time or times hereafter robb or spoile by sea or by lande or doe anie acte of unjust and unlawfull hostilitie to anie the subjects of us, our heires or successors, or anie of the subjects of anie king, prince, ruler, governor or state being then in league or amitie with us, our heires or successors, and that upon suche injurie or upon juste complainte of such prince, ruler, governor or state or their subjects, wee, our heires or successors, shall make open proclamation within anie the ports of our realme of Englande, commodious for that purpose, that the saide parson or parsons having committed anie such robberie or spoile shall, within the terme to be limitted by suche proclamations, make full restitucion or satisfaction of all suche injuries done, soe as the saide princes or others soe complained may houlde themselves fully satisfied and contented; and that if the saide parson or parsons having committed such robberie or spoile shall not make or cause to be made satisfaction accordingly with[in] such time soe to be limitted, that then it shalbe lawfull to us, our heires and successors to put the saide parson or parsons having committed such robberie or spoile and theire procurers, abbettors or comfortors out of our allegeannce and protection; and that it shalbe lawefull and free for all princes and others to pursue with hostilitie the saide offenders and everie of them and theire and everie of theire procurors, aiders, abbettors and comforters in that behalfe.

    And finallie wee doe, for us, our heires and successors, grannte and agree, to and with the saide Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sumers, Richarde Hackluit and Edwarde Maria Winghfeilde, and all other of the saide Firste Colonie, that wee, our heires or successors, upon peticion in that behalfe to be made, shall, by lettres patents under the Greate [Seale] of Englande, give and grannte unto such parsons, theire heires and assignees, as the Counsell of that Colonie or the most part of them shall for that purpose nomminate and assigne, all the landes, tenements and hereditaments which shalbe within the precincts limitted for that Colonie, as is aforesaid, to be houlden of us, our heires and successors as of our mannor of Eastgreenwiche in the countie of Kente, in free and common soccage onelie and not in capite.

    And doe, in like manner, grannte and agree, for us, our heires and successors, to and with the saide Thomas Hannam, Raleighe Gilberd, William Parker and George Popham, and all others of the saide Seconde Colonie, that wee, our heires [and] successors, upon petition in that behalfe to be made, shall, by lettres patentes under the Great Seale of Englande, give and grannte unto such parsons, theire heires and assignees, as the Counsell of that Colonie or the most parte of them shall for that purpose nomminate and assigne, all the landes, tenementes and hereditaments which shalbe within the precinctes limited for that Colonie as is afore said, to be houlden of us, our heires and successors as of our mannor of Eastgreenwich in the countie of Kente, in free and common soccage onelie and not in capite.

    All which landes, tenements and hereditaments soe to be passed by the saide severall lettres patents, shalbe, by sufficient assurances from the same patentees, soe distributed and devided amongest the undertakers for the plantacion of the said severall Colonies, and such as shall make theire plantacion in either of the said severall Colonies, in such manner and forme and for such estates as shall [be] ordered and sett [downe] by the Counsell of the same Colonie, or the most part of them, respectively, within which the same lands, tenements and hereditaments shall ly or be. Althoughe expresse mencion [of the true yearly value or certainty of the premises, or any of them, or of any other gifts or grants, by us or any our progenitors or predecessors, to the aforesaid Sir Thomas Gates, Knt. Sir George Somers, Knt. Richard Hackluit, Edward-Maria Wingfield, Thomas Hanham, Ralegh Gilbert, William Parker, and George Popham, or any of them, heretofore made, in these presents, is not made; or any statute, act, ordnance, or provision, proclamation, or restraint, to the contrary hereof had, made, ordained, or any other thing, cause, or matter whatsoever, in any wise notwithstanding.] In witnesse wherof [we have caused these our letters to be made patents;] witnesse our selfe at Westminister the xth day of Aprill [1606, in the fourth year of our reign of England, France, and Ireland, and of Scotland the nine and thirtieth.]

    [Lukin]

    Exactum per breve de private sigillo [etc.]

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech

    December 8, 1941

    Yesterday, December 7, 1941 - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.

    The United States was at peace with that nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its Government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to the Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. While this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or armed attack.

    It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese Government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.

    The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. Very many American lives have been lost. In addition American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.

    Yesterday the Japanese Government also launched an attack against Malaya. Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong. Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island. This morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.

    Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our nation.

    As Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense.

    Always will we remember the character of the onslaught against us. No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory.

    I believe I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make very certain that this form of treachery shall never endanger us again.

    Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory and our interests are in grave danger.

    With confidence in our armed forces - with the unbounded determination of our people - we will gain the inevitable triumph - so help us God.

    I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December seventh, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Fugitive Slave Law of 179

    ART. 4. For the better security of the peace and friendship now entered into by the contracting parties, against all infractions of the same, by the citizens of either party, to the prejudice of the other, neither party shall proceed to the infliction of punishments on the citizens of the other, otherwise than by securing the offender, or offenders, by imprisonment, or any other competent means, till a fair and impartial trial can be had by judges or juries of both parties, as near as can be, to the laws, customs, and usage's of the contracting parties, and natural justice: the mode of such trials to be hereafter fixed by the wise men of the United States, in congress assembled, with the assistance of such deputies of the Delaware nation, as may be appointed to act in concert with them in adjusting this matter to their mutual liking. And it is further agreed between the parties aforesaid, that neither shall entertain, or give countenance to, the enemies of the other, or protect, in their respective states, criminal fugitives, servants, or slaves, but the same to apprehend and secure, and deliver to the state or states, to which such enemies, criminals, servants, or slaves, respectively below.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

    January 14, 1639
    For as much as it hath pleased Almighty God by the wise disposition of his divine providence so to order and dispose of things that we the Inhabitants and Residents of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield are now cohabiting and dwelling in and upon the River of Connectecotte and the lands thereunto adjoining; and well knowing where a people are gathered together the word of God requires that to maintain the peace and union of such a people there should be an orderly and decent Government established according to God, to order and dispose of the affairs of the people at all seasons as occasion shall require; do therefore associate and conjoin ourselves to be as one Public State or Commonwealth; and do for ourselves and our successors and such as shall be adjoined to us at any time hereafter, enter into Combination and Confederation together, to maintain and preserve the liberty and purity of the Gospel of our Lord Jesus which we now profess, as also, the discipline of the Churches, which according to the truth of the said Gospel is now practiced amongst us; as also in our civil affairs to be guided and governed accordinbg to such Laws, Rules, Orders and Decrees as shall be made, ordered, and decreed as followeth:

    1. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that there shall be yearly two General Assemblies or Courts, the one the second Thursday in April, the other the second Thursday in September following; the first shall be called the Court of Election, wherein shall be yearly chosen from time to time, so many Magistrates and other public Officers as shall be found requisite: Whereof one to be chosen Governor for the year ensuing and until another be chosen, and no other Magistrate to be chosen for more than one year: provided always there be six chosen besides the Governor, which being chosen and sworn according to an Oath recorded for that purpose, shall have the power to administer justice according to the Laws here established, and for want thereof, according to the Rule of the Word of God; which choice shall be made by all that are admitted freemen and have taken the Oath of Fidelity, and do cohabit within this Jurisdiction having been admitted Inhabitants by the major part of the Town wherein they live or the major part of such as shall be then present.

    2. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that the election of the aforesaid Magistrates shall be in this manner: every person present and qualified for choice shall bring in (to the person deputed to receive them) one single paper with the name of him written in it whom he desires to have Governor, and that he that hath the greatest number of papers shall be Governor for that year. And the rest of the Magistrates or public officers to be chosen in this manner: the Secretary for the time being shall first read the names of all that are to be put to choice and then shall severally nominate them distinctly, and every one that would have the person nominated to be chosen shall bring in one single paper written upon, and he that would not have him chosen shall bring in a blank; and every one that hath more written papers than blanks shall be a Magistrate for that year; which papers shall be received and told by one or more that shall be then chosen by the court and sworn to be faithful therein; but in case there should not be six chosen as aforesaid, besides the Governor, out of those which are nominated, than he or they which have the most writen papers shall be a Magistrate or Magistrates for the ensuing year, to make up the aforesaid number.

    3. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that the Secretary shall not nominate any person, nor shall any person be chosen newly into the Magistracy which was not propounded in some General Court before, to be nominated the next election; and to that end it shall be lawful for each of the Towns aforesaid by their deputies to nominate any two whom they conceive fit to be put to election; and the Court may add so many more as they judge requisite.

    4. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that no person be chosen Governor above once in two years, and that the Governor be always a member of some approved Congregation, and formerly of the Magistracy within this Jurisdiction; and that all the Magistrates, Freemen of this Commonwealth; and that no Magistrate or other public officer shall execute any part of his or their office before they are severally sworn, which shall be done in the face of the court if they be present, and in case of absence by some deputed for that purpose.

    5. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that to the aforesaid Court of Election the several Towns shall send their deputies, and when the Elections are ended they may proceed in any public service as at other Courts. Also the other General Court in September shall be for making of laws, and any other public occasion, which concerns the good of the Commonwealth.

    6. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that the Governor shall, either by himself or by the Secretary, send out summons to the Constables of every Town for the calling of these two standing Courts one month at least before their several times: And also if the Governor and the greatest part of the Magistrates see cause upon any special occasion to call a General Court, they may give order to the Secretary so to do within fourteen days' warning: And if urgent necessity so required, upon a shorter notice, giving sufficient grounds for it to the deputies when they meet, or else be questioned for the same; And if the Governor and major part of Magistrates shall either neglect or refuse to call the two General standing Courts or either of them, as also at other times when the occasions of the Commonwealth require, the Freemen thereof, or the major part of them, shall petition to them so to do; if then it be either denied or neglected, the said Freemen, or the major part of them, shall have the power to give order to the Constables of the several Towns to do the same, and so may meet together, and choose to themselves a Moderator, and may proceed to do any act of power which any other General Courts may.

    7. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that after there are warrants given out for any of the said General Courts, the Constable or Constables of each Town, shall forthwith give notice distinctly to the inhabitants of the same, in some public assembly or by going or sending from house to house, that at a place and time by him or them limited and set, they meet and assemble themselves together to elect and choose certain deputies to be at the General Court then following to agitate the affairs of the Commonwealth; which said deputies shall be chosen by all that are admitted Inhabitants in the several Towns and have taken the oath of fidelity; provided that none be chosen a Deputy for any General Court which is not a Freeman of this Commonwealth.

    The aforesaid deputies shall be chosen in manner following: every person that is present and qualified as before expressed, shall bring the names of such, written in several papers, as they desire to have chosen for that employment, and these three or four, more or less, being the number agreed on to be chosen for that time, that have the greatest number of papers written for them shall be deputies for that Court; whose names shall be endorsed on the back side of the warrant and returned into the Court, with the Constable or Constables' hand unto the same.

    8. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield shall have power, each Town, to send four of their Freemen as their deputies to every General Court; and Whatsoever other Town shall be hereafter added to this Jurisdiction, they shall send so many deputies as the Court shall judge meet, a reasonable proportion to the number of Freemen that are in the said Towns being to be attended therein; which deputies shall have the power of the whole Town to give their votes and allowance to all such laws and orders as may be for the public good, and unto which the said Towns are to be bound.

    9. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that the deputies thus chosen shall have power and liberty to appoint a time and a place of meeting together before any General Court, to advise and consult of all such things as may concern the good of the public, as also to examine their own Elections, whether according to the order, and if they or the greatest part of them find any election to be illegal they may seclude such for present from their meeting, and return the same and their reasons to the Court; and if it be proved true, the Court may fine the party or parties so intruding, and the Town, if they see cause, and give out a warrant to go to a new election in a legal way, either in part or in whole. Also the said deputies shall have power to fine any that shall be disorderly at their meetings, or for not coming in due time or place according to appointment; and they may return the said fines into the Court if it be refused to be paid, and the Treasurer to take notice of it, and to escheat or levy the same as he does other fines.

    10. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that every General Court, except such as through neglect of the Governor and the greatest part of the Magistrates the Freemen themselves do call, shall consist of the Governor, or some one chosen to moderate the Court, and four other Magistrates at least, with the major part of the deputies of the several Towns legally chosen; and in case the Freemen, or major part of them, through neglect or refusal of the Governor and major part of the Magistrates, shall call a Court, it shall consist of the major part of Freemen that are present or their deputiues, with a Moderator chosen by them: In which said General Courts shall consist the supreme power of the Commonwealth, and they only shall have power to make laws or repeal them, to grant levies, to admit of Freemen, dispose of lands undisposed of, to several Towns or persons, and also shall have power to call either Court or Magistrate or any other person whatsoever into question for any misdemeanor, and may for just causes displace or deal otherwise according to the nature of the offense; and also may deal in any other matter that concerns the good of this Commonwealth, except election of Magistrates, which shall be done by the whole body of Freemen.

    In which Court the Governor or Moderator shall have power to order the Court, to give liberty of speech, and silence unseasonable and disorderly speakings, to put all things to vote, and in case the vote be equal to have the casting voice. But none of these Courts shall be adjourned or dissolved without the consent of the major part of the Court.

    11. It is Ordered, sentenced, and decreed, that when any General Court upon the occasions of the Commonwealth have agreed upon any sum, or sums of money to be levied upon the several Towns within this Jurisdiction, that a committee be chosen to set out and appoint what shall be the proportion of every Town to pay of the said levy, provided the committee be made up of an equal number out of each Town.

    14th January 1639 the 11 Orders above said are voted.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    German Surrender Documents of World War II

    May 8, 1945

    Instrument of Surrender of All German armed forces in HOLLAND, in northwest Germany including all islands, and in DENMARK.

    1. The German Command agrees to the surrender of all armed forces in HOLLAND, in northwest GERMANY including the FRISLIAN ISLANDS and HELIGOLAND and all islands, in SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, and in DENMARK, to the C.-in-C. 21 Army Group. =This to include all naval ships in these areas= These forces to lay down their arms and to surrender unconditionally.

    2. All hostilities on land, on sea, or in the air by German forces in the above areas to cease at 0800 hrs. British Double Summer Time on Saturday 5 May 1945.

    3. The German command to carry out at once, and without argument or comment, all further orders that will be issued by the Allied Powers on any subject.

    4. Disobedience of orders, or failure to comply with them, will be regarded as a breach of these surrender terms and will be dealt with by the Allied Powers in accordance with the laws and usages of war.

    5. This insturment of surrender is independent of, without pre- judice to, and will be superseded by any general instrument of surrender imposed by or on behalf of the Allied Powers and applicable to Germany and the German armed forces as a whole.

    6. This instument of surrender is written in English and in German. The English version is the authentic text.

    7. The decision of the Allied Powers will be final if any doubt or dispute arise as to the meaning or intrepretation of the surrender terms.

    HANS GEORG von FRIEDBERG
    KINZEL
    G. WAGNER
    B. L. MONTGOMERY
    Field - Marshal
    POLECK
    FRIEDEL

    4 May 1945
    1830 hrs.

    ---------------------------------------

    {Reichspresident Donitz's authorization to Colonel General Jodl} {to conclude a general surrender:}

    Hauptquartier, den 6. Mai 1945.

    Ich bevollmachtige Generaloberst J o d l , Chef des Wehrmachtfuhrungsstabes in Oberkommando der Wehrmact, zum Abschluss eines Waffenstill- standsbkommens mit dem Hauptquartier des Generals Eisenhower .

    [ SEAL ]

    DONITZ

    GroBadmiral.

    ---------------------------------------

    Only this text in English is authoritative.

    ACT OF MILITARY SURRENDER

    1. We the undersigned, acting by authority of the German High Command, hereby surrender unconditionally to the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Forces and simultaneously to the Soviet High Command all forces on land, sea and in the air who are at this date under German control.
    2. The German High Command will at once issue orders to all German military, naval and air authorties and to all forces under German control to cease active operations at =2301= hours Central European time on = 8 May = and to remain in the positions occupied at that time. No ship, vessel, or aircraft is to be scuttled, or any damage done to their hull, machinery or equipment.
    3. The German High Command will at once issue to the appropriate commander, and ensure the carrying out of any further orders issued by the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and by the Soviet High Command.
    4. This act of military surrender is without prejudice to, and will be superseded by any general instrument of surrender imposed by, or on behalf of the United Nations and applicable to GERMANY and the German armed forces as a whole.
    5. In the event of the German High Command or any of the forces under their control failing to act in accordance with this Act of Surrender, the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and the Soviet High Command will take such punitive or other action as they deem appropriate.
    Signed at RHEIMS at 0241 on the 7th day of May, 1945.

    France

    On behalf of the German High Command.

    JODL

    IN THE PRESENCE OF
    On behalf of the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force, W. B. SMITH
    On behalf of the Soviet High Command, SOUSLOPAROV

    F SEVEZ, Major General, French Army
    (Witness) ---------------------------------------

    SUPREME HEADQUARTERS,
    ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
    SERIAL 1

    ORDERS BY THE SUPREME COMMANDER,
    ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE RELATING TO
    ARMY AND AIR FORCES UNDER GERMAN CONTROL

    1. Local commanders of the Army and Air Force under German control on the Western Front, in NORWAY and in the CHANNEL ISLANDS will hold themselves in readiness to receive detailed orders for the surrender of their forces from the Supreme Commander's subordinate commanders opposite their front.

    2. In the case of NORWAY the Supreme Commander's representatives will be the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Scottish Command and Air Officer Commanding 13 Group RAF.

    3. In the case of the CHANNEL ISLANDS the Supreme Commander's representatives will be the General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Southern Command and Air Officer Commanding 10 Group RAF.
    WALTER B SMITH Signed.................... For the Supreme Commander, RAF.
    Dated 0241 7th May, 1945
    Rheims France

    ---------------------------------------

    SPECIAL ORDERS BY THE SUPREME COMMANDER, ALLIED EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO THE GERMAN HIGH COMMAND RELATING TO NAVAL FORCES

    For the purpose of these orders the term "Allied Representatives" shall be deemed to include the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force, and any subordinate commander, staff officer or agent acting pursuant to his orders.

    SPECIAL ORDERS BY THE SUPREME COMMANDER, ALLIED
    EXPEDITIONARY FORCE TO THE GERMAN HIGH COMMAND
    RELATING TO NAVAL FORCES
    PART I GENERAL

    Definition of Naval Forces

    1. For the purpose of these orders all formations, units, and personnel of the German Navy together with the Marine Kusten Polizie shall be refered to as the German Naval Forces.

    2. Members of the Marine Kusten Polizie will immediately be placed under the command of the appropriate German Naval Commanders who will be responsible for their maintenance and supply where applicable, to the same extent and degree as for units of the German Navy. German Naval Representatives and information required immediately

    3. The German High Command will dispatch within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective, a res- ponsible Flag Officer to the Allied Naval Commander, Expeditionary Force at his headquarters. This Flag Officer will furnish the Allied Naval Commander, Expeditionary Force, with:-
    a. Corrected copies of charts showing all minefields in Western Europe waters, including the BALTIC as far as LUBECK (inclusive) which have been laid by German and German-controlled vessels or aircraft, positions of all wrecks, booms and other underwater obstructions in this area, details of the German convoy routes and searched channels and of all bouys, lights and other navigational aids in this area. The appropriate navigational publications are also required.
    b. Details of the exact location of all departments and branches of the German Admiralty (OKM).
    c. All available information concerning the numbers and types of German minesweepers and sperr- brechers in German controlled Dutch ports and German NORTH SEA ports that can be obtained without delaying his departure. This German Flag Officer is to be accompanied by a Communications Officer who is familiar with the German Naval W/T organization and who is to bring with him the current naval communications Orders, including allocation of frequencies, list of W/T and R/T call signs in force, and a list of all codes and cyphers in use, and intended to be brought into use.
    d. Location of all surface warships down to and including "Elbing" class Torpedo Boats, and of all submarines and "E" Boats.

    4. The German High Command will also dispatch within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective a responsibile officer, not below the rank of Captain, by coastal craft to report to the Admiral Commanding at DOVER for onward routing to Commander-in-Chief, THE NORE, with:-
    a. Corrected copies of charts showing all minefields in the NORTH SEA SOUTH of 54 30' NORTH and EAST of 1 30' EAST laid by German and German-controlled vessels or aircraft, positions of all wrecks, booms and all other underwater obstructions; details of all German Convoy routes and searched channels in this area, and of all bouys, lights and other navigational aids which are under German control. Appropriate naviga- tional publications are also required.
    b. All available information concerning the numbers and types of German minesweepers and sperrbrechers in German contolled Dutch ports and German NORTH SEA ports that can be obtained without delaying his departure.

    5. Another responsible German Naval Officer, with similar information is to be dispatched by un- escorted aircraft painted white to MANSTON Areodrome position 51 20' NORTH, 1 20' EAST for onward routing to Commander-in-Chief, THE NORE.

    6. The German High Command will issue instruc- tions to certain German naval commands as indicated below:-
    a. The Naval Commander-in-Chief, NORTH SEA will dispatch by coastal craft within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective a responsible officer, not below the rank of Captain, to the Admiral Commanding at DOVER for onward routing to Commander-in-Chief, THE NORE, with:-

    (1) details of minesweeping operations carried out in the German convoy route between the HOOK OF HOLLAND and HAMBURG and in approaches to harbours between these two ports during the previous 60 days;
    (2) numbers and postions of all British mines swept during these operations;
    (3) details of all controlled mine- fields in this area and information whether they have been rendered ineffective;
    (4) details of all other mining and types of mines employed in the harbours and harbour approaches of CUXHAVEN, EMDEN, TERSCHELLING, TEXEL, IJMUIDEN, AMSTERDAM, SCHEVENINGEN, HOOK OF HOLLAND and ROTTERDAM;
    (5) berthing facilities in the harbours enumerated in paragraph (6a). (4) above and the numbers of auxiliary minesweepers which can be accomodated;
    (6) a list of all W/T and R/T call signs in use by the German Navy.

    Any of the above information which cannot be obtained without delaying the departure of this officer will be forwarded subsequently as soon as it is available.
    b. The Naval Commander-in-Chief, NORTH SEA, will also dispatch as soon as possible by coastal craft to DOVER thirteen German Naval Officers who must be familiar with the German swept channels between the HOOK OF HOLLAND and CUXHAVEN. These officers will bring with them all the charts and books required for naviagation in this area and will be accompanied by pilots (and interpreters if necessary).
    c. The Naval Commander-in-Chief, NORWAY, will dispatch by sea within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective, a responsible officer, not below the rank of Captain to the Commander-in-Chief, ROSYTH, with corrected copies of charts showing all German minefields in the NORTH SEA, NORTH of 56 NORTH, all wrecks, booms and other underwater obstructions, details of German convoy routes and searched channels in this area, of the approach channels to the principal Norwegian ports and of all bouys, lights and other navigational aids in this area. This officer will also bring with him the disposition of all "U" Boats and details of all orders affecting their future movements. He will be accompanied by six German Naval Officers with pilots (and interpreters if necessary) who are familiar with the coastal swept channels between OSLO and TROMSO. These officers will bring with them all the charts and books required for navigation in Norwegian waters, and a list of all W/T and R/T call signs in use by the German Navy.
    d. The Naval Commander-in-Chief, NORWAY, will dispatch a duplicate party to the above with similar informa- tion by an unescorted aircraft painted white to DREM Airfield 56 02' NORTH 02 48' WEST.
    e. The Naval Commander-in-Chief, NORWAY, will report by W/T to the Commander-in-Chief, ROSYTH, within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective, the following information:-
    (1) Berthing facilities at OSLO, CHRISTIANSAND, STAVANGER, BERGEN, TRONDHEIM, NARVIK, and TROMSO.
    (2) The appropriate quantities of furnace oil fuel, diesel oil fuel, and coal at all the principal Norwegian ports between OSLO and TROMSO.
    7. The German Admiral SKGGERAK will dispatch by sea within 48 hours after the surrender becomes effective, a responsible officer not below the rank of Captain, to the Commander-in-Chief, ROSYTH, with corrected copies of charts showing all German minefields, wrecks, booms, and other underwater obstructions, details of German convoy routes and searched channels, bouys, lights and other navigational aids in the SKAGGERAK, KATTEGAT, THE BEITS AND SOUND, KIEL BAY and BALTIC WATERS WEST of 14 EAST. This officer will also bring with him the disposition of all "U" boats in the above area and details of all orders affecting their future move- ments. He will be accompanied by three German Naval officers with pilots (and interpreters if necessary) who are familiar with the coastal swept channels, and channels in the Swedish territorial waters, in the waters referred to above. These officers will bring with them all the charts and books required for navigation in these waters, and a list of all W/T and R/T call signs in use by the German Navy.
    The German Admiral SKAGGERAK will dispatch a duplicate party to that specified above, with similar information, by air in unescorted aircraft painted white to DREM Airfield 56 02' NORTH 02 48' WEST.

    8. The German Naval Officers who will be dis- patched to DOVER and ROSYTH by sea will proceed to positions in latitude 51 19' NORTH longitude 1 43' EAST and latitude 56 47' NORTH longitude 1 13' WEST respectively, where they will be met by British warships and escorted to their destination. The ships or craft in which they travel are to fly a large white flag at the masthead by day and are to illuminate these white flags by night. These ships are to broadcast their positions hourly by W/T on 500 ks. (600 meters) whilst on passage. Information required within fourteen days

    9. The German High Command will furnish the following information to the Allied Naval Commander, Expeditionary Force, at by within fourteen days of cessation of hostilities.
    a. Locations of all warships, auxiliaries and armed coastal craft operating under the orders of the German Naval Command stating particulars of the operational unit to which they are attached, giving approximate totals of all naval personal embarked in each vessel, (including naval flak and merchant ship flak).
    b. A statement of the organizations of all naval shore Commands, giving location of all naval establishments, including establishments for experiment and research, names of all Commanding Officers and Principal Staff Officers of the rank of Commander in each establishment.
    c. A statement of the strength and location of all naval land forces including naval infrantry, naval flak, merchant ship flak and naval personnel manning naval coast artillery and full particulars of all Coastal and port defenses giving nature and locations.
    d. Lists of stocks of furnace oil fuels, diesel oil fuel, petrol, and coal of 500 tons or more at, or in the vicinity of, all ports between IJMUIDEN and HAMBURG inclusive.
    e. A statement of location of the principal naval armament depots with approximate overall stocks of each major item held.
    f. The following communications information:-

    (1) location and details concerning all V/S, W/T (including D/F) and radar stations in use by, and under constuc- tion for the German Navy, these details to include types and capabilities of all equipment fitted.
    (2) details of the current naval W/T organization, lists of W/T and R/T call signs in force, and allocation of all frequencies for communication and radar purposes. (3) location and details of all naval communications (including Infra-Red) and naval radar training and research establishments.
    g. Full details of all German minefields in the NORTH SEA, SKAGGERAK, KATTEGAT, BEITS, and SOUND.
    h. Full details of the German naval minesweeping organization including the communications organization.
    j. Full details of the communications (including Infra-Red) and radar equipment fitted in all German minesweepers and sperrbrechers.
    k. Technical details of all types of minesweeping gear used by the German Navy.
    l. Details of all mining and types of mines employed and of berthing facilities available for ships of 150 feet in length and 16 feet draught at:-
    BREMERHAVEN
    WILHELMSHAVEN
    SCHIERMONNIKOOG
    DELFZIJL
    10. The German High Command will also furnish the Allied Naval Commander, Expeditionary Force, with two copies of all coding and cyphering systems which have been, are being, or were to be used by the German Navy with the necessary instructions for their use and the dates between which they have been, or were to have been used.

    PART II - CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT
    Orders to warships, auxiliaries, merchant ships and other craft

    11. The German High Command will forthwith direct all German and German-controlled warships, auxiliaries, merchant ships and other craft to comply with the following instructions:-
    a. All warships, auxiliaries, merchant ships and other craft in harbours are to remain in harbour pending further directions from the Allied Representatives.
    b. All warships, auxiliaries, merchant ships and other craft at sea are to report their positions in plain language immediately to the nearest British, US or Soviet Coast Wireless Telegraphy station on 500 kc/s (600 metres), and are to proceed to the nearest German or Allied port or such ports as the Allied Representatives may direct, and remain there pending further directions from the Allied Representatives. At night they are to show lights and to display searchlights with beams held vertically.
    c. All warships and merchant ships whether in port or at sea will immediately train all weapons fore and aft. All torpedo tubes will be unloaded and breech blocks will be removed from all guns.
    d. All warships and merchant ships in German or German-controlled harbours will immediately land and store in safety all ammunition, warheads and other explosives. They will land all portable weapons but, pending further instuctions, warships will retain onboard the fixed armament. Fire control and all other equipment will be maintained on board intact and fully efficient.
    e. All minesweeping vessels are to carry out the means of disarmament prescribed in c. and d. above, (except that they will however, retain on board such portable weapons and explosives as are required for minesweeping purposes) and are to be prepared immediately for minesweeping service under the direction of the Allied Representatives. They will complete with fuel where necessary.
    f. All German salvage vessels are to carry out the measures of disarmament prescribed in c. and d. above (except that they will retain on board such explosives as are required for salvage purposes.) These vessels, together with all salvage equipment and personnel, are to be prepared for immediate salvage operations under the direction of the Allied Representatives, completing with fuel where necessary for this purpose.
    g. The movement of transport on the inland waterways of GERMANY may continue, subject to orders from the Allied Representatives. No vessels moving on inland waterways will proceed to neutral waters. Submarines

    12. The German High Command will tranmit by W/T on appropriate frequencies the two messages in Annexures 'A' and 'B' which contain instructions to submarines at sea. Naval Aircraft

    13. The German High Command will forthwith direct that:-
    a. German naval aircraft are not to leave the ground or water or ship pending directions from the Allied Representatives;
    b. naval aircraft in the air are to return immediately to their bases. Neutral shipping

    14. The German High Command will forthwith direct that all neutral merchant ships in German and German- controlled ports are to be detained pending further directions from the Allied Representatives. Orders relating to sabotage, scuttling, safety measures, pilotage and personnel

    15. The German High Command will forthwith issue categorical directions that:-
    a. No ship, vessel or aircraft of any description is to be scuttled, or any damage done to their hull, machinery or equipment.
    b. all harbour works and port facilities of whatever nature, including telecommunications and radar stations, are to be preserved and kept free from destruction or damage pending further directions from the Allied Representatives, and all necessary steps taken and all necessary orders issued to prohibit any act of scuttling, sabotage, or other willful damage.
    c. all boom defenses at all ports and harbours are to be opened and kept open at all times; where possible, they are to be removed.
    d. all controlled minefields at all ports and harbours are to be disconnected and rendered ineffective.
    e. all demolition charges in all ports and harbour works are to be removed or rendered ineffective and their presence indicated.
    f. the existing wartime sustem of navigational lighting is to be maintained, except that all dimmed lights are to be shown at full brilliancy, and lights only shown by special arrangement are to be exhibited continously. In particular:-

    (1) HELIGOLAND Light is to be burnt at full brilliancy.
    (2) The bouyage of the coastal convoy route from the HOOK OF HOLLAND to HAMBURG is to be commenced, mid-channel light bouys being laid six miles apart.
    (3) Two ships are to be anchored as mark vessels in the following positions:
    54 20' N, 5 00' E.
    54 20' N, 6 30' E.
    These ships are to fly a large black flag at the mast- head by day and by night are to flash a searchlight vertically every 30 seconds.

    g. All pilotage services are to continue to operate and all pilots are to be held at their normal stations ready for service and equipped with their charts.
    h. German Naval and other personnel concerned in the operation of ports and administrative services in ports are to remain at their stations and to continue to carry out their normal duties. Personnel
    16. The German High Command will forthwith direct that except as may be required for the purpose of giving effect to the above special orders:-
    a. all personnel in German warships, auxiliaries, merchant ships and other craft, are to remain on board their ships pending further directions from the Allied Representatives.
    b. all Naval personnel ashore are to remain in their establishments.

    17. The German High Command will be responsible for the immediate and total disarmament of all naval personnel on shore. The orders issued to the German High Command in respect of the disarmament and war material of land forces will apply also to naval personnel on shore.

    H. M. BURROUGH, Signed....................... For the Supreme Commander, AEF.

    Dated 0241 7th May 1945
    Rheims, France

    ANNEXURE 'A'

    SURRENDER OF GERMAN "U" BOAT FLEET
    To all "U" Boats at sea:

    Carry out the following instuctions forthwith which have been given by the Allied Representatives

    (A) Surface immediately and remain surfaced.
    (B) Report immediately in P/L your position in latitude and longitude and number of your "U" Boat to nearest British, US, Canadian or Soviet coast W/T station on 500 kc/s (600 metres) and to call sign GZZ 10 on one of the following high frequencies: 16845 - 12685 or 5970 kc/s.
    (C) Fly a large black or blue flag by day.
    (D) Burn navigation lights by night.
    (E) Jettison all ammunition, remove breachblocks from guns and render torpedos safe by removing pistols. All mines are to be rendered safe.
    (F) Make all signals in P/L.
    (G) Follow strictly the instructions for proceeding to Allied ports from your present area given in immediately following message.
    (H) Observe strictly the orders of Allied Representatives to refrain from scuttling or in any way damaging your "U" Boat.

    2. These instructions will be repeated at two-hour intervals until further notice.

    ANNEXURE 'B'

    To all "U" Boats at sea. Observe strictly the instructions already given to remain fully surfaced. Report your position course and speed every 8 hours. Obey any instructions that may be given to you by any Allied authority.
    The following are the areas and routes for "U" Boats surrendering-

    (1) Area 'A'.
    a. Bound on West by meridian 026 degs West and South by parallel 043 degs North in Barents Sea by meridian 020 degs East in Baltic Approaches by line joining the Naze and Hantsholm but excludes Irish Sea between 051 degs thirty mins and 055 degs 00 mins North and English Channel between line of Lands End Scilly Islands Ushant and line of Dover-Calais.
    b. Join one of following routes at nearest point and procceed along it to Loch Eriboll (058 degs 33 minutes North 004 degs 37 mins West)

    Blue route: All positions North and West unless otherwise indicated

    049 degs 00 mins
    009 degs 00 mins
    053 degs 00 mins
    012 degs 00 mins
    058 degs 00 mins
    011 degs 00 mins
    059 degs 00 mins
    005 degs 30 mins

    thence to Loch Eriboll.

    Red route:

    053 degs 45 mins North
    003 degs 00 mins East
    059 degs 45 mins
    001 degs 00 mins
    059 degs 45 mins
    003 degs 00 mins

    thence to Loch Eriboll.

    c. Arrive at Loch Eriboll between sunrise and 3 hours before sunset.

    (2) Area 'B'
    a. The Irish Sea between parallel of 051 degs 30 mins and 055 degs 00 mins North.
    b. Proceed Beaumaris Bay (053 degs 19 mins North 003 degs 58 mins West) to arrive between sunrise and 3 hours before sunset.

    (3) Area 'C'
    a. The English Channel between line of Lands End - Scilly Isles - Ushant and line of Dover - Calais.
    b. 'U' Boats in area 'C' are to join one of following routes at nearest point: Green route: position 'A' 049 degs 10 mins North 005 degs 40 mins West position 'B' 050 degs 00 mins North 003 degs 00 mins West thence escorted to Weymouth. Orange route: position 'X' 050 degs 30 mins North 000 degs 50 mins East position 'Y' 050 degs 10 mins North 001 degs 50 mins West thence escorted to Weymouth.
    c. Arrive at either 'B' or 'Y' between sunrise and 3 hours before sunset.

    (4) Area 'D'
    a. Bound on West by lines joining The Naze and Hantsholm and on East by lines joining Lubeck and Trelleborg.
    b. Proceed to Kiel.

    (5) Area 'E'
    a. Mediterranean Approaches bound on North by 043 degs North on South by 026 degs North and on West by 026 degs West.
    b. Proceed to a rendezvous in position 'A' 036 degs 00 mins North 011 degs 00 mins West and await escort reporting expected time of arrival in plain language to Admiral Gibraltar on 500 kc/s.
    c. Arrive in position 'A' between sunrise and noon G.M.T.

    (6) Area 'F'
    a. The North and South Atlantic West of 026 degs West.
    b. Proceed to nearest of one of following points arriving between sunrise and 3 hours before sunset: W 043 degs 30 mins North 070 degs 00 mins West approach from a point 15 miles due East X 038 degs 20 mins North 074 degs 25 mins West approach from a point 047 degs 18 mins North 051 30 mins West on a course 270 degs Z 043 31 mins North 065 degs 05 mins West approach from point 042 degs 59 mins North 054 degs 28 mins West on a course 320 degs.

    ---------------------------------------

    UNDERTAKING GIVEN BY CERTAIN GERMAN EMISSARIES TO THE ALLIED HIGH COMMANDS
    It is agreeed by the German emissaries undersigned that the following German officers will arrive at a place and time designated by the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force, and the Soviet High Command prepared, with planary powers, to execute a formal ratification on behalf of the German High Command of this act of Unconditional Surrender of the German armed forces.

    Chief of the High Command
    Commander-in-Chief of the Army
    Commander-in-Chief of the Navy
    Commander-in-Chief of the Air Forces.
    SIGNED

    JODL

    Representing the German High Command.

    DATED 0241 7th May 1945
    Rheims, France

    ---------------------------------------

    {Reichspresident Donitz's authorization to German representatives to execute ratification}.

    Abschrift.

    Der Oberste Befehlshaber

    Hauptquartier, den 7.5.45.
    der Wehrmact
    /Bitte in der Antwort vorstehendes
    Geschaftszeichen, das Datum und
    kurzen Inhalt anzugegen./

    ICH BEVOLLMACHTIGE GENERALFELDMARSCHALL KEITEL ALS CHEF DES OBERKOMMANDOS DER WEHRMACHT UND ZUGLEICH ALS OBER- BEFEHLSHABER DES HEERES, GENERALADMIRAL VON FRIEDBERG ALS OBERBEFEHLSHABER DER KRIEGSMARINE, GENERALOBERST S T U M P F ALS VERTRETER DES OBERBEFEHLSHABERS DER LUFTWAFFE
    ZUR RATIFIZIERUNG DER BEDINGUNGSLKSEN KAPITULATION DER DEUTSCHEN STREITKRAFTE GEGEN- UBER DEM OBERBEFEHLSHABER DER ALLIIERTEN EXPEDITIONSSTREITKRAFTE UND DEM SOWYET-OBER- KOMMANDO.

    DONITZ
    GROBADMIRAL.

    Siegel.

    ---------------------------------------

    ACT OF MULITARY SURRENDER
    1. We the undersigned, acting by authority of the German High Command, hereby surrender unconditionally to the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and simultaneously to the Supreme High Command of the Red Army all forces on land, at sea, and in the air who are at this date under German control.

    2. The German High Command will at once issue order to all German military, naval and air authorities and to all forces under German control to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European time on 8th May 1945, to remain in all positions occupied at that time and to disarm completely, handing over their weapons and equipment to the local allied commanders or officers designated by Representatives of the Allied Supreme Commands. No ship, vessel, or aircraft is to be scuttled, or any damage done to their hull, machinery or equipment, and also to machines of all kinds, armament, apparatus, and all the technical means of prosecution of war in general.

    3. The German High Command will at once issue to the appropriate commanders, and ensure the carrying out of any further orders issued by the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and by the Supreme Command of the Red Army.

    4. This act of military surrender is without prejudice to, and will be superseded by any general instrument of surrender imposed by, or on behalf of the United Nations and applicable to GERMANY and the German armed forces as a whole.

    5. In the event of the German High Command or any of the forces under their control failing to act in accordance with this Act of Surrender, the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and the Supreme High Command of the Red Army will take such punitive or other action as they deem appropriate.

    6. This Act is drawn up in the English, Russian and German languages. The English and Russian are the only authentic texts.

    Signed at Berlin on the 8 day of May, 1945

    Von Friedeburg
    Keitel
    Stumpff

    On behalf of the German High Command
    IN THE PRESENCE OF:

    A.W.Tedder
    On behalf of the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force

    Georgi Zhukov
    On behalf of the Supreme High Command of the Red Army

    At the signing also were present as witnesses:

    F. de Lattre-Tassigny
    General Commanding in Chief
    First French Army

    Carl Spaatz
    General, Commanding
    United States Strategic Air Force

    ---------------------------------------

    BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
    A PROCLAMATION

    The Allied armies, through sacrifice and devotion and with God's help, have wrung from Germany a final and unconditional surrender. The western world has been freed of the evil forces which for five years and longer have imprisoned the bodies and broken the lives of millions upon millions of free-born men. They have violated their churches, destroyed their homes, cor- rupted their children, and murdered their loved ones. Our Armies of Liberation have restored freedom to these suffering peoples, whose spirit and will the oppressors could never enslave.
    Much remains to be done. The victory won in the West must now be won in the East. The whole world must be cleansed of the evil from which half the world has been freed. United, the peace-loving nations have demonstrated in the West that their arms are stronger by far than the might of dictators or the tyranny of military cliques that once called us soft and weak. The power of our peoples to defend themselves against all enemies will be proved in the Pacific was as it has been proved in Europe.
    For the trimuph of spirit and of arms which we have won, and of its promise to peoples everywhere who join us in the love of freedom, it is fitting that we, as a nation, give thanks to Almighty God, who has strengthened us and given us the victory.
    NOW, THEREFORE, I, HARRY S. TRUMAN, President of the United States of America, do hereby appoint Sunday, May 13, 1945 to be a day of prayer.
    I call upon the people of the United States, whatever their faith, to unite in offering joyful thanks to God for the victory we have won and to pray that He will support us to the end of our present struggle and guide us into the way of peace.
    I also call upon my countrymen to dedicate this day of prayer to the memory of those who have given their lives to make possible our victory.

    IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States of America to be affixed.

    Done at the City of Washington this eighth day of May in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and forty-five and of the Independence of the United States of America the one hundred and sixty-ninth.

    | THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA |

    By the President:
    Harry S. Truman

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Gettysburg Address

    Nov. 19, 1863

    Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

    Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it as a final resting place for those who died here that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead who struggled here have hallowed it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.

    It is rather for us the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Gettysburg Address

    Nov. 19, 1863

    Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

    Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it as a final resting place for those who died here that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead who struggled here have hallowed it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.

    It is rather for us the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death

    No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house. But different men often see the same subject in different lights; and, therefore, I hope it will not be thought disrespectful to those gentlemen if, entertaining as I do opinions of a character very opposite to theirs, I shall speak forth my sentiments freely and without reserve. This is no time for ceremony. The question before the house is one of awful moment to this country. For my own part, I consider it as nothing less than a question of freedom or slavery; and in proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at the truth, and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God and our country. Should I keep back my opinions at such a time, through fear of giving offense, I should consider myself as guilty of treason towards my country, and of an act of disloyalty toward the Majesty of Heaven, which I revere above all earthly kings.

    Mr. President, it is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. We are apt to shut our eyes against a painful truth, and listen to the song of that siren till she transforms us into beasts. Is this the part of wise men, engaged in a great and arduous struggle for liberty? Are we disposed to be of the numbers of those who, having eyes, see not, and, having ears, hear not, the things which so nearly concern their temporal salvation? For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth, to know the worst, and to provide for it.

    I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of judging of the future but by the past. And judging by the past, I wish to know what there has been in the conduct of the British ministry for the last ten years to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have been pleased to solace themselves and the House. Is it that insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received?

    Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselves how this gracious reception of our petition comports with those warlike preparations which cover our waters and darken our land. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love? Let us not deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war and subjugation; the last arguments to which kings resort. I ask gentlemen, sir, what means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force us to submission? Can gentlement assign any other possible motive for it? Has Great Britain any enemy, in this quarter of the world, to call for all this accumulation of navies and armies? No, sir, she has none. They are meant for us: they can be meant for no other. They are sent over to bind and rivet upon us those chains which the British ministry have been so long forging. And what have we to oppose to them? Shall we try argument? Sir, we have been trying that for the last ten years. Have we anything new to offer upon the subject? Nothing. We have held the subject up in every light of which it is capable; but it has been all in vain. Shall we resort to entreaty and humble supplication? What terms shall we find which have not been already exhausted? Let us not, I beseech you, sir, deceive ourselves. Sir, we have done everything that could be done to avert the storm which is now coming on. We have petitioned; we have remonstrated; we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves before the throne, and have implored its interposition to arrest the tyrannical hands of the ministry and Parliament. Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced additional violence and insult; our supplications have been disregarded; and we have been spurned, with contempt, from the foot of the throne! In vain, after these things, may we indulge the fond hope of peace and reconciliation.

    There is no longer any room for hope. If we wish to be free--if we mean to preserve inviolate those inestimable privileges for which we have been so long contending--if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained--we must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight! An appeal to arms and to the God of hosts is all that is left us! They tell us, sir, that we are weak; unable to cope with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength but irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, we are not weak if we make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. The millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations, and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, sir, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the contest. There is no retreat but in submission and slavery! Our chains are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, sir, let it come.

    It is in vain, sir, to extentuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, Peace, Peace--but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    I have a Dream by Martin Luther King, Jr; August 28, 1963

    Delivered on the steps at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. on August 28, 1963

    Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of captivity.

    But one hundred years later, we must face the tragic fact that the Negro is still not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languishing in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. So we have come here today to dramatize an appalling condition.

    In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men would be guaranteed the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

    It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. So we have come to cash this check -- a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice. We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to open the doors of opportunity to all of God's children. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood.

    It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment and to underestimate the determination of the Negro. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.

    But there is something that I must say to my people who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful place we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.

    We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force. The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny and their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom. We cannot walk alone.

    And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall march ahead. We cannot turn back. There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro's basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.

    I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow cells. Some of you have come from areas where your quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive.

    Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed. Let us not wallow in the valley of despair.

    I say to you today, my friends, that in spite of the difficulties and frustrations of the moment, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.

    I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal."

    I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slaveowners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood.

    I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a desert state, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.

    I have a dream that my four children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.

    I have a dream today.

    I have a dream that one day the state of Alabama, whose governor's lips are presently dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, will be transformed into a situation where little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls and walk together as sisters and brothers.

    I have a dream today.

    I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.

    This is our hope. This is the faith with which I return to the South. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

    This will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with a new meaning, "My country, 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing. Land where my fathers died, land of the pilgrim's pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring."

    And if America is to be a great nation this must become true. So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!

    Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado!

    Let freedom ring from the curvaceous peaks of California!

    But not only that; let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia!

    Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!

    Let freedom ring from every hill and every molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

    When we let freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual, "Free at last! free at last! thank God Almighty, we are free at last!"

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Japanese Surrender Documents

    September 12, 1945

    TRANSLATION of Foreign Minister Shiegemitsu's credentials

    TRANSLATION

    H I R O H I T O,
    By the Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on the Throne occupied by the same Dynasty changeless through ages eternal,

    To all who these Presents shall come, Greeting!

    We do hereby authorise Mamoru Shigemitsu, Zyosanmi, First Class of the Imperial Order of the Rising Sun to attach his signature by command and in behalf of Ourselves and Our Government unto the Instrument of Surrender which is required by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to be signed.

    In witness whereof, We have hereunto set Our signature and caused the Great Seal of the Empire to be affixed.

    Given at Our Palace in Tokyo, this first day of the ninth month of the twentieth year of Syowa, being the two thousand six hundred and fifth year from the Accession of the Emperor Zinmu.

    Seal of the Empire

    Signed: H I R O H I T O

    Countersigned: Naruhiko-o
    Prime Minister

    ---------------------------------------

    TRANSLATION of General Umezu's credentials

    TRANSLATION

    H I R O H I T O ,

    By the Grace of Heaven, Emperor of Japan, seated on the Throne occupied by the same Dynasty changeless through ages eternal,

    To all who these Presents shall come, Greeting!

    We do hereby authorise Yoshijiro Umezu, Zyosanmi, First Class of the Imperial Order of the Rising Sun to attach his signature by command and in behalf of Ourselves and Our Government unto the Instrument of Surrender which is required by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to be signed.

    In witness whereof, We have hereunto set Our signature and caused the Great Seal of the Empire to be affixed.

    Given at Our Palace in Tokyo, this first day of the ninth month of the twentieth year of Syowa, being the two thousand six hundred and fifth year from the Accession of the Emperor Zinmu.

    Seal of the Empire

    Signed: H I R O H I T O

    Countersigned:

    Yoshijiro Umezu, Chief of the General Staff of the Imperial Japanese Army
    Soemu Toyoda, Chief of the General Staff of the Imperial Japanese Army

    ---------------------------------------

    INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER

    We, acting by command of and in behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, hereby accept the provisions set forth in the declaration issued by the heads of the Governments of the United States, China, and Great Britain on 26 July 1945 at Potsdam, and subsequently adhered to by the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub- lics, which four powers are hereafter referred to as the Allied Powers.

    We hereby proclaim the unconditional surrender to the Allied Powers of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters and of all Japanese armed forces and all armed forces under the Japanese control wherever situated.

    We hereby command all Japanese forces wherever situated and the Japanese people to cease hostilites forthwith, to preserve and save from damage all ships, aircraft, and military and civil property and to comply with all requirements which my be imposed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers or by agencies of the Japanese Government at his direction.

    We hereby command the Japanese Imperial Headquarters to issue at once orders to the Commanders of all Japanese forces and all forces under Japanese control wherever situated to surrender un- conditionally themselves and all forces under their control.

    We hereby command all civil, military and naval officials to obey and enforce all proclamations, and orders and directives deemed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to be proper to ef- fectuate this surrender and issued by him or under his authority and we direct all such officials to remain at their posts and to continue to perform their non-combatant duties unless specifically relieved by him or under his authority.

    We hereby undertake for the Emperor, the Japanese Government and their successors to carry out the provisions of the Potsdam Declaration in good faith, and to issue whatever orders and take whatever actions may be required by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Poers or by any other designated representative of the Allied Powers for the purpose of giving effect to that Declaration.

    We hereby command the Japanese Imperial Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters at once to liberate all allied prisoners of war and civilian internees now under Japanese control and to provide for their protection, care, maintenance and immediate transportation to places as directed.

    The authority of the Emperor and the Japanese Government to rule the state shall be subject to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers who will take such steps as he deems proper to ef- fectuate these terms of surrender.

    Signed at TOKYO BAY, JAPAN at 0904 I on the SECOND day of SEPTEMBER, 1945.

    MAMORU SHIGMITSU
    By Command and in behalf of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese Government

    YOSHIJIRO UMEZU
    By Command and in behalf of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters

    Accepted at TOKYO BAY, JAPAN at 0903 I on the SECOND day of SEPTEMBER, 1945, for the United States, Republic of China, United Kingdom and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and in the interests of the other United Nations at war with Japan.

    DOUGLAS MAC ARTHUR,
    Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers

    C.W. NIMITZ,
    United States Representative

    HSU YUNG-CH'ANG,
    Republic of China Representative

    BRUCE FRASER,
    United Kingdom Representative

    KUZMA DEREVYANKO,
    Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Representative

    THOMAS BLAMEY<
    Commonwealth of Australia Representative

    L. MOORE COSGRAVE,
    Dominion of Canada Representative

    JACQUES LE CLERC,
    Provisional Government of the French Republic Representative

    C.E.L. HELFRICH,
    Kingdom of the Netherlands Representative

    LEONARD M. ISITT,
    Dominion of New Zealand Representative

    ---------------------------------------

    Translation of Emperor Hirohito's Receipt of the Surrender documents

    PROCLAMATION
    Accepting the terms set forth in the Declaration issued by the heads of the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, and China on July 26th, 1945 at Potsdam and subse- quently adhered to by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, We have commanded the Japanese Imperial Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters to sign on Our behalf the Instrument of Surrender presented by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers and to issue General Orders to the Military and Naval Forces in accordance with the direction of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. We command all Our people forthwith to cease hostilities, to lay down their arms and faithfully to carry out all the provisions of Instrument of Surrender and the General Orders issued by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters hereunder.

    This second day of the ninth month of the twentieth year of Syowa. Seal of the Empire

    Signed: H I R O H I T O

    Countersigned:
    Naruhiko-o, Prime Minister
    Mamoru Shigemitsu, Minister of Foreign Affairs
    Iwao Yamazaki, Minister of Home Affairs
    Juichi Tsushima, Minister of Finance
    Sadamu Shimomura, Minister of War
    Mitsumasa Yonai, Minister of Navy
    Chuzo Iwata, Minister of Justice
    Tamon Maeda, Minister of Education
    Kenzo Matsumura, Minister of Welfare
    Kotaro Sengoku, Minister of Agriculture and Forestry
    Chikuhei Nakajima, Minister of Commerce and Industry
    Naoto Kobiyama, Minister of Transportation
    Fumimaro Konoe, Minister without Portfolio
    Taketora Ogata, Minister without Portfolio
    Binshiro Obata, Minister without Portfolio

    ---------------------------------------

    INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER
    of the Japanese and Japanese-Controlled Armed Forces in the Philippine Islands to the Commanding General United States Army Forces, Western Pacific
    Camp John Hay
    Baguio, Mountain Province,
    Luzon, Philippine, Islands
    3 September, 1945

    Pursuant to and in accordance with the proclamation of the Emperor of Japan accepting the terms set forth in the declaration issued by the heads of the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, and China on 26 July 1945; at Potsdam and sub- sequently adhered to by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; and to the formal instrument of surrender of the Japanese Imperial Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters signed at Toyko Bay at 0908 on 2 September 1945:

    1. Acting by command of and in behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Imperial Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, We hereby surrender unconditionally to the Commanding General, United States Army Forces, Western Pacific, all Japanese and Japanese-controlled armed forces, air, sea, ground and auxiliary, in the Philippine Islands.
    2. We hereby command all Japanese forces wherever situated in the Philippine Islands to cease hostilities forthwith, to preserve and save from damage all ships, aircraft, and military and civil property, and to comply with all requirements which may be imposed by the Commanding General, United States Army Forces, Western Pacific, or his authorized representatives.
    3. We hereby direct the commanders of all Japanese forces in the Philippine Islands to issue at once to all forces under their command to surrender unconditionally themselves and all forces under their control, as prisoners of war, to the nearest United States Force Commander.
    4. We hereby direct the commanders of all Japanese forces in the Philippine Islands to surrender intact and in good order to the nearest United States Army Force Commander, at times and at places directed by him, all equipment and supplies of whatever nature under their control.
    5. We hereby direct the commanders of all Japanese forces in the Philippine Islands at once to liberate all Allied prisoners of war and civilian internees under their control, and to provide for their protection, care, maintenance and immediate transportation to places as directed by the nearest United States Army Force Commander.
    6. We hereby undertake to transmit the directives given in Paragraphs 1 through 5, above, to all Japanese forces in the Philip- pine Islands immediatlely by all means within our power, and further to furnish to the Commanding General, United States Army Forces, Western Pacific, all necessary Japanese emissaries fully empowered to bring about the surrender of Japanese forces in the Philippine Islands with whom we are not in contact.
    7. We hereby undertake to furnish immediatly to the Commanding General, United States Army Forces, Western Pacific, a statement of the designation, numbers, loacations, and commanders of all Japanese armed forces, ground, sea, or air, in the Philippine Islands.
    8. We hereby undertake faithfully to obey all further pro- clamation, orders and directives deemed by the Commanding General, United States Armed Forces, Western Pacific, to be proper to ef- fecuate this surrender.

    Signed at Camp John Hay, Baguio, Mountain Province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at 1210 hours 3 September 1945:

    TOMOYUKI YAMASHITA, General, Imperial Japanese Army Highest Commander, Imperial Japanese Army in the Philippines.

    DENHICI OKOCHI, Vice Admiral, Imperial Japanese Navy Highest Commander, Imperial Japanese Navy in the Philippines.

    By command and in behalf of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters
    Accepted at Camp John Hay, Baguio, Mountain Province Luzon Philippine Islands, at 1210 hours 3 September 1945: For the Commander-in-Chief, United States Army Forces, Pacific:

    EDMOND H. LEAVY, Major General, USA Deputy Commander, United States Army Forces, Western Pacific.

    ---------------------------------------

    UNITED STATES ARMY FORCES IN KOREA
    HEADQUARTERS XXIV CORPS

    OFFICE OF THE COMMANDING GENERAL
    APO 235 c/o POSTMASTER
    SAN FRANSICO, CALIFORNIA

    FORMAL SURRENDER BY THE SENIOR JAPANESE GROUND, SEA, AIR AND AUXILIARY FORCES COMMANDS WITHIN KOREA SOUTH OF 38 NORTH LATITUDE TO THE COM- MANDING GENERAL, UNITED STATES ARMY FORCES IN KOREA, FOR AND IN BEHALF OF THE COMMANDER-IN- CHIEF UNITED STATES ARMY FORCES, PAFIFIC

    WHEREAS an Instrument of Surrender was on the 2d day of September 1945 by command of and behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and the Japanese Imperial Head- quarters signed by Foreign Minister Mamouru Shigemitsu by com- mand and in behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and by Yoshijiro Umezu by command of and in behalf of the Japanese Imperial Headquaters and
    WHEREAS the terms of the Instrument of Surrender were subsequently as follows:

    "1. We, acting by command of an in behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters, hereby accept the provisions set forth in the declaration issued by the heads of the Governments of the United States, China, and Great Britian on 26 July 1945 at Potsdam, and subsequently adhered to by the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub- lics, which four powers are hereafter referred to as the Allied Powers.

    "2. We hereby proclaim the unconditional surrender to the Allied Powers of the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters and of all Japanese armed forces and all armed forces under the Japanese control wherever situated.

    "3. We hereby command all Japanese forces wherever situated and the Japanese people to cease hostilites forthwith, to preserve and save from damage all ships, aircraft, and military and civil property and to comply with all requirements which my be imposed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers or by agencies of the Japanese Government at his direction.

    "4. We hereby command the Japanese Imperial Headquarters to issue at once orders to the Commanders of all Japanese forces and all forces under Japanese control wherever situated to surrender unconditionally themselves and all forces under their control.

    "5. We hereby command all civil, military and naval officials to obey and enforce all proclamations, and orders and directives deemed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to be proper to ef- fectuate this surrender and issued by him or under his authority and we direct all such officials to remain at their posts and to continue to perform their non-combatant duties unless specifically relieved by him or under his authority.

    "6. We hereby undertake for the Emperor, the Japanese Government and their successors to carry out the provisions of the Potsdam Declaration in good faith, and to issue whatever orders and take whatever actions may be required by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers or by any other designated representative of the Allied Powers for the purpose of giving effect to that Declaration.

    "7. We hereby command the Japanese Imperial Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters at once to liberate all allied prisoners of war and civilian internees now under Japanese control and to provide for their protection, care, maintenance and immediate transportation to places as directed.

    "8. The authority of the Emperor and the Japanese Government to rule the state shall be subject to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers who will take such steps as he deems proper to ef- fectuate these terms of surrender.

    WHEREAS the terms of surrender were, on the 2d day of September 1945 as given by the United States, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union of Socialist Republics and other allied powers, accepted by the Imperial Japanese Government, and

    WHEREAS on the 2d day of September 1945 the Imperial General Headquarters by direction of the Emperor has ordered all its commanders in Japan and abroad to cause the Japanese Armed Forces and Japanese controlled forces under their command to cease hostilities at once, to lay down their arms and remain in their present locations and to surrender unconditionally to commanders acting in behalf of the United States, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the British Empire and the Union of Socialist Rep- ublics, and

    WHEREAS the Imperial General Headquarters, its senior commanders and all ground, sea, air and auxiliary forces in the main islands of Japan, minor islands adjacent thereto, Korea south of 38 north latitude and the Philippines were directed to surrender to the Commmander-in-Chief of the United States Army Forces, Pacific and

    WHEREAS the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army Forces, Pacific has appointed the Commanding General, XXIV Corps as the Command General, United States Army Forces in Korea, and has directed him as such to act for the Commander- in-Chief United States Army Forces, Pacific in the reception of the surrender of the senior Japanese commanders of all Japanese ground, sea, air and auxiliary forces in Korea south of 38 north latitude and all islands adjacent thereto. Now therefor

    We, the undersigned, senior Japanese commanders of all Japanese ground, sea, air and auxiliary forces in Korea south of 38 north latitude, do hereby acknowledge:
    a. That we have been duly advised and fully informed of the contents of the Proclamation by the Emperor of Japan, the Instrument of Surrender and the orders herein above referred to.
    b. That we accept our duties and obligations under said instruments and orders and recognize the necessity for our strict compliance therewith and adherence thereto.
    c. The the Commanding General, United States Army Forces in Korea, is the duly authorized representative of the Com- mander-in-Chief United States Army Forces, Pacific and that we will completely and immediately carry out and put into ef- fect his instructions.

    Finally, we do hereby formally and unconditionally sur- render to the Commanding General, United States Army Forces in Korea, all persons in Korea south of 38 degrees North Latitude who are in the Armed Forces of Japan, and all military installations, ordnance, ships, aircraft, and other military equipment or property of every kind or description in Korea, including all islands adjacent thereto, south of 38 degrees North Latitude over which we exercise jurisdiction or control.
    In case of conflict or ambiguity between the English text of this document and any translation thereof, the English shall prevail.

    Signed at SEOUL, KOREA at 1630 hours on the 9th day of September 1945.

    YOSHIO SOZUKI, Senior Japanese commander of all Japanese ground and air forces in Korea south of 38 north latitude.

    GISABURO YAMAGUCHI, Senior Japanese commander of all Japanese naval forces in Korea south of 38 north latitude.

    I, Nobuyuki Abe, the duly appointed, qualified and acting Governor General of KOREA do hereby certify that I have read and fully understand the contents of the foregoing Instrument of Surrender, and of all documents referred to therein.

    I hereby acknowledge the duties and obligations imposed upon me by said documents, insofar as they apply to all matters within my jurisdiction or control as Governor General of Korea, and recognize the necessity of my strict compliance therewith and adherence thereto.

    In particular do I reconize that the Commanding General, UNITED STATES ARMY FORCES IN KOREA, is the duly authorized representative of the Commander-in-Chief, UNITED STATES ARMY FORCES, PACIFIC, and that I am completely and immediately to carry out and put into effect his instructions.

    Signed at SEOUL, KOREA, at 1630 hours on the 9th day of September 1945.

    NOBUYUKI ABE (Governor General of KOREA)

    Accepted at SEOUL, KOREA, at 1630 hours on the 9th day of September 1945 for and in behalf of the Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army Forces, Pacific.

    JOHN R. HODGE
    JOHN R. HODGE, Lieutenant General, U.S. Army
    Commanding General, United States Army Forces in Korea

    THOMAS C. KINCAID
    T. C. KINCAID, Admiral, U. S. Navy
    Representative of the United States Navy

    ---------------------------------------

    SUPREME ALLIED COMMANDER, SOUTH EAST ASIA
    THE INSTRUMENT OF SURRENDER OF JAPANESE FORCES UNDER THE COMMAND OR CONTROL OF THE SUPREME COMMANDER, JAPANESE EXPEDITIONARY FORCES, SOUTHERN REGIONS, WITHIN THE OPERATIONAL THEATRE OF THE SUPREME ALLIED COMMANDER, SOUTH EAST ASIA

    1. In pursuance of and in compliance with:
    (a) the Instrument of Surrender signed by the Japanese plenipotentiaries by command and on behalf of the Emperor of Japan, the Japanese Government and the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters at Toyko on 2 September, 1945;
    (b) General Order No. 1, promulgated at the same place and on the same date;
    (c) the Local Agreement made by the Supreme Commander, Japanese Expeditionary Forces, Southern Regions, with the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia at Rangoon on 27 August, 1945;

    to all of which Instrument of Surrender, General Order and Local Agreement this present Instrument is complementary and which it in no way supersedes, the Supreme Commander, Japanese Expeditionary Forces, Southern Regions (Field Marshall Count Terauchi) does hereby surrender unconditionally to the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia (Admiral The Lord Louis Mountbatten) himself and all Japanese sea, ground, air and auxiliary forces under his command or control and within the operational theatre of the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia.

    2. The Supreme Commander, Japanese Expeditionary Forces, Southern Regions, undertakes to ensure that all orders and instructions that may be issued from time to time by the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia, or by any of his subordinate Naval, Military, or Air-Force Commanders of whatever rank acting in his name, are scrupulously and promptly obeyed by all Japanese sea, ground, air and auxiliary forces under the command or control of the Supreme Commander, Japanese Expeditionary Forces, Southern Regions, and within the operational theatre of the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia.

    3. Any disobediance of, or delay or failure to comply with, orders or instructions issued by the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia, or issued on his behalf by any of his subordinate Naval, Military, or Air Force Commanders of whatever rank, and any action which the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia, or his subordinate Commanders action on his behalf, may determine to be detrimental to the Allied Powers, will be dealt with as the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia may decide.

    4. This Instrument takes effect from the time and date of signing.

    5. This Instrument is drawn up in the English Language, which is the only authentic version. In any case of doubt to intention or meaning, the decision of the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia is final. It is the responsibility of the Supreme Commander, Japanese Expeditionary Forces, Southern Regions, to make such translations into Japanese as he may require.

    Signed at Singapore at 0341 hours (G.M.T.) on 12 September, 1945.

    SEISHIRO ITAGAKI
    (for) SUPREME COMMANDER
    JAPANESE EXPEDITIONARY FORCES,
    SOUTHERN REGIONS

    LOUIS MOUNTBATTAN
    SUPREME ALLIED COMMANDER
    SOUTH EAST ASIA

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Magna Carta

    1215

    JOHN, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland, Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou, to his archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justices, foresters, sheriffs, stewards, servants, and to all his officials and loyal subjects, Greeting.

    KNOW THAT BEFORE GOD, for the health of our soul and those of our ancestors and heirs, to the honour of God, the exaltation of the holy Church, and the better ordering of our kingdom, at the advice of our reverend fathers Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England, and cardinal of the holy Roman Church, Henry archbishop of Dublin, William bishop of London, Peter bishop of Winchester, Jocelin bishop of Bath and Glastonbury, Hugh bishop of Lincoln, Walter Bishop of Worcester, William bishop of Coventry, Benedict bishop of Rochester, Master Pandulf subdeacon and member of the papal household, Brother Aymeric master of the knighthood of the Temple in England, William Marshal earl of Pembroke, William earl of Salisbury, William earl of Warren, William earl of Arundel, Alan de Galloway constable of Scotland, Warin Fitz Gerald, Peter Fitz Herbert, Hubert de Burgh seneschal of Poitou, Hugh de Neville, Matthew Fitz Herbert, Thomas Basset, Alan Basset, Philip Daubeny, Robert de Roppeley, John Marshal, John Fitz Hugh, and other loyal subjects:

    (1) FIRST, THAT WE HAVE GRANTED TO GOD, and by this present charter have confirmed for us and our heirs in perpetuity, that the English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired. That we wish this so to be observed, appears from the fact that of our own free will, before the outbreak of the present dispute between us and our barons, we granted and confirmed by charter the freedom of the Church's elections - a right reckoned to be of the greatest necessity and importance to it - and caused this to be confirmed by Pope Innocent III. This freedom we shall observe ourselves, and desire to be observed in good faith by our heirs in perpetuity.

    TO ALL FREE MEN OF OUR KINGDOM we have also granted, for us and our heirs for ever, all the liberties written out below, to have and to keep for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs:

    (2) If any earl, baron, or other person that holds lands directly of the Crown, for military service, shall die, and at his death his heir shall be of full age and owe a `relief', the heir shall have his inheritance on payment of the ancient scale of `relief'. That is to say, the heir or heirs of an earl shall pay �100 for the entire earl's barony, the heir or heirs of a knight l00s. at most for the entire knight's `fee', and any man that owes less shall pay less, in accordance with the ancient usage of `fees'

    (3) But if the heir of such a person is under age and a ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without `relief' or fine.

    (4) The guardian of the land of an heir who is under age shall take from it only reasonable revenues, customary dues, and feudal services. He shall do this without destruction or damage to men or property. If we have given the guardianship of the land to a sheriff, or to any person answerable to us for the revenues, and he commits destruction or damage, we will exact compensation from him, and the land shall be entrusted to two worthy and prudent men of the same `fee', who shall be answerable to us for the revenues, or to the person to whom we have assigned them. If we have given or sold to anyone the guardianship of such land, and he causes destruction or damage, he shall lose the guardianship of it, and it shall be handed over to two worthy and prudent men of the same `fee', who shall be similarly answerable to us.

    (5) For so long as a guardian has guardianship of such land, he shall maintain the houses, parks, fish preserves, ponds, mills, and everything else pertaining to it, from the revenues of the land itself. When the heir comes of age, he shall restore the whole land to him, stocked with plough teams and such implements of husbandry as the season demands and the revenues from the land can reasonably bear.

    (6) Heirs may be given in marriage, but not to someone of lower social standing. Before a marriage takes place, it shall be' made known to the heir's next-of-kin.

    (7) At her husband's death, a widow may have her marriage portion and inheritance at once and without trouble. She shall pay nothing for her dower, marriage portion, or any inheritance that she and her husband held jointly on the day of his death. She may remain in her husband's house for forty days after his death, and within this period her dower shall be assigned to her.

    (8) No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she wishes to remain without a husband. But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent, if she holds her lands of the Crown, or without the consent of whatever other lord she may hold them of.

    (9) Neither we nor our officials will seize any land or rent in payment of a debt, so long as the debtor has movable goods sufficient to discharge the debt. A debtor's sureties shall not be distrained upon so long as the debtor himself can discharge his debt. If, for lack of means, the debtor is unable to discharge his debt, his sureties shall be answerable for it. If they so desire, they may have the debtor's lands and rents until they have received satisfaction for the debt that they paid for him, unless the debtor can show that he has settled his obligations to them.

    (10) If anyone who has borrowed a sum of money from Jews dies before the debt has been repaid, his heir shall pay no interest on the debt for so long as he remains under age, irrespective of whom he holds his lands. If such a debt falls into the hands of the Crown, it will take nothing except the principal sum specified in the bond.

    (11) If a man dies owing money to Jews, his wife may have her dower and pay nothing towards the debt from it. If he leaves children that are under age, their needs may also be provided for on a scale appropriate to the size of his holding of lands. The debt is to be paid out of the residue, reserving the service due to his feudal lords. Debts owed to persons other than Jews are to be dealt with similarly.

    (12) No `scutage' or `aid' may be levied in our kingdom without its general consent, unless it is for the ransom of our person, to make our eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry our eldest daughter. For these purposes ouly a reasonable `aid' may be levied. `Aids' from the city of London are to be treated similarly.

    (13) The city of London shall enjoy all its ancient liberties and free customs, both by land and by water. We also will and grant that all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports shall enjoy all their liberties and free customs.

    (14) To obtain the general consent of the realm for the assessment of an `aid' - except in the three cases specified above - or a `scutage', we will cause the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons to be summoned individually by letter. To those who hold lands directly of us we will cause a general summons to be issued, through the sheriffs and other officials, to come together on a fixed day (of which at least forty days notice shall be given) and at a fixed place. In all letters of summons, the cause of the summons will be stated. When a summons has been issued, the business appointed for the day shall go forward in accordance with the resolution of those present, even if not all those who were summoned have appeared.

    (15) In future we will allow no one to levy an `aid' from his free men, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry his eldest daughter. For these purposes only a reasonable `aid' may be levied.

    (16) No man shall be forced to perform more service for a knight's `fee', or other free holding of land, than is due from it.

    (17) Ordinary lawsuits shall not follow the royal court around, but shall be held in a fixed place.

    (18) Inquests of novel disseisin, mort d'ancestor, and darrein presentment shall be taken only in their proper county court. We ourselves, or in our absence abroad our chief justice, will send two justices to each county four times a year, and these justices, with four knights of the county elected by the county itself, shall hold the assizes in the county court, on the day and in the place where the court meets.

    (19) If any assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, as many knights and freeholders shall afterwards remain behind, of those who have attended the court, as will suffice for the administration of justice, having regard to the volume of business to be done.

    (20) For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the same way, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman the implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a royal court. None of these fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood.

    (21) Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and in proportion to the gravity of their offence.

    (22) A fine imposed upon the lay property of a clerk in holy orders shall be assessed upon the same principles, without reference to the value of his ecclesiastical benefice.

    (23) No town or person shall be forced to build bridges over rivers except those with an ancient obligation to do so.

    (24) No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal justices.

    (25) Every county, hundred, wapentake, and tithing shall remain at its ancient rent, without increase, except the royal demesne manors.

    (26) If at the death of a man who holds a lay `fee' of the Crown, a sheriff or royal official produces royal letters patent of summons for a debt due to the Crown, it shall be lawful for them to seize and list movable goods found in the lay `fee' of the dead man to the value of the debt, as assessed by worthy men. Nothing shall be removed until the whole debt is paid, when the residue shall be given over to the executors to carry out the dead man s will. If no debt is due to the Crown, all the movable goods shall be regarded as the property of the dead man, except the reasonable shares of his wife and children.

    (27) If a free man dies intestate, his movable goods are to be distributed by his next-of-kin and friends, under the supervision of the Church. The rights of his debtors are to be preserved.

    (28) No constable or other royal official shall take corn or other movable goods from any man without immediate payment, unless the seller voluntarily offers postponement of this.

    (29) No constable may compel a knight to pay money for castle-guard if the knight is willing to undertake the guard in person, or with reasonable excuse to supply some other fit man to do it. A knight taken or sent on military service shall be excused from castle-guard for the period of this servlce.

    (30) No sheriff, royal official, or other person shall take horses or carts for transport from any free man, without his consent.

    (31) Neither we nor any royal official will take wood for our castle, or for any other purpose, without the consent of the owner.

    (32) We will not keep the lands of people convicted of felony in our hand for longer than a year and a day, after which they shall be returned to the lords of the `fees' concerned.

    (33) All fish-weirs shall be removed from the Thames, the Medway, and throughout the whole of England, except on the sea coast.

    (34) The writ called precipe shall not in future be issued to anyone in respect of any holding of land, if a free man could thereby be deprived of the right of trial in his own lord's court.

    (35) There shall be standard measures of wine, ale, and corn (the London quarter), throughout the kingdom. There shall also be a standard width of dyed cloth, russett, and haberject, namely two ells within the selvedges. Weights are to be standardised similarly.

    (36) In future nothing shall be paid or accepted for the issue of a writ of inquisition of life or limbs. It shall be given gratis, and not refused.

    (37) If a man holds land of the Crown by `fee-farm', `socage', or `burgage', and also holds land of someone else for knight's service, we will not have guardianship of his heir, nor of the land that belongs to the other person's `fee', by virtue of the `fee-farm', `socage', or `burgage', unless the `fee-farm' owes knight's service. We will not have the guardianship of a man's heir, or of land that he holds of someone else, by reason of any small property that he may hold of the Crown for a service of knives, arrows, or the like.

    (38) In future no official shall place a man on trial upon his own unsupported statement, without producing credible witnesses to the truth of it.

    (39) No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land.

    (40) To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice.

    (41) All merchants may enter or leave England unharmed and without fear, and may stay or travel within it, by land or water, for purposes of trade, free from all illegal exactions, in accordance with ancient and lawful customs. This, however, does not apply in time of war to merchants from a country that is at war with us. Any such merchants found in our country at the outbreak of war shall be detained without injury to their persons or property, until we or our chief justice have discovered how our own merchants are being treated in the country at war with us. If our own merchants are safe they shall be safe too.

    (42) In future it shall be lawful for any man to leave and return to our kingdom unharmed and without fear, by land or water, preserving his allegiance to us, except in time of war, for some short period, for the common benefit of the realm. People that have been imprisoned or outlawed in accordance with the law of the land, people from a country that is at war with us, and merchants - who shall be dealt with as stated above - are excepted from this provision.

    (43) If a man holds lands of any `escheat' such as the `honour' of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other `escheats' in our hand that are baronies, at his death his heir shall give us only the `relief' and service that he would have made to the baron, had the barony been in the baron's hand. We will hold the `escheat' in the same manner as the baron held it.

    (44) People who live outside the forest need not in future appear before the royal justices of the forest in answer to general summonses, unless they are actually involved in proceedings or are sureties for someone who has been seized for a forest offence.

    (45) We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or other officials, only men that know the law of the realm and are minded to keep it well.

    (46) All barons who have founded abbeys, and have charters of English kings or ancient tenure as evidence of this, may have guardianship of them when there is no abbot, as is their due.

    (47) All forests that have been created in our reign shall at once be disafforested. River-banks that have been enclosed in our reign shall be treated similarly.

    (48) All evil customs relating to forests and warrens, foresters, warreners, sheriffs and their servants, or river-banks and their wardens, are at once to be investigated in every county by twelve sworn knights of the county, and within forty days of their enquiry the evil customs are to be abolished completely and irrevocably. But we, or our chief justice if we are not in England, are first to be informed.

    (49) We will at once return all hostages and charters delivered up to us by Englishmen as security for peace or for loyal service.

    (50) We will remove completely from their offices the kinsmen of Gerard de Ath�e, and in future they shall hold no offices in England. The people in question are Engelard de Cigogn�', Peter, Guy, and Andrew de Chanceaux, Guy de Cigogn�, Geoffrey de Martigny and his brothers, Philip Marc and his brothers, with Geoffrey his nephew, and all their followers.

    (51) As soon as peace is restored, we will remove from the kingdom all the foreign knights, bowmen, their attendants, and the mercenaries that have come to it, to its harm, with horses and arms.

    (52) To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties, or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals, we will at once restore these. In cases of dispute the matter shall be resolved by the judgement of the twenty-five barons referred to below in the clause for securing the peace (� 61). In cases, however, where a man was deprived or dispossessed of something without the lawful judgement of his equals by our father King Henry or our brother King Richard, and it remains in our hands or is held by others under our warranty, we shall have respite for the period commonly allowed to Crusaders, unless a lawsuit had been begun, or an enquiry had been made at our order, before we took the Cross as a Crusader. On our return from the Crusade, or if we abandon it, we will at once render justice in full.

    (53) We shall have similar respite in rendering justice in connexion with forests that are to be disafforested, or to remain forests, when these were first a-orested by our father Henry or our brother Richard; with the guardianship of lands in another person's `fee', when we have hitherto had this by virtue of a `fee' held of us for knight's service by a third party; and with abbeys founded in another person's `fee', in which the lord of the `fee' claims to own a right. On our return from the Crusade, or if we abandon it, we will at once do full justice to complaints about these matters.

    (54) No one shall be arrested or imprisoned on the appeal of a woman for the death of any person except her husband.

    (55) All fines that have been given to us unjustiy and against the law of the land, and all fines that we have exacted unjustly, shall be entirely remitted or the matter decided by a majority judgement of the twenty-five barons referred to below in the clause for securing the peace (� 61) together with Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and such others as he wishes to bring with him. If the archbishop cannot be present, proceedings shall continue without him, provided that if any of the twenty-five barons has been involved in a similar suit himself, his judgement shall be set aside, and someone else chosen and sworn in his place, as a substitute for the single occasion, by the rest of the twenty-five.

    (56) If we have deprived or dispossessed any Welshmen of lands, liberties, or anything else in England or in Wales, without the lawful judgement of their equals, these are at once to be returned to them. A dispute on this point shall be determined in the Marches by the judgement of equals. English law shall apply to holdings of land in England, Welsh law to those in Wales, and the law of the Marches to those in the Marches. The Welsh shall treat us and ours in the same way.

    (57) In cases where a Welshman was deprived or dispossessed of anything, without the lawful judgement of his equals, by our father King Henry or our brother King Richard, and it remains in our hands or is held by others under our warranty, we shall have respite for the period commonly allowed to Crusaders, unless a lawsuit had been begun, or an enquiry had been made at our order, before we took the Cross as a Crusader. But on our return from the Crusade, or if we abandon it, we will at once do full justice according to the laws of Wales and the said regions.

    (58) We will at once return the son of Llywelyn, all Welsh hostages, and the charters delivered to us as security for the peace.

    (59) With regard to the return of the sisters and hostages of Alexander, king of Scotland, his liberties and his rights, we will treat him in the same way as our other barons of England, unless it appears from the charters that we hold from his father William, formerly king of Scotland, that he should be treated otherwise. This matter shall be resolved by the judgement of his equals in our court.

    (60) All these customs and liberties that we have granted shall be observed in our kingdom in so far as concerns our own relations with our subjects. Let all men of our kingdom, whether clergy or laymen, observe them similarly in their relations with their own men.

    (61) SINCE WE HAVE GRANTED ALL THESE THINGS for God, for the better ordering of our kingdom, and to allay the discord that has arisen between us and our barons, and since we desire that they shall be enjoyed in their entirety, with lasting strength, for ever, we give and grant to the barons the following security:

    The barons shall elect twenty-five of their number to keep, and cause to be observed with all their might, the peace and liberties granted and confirmed to them by this charter.
    If we, our chief justice, our officials, or any of our servants offend in any respect against any man, or transgress any of the articles of the peace or of this security, and the offence is made known to four of the said twenty-five barons, they shall come to us - or in our absence from the kingdom to the chief justice - to declare it and claim immediate redress. If we, or in our absence abroad the chiefjustice, make no redress within forty days, reckoning from the day on which the offence was declared to us or to him, the four barons shall refer the matter to the rest of the twenty-five barons, who may distrain upon and assail us in every way possible, with the support of the whole community of the land, by seizing our castles, lands, possessions, or anything else saving only our own person and those of the queen and our children, until they have secured such redress as they have determined upon. Having secured the redress, they may then resume their normal obedience to us.
    Any man who so desires may take an oath to obey the commands of the twenty-five barons for the achievement of these ends, and to join with them in assailing us to the utmost of his power. We give public and free permission to take this oath to any man who so desires, and at no time will we prohibit any man from taking it. Indeed, we will compel any of our subjects who are unwilling to take it to swear it at our command.
    If-one of the twenty-five barons dies or leaves the country, or is prevented in any other way from discharging his duties, the rest of them shall choose another baron in his place, at their discretion, who shall be duly sworn in as they were.
    In the event of disagreement among the twenty-five barons on any matter referred to them for decision, the verdict of the majority present shall have the same validity as a unanimous verdict of the whole twenty-five, whether these were all present or some of those summoned were unwilling or unable to appear.
    The twenty-five barons shall swear to obey all the above articles faithfully, and shall cause them to be obeyed by others to the best of their power.
    We will not seek to procure from anyone, either by our own efforts or those of a third party, anything by which any part of these concessions or liberties might be revoked or diminished. Should such a thing be procured, it shall be null and void and we will at no time make use of it, either ourselves or through a third party.
    (62) We have remitted and pardoned fully to all men any ill-will, hurt, or grudges that have arisen between us and our subjects, whether clergy or laymen, since the beginning of the dispute. We have in addition remitted fully, and for our own part have also pardoned, to all clergy and laymen any offences committed as a result of the said dispute between Easter in the sixteenth year of our reign (i.e. 1215) and the restoration of peace.
    In addition we have caused letters patent to be made for the barons, bearing witness to this security and to the concessions set out above, over the seals of Stephen archbishop of Canterbury, Henry archbishop of Dublin, the other bishops named above, and Master Pandulf.

    (63) IT IS ACCORDINGLY OUR WISH AND COMMAND that the English Church shall be free, and that men in our kingdom shall have and keep all these liberties, rights, and concessions, well and peaceably in their fulness and entirety for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs, in all things and all places for ever.

    Both we and the barons have sworn that all this shall be observed in good faith and without deceit. Witness the abovementioned people and many others.

    Given by our hand in the meadow that is called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the fifteenth day of June in the seventeenth year of our reign (i.e. 1215: the new regnal year began on 28 May).

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Mayflower Compact

    1620

    "In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the Loyal Subjects of our dread Sovereign Lord, King James, by the Grace of God, of England, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, e&.

    Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith, and the Honour of our King and Country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia; do by these presents, solemnly and mutually in the Presence of God and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil Body Politick, for our better Ordering and Preservation, and Furtherance of the Ends aforesaid; And by Virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal Laws, Ordinances, Acts, Constitutions and Offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the General good of the Colony; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience.

    In Witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names at Cape Cod the eleventh of November, in the Reign of our Sovereign Lord, King James of England, France and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Domini, 1620."

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Monroe Doctrine

    December 2, 1823
    The Monroe Doctrine was expressed during President Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress, December 2, 1823:

    . . . At the proposal of the Russian Imperial Government, made through the minister of the Emperor residing here, a full power and instructions have been transmitted to the minister of the United States at St. Petersburg to arrange by amicable negotiation the respective rights and interests of the two nations on the northwest coast of this continent. A similar proposal has been made by His Imperial Majesty to the Government of Great Britain, which has likewise been acceded to. The Government of the United States has been desirous by this friendly proceeding of manifesting the great value which they have invariably attached to the friendship of the Emperor and their solicitude to cultivate the best understanding with his Government. In the discussions to which this interest has given rise and in the arrangements by which they may terminate the occasion has been judged proper for asserting, as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. . .

    It was stated at the commencement of the last session that a great effort was then making in Spain and Portugal to improve the condition of the people of those countries, and that it appeared to be conducted with extraordinary moderation. It need scarcely be remarked that the results have been so far very different from what was then anticipated. Of events in that quarter of the globe, with which we have so much intercourse and from which we derive our origin, we have always been anxious and interested spectators. The citizens of the United States cherish sentiments the most friendly in favor of the liberty and happiness of their fellow-men on that side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to themselves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do so. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more immediately connected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political system of the allied powers is essentially different in this respect from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective Governments; and to the defense of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unexampled felicity, this whole nation is devoted. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who have declared their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. In the war between those new Governments and Spain we declared our neutrality at the time of their recognition, and to this we have adhered, and shall continue to adhere, provided no change shall occur which, in the judgement of the competent authorities of this Government, shall make a corresponding change on the part of the United States indispensable to their security.

    The late events in Spain and Portugal shew that Europe is still unsettled. Of this important fact no stronger proof can be adduced than that the allied powers should have thought it proper, on any principle satisfactory to themselves, to have interposed by force in the internal concerns of Spain. To what extent such interposition may be carried, on the same principle, is a question in which all independent powers whose governments differ from theirs are interested, even those most remote, and surely none of them more so than the United States. Our policy in regard to Europe, which was adopted at an early stage of the wars which have so long agitated that quarter of the globe, nevertheless remains the same, which is, not to interfere in the internal concerns of any of its powers; to consider the government de facto as the legitimate government for us; to cultivate friendly relations with it, and to preserve those relations by a frank, firm, and manly policy, meeting in all instances the just claims of every power, submitting to injuries from none. But in regard to those continents circumstances are eminently and conspicuously different. It is impossible that the allied powers should extend their political system to any portion of either continent without endangering our peace and happiness; nor can anyone believe that our southern brethren, if left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally impossible, therefore, that we should behold such interposition in any form with indifference. If we look to the comparative strength and resources of Spain and those new Governments, and their distance from each other, it must be obvious that she can never subdue them. It is still the true policy of the United States to leave the parties to themselves, in hope that other powers will pursue the same course. . . .

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Northwest Ordinance

    July 13, 1787
    An Ordinance for the government of the Territory of the United States northwest of the River Ohio.

    Be it ordained by the United States in Congress assembled, That the said territory, for the purposes of temporary government, be one district, subject, however, to be divided into two districts, as future circumstances may, in the opinion of Congress, make it expedient.

    Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the estates, both of resident and nonresident proprietors in the said territory, dying intestate, shall descent to, and be distributed among their children, and the descendants of a deceased child, in equal parts; the descendants of a deceased child or grandchild to take the share of their deceased parent in equal parts among them: And where there shall be no children or descendants, then in equal parts to the next of kin in equal degree; and among collaterals, the children of a deceased brother or sister of the intestate shall have, in equal parts among them, their deceased parents' share; and there shall in no case be a distinction between kindred of the whole and half blood; saving, in all cases, to the widow of the intestate her third part of the real estate for life, and one third part of the personal estate; and this law relative to descents and dower, shall remain in full force until altered by the legislature of the district. And until the governor and judges shall adopt laws as hereinafter mentioned, estates in the said territory may be devised or bequeathed by wills in writing, signed and sealed by him or her in whom the estate may be (being of full age), and attested by three witnesses; and real estates may be conveyed by lease and release, or bargain and sale, signed, sealed and delivered by the person being of full age, in whom the estate may be, and attested by two witnesses, provided such wills be duly proved, and such conveyances be acknowledged, or the execution thereof duly proved, and be recorded within one year after proper magistrates, courts, and registers shall be appointed for that purpose; and personal property may be transferred by delivery; saving, however to the French and Canadian inhabitants, and other settlers of the Kaskaskies, St. Vincents and the neighboring villages who have heretofore professed themselves citizens of Virginia, their laws and customs now in force among them, relative to the descent and conveyance, of property.

    Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That there shall be appointed from time to time by Congress, a governor, whose commission shall continue in force for the term of three years, unless sooner revoked by Congress; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein in 1,000 acres of land, while in the exercise of his office.

    There shall be appointed from time to time by Congress, a secretary, whose commission shall continue in force for four years unless sooner revoked; he shall reside in the district, and have a freehold estate therein in 500 acres of land, while in the exercise of his office. It shall be his duty to keep and preserve the acts and laws passed by the legislature, and the public records of the district, and the proceedings of the governor in his executive department, and transmit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings, every six months, to the Secretary of Congress: There shall also be appointed a court to consist of three judges, any two of whom to form a court, who shall have a common law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, and have each therein a freehold estate in 500 acres of land while in the exercise of their offices; and their commissions shall continue in force during good behavior.

    The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in the district such laws of the original States, criminal and civil, as may be necessary and best suited to the circumstances of the district, and report them to Congress from time to time: which laws shall be in force in the district until the organization of the General Assembly therein, unless disapproved of by Congress; but afterwards the Legislature shall have authority to alter them as they shall think fit.

    The governor, for the time being, shall be commander in chief of the militia, appoint and commission all officers in the same below the rank of general officers; all general officers shall be appointed and commissioned by Congress.

    Previous to the organization of the general assembly, the governor shall appoint such magistrates and other civil officers in each county or township, as he shall find necessary for the preservation of the peace and good order in the same: After the general assembly shall be organized, the powers and duties of the magistrates and other civil officers shall be regulated and defined by the said assembly; but all magistrates and other civil officers not herein otherwise directed, shall during the continuance of this temporary government, be appointed by the governor.

    For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof; and he shall proceed from time to time as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature.

    So soon as there shall be five thousand free male inhabitants of full age in the district, upon giving proof thereof to the governor, they shall receive authority, with time and place, to elect a representative from their counties or townships to represent them in the general assembly: Provided, That, for every five hundred free male inhabitants, there shall be one representative, and so on progressively with the number of free male inhabitants shall the right of representation increase, until the number of representatives shall amount to twenty five; after which, the number and proportion of representatives shall be regulated by the legislature: Provided, That no person be eligible or qualified to act as a representative unless he shall have been a citizen of one of the United States three years, and be a resident in the district, or unless he shall have resided in the district three years; and, in either case, shall likewise hold in his own right, in fee simple, two hundred acres of land within the same; Provided, also, That a freehold in fifty acres of land in the district, having been a citizen of one of the states, and being resident in the district, or the like freehold and two years residence in the district, shall be necessary to qualify a man as an elector of a representative.

    The representatives thus elected, shall serve for the term of two years; and, in case of the death of a representative, or removal from office, the governor shall issue a writ to the county or township for which he was a member, to elect another in his stead, to serve for the residue of the term.

    The general assembly or legislature shall consist of the governor, legislative council, and a house of representatives. The Legislative Council shall consist of five members, to continue in office five years, unless sooner removed by Congress; any three of whom to be a quorum: and the members of the Council shall be nominated and appointed in the following manner, to wit: As soon as representatives shall be elected, the Governor shall appoint a time and place for them to meet together; and, when met, they shall nominate ten persons, residents in the district, and each possessed of a freehold in five hundred acres of land, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as aforesaid; and, whenever a vacancy shall happen in the council, by death or removal from office, the house of representatives shall nominate two persons, qualified as aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return their names to Congress; one of whom congress shall appoint and commission for the residue of the term. And every five years, four months at least before the expiration of the time of service of the members of council, the said house shall nominate ten persons, qualified as aforesaid, and return their names to Congress; five of whom Congress shall appoint and commission to serve as members of the council five years, unless sooner removed. And the governor, legislative council, and house of representatives, shall have authority to make laws in all cases, for the good government of the district, not repugnant to the principles and articles in this ordinance established and declared. And all bills, having passed by a majority in the house, and by a majority in the council, shall be referred to the governor for his assent; but no bill, or legislative act whatever, shall be of any force without his assent. The governor shall have power to convene, prorogue, and dissolve the general assembly, when, in his opinion, it shall be expedient.

    The governor, judges, legislative council, secretary, and such other officers as Congress shall appoint in the district, shall take an oath or affirmation of fidelity and of office; the governor before the president of congress, and all other officers before the Governor. As soon as a legislature shall be formed in the district, the council and house assembled in one room, shall have authority, by joint ballot, to elect a delegate to Congress, who shall have a seat in Congress, with a right of debating but not voting during this temporary government.

    And, for extending the fundamental principles of civil and religious liberty, which form the basis whereon these republics, their laws and constitutions are erected; to fix and establish those principles as the basis of all laws, constitutions, and governments, which forever hereafter shall be formed in the said territory: to provide also for the establishment of States, and permanent government therein, and for their admission to a share in the federal councils on an equal footing with the original States, at as early periods as may be consistent with the general interest:

    It is hereby ordained and declared by the authority aforesaid, That the following articles shall be considered as articles of compact between the original States and the people and States in the said territory and forever remain unalterable, unless by common consent, to wit:

    Article I.
    No person, demeaning himself in a peaceable and orderly manner, shall ever be molested on account of his mode of worship or religious sentiments, in the said territory.
    Article II.
    The inhabitants of the said territory shall always be entitled to the benefits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of the trial by jury; of a proportionate representation of the people in the legislature; and of judicial proceedings according to the course of the common law. All persons shall be bailable, unless for capital offenses, where the proof shall be evident or the presumption great. All fines shall be moderate; and no cruel or unusual punishments shall be inflicted. No man shall be deprived of his liberty or property, but by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land; and, should the public exigencies make it necessary, for the common preservation, to take any person's property, or to demand his particular services, full compensation shall be made for the same. And, in the just preservation of rights and property, it is understood and declared, that no law ought ever to be made, or have force in the said territory, that shall, in any manner whatever, interfere with or affect private contracts or engagements, bona fide, and without fraud, previously formed.
    Article III.
    Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall from time to time be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them.
    Article IV.
    The said territory, and the States which may be formed therein, shall forever remain a part of this Confederacy of the United States of America, subject to the Articles of Confederation, and to such alterations therein as shall be constitutionally made; and to all the acts and ordinances of the United States in Congress assembled, conformable thereto. The inhabitants and settlers in the said territory shall be subject to pay a part of the federal debts contracted or to be contracted, and a proportional part of the expenses of government, to be apportioned on them by Congress according to the same common rule and measure by which apportionments thereof shall be made on the other States; and the taxes for paying their proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the district or districts, or new States, as in the original States, within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. The legislatures of those districts or new States, shall never interfere with the primary disposal of the soil by the United States in Congress assembled, nor with any regulations Congress may find necessary for securing the title in such soil to the bona fide purchasers. No tax shall be imposed on lands the property of the United States; and, in no case, shall nonresident proprietors be taxed higher than residents. The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other States that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor.
    Article V.
    There shall be formed in the said territory, not less than three nor more than five States; and the boundaries of the States, as soon as Virginia shall alter her act of cession, and consent to the same, shall become fixed and established as follows, to wit: The western State in the said territory, shall be bounded by the Mississippi, the Ohio, and Wabash Rivers; a direct line drawn from the Wabash and Post Vincents, due North, to the territorial line between the United States and Canada; and, by the said territorial line, to the Lake of the Woods and Mississippi. The middle State shall be bounded by the said direct line, the Wabash from Post Vincents to the Ohio, by the Ohio, by a direct line, drawn due north from the mouth of the Great Miami, to the said territorial line, and by the said territorial line. The eastern State shall be bounded by the last mentioned direct line, the Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said territorial line: Provided, however, and it is further understood and declared, that the boundaries of these three States shall be subject so far to be altered, that, if Congress shall hereafter find it expedient, they shall have authority to form one or two States in that part of the said territory which lies north of an east and west line drawn through the southerly bend or extreme of Lake Michigan. And, whenever any of the said States shall have sixty thousand free inhabitants therein, such State shall be admitted, by its delegates, into the Congress of the United States, on an equal footing with the original States in all respects whatever, and shall be at liberty to form a permanent constitution and State government: Provided, the constitution and government so to be formed, shall be republican, and in conformity to the principles contained in these articles; and, so far as it can be consistent with the general interest of the confederacy, such admission shall be allowed at an earlier period, and when there may be a less number of free inhabitants in the State than sixty thousand.
    Article VI.
    There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid.
    Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That the resolutions of the 23rd of April, 1784, relative to the subject of this ordinance, be, and the same are hereby repealed and declared null and void.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Paris Peace Treaty of 1783

    In the name of the most holy and undivided Trinity.

    It having pleased the Divine Providence to dispose the hearts of the most serene and most potent Prince George the Third, by the grace of God, king of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith, duke of Brunswick and Lunebourg, arch- treasurer and prince elector of the Holy Roman Empire etc., and of the United States of America, to forget all past misunderstandings and differences that have unhappily interrupted the good correspondence and friendship which they mutually wish to restore, and to establish such a beneficial and satisfactory intercourse , between the two countries upon the ground of reciprocal advantages and mutual convenience as may promote and secure to both perpetual peace and harmony; and having for this desirable end already laid the foundation of peace and reconciliation by the Provisional Articles signed at Paris on the 30th of November 1782, by the commissioners empowered on each part, which articles were agreed to be inserted in and constitute the Treaty of Peace proposed to be concluded between the Crown of Great Britain and the said United States, but which treaty was not to be concluded until terms of peace should be agreed upon between Great Britain and France and his Britannic Majesty should be ready to conclude such treaty accordingly; and the treaty between Great Britain and France having since been concluded, his Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, in order to carry into full effect the Provisional Articles above mentioned, according to the tenor thereof, have constituted and appointed, that is to say his Britannic Majesty on his part, David Hartley, Esqr., member of the Parliament of Great Britain, and the said United States on their part, John Adams, Esqr., late a commissioner of the United States of America at the court of Versailles, late delegate in Congress from the state of Massachusetts, and chief justice of the said state, and minister plenipotentiary of the said United States to their high mightinesses the States General of the United Netherlands; Benjamin Franklin, Esqr., late delegate in Congress from the state of Pennsylvania, president of the convention of the said state, and minister plenipotentiary from the United States of America at the court of Versailles; John Jay, Esqr., late president of Congress and chief justice of the state of New York, and minister plenipotentiary from the said United States at the court of Madrid; to be plenipotentiaries for the concluding and signing the present definitive treaty; who after having reciprocally communicated their respective full powers have agreed upon and confirmed the following articles.

    His Brittanic Majesty acknowledges the said United States, viz., New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, to be free sovereign and independent states, that he treats with them as such, and for himself, his heirs, and successors, relinquishes all claims to the government, propriety, and territorial rights of the same and every part thereof.

    And that all disputes which might arise in future on the subject of the boundaries of the said United States may be prevented, it is hereby agreed and declared, that the following are and shall be their boundaries, viz.; from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia, viz., that nagle which is formed by a line drawn due north from the source of St. Croix River to the highlands; along the said highlands which divide those rivers that empty themselves into the river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the northwesternmost head of Connecticut River; thence down along the middle of that river to the forty-fifth degree of north latitude; from thence by a line due west on said latitude until it strikes the river Iroquois or Cataraquy; thence along the middle of said river into Lake Ontario; through the middle of said lake until it strikes the communication by water between that lake and Lake Erie; thence along the middle of said communication into Lake Erie, through the middle of said lake until it arrives at the water communication between that lake and Lake Huron; thence along the middle of said water communication into Lake Huron, thence through the middle of said lake to the water communication between that lake and Lake Superior; thence through Lake Superior northward of the Isles Royal and Phelipeaux to the Long Lake; thence through the middle of said Long Lake and the water communication between it and the Lake of the Woods, to the said Lake of the Woods; thence through the said lake to the most northwesternmost point thereof, and from thence on a due west course to the river Mississippi; thence by a line to be drawn along the middle of the said river Mississippi until it shall intersect the northernmost part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude, South, by a line to be drawn due east from the determination of the line last mentioned in the latitude of thirty-one degrees of the equator, to the middle of the river Apalachicola or Catahouche; thence along the middle thereof to its junction with the Flint River, thence straight to the head of Saint Mary's River; and thence down along the middle of Saint Mary's River to the Atlantic Ocean; east, by a line to be drawn along the middle of the river Saint Croix, from its mouth in the Bay of Fundy to its source, and from its source directly north to the aforesaid highlands which divide the rivers that fall into the Atlantic Ocean from those which fall into the river Saint Lawrence; comprehending all islands within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the United States, and lying between lines to be drawn due east from the points where the aforesaid boundaries between Nova Scotia on the one part and East Florida on the other shall, respectively, touch the Bay of Fundy and the Atlantic Ocean, excepting such islands as now are or heretofore have been within the limits of the said province of Nova Scotia.

    It is agreed that the people of the United States shall continue to enjoy unmolested the right to take fish of every kind on the Grand Bank and on all the other banks of Newfoundland, also in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and at all other places in the sea, where the inhabitants of both countries used at any time heretofore to fish. And also that the inhabitants of the United States shall have liberty to take fish of every kind on such part of the coast of Newfoundland as British fishermen shall use, (but not to dry or cure the same on that island) and also on the coasts, bays and creeks of all other of his Brittanic Majesty's dominions in America; and that the American fishermen shall have liberty to dry and cure fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador, so long as the same shall remain unsettled, but so soon as the same or either of them shall be settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure fish at such settlement without a previous agreement for that purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground.

    It is agreed that creditors on either side shall meet with no lawful impediment to the recovery of the full value in sterling money of all bona fide debts heretofore contracted.

    It is agreed that Congress shall earnestly recommend it to the legislatures of the respective states to provide for the restitution of all estates, rights, and properties, which have been confiscated belonging to real British subjects; and also of the estates, rights, and properties of persons resident in districts in the possession on his Majesty's arms and who have not borne arms against the said United States. And that persons of any other decription shall have free liberty to go to any part or parts of any of the thirteen United States and therein to remain twelve months unmolested in their endeavors to obtain the restitution of such of their estates, rights, and properties as may have been confiscated; and that Congress shall also earnestly recommend to the several states a reconsideration and revision of all acts or laws regarding the premises, so as to render the said laws or acts perfectly consistent not only with justice and equity but with that spirit of conciliation which on the return of the blessings of peace should universally prevail. And that Congress shall also earnestly recommend to the several states that the estates, rights, and properties, of such last mentioned persons shall be restored to them, they refunding to any persons who may be now in possession the bona fide price (where any has been given) which such persons may have paid on purchasing any of the said lands, rights, or properties since the confiscation.
    And it is agreed that all persons who have any interest in confiscated lands, either by debts, marriage settlements, or otherwise, shall meet with no lawful impediment in the prosecution of their just rights.

    That there shall be no future confiscations made nor any prosecutions commenced against any person or persons for, or by reason of, the part which he or they may have taken in the present war, and that no person shall on that account suffer any future loss or damage, either in his person, liberty, or property; and that those who may be in confinement on such charges at the time of the ratification of the treaty in America shall be immediately set at liberty, and the prosecutions so commenced be discontinued.

    There shall be a firm and perpetual peace between his Brittanic Majesty and the said states, and between the subjects of the one and the citizens of the other, wherefore all hostilities both by sea and land shall from henceforth cease. All prisoners on both sides shall be set at liberty, and his Brittanic Majesty shall with all convenient speed, and without causing any destruction, or carrying away any Negroes or other property of the American inhabitants, withdraw all his armies, garrisons, and fleets from the said United States, and from every post, place, and harbor within the same; leaving in all fortifications, the American artilery that may be therein; and shall also order and cause all archives, records, deeds, and papers belonging to any of the said states, or their citizens, which in the course of the war may have fallen into the hands of his officers, to be forthwith restored and delivered to the proper states and persons to whom they belong.

    The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States.

    In case it should so happen that any place or territory belonging to Great Britain or to the United States should have been conquered by the arms of either from the other before the arrival of the said Provisional Articles in America, it is agreed that the same shall be restored without difficulty and without requiring any compensation.

    The solemn ratifications of the present treaty expedited in good and due form shall be exchanged between the contracting parties in the space of six months or sooner, if possible, to be computed from the day of the signatures of the present treaty. In witness whereof we the undersigned, their ministers plenipotentiary, have in their name and in virtue of our full powers, signed with our hands the present definitive treaty and caused the seals of our arms to be affixed thereto.

    Done at Paris, this third day of September in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-three.

    D. HARTLEY (SEAL)
    JOHN ADAMS (SEAL)
    B. FRANKLIN (SEAL)
    JOHN JAY (SEAL)

    Article 10:

    Article 9:

    Article 8:

    Article 7:

    Article 6:

    Article 5:

    Article 4:

    Article 3:

    Article 2:

    Article 1:

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    President's Remarks at National Day of Prayer and Remembrance

    The National Cathedral
    President Proclaims National Day of Prayer and Remembrance

    Washington, D.C.

    1:00 P.M. EDT

    THE PRESIDENT: We are here in the middle hour of our grief. So many have suffered so great a loss, and today we express our nation's sorrow. We come before God to pray for the missing and the dead, and for those who love them.

    On Tuesday, our country was attacked with deliberate and massive cruelty. We have seen the images of fire and ashes, and bent steel.

    Now come the names, the list of casualties we are only beginning to read. They are the names of men and women who began their day at a desk or in an airport, busy with life. They are the names of people who faced death, and in their last moments called home to say, be brave, and I love you.

    They are the names of passengers who defied their murderers, and prevented the murder of others on the ground. They are the names of men and women who wore the uniform of the United States, and died at their posts.

    They are the names of rescuers, the ones whom death found running up the stairs and into the fires to help others. We will read all these names. We will linger over them, and learn their stories, and many Americans will weep.

    To the children and parents and spouses and families and friends of the lost, we offer the deepest sympathy of the nation. And I assure you, you are not alone.

    Just three days removed from these events, Americans do not yet have the distance of history. But our responsibility to history is already clear: to answer these attacks and rid the world of evil.

    War has been waged against us by stealth and deceit and murder. This nation is peaceful, but fierce when stirred to anger. This conflict was begun on the timing and terms of others. It will end in a way, and at an hour, of our choosing.

    Our purpose as a nation is firm. Yet our wounds as a people are recent and unhealed, and lead us to pray. In many of our prayers this week, there is a searching, and an honesty. At St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York on Tuesday, a woman said, "I prayed to God to give us a sign that He is still here." Others have prayed for the same, searching hospital to hospital, carrying pictures of those still missing.

    God's signs are not always the ones we look for. We learn in tragedy that his purposes are not always our own. Yet the prayers of private suffering, whether in our homes or in this great cathedral, are known and heard, and understood.

    There are prayers that help us last through the day, or endure the night. There are prayers of friends and strangers, that give us strength for the journey. And there are prayers that yield our will to a will greater than our own.

    This world He created is of moral design. Grief and tragedy and hatred are only for a time. Goodness, remembrance, and love have no end. And the Lord of life holds all who die, and all who mourn.

    It is said that adversity introduces us to ourselves. This is true of a nation as well. In this trial, we have been reminded, and the world has seen, that our fellow Americans are generous and kind, resourceful and brave. We see our national character in rescuers working past exhaustion; in long lines of blood donors; in thousands of citizens who have asked to work and serve in any way possible.

    And we have seen our national character in eloquent acts of sacrifice. Inside the World Trade Center, one man who could have saved himself stayed until the end at the side of his quadriplegic friend. A beloved priest died giving the last rites to a firefighter. Two office workers, finding a disabled stranger, carried her down sixty-eight floors to safety. A group of men drove through the night from Dallas to Washington to bring skin grafts for burn victims.

    In these acts, and in many others, Americans showed a deep commitment to one another, and an abiding love for our country. Today, we feel what Franklin Roosevelt called the warm courage of national unity. This is a unity of every faith, and every background.

    It has joined together political parties in both houses of Congress. It is evident in services of prayer and candlelight vigils, and American flags, which are displayed in pride, and wave in defiance.

    Our unity is a kinship of grief, and a steadfast resolve to prevail against our enemies. And this unity against terror is now extending across the world.

    America is a nation full of good fortune, with so much to be grateful for. But we are not spared from suffering. In every generation, the world has produced enemies of human freedom. They have attacked America, because we are freedom's home and defender. And the commitment of our fathers is now the calling of our time.

    On this national day of prayer and remembrance, we ask almighty God to watch over our nation, and grant us patience and resolve in all that is to come. We pray that He will comfort and console those who now walk in sorrow. We thank Him for each life we now must mourn, and the promise of a life to come.

    As we have been assured, neither death nor life, nor angels nor principalities nor powers, nor things present nor things to come, nor height nor depth, can separate us from God's love. May He bless the souls of the departed. May He comfort our own. And may He always guide our country.

    God bless America.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Proclamation of Neutrality

    April 22, 1793
    BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES

    A PROCLAMATION

    Whereas it appears that a state of war exists between Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, and the United Netherlands, of the one part, and France on the other; and the duty and interest of the United States require, that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerant Powers;

    I have therefore thought fit by these presents to declare the disposition of the United States to observe the conduct aforesaid towards those Powers respectfully; and to exhort and warn the citizens of the United States carefully to avoid all acts and proceedings whatsoever, which may in any manner tend to contravene such disposition.

    And I do hereby also make known, that whatsoever of the citizens of the United States shall render himself liable to punishment or forfeiture under the law of nations, by committing, aiding, or abetting hostilities against any of the said Powers, or by carrying to any of them those articles which are deemed contraband by the modern usage of nations, will not receive the protection of the United States, against such punishment or forfeiture; and further, that I have given instructions to those officers, to whom it belongs, to cause prosecutions to be instituted against all persons, who shall, within the cognizance of the courts of the United States, violate the law of nations, with respect to the Powers at war, or any of them.

    In testimony whereof, I have caused the seal of the United States of America to be affixed to these presents, and signed the same with my hand. Done at the city of Philadelphia, the twenty-second day of April, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three, and of the Independence of the United States of America the seventeenth.

    GEORGE WASHINGTON
    April 22, 1793

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Resolutions of the Stamp Act

    The members of this Congress, sincerely devoted, with the warmest sentiments of affection and duty to His Majesty's Person and Government, inviolably attached to the present happy establishment of the Protestant succession, and with minds deeply impressed by a sense of the present and impending misfortunes of the British colonies on this continent; having considered as maturely as time will permit the circumstances of the said colonies, esteem it our indispensable duty to make the following declarations of our humble opinion, respecting the most essential rights and liberties Of the colonists, and of the grievances under which they labour, by reason of several late Acts of Parliament.
    That His Majesty's subjects in these colonies, owe the same allegiance to the Crown of Great-Britain, that is owing from his subjects born within the realm, and all due subordination to that august body the Parliament of Great Britain.
    That His Majesty's liege subjects in these colonies, are entitled to all the inherent rights and liberties of his natural born subjects within the kingdom of Great-Britain.
    That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives.
    That the people of these colonies are not, and from their local circumstances cannot be, represented in the House of Commons in Great-Britain.
    That the only representatives of the people of these colonies, are persons chosen therein by themselves, and that no taxes ever have been, or can be constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective legislatures.
    That all supplies to the Crown, being free gifts of the people, it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the principles and spirit of the British Constitution, for the people of Great-Britain to grant to His Majesty the property of the colonists.
    That trial by jury is the inherent and invaluable right of every British subject in these colonies.
    That the late Act of Parliament, entitled, An Act for granting and applying certain Stamp Duties, and other Duties, in the British colonies and plantations in America, etc., by imposing taxes on the inhabitants of these colonies, and the said Act, and several other Acts, by extending the jurisdiction of the courts of Admiralty beyond its ancient limits, have a manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists.
    That the duties imposed by several late Acts of Parliament, from the peculiar circumstances of these colonies, will be extremely burthensome and grievous; and from the scarcity of specie, the payment of them absolutely impracticable.
    That as the profits of the trade of these colonies ultimately center in Great-Britain, to pay for the manufactures which they are obliged to take from thence, they eventually contribute very largely to all supplies granted there to the Crown.
    That the restrictions imposed by several late Acts of Parliament, on the trade of these colonies, will render them unable to purchase the manufactures of Great-Britain.
    That the increase, prosperity, and happiness of these colonies, depend on the full and free enjoyment of their rights and liberties, and an intercourse with Great-Britain mutually affectionate and advantageous.
    That it is the right of the British subjects in these colonies, to petition the King, Or either House of Parliament.
    Lastly, That it is the indispensable duty of these colonies, to the best of sovereigns, to the mother country, and to themselves, to endeavour by a loyal and dutiful address to his Majesty, and humble applications to both Houses of Parliament, to procure the repeal of the Act for granting and applying certain stamp duties, of all clauses of any other Acts of Parliament, whereby the jurisdiction of the Admiralty is extended as aforesaid, and of the other late Acts for the restriction of American commerce.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Second State of the Union Address

    Philadelphia, Mar. 4, 1793
    Fellow Citizens:

    I am again called upon by the voice of my country to execute the functions of its Chief Magistrate. When the occasion proper for it shall arrive, I shall endeavor to express the high sense I entertain of this distingu ished honor, and of the confidence which has been reposed in me by the people of united America.

    Previous to the execution of any official act of the President the Constitution requires an oath of office. This oath I am now about to take, and in your presence: That if it shall be found during my administration of the Government I have in any instance violated willingly or knowingly the injunctions thereof, I may (besides incurring constitutional punishment) be subject to the upbraidings of all who are now witnesses of the present solemn ceremony.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Second Virginia Charter

    James, by the grace of God [King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, defender of the faith, etc.] To all [to whom these presents shall come, greeting.]

    Whereas, at the humble suite and request of sondrie oure lovinge and well disposed subjects intendinge to deduce a colonie and to make habitacion and plantacion of sondrie of oure people in that parte of America comonlie called Virginia, and other part and territories in America either apperteyninge unto us or which are not actually possessed of anie Christian prince or people within certaine bound and regions, wee have formerly, by oure lettres patents bearinge date the tenth of Aprill in the fourth yeare of oure raigne of England, Fraunce, and Ireland, and the nine and thirtieth of Scotland, graunted to Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers and others, for the more speedie accomplishment of the said plantacion and habitacion, that they shoulde devide themselves into twoe colloniesthe one consistinge of divers Knights, gentlemen, merchaunts and others of our cittie of London, called the First Collonie; and the other of sondrie Knights, gentlemen and others of the citties of Bristoll, Exeter, the towne of Plymouth, and other places, called the Seccond Collonieand have yielded and graunted maine and sondrie priviledges and liberties to each Collonie for their quiet setlinge and good government therein, as by the said lettres patents more at large appeareth.

    Nowe, forasmuch as divers and sondrie of oure lovinge subjects, as well adventurers as planters, of the said First Collonie (which have alreadie engaged them selves in furtheringe the businesse of the said plantacion and doe further intende by the assistance of Almightie God to prosecute the same to a happie ende) have of late ben humble suiters unto us that, in respect of their great chardeges and the adventure of manie of their lives which they have hazarded in the said discoverie and plantacion of the said countrie, wee woulde be pleased to graunt them a further enlargement and explanacion of the said graunte, priviledge and liberties, and that suche counsellors and other officers maie be appointed amonngest them to manage and direct their affaires [as] are willinge and readie to adventure with them; as also whose dwellings are not so farr remote from the cittye of London but that they maie at convenient tymes be readie at hande to give advice and assistance upon all occacions requisite.

    We, greatlie affectinge the effectual prosecucion and happie successe of the said plantacion and comendinge their good desires theirin, for their further encouragement in accomplishinge so excellent a worke, much pleasinge to God and profitable to oure Kingdomes, doe, of oure speciall grace and certeine knowledge and meere motion, for us, oure heires and successors, give, graunt and confirme to oure trustie and welbeloved subjects,

    Robert, Earle of Salisburie [Salisbury]
    Thomas, Earle of Suffolke [Suffolk]
    Henrie, Earle of Southampton
    William. Earle of Pembroke [Henrie]
    [Henrie] Earle of Lincolne [Lincoln]
    Henrie, Earle of Dorsett [Dorset]
    Thomas, Earle of Exeter
    Phillipp, Earle of Mountgommery
    Robert, Lord Vicount Lisle
    Theophilus, Lord Howard of Walden
    James Mountague, Lord Bishopp of Bathe and Wells
    Edward, Lord Zouche
    Thomas, Lord Lawarr
    Wiliam, Lord Mounteagle
    Raphe, Lord Ewre
    Edmond, Lord Sheffeild [Sheffield]
    Grey, Lord Shandis [Chandois]
    [Grey], Lord Compton
    John, Lord Petre
    John, Lord Stanhope
    George, Lord Carew
    Sir Humfrey Welde, Lord Mayor of London [Weld]
    George Pertie, Esquire [Percie]
    Sir Edward Cecill, Knight [Cecil]
    Sir George Wharton, Knight
    Frauncis West, Esquire
    Sir William Waade, Knight [Wade]
    Sir Henrie Nevill, Knight [Nevil]
    Sir Thomas Smithe, Knight [Smith]
    Sir Oliver Cromwell, Knight
    Sir Peter Manwood, Knight
    Sir Dru Drurie, Knight [Drury]
    Sir John Scott, Knight [Scot]
    Sir Thomas Challouer, Knight [Challoner]
    Sir Robert Drurie, Knight [Drury]
    Sir Anthonye Cope, Knight
    Sir Horatio Veere, Knight [Vere]
    Sir Edward Conwaie, Knight [Conway]
    Sir William Browne [Brown]
    Sir Maurice Barkeley, Knight [Berkeley]
    Sir Roberte Maunsell, Knight [Mansel]
    Sir Amias Presou, Knight [Preston]
    Sir Thomas Gates, Knight
    Sir Anthonie Ashley, Knight [Ashly]
    Sir Michaell Sandes, Knight [Sandys]
    Sir Henrie Carew, Knight [Carey]
    Sir Stephen Soame, Knight
    Sir Calisthenes Brooke, Knight
    Sir Edward Michelborne, Knight [Michelborn]
    Sir John Racliffe, Knight [Ratcliffe]
    Sir Charles Willmott, Knight [Wilmot]
    Sir George Moore, Knight [Moor]
    Sir Hugh Wirrall, Knight [Wirral]
    Sir Thomas Dennys, Knight [Dennis]
    Sir John Hollis, Knight [Holles]
    Sir William Godolphin, Knight
    Sir Thomas Monnson, Knight [Monson]
    Sir Thomas Ridgwaie, Knight [Ridgwine]
    Sir John Brooke, Knight
    Sir Roberte Killigrew, Knight
    Sir Henrie Peyton, Knight
    Sir Richard Williamson, Knight
    Sir Ferdinando Weynman, Knight
    Sir William St. John, Knight
    Sir Thomas Holcrofte, Knight [Holcroft]
    Sir John Mallory, Knight
    Sir Roger Ashton, Knight
    Sir Walter Cope, Knight
    Sir Richard Wigmore, Knight
    Sir William Cooke, Knight [Coke]
    Sir Herberte Crofte, Knight
    Sir Henrie Faushawe, Knight [Fanshaw]
    Sir John Smith, Knight
    Sir Francis Wolley, Knight
    Sir Edward Waterhouse, Knight
    Sir Henrie Sekeford, Knight [Seekford]
    Sir Edward Saudes, Knights [Edwin Sandys]
    Sir Thomas Wayneman, Knight [Waynam]
    Sir John Trevor, Knight
    Sir Warrwick Heale, Knight [Heele]
    Sir Robert Wroth, Knight
    Sir John Townnesende, Knight [Townsend]
    Sir Christopher Perkins, Knight
    Sir Daniell Dun, Knight
    Sir Henrie Hobarte, Knight [Hobart]
    Sir Franncis Bacon, Knight
    Sir Henrie Mountague, Knight [Montague]
    Sir Georg Coppin, Knight
    Sir Samuell Sandes, Knight [Sandys]
    Sir Thomas Roe, Knight
    Sir George Somers, Knight
    Sir Thomas Freake, Knight
    Sir Thomas Horwell, Knight [Harwell]
    Sir Charles Kelke, Knight
    Sir Baptist Hucks, Knight [Hicks]
    Sir John Watts, Knight
    Sir Roberte Carey, Knight
    Sir William Romney, Knight
    Sir Thomas Middleton, Knight
    Sir Hatton Cheeke, Knight
    Sir John Ogle, Knighte
    Sir Cavallero Meycot, Knight
    Sir Stephen Riddlesden, Knight [Riddleson]
    Sir Thomas Bludder, Knight
    Sir Anthonie Aucher, Knight
    Sir Robert Johnson, Knight
    Sir Thomas Panton, Knight
    Sir Charles Morgan, Knight
    Sir Stephen Powle, Knight [Pole]
    Sir John Burlacie, Knight
    Sir Christofer Cleane, Knight [Cleave]
    Sir George Hayward, Knight
    Sir Thomas Dane, Knight [Davis]
    Sir Thomas Dutton, Knight [Sutton]
    Sir Anthonie Forrest, Knight [Forest]
    Sir Robert Payne, Knight
    Sir John Digby, Knight
    Sir Dudley Diggs, Knight [Digges]
    Sir Rowland Cotton, Knight
    Doctour Mathewe Rutcliffe [Sutcliffel
    Doctor Meddowes [Meadows]
    Doctor Tumer
    Doctor Poe
    Captaine Pagnam
    Captaine Jeffrey Holcrofte
    Captaine Raunne [Romney]
    Captaine Henrie Spry
    Captaine Shelpton [Shelton]
    Captaine Spark [Sparks]
    [Captain] Thomas Wyatt [Wyat]
    Captaine Brinsley
    Captaine William Courtney
    Captaine Herbert
    Captaine Clarke
    Captaine Dewhurst
    Captaine John Blundell
    Captaine Frier [Fryer]
    Captaine Lewis Orwell
    Captaine Edward Lloyd [Loyd]
    Captaine Slingesby
    Captaine Huntley [Hawley]
    Captaine Orme
    Captaine Woodhouse
    Captaine Mason
    Captaine Thomas Holcroft
    Captaine John Cooke [Coke]
    Captaine Hollis [Holles]
    Captaine William Proude
    Captaine Henrie Woodhouse
    Captaine Richard Lindeley [Lindesey]
    Captaine Dexter
    Captaine William Winter
    Captaine Herle [Pearsel
    Captain John Bingham
    Captaine Burray
    Captaine Thomas Conwey [Conway]
    Captaine Rookwood
    Captaine William Lovelace
    Captaine John Ashley
    Captaine Thomas Wynne
    Captaine Thomas Mewtis
    Captaine Edward Harwood
    Captaine Michaell Evered [Everard]
    Captaine Connoth [Comock]
    Captaine Miles [Mills]
    Captaine Pigott [Pigot]
    Captaine Edward Maria Wingfeild [Wingfield]
    Captaine ChristopherNewporte [Newport]
    Captaine John Siclemore, alias Ratcliffe [Sicklemore]
    Captaine John Smith
    Captyn John Martyn [Martin]
    Captaine Peter Wynne
    Captaine Waldoe [Waldo]
    Captyn Thomas Wood
    Captaine Thomas Button
    George Bolls, Esquire, Sheriffe of London
    William Crashawe, [Clerk], Bachelor of Divinite
    William Seabright, Esquire
    Christopher Brook, Esquire
    John Bingley, Esquire
    Thomas Watson, Esquire
    Richard Percivall, Esquire [Percival]
    John Moore, Esquire
    Hugh Brooker, Esquire
    David Waterhouse, Esquire [Woodhouse]
    Anthonie Auther, Esquier [Aucher]
    Roberte Bowyer, Esquire [Boyer]
    Raphe Ewens, Esquire
    Zacharie Jones, Esquire
    George Calvert, Esquire
    William Dobson, Esquire
    Henry Reynold, Esquire [Reynolds]
    Thomas Walker, Esquire
    Anthonie Barnars, Esquire
    Thomas Sandes, Esquire [Sandys]
    Henrie Sand, Esquire [Sandys]
    Richard Sand [Sandys], Sonne of Sir Edwin Sandes [Sandys]
    William Oxenbridge, Esquire
    John Moore, Esquire
    Thomas Wilson, Esquire
    John Bullocke, Esquire [Bullock]
    John Waller, [Esquire]
    Thomas Webb
    Jehughe Robinson
    William Brewster
    Robert Evelyn
    Henrie Dabenie [Danby]
    Richard Hacklewte, minister [Hackluit]
    John Eldred, marchaunt [Eldrid]
    William Russell, marchaunt
    John Merrick, marchaunt
    Richard Bannester, merchant [Banister]
    Charles Anthonie, goldsmithe [Anthony]
    John Banck [Banks]
    William Evans
    Richard Humble
    Robert Chamberleyne, marchaunt [Richard Chamberlayne]
    Thomas Barber, marchaunt
    Richard Pevyrell, merchaunt [Pomet]
    John Fletcher, merchant
    Thomas Nicholls, merchant
    John Stoak, merchaunt [Stoke]
    Gabriell Archer
    Franncis Covell [Covel]
    William Bouham [Bonham]
    Edward Harrison
    John Wolstenholme
    Nicholas Salter
    Hugh Evans
    William Barners [Barnes]
    Otho Mawdett [Mawdet]
    Richard Staper, marchant
    John Elkin, marchaunt
    William Cayse [Coyse]
    Thomas Perkin, cooper
    Humfrey Ramell, cooper [Humphrey James]
    Henry Jackson
    Roberte Shingleton [Singleton]
    Christopher Nicholls
    John Harper
    Abraham Chamberlaine [Chamberlayne]
    Thomas Shipton
    Thomas Carpenter
    Anthoine Crewe [Crew]
    George Holman
    Robert Hill
    Cleophas Smithe [Smith]
    Raphe Harrison
    John Farmer
    James Brearley
    William Crosley [Crosby]
    Richard Cocks [Cox]
    John Gearinge [Gearing]
    Richard Strough, iremonnger [Strongarm]
    Thomas Langton
    Griffith Hinton
    Richard Ironside
    Richard Deane [Dean]
    Richard Turner
    William Leveson, mercer [Lawson]
    James Chatfeilde [Chatfield]
    Edward Allen [Edward Allen Tedder]
    Tedder Roberts
    Heldebrand Sprinson [Robert Hildebrand Sprinson]
    Arthur Mouse
    John Gardener [Gardiner]
    James Russell [Russel]
    Richard Casewell [Caswell]
    Richard Evanns [Evans]
    John Hawkins
    Richard Kerrill [Kerril]
    Richard Brooke
    Mathewe Scrivener, gentleman [Screvener]
    William Stallendge, gentleman [Stallenge]
    Arthure Venn, gentleman
    Saund Webb, gentleman [Sandys Webbe]
    Michaell Phettiplace, gentleman
    William Phetiplace, gentleman [Phettiplace]
    Ambrose Brusey, gentleman [Prusey]
    John Taverner, gentleman
    George Pretty, gentleman
    Peter Latham, gentleman
    Thomas Monnford, gentleman [Montford]
    William Cautrell, gentleman [Cantrel]
    Richard Wiffine, gentleman [Wilfin]
    Raphe Mooreton, gentleman [Moreton]
    John Cornellis [Comelius]
    Martyn Freeman
    Raphe Freeman
    Andreau Moore
    Thomas White
    Edward Perkin
    Robert Osey
    Thomas Whitley
    George Pitt [Pit]
    Roberte Parkehurste [Parkhurst]
    Thomas Morris
    Peter Vaulore [Harloe]
    Jeffrey Duppa
    John Gilbert
    William Hancock
    Mathew Bromrigg [Brown]
    Francis Tirrell [Tyrrel]
    Randall Carter
    Othowell Smithe [Smith]
    Thomas Honnyman [Hamond]
    Marten Bonde, haberdasher [Bond]
    Joan Mousloe [John Moulsoe]
    Roberte Johnson
    William Younge [Young]
    John Woddall [Woodal]
    William Felgate
    Humfrey Westwood
    Richard Champion
    Henrie Robinson
    Franncis Mapes
    William Sambatch [Sambach]
    Rauley Crashawe [Ralegh Crashaw]
    DaruelLliacker
    Thomas Grave
    Hugh Willestone
    Thomas Culpepper, of Wigsell, Esquire
    John Culpepper, gentleman
    Henrie Lee
    Josias Kirton, gentleman [Kerton]
    John Porie, gentleman [Pory]
    Henrie Collins
    George Burton
    William Atkinson
    Thomas Forrest [Forest]
    John Russell [Russel]
    John Houlte [Holt]
    Harman Harrison
    Gabriell Beedell [Beedel]
    John Beedell [Beedel]
    Henrie Dankes [Dawkes]
    George Scott [Scot]
    Edward Fleetewood, gentleman [Fleetwood]
    Richard Rogers, gentleman
    Arthure Robinson
    Robert Robinson
    John Huntley
    John Grey [Gray]
    William Payne
    William Feilde [Field]
    William Wattey
    William Webster
    John Dingley
    Thomas Draper
    Richard Glanvile [Glanvil]
    Arnolde Lulls [Hulls]
    Henrie Rowe [Roe]
    William Moore [More]
    Nicholas Grice [Gryce]
    James Monnger [Monger]
    Nicholas Andrewes [Andrews]
    Jerome Haydon, iremonnger [Jeremy Haydon]
    Phillipp Durrant [Philip Durette]
    John Quales [Quarles]
    John West
    Madlew Springeham [Springham]
    John Johnson
    Christopher Hore
    George Barkeley
    Thomas Sued [Snead]
    George Barkeley [Berkeley]
    Ardhure Pett [Pet]
    Thomas Careles
    William Barkley [Berkley]
    Thomas Johnson
    Alexander Bent [Bents]
    Captaine William Kinge [King]
    George Sandes, gentleman [Sandys]
    James White, gentleman
    Edmond Wynn [Wynne]
    Charles Towler
    Richard Reynold
    Edward Webb
    Richard Maplesden
    Thomas Levers [Lever]
    David Bourne
    Thomas Wood
    Raphe Hamer
    Edward Barnes, mercer
    John Wright, mercer
    Robert Middleton
    Edward Litsfeild [Littlefield]
    Katherine West
    Thomas Webb [Web]
    Raphe Kinge [King]
    Roberte Coppine [Coppin]
    James Askewe
    Christopher Nicholls [Christopher Holt]
    William Bardwell
    Alexander Childe [Chiles]
    Lewes Tate
    Edward Ditchfeilde [Ditchfield]
    James Swifte
    Richard Widdowes, goldesmith
    Edmonde Brundells [Brudenell]
    John Hanford [Hansford]
    Edward Wooller
    William Palmer, haberdasher
    John Badger
    John Hodgson
    Peter Monnsill [Mounsel]
    Jahn Carrill [Carril]
    John Busbridge [Bushridge]
    William Dunn [Dun]
    Thomas Johnson
    Nicholas Benson
    Thomas Shipton
    Nathaniell Wade
    Randoll Wettwood [Wetwood]
    Mathew Dequester
    Charles Hawkins
    Hugh Hamersley
    Abraham Cartwright
    George Bennett [Bennet]
    William Cattor [Cater]
    Richard Goddart
    Henrie Cromwell
    Phinees Pett [Pet]
    Roberte Cooper
    Henrie Neite [Newce]
    Edward Wilks [Wilkes]
    Roberte Bateman
    Nicholas Farrar
    John Newhouse
    John Cason
    Thomas Harris, gentleman
    George Etheridge, gentleman
    Thomas Mayle, gentleman
    Richard Stratford [Stafford]
    Thomas
    Richard Cooper
    John Westrowe [Westrow]
    Edward Welshe [Welch]
    Thomas Brittanie [Britain]
    Thomas Knowls [Knowles]
    Octavian Thome
    Edmonde Smyth [Smith]
    John March
    Edward Carew
    Thomas Pleydall
    Richard Lea [Let]
    Miles Palmer
    Henrie Price
    John Josua, gentleman [Joshua]
    William Clawday [Clauday]
    Jerome Pearsye
    John Bree, gentleman
    William Hampson
    Christopher Pickford
    Thomas Hunt
    Thomas Truston
    Christopher Lanman [Salmon]
    John Haward, clerke [Howard]
    Richarde Partridge
    Allen Cotton [Cassen]
    Felix Wilson
    Thomas Colethurst [Bathurst]
    George Wilmer
    Andrew Wilmer
    Morrice Lewellin
    Thomas Jedwin [Godwin]
    Peter Burgoyne
    Thomas Burgoyne
    Roberte Burgoyne
    Roberte Smithe, merchauntaylor [Smith]
    Edward Cage, grocer
    Thomas Canon, gentleman [Cannon]
    William Welby, stacioner
    Clement Wilmer, gentleman
    John Clapham, gentleman
    Giles Fraunces, gentleman [Francis]
    George Walker, sadler
    John Swinehowe, stacioner [Swinhow]
    Edward Bushoppe, stacioner [Bishop]
    Leonard White, gentleman
    Christopher Barron [Baron]
    Peter Benson
    Richard Smyth [Smith]
    George Prockter, minister [Proctor]
    Millicent Ramesden, widowe [Ramsdent]
    Joseph Soane
    Thomas Hinshawe [Hinshaw]
    John Baker
    Robert Thorneton [Thomton]
    John Davies [Davis]
    Edward Facett [Facetl
    George Nuce, gentleman [Newce]
    John Robinson
    Captaine Thomas Wood
    William Browne, shoemaker [Brown]
    Roberte Barker, shoemaker
    Roberte Penington [Pennington]
    Francis Burley, minister
    William Quick, grocer
    Edward Lewes, grocer [Lewis]
    Laurence Campe, draper
    Aden Perkins, grocer
    Richard Shepparde, preacher [Shepherd]
    William Sheckley, haberdasher [Sherley]
    William Tayler, haberdasher [Taylor]
    Edward Lukyn, gentleman [Edwin Lukin]
    John Francklyn, haberdasher [Franklyn]
    John Southicke [Southwick]
    Peter Peate
    George Johan, iremonnger
    George Yardley, gentleman [Yeardley]
    Henrie Shelly [Shelley]
    John Pratt [Prat]
    Thomas Church, draper
    William Powell, gentleman [Powel]
    Richard Frithe, gentleman [Frith]
    Thomas Wheeler, draper
    Franncis Hasilerigg, gentleman [Haselrig]
    Hughe Shippley, gentleman [Shipley]
    John Andrewes, thelder, [doctor], of Cambridge [Andrews]
    Franncis Whistley, gentleman [Whistler]
    John Vassall, gentleman
    Richard Howle
    Edward Barkeley, gentleman [Berkeley]
    Richard Knerisborough, gentleman [Keneridgburg]
    Nicholas Exton, draper
    William Bennett, fishmonger [Bennet]
    James Hawood, marchaunt [Haywood]
    Nicholas Isaak, merchaunt [Isaac]
    William Gibbs, merchannt
    [William] Bushopp [Bishop]
    Barnard Michell [Mitchel]
    Isaake Michell [Isaac Mitchel]
    John Streat [Streate]
    Edward Gall
    John Marten, gentleman [Martin]
    Thomas Fox
    Luke Lodge
    John Woodleefe, gentleman [Woodliffel
    Rice Webb [Piichard]
    Vincent Lowe [Low]
    Samuell Burnam [Burnham]
    Edmonde Pears, haberdasher
    Josua Goudge [John Googe]
    John St. John
    Edwarde Vaughan
    William Dunn
    Thomas Alcock [Alcocke]
    John Andrewes, the younger, of Cambridge [Andrews]
    Samuell Smithe [Smith]
    Thomas Jerrard [Gerrard]
    Thomas Whittingham
    William Cannynge [Canning]
    Paule Caminge [Canning]
    George Chaudler [Chandler]
    Henrye Vincent
    Thomas Ketley
    James Skelton
    James Montain [Mountaine]
    George Webb, gentleman
    Josephe Newbroughesmith [Joseph Newbridge, smith]
    Josias Mande [Mand]
    Raphe Haman, the younger [Hamer]
    Edward Brewster, the sonne of William Brewster
    Leonard Harwood, mercer
    Phillipp Druerdent
    William Carpenter
    Tristram Hill
    Roberte Cock, grocer
    Laurence Grene, grocer [Greene]
    Daniell Winche, grocer [Samuel Winch]
    Humfrey Stile, grocer
    Averie Dransfeild, grocer [Dransfield]
    Edwarde Hodges, grocer
    Edward Beale, grocer
    Raphe Busby, grocer
    John Whittingham, grocer
    John Hide, grocer
    Mathew Shipperd, grocer [Shepherd]
    Thomas Allen, grocer
    Richard Hooker, grocer
    Laurence Munckas, grocer [Munks]
    John Tanner, grocer
    Peter Gate, grocer
    John Blunt, grocer
    Roberte Berrisford, grocer
    Thomas Wells, gentleman
    John Ellis, grocer
    Henrie Colthurst, grocer
    John Cranage, grocer [Cavady]
    Thomas Jenings, grocer [Jennings]
    Edmond Peshall, grocer [Pashall]
    Timothie Bathurst, grocer
    Gyles Parslowe, grocer [Parslow]
    Roberte Johnson, grocer [Richard]
    William Janson, vintener [Johnson]
    Ezechiell Smith
    Richard Murrettone [Martin]
    William Sharpe
    Roberte Ritche [Rich]
    William Stannerd, inholder [Stannard]
    John Stocken
    William Strachey, gentleman
    George Farmer, gentleman
    Thomas Gypes, clothworker
    Abraham Dawes, gentleman [Davies]
    Thomas Brockett, gentleman [Brocket]
    George Bathe, fishmonger [Bache]
    John Dike, fishmonger
    Henrie Spranger
    Richard Farringdon [Farrington]
    Chistopher Vertue, vintener
    Thomas Baley, vintener [Bayley]
    George Robins, vintener
    Tobias Hinson, grocer
    Urian Spencer [Vrian]
    Clement Chachelley [Chicheley]
    John Searpe, gentleman [Scarpe]
    James Cambell, iremonnger [Campbell]
    Christopher Clitherowe, iremonnger [Clitheroe]
    Phillipp Jacobson
    Peter Jacobson, of Andwarpe
    William Barckley [Berkeley]
    Miles Banck, cutler [Banks]
    Peter Highley, grocer [Higgons]
    Henrie John, gentleman
    John Stoakley, merchauntailor [Stokeley]
    The companie of mercers
    The companie of grocers
    The companie of drapers
    The company of fishmongers
    The companie of gouldsmithes
    The companie of skynners
    The companie merchauntailors
    The companie of haberdashers
    The companie of salters
    The companie of iremongers
    The companie of vintners
    The companie of clothworkers
    The companie of dyers
    The companie of bruers
    The companie of lethersellers
    The companie of pewterers
    The companie of cutlers
    The companie of whitebakers
    The companie of waxchaundlers
    The companie of tallowe chaundlers
    The companie of armorers
    The companie of girdlers
    The companie of butchers
    The companie of sadlers
    The companie of carpenters
    The companie of cordwayners
    The companie of barbor chirurgions
    The companie of painter stayners
    The companie of curriers
    The companie of masons
    The companie of plumbers
    The companie of inholders
    The companie of founders
    The companie of poulterers
    The companie of cookes
    The companie of coopers
    The companie of tylers and bncklayers
    The companie of bowyers
    The companie of Retchers
    The companie of blacksmithes
    The companie of joyners
    The companie of weavers
    The companie of wollmen
    The companie of wood monnvers
    The companie of scrivenors
    The companie of fruterers
    The companie of plasterers
    The companie of brownebakers
    The companie of stacioners
    The companie of imbroderers
    The companie of upholsters
    The companie of musicions
    The companie of turners
    The companie of baskettmakers
    The companie of glasiers
    John Levett, merchaunt [Levet]
    Thomas Nomicott, clothworker [Nomicot]
    Richard Venn, haberdasher
    Thomas Scott, gentleman [Scot]
    Thomas Juxson, merchauntaylor [Juxon]
    George Hankinson
    Thomas Leeyer, gentleman [Seyer]
    Mathew Cooper
    Gorge Butler, gentleman
    Thomas Lawson, gentleman
    Edward Smith, haberdasher
    Stephen Sparrowe
    John Jones, merchaunt
    [John] Reynold, brewer [Reynolds]
    Thomas Plummer, merchaunt
    James Duppa, bruer
    Rowland Coytemore [Coitmore]
    William Sotherne [Southerne]
    Gorge Whittmoore, haberdasher [Whitmore]
    Anthonie Gosoulde, the younger [Gosnold]
    John Allen, fishemonger
    John Kettlebye, gentleman [Kettleby]
    Symonde Yeomans, fishmonger [Simon]
    Richard Chene, gouldsmithe
    Launcelot Davis, gentleman [Clene]
    John Hopkins, an alderman of Bristoll
    George Hooker, gentlernan
    Roberte Shevinge, yeoman [Chening]
    And to such and so manie as they doe or shall hereafter admitt to be joyned with them, in forme hereafter in theis presentes expressed, whether they goe in their persons to be planters there in the said plantacion, or whether they goe not, but doe adventure their monyes, goods or chattels, that they shalbe one bodie or communaltie perpetuall and shall have perpetual succession and one common seale to serve for the saide bodie or communaltie; and that they and their successors shalbe knowne, called and incorporated by the name of The Tresorer and Companie of Adventurers and Planters of the Citty of London for the Firste Collonie in Virginia.

    And that they and their successors shalbe from hensforth, forever enabled to take, acquire and purchase, by the name aforesaid (licens for the same from us, oure heires or successors first had and obtained) anie manner of lands, tenements and hereditaments, goods and chattels, within oure realme of England and dominion of Wales; and that they and their successors shalbe likewise enabled, by the name aforesaid, to pleade and to be impleaded before anie of oure judges or justices, in anie oure courts, and in anie accions or suits whatsoever.

    And wee doe also, of oure said speciall grace, certaine knowl- edge and mere mocion, give, grannte and confirme unto the said Tresorer and Companie, and their successors, under the reservacions, limittacions and declaracions hereafter expressed, all those lands, countries and territories scituat, lieinge and beinge in that place of America called Virginia, from the pointe of lande called Cape or Pointe Comfort all alonge the seacoste to the northward twoe hundred miles and from the said pointe of Cape Comfort all alonge the sea coast to the southward twoe hundred miles; and all that space and circuit of lande lieinge from the sea coaste of the precinct aforesaid upp unto the lande, throughoute, from sea to sea, west and northwest; and also all the island beinge within one hundred miles alonge the coaste of bothe seas of the precincte aforesaid; togeather with all the soiles, groundes, havens and portes, mynes, aswell royall mynes of golde and silver as other mineralls, pearles and precious stones, quarries, woods, rivers, waters, fishings, comodities, jurisdictions, royalties, priviledges, franchisies and preheminences within the said territorie and the precincts there of whatsoever; and thereto or there abouts, both by sea and lande, beinge or in anie sorte belonginge or appertayninge, and which wee by oure lettres patents maie or cann graunte; and in as ample manner and sorte as wee or anie oure noble progenitors have heretofore graunted to anie companie, bodie pollitique or corporate, or to anie adventurer or adventurers, undertaker or undertakers, of anie discoveries, plantacions or traffique of, in, or into anie forraine parts whatsoever; and in as large and ample manner as if the same were herin particulerly mentioned and expressed: to have, houlde, possesse and enjoye all and singuler the said landes, countries and territories with all and singuler other the premisses heretofore by theis [presents] graunted or mencioned to be grannted, to them, the said Tresorer and Companie, their successors and assignes, forever; to the sole and proper use of them, the said Tresorer and Companie, their successors and assignes [forever], to be holden of us, oure heires and successors, as of oure mannour of Estgreenewich, in free and common socage and not in capite; yeldinge and payinge, therefore, to us, oure heires and successors, the fifte parte onlie of all oare of gould and silver that from tvme to time, and at all times hereafter, shalbe there gotton, had and obtained, for all manner of service.

    And, nevertheles, oure will and pleasure is, and wee doe by theis presentes chardge, commannde, warrant and auctorize, that the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, or the major parte of them which shall be present and assembled for that purpose, shall from time to time under their common seale distribute, convey, assigne and set over such particuler porcions of lands, tenements and hereditaments, by theise presents formerly grannted, unto such oure lovinge subjects naturallie borne of denizens, or others, aswell adventurers as planters, as by the said Companie, upon a commission of survey and distribucion executed and retourned for that purpose, shalbe named, appointed and allowed, wherein oure will and pleasure is, that respect be had as well of the proporcion of the adventure[r] as to the speciall service, hazarde, exploite or meritt of anie person so as to be recompenced, advannced or rewarded.

    And for as muche as the good and prosperous successe of the said plantacion cannot but cheiflie depende, next under the blessinge of God and the supporte of oure royall aucthoritie, upon the provident and good direccion of the whole enterprise by a carefull and understandinge Counsell, and that it is not convenient that all the adventurers shalbe so often drawne to meete and assemble as shalbe requisite for them to have metings and conference aboute theire affaires, therefore we doe ordaine, establishe and confirme that there shalbe perpetually one Counsell here resident, accordinge to the tenor of oure former lettres patents, which Counsell shall have a seale for the better governement and administracion of the said plantacion besides the legall seale of the Companie or Corporacion, as in oure former lettres patents is also expressed.

    And further wee establishe and ordaine that

    Henrie, Earl of Southampton
    William, Earl of Pembrooke
    Henrie, Earl of Lincoln
    Thomas, Earl of Exeter
    Roberte, Lord Viscounte Lisle
    Lord Theophilus Howard
    James, Lord Bishopp of Bathe and Wells
    Edward, Lord Zouche
    Thomas, Lord Laware
    William, Lord Mounteagle
    Edmunde, Lord Sheffeilde
    Grey, Lord Shanndoys [Chandois]
    John, Lord Stanhope
    George, Lord Carew
    Sir Humfrey Welde, Lord Mayor of London
    Sir Edward Cecil
    Sir William Waad [Wade]
    Sir Henrie Nevill
    Sir Thomas Smith
    Sir Oliver Cromwell
    Sir Peter Manwood
    Sir Thomas Challoner
    Sir Henrie Hovarte [Hobart]
    Sir Franncis Bacon
    Sir George Coppin
    Sir John Scott
    Sir Henrie Carey
    Sir Roberte Drurie [Drury]
    Sir Horatio Vere
    Sir Eward Conwaye [Conway]
    Sir Maurice Berkeley [Barkeley]
    Sir Thomas Gates
    Sir Michaele Sands [Sandys]
    Sir Roberte Mansfeild [Mansel]
    Sir John Trevor
    Sir Amyas Preston
    Sir William Godolphin
    Sir Walter Cope
    Sir Robert Killigrewe
    Sir Henrie Faushawe [Fanshaw]
    Sir Edwyn Sandes [Sandys]
    Sir John Watts
    Sir Henrie Montague
    Sir William Romney
    Sir Thomas Roe
    Sir Baptiste Hicks
    Sir Richard Williamson
    Sir Stephen Powle [Poole]
    Sir Dudley Diggs
    Christopher Brooke, [Esq.]
    John Eldred, and
    John Wolstenholme
    shalbe oure Counsell for the said Companie of Adventurers and Planters in Virginia.

    And the said Sir Thomas Smith wee ordaine to be Tresorer of the said Companie, which Tresorer shall have aucthoritie to give order for the warninge of the Counsell and sommoninge the Companie to their courts and meetings.

    And the said Counsell and Tresorer or anie of them shalbe from henceforth nominated, chosen, contynued, displaced, chaunged, altered and supplied, as death or other severall occasions shall require, out of the Companie of the said adventurers by the voice of the greater parte of the said Counsell and adventurers in their assemblie for that purpose; provided alwaies that everie Councellor so newlie elected shalbe presented to the Lord Channcellor of England, or to the Lord Highe Treasurer of England, or the Lord Chambleyne of the housholde of us, oure heires and successors, for the tyme beinge to take his oathe of a Counsellor to us, oure heires and successors, for the said Companie and Collonie in Virginia.

    And wee doe by theis presents, of oure especiall grace, certaine knowledge and meere motion, for us, oure heires and successors, grannte unto the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, that if it happen at anie time or times the Tresorer for the tyme beinge to be sick, or to have anie such cause of absente from the cittie of London as shalbe allowed by the said Counsell or the greater parte of them assembled, so as he cannot attende the affaires of that Companie, in everie such case it shall and maie be lawfull for such Tresorer for the tyme beinge to assigne, constitute and appointe one of the Counsell for Companie to be likewise allowed by the Counsell or the greater parte of them assembled to be the deputie Tresorer for the said Companie; which Deputie shall have power to doe and execute all things which belonge to the said Tresorer duringe such tyme as such Tresorer shalbe sick or otherwise absent, upon cause allowed of by the said Counsell or the major parte of them as aforesaid, so fullie and wholie and in as large and ample manner and forme and to all intents and purposes as the said Tresorer if he were present himselfe maie or might doe and execute the same.

    And further of oure especiall grace, certaine knowledge and meere mocion, for us, oure heires and successors, wee doe by theis presents give and grannt full power and aucthoritie to oure said Counsell here resident aswell at this present tyme as hereafter, from time to time, to nominate, make, constitute, ordaine and confirme by such name or names, stile or stiles as to them shall seeme good, and likewise to revoke, dischardge, channge and alter aswell all and singuler governors, oficers and ministers which alreadie hath ben made, as also which hereafter shalbe by them thought fitt and meedefull to be made or used for the government of the said Colonie and plantacion.

    And also to make, ordaine and establishe all manner of orders, lawes, directions, instructions, formes and ceremonies of government and magistracie, fitt and necessarie, for and concerninge the government of the said Colonie and plantacion; and the same att all tymes hereafter to abrogate, revoke or chaunge, not onely within the precincts of the said Colonie but also upon the seas in goeing and cominge to and from the said Collonie, as they in their good discrecions shall thinke to be fittest for [the] good of the adventurers and inhabiters there.

    And we doe also declare that for divers reasons and consideracions us thereunto especiallie moving, oure will and pleasure is and wee doe hereby ordaine that imediatlie from and after such time as anie such governour or principall officer so to be nominated and appointed by oure said Counsell for the governement of the said Colonie, as aforesaid, shall arive in Virginia and give notice unto the Collonie there resident of oure pleasure in this behalfe, the government, power and aucthority of the President and Counsell, heretofore by oure former lettres patents there established, and all lawes and constitucions by them formerlie made, shall utterly cease and be determined; and all officers, governours and ministers formerly constituted or appointed shalbe dischardged, anie thinge in oure said former lettres patents conserninge the said plantacion contayned in aniewise to the contrarie notwithstandinge; streightlie chardginge and commaundinge the President and Counsell nowe resident in the said Collonie upon their alleadgiance after knowledge given unto them of oure will and pleasure by theis presentes signified and declared, that they forth with be obedient to such governor or governers as by oure said Counsell here resident shalbe named and appointed as aforesaid; and to all direccions, orders and commandements which they shall receive from them, aswell in the present resigninge and giveinge upp of their aucthoritie, offices, chardg and places, as in all other attendannce as shalbe by them from time to time required.

    And wee doe further by theis presentes ordaine and establishe that the said Tresorer and Counsell here resident, and their successors or anie fower of them assembled (the Tresorer beinge one), shall from time to time have full power and aucthoritie to admitt and receive anie other person into their companie, corporacion and freedome; and further, in a generall assemblie of the adventurers, with the consent of the greater parte upon good cause, to disfranchise and putt oute anie person or persons oute of the said fredome and Companie.

    And wee doe also grannt and confirme for us, oure heires and successors that it shalbe lawfull for the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, by direccion of the Governors there, to digg and to serche for all manner of mynes of goulde, silver, copper, iron, leade, tinne and other mineralls aswell within the precincts aforesaid as within anie parte of the maine lande not formerly graunted to anie other; and to have and enjoye the gould, silver, copper, iron, leade, and tinn, and all other mineralls to be gotten thereby, to the use and behoofe of the said Companie of Planters and Adventurers, yeldinge therefore and payinge yerelie unto us, oure heires and successors, as aforesaid.

    And wee doe further of oure speciall grace, certaine knowledge and meere motion, for us, oure heires and successors, grannt, by theis presents to and withe the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, that it shalbe lawfull and free for them and their assignes at all and everie time and times here after, oute of oure realme of England and oute of all other [our] dominions, to take and leade into the said voyage, and for and towards the said plantacion, and to travell thitherwards and to abide and inhabite therein the said Colonie and plantacion, all such and so manie of oure lovinge subjects, or anie other straungers that wilbecomme oure lovinge subjects and live under oure allegiance, as shall willinglie accompanie them in the said voyadge and plantation with sufficient shippinge armour, weapons, ordinannce, municion, powder, shott, victualls, and such merchaundize or wares as are esteemed by the wilde people in those parts, clothinge, implements, furnitures, catle, horses and mares, and all other thinges necessarie for the said plantation and for their use and defence and trade with the people there, and in passinge and retourninge to and from without yeldinge or payinge subsedie, custome, imposicion, or anie other taxe or duties to us, oure heires or successors, for the space of seaven yeares from the date of theis presents; provided, that none of the said persons be such as shalbe hereafter by speciall name restrained by us, oure heires or successors.

    And for their further encouragement, of oure speciall grace and favour, wee doe by theis present for us, oure heires and successors, yeild and graunte to and with the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors and everie of them, their factors and assignes, that they and every of them shalbe free and quiett of all subsedies and customes in Virginia for the space of one and twentie yeres, and from all taxes and imposicions for ever, upon anie goods or merchaundizes at anie time or times hereafter, either upon importation thither or exportation from thence into oure realme of England or into anie other of oure [realms or] dominions, by the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, their deputies, factors [or] assignes or anie of them, except onlie the five pound per centum due for custome upon all such good and merchanndizes as shalbe brought or imported into oure realme of England or anie other of theis oure dominions accordinge to the auncient trade of merchannts, which five poundes per centum onely beinge paid, it shalbe thensforth lawfull and free for the said Adventurers the same goods [and] merchaundizes to export and carrie oute of oure said dominions into forraine partes without anie custome, taxe or other duty tO be paide to us oure heires or successors or to anie other oure officers or deputies; provided, that the saide goods and merchaundizes be shipped out within thirteene monethes after their first landinge within anie parte of those dominions.

    And wee doe also confirme and grannt to the said Tresorer and Companie, and their successors, as also to all and everie such governer or other officers and ministers as by oure said Counsell shalbe appointed, to have power and aucthoritie of governement and commannd in or over the said Colonie or plantacion; that they and everie of them shall and lawfullie maie from tyme to tyme and at all tymes forever hereafter, for their severall defence and safetie, enconnter, expulse, repell and resist by force and armes, aswell by sea as by land, and all waies and meanes whatsoever, all and everie such person and persons whatsoever as without the speciall licens of the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors shall attempte to inhabite within the said severall precincts and lymitts of the said Colonie and plantacion; and also, all and everie such person and persons whatsoever as shall enterprise, or attempte at anie time hereafter, destruccion, invasion, hurte, detriment or annoyannce to the said Collonye and plantacion, as is likewise specified in the said former grannte.

    And that it shalbe lawful for the said Tresorer and Companie, and their successors and everie of them, from time to time and at all times hereafter, and they shall have full power and aucthoritie, to take and surprise by all waies and meanes whatsoever all and everie person and persons whatsoever, with their shippes, goods and other furniture, traffiquinge in anie harbor, creeke or place within the limitts or precincts of the said Colonie and plantacion, [not] being allowed by the said Companie to be adventurers or planters of the said Colonie, untill such time as they beinge of anie realmes or dominions under oure obedience shall paie or agree to paie, to the hands of the Tresorer or [of] some other officer deputed by the said governors in Virginia (over and above such subsedie and custome as the said Companie is or here after shalbe to paie) five poundes per centum upon all goods and merchaundizes soe brought in thither, and also five per centum upon all goods by them shipped oute from thence; and being straungers and not under oure obedience untill they have payed (over and above such subsedie and custome as the same Tresorer and Companie and their successors is or hereafter shalbe to paie) tenn pounds per centum upon all such goods, likewise carried in and oute, any thinge in the former lettres patents to the contrarie not withstandinge; and the same sommes of monie and benefitt as aforesaid for and duringe the space of one and twentie yeares shalbe wholie imploied to the benefitt and behoof of the said Colonie and plantacion; and after the saide one and twentie yeares ended, the same shalbe taken to the use of us, oure heires or successors, by such officer and minister as by us, oure heires or successors, shalbe thereunto assigned and appointed, as is specified in the said former lettres patents.

    Also wee doe, for us, oure heires and successors, declare by theis presents, that all and everie the persons beinge oure subjects which shall goe and inhabit within the said Colonye and plantacion, and everie of their children and posteritie which shall happen to be borne within [any] the lymitts thereof, shall have [and] enjoye all liberties, franchesies and immunities of free denizens and naturall subjects within anie of oure other dominions to all intents and purposes as if they had bine abidinge and borne within this oure kingdome of England or in anie other of oure dominions.

    And forasmuch as it shalbe necessarie for all such our lovinge subjects as shall inhabitt within the said precincts of Virginia aforesaid to determine to live togither in the feare and true woorshipp of Almightie God, Christian peace and civill quietnes, each with other, whereby everie one maie with more safety, pleasure and profitt enjoye that where unto they shall attaine with great paine and perill, wee, for us, oure heires and successors, are likewise pleased and contented and by theis presents doe give and graunte unto the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors and to such governors, officers and ministers as shalbe, by oure said Councell, constituted and appointed, accordinge to the natures and lymitts of their offices and places respectively, that they shall and maie from time to time for ever hereafter, within the said precincts of Virginia or in the waie by the seas thither and from thence, have full and absolute power and aucthority to correct, punishe, pardon, governe and rule all such the subjects of us, oure heires and successors as shall from time to time adventure themselves in anie voiadge thither or that shall at anie tyme hereafter inhabitt in the precincts and territorie of the said Colonie as aforesaid, accordinge to such order, ordinaunces, constitution, directions and instruccions as by oure said Counsell, as aforesaid, shalbe established; and in defect thereof, in case of necessitie according to the good discretions of the said governours and officers respectively, aswell in cases capitall and criminall as civill, both marine and other, so alwaies as the said statuts, ordinannces and proceedinges as neere as convenientlie maie be, be agreable to the lawes, statutes, government and pollicie of this oure realme of England.

    And we doe further of oure speciall grace, certeine knowledge and mere mocion, grant, declare and ordaine that such principall governour as from time to time shall dulie and lawfullie be aucthorised and appointed, in manner and forme in theis presents heretofore expressed, shall [have] full power and aucthoritie to use and exercise marshall lawe in cases of rebellion or mutiny in as large and ample manner as oure leiutenant in oure counties within oure realme of England have or ought to have by force of their comissions of lieutenancy. And furthermore, if anie person or persons, adventurers or planters, of the said Colonie, or anie other at anie time or times hereafter, shall transporte anie monyes, goods or marchaundizes oute of anie [of] oure kingdomes with a pretence or purpose to lande, sell or otherwise dispose the same within the lymitts and bounds of the said Collonie, and yet nevertheles beinge at sea or after he hath landed within anie part of the said Colonie shall carrie the same into anie other forraine Countrie, with a purpose there to sell and dispose there of that, then all the goods and chattels of the said person or persons so offendinge and transported, together with the shipp or vessell wherein such transportacion was made, shalbe forfeited to us, oure heires and successors.

    And further, oure will and pleasure is, that in all questions and doubts that shall arrise upon anie difficultie of construccion or interpretacion of anie thinge contained either in this or in oure said former lettres patents, the same shalbe taken and interpreted in most ample and beneficiall manner for the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors and everie member there of.

    And further, wee doe by theis presents ratifie and confirme unto the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors all privuleges, franchesies, liberties and immunties graunted in oure said former lettres patents and not in theis oure lettres patents revoked, altered, channged or abridged.

    And finallie, oure will and pleasure is and wee doe further hereby for us, oure heires and successors grannte and agree, to and with the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, that all and singuler person and persons which shall at anie time or times hereafter adventure anie somme or sommes of money in and towards the said plantacion of the said Colonie in Virginia and shalbe admitted by the said Counsell and Companie as adventurers of the said Colonie, in forme aforesaid, and shalbe enrolled in the booke or record of the adventurers of the said Companye, shall and maie be accompted, accepted, taken, helde and reputed Adventurers of the said Collonie and shall and maie enjoye all and singuler grannts, priviledges, liberties, benefitts, profitts, commodities [and immunities], advantages and emoluments whatsoever as fullie, largely, amplie and absolutely as if they and everie of them had ben precisely, plainely, singulerly and distinctly named and inserted in theis oure lettres patents.

    And lastely, because the principall effect which wee cann desier or expect of this action is the conversion and reduccion of the people in those partes unto the true worshipp of God and Christian religion, in which respect wee would be lothe that anie person should be permitted to passe that wee suspected to affect the superstitions of the Churche of Rome, wee doe hereby declare that it is oure will and pleasure that none be permitted to passe in anie voiadge from time to time to be made into the saide countrie but such as firste shall have taken the oath of supremacie, for which purpose wee doe by theise presents give full power and aucthoritie to the Tresorer for the time beinge, and anie three of the Counsell, to tender and exhibite the said oath to all such persons as shall at anie time be sent and imploied in the said voiadge.

    Although expresse mention [of the true yearly value or certainty of the premises, or any of them, or of any other gifts or grants, by us or any of our progenitors or predecessors, to the aforesaid Treasurer and Company heretofore made, in these presents is not made; or any act, statute, ordinance, provision, proclamation, or restraint, to the contrary hereof had, made, ordained, or provided, or any other thing, cause, or matter, whatsoever, in any wise notwithstanding.] In witnes whereof [we have caused these our letters to be made patent. Witness ourself at Westminster, the 23d day of May (1609) in the seventh year of our reign of England, France, and Ireland, and of Scotland the ****]

    Per ipsum Regem exactum.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Sedition Act of 1798

    An Act in addition to the act, entitled "An act for the punishment of certain crimes against the United States. "

    SEC. I Be it enacted . . ., That if any persons shall unlawfully combine or conspire together, with intent to oppose any measure or measures of the government of the United States, which are or shall be directed by proper authority, or to impede the operation of any law of the United States, or to intimidate or prevent any person holding a place or office in or under the government of the United States, from undertaking, performing or executing his trust or duty; and if any person or persons, with intent as aforesaid, shall counsel, advise or attempt to procure any insurrection, riot. unlawful assembly, or combination, whether such conspiracy, threatening, counsel, advice, or attempt shall have the proposed effect or not, he or they shall be deemed guilty of a high misdemeanor, and on conviction, before any court of the United States having jurisdiction thereof, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding five thousand dollars, and by imprisonment during a term not less than six months nor exceeding five years; and further, at the discretion of the court may be holden to find sureties for his good behaviour in such sum, and for such time, as the said court may direct.
    SEC. 2. That if any person shall write, print, utter. Or publish, or shall cause or procure to be written, printed, uttered or published, or shall knowingly and willingly assist or aid in writing, printing, uttering or publishing any false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame the said government, or either house of the said Congress, or the said President, or to bring them. or either of them, into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against them, or either or any of them, the hatred of the good people of the United States, or to excite any unlawful combinations therein, for opposing or resisting any law of the United States, or any act of the President of the United States, done in pursuance of any such law, or of the powers in him vested by the constitution of the United States, or to resist, oppose, or defeat any such law or act, or to aid, encourage or abet any hostile designs of any foreign nation against the United States, their people or government, then such person, being thereof convicted before any court of the United States having jurisdiction thereof, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding two thousand dollars, and by imprisonment not exceeding two years.

    SEC. 3. That if any person shall be prosecuted under this act, for the writing or publishing any libel aforesaid, it shall be lawful for the defendant, upon the trial of the cause, to give in evidence in his defence, the truth of the matter contained in the publication charged as a libel. And the jury who shall try the cause, shall have a right to determine the law and the fact, under the direction of the court, as in other cases.

    SEC. 4. That this act shall continue to be in force until March 3, 1801, and no longer....

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Star Spangled Banner

    Oh, say can you see, by the dawn's early light,
    What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?
    Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight,
    O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?
    And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
    Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there.
    O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave
    O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

    On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
    Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
    What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
    As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses?
    Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
    In full glory reflected now shines on the stream:
    'Tis the star-spangled banner! O long may it wave
    O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

    And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
    That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion
    A home and a country should leave us no more?
    Their blood has wiped out their foul footstep's pollution.
    No refuge could save the hireling and slave
    From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
    And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
    O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

    Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
    Between their loved homes and the war's desolation!
    Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land
    Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
    Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just,
    And this be our motto: "In God is our trust."
    And the star-spangled banner forever shall wave
    O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Third Virginia Charter

    March 12, 1612
    James, by the grace of God [King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith;] to all to whom [these pres-ents shall come,] greeting. Whereas at the humble suite of divers and sundry our lovinge subjects, aswell adventurers as planters of the First Colonie in Virginia, and for the propagacion of Christian religion and reclayminge of people barbarous to civilitie and humanitie, we have by our lettres patent bearing date at Westminster the three and twentieth daie of May in the seaventh yeare of our raigne of England, Frannce and Ireland, and the twoe and fortieth of Scotland, given and grannted unto them, that they and all suche and soe manie of our loving subjects as shold from time to time for ever after be joyned with them as planters or adventurers in the said plantacion, and their succes-sors for ever, shold be one body politique incorporated by the name of The Treasorer and Planters of the Cittie of London for the First Colonie in Virginia;

    And whereas allsoe for the greater good and benefitt of the said Companie and for the better furnishing and establishing of the said plantacion we did further [give], grannte and con-firme by our said lettres patent unto the said Treasorer and Com-panie and their successors for ever, all those landes, contries and territories scituate, lyeing and being in that part of America called Virginia, from the point of land called Cape [or] Pointe Comfort all along the seacoste to the northward twoe hundred miles, and from the said point of Cape Comfort all along the seacoste to the sowthward twoe hundred miles, and all the space and circuit of land lying from the sea coste of the precinct afore-said up or into the land throughout from sea to sea, west and northwest, and allso all the islandes lying within one hundred miles along the coast of both the seas of the precinct aforsaid, with diverse other grannts, liberties, franchises, preheminences, privileges, profiitts, benefitts, and commodities, grannted in and by our said lettres patent to the said Tresorer and Companie, and their successors, for ever:

    Now for asmuchas we are given to undestande that in these seas adjoyning to the said coast of Virginia and without the com- passe of those twoe hundred miles by us soe grannted unto the said Treasurer and Companie as aforesaid, and yet not farr dis- tant from the said Colony in Virginia, there are or may be divers islandes lying desolate and uninhabited, some of which are al- ready made knowne and discovered by the industry, travell, and expences of the said Company, and others allsoe are sup-posed to be and remaine as yet unknowen and undiscovered, all and every of which itt maie importe the said Colony both in safety and pollecy of trade to populate and plant, in regard where of, aswell for the preventing of perill as for the better comodity and prosperity of the said Colony, they have bin hum-ble suitors unto us that we wold be pleased to grannt unto them an inlardgement of our said former lettres patent, aswell for a more ample extent of their limitts and territories into the seas adjoyning to and uppon the coast of Virginia as allsoe for some other matters and articles concerning the better government of the said Company and Collony, in which point our said former lettres patents doe not extende soe farre as time and experience hath found to be needfull and convenient:

    We, therefore, tendring the good and happy successe of the said plantacion both in respect of the generall weale of humane society as in respect of the good of our owne estate and kinge- domes, and being willing to give furtherannt untoall good meanes that may advannce the benefitt of the said Company and which maie secure the safety of our loving subjects, planted in our said Colony under the favour and proteccion of God Almighty and of our royall power and authority, have therefore of our especiall grace, certein knowledge and mere mocion, given, grannted and confirmed, and for us, our heires and successors we doe by theis presents, give, grannt and confirme unto the said Treasurer and Company of Adventurers and Planters of the said Citty of London for the First Colony in Virginia, and to their heires and successors for ever, all and singuler the said iselandes [whatsoever] scituat and being in anie part of the said ocean bordering upon the coast of our said First Colony in Vir-ginia and being within three hundred leagues of anie the partes hertofore grannted to the said Treasorer and Company in our said former lettres patents as aforesaid, and being within or be-tweene the one and fortie and thirty degrees of Northerly lati-tude, together with all and singuler [soils] landes, groundes, havens, ports, rivers, waters, fishinges, mines and mineralls, as-well royal mines of gold and silver as other mines and mineralls, perles, precious stones, quarries, and all and singuler other com- modities, jurisdiccions, royalties, priviledges, franchises and pre-heminences, both within the said tract of lande uppon the maine and allso within the said iselandes and seas adjoyning, whatso-ever, and thereunto or there abouts both by sea and land being or scituat; and which, by our lettres patents, we maie or cann grannt and in as ample manner and sort as we or anie our noble progenitors have heretofore grannted to anie person or persons or to anie Companie, bodie politique or corporate or to any ad-venturer or adventurers, undertaker or undertakers of anie dis-coveries, plantacions or traffique, of, in, or into anie foreigne parts whatsoever, and in as lardge and ample manner as if the same were herein particularly named, mencioned and expressed: pro-vided allwaies that the said iselandes or anie the premisses herein mencioned and by theis presents intended and meant to be grannted be not already actually possessed or inhabited by anie other Christian prince or estate, nor be within the bounds, limitts or territories of the Northerne Colonie, hertofore by us grannted to be planted by divers of our loving subjects in the northpartes of Virginia. To have and to hold, possesse and injoie all and singuler the said iselandes in the said ocean seas soe lying and bordering uppon the coast or coasts of the territories of the said First Colony in Virginia as aforesaid, with all and singuler the said soiles, landes and groundes and all and singular other the premisses heretofore by theis presents grannted, or mencioned to be grannted, to them, the said Treasurer and Companie of Adventurers and Planters of the Cittie of London for the First Colonie in Virginia, and to their heires, successors and assignes for ever, to the sole and proper use and behoofe of them, the said Treasurer and Companie and their heires, successores and as-signes for ever; to be holden of us, our heires and successors as of our mannor of Eastgreenwich, in free and common soccage and not in capite, yealding and paying therefore, to us, our heires and successors, the fifte part of the oare of all gold and silver which shalbe there gotten, had or obteined for all manner of services, whatsoever.

    And further our will and pleasure is, and we doe by theis presents grannt and confirme for the good and welfare of the said plantacion, and that posterity maie hereafter knowe whoe have adventured and not bin sparing of their purses in such a noble and generous accion for the generall good of theire cuntrie, and at the request and with the consent of the Companie afore said, that our trusty and welbeloved subjects.

    George, Lord Archbishopp of Canterbury
    Gilbert, Earle of Shrewsberry
    Mary, Countesse of Shrewes-
    Elizabeth, Countesse of Derby
    Margarett, Countesse of Com-berland
    Henry, Earle of Huntingdon
    Edward, Earle of Beddford
    Lucy, Countesse of Bedford
    Marie, Countesse of Pembroke
    Richard, Earle of Clanrickard
    Lady Elizabeth Graie
    William, Lord Viscount Cram-bome
    William, Lord Bishopp of Du-resme
    Henry, Lord Bishopp of Wor-ceter
    John, Lord Bishopp of Oxon-ford
    William, Lord Pagett
    Dudley, Lord North
    Franncis, Lord Norries
    William, Lord Knollis
    John, Lord Harrington
    Robert, Lord Spencer
    Edward, Lord Denny
    William, Lord Cavendishe
    James, Lord Hay
    Elianor, Lady Cave [Carre]
    Maistres Elizabeth Scott, wid-dow
    Edward Sackvill, Esquier
    Sir Henry Nevill, of Aburga-venny, Knight
    Sir Robert Riche, Knight
    Sir John Harrington, Knight
    Sir Raphe Wimwood, Knight
    Sir John Graie, Knight
    Sir Henry Riche, Knight
    Sir Henry Wotton, Knight
    Peregrine Berly, Esquier [Berty]
    Sir Edward Phelipps, Knight, Maister of the Rolls
    Sir Moile Finche, Knight
    Sir Thomas Mansell, Knight
    Sir John St. John, Knight
    Sir Richard Spencer, Knight
    Sir Franncis Barrington, Knight
    Sir George Carie of Devonshire, Knight
    Sir William Twisden, Knight
    Sir John Leveson, Knight
    Sir Thomas Walsingham, Knight
    Sir Edward Care, Knight
    Sir Arthure Manwaringe, Knight
    Sir Thomas Jermyn, Knight
    Sir Valentine Knightley, Knight
    Sir John Dodderidge, Knight
    Sir John Hungerford, Knight
    Sir John Stradling, Knight
    Sir John Bourchidd, Knight [Bourchier]
    Sir John Bennett, Knight
    Sir Samuel Leonard, Knight
    Sir Franncis Goodwin, Knight
    Sir Wareham St. Legier, Knight
    Sir James Scudamore, Knight
    Sir Thomas Mildmaie, Knight
    Sir Percivall Harte, Knight
    Sir Percivall Willoughby, Knight
    Sir Franncis Leigh, Knight
    Sir Henry Goodere, Knight
    Sir John Cutt, Knight
    Sir James Parrett, Knight
    Sir William Craven, Knight
    Sir John Sammes, Knight
    Sir Carey Raleigh, Knight
    Sir William Maynard, Knight
    Sir Edmund Bowyer, Knight
    Sir William Cornewallis, Knight
    Sir Thomas Beomont, Knight
    Sir Thomas Cunningsby, Knight
    Sir Henry Beddingfeild, Knight
    Sir David Murray, Knight
    Sir William Poole, Knight
    Sir William Throgmorton, Knight
    Sir Thomas Grantham, Knight
    Sir Thomas Stewkley, Knight
    Sir Edward Heron, Knight
    Sir Ralph Shelten, Knight
    Sir Lewes Thesam, Knight
    Sir Walter Aston, Knight
    Sir Thomas Denton, Knight
    Sir Ewstace Hart, Knight
    Sir John Ogle, Knight
    Sir Thomas Dale, Knight
    Sir William Boulstrod, Knight
    Sir William Fleetwood, Knight
    Sir John Acland, Knight
    Sir John Hanham, Knight
    Sir Roberte Meller, Knight [Millor]
    Sir Thomas Wilford, Knight
    Sir William Lower, Knight
    Sir Thomas Lerdes, Knight [Leedes]
    Sir Franncis Barneham, Knight
    Sir Walter Chate, Knight
    Sir Thomas Tracy, Knight
    Sir Marmaduke Darrell, Knight
    Sir William Harrys, Knight
    Sir Thomas Gerrand, Knight
    Sir Peter Freetchvile, Knight
    Sir Richard Trevor, Knight
    Sir Amias Bamfeild
    Sir William Smith of Essex, Knight
    Sir Thomas Hewett, Knight
    Sir Richard Smith, Knight
    Sir John Heyward, Knight
    Sir Christopher Harris, Knight
    Sir John Pettus, Knight
    Sir William Strode, Knight
    Sir Thomas Harfleet, Knight
    Sir Walter Vaughan, Knight
    Sir William Herrick, Knight
    Sir Samuell Saltonstall, Knight
    Sir Richard Cooper, Knight
    Sir Henry Fane, Knight
    Sir Franncis Egiok, Knight
    Sir Robert Edolph, Knight
    Sir Arthure Harries, Knight
    Sir George Huntley, Knight
    Sir George Chute, Knight
    Sir Robert Leigh, Knight
    Sir Richard Lovelace, Knight
    Sir William Lovelace, Knight
    Sir Robert Yaxley, Knight
    Sir Franncis Wortley, Knight
    Sir Franncis Heiborne, Knight
    Sir Guy Palme, Knight
    Sir Richard Bingley, Knight
    Sir Ambrose Turvill, Knight
    Sir Nicholas Stoddard, Knight
    Sir William Gree, Knight
    Sir Walter Coverte, Knight
    Sir Thomas Eversfeild, Knight
    Sir Nicholas Parker, Knight
    Sir Edward Culpeper, Knight
    Sir William Ayliffe, Knight, and
    Sir John Keile, Knight
    Doctor George Mountaine, Dean of Westminster
    Lawrence Bohan, Docktor in Phisick
    Anthony Hinton, Doctor in Phisick
    John Pawlett
    Arthure Ingram
    Anthony Irby
    John Weld
    John Walter
    John Harris
    Anthony Dyott
    William Ravenscrofte
    Thomas Warre
    William Hackwill
    Lawrence Hide
    Nicholas Hide
    Thomas Stevens
    Franncis Tate
    Thomas Coventry
    John Hare
    Robert Askwith
    George Sanndys
    Franncis Jones
    Thomas Wentworth
    Henry Cromewell
    John Arundell
    John Culpeper
    John Hoskins
    Walter Fitz Williams
    Walter Kirkham
    William Roscarrock
    Richard Carmerdon
    Edward Carne
    Thomas Merry
    Nicholas Lichfeild
    John Middleton
    John Smithe, and
    Thomas Smith, the sonnes of Sir Thomas Smith
    Peter Franke
    George Gerrand
    Gregory Sprynte
    John Drake
    Roger Puleston
    Oliver Nicholas
    Richard Nunnington [Monyngton]
    John Vaughan
    John Evelin
    Lamorock Stradling
    John Riddall
    John Kettleby
    Warren Townsend
    Lionell Cranfeild
    Edward Salter
    William Litton
    Humfrey May
    George Thorpe
    Henry Sandys, and
    Edwin Sandys, the sonnes of Sir Edwin Sandys
    Thomas Conway
    Captaine Owen Gwinn
    Captaine Giles Hawkridge
    Edward Dyer
    Richard Connock
    Benjamin Brand
    Richard Leigh, and
    Thomas Pelham, Esquiers
    Thomas Digges, and
    John Digges, Esquiers, the sonnes of Sir Dudley Diggs,
    Franncis Bradley
    Richard Buckminster [Buck]
    Franncis Burley
    John Procter
    Thomas Frake, thelder, and
    Henry Freake, thelder, Minis-ters of God's word
    The mayor and citizens of Chi-chester
    The mayor and jurates of Dover
    The bailiffs, burgesses and com-onalty of Ipswich
    The mayor and comunalty of Lyme Regis
    The mayor and comonalty of Sandwich
    The wardens, assistants and companie of the Trinity House
    Thomas Martin
    Franncis Smaleman
    Augustine Steward
    Richard Tomlins
    Humfrey Jobson
    John Legate
    Robert Backley [Barkley]
    John Crowe
    Edward Backley [Barkley]
    William Flett [Fleet]
    Henry Wolstenholme
    Edmund Alleyn
    George Tucker
    Franncis Glanville
    Thomas Gouge
    John Evelin
    William Hall
    John Smithe
    George Samms
    John Robinson
    William Tucker
    John Wolstenholme, and Henry Wolstenholme, sonnes of
    John Wolstenholme, Esquier
    William Hodges
    Jonathan Mattall [Nuttall]
    Phinees Pett
    Captaine John Kinge
    Captaine William Beck
    Giles Alington
    Franncis Heiton, and
    Samuell Holliland, gentleman
    Richard Chamberlaine
    George Chamberlaine
    Hewett Staper
    Humfrey Handford
    Raph Freeman
    George Twinhoe [Swinhoe]
    Richard Pigott
    Elias Roberts
    Roger Harris
    Devereux Wogan
    Edward Baber
    William Greenewell
    Thomas Stilles
    Nicholas Hooker
    Robert Garsett
    Thomas Cordell
    William Bright
    John Reynold
    Peter Bartley
    John Willett
    Humfry Smithe
    Roger Dye
    Nicholas Leate
    Thomas Wale
    Lewes Tate
    Humfrey Merrett
    Roberte Peake
    Powell Isaackson
    Sebastian Viccars
    Jarvis Mundes
    Richard Wamer
    Gresham Hogan Warner
    Daniell Deruley
    Andrew Troughton
    William Barrett
    Thomas Hodges
    John Downes
    Richard Harper
    Thomas Foxall
    William Haselden
    James Harrison
    William Burrell
    John Hodsall
    Richard Fisborne
    John Miller
    Edward Cooke
    Richard Hall, marchaunt
    Richard Hall, ankersmith
    John Delbridge
    Richard Francklin
    Edmund Scott
    John Britten
    Robert Stratt
    Edmund Pond
    Edward James
    Robert Bell
    Richard Herne
    William Ferrers
    William Millett
    Anthony Abdy
    Roberte Gore
    Benjamin Decrow
    Henry Tunbedey [Timberly]
    Humfrey Basse
    Abraham Speckart
    Richard Moorer
    William Compton
    Richard Poulsoune [Pontsonne]
    William Wolaston
    John Desmont, clothier [Beomont]
    Alexannder Childe
    William Fald, fishmonger
    Franncis Baldwin
    John Jones, marchant
    Thomas Plomer
    Edward Plomer, marchants
    John Stoickden
    Robert Tindall
    Peter Erundell
    Ruben Bourne
    Thomas Hampton, and
    Franncis Carter, citizens of Lon-don,

    whoe since our said last lettres patent are become adventurers and have joined themselves with the former adventurers and planters of the said Companie and societie, shall from hence-forth be reputed, deemed and taken to be and shalbe brethren and free members of the Companie and shall and maie, respect-ively, and according to the proportion and value of their severall adventures, have, hold and enjoie all suche interest, right, title, priviledges, preheminences, liberties, franchises, immunities, profitts and commodities whatsoever in as lardge, ample and beneficiall manner to all intents, construccions and purposes as anie other adventures nominated and expressed in anie our former lettres patent, or anie of them have or maie have by force and vertue of theis presents, or anie our former lettres patent whatsoever.

    And we are further pleased and we doe by theis presents grannt and confirm that

    Phillipp, Earle of Montgomery
    William, Lord Paget
    Sir John Harrington, Knight
    Sir William Cavendish, Knight
    Sir John Sammes, Knight
    Sir Samuell Sandys, Knight
    Sir Thomas Freke, Knight
    Sir William St. John, Knight
    Sir Richard Grobham, Knight
    Sir Thomas Dale, Knight
    Sir Cavalliero Maycott, Knight
    Richard Martin, Esquier
    John Bingley, Esquier
    Thomas Watson, Esquier, and
    Arthure Ingram, Esquier,
    whome the said Treasurer and Companie have, since the said [last] lettres patent, nominated and sett downe as worthy and discreete persons fitt to serve us as Counsellors, to be of our Counsell for the said plantacion, shalbe reputed, deemed and taken as persons of our said Councell for the said First Colonie in such manner and sort to all intents and purposes as those whoe have bin formerly ellected and nominated as our Coun-sellors for that Colonie and whose names have bin or are incerted and expressed in our said former lettres patent.

    And we doe hereby ordaine and grannt by theis presents that the said Treasurer and Companie of Adventurers and Planters, aforesaid, shall and maie, once everie weeke or oftener at their pleasure, hold and keepe a court and assembly for the better ordening [ordering] and government of the said plantacion and such thinges as shall concerne the same; and that anie five per- sons of the said Counsell for the said First Collonie in Virginia, for the time being, of which Companie the Treasurer or his deputie allwaies to be one, and the nomber of fifteene others at the least of the generality of the said Companie assembled together in such court or assembly in such manner as is and hath bin heretofore used and accustomed, shalbe said, taken, held and reputed to be and shalbe a full and sufficient court of the said Companie for the handling, ordring and dispatching of all such casuall and particuler occurrences and accidentall mat-ters of lesse consequence and waight, as shall from time to time happen, touching and concerning the said plantacion.

    And that, nevertheles, for the handling, ordring and disposing of matters and affaires of great waight and importance and such as shall or maie in anie sort concerne the weale publike and generall good of the said Companie and plantacion as namely, the manner of government from time to time to be used, the ordring and disposing of the said possessions and the setling and establish-ing of a trade there, or such like, there shalbe held and kept everie yeare uppon the last Wednesdaie save one of Hillary, Easter, Trinity and Michaelmas termes, for ever, one great, generall and solemne assembly, which fower severall assemblies shalbe stiled and called The Fower Great and Generall Courts of the Counsell and Companie of Adventurers for Virginia; in all and every of which said great and generall Courts soe assem-bled our will and pleasure is and we doe, for us, our heires and successors forever, give and grannt to the said Treasurer and Companie and their successors for ever by theis presents, that they, the said Treasurer and Companie or the greater nomber of them soe assembled, shall and maie have full power and authoritie from time to time and att all times hereafter to ellect and choose discreet persons to be of our [said] Counsell for the said First Colonie in Virginia and to nominate and appoint such officers as theie shall thinke fitt and requisit for the government, managing, ordring and dispatching of the affaires of the said Companie; and shall likewise have full power and authority to ordaine and make such lawes and ordinances for the good and wellfare of the said plantacion as to them from time to time shalbe thought requisite and meete: soe allwaies as the same be not contrary to the lawes and statutes of this our realme of England; and shall in like manner have power and authority to expulse, disfranchise and putt out of and from their said Companie and societie for ever all and everie such person and persons as having either promised or subscribed their names to become adventurers to the said plantacion of the said First Colonie in Virginia, or having bin nominated for adventurers in theis or anie our lettres patent or having bin otherwise admitted and nominated to be of the said Companie, have nevertheles either not putt in anie adventure [at] all for and towards the said plantacion or els have refused and neglected, or shall refuse and neglect, to bringe in his or their adventure by word or writing promised within sixe monthes after the same shalbe soe payable and due.

    And wheras the failing and nonpaiment of such monies as have bin promised in adventure for the advanncement of the said plantacion hath bin often by experience found to be dann-gerous and prejudiciall to the same and much to have hindred the progresse and proceeding of the said plantacion; and for that itt seemeth to us a thing reasonable that such persons as by their handwriting have engaged themselves for the payment of their adventures, and afterwards neglecting their faith and promise, shold be compellable to make good and kepe the same; therefore our will and pleasure is that in anie suite or suites comenced or to be comenced in anie of our courts att Westminster, or els- where, by the said Treasurer and Companie or otherwise against anie such persons, that our judges for the time being both in our Court of Channcerie and at the common lawe doe favour and further the said suits soe farre forth as law and equitie will in anie wise suffer and permitt.

    And we doe, for us, our heires and successors, further give and grannt to the said Tresorer and Companie, and their successors for ever, that theie, the said Tresorer and Companie or the greater part of them for the time being, so in a full and generall court assembled as aforesaid shall and maie, from time to time and att all times hereafter, for ever, ellect, choose and permitt into their Company and society anie person or persons, as well straungers and aliens borne in anie part beyond the seas where-soever, being in amity with us, as our naturall liedge subjects borne in anie our realmes and dominions; and that all such per-sons soe elected, chosen and admitted to be of the said Companie as aforesaid shall thereuppon be taken, reputed and held and shalbe free members of the said Companie and shall have, hold and enjoie all and singuler freedoms, liberties, franchises, privi-ledges, immunities, benefitts, profitts and commodities, whatso-ever, to the said Companie in anie sort belonging or apperteining as fully, freely [and] amplie as anie other adventurer or ad-venturers now being, or which hereafter att anie time shalbe, of the said Companie, hath, have, shall, maie, might or ought to have or enjoy the same to all intents and purposes whatsoever.

    And we doe further of our speciall grace, certaine knowledge and mere mocion, for us, our heires and successors, give and grantt to the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors, for ever by theis present, that itt shalbe lawfull and free for them and their assignes att all and everie time and times here- after, out of anie our realmes and dominions whatsoever, to take, lead, carry and transport in and into the said voyage and for and towards the said plantacion of our said First Collonie in Virginia, all such and soe manie of our loving subjects or anie other straungers that will become our loving subjects and live under our allegiance as shall willingly accompanie them in the said voyage and plantacion; with shipping, armour, weapons, ordinannce, munition, powder, shott, victualls, and all manner of merchandizes and wares, and all manner of clothing, imple-ment, furniture, beasts, cattell, horses, mares, and all other thinges necessarie for the said plantacion and for their use and defence, and for trade with the people there and in passing and retourning to and froe, without paying or yealding anie subsedie, custome or imposicion, either inward or outward, or anie other dutie to us, our heires or successors, for the same, for the space of seven yeares from the date of theis present.

    And we doe further, for us, our heires and successors, give and grannt to the said Treasurer and Companie and their suc-cessors for ever, by theis present, that the said Treasurer of the said Companie, or his deputie for the time being or anie twoe others of our said Counsell for the said First Colonie in Virginia for the time being, shall and maie attall times hereafter and from time to time, have full power and authoritie to minister and give the oath and oathes of supremacie and allegiannce, or either of them, to all and every person and persons which shall, at anie time and times hereafter, goe or passe to the said Colonie in Virginia:

    And further, that itt shalbe likewise lawfull for the said Tresorer, or his deputy for the time, or anie twoe others of our said Counsell for the said First Colonie in Virginia, for the time being, from time to time and att all times hereafter, to minister such a formall oathe as by their discrescion shalbe reasonably devised, aswell unto anie person or persons imployed or to be imployed in, for, or touching the said plantacion for their honest, faithfull and just dischardge of their service in all such matters as shalbe committed unto them for the good and benefitt of the said Company, Colonie and plantacion; as alsoe unto such other person or persons as the said Treasurer or his deputie, with twoe others of the said Counsell, shall thinke meete for the examina-cion or clearing of the truith in anie cause whatsoever con-cerninge the said plantacion or anie business from thence proceeding or there unto proceeding or thereunto belonging.

    And, furthermore, whereas we have ben certefied that diverse lewde and ill disposed persons, both sailors, souldiers, artificers, husbandmen, laborers, and others, having received wages, ap-parrell or other entertainment from the said Company or having contracted and agreed with the said Companie to goe, to serve, or to be imployed in the said plantacion of the said First Colonie in Virginia, have afterwards either withdrawen, hid or concealed themselves, or have refused to goe thither after they have bin soe entertained and agreed withall; and that divers and sundry persons allso which have bin sent and imployed in the said plantacion of the said First Colonie in Virginia at and upon the chardge of the said Companie, and having there misbehaved themselves by mutinies, sedition, and other notorious misdemeanors, or having bin employed or sent abroad by the governor of Virginia or his deputie with some ship or pinnace for provi-sions for the said Colonie, or for some discoverie or other buisines and affaires concerning the same, have from thence most trecherouslie either come back againe and retorned into our realme of England by stelth or without licence of our Gov-ernor of our said Colonie in Virginia for the time being, or have bin sent hither as misdoers and offenders; and that manie allsoe of those persons after their retourne from thence, having bin questioned by our said Counsell here for such their misbehaviors and offences, by their insolent and contemptuous carriage in the presence of our said Counsaile, have shewed little respect and reverence, either to the place or authoritie in which we have placed and appointed them; and others, for the colouring of their lewdnes and misdemeanors committed in Virginia, have endeavored them by most vile and slanndrous reports made and divulged, aswell of the cuntrie of Virginia as alsoe of the government and estate of the said plantacion and Colonie, as much as in them laie, to bring the said voyage and plantacion into disgrace and contempt; by meanes where of not only the adventures and planters alreadie ingaged in the said plantacion have bin exceedingly abused and hindred, and a greate nomber of other our loving and welldisposed subjects otherwise well affected and inclyning to joine and adventure insoe noble, Christian and worthie an action have bin discouraged from the same, but allsoe the utter overthrow and ruine of the said enterprise hath bin greatlie indanngered which cannott miscarrie without some dishonor to us and our kingdome;

    Now, for asmuch as it appeareth unto us that theis insolences, misdemeanors and abuses, not to be tollerated in anie civill government, have for the most part growne and proceeded in-regard of our Counsaile have not anie direct power and authoritie by anie expresse wordes in our former lettres patent to correct and chastise such offenders, we therefore, for the more speedy reformacion of soe greate and enormous abuses and misdemeanors heretofore practised and committed, and for the preventing of the like hereafter, doe by theis present for us, our heires and successors, give and grannt to the said Treasurer and Companie, and their successors for ever, that itt shall and maie be lawfull for our said Councell for the said First Colonie in Virginia or anie twoe of them, whereof the said Tresorer or his deputie for the time being to be allwaies one by warrant under their handes to send for, or cause to be apprehended, all and every such person and persons who shalbe noted or accused or found, att anie time or times here after, to offend or misbehave themselves in anie the offences before mencioned and expressed; and uppon the examinacion of anie such offender or offendors and just proofe made by oath taken before the Counsaile of anie such notorious misdemeanors by them committed as aforesaid; and allsoe uppon anie insolent, contemptuous or unreverent carriage and misbehavior to or against our said Counsell shewed or used by anie such person or persons soe called, convented and apear-ing before them as aforesaid; that in all such cases theie, our said Counsell or anie twoe of them for the time being, shall and maie have full power and authoritie either here tO binde them over with good suerties for their good behaviour and further therein to proceed to all intents and purposes, as itt is used in other like cases within our realme of England; or ells att their discrescion to remannd and send back the said offenders or anie of them unto the said Colonie in Virginia, there to be proceeded against and punished as the Governor, deputie and Counsell there for the time being shall thinke meete; or other- wise, according to such lawes and ordinannces as are or shalbe in use there for the well ordring and good governement of the said Colonie.

    And, for the more effectuall advanncing of the said plantacion, we doe further, for us, our heires and successors, of our especiall grace and favour, by vertue of our prorogative royall and by the assent and consent of the Lordes and others of our Privie Coun-salle, give and grannte unto the said Tresorer and Companie full power and authoritie, free leave, libertie and licence to sett forth, errect and publishe one or more lotterie or lotteries to have continuance and to [endure] and be held for the space of one whole yeare next after the opening of the same, and after the end and expiracion of the said terme the said lotterie or lotteries to continue and be further kept, during our will and pleasure onely and not otherwise. And yet, nevertheles, we are contented and pleased, for the good and wellfare of the said plantacion, that the said Tresorer and Companie shall, for the dispatch and finishing of the said lotterie or lotteries, have six months warn-inge after the said yeare ended before our will and pleasure shall, for and on that behalfe, be construed, deemed and adjudged to be in anie wise altered and determined.

    And our further will and pleasure is that the said lottery or lottaries shall and maie be opened and held within our cittie of London or in anie other cittie or citties, or ellswheare within this our realme of England, with such prises, articles, condicions and limitacions as to them, the said Tresorer and Companie, in their discreascions shall seeme convenient.

    And that itt shall and may be lawfull to and for the said Tresorer and Companie to ellect and choose receivors, auditors, surveyors, comissioners, or anie other officers whatsoever, att their will and pleasure for the better marshalling and guiding and governing of the said lottarie or lottaryes; and that itt shalbe likewise lawfull to and for the said Tresorer and anie twoe of the said Counsell to minister unto all and everie such persons soe ellected and chosen for officers as aforesaid one or more oathes for their good behaviour, just and true dealing in and about the lottarie or lottaries to the intent and purpose that none of our loving subjects, putting in their monies or otherwise adventuring in the said generall lotterie or lottaries, maie be in anie wise defrauded and deceived of their said monies or evill and in-directlie dealt withall in their said adventures.

    And we further grannt in manner and forme aforesaid, that itt shall and maie be lawfull to and for the said Treasurer and Companie, under the seale of our Counsell for the plantacion, to publishe or to cause and procure to be published by proclama-cion or otherwise, the said proclamacion to be made in their name by vertue of theise present, the said lottarie or lotteries in all citties, townes, boroughts, throughfaires and other places within our said realme of England; and we will and commande all mayors, justices of peace, sheriffs, bayliffs, constables and other our officers and loving subjects whatsoever, that in noe wise theie hinder or delaie the progresse and proceeding of the said lottarie or lottaries but be therein and, touching the premisses, aiding and assisting by all honest, good and lawfull meanes and endevours.

    And further our will and pleasure is that in all questions and dobts that shall arise uppon anie difficultie of construccion or interpretacion of anie thing conteined in theis or anie other our former lettres patent the same shalbe taken and interpreted in most ample and beneficiall manner for the said Tresorer and Companie and their successors and everie member there of.

    And lastly we doe by theis present retifie and confirme unto the said Treasorer and Companie, and their successors for ever, all and all manner of priviledges, franchises, liberties, immuni- ties, preheminences, profitts and commodities whatsoever grannted unto them in anie our [former] lettres patent and not in theis present revoked, altered, channged or abridged. Although ex-presse mencion [of the true yearly value or certainty of the pre-mises, or any of them, or of any other gift or grant, by us or any of our progenitors or predecessors, to the aforesaid Tresurer and Company heretofore made, in these Presents is not made; or any statute, act, ordinance, provisions, proclamation, or restraint, to the contrary thereof heretofore made, ordained, or provided, or any other matter, cause, or thing, whatsoever, to the contrary, in any wise, notwithstanding.]

    In witnes whereof [we have caused these our letters to be made patents.] Wittnes our selfe att Westminster, the twelveth daie of March [1612] [in the ninth year of our reign of England, France, and Ireland, and of Scotland the five and fortieth.]

    Per breve de privato sigillo, etc.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Treaty of Greenville

    August 3, 1795
    A treaty of peace between the United States of America, and the tribes of Indians called the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawanees, Ottawas, Chippewas, Pattawatimas, Miamis, Eel Rivers, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws, and Kaskaskias.

    To put an end to a destructive war, to settle all controversies, and to restore harmony and friendly intercourse between the said United States and Indian tribes, Anthony Wayne, major general commanding the army of the United States, and sole commissioner for the good purposes above mentioned, and the said tribes of Indians, by their sachems, chiefs, and warriors, met together at Greenville, the head quarters of the said army, have agreed on the following articles, which, when ratified by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States, shall be binding on them and the said Indian tribes.

    Henceforth all hostilities shall cease; peace is hereby established, and shall be perpetual; and a friendly intercourse shall take place between the said United States and Indian tribes.

    Article 2
    All prisoners shall, on both sides, be restored. The Indians, prisoners to the United States, shall be immediately set at liberty. The people of the United States, still remaining prisoners among the Indians, shall be delivered up in ninety days from the date hereof, to the general or commanding officer at Greenville, fort Wayne, or fort Defiance; and ten chiefs of the said tribes shall remain at Greenville as hostages, until the delivery of the prisoners shall be effected.

    Article 3
    The general boundary line between the lands of the United States and the lands of the said Indian tribes, shall begin at the mouth of Cayahoga river, and run thence up the same to the portage, between that and the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum, thence down that branch to the crossing place above fort Lawrence, thence westerly to a fork of that branch of the Great Miami river, running into the Ohio, at or near which fork stood Loromie's store, and where commences the portage between the Miami of the Ohio, and St. Mary's river, which is a branch of the Miami which runs into lake Erie; thence a westerly course to fort Recovery, which stands on a branch of the Wabash; thence southwesterly in a direct line to the Ohio, so as to intersect that river opposite the mouth of Kentucke or Cuttawa river. And in consideration of the peace now established; of the goods formerly received from the United States; of those now to be delivered; and of the yearly delivery of goods now stipulated to be made hereafter; and to indemnify the United States for the injuries and expenses they have sustained during the war, the said Indian tribes do hereby cede and relinquish forever, all their claims to the lands lying eastwardly and southwardly of the general boundary line now described: and these lands, or any part of them, shall never hereafter be made a cause or pretence, on the part of the said tribes, or any of them, of war or injury to the United States, or any of the people thereof.
    And for the same considerations, and as an evidence of the returning friendship of the said Indian tribes, of their confidence in the United States, and desire to provide for their accommodations, and for that convenient intercourse which will be beneficial to both parties, the said Indian tribes do also cede to the United States the following pieces of land, to wit:

    1) One piece of land six miles square, at or near Loromie's store, before mentioned.
    2) One piece two miles square, at the head of the navigable water or landing, on the St. Mary's river, near Girty's town.
    3) One piece six miles square, at the head of the navigable water of the Auglaize river.
    4) One piece six miles square, at the confluence of the Auglaize and Miami rivers, where fort Defiance now stands.
    5) One piece six miles square, at or near the confluence of the rivers St. Mary's and St. Joseph's, where fort Wayne now stands, or near it.
    6) One piece two miles square, on the Wabash river, at the end of the portage from the Miami of the lake, and about eight miles westward from fort Wayne.
    7) One piece six miles square, at the Ouatanon, or Old Wea towns, on the Wabash river.
    8) One piece twelve miles square, at the British fort on the Miami of the lake, at the foot of the rapids.
    9) One piece six miles square, at the mouth of the said river, where it empties into the lake.
    10) One piece six miles square, upon Sandusky lake, where a fort formerly stood.
    11) One piece two miles square, at the lower rapids of Sandusky river.
    12) The post of Detroit, and all the land to the north, the west and the south of it, of which the Indian title has been extinguished by gifts or grants to the French or English governments: and so much more land to be annexed to the district of Detroit, as shall be comprehended between the river Rosine, on the south, lake St. Clair on the north, and a line, the general course whereof shall be six miles distant from the west end of lake Erie and Detroit river.
    13) The post of Michilimackinac, and all the land on the island on which that post stands, and the main land adjacent, of which the Indian title has been extinguished by gifts or grants to the Frewnch or English governments; and a piece of land on the main to the north of the island, to measure six miles, on lake Huron, or the strait between lakes Huron and Michigan, and to extend three miles back from the water of the lake or strait; and also, the Island De Bois Blane, being an extra and voluntary gift of the Chippewa nation.
    14) One piece of land six miles square, at the mouth of Chikago river, emptying into the southwest end of lake Michigan, where a fort formerly stood.
    15) One piece twelve miles square, at or near the mouth of the Illinois river, emptying into the Mississippi.
    16) One piece six miles square, at the old Piorias fort and village near the south end of the Illinois lake, on said Illinois river. And whenever the United States shall think proper to survey and mark the boundaries of the lands hereby ceded to them, they shall give timely notice thereof to the said tribes of Indians, that they may appoint some of their wise chiefs to attend and see that the lines are run according to the terms of this treaty.
    And the said Indian tribes will allow to the people of the United States a free passage by land and by water, as one and the other shall be found convenient, through their country, along the chain of posts hereinbefore mentioned; that is to say, from the commencement of the portage aforesaid, at or near Loromie's store, thence along said portage to the St. Mary's, and down the same to fort Wayne, and then down the Miami, to lake Erie; again, from the commencement of the portage at or near Loromie's store along the portage from thence to the river Auglaize, and down the same to its junction with the Miami at fort Defiance; again, from the commencement of the portage aforesaid, to Sandusky river, and down the same to Sandusky bay and lake Erie, and from Sandusky to the post which shall be taken at or near the foot of the Rapids of the Miami of the lake; and from thence to Detroit. Again, from the mouth of Chikago, to the commencement of the portage, between that river and the Illinois, and down the Illinois river to the Mississippi; also, from fort Wayne, along the portage aforesaid, which leads to the Wabash, and then down the Wabash to the Ohio. And the said Indian tribes will also allow to the people of the United States, the free use of the harbors and mouths of rivers along the lakes adjoining the Indian lands, for sheltering vessels and boats, and liberty to land their cargoes where necessary for their safety.

    In consideration of the peace now established, and of the cessions and relinquishments of lands made in the preceding article by the said tribes of Indians, and to manifest the liberality of the United States, as the great means of rendering this peace strong and perpetual, the United States relinquish their claims to all other Indian lands northward of the river Ohio, eastward of the Mississippi, and westward and southward of the Great Lakes and the waters, uniting them, according to the boundary line agreed on by the United States and the King of Great Britain, in the treaty of peace made between them in the year 1783. But from this relinquishment by the United States, the following tracts of land are explicitly excepted:

    1st. The tract on one hundred and fifty thousand acres near the rapids of the river Ohio, which has been assigned to General Clark, for the use of himself and his warriors.

    2nd. The post of St. Vincennes, on the River Wabash, and the lands adjacent, of which the Indian title has been extinguished.

    3rd. The lands at all other places in possession of the French people and other white settlers among them, of which the Indian title has been extinguished as mentioned in the 3d article; and

    4th. The post of fort Massac towards the mouth of the Ohio. To which several parcels of land so excepted, the said tribes relinquish all the title and claim which they or any of them may have.

    And for the same considerations and with the same views as above mentioned, the United States now deliver to the said Indian tribes a quantity of goods to the value of twenty thousand dollars, the receipt whereof they do hereby acknowledge; and henceforward every year, forever, the United States will deliver, at some convenient place northward of the river Ohio, like useful goods, suited to the circumstances of the Indians, of the value of nine thousand five hundred dollars; reckoning that value at the first cost of the goods in the city or place in the United States where they shall be procured. The tribes to which those goods are to be annually delivered, and the proportions in which they are to be delivered, are the following:

    1st. To the Wyandots, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    2nd. To the Delawares, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    3rd. To the Shawanees, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    4th. To the Miamis, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    5th. To the Ottawas, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    6th. To the Chippewas, the amount of one thousand dollars.
    7th. To the Pattawatimas, the amount of one thousand dollars, and
    8th. To the Kickapoo, Wea, Eel River, Piankeshaw, and Kaskaskia tribes, the amount of five hundred dollars each.

    Provided, that if either of the said tribes shall hereafter, at an annual delivery of their share of the goods aforesaid, desire that a part of their annuity should be furnished in domestic animals, implements of husbandry, and other utensils convenient for them, and in compensation to useful artificers who may reside with or near them, and be employed for their benefit, the same shall, at the subsequent annual deliveries, be furnished accordingly.

    To prevent any misunderstanding about the Indian lands relinquished by the United States in the fourth article, it is now explicitly declared, that the meaning of that relinquishment is this: the Indian tribes who have a right to those lands, are quietly to enjoy them, hunting, planting, and dwelling thereon, so long as they please, without any molestation from the United States; but when those tribes, or any of them, shall be disposed to sell their lands, or any part of them, they are to be sold only to the United States; and until such sale, the United States will protect all the said Indian tribes in the quiet enjoyment of their lands against all citizens of the United States, and against all other white persons who intrude upon the same. And the said Indian tribes again acknowledge themselves to be under the protection of the said United States, and no other power whatever.

    Article 6
    If any citizen of the United States, or any other white person or persons, shall presume to settle upon the lands now relinquished by the United States, such citizen or other person shall be out of the protection of the United States; and the Indian tribe, on whose land the settlement shall be made, may drive off the settler, or punish him in such manner as they shall think fit; and because such settlements, made without the consent of the United States, will be injurious to them as well as to the Indians, the United States shall be at liberty to break them up, and remove and punish the settlers as they shall think proper, and so effect that protection of the Indian lands herein before stipulated.

    Article 7
    The said tribes of Indians, parties to this treaty, shall be at liberty to hunt within the territory and lands which they have now ceded to the United States, without hindrance or molestation, so long as they demean themselves peaceably, and offer no injury to the people of the United States.

    Article 8
    Trade shall be opened with the said Indian tribes; and they do hereby respectively engage to afford protection to such persons, with their property, as shall be duly licensed to reside among them for the purpose of trade; and to their agents and servants; but no person shall be permitted to reside among them for the purpose of trade; and to their agents and servants; but no person shall be permitted to reside at any of their towns or hunting camps, as a trader, who is not furnished with a license for that purpose, under the hand and seal of the superintendent of the department northwest of the Ohio, or such other person as the President of the United States shall authorize to grant such licenses; to the end, that the said Indians may not be imposed on in their trade.* And if any licensed trader shall abuse his privilege by unfair dealing, upon complaint and proof thereof, his license shall be taken from him, and he shall be further punished according to the laws of the United States. And if any person shall intrude himself as a trader, without such license, the said Indians shall take and bring him before the superintendent, or his deputy, to be dealt with according to law. And to prevent impositions by forged licenses, the said Indians shall, at lease once a year, give information to the superintendent, or his deputies, on the names of the traders residing among them.

    Article 9
    Lest the firm peace and friendship now established, should be interrupted by the misconduct of individuals, the United States, and the said Indian tribes agree, that for injuries done by individuals on either side, no private revenge or retaliation shall take place; but instead thereof, complaint shall be made by the party injured, to the other: by the said Indian tribes or any of them, to the President of the United States, or the superintendent by him appointed; and by the superintendent or other person appointed by the President, to the principal chiefs of the said Indian tribes, or of the tribe to which the offender belongs; and such prudent measures shall then be taken as shall be necessary to preserve the said peace and friendship unbroken, until the legislature (or great council) of the United States, shall make other equitable provision in the case, to the satisfaction of both parties. Should any Indian tribes meditate a war against the United States, or either of them, and the same shall come to the knowledge of the before mentioned tribes, or either of them, they do hereby engage to give immediate notice thereof to the general, or officer commanding the troops of the United States, at the nearest post.
    *See, in relation to this licensed trade, the "first explanatory article" of the treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, between the United States and Great Britain, of the 19th of November, 1974.

    And should any tribe, with hostile intentions against the United States, or either of them, attempt to pass through their country, they will endeavor to prevent the same, and in like manner give information of such attempt, to the general, or officer commanding, as soon as possible, that all causes of mistrust and suspicion may be avoided between them and the United States. In like manner, the United States shall give notice to the said Indian tribes of any harm that may be meditated against them, or either of them, that shall come to their knowledge; and do all in their power to hinder and prevent the same, that the friendship between them may be uninterrupted.

    All other treaties heretofore made between the United States, and the said Indian tribes, or any of them, since the treaty of 1783, between the United States and Great Britain, that come within the purview of this treaty, shall henceforth cease and become void.

    In testimony whereof, the said Anthony Wayne, and the sachems and war chiefs of the before mentioned nations and tribes of Indians, have hereunto set their hands and affixed their seals.

    Done at Greenville, in the territory of the United States northwest of the river Ohio, on the third day of August, one thousand seven hundred and ninety five.

    Wyandots

    Tarhe, or Crane, his x mark L.S.
    J. Williams, jun. his x mark, L.S.
    Teyyaghtaw, his x mark, L.S.
    Haroenyou, or half king's son, his x mark, L.S.
    Tehaawtorens, his x mark, L.S.
    Awmeyeeray, his x mark, L.S.
    Stayetah, his x mark L.S.
    Shateyyaronyah, or Leather Lips, his x mark, L.S.
    Daughshuttayah, his x mark L.S.
    Shaawrunthe, his x mark L.S.
    Delawares

    Tetabokshke, or Grand Glaize King, his x mark, L.S.
    Lemantanquis, or Black King, his x mark, L.S.
    Wabatthoe, his x mark, L.S.
    Maghpiway, or Red Feather, his x mark, L.S.
    Kikthawenund, or Anderson, his x mark, L.S.
    Bukongehelas, his x mark, L.S.
    Peekeelund, his x mark, L.S.
    Wellebawkeelund, his x mark, L.S.
    Peekeetelemund, or Thomas Adams, his x mark, L.S.
    Kishkopekund, or Captain Buffalo, his x mark, L.S.
    Amenahehan, or Captain Crow, his x mark, L.S.
    Queshawksey, or George Washington, his x mark, L.S.
    Weywinquis, or Billy Siscomb, his x mark, L.S.
    Moses, his x mark, L.S.
    Shawanees

    Misquacoonacaw, or Red Pole, his x mark, L.S.
    Cutthewekasaw, or Black Hoof, his x mark, L.S.
    Kaysewaesekah, his x mark, L.S.
    Weythapamattha, his x mark, L.S.
    Nianysmeka, his x mark, L.S.
    Waytheah, or Long Shanks, his x mark, L.S.
    Weyapiersenwaw, or Blue Jacket, his x mark, L.S.
    Nequetaughaw, his x mark, L.S.
    Hahgoosekaw, or Captain Reed, his x mark, L.S.
    Ottawas

    Augooshaway, his x mark, L.S.
    Keenoshameek, his x mark, L.S.
    La Malice, his x mark, L.S.
    Machiwetah, his x mark, L.S.
    Thowonawa, his x mark, L.S.
    Secaw, his x mark, L.S.
    Chippewas

    Mashipinashiwish, or Bad Bird, his x mark, L.S.
    Nahshogashe, (from Lake Superior), his x mark, L.S.
    Kathawasung, his x mark, L.S.
    Masass, his x mark, L.S.
    Nemekass, or Little Thunder, his x mark, L.S.
    Peshawkay, or Young Ox, his x mark, L.S.
    Nanguey, his x mark, L.S.
    Meenedohgeesogh, his x mark, L.S.
    Peewanshemenogh, his x mark, L.S.
    Weymegwas, his x mark, L.S.
    Gobmaatick, his x mark, L.S.
    Ottawa

    Chegonickska, an Ottawa from Sandusky, his x mark, L.S.
    Pattawatimas

    Thupenebu, his x mark, L.S.
    Nawac, for himself and brother Etsimethe, his x mark, L.S.
    Nenanseka, his x mark, L.S.
    Keesass, or Run, his x mark, L.S.
    Kabamasaw, for himself and brother Chisaugan, his x mark, L.S.
    Sugganunk, his x mark, L.S.
    Wapmeme, or White Pigeon, his x mark, L.S.
    Wacheness, for himself and brother Pedagoshok, his x mark, L.S.
    Wabshicawnaw, his x mark, L.S.
    La Chasse, his x mark, L.S.
    Meshegethenogh, for himself and brother, Wawasek, his x mark, L.S.
    Hingoswash, his x mark, L.S.
    Anewasaw, his x mark, L.S.
    Nawbudgh, his x mark, L.S.
    Missenogomaw, his x mark, L.S.
    Waweegshe, his x mark, L.S.
    Thawme, or Le Blanc, his x mark, L.S.
    Geeque, for himself and brother Shewinse, his x mark, L.S.
    Pattawatimas of Huron

    Okia, his x mark, L.S.
    Chamung, his x mark, L.S.
    Segagewan, his x mark, L.S.
    Nanawme, for himself and brother A. Gin, his x mark, L.S.
    Marchand, his x mark, L.S.
    Wenameac, his x mark, L.S.
    Miamis

    Nagohquangogh, or Le Gris, his x mark, L.S.
    Meshekunnoghquoh, or Little Turtle, his x mark, L.S.
    Miamis and Eel Rivers

    Peejeewa, or Richard Ville, his x mark, L.S.
    Cochkepoghtogh, his x mark, L.S.
    Eel River Tribe

    Shamekunnesa, or Soldier, his x mark, L.S.
    Miamis

    Wapamangwa, or the White Loon, his x mark, L.S.
    Weas, for themselves & the Piankeshaws

    Amacunsa, or Little Beaver, his x mark, L.S.
    Acoolatha, or Little Fox, his x mark, L.S.
    Francis, his x mark, L.S.
    Kickapoos and Kaskaskias

    Keeawhah, his x mark, L.S.
    Nemighka, or Josey Renard, his x mark, L.S.
    Paikeekanogh, his x mark, L.S.
    Delawares of Sandusky

    Hawkinpumiska, his x mark, L.S.
    Peyamawksey, his x mark, L.S.
    Reyntueco, (of the Six Nations, living at Sandusky), his x mark, L.S.
    H. De Butts, first A.D.C. and Sec'ry to Major Gen. Wayne,
    Wm. H. Harrison, Aid de Camp to Major Gen. Wayne,
    T. Lewis, Aid de Camp to Major Gen. Wayne,
    James O'Hara, Quartermaster Gen'l.
    John Mills, Major of Infantry, and Adj. Gen'l. Caleb Swan, P.M.T.U.S.
    Gen. Demter, Lieut. Artillery,
    Vigo,

    P. Frs. La Fontaine,
    Ast. Lasselle,
    Sworn interpret
    ers. H. Lasselle,
    Wm. We
    lls, Js. Beau Bien,
    Jacques Lasse
    lle, David Jones, Chaplain U.S.S.
    M. Morins,
    Lewis Beaufait,
    Bt. Sans Crainte,
    R. Lachambre,
    Christopher Miller,
    Jas. Pepen,
    Robert Wilson,
    Baties Coutien,
    Abraham Williams, his x mark
    P. Navarre.
    Isaac Zane, his x mark

    Article 10
    Article 5
    Article 4
    Article 1

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Virginia Declaration of Rights

    I That all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.

    II That all power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them.

    III That government is, or ought to be, instituted for the common benefit, protection, and security of the people, nation or community; of all the various modes and forms of government that is best, which is capable of producing the greatest degree of happiness and safety and is most effectually secured against the danger of maladministration; and that, whenever any government shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a majority of the community hath an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish it, in such manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public weal.

    IV That no man, or set of men, are entitled to exclusive or separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in consideration of public services; which, not being descendible, neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator, or judge be hereditary.

    V That the legislative and executive powers of the state should be separate and distinct from the judicative; and, that the members of the two first may be restrained from oppression by feeling and participating the burthens of the people, they should, at fixed periods, be reduced to a private station, return into that body from which they were originally taken, and the vacancies be supplied by frequent, certain, and regular elections in which all, or any part of the former members, to be again eligible, or ineligible, as the laws shall direct.

    VI That elections of members to serve as representatives of the people in assembly ought to be free; and that all men, having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, and attachment to, the community have the right of suffrage and cannot be taxed or deprived of their property for public uses without their own consent or that of their representatives so elected, nor bound by any law to which they have not, in like manner, assented, for the public good.

    VII That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of laws, by any authority without consent of the representatives of the people is injurious to their rights and ought not to be exercised.

    VIII That in all capital or criminal prosecutions a man hath a right to demand the cause and nature of his accusation to be confronted with the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favor, and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty, nor can he be compelled to give evidence against himself; that no man be deprived of his liberty except by the law of the land or the judgement of his peers.

    IX That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed; nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

    X That general warrants, whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offense is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive and ought not to be granted.

    XI That in controversies respecting property and in suits between man and man, the ancient trial by jury is preferable to any other and ought to be held sacred.

    XII That the freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty and can never be restrained but by despotic governments.

    XIII That a well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defense of a free state; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that, in all cases, the military should be under strict subordination to, and be governed by, the civil power.

    XIV That the people have a right to uniform government; and therefore, that no government separate from, or independent of, the government of Virginia, ought to be erected or established within the limits thereof.

    XV That no free government, or the blessings of liberty, can be preserved to any people but by a firm adherence to justice, moderation, temperance, frugality, and virtue and by frequent recurrence to fundamental principles.

    XVI That religion, or the duty which we owe to our Creator and the manner of discharging it, can be directed by reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and therefore, all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to practice Christian forbearance, love, and charity towards each other.

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History

    Court Cases

    (1803) Marbury v. Madison

    • William Marbury (one of Adams' midnight appointments), sued Secretary of State Madison to force delivery of his commission as a justice of the peace in the federal district; Marshall would not rule on it, because he said the law that gave the Supreme Court power to rule over such matter was unconstitutional
    • established the policy of judicial review over federal legislation
    • Precedent of the Supreme Court's power to rule on the constitutionality of federal laws

    (1810) Fletcher v. Peck

    • Georgia legislature issued extensive land grants to Yazoo Land Company; afterwards, it was considered corrupt, so there was a legislative session that repealed the action
    • Court ruled that the original contract was valid and could not be broken

    (1819) Dartmouth College v. Woodward

    • Republicans back the president of the college, Federalists backed the trustees
    • president try to make it a public institution (instead of private) by having the charter revoked
    • ruled that even though charter was granted by the king, it was still a contract and thus could not be changed without the consent of both parties

    (1819) McCulloch v. Maryland

    • state of MD tried to levy a tax on the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States (to protect the competitive position of state banks)
    • ruled against state, b/c state had no right to control an agency of the federal gov't

    (1824) Gibbons v. Ogden

    • NY state had granted monopoly to Ogden of Hudson River. Gibbons obtained a permit from Congress to operate steamboat there
    • Ogden sued, and state ruled in his favor
    • Marshall ruled that it was interstate commerce and could not be regulated by a state (only Congress could) - the monopoly was then voided

    (1831) Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

    • Court refused to hear case, which the Cherokees brought forward, b/c GA had abolished their tribal legislature and courts (said that because the tribe was a "foreign nation, the decision should be made by the Supreme Court)
    • Marshall said they really were not foreign nations (they just had special status)

    (1832) Worcester v.Georgia

    • GA state gov't said any US citizen who wanted to enter Cherokee territory had to obtain permission from the governor
    • GA law was overturned, b/c the federal gov't had the constitutionally mandated role of regulating trade with the tribes
    • Jackson said of Marshall "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it"

    (1842) Prigg v. Pennsylvania

    • Court ruled that states did not have to enforce the return of fugitive slaves
    • Chief Justice Roger B. Taney (MD) - Pro-South

    (1856) Dred Scott v. Sanford

    • Dred Scott, (slave from Missouri), had been taken to Illinois (a free state) by his owner for several years, so he sued for his freedom
    • ruled that he, as a slave, was not a slave, and could not sue in court

    (1877) Munn v. Illinois

    • upheld Granger Laws that regulated railroads

    (1886) Wabash Case (Wabash, St.Louis, and Pacific Railroad Co. v. Illinois)

    • ruled one of the Granger laws in Illinois was unconstitutional because it tried to control interstate commerce, which was a power of Congress only
    • restricted state regulation of commerce

    (1895) United States v. E.C. Knight Co.

    • Congress charged that a single trust controlled 98% of refined sugar manufacturing in the US, but Court rejected case because trust was involved in manufacturing, NOT interstate commerce (which was what Congress could control), so, trust was not illegal
    • weakened Sherman Antitrust Act

    (1896) Plessy v. Ferguson

    • ruled that segregation was allowed, as long as the facilities were "separate but equal"

    (1898) Williams v. Mississippi

    • Court allowed literacy tests for voting

    (1944) Korematsu v. United States

    • Roosevelt's 1942 order that Issei and Nisei be relocated to concentration camps was challenged
    • Court upheld it

    (1944) Smith v. Allwright

    • Supreme Court stopped the Texas primary elections because they had violated the 15th amendment by being restricted only to whites

    (1950) Sweatt v. Painter

    • ruled that blacks must be allowed to attend integrated law schools in OK and TX

    (1954) Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

    • NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall challenge decision from Plessy v. Ferguson
    • Court ruled that the separate educational facilities were not equal
    • 1955 - said states must "integrate with great speed"
    • **(note: when Court announces Brown II decision, Montgomery bus boycotts began)

    (1957) Roth v. United States

    • greatly limited the authority of local governments to curb pornography

    (1962) Engel v. Vitale

    • ruled that prayers in public schools were unconstitutional

    (1962) Baker v. Carr

    • required state legislatures to apportion electoral districts so that all citizens votes would have equal weight

    (1966) Miranda v. Arizona

     

    • confirmed the obligation of authorities to inform a criminal suspect of his or her rights

    (1971) Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education

    • Court ruled in favor of forced busog to achieve racial balance in schools

    (1972) Furman v. Georgia

    • overturned existing capital punishment statutes and established strict new guidelines for such laws in the future

    (1973) Roe v. Wade

    • based on new theory of constitutional "right to privacy" (first recognized in Grizwold v. Connecticut)
    • invalidated all laws prohibiting abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy

    (1989) Webster v. Reproductive Health Services

    • Court upheld a law from Missouri that prohibited public employees from performing abortions, unless the life of the mother was threatened
    • because of this decisions, some states tried to create similar laws

    (1842) Commonwealth v. Hunt

    • Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that unions and strikes were legal

     

    Subject: 
    US History
    Subject X2: 
    US History